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which of the following gives the best definition of service failure recovery | Service recovery - wikipedia
Service recovery is, according to Fitzsimmons (2011 - p136), a "Service recovery converting a previously dissatisfied customer into a loyal customer. '' It is the action a service provider takes in response to service failure. By including also customer satisfaction into the definition, service recovery is a thought - out, planned, process of returning aggrieved / dissatisfied customers to a state of satisfaction with a company / service Service recovery differs from complaint management in its focus on service failures and the company 's immediate reaction to it. Complaint management is based on customer complaints, which, in turn, may be triggered by service failures. However, since most dissatisfied customers are reluctant to complain, service recovery attempts to solve problems at the service encounter before customers complain or before they leave the service encounter dissatisfied. Both complaint management and service recovery are considered as customer retention strategies Recently, some researches proved that strategies such as value co-creation, follow up, etc. can improve the effectiveness of service recovery efforts
Literature on service recovery suggests that a good recovery has a positive impact on satisfaction, recommendation intention, word - of - mouth, loyalty, image, and trust.
Effective service recovery could not only eliminate the loss of service failure, but also improve much higher service satisfaction on contrast with the situation without service failure. Some even argue that a good recovery can increase satisfaction to a higher level than if nothing had gone wrong in the first place, which is referred to as the service recovery paradox. Many researchers provided evidence in the existence of service recovery paradox from rational customer expectation through interaction between employees and customers under service failure.
Three categories of recovery strategies can be distinguished: Customer recovery is aiming at satisfied customers, process recovery tries to improve processes and employee recovery as an internal marketing strategy to help employees coping with failure and recovery situations.
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it is well it is well it is well with my soul | It is Well with my soul - wikipedia
(Original lyrics)
When peace like a river, attendeth my way, When sorrows like sea billows roll; Whatever my lot, Thou hast taught me to know It is well, it is well, with my soul.
Refrain: It is well, (it is well), With my soul, (with my soul) It is well, it is well, with my soul.
Though Satan should buffet, though trials should come, Let this blest assurance control, That Christ has regarded my helpless estate, And hath shed His own blood for my soul.
My sin, oh, the bliss of this glorious thought! My sin, not in part but the whole, Is nailed to the cross, and I bear it no more, Praise the Lord, praise the Lord, O my soul!
For me, be it Christ, be it Christ hence to live: If Jordan above me shall roll, No pang shall be mine, for in death as in life, Thou wilt whisper Thy peace to my soul.
But Lord, ' tis for Thee, for Thy coming we wait, The sky, not the grave, is our goal; Oh, trump of the angel! Oh, voice of the Lord! Blessed hope, blessed rest of my soul.
And Lord, haste the day when my faith shall be sight, The clouds be rolled back as a scroll; The trump shall resound, and the Lord shall descend, A song in the night, oh my soul!
"know '' (at the end of the third line) was changed to "say ''. "A song in the night, oh my soul '' (last line) was changed to "Even so, it is well with my soul ''.
"It Is Well With My Soul '' is a hymn penned by hymnist Horatio Spafford and composed by Philip Bliss. First published in Gospel Songs No. 2 by Sankey and Bliss (1876), it is possibly the most influential and enduring in the Bliss repertoire and is often taken as a choral model, appearing in hymnals of a wide variety of Christian fellowships.
This hymn was written after traumatic events in Spafford 's life. The first was the death of his son at the age of 2 and the Great Chicago Fire of 1871, which ruined him financially (he had been a successful lawyer and had invested significantly in property in the area of Chicago that was extensively damaged by the great fire). His business interests were further hit by the economic downturn of 1873, at which time he had planned to travel to Europe with his family on the SS Ville du Havre. In a late change of plan, he sent the family ahead while he was delayed on business concerning zoning problems following the Great Chicago Fire. While crossing the Atlantic, the ship sank rapidly after a collision with a sea vessel, the Loch Earn, and all four of Spafford 's daughters died. His wife Anna survived and sent him the now famous telegram, "Saved alone... ''. Shortly afterwards, as Spafford traveled to meet his grieving wife, he was inspired to write these words as his ship passed near where his daughters had died.
Bliss called his tune Ville du Havre, from the name of the stricken vessel.
The Spaffords later had three more children. On February 11, 1880, their son, Horatio Goertner Spafford, died at the age of four, of scarlet fever. Their daughters were Bertha Hedges Spafford (born March 24, 1878) and Grace Spafford (born January 18, 1881). Their Presbyterian church regarded their tragedy as divine punishment. In response, the Spaffords formed their own Messianic sect, dubbed "the Overcomers '' by American press. In 1881, the Spaffords, including baby Bertha and newborn Grace, set sail for Ottoman - Turkish Palestine. The Spaffords settled in Jerusalem and helped found a group called the American Colony. Colony members, later joined by Swedish Christians, engaged in philanthropic work among the people of Jerusalem regardless of their religious affiliation and without proselytizing motives -- thereby gaining the trust of the local Muslim, Jewish, and Christian communities. During and immediately after World War I, the American Colony played a critical role in supporting these communities through the great suffering and deprivations by running soup kitchens, hospitals, orphanages and other charitable ventures. The colony later became the subject of Jerusalem by the Nobel prize - winning author, Swedish novelist Selma Lagerlöf.
The Georgia Southern University marching band Southern Pride plays the song at the end of each win.
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what is the source of heat in the interior of the earth | Earth 's internal heat budget - wikipedia
Earth 's internal heat budget is fundamental to the thermal history of the Earth. The flow of heat from Earth 's interior to the surface is estimated at 47 ± 2 (\ displaystyle 47 \ pm 2) terawatts (TW) and comes from two main sources in roughly equal amounts: the radiogenic heat produced by the radioactive decay of isotopes in the mantle and crust, and the primordial heat left over from the formation of the Earth.
Earth 's internal heat powers most geological processes and drives plate tectonics. Despite its geological significance, this heat energy coming from Earth 's interior is actually only 0.03 % of Earth 's total energy budget at the surface, which is dominated by 173,000 TW of incoming solar radiation. The insolation that eventually, after reflection, reaches the surface penetrates only several tens of centimeters on the daily cycle and only several tens of meters on the annual cycle. This renders solar radiation minimally relevant for internal processes.
Based on calculations of Earth 's cooling rate, which assumed constant conductivity in the Earth 's interior, in 1862 William Thomson (later made Lord Kelvin) estimated the age of the Earth at 98 million years, which contrasts with the age of 4.5 billion years obtained in the 20th century by radiometric dating. As pointed out by John Perry in 1895 a variable conductivity in the Earth 's interior could expand the computed age of the Earth to billions of years, as later confirmed by radiometric dating. Contrary to the usual representation of Kelvin 's argument, the observed thermal gradient of the Earth 's crust would not be explained by the addition of radioactivity as a heat source. More significantly, mantle convection alters how heat is transported within the Earth, invalidating Kelvin 's assumption of purely conductive cooling.
Estimates of the total heat flow from Earth 's interior to surface span a range of 43 to 49 terawatts (TW) (a terawatt is 10 watts). One recent estimate is 47 TW, equivalent to an average heat flux of 91.6 mW / m, and is based on more than 38,000 measurements. The respective mean heat flows of continental and oceanic crust are 70.9 and 105.4 mW / m.
While the total internal Earth heat flow to the surface is well constrained, the relative contribution of the two main sources of Earth 's heat, radiogenic and primordial heat, are highly uncertain because their direct measurement is difficult. Chemical and physical models give estimated ranges of 15 -- 41 TW and 12 -- 30 TW for radiogenic heat and primordial heat, respectively.
The structure of the Earth is a rigid outer crust that is composed of thicker continental crust and thinner oceanic crust, solid but plastically flowing mantle, a liquid outer core, and a solid inner core. The fluidity of a material is proportional to temperature; thus, the solid mantle can still flow on long time scales, as a function of its temperature and therefore as a function of the flow of Earth 's internal heat. The mantle convects in response to heat escaping from Earth 's interior, with hotter and more buoyant mantle rising and cooler, and therefore denser, mantle sinking. This convective flow of the mantle drives the movement of Earth 's lithospheric plates; thus, an additional reservoir of heat in the lower mantle is critical for the operation of plate tectonics and one possible source is an enrichment of radioactive elements in the lower mantle.
Earth heat transport occurs by conduction, mantle convection, hydrothermal convection, and volcanic advection. Earth 's internal heat flow to the surface is thought to be 80 % due to mantle convection, with the remaining heat mostly originating in the Earth 's crust, with about 1 % due to volcanic activity, earthquakes, and mountain building. Thus, about 99 % of Earth 's internal heat loss at the surface is by conduction through the crust, and mantle convection is the dominant control on heat transport from deep within the Earth. Most of the heat flow from the thicker continental crust is attributed to internal radiogenic sources, in contrast the thinner oceanic crust has only 2 % internal radiogenic heat. The remaining heat flow at the surface would be due to basal heating of the crust from mantle convection. Heat fluxes are negatively correlated with rock age, with the highest heat fluxes from the youngest rock at mid-ocean ridge spreading centers (zones of mantle upwelling), as observed in the global map of Earth heat flow.
The radioactive decay of elements in the Earth 's mantle and crust results in production of daughter isotopes and release of geoneutrinos and heat energy, or radiogenic heat. Four radioactive isotopes are responsible for the majority of radiogenic heat because of their enrichment relative to other radioactive isotopes: uranium - 238 (U), uranium - 235 (U), thorium - 232 (Th), and potassium - 40 (K). Due to a lack of rock samples from below 200 km depth, it is difficult to determine precisely the radiogenic heat throughout the whole mantle, although some estimates are available. For the Earth 's core, geochemical studies indicate that it is unlikely to be a significant source of radiogenic heat due to an expected low concentration of radioactive elements partitioning into iron. Radiogenic heat production in the mantle is linked to the structure of mantle convection, a topic of much debate, and it is thought that the mantle may either have a layered structure with a higher concentration of radioactive heat - producing elements in the lower mantle, or small reservoirs enriched in radioactive elements dispersed throughout the whole mantle.
Geoneutrino detectors can detect the decay of U and Th and thus allow estimation of their contribution to the present radiogenic heat budget, while U and K is not detectable. Regardless, K is estimated to contribute 4 TW of heating. However, due to the short half - lives the decay of U and K contributed a large fraction of radiogenic heat flux to the early Earth, which was also much hotter than at present. Initial results from measuring the geoneutrino products of radioactive decay from within the Earth, a proxy for radiogenic heat, yielded a new estimate of half of the total Earth internal heat source being radiogenic, and this is consistent with previous estimates.
Primordial heat is the heat lost by the Earth as it continues to cool from its original formation, and this is in contrast to its still actively - produced radiogenic heat. The Earth core 's heat flow -- heat leaving the core and flowing into the overlying mantle -- is thought to be due to primordial heat, and is estimated at 5 -- 15 TW. Estimates of mantle primordial heat loss range between 7 and 15 TW, which is calculated as the remainder of heat after removal of core heat flow and bulk - Earth radiogenic heat production from the observed surface heat flow.
The early formation of the Earth 's dense core could have caused superheating and rapid heat loss, and the heat loss rate would slow once the mantle solidified. Heat flow from the core is necessary for maintaining the convecting outer core and the geodynamo and Earth 's magnetic field, therefore primordial heat from the core enabled Earth 's atmosphere and thus helped retain Earth 's liquid water.
Controversy over the exact nature of mantle convection makes the linked evolution of Earth 's heat budget and the dynamics and structure of the mantle difficult to unravel. There is evidence that the processes of plate tectonics were not active in the Earth before 3.2 billion years ago, and that early Earth 's internal heat loss could have been dominated by advection via heat - pipe volcanism. Terrestrial bodies with lower heat flows, such as the Moon and Mars, conduct their internal heat through a single lithospheric plate, and higher heat flows, such as on Jupiter 's moon Io, result in advective heat transport via enhanced volcanism, while the active plate tectonics of Earth occur with an intermediate heat flow and a convecting mantle.
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how many matches has steven gerrard played for liverpool | Steven Gerrard - wikipedia
Steven George Gerrard MBE (born 30 May 1980) is an English professional football coach and former professional footballer who serves as an academy coach at Liverpool. He spent the majority of his playing career as a central midfielder for Liverpool and the England national team, with most of that time spent as club captain. Regarded as one of the greatest midfielders of his generation, Gerrard was awarded the UEFA Club Footballer of the Year award in 2005, and the Ballon d'Or Bronze Award. In 2009, Zinedine Zidane and Pelé said that they considered Gerrard to be the best footballer in the world. A versatile and well - rounded player, highly regarded for his leadership, Gerrard is the only footballer in history to score in an FA Cup Final, a League Cup Final, a UEFA Cup Final and a UEFA Champions League Final, winning on each occasion.
Born and raised in Whiston, Merseyside, Gerrard joined the Liverpool Academy at age 9, after being noticed by scouts. At age 17, he signed his first professional contract with Liverpool and made his senior debut a year later in 1998. In the 2000 - 01 season, Gerrard helped Liverpool secure a treble of the League Cup, the UEFA Cup and the FA Cup. A UEFA Super Cup and another League Cup followed, and Gerrard was appointed team captain in 2003. In 2005, Gerrard led Liverpool to a historic fifth European title, scoring a crucial late goal in the group stages, and being named Man of the Match as he scored Liverpool 's first goal and won the penalty kick for the third as Liverpool came from 3 -- 0 down to defeat Milan in what became known as the Miracle of Istanbul, regarded as one of the greatest finals in the history of the tournament.
In his 17 seasons at Anfield, Gerrard won a total of two FA Cups, three League Cups, one UEFA Champions League, one UEFA Cup, one FA Community Shield and one UEFA Super Cup. He was named in the PFA Team of the Year a record eight times, the UEFA Team of the Year and FIFA World XI three times, was named PFA Players ' Player of the Year in 2006 and the FWA Footballer of the Year in 2009 and came second to Kenny Dalglish in a Liverpool fan poll of "100 Players Who Shook The Kop '' in 2008. Despite collective and individual success, Gerrard never won the Premier League, finishing runner - up with Liverpool on three occasions. He joined Major League Soccer club LA Galaxy in July 2015, spending one - and - a-half seasons there before retiring on 24 November 2016.
At international level, Gerrard is the fourth-most capped player in the history of the England national team with 114 caps, scoring 21 goals. Gerrard made his international debut in 2000, and represented his country at the 2000, 2004 and 2012 UEFA European Football Championships, as well as the 2006, 2010 and 2014 FIFA World Cups, captaining the team for the latter two tournaments. He was named as the permanent England captain shortly before UEFA Euro 2012, where he was named in the UEFA Team of the Tournament. Gerrard won his 100th cap in 2012, becoming the sixth player to reach that milestone for England. Gerrard announced his retirement from international football on 21 July 2014.
Born in Whiston, Merseyside, Gerrard started out playing for hometown team Whiston Juniors, where he was noticed by Liverpool scouts. He joined the Liverpool Academy at age nine. He attended Cardinal Heenan Catholic High School. Gerrard had trials with various clubs at fourteen, but his success was n't immediate -- Gerrard never made it into the England schoolboys ' team. Gerrard 's trials included Manchester United, which he claimed in his 2006 autobiography was "to pressure Liverpool into giving me a YTS contract. '' He signed his first professional contract with Liverpool on 5 November 1997.
Gerrard made his Liverpool first - team debut on 29 November 1998 in a Premier League match against Blackburn Rovers as a last - minute substitute for Vegard Heggem. He made thirteen appearances in his debut season, filling in for injured captain Jamie Redknapp in centre - midfield. He also occasionally played on the right wing, but he scarcely contributed in the short on - pitch time he received, due to nervousness affecting his play. Gerrard recalled in a November 2008 interview with The Guardian, "I was out of position and out of my depth. '' The Liverpool hierarchy nonetheless remained convinced that he would improve. Gerrard saw himself as a defensive player primarily, looking to make key tackles rather than push the team forward.
Gerrard began to regularly partner Redknapp in central midfield for the 1999 -- 2000 season. After starting the derby against Everton on the bench, he replaced Robbie Fowler in the second half but received his first career red card for a very late high challenge to the upper leg of Everton 's Kevin Campbell shortly afterwards in a game Liverpool lost 1 -- 0. Later that season, Gerrard scored his first senior goal in a 4 -- 1 victory over Sheffield Wednesday. However, he began to suffer from nagging back problems, which sports consultant Hans - Wilhelm Müller - Wohlfahrt later diagnosed as a result of accelerated growth, coupled with excessive playing, during his teenage years. He was then beset by groin injuries that required four separate operations.
He went on to recover from this, and in the 2000 -- 01 season made fifty starts in all competitions and scored ten goals as he won his first major honours with Liverpool -- the FA Cup, Football League Cup, and the UEFA Cup. He was named PFA Young Player of the Year by his peers. In the following season, he would go on to win both the FA Charity Shield and UEFA Super Cup. In March 2003, Gerrard scored the opening goal in the club 's 2 -- 0 win over Manchester United in the Football League Cup Final held at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff.
After a year as Liverpool vice-captain, Gerrard replaced Sami Hyypiä as Liverpool captain in October 2003, as manager Gérard Houllier said that he recognised Gerrard had demonstrated leadership qualities early on, but needed to mature. He chose to extend his contract at the club, signing a new four - year deal.
Houllier resigned as Liverpool manager after a trophyless 2003 -- 04 campaign, and Gerrard was linked with a move to Chelsea during the off - season. He admitted he was not "happy with the progress Liverpool has made '', and that "for the first time in my career I 've thought about the possibility of moving on. '' In the end, Gerrard turned down a £ 20 million offer from Chelsea to stay with Liverpool and new coach Rafael Benítez.
Liverpool had a number of injuries early in the 2004 -- 05 season, and a foot injury suffered in a September league match against Manchester United shelved Gerrard until late November. He returned to score in the last five minutes of a Champions League group stage match against Olympiacos to secure Liverpool 's advancement to the knockout round. He claimed that this was his most important, if not his best, goal for Liverpool to date. However, Gerrard netted an own goal during the 2005 League Cup final on 27 February, which proved decisive in Liverpool 's 3 -- 2 loss to Chelsea after extra time at the Millennium Stadium.
During a six - minute stretch in the second half of the 2005 Champions League final against A.C. Milan, Liverpool came back from a three - goal deficit to tie the match at 3 -- 3 after extra time, with Gerrard scoring one of the goals, a header from a John Arne Riise cross. Liverpool 's third goal was gained as a penalty from a foul awarded to Liverpool when Gennaro Gattuso was judged to have pulled down Gerrard in Milan 's penalty box. Xabi Alonso 's penalty was saved by Dida but the rebound was scored. Gerrard did not participate in the penalty shootout (he was the designated fifth penalty taker) which Liverpool won 3 -- 2 as they claimed their first Champions League trophy in twenty years. Dubbed the Miracle of Istanbul, the match is widely regarded as one of the greatest finals in the competition 's history, and Gerrard was lauded as the catalyst for the second half comeback. Gerrard was named the Man of the Match, and later received the UEFA Club Footballer of the Year award.
In regards to his contract issues with Liverpool, Gerrard told the press after the final, "How can I leave after a night like this? '' but negotiations soon stalled and on 5 July 2005, after Liverpool turned down another lucrative offer from Chelsea, Gerrard 's agent Struan Marshall informed Liverpool chief executive Rick Parry that Gerrard was rejecting a club - record £ 100,000 - a-week offer. Parry conceded the club had lost Gerrard, saying, "Now we have to move on. We have done our best, but he has made it clear he wants to go and I think it looks pretty final. '' The next day, Gerrard signed a new four - year deal as Parry blamed the earlier breakdown of talks on miscommunication between the two sides. Gerrard stated upon signing the contract that he would rather win one premier league medal than win multiple titles at Chelsea as it would mean more to him.
Gerrard scored 23 goals in 53 appearances in 2005 -- 06, and in April became the first Liverpool player since John Barnes in 1988 to be voted the PFA Player of the Year. He scored twice in the 2006 FA Cup Final against West Ham United, including a 35 - yard equaliser that sent the match into extra time, and Liverpool won their second consecutive major trophy on penalties. The goals made him the only player to have scored in the FA Cup, League Cup, UEFA Cup and Champions League finals. Liverpool eliminated Chelsea in the 2006 -- 07 Champions League semi-finals on penalties, to return to their second final in three seasons, which they lost 2 -- 1 to Milan in Athens.
Gerrard suffered a toe fracture in an August 2007 Champions League qualifier against Toulouse, but returned four days later to play the entirety of a 1 -- 1 league draw against Chelsea. On 28 October 2007, Gerrard played his 400th game for Liverpool in a league match against Arsenal, in which he scored. He scored in all but one of Liverpool 's domestic and European matches during the month of November, and after scoring the only goal in a Champions League away tie against Olympique de Marseille on 11 December, he became the first Liverpool player since John Aldridge in 1989 to score in seven consecutive games in all competitions. In December 2007, Gerrard was voted sixth (after Kaká, Lionel Messi, Cristiano Ronaldo, Didier Drogba and Ronaldinho) for the 2007 FIFA World Player of the Year.
Gerrard made his 300th Premier League appearance on 13 April 2008 in a match against Blackburn Rovers, scoring the opening goal in a game which Liverpool won 3 -- 1, and finished the season with twenty - one goals in all competitions, surpassing his total from the 2006 -- 07 season. Gerrard was selected for the PFA Team of the Year and he was also one of the nominees or the PFA Player of the Year, alongside teammate Fernando Torres.
Gerrard needed to undergo groin surgery at the beginning of the 2008 -- 09 season, but the problem was not serious and he quickly returned to training. He scored what appeared to be his hundredth career Liverpool goal against Stoke City on 20 September, but it was disallowed after Dirk Kuyt was ruled offside. He achieved the milestone eleven days later in a 3 -- 1 Champions League group stage win over PSV.
He made his 100th appearance in European club competition for Liverpool on 10 March 2009 against Real Madrid and scored twice in a 4 -- 0 win. Four days after the impressive victory over Real, Gerrard would score at Old Trafford for the first time from the penalty spot, putting Liverpool ahead on their way to a 4 -- 1 victory over Manchester United. Following these results, three - time FIFA World Player of the Year Zinedine Zidane hailed the Liverpool skipper as being the best player in the world. On 22 March 2009, Gerrard scored his first ever hat - trick in the Premier League, against Aston Villa, in a 5 -- 0 victory.
On 13 May 2009, Gerrard was named as the 2009 Football Writers ' Association Footballer of the Year, beating Ryan Giggs by just 10 votes and becoming the first Liverpool player to win the award in nineteen years. Gerrard was delighted and "a little bit surprised '' to win the award. On 5 December 2009, Gerrard made his 500th appearance for Liverpool in a 0 -- 0 draw at Blackburn where he was accused of diving in an attempt to win a penalty. He ended the 2009 -- 10 season with a total of 12 goals and nine assists from 46 matches.
Following the 2009 -- 10 season, Rafael Benítez departed Liverpool after six years and was succeeded as manager by Roy Hodgson, who quickly assured fans that Gerrard would not be sold. To further eliminate any speculation surrounding his future at the club, Gerrard made a statement emphasising his excitement at the coming season with Liverpool and praising the signing of Joe Cole. Gerrard soon played his first pre-season match of the 2010 -- 11 season against Borussia Mönchengladbach on 1 August 2010 alongside new signing Joe Cole.
Gerrard scored his first goal of the 2010 -- 11 season from the penalty spot in a Europa League qualifier against Macedonian side FK Rabotnički on 5 August 2010. His next two goals came on 19 September at Old Trafford in a 3 -- 2 loss against Manchester United; he scored from a penalty kick in the 64th minute and a free - kick six minutes later to level the game at 2 -- 2. He followed this up one week later with the second equaliser in a 2 -- 2 home draw with Sunderland. Eleven days later, Gerrard came off the bench to score a second - half hat - trick in a 3 -- 1 win over Napoli in the Europa League.
Gerrard missed the start of the 2011 -- 12 season due to a groin injury, which had also kept him out of action for large parts of the previous season. Gerrard later went on to reveal he rejected the chance to join Bayern Munich in the summer to focus on getting Liverpool back in the Champions League, saying "... a traditional club like Liverpool still has a value, that 's the reason why I have stuck around for so long... it is more important to win a couple of trophies and achieve something that is a lot more difficult than go down the easy road and move to a club where it becomes easier. ''
On 29 October, Gerrard underwent a treatment to clear an infection in his right ankle, which was placed in a protective plaster cast. He was forced to miss Liverpool 's league match against West Bromwich Albion that day and was ruled out for at least the match against Swansea City the following week and England 's friendly matches against Sweden and Spain the week after that. After a prolonged ankle injury recuperation, Gerrard finally returned to regular first team action in the match against Blackburn Rovers, coming off the bench. On 30 December, Gerrard came off the bench against Newcastle United and scored a fine goal.
Gerrard went on to help Liverpool to reach their first cup final in 6 years, and their first at Wembley Stadium in 18 years, as Liverpool beat Manchester City 3 -- 2 on aggregate in the semi-finals. Gerrard scored a penalty in both legs to send Liverpool to the 2012 Football League Cup Final against Cardiff City on 26 February 2012, which Liverpool won on penalties. On his 400th Premier League appearance for Liverpool, Gerrard scored a hat - trick to give Liverpool a 3 -- 0 victory over rivals Everton in the Merseyside derby on 13 March 2012.
On 18 August 2012, Gerrard played his 250th match as Liverpool captain. He scored his first Premier League goal of the season on 23 September, opening the scoring in a 2 -- 1 defeat against Manchester United.
On 15 July 2013, Gerrard signed a contract extension with Liverpool. On 3 August 2013, Liverpool played Olympiacos, against whom Gerrard scored arguably his most celebrated goal, at Anfield for Gerrard 's charity fund - raising testimonial match. Liverpool won the match 2 -- 0, in a game where past players such as Jamie Carragher and Robbie Fowler made appearances. Alder Hey Children 's Charity, of which Gerrard is a founding partner, received £ 500,000 from the proceeds. On 16 September, Gerrard captained Liverpool for the 400th time in a 2 -- 2 draw at Swansea City. On 5 October, Gerrard scored in a 3 -- 1 win over Crystal Palace, becoming Liverpool 's first ever player to score in 15 successive league campaigns, overtaking the record previously set by Billy Liddell. Also in October 2013, Gerrard became the longest - serving Liverpool captain, 10 years after his appointment by Gerard Houllier on 15 October 2013, breaking the previous record held by Alex Raisbeck, who captained Liverpool from 1899 to 1909. On 19 October 2013, Gerrard scored his 100th Premier League goal, a penalty against Newcastle United in a 2 -- 2 draw.
On 16 March 2014, Gerrard scored two penalties and missed another in Liverpool 's 3 -- 0 win over Manchester United at Old Trafford. On 6 April, he scored another two penalties as Liverpool beat West Ham United 2 -- 1 to go top of the Premier League table with five matches to play. These goals took him above Kenny Dalglish as Liverpool 's sixth - top goalscorer of all time.
On 27 April, Gerrard was involved in what was later labelled as a defining moment of the 2013 -- 14 Premier League season; where Liverpool would ultimately finish second. Liverpool originally topped the league when they faced Chelsea in their third last match of the season. Gerrard slipped while receiving a pass which allowed Demba Ba to score the opening goal for Chelsea; Chelsea went on to win 2 -- 0, which meant that Liverpool 's title hopes were no longer in their own hands. Gerrard finished the season with 13 goals and the League 's most assists at 13. Gerrard was also a nominee for the PFA Player of the Year award that year, while he won the 2014 Liverpool Echo Sports Personality Award. Gerrard would later refer to this period as "the worst three months of my life ''.
In October 2014, Gerrard ruled out retiring at the end of the 2014 -- 15 season and said that he could join another club if he were not offered a new contract at Liverpool.
On 1 January 2015, Gerrard announced that he would leave Liverpool at the end of the season. Gerrard said he would have signed a new contract had it been offered in the offseason, but said the club did not make an offer until November. By that time, Brendan Rodgers had spoken to him about managing his playing time and he had been left out of the starting lineup against Real Madrid in the Champions League, contributing to his decision to leave Liverpool.
On 6 January 2015, Gerrard scored two goals in the 3rd round of the 2014 -- 15 FA Cup in a 2 -- 1 win at A.F.C. Wimbledon. This followed another two - goal performance in the previous match against Leicester, the first time he scored two or more goals in consecutive games since July 2005. On 4 February 2015, he made his 700th appearance for Liverpool, in FA Cup tie against Bolton.
On 22 March, Gerrard was sent off 38 seconds after coming on as a half - time substitute in a match against Manchester United for stamping on Ander Herrera. Gerrard made his 500th league appearance for Liverpool in a goalless draw against West Brom on 25 April; he became only the third player ever to achieve 500 or more Premier League appearances for one club, after Ryan Giggs and former teammate Jamie Carragher. His final appearance for Liverpool at Anfield was on 16 May against Crystal Palace in a 1 -- 3 loss. His final appearance for the club was eight days later in a 6 -- 1 defeat at Stoke although he scored in the game.
On 7 January 2015, the LA Galaxy of Major League Soccer announced the signing of Gerrard to an 18 - month Designated Player contract, reportedly worth $9 million. He joined the team in July, following the end of the 2014 -- 15 Premier League season.
On 11 July, Gerrard made his debut for the club in a mid-season friendly match against Club América, playing the first 45 minutes of the match in which Galaxy won 2 -- 1. Three days later, Gerrard made his competitive debut for LA, coming on at half time for Ignacio Maganto in a 1 -- 0 loss at Real Salt Lake in the U.S. Open Cup quarter - finals. He made his MLS debut on 17 July, scoring once, while assisting one goal of his former Liverpool teammate Robbie Keane 's hat - trick, during a 5 -- 2 defeat of fellow Californians the San Jose Earthquakes at the StubHub Center. That month, Gerrard was one of the 22 players to be named to the 2015 MLS All - Star Game roster. He made 13 appearances across the regular season, scoring one more goal, the team 's last of a 3 -- 2 home win over FC Dallas on 27 September. After the Galaxy were eliminated from the 2015 MLS Cup Playoffs by Seattle Sounders FC, Gerrard announced that he may retire in 2016, saying that he found unexpected difficulty in the long journeys to away matches in the United States, and the diverse altitude and weather across the country.
Gerrard played his final game for Galaxy on 6 November 2016 in a MLS Cup Playoff penalty - shootout loss to Colorado Rapids. Gerrard took and scored Los Angeles ' first spot - kick but the club were eliminated after Giovanni dos Santos and Ashley Cole failed to convert. Nine days later, he stated he would be leaving on the expiration of his contract. He then had an interview for the vacant managerial post at League One club Milton Keynes Dons, but said that he was not ready for the job. Gerrard announced his retirement from professional football on 24 November, at age 36.
In January 2017, he was appointed youth coach at Liverpool, effective from February 2017.
Gerrard made his international debut against Ukraine on 31 May 2000. That summer, he was called up for Euro 2000, making only one appearance as a substitute in a 1 -- 0 win over Germany before England were eliminated in the group stage. Gerrard scored his first international goal in the famous 5 -- 1 victory over Germany in a 2002 World Cup qualifier in September 2001, and while England qualified, Gerrard was forced to pull out of the squad due to his ongoing groin problems after pulling up in Liverpool 's final match of the season against Ipswich.
Gerrard scored his second goal for the national team in the Euro 2004 qualifier against Macedonia on 16 October 2002 in a 2 -- 2 draw, his third goal was the opener in a 2 -- 1 win over Serbia and Montenegro on 3 June 2003. He was a regular starter in Euro 2004, scoring once to make it 3 -- 0 in England 's win over Switzerland in the second Group game of the tournament but England would be eliminated by the tournament hosts Portugal in the quarter - finals losing 6 -- 5 on penalties in a match when Gerrard was substituted off in the 81st minute for Owen Hargreaves.
He participated in his first World Cup in 2006 and scored two goals, both in the group stage, against Trinidad & Tobago and Sweden, although his spot kick was one of three saved by goalkeeper Ricardo as England again bowed out to Portugal in the quarter - finals on penalties. He was England 's top scorer in the tournament.
Gerrard was made vice-captain of the England team by coach Steve McClaren, and while he filled in for John Terry as captain, England suffered back - to - back losses to Russia and Croatia that ended their Euro 2008 qualifying hopes. After new coach Fabio Capello took over the team in early 2008, Gerrard was given a trial run as captain but Capello settled on Terry for the role. Gerrard was subsequently replaced as England vice-captain by Rio Ferdinand.
Gerrard helped England qualify for the 2010 World Cup, scoring two goals in England 's 5 -- 1 win over Croatia. John Terry was replaced by Rio Ferdinand as captain in 2010, following revelations about the former 's private life, and Gerrard subsequently became vice-captain again. When the England team left for the 2010 World Cup, Gerrard was the most experienced player in the squad with 80 caps. During preparations for the 2010 FIFA World Cup, however, Rio Ferdinand was injured, meaning that Gerrard was appointed by Capello as captain for the tournament. After the tournament Gerrard, part of a group of England players dubbed the "Golden Generation '', confirmed that he would continue to be available for selection, despite suggestions from Capello that he would seek to re-build the team.
In August 2010, Gerrard scored twice in a friendly match against Hungary and helped England to a 2 -- 1 win. Due to Ferdinand 's continued absence through injury, Gerrard retained the captaincy for the opening match of the Euro 2012 qualifying campaign against Bulgaria, which England won 4 -- 0. He was later named permanent captain by new coach Roy Hodgson, in time for the tournament finals. This was the first time that he was named directly the captain of England and not in place of an injured or unavailable captain. He provided three assists and won two man of the match awards to help England finish top of their group in the qualifying round, and go through to the quarter - finals. Despite their exit on penalties to Italy, Gerrard was later the only England player to be named in the UEFA Team of the Tournament. On 14 November 2012, Gerrard won his 100th cap for England in a friendly match against Sweden.
For the 2014 FIFA World Cup, Gerrard captained England to their first group stage elimination since 1958 and their first elimination after only two matches, after two straight 1 -- 2 defeats against Italy and Uruguay. Gerrard had played a part in both goals conceded against Uruguay courtesy of his club - mate Luis Suárez. For England 's final game against Costa Rica, Gerrard was replaced as captain by Frank Lampard and used as a substitute.
On 21 July 2014, Gerrard announced his retirement from international football. He represented England 114 times (currently the fourth most capped player ever, after Peter Shilton (125), Wayne Rooney (117) and David Beckham (115)) scoring 21 times. Jordan Henderson described Gerrard as "probably the best player this country has ever seen -- not only as a player, but also as a leader and a captain. ''
On 20 January 2017, Gerrard rejoined Liverpool in an academy coaching role after rejecting the vacant managers job at MK Dons. On 11 April 2017, it was reported that Gerrard would be taking charge of the Liverpool Under - 18 side ahead of the 2017 -- 18 season after impressing Jurgen Klopp and Alex Inglethorpe with his work ethic, knowledge and attitude towards academy coaching. However, before he took the next step on the path to receive his coaching credentials, Gerrard pulled on the Liverpool shirt one last time in a friendly against Australian club Sydney FC at the end of this Premier League campaign. On 7 September 2017, the club announced Gerrard will manage the Under - 19 team in the 2017 -- 18 UEFA Youth League.
A versatile and well - rounded player who is regarded as one of the best midfielders of his generation, Gerrard was capable of playing in a number of positions. A hardworking box - to - box player, he was usually deployed as a central midfielder, but he had also been used as a second striker, a holding midfielder, an attacking midfielder, a right back, and a right winger.
Gerrard began his professional career as a wide midfielder on the right, although he did not excel in this position as he had a tendency to commit careless fouls in his youth. Nevertheless, Liverpool retained their faith in the youngster, and he was later shifted to a defensive midfield position as he matured, where he excelled as a ball - winner rather than as a playmaker. He continued to evolve tactically, coming into his own in a box - to - box central midfield role, which allowed him to be effective both offensively and defensively. Under Benítez, he was also used in a supporting and creative role, as an attacking midfielder behind the strikers, or even as a deep - lying playmaker.
In addition to creating goals, Gerrard, naturally right footed, had the ability to score goals due to his striking ability from distance with both feet. As he entered his mid 30s and his physical capability to get forward and join the attack declined, the number of long range strikes at goal decreased, with most of his goals coming from free kicks and penalty kicks. Renowned for his pace, work - rate and stamina in his prime, his main attributes in his later career were his vision, ball striking, and his accurate, varied passing range, which allowed him to set the tempo of his team 's play and create attacking chances from midfield. He also possessed good technical and aerial ability, as well as notable defensive attributes. In particular, Gerrard 's tactical intelligence and ability to read the game allowed him to break down the opposition 's attacking plays. In addition to his footballing attributes, Gerrard was highly regarded for his leadership, determination, and influence on the pitch throughout his career. Despite being vocal in his criticism of diving, Gerrard was widely accused of diving himself.
Gerrard was born with club foot. He is a practising Roman Catholic. He has an older brother, Paul (not to be confused with former Everton goalkeeper Paul Gerrard), and his cousin, Anthony Gerrard, last played for Oldham Athletic.
Gerrard and his wife, Alex Curran, married in a Catholic ceremony in Wymondham on 16 June 2007. They have four children together, daughters Lilly - Ella, Lexie, Lourdes, and son Lio.
Councillors of Knowsley voted to make Gerrard a Freeman of the Borough on 13 December 2007, and two weeks later, he was made a Member of the Order of the British Empire by Queen Elizabeth II in her New Year Honours List, for services to sport. He received an honorary fellowship from Liverpool John Moores University on 26 July 2008 as recognition for his contribution to sport.
In September 2006, Gerrard published his autobiography, Gerrard: My Autobiography, ghost - written by journalist Henry Winter, which went on to win the Sports Book of the Year honour at the British Book Awards. Gerrard 's second volume of autobiography, My Story, written with Donald McRae, was published in September 2015.
The autobiography ends with "I play for Jon - Paul. '' Gerrard 's cousin, Jon - Paul Gilhooley, was killed in the 1989 Hillsborough disaster, when Gerrard was eight. Jon - Paul, who was 10 when he died, was the youngest of the 96 victims of the tragedy. "It was difficult knowing one of your cousins had lost his life '', Gerrard said. "Seeing his family 's reaction drove me on to become the player I am today. ''
In his 2015 autobiography, Gerrard has stated that the four best players to have played alongside him are former Liverpool teammates Xabi Alonso, Fernando Torres and Luis Suárez and England teammate Wayne Rooney.
On 1 October 2007, Gerrard was involved in a low - speed collision in Southport when the car he was driving hit a ten - year - old cyclist, who had shot into the street and inadvertently crossed Gerrard 's path. He later visited the boy in the hospital and presented him with a pair of boots signed by Wayne Rooney, the boy 's favourite player, after which he stayed to sign autographs for other young patients.
On 29 December 2008, Gerrard was taken into custody outside the Lounge Inn in Southport on suspicion of a section 20 assault. He and two others were later charged with assault occasioning actual bodily harm and affray, relating to an incident which left the bar 's disc jockey with a broken tooth and cuts to his forehead. The three men were given police to court bail and were required to appear at North Sefton Magistrates ' Court on 23 January 2009, where they all pleaded not guilty. The case was adjourned until 20 March when the assault charge was dropped but Gerrard was required to attend Liverpool Crown Court to face trial for affray. On 3 April, Gerrard pleaded not guilty.
The case went to trial in Liverpool Crown Court. Gerrard 's co-defendants pleaded guilty before the trial but Gerrard maintained his innocence. Gerrard admitted hitting Marcus McGee but claimed it was in self - defence and on 24 July, Gerrard was found not guilty by the jury. Following the verdict, Gerrard said he was looking forward to getting back to playing football and putting the experience behind him.
In 2011, Gerrard appeared in the film Will, about an orphaned young Liverpool fan who hitch - hikes to the 2005 UEFA Champions League Final. In August 2014, Gerrard participated in the ALS Association 's Ice Bucket Challenge and went on to challenge Cardiff City F.C. winger, Craig Noone.
Gerrard has had several different sponsorships in his career including current deals with Adidas, Jaguar Cars and Lucozade. In 2014, Forbes listed his combined income from salaries, bonuses and off - field earnings at $17.2 million for the previous 12 months. While Gerrard has worn several football boots during his career, he first wore a pair of Nike boots on his Liverpool debut, but soon signed a deal with Adidas in 1998 and has gone on to appear in a number of Adidas commercials with the likes of Zinedine Zidane, David Beckham, Lionel Messi and Kaká. Gerrard has worn ten versions of the Adidas Predator boot, with the Accelerator being the first, and throughout his career he has been one of the brand 's major boot endorsees. In 2013, Gerrard switched boot silos to the Nitrocharge 1.0 first wearing the boots in the League Cup clash against rivals Manchester United on 25 September 2013.
Liverpool
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who does the voice of celebs go dating | Rob Beckett - wikipedia
Robert Beckett (born 2 January 1986) is an English stand - up comedian and presenter. He is best known for being a co-host on the ITV2 spin - off show I 'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here! NOW! from 2012 to 2014. In September 2015 it was confirmed that Beckett would not return to the show. Since 2016, Beckett has been a team captain on the More4 panel show 8 Out of 10 Cats.
He presents BBC One entertainment series Wedding Day Winners and All Together Now. He is also set to host Channel 4 video game show Rob Beckett 's Playing for Time in 2018.
Beckett was born in Mottingham, London. He has four brothers. He went to Coopers School in Chislehurst.
Beckett started performing stand - up in 2009 and quickly enjoyed success in all of the new comedian competitions winning four in his first year. His consistently impressive performances resulted in coming third in So You Think You 're Funny, and winning the Amused Moose Laugh - Off which earned him an invitation to perform at the Adelaide Fringe Festival in Australia. In Adelaide, Beckett was nominated for the best newcomer award. He made his debut at the Edinburgh Fringe Festival in 2012 with his solo show "Rob Beckett 's Summer Holiday ''.
In 2011, Beckett made a guest appearance as Mike in the Channel 4 series Fresh Meat.
From 2012 until 2014, Beckett co-hosted I 'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here! NOW!, the ITV2 spin - off from the main show. He presented the show with Laura Whitmore and Joe Swash. He announced his departure from the show in October 2015, to concentrate on his tour. He was replaced by David Morgan.
Beckett has presented the Rock'N'Roll Football Sunday show on Absolute Radio since August 2014.
Alongside fellow comedian Ian Smith and former footballer Jimmy Bullard, Beckett hosts UK television channel Dave 's comedy - football podcast "The Magic Sponge '' -- an irreverent look at the lives of professional footballers.
He narrated the 2016 E4 series Celebs Go Dating. In February 2017, the second series of Celebs Go Dating began airing with him writing and narrating once again, this time with some overseas celebrities in tow. Since 2016, Beckett has been a team captain on the More4 panel show 8 Out of 10 Cats. Aisling Bea is the other team captain.
Beckett was a regular contestant and eventual winner on the third series of Taskmaster, which aired on October 2016. From 2018, he 's presented Wedding Day Winners, with Lorraine Kelly and All Together Now with Geri Horner, both Saturday - night entertainment series for BBC One.
Beckett announced on a November 2014 episode of 8 Out of 10 Cats that he had recently got married.
In September 2016, Beckett announced on his YouTube channel that he recently had had a child.
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what are the differences between scxrd and pxrd | Powder diffraction - wikipedia
Powder diffraction is a scientific technique using X-ray, neutron, or electron diffraction on powder or microcrystalline samples for structural characterization of materials. An instrument dedicated to performing such powder measurements is called a powder diffractometer.
Powder diffraction stands in contrast to single crystal diffraction techniques, which work best with a single, well - ordered crystal.
A diffractometer produces waves at a known frequency, which is determined by their source. The source is often x-rays, because they are the only kind of energy with the correct frequency for inter-atomic - scale diffraction. However, electrons and neutrons are also common sources, with their frequency determined by their de Broglie wavelength. When these waves reach the sample, the atoms of the sample act just like a diffraction grating, producing bright spots at particular angles. By measuring the angle where these bright spots occur, the spacing of the diffraction grating can be determined by Bragg 's law. Because the sample itself is the diffraction grating, this spacing is the atomic spacing.
The distinction between powder and single crystal diffraction is the degree of texturing in the sample. Single crystals have maximal texturing, and are said to be anisotropic. In contrast, in powder diffraction, every possible crystalline orientation is represented equally in a powdered sample, the isotropic case. PXRD operates under the assumption that the sample is randomly arranged. Therefore, a statistically significant number of each plane of the crystal structure will be in the proper orientation to diffract the X-rays. Therefore, each plane will be represented in the signal. In practice, it is sometimes necessary to rotate the sample orientation to eliminate the effects of texturing and achieve true randomness.
Mathematically, crystals can be described by a Bravais lattice with some regularity in the spacing between atoms. Because of this regularity, we can describe this structure in a different way using the reciprocal lattice, which is related to the original structure by a Fourier transform. This three - dimensional space can be described with reciprocal axes x *, y *, and z * or alternatively in spherical coordinates q, φ *, and χ *. In powder diffraction, intensity is homogeneous over φ * and χ *, and only q remains as an important measurable quantity. This is because orientational averaging causes the three - dimensional reciprocal space that is studied in single crystal diffraction to be projected onto a single dimension.
When the scattered radiation is collected on a flat plate detector, the rotational averaging leads to smooth diffraction rings around the beam axis, rather than the discrete Laue spots observed in single crystal diffraction. The angle between the beam axis and the ring is called the scattering angle and in X-ray crystallography always denoted as 2θ (in scattering of visible light the convention is usually to call it θ). In accordance with Bragg 's law, each ring corresponds to a particular reciprocal lattice vector G in the sample crystal. This leads to the definition of the scattering vector as:
In this equation, G is the reciprocal lattice vector, q is the length of the reciprocal lattice vector, k is the momentum transfer vector, θ is half of the scattering angle, and λ is the wavelength of the radiation. Powder diffraction data are usually presented as a diffractogram in which the diffracted intensity, I, is shown as a function either of the scattering angle 2θ or as a function of the scattering vector length q. The latter variable has the advantage that the diffractogram no longer depends on the value of the wavelength λ. The advent of synchrotron sources has widened the choice of wavelength considerably. To facilitate comparability of data obtained with different wavelengths the use of q is therefore recommended and gaining acceptability.
Relative to other methods of analysis, powder diffraction allows for rapid, non-destructive analysis of multi-component mixtures without the need for extensive sample preparation. This gives laboratories around the world the ability to quickly analyze unknown materials and perform materials characterization in such fields as metallurgy, mineralogy, forensic science, archeology, condensed matter physics, and the biological and pharmaceutical sciences. Identification is performed by comparison of the diffraction pattern to a known standard or to a database such as the International Centre for Diffraction Data 's Powder Diffraction File (PDF) or the Cambridge Structural Database (CSD). Advances in hardware and software, particularly improved optics and fast detectors, have dramatically improved the analytical capability of the technique, especially relative to the speed of the analysis. The fundamental physics upon which the technique is based provides high precision and accuracy in the measurement of interplanar spacings, sometimes to fractions of an Ångström, resulting in authoritative identification frequently used in patents, criminal cases and other areas of law enforcement. The ability to analyze multiphase materials also allows analysis of how materials interact in a particular matrix such as a pharmaceutical tablet, a circuit board, a mechanical weld, a geologic core sampling, cement and concrete, or a pigment found in an historic painting. The method has been historically used for the identification and classification of minerals, but it can be used for any materials, even amorphous ones, so long as a suitable reference pattern is known or can be constructed.
The most widespread use of powder diffraction is in the identification and characterization of crystalline solids, each of which produces a distinctive diffraction pattern. Both the positions (corresponding to lattice spacings) and the relative intensity of the lines in a diffraction pattern are indicative of a particular phase and material, providing a "fingerprint '' for comparison. A multi-phase mixture, e.g. a soil sample, will show more than one pattern superposed, allowing for determination of the relative concentrations of phases in the mixture.
J.D. Hanawalt, an analytical chemist who worked for Dow Chemical in the 1930s, was the first to realize the analytical potential of creating a database. Today it is represented by the Powder Diffraction File (PDF) of the International Centre for Diffraction Data (formerly Joint Committee for Powder Diffraction Studies). This has been made searchable by computer through the work of global software developers and equipment manufacturers. There are now over 871,000 reference materials in the 2018 Powder Diffraction File Databases, and these databases are interfaced to a wide variety of diffraction analysis software and distributed globally. The Powder Diffraction File contains many subfiles, such as minerals, metals and alloys, pharmaceuticals, forensics, excipients, superconductors, semiconductors, etc., with large collections of organic, organometallic and inorganic reference materials.
In contrast to a crystalline pattern consisting of a series of sharp peaks, amorphous materials (liquids, glasses etc.) produce a broad background signal. Many polymers show semicrystalline behavior, i.e. part of the material forms an ordered crystallite by folding of the molecule. A single polymer molecule may well be folded into two different, adjacent crystallites and thus form a tie between the two. The tie part is prevented from crystallizing. The result is that the crystallinity will never reach 100 %. Powder XRD can be used to determine the crystallinity by comparing the integrated intensity of the background pattern to that of the sharp peaks. Values obtained from powder XRD are typically comparable but not quite identical to those obtained from other methods such as DSC.
The position of a diffraction peak is ' independent ' of the atomic positions within the cell and entirely determined by the size and shape of the unit cell of the crystalline phase. Each peak represents a certain lattice plane and can therefore be characterized by a Miller index. If the symmetry is high, e.g.: cubic or hexagonal it is usually not too hard to identify the index of each peak, even for an unknown phase. This is particularly important in solid - state chemistry, where one is interested in finding and identifying new materials. Once a pattern has been indexed, this characterizes the reaction product and identifies it as a new solid phase. Indexing programs exist to deal with the harder cases, but if the unit cell is very large and the symmetry low (triclinic) success is not always guaranteed.
Cell parameters are somewhat temperature and pressure dependent. Powder diffraction can be combined with in situ temperature and pressure control. As these thermodynamic variables are changed, the observed diffraction peaks will migrate continuously to indicate higher or lower lattice spacings as the unit cell distorts. This allows for measurement of such quantities as the thermal expansion tensor and the isothermal bulk modulus, as well determination of the full equation of state of the material.
At some critical set of conditions, for example 0 ° C for water at 1 atm, a new arrangement of atoms or molecules may become stable, leading to a phase transition. At this point new diffraction peaks will appear or old ones disappear according to the symmetry of the new phase. If the material melts to an isotropic liquid, all sharp lines will disappear and be replaced by a broad amorphous pattern. If the transition produces another crystalline phase, one set of lines will suddenly be replaced by another set. In some cases however lines will split or coalesce, e.g. if the material undergoes a continuous, second order phase transition. In such cases the symmetry may change because the existing structure is distorted rather than replaced by a completely different one. For example, the diffraction peaks for the lattice planes (100) and (001) can be found at two different values of q for a tetragonal phase, but if the symmetry becomes cubic the two peaks will come to coincide.
Crystal structure determination from powder diffraction data is extremely challenging due to the overlap of reflections in a powder experiment. A number of different methods exist for structural determination, such as simulated annealing and charge flipping. The crystal structures of known materials can be refined, i.e. as a function of temperature or pressure, using the Rietveld method. The Rietveld method is a so - called full pattern analysis technique. A crystal structure, together with instrumental and microstructural information, is used to generate a theoretical diffraction pattern that can be compared to the observed data. A least squares procedure is then used to minimize the difference between the calculated pattern and each point of the observed pattern by adjusting model parameters. Techniques to determine unknown structures from powder data do exist, but are somewhat specialized. A number of programs that can be used in structure determination are TOPAS, Fox, DASH, GSAS, EXPO2004, and a few others.
There are many factors that determine the width B of a diffraction peak. These include:
It is often possible to separate the effects of size and strain. When size broadening is independent of q (K = 1 / d), strain broadening increases with increasing q - values. In most cases there will be both size and strain broadening. It is possible to separate these by combining the two equations in what is known as the Hall -- Williamson method:
Thus, when we plot B ⋅ cos (θ) (\ displaystyle \ displaystyle B \ cdot \ cos (\ theta)) vs. sin (θ) (\ displaystyle \ displaystyle \ sin (\ theta)) we get a straight line with slope η (\ displaystyle \ displaystyle \ eta) and intercept k λ D (\ displaystyle \ displaystyle (\ frac (k \ lambda) (D))).
The expression is a combination of the Scherrer equation for size broadening and the Stokes and Wilson expression for strain broadening. The value of η is the strain in the crystallites, the value of D represents the size of the crystallites. The constant k is typically close to unity and ranges from 0.8 to 1.39.
X-ray photons scatter by interaction with the electron cloud of the material, neutrons are scattered by the nuclei. This means that, in the presence of heavy atoms with many electrons, it may be difficult to detect light atoms by X-ray diffraction. In contrast, the neutron scattering lengths of most atoms are approximately equal in magnitude. Neutron diffraction techniques may therefore be used to detect light elements such as oxygen or hydrogen in combination with heavy atoms. The neutron diffraction technique therefore has obvious applications to problems such as determining oxygen displacements in materials like high temperature superconductors and ferroelectrics, or to hydrogen bonding in biological systems.
A further complication in the case of neutron scattering from hydrogenous materials is the strong incoherent scattering of hydrogen (80.27 (6) barn). This leads to a very high background in neutron diffraction experiments, and may make structural investigations impossible. A common solution is deuteration, i.e., replacing the 1 - H atoms in the sample with deuterium (2 - H). The incoherent scattering length of deuterium is much smaller (2.05 (3) barn) making structural investigations significantly easier. However, in some systems, replacing hydrogen with deuterium may alter the structural and dynamic properties of interest.
As neutrons also have a magnetic moment, they are additionally scattered by any magnetic moments in a sample. In the case of long range magnetic order, this leads to the appearance of new Bragg reflections. In most simple cases, powder diffraction may be used to determine the size of the moments and their spatial orientation.
Predicting the scattered intensity in powder diffraction patterns from gases, liquids, and randomly distributed nano - clusters in the solid state is (to first order) done rather elegantly with the Debye scattering equation:
where the magnitude of the scattering vector q is in reciprocal lattice distance units, N is the number of atoms, f (q) is the atomic scattering factor for atom i and scattering vector q, while r is the distance between atom i and atom j. One can also use this to predict the effect of nano - crystallite shape on detected diffraction peaks, even if in some directions the cluster is only one atom thick.
The simplest cameras for X-ray powder diffraction consist of a small capillary and either a flat plate detector (originally a piece of X-ray film, now more and more a flat - plate detector or a CCD - camera) or a cylindrical one (originally a piece of film in a cookie - jar, but increasingly bent position sensitive detectors are used). The two types of cameras are known as the Laue and the Debye -- Scherrer camera.
In order to ensure complete powder averaging, the capillary is usually spun around its axis.
For neutron diffraction vanadium cylinders are used as sample holders. Vanadium has a negligible absorption and coherent scattering cross section for neutrons and is hence nearly invisible in a powder diffraction experiment. Vanadium does however have a considerable incoherent scattering cross section which may cause problems for more sensitive techniques such as neutron inelastic scattering.
A later development in X-ray cameras is the Guinier camera. It is built around a focusing bent crystal monochromator. The sample is usually placed in the focusing beam, e.g. as a dusting on a piece of sticky tape. A cylindrical piece of film (or electronic multichannel detector) is put on the focusing circle, but the incident beam prevented from reaching the detector to prevent damage from its high intensity.
Diffractometers can be operated both in transmission and in reflection configurations. The reflection one is more common. The powder sample is filled in a small disc - like container and its surface carefully flattened. The disc is put on one axis of the diffractometer and tilted by an angle θ while a detector (scintillation counter) rotates around it on an arm at twice this angle. This configuration is known under the name Bragg -- Brentano theta - 2 theta.
Another configuration is the Bragg -- Brentano theta - theta configuration in which the sample is stationary while the X-ray tube and the detector are rotated around it. The angle formed between the tube and the detector is 2theta. This configuration is most convenient for loose powders.
Position - sensitive detectors (PSD) and area detectors, which allow collection from multiple angles at once, are becoming more popular on currently supplied instrumentation.
Sources that produce a neutron beam of suitable intensity and speed for diffraction are only available at a small number of research reactors and spallation sources in the world. Angle dispersive (fixed wavelength) instruments typically have a battery of individual detectors arranged in a cylindrical fashion around the sample holder, and can therefore collect scattered intensity simultaneously on a large 2θ range. Time of flight instruments normally have a small range of banks at different scattering angles which collect data at varying resolutions.
Laboratory X-ray diffraction equipment relies on the use of an X-ray tube, which is used to produce the X-rays. The most commonly used laboratory X-ray tube uses a copper anode, but cobalt and molybdenum are also popular. The wavelength in nm varies for each source. The table below shows these wavelengths, determined by Bearden and quoted in the International Tables for X-ray Crystallography (all values in nm):
According to the last re-examination of Holzer et al. (1997), these values are respectively:
In - house applications of X-ray diffraction has always been limited to the relatively few wavelengths shown in the table above. The available choice was much needed because the combination of certain wavelengths and certain elements present in a sample can lead to strong fluorescence which increases the background in the diffraction pattern. A notorious example is the presence of iron in a sample when using copper radiation. In general elements just below the anode element in the period system need to be avoided.
Another limitation is that the intensity of traditional generators is relatively low, requiring lengthy exposure times and precluding any time dependent measurement. The advent of synchrotron sources has drastically changed this picture and caused powder diffraction methods to enter a whole new phase of development. Not only is there a much wider choice of wavelengths available, the high brilliance of the synchrotron radiation makes it possible to observe changes in the pattern during chemical reactions, temperature ramps, changes in pressure and the like.
The tunability of the wavelength also makes it possible to observe anomalous scattering effects when the wavelength is chosen close to the absorption edge of one of the elements of the sample.
Neutron diffraction has never been an in house technique because it requires the availability of an intense neutron beam only available at a nuclear reactor or spallation source. Typically the available neutron flux, and the weak interaction between neutrons and matter, require relative large samples.
Although it is possible to solve crystal structures from powder X-ray data alone, its single crystal analogue is a far more powerful technique for structure determination. This is directly related to the fact that much information is lost by the collapse of the 3D space onto a 1D axis. Nevertheless, powder X-ray diffraction is a powerful and useful technique in its own right. It is mostly used to characterize and identify phases, and to refine details of an already known structure, rather than solving unknown structures.
Advantages of the technique are:
By contrast growth and mounting of large single crystals is notoriously difficult. In fact there are many materials for which, despite many attempts, it has not proven possible to obtain single crystals. Many materials are readily available with sufficient microcrystallinity for powder diffraction, or samples may be easily ground from larger crystals. In the field of solid - state chemistry that often aims at synthesizing new materials, single crystals thereof are typically not immediately available. Powder diffraction is therefore one of the most powerful methods to identify and characterize new materials in this field.
Particularly for neutron diffraction, which requires larger samples than X-ray diffraction due to a relatively weak scattering cross section, the ability to use large samples can be critical, although newer and more brilliant neutron sources are being built that may change this picture.
Since all possible crystal orientations are measured simultaneously, collection times can be quite short even for small and weakly scattering samples. This is not merely convenient, but can be essential for samples which are unstable either inherently or under X-ray or neutron bombardment, or for time - resolved studies. For the latter it is desirable to have a strong radiation source. The advent of synchrotron radiation and modern neutron sources has therefore done much to revitalize the powder diffraction field because it is now possible to study temperature dependent changes, reaction kinetics and so forth by means of time - resolved powder diffraction.
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show me the cast of hill street blues | Hill Street Blues - wikipedia
Hill Street Blues is an American serial police drama that aired on NBC in primetime from 1981 to 1987 for a total of 146 episodes. The show chronicled the lives of the staff of a single police station located on the fictional Hill Street, in an unnamed large city, with "blues '' being a slang term for police officers for their blue uniforms. The show received critical acclaim, and its production innovations influenced many subsequent dramatic television series produced in the United States and Canada. Its debut season was rewarded with eight Emmy Awards, a debut season record surpassed only by The West Wing. The show received a total of 98 Emmy nominations during its run.
MTM Enterprises developed the series on behalf of NBC, appointing Steven Bochco and Michael Kozoll as series writers. The writers were allowed considerable creative freedom and created a series that brought together a number of emerging ideas in TV drama for the first time. Each episode featured a number of intertwined storylines, some of which were resolved within the episode, with others developing over a number of episodes throughout a season. The conflicts between the work lives and private lives of the individual characters were also large elements of storylines. The series featured a strong focus on the workplace struggle between "what is right '' and "what works ''. Almost every episode began with a pre-credit sequence (or "teaser '') consisting of (mission) briefing and roll call at the beginning of the day shift (from season three it experimented with a "Previously on... '' montage of clips of up to six previous episodes before the roll call). Many episodes were written to take place over the course of a single day, and often concluded with Capt. Frank Furillo (Daniel J. Travanti) and public defender Joyce Davenport (Veronica Hamel) in a domestic situation, often in bed, discussing how their respective days went. The series was notable for dealing with real - life issues and employing commonly used language and slang to a greater extent than had been seen before, which brought a sense of verisimilitude to the production.
The filming of Hill Street Blues employed what was, at that time, a unique style of camera usage for weeknight television productions, incorporating techniques such as filming being held close in with action cuts rapidly between stories. Rather than studio (floor) cameras, handhelds were used to enhance this style. Extensive use of overheard, off - screen dialogue aurally - augmented the "documentary '' feel with respect to the filmed action of a scene.
Although filmed in Los Angeles (both on location and at CBS Studio Center in Studio City), the series is set in a generic unnamed inner - city location with a feel of a U.S. urban center in the Midwest or Northeast. Bochco had intended this fictional city to be a hybrid of Chicago, Buffalo and Pittsburgh.
The program 's focus on failure and those at the bottom of the social scale is pronounced, very much in contrast to Bochco 's later project L.A. Law. Inspired by police procedural detective novels such as Ed McBain 's 1956 Cop Hater, the show has been described as Barney Miller out of doors; the focus on the bitter realities of 1980s urban living was revolutionary for its time (later seasons were accused of becoming formulaic). Some trace the origins of this shift to the death of Michael Conrad (Sgt. Phil Esterhaus) midway through season four, leading to the replacement of the beloved Sgt. Esterhaus by Sgt. Stan Jablonski, played by Robert Prosky. Nonetheless, it is a landmark piece of television programming, the influence of which was seen in such series as NYPD Blue and ER. In 1982, St. Elsewhere was hyped as Hill Street Blues in a hospital. The quality work done by MTM led to the appointment of Grant Tinker as NBC chairman in 1982.
In season seven, producers received scripts from acclaimed writers outside of television: Bob Woodward and David Mamet.
The theme song was written by Mike Post (featuring Larry Carlton on guitar), was released as a single and reached # 10 on Billboard 's Hot 100 in November 1981.
Pilot: Brandon Tartikoff commissioned a series from MTM Productions, which assigned Bochco and Kozoll to the project. The pilot was produced in 1980, but was held back as a mid-season replacement so as not to get lost among the other programs debuting in the fall of 1980. Barbara Bosson, who was married to Bochco, had the idea to fashion the series into four - or five - episode story "arcs ''. Robert Butler directed the pilot, developing a look and style inspired by the 1977 documentary The Police Tapes, in which filmmakers used handheld cameras to follow police officers in the South Bronx. Butler went on to direct the first four episodes of the series, and Bosson had hoped he would stay on permanently. However, he felt he was not being amply recognized for his contributions to the show 's look and style and left to pursue other projects. He would return to direct just one further episode, "The Second Oldest Profession '' in season two.
Season 1: The pilot aired on Thursday, January 15, 1981, at 10: 00 pm, which would be the show 's time slot for nearly its entire run. The second episode aired two nights later; the next week followed a similar pattern (episode 3 on Thursday, episode 4 on Saturday). NBC had ordered 13 episodes and the season was supposed to end on May 25 with a minor cliffhanger (the resolution of Sgt. Esterhaus ' wedding). Instead, growing critical acclaim prompted NBC to order an additional four episodes to air during the May sweeps. Bochco and Kozoll quickly fashioned this into a new story arc, which aired as two two - hour episodes to close the season. In the first series ' original ending, Officer Joe Coffey (Ed Marinaro), is shot dead during a vehicle stop. However, later on the producers decided that Coffey should remain so scene was edited to him being seriously wounded and taken to hospital. (The character would eventually be killed in the sixth season)
In early episodes the opening theme had several clearly audible edits; this was replaced by a longer, unedited version partway through the second season. The end credits for the pilot differed from the rest of the series in that the background still shot of the station house was completely different; it was also copyrighted 1980 instead of 1981. The show became the lowest - rated program ever renewed for a second season. However, it was only renewed for ten episodes. A full order was picked up partway through the season.
Season 2: A writers strike pushed the start of the season forward to October 29, meaning that only 19 episodes were completed that year. Kozoll was now listed as a consultant, signifying his diminished role in the show. He later stated he was already feeling burnt out, and in fact was relying more on car chases and action to fill the scripts. A less muted version of the closing theme was played over the end credits.
Season 3: Kozoll left the show at the end of season two, replaced for the most part by Anthony Yerkovich (who later created Miami Vice after leaving Hill Street Blues at the end of this season) and David Milch. This was the show 's most popular in terms of viewership, as it finished at @ 21. This was also the birth of "Must See TV '', as the show was joined by Cheers, Taxi and Fame. The network promoted Thursdays as "the best night of television on television. '' Michael Conrad was increasingly absent from the show due to his ongoing battle with cancer.
Season 4: Following his death on November 22, 1983, Michael Conrad 's final appearance was broadcast halfway through the season in February 1984 in a memorable send - off episode, "Grace Under Pressure ''. Det. Harry Garibaldi (Ken Olin) was introduced at the end of the season as a temporary replacement for the disgraced Det. J.D. LaRue (Kiel Martin). The show won its fourth and final Emmy for Outstanding Drama Series this season.
Season 5: The show changed drastically this season, entering a somewhat "soap opera - ish '' period according to Bochco. New characters included Sgt. Stanislaus Jablonski (Robert Prosky) and Det. Patsy Mayo (Mimi Kuzyk). Det. Garibaldi was now a regular, while Mrs. Furillo (Bosson) became a full - time member of the squad room. Bochco was dismissed at season 's end by then - MTM President Arthur Price. The firing was due to Bochco 's cost overruns, coupled with the fact that the show had achieved the 100 - episode milestone needed to successfully syndicate it.
Betty Thomas won an Emmy for Outstanding Supporting Actress In a Drama Series this season. However, at the awards ceremony, recurring imposter Barry Bremen rushed the stage ahead of Thomas and claimed she was unable to attend. He then claimed the award and left the stage, confusing viewers and robbing Thomas of her moment in the sun, although she returned and spoke after the ad break. Presenter Peter Graves suggested that Bremen was "on his way to the cooler. ''
Season 6: Major changes occurred as Patsy Mayo, Det. Harry Garibaldi, Lt. Ray Calletano (René Enríquez), Fay Furillo (Barbara Bosson) and Officer Leo Schnitz (Robert Hirschfeld) were all phased out at the start of the season, and Joe Coffey left near the end. The sole addition was Lt. Norman Buntz, played by Dennis Franz, who had played a different character, Det. Sal Benedetto, in several episodes of season 3. Peter Jurasik played a new recurring character called Sid the Snitch, who was often teamed with Buntz. In a 1991 interview on Later with Bob Costas, Ken Olin explained that these characters were removed so that the new show - runners could add characters for which they would receive royalties. Barbara Bosson 's departure, however, was voluntary. She left after a salary conflict with the new executive producer who, according to the actress, also wanted her character, Fay, to go back to being the "thorn in her ex-husband's side '' which she no longer was by that time.
The season premiere opened with a roll call filled with officers never before seen on the show, briefly fooling viewers into thinking the entire cast had been replaced. It was then revealed that this was, in fact, the night shift. The action then cut to the day shift pursuing their after - work activities. Another unique episode from this season explained through flashbacks how Furillo and Davenport met and fell in love. This was the first season that Travanti and Hamel were not nominated for the Emmy for Outstanding Lead Actor / Actress in a Drama Series.
Season 7: While each episode of the series starts with the morning roll call, episodes from season 7 breaks away from tradition, showing characters at home or working. The roll call becomes a minor part of the beginning. Some episodes do n't show roll call at all.
Officer Patrick Flaherty (played by Robert Clohessy) and Officer Tina Russo (Megan Gallagher) joined this season in an attempt to rekindle the Bates - Coffey relationship of years past. Stan Jablonski became a secondary character part way through this season, and when Travanti announced he would not return the next year, the producers decided to end the show in 1987. The program was also moved to Tuesday nights almost midway through the season after nearly six years to make way for L.A. Law on Thursdays.
This was the only season that Bruce Weitz (Det. Mick Belker) was not nominated for the Emmy for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series. Only Betty Thomas was nominated, making her the only member of the cast to be nominated all seasons. This was also the only season for which the show was not nominated for Outstanding Drama Series.
The series later aired in reruns on TV Land, Bravo, AmericanLife TV, and NuvoTV. It has been running since Sep., 2015 on Heroes & Icons network. Seasons one through seven can also be viewed on hulu.com. Season three can be viewed as streaming video on commercial sites and is also available in many countries from Channel 4 on YouTube.
The producers made efforts to avoid specifying precisely where the series took place; for example, the call letters of local TV stations were obscured to avoid showing whether they began with "W '' (the Federal Communications Commission designation for stations east of the Mississippi) or "K '' (signifying a station west of the Mississippi). One indication of setting within the show was given by Ofc. Renko 's (Charles Haid) statement to his partner in the season one episode "Politics As Usual '': "Just drop that ' cowboy ' stuff. I was born in New Jersey, (and) never been west of Chicago in my life. ''
Show writer Steven Bochco attended college at the Carnegie Institute of Technology (now Carnegie Mellon University) in Pittsburgh. The run - down, shabby, drug - ridden impression of Pittsburgh 's Hill District that Bochco acquired was apparently part of the inspiration for the show.
However, in one episode, road signs are shown (possibly by accident) advertising the junction of three interstate highways (55, 90, and 94). Astute fans can look on a road map and see that junction can only be found in one city, so the signs inadvertently reveals that the series exteriors could only be filmed in Chicago.
Hill Street Blues refers to the blue uniforms worn by many police officers in the US, and is perhaps an intentional pun on the musical style "blues, '' which is depressing in its tone ("Hill Street '' is the name of the precinct). The phrase is uttered only once within the series, by Detective Emil Schneider (Dolph Sweet) in the first - season episode "Gatorbait ''. Schneider says it in a slightly mocking tone, in reference to officers Hill and Renko, who he feels are out of their league at a particular crime scene. The precinct bowling team is the "Hill Street Blue Ballers. ''
Officers are listed by the rank they held at first appearance on the program; some officers later held higher ranks.
Initially, Hill Street Blues received rave reviews from critics alongside dismal Nielsen ratings. Early schedule switching did not help; the show was broadcast once weekly on four different nights during its first season alone but gradually settled into a Thursday night slot. The NBC Broadcast Standards Unit deemed it "too violent, too sexy, too grim. '' The producers described the show as "an hour drama with 13 continuing characters living through a Gordian knot of personal and professional relationships. '' John J. O'Connor in a May 1981 review charted its growing popularity and called it "a comfortable balance between comedy and drama ''. The groundbreaking choice to include African - Americans as mainstays in the core ensemble cast and to feature several inter-racial and inter-ethnic cop partnerships drew notice and praise, as did the overlapping plots and examinations of moral conundrums such as police corruption, racism, alcoholism, and both interpersonal and institutional forgiveness.
Audience reception of certain portrayals of minority characters drew concern, with author Larry Landrum urging skepticism from an audience "already in the ambiguous position of identifying with individuals representing an armed authority. '' Landrum also criticized the series ' frenetic pace as ultimately requiring the use of stereotypes -- narrative devices which constitute "an assault on the competence of audiences, obscure reflection on the causes of perceived social, political, and economic problems, and foster fragmented views of everyday life. ''
Despite these shortcomings the show was very influential, with many others imitating its use of handheld cameras, ensemble cast, and multiple overlapping story arcs lasting for several episodes, set in urban decay. Alan Sepinwall wrote in 2014 that it "is on the short list of the most influential TV shows ever made. Whether through shared actors, writers, directors or through stylistic and thematic complexity, its DNA can be found in nearly every great drama produced in the 30 - plus years since it debuted ''. He compared Hill Street Blues to Casablanca, which was so influential on other films that "if you come to see it for the first time after a lifetime of watching the copies, it could be at risk of playing like a bundle of clichés -- even though it invented those clichés ''.
In 1993, TV Guide named the series The All - Time Best Cop Show in its issue celebrating 40 years of television. In 1997, the episode "Grace Under Pressure '' was ranked number 49 on TV Guide 's 100 Greatest Episodes of All Time. When the list was revised in 2009, "Freedom 's Last Stand '' was ranked number 57. In 2002, Hill Street Blues was ranked number 14 on TV Guide 's 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time, and in 2013 TV Guide ranked it # 1 in its list of The 60 Greatest Dramas of All Time and # 23 of the 60 Best Series.
20th Century Fox released the first two seasons of Hill Street Blues on DVD in Region 1 in 2006. Both releases contain special features including gag reel, deleted scenes, commentary tracks, and featurettes.
On December 5, 2013, it was announced that Shout! Factory had acquired the rights to the series in Region 1. They subsequently released Hill Street Blues: The Complete Series on DVD on April 29, 2014.
In late 2014, they began releasing season sets; they have subsequently released seasons 3 -- 7.
In Region 2, Channel 4 DVD released the first two seasons on DVD in the UK in 2006.
In Region 4, Shock Records released the first three seasons on DVD in Australia on December 4, 2013, and the remaining four seasons on April 30, 2014. On December 4, 2013, Shock Records also released a complete series set.
Beverly Hills Buntz aired on NBC from November 5, 1987 to April 22, 1988. It was a half - hour comedy, a hybrid between light private eye fare and a sitcom. The main character, Norman Buntz (Dennis Franz) quit Hill Street, moved to Beverly Hills with Sid "The Snitch '' Thurston (Peter Jurasik), and became a private investigator. Thirteen episodes were filmed, of which only nine were broadcast.
Hill Street Blues has inspired parodies, storylines, characters, and cultural references in numerous media vehicles.
In 1991, Krisalis Software (developed by Simeon Pashley and Rob Hill) released the computer game, Hill Street Blues, based on the TV show. The game runs on the Amiga, Atari ST, and DOS platforms and places the player in charge of Hill Street Station and its surrounding neighborhood, with the aim of promptly dispatching officers to reported crimes, apprehending criminals, and making them testify at court. If certain areas have less serious crimes unresolved, such as bag - snatching, they soon escalate to more serious ones, such as murder in broad daylight. The game is still available for download at computer game sites and outlets, and has received mixed reviews.
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when did york city become new york city | York - wikipedia
York (/ ˈjɔːrk / (listen)) is a historic walled city at the confluence of the rivers Ouse and Foss in North Yorkshire, England. The municipality is the traditional county town of the historic county of Yorkshire to which it gives its name. The city has a rich heritage and has provided the backdrop to major political events in England throughout much of its two millennia of existence. The city offers a wealth of historic attractions, of which York Minster is the most prominent, and a variety of cultural and sporting activities making it a popular tourist destination for millions.
The city was founded by the Romans as Eboracum in 71 AD. It became the capital of the Roman province of Britannia Inferior, and later of the kingdoms of Northumbria and Jórvík. In the Middle Ages, York grew as a major wool trading centre and became the capital of the northern ecclesiastical province of the Church of England, a role it has retained.
In the 19th century, York became a hub of the railway network and a confectionery manufacturing centre. In recent decades, the economy of York has moved from being dominated by its confectionery and railway - related industries to one that provides services. The University of York and health services have become major employers, whilst tourism has become an important element of the local economy.
From 1996, the term ' City of York ' describes a local government district (a unitary authority area) which includes rural areas beyond the old city boundaries. In 2011 the urban area had a population of 153,717, while in 2010 the entire unitary authority had an estimated population of 202,400.
The word York (Old Norse: Jórvík) derives from the Latinised name for the city, variously rendered as Eboracum, Eburacum or Eburaci. The first mention of York by this name is dated to circa 95 -- 104 AD as an address on a wooden stylus tablet from the Roman fortress of Vindolanda in Northumberland.
The toponymy of Eboracum is uncertain because the language of the pre-Roman indigenous population was never recorded. They are thought to have spoken a Celtic language related to modern Welsh. It is thought that Eboracum is derived from the Brythonic word Eborakon, a combination of eburos "yew - tree '' (cf. Old Irish ibar "yew - tree '', Welsh efwr "alder buckthorn '', Breton evor "alder buckthorn '') and suffix * - āko (n) "place '' (cf. Welsh - og) meaning either "place of the yew trees '' (cf. efrog in Welsh, eabhrac in Irish Gaelic and eabhraig in Scottish Gaelic, by which names the city is known in those languages); or less probably, Eburos, ' property ', which is a personal Celtic name mentioned in different documents as Eβουρος, Eburus and Eburius, and which, combined with the same suffix * - āko (n), could denote a property. In his Historia Regum Britanniae the 12th century chronicler, Geoffrey of Monmouth, suggests the name derives from that of a pre-Roman city founded by the legendary king Ebraucus.
The name Eboracum became the Anglian Eoforwic in the 7th century: a compound of Eofor -, from the old name, and - wic a village probably by conflation of the element Ebor - with a Germanic root * eburaz (boar); by the 7th century the Old English for ' boar ' had become eofor. Alternatively, the word eofor already existed as an Old English word for wild swine, which is a cognate of the current Low Saxon word eaver and Dutch ever. The Anglo - Saxon newcomers probably interpreted the ebor part as eofor, and - rac as ric (meaning rich), while - um was (and is) a common abbreviation of the Saxon - heem, meaning home. To them, it sounded as a ' home rich in boar '. As is common in Saxon place names, the - um part gradually faded; eoforic. When the Danish army conquered the city in 866, its name became Jórvík.
The Old French and Norman name of the city following the Norman Conquest was recorded as "Everwic '' (modern Norman "Évèroui '') in works such as Wace 's Roman de Rou. Jórvík, meanwhile, gradually reduced to York in the centuries after the Conquest, moving from the Middle English Yerk in the 14th century through Yourke in the 16th century to Yarke in the 17th century. The form York was first recorded in the 13th century. Many company and place names, such as the Ebor race meeting, refer to the Roman name. The Archbishop of York uses Ebor as his surname in his signature.
Archaeological evidence suggests that Mesolithic people settled in the region of York between 8000 and 7000 BC, although it is not known whether their settlements were permanent or temporary. By the time of the Roman conquest of Britain, the area was occupied by a tribe known to the Romans as the Brigantes. The Brigantian tribal area initially became a Roman client state, but, later its leaders became more hostile and the Roman Ninth Legion was sent north of the Humber into Brigantian territory.
The city was founded in 71 AD, when the Ninth Legion conquered the Brigantes and constructed a wooden military fortress on flat ground above the River Ouse close to its confluence with the River Foss. The fortress, whose walls were rebuilt in stone by the VI legion based there subsequent to the IX legion, covered an area of 50 acres (20 ha) and was inhabited by 6,000 legionary soldiers. The site of the principia (HQ) of the fortress lies under the foundations of York Minster, and excavations in the undercroft have revealed part of the Roman structure and columns.
The Emperors Hadrian, Septimius Severus and Constantius I all held court in York during their various campaigns. During his stay 207 -- 211 AD, the Emperor Severus proclaimed York capital of the province of Britannia Inferior, and it is likely that it was he who granted York the privileges of a colonia or city. Constantius I died in 306 AD during his stay in York, and his son Constantine the Great was proclaimed Emperor by the troops based in the fortress. In 311 AD a bishop from York attended the Council at Arles to represent Christians from the province.
While the Roman colonia and fortress were located on high ground, by 400 AD the town was victim to occasional flooding from the Rivers Ouse and Foss and the population reduced. York declined in the post-Roman era, and was taken and settled by the Angles in the 5th century.
Reclamation of parts of the town was initiated in the 7th century under King Edwin of Northumbria, and York became his chief city. The first wooden minster church was built in York for the baptism of Edwin in 627, according to the Venerable Bede. Edwin ordered the small wooden church be rebuilt in stone but was killed in 633 and the task of completing the stone minster fell to his successor Oswald. In the following century Alcuin of York came to the cathedral school of York. He had a long career as a teacher and scholar, first at the school at York now known as St Peter 's School, founded in 627 AD, and later as Charlemagne 's leading advisor on ecclesiastical and educational affairs.
In 866, Northumbria was in the midst of internecine struggles when the Vikings raided and captured York. Under Viking rule the city became a major river port, part of the extensive Viking trading routes throughout northern Europe. The last ruler of an independent Jórvík, Eric Bloodaxe, was driven from the city in 954 AD by King Eadred in his successful attempt to complete the unification of England.
In 1068, two years after the Norman conquest of England, the people of York rebelled. Initially the rebellion was successful but upon the arrival of William the Conqueror the rebellion was put down. William at once built a wooden fortress on a motte. In 1069, after another rebellion, William built another timbered castle across the River Ouse. These were destroyed in 1069 and rebuilt by William about the time of his ravaging Northumbria in what is called the "Harrying of the North '' where he destroyed everything from York to Durham. The remains of the rebuilt castles, now in stone, are visible on either side of the River Ouse. See Peter Rex 's The English Resistance, The Underground War Against the Normans, 2006.
The first stone minster church was badly damaged by fire in the uprising, and the Normans built a minster on a new site. Around the year 1080 Archbishop Thomas started building the cathedral that in time became the current Minster. In the 12th century York started to prosper. In 1190, York Castle was the site of an infamous massacre of its Jewish inhabitants, in which at least 150 Jews died (although some authorities put the figure as high as 500).
The city, through its location on the River Ouse and its proximity to the Great North Road became a major trading centre. King John granted the city 's first charter in 1212, confirming trading rights in England and Europe. During the later Middle Ages York merchants imported wine from France, cloth, wax, canvas, and oats from the Low Countries, timber and furs from the Baltic and exported grain to Gascony and grain and wool to the Low Countries. York became a major cloth manufacturing and trading centre. Edward I further stimulated the city 's economy by using the city as a base for his war in Scotland. The city was the location of significant unrest during the so - called Peasants ' Revolt in 1381. The city acquired an increasing degree of autonomy from central government including the privileges granted by a charter of Richard II in 1396.
The city underwent a period of economic decline during Tudor times. Under Henry VIII, the Dissolution of the Monasteries saw the end of York 's many monastic houses, including several orders of friars, the hospitals of St Nicholas and of St Leonard, the largest such institution in the north of England. This led to the Pilgrimage of Grace, an uprising of northern Catholics in Yorkshire and Lincolnshire opposed to religious reform. Henry VIII restored his authority by establishing the Council of the North in York in the dissolved St Mary 's Abbey. The city became a trading and service centre during this period.
Guy Fawkes, who was born and educated in York, was a member of a group of Roman Catholic restorationists that planned the Gunpowder Plot. Its aim was to displace Protestant rule by blowing up the Houses of Parliament while King James I, the entire Protestant, and even most of the Catholic aristocracy and nobility were inside.
In 1644, during the Civil War, the Parliamentarians besieged York, and many medieval houses outside the city walls were lost. The barbican at Walmgate Bar was undermined and explosives laid, but, the plot was discovered. On the arrival of Prince Rupert, with an army of 15,000 men, the siege was lifted. The Parliamentarians retreated some 6 miles (10 km) from York with Rupert in pursuit, before turning on his army and soundly defeating it at the Battle of Marston Moor. Of Rupert 's 15,000 troops, no fewer than 4,000 were killed and 1,500 captured. The siege was renewed and the city could not hold out for much longer, surrendering to Sir Thomas Fairfax on 15 July.
Following the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, and the removal of the garrison from York in 1688, the city was dominated by the gentry and merchants, although the clergy were still important. Competition from Leeds and Hull, together with silting of the River Ouse, resulted in York losing its pre-eminent position as a trading centre but the city 's role as the social and cultural centre for wealthy northerners was on the rise. York 's many elegant townhouses, such as the Lord Mayor 's Mansion House and Fairfax House date from this period, as do the Assembly Rooms, the Theatre Royal, and the racecourse.
During this general time period, the American city of New York and the colony that contained it were renamed after the Duke of York (later King James II).
mak all t'railways cum to York
The railway promoter George Hudson was responsible for bringing the railway to York in 1839. Although Hudson 's career as a railway entrepreneur ended in disgrace and bankruptcy, his promotion of his own railway company, the York and North Midland Railway and of York over Leeds, helped establish York as a major railway centre by the late 19th century.
The introduction of the railways established engineering in the city. At the turn of the 20th century, the railway accommodated the headquarters and works of the North Eastern Railway, which employed more than 5,500 people. The railway was instrumental in the expansion of Rowntree 's Cocoa Works. It was founded in 1862 by Henry Isaac Rowntree, who was joined in 1869 by his brother the philanthropist Joseph. Another chocolate manufacturer, Terry 's of York was a major employer. By 1900 the railways and confectionery had become the city 's two major industries.
With the emergence of tourism, the historic core of York became one of the city 's major assets, and in 1968 it was designated a conservation area. The existing tourist attractions were supplemented by the establishment of the National Railway Museum in York in 1975 and the Jorvik Viking Centre in 1984. The opening of the University of York in 1963 added to the prosperity of the city.
In 2010, the former headquarters on the North Eastern Railway were refurbished in class and opened as York 's first, and still only, 5 - star hotel -- currently known as The Grand Hotel & Spa.
York was voted European Tourism City of the Year by European Cities Marketing in June 2007 beating 130 other European cities to gain first place, surpassing Gothenburg in Sweden (second) and Valencia in Spain (third). York was also voted safest place to visit in the 2010 Condé Nast Traveller Readers ' Choice Awards.
York was a centre of early photography as described by Hugh Murray in his 1986 book: Photographs and Photographers of York: The Early Years, 1844 -- 79. Photographers who had studios in York included William Hayes, William Pumphrey, and Augustus Mahalski who operated on Davygate and Low Petergate in the 19th century having come to England as a refugee after serving as a Polish lancer in the Austro - Hungarian war.
From 1997 to 2010 the central part of the district was covered by the City of York constituency, while the remainder was split between the constituencies of Ryedale, Selby, and Vale of York. These constituencies were represented by Hugh Bayley, John Greenway, John Grogan, and Anne McIntosh respectively.
Following their review in 2003 of parliamentary representation in North Yorkshire, the Boundary Commission for England recommended the creation of two new seats for the City of York, in time for the general election in 2010. These are York Central, which covers the inner urban area, and is entirely surrounded by the York Outer constituency.
The whole of the city and local council area lies within the Yorkshire and the Humber constituency of the European Parliament.
York is the traditional county town of Yorkshire, and therefore did not form part of any of its three historic ridings, or divisions. Its Mayor has had the status of Lord Mayor since 1370. York is an ancient borough, and was reformed by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 to form a municipal borough. It gained the status of a county borough in 1889, under the Local Government Act 1888, and existed so until 1974, when, under the Local Government Act 1972, it became a non-metropolitan district in the county of North Yorkshire, whilst retaining its Lord Mayor, its Sheriff and Aldermen.
As a result of 1990s UK local government reform, York regained unitary status and saw a substantial alteration in its borders, taking in parts of Selby and Harrogate districts, and about half the population of the Ryedale district. The new boundary was imposed after central government rejected the former city council 's own proposal.
The City of York Council has 47 councillors. As a result of the 2015 local elections the Labour Party was reduced to 15 seats. The Liberal Democrats had twelve councillors. The Conservative Party had 14 councillors and the Greens had four with two Independents.
City of York Council operates on a leader and Cabinet style of governance. Councillors are appointed to the cabinet by the full council of 47 members. Cabinet members make decisions on their portfolio areas individually.
York 's Right Honourable Lord Mayor for 2016 -- 17 is Councillor Dave Taylor, the first Green Lord Mayor. The Sheriff is Jonathan Tyler, who stood for the Green Party for York in the last general election. Both appointments are made each May for a period of one year. Although York 's Sheriff office is the oldest in England it is now a purely ceremonial post. The Lord Mayor carries out civic and ceremonial duties in addition to chairing full meetings of the council.
York Youth Council consists of several young people who negotiate with the councillors to get better facilities for York 's young people.
York is within the ceremonial territorial jurisdiction of the Dukedom of York which is presently held by Prince Andrew, the incumbent Duke of York.
The city is 21 miles (34 km) from Leeds.
York lies in the Vale of York, a flat area of fertile arable land bordered by the Pennines, the North York Moors and the Yorkshire Wolds The city was built at the confluence of the Rivers Ouse and Foss on a terminal moraine left by the last Ice Age.
During Roman times, the land surrounding the rivers Ouse and Foss was marshy, making the site easy to defend. The city is prone to flooding from the River Ouse, and has an extensive (and until 2015 mostly effective) network of flood defences with walls along the river, and a liftable barrier across the River Foss where it joins the Ouse at the ' Blue Bridge '. In October and November 2000 York experienced the worst flooding in 375 years with more than 300 homes flooded. In December 2015 the flooding was more extensive and caused major disruption. The extreme impact led to a personal visit by Prime Minister David Cameron. Much land in and around the city is on flood plains too flood - prone for development other than agriculture. The ings are flood meadows along the Ouse, while the strays are open common grassland in various locations around the city.
York Minster, a large Gothic cathedral, dominates the city.
York Castle, a complex of buildings ranging from the medieval Clifford 's Tower to the 20th century entrance to the York Castle Museum (formerly a prison) has had a chequered history.
York 's centre is enclosed by the city 's medieval walls, which are a popular walk. These defences are the most complete in England. They have the only walls set on high ramparts and they retain all their principal gateways. They incorporate part of the walls of the Roman fortress and some Norman and medieval work, as well as 19th - and 20th - century renovations. The entire circuit is approximately 2.5 miles (4 km), and encloses an area of 263 acres (106 ha). The north - east section includes a part where walls never existed, because the Norman moat of York Castle, formed by damming the River Foss, also created a lake which acted as a city defence. This lake was later called the King 's Fishpond, as the rights to fish belonged to the Crown.
A feature of central York is the Snickelways, narrow pedestrian routes, many of which led towards the former market - places in Pavement and St Sampson 's Square. The Shambles is a narrow medieval street, lined with shops, boutiques and tea rooms. Most of these premises were once butchers ' shops, and the hooks from which carcasses were hung and the shelves on which meat was laid out can still be seen outside some of them. The street also contains the Shrine of Margaret Clitherow, although it is not located in the house where she lived. Goodramgate has many medieval houses including the early 14th century Lady Row built to finance a Chantry, at the edge of the churchyard of Holy Trinity church.
As well as the Castle Museum, the city contains numerous other museums and historic buildings such as the Yorkshire Museum and its Museum Gardens, Jorvik Viking Centre, York Art Gallery, the Richard III Museum, Merchant Adventurers ' Hall, the reconstructed medieval house Barley Hall (owned by the York Archaeological Trust), the 18th century Fairfax House, the Mansion House (the historic home of the Lord Mayor) and the so - called Treasurer 's House (owned by the National Trust). The National Railway Museum is situated just beyond the station, and is home to a vast range of transport material and the largest collection of railway locomotives in the world. Included in this collection are the world 's fastest steam locomotive LNER Class A4 4468 Mallard and the world - famous LNER Class A3 4472 Flying Scotsman, which has been overhauled in the Museum. Although noted for its Medieval history, visitors can also gain an understanding of the Cold War through visiting York Cold War Bunker, former headquarters of No 20 Group of the Royal Observer Corps.
York is noted for its numerous churches and pubs. Most of the remaining churches in York are from the medieval period. St William 's College behind the Minster, and Bedern Hall, off Goodramgate, are former dwelling places of the canons of the York Minster.
York has a temperate climate with four distinct seasons. As with the rest of the Vale of York the city 's climate is drier and warmer than the rest of the Yorkshire and Humberside region. Because of its lowland location York is prone to frosts, fog, and cold winds during winter, spring and very early summer. Snow can fall in winter from December onwards to as late as April but quickly melts. From May to July, York experiences the most sunshine, an average of six hours per day. Extremes recorded at the University of York campus between 1998 and 2010 include a highest temperature of 34.5 ° C (94.1 ° F) (Monday 17 July 2006) and a lowest temperature of − 16.3 ° C (2.7 ° F) (Monday 6 December 2010). The most rainfall in one day was 88.4 millimetres (3.5 in).
The York urban area had a population of 137,505 comprising 66,142 males and 71,363 females in 2001. The urban area 's population increased to 153,717 by the time of the 2011 UK census. Also at the time of the 2001 UK census, the City of York had a total population of 181,094 of whom 93,957 were female and 87,137 were male. Of the 76,920 households in York, 36.0 % were married couples living together, 31.3 % were one - person households, 8.7 % were co-habiting couples and 8.0 % were lone parents. The figures for lone parent households were below the national average of 9.5 %, and the percentage of married couples was also close to the national average of 36.5 %; the proportion of one person households was slightly higher than the national average of 30.1 %.
In 2001, the population density was 4,368 / km (11,310 / sq mi). Of those aged 16 -- 74 in York, 24.6 % had no academic qualifications, a little lower than 28.9 % in all of England. Of York 's residents, 5.1 % were born outside the United Kingdom, significantly lower than the national average of 9.2 %. White British form 95 % of the population; the largest single minority group was recorded as Asian, at 1.9 % of the population.
The number of theft - from - a-vehicle offences and theft of a vehicle per 1,000 of the population was 8.8 and 2.7, compared to the English national average of 6.9 and 2.7 respectively. The number of sexual offences was 0.9, in line with the national average. The national average of violence against another person was 16.2 compared to the York average of 17.5. The figures for crime statistics were all recorded during the 2006 -- 07 financial year.
At the time of the 2011 UK census the population of York was 198,051 and its ethnic composition was 94.3 % white, compared with the English average of 85.5 %. York 's population has a slightly higher elderly population than the national average.
The table below details the population change since 1801.
Christianity is the religion with the largest following in York, with 59.5 % residents reporting themselves as Christian in the 2011 census. The percentages following each non-Christian religion were all below the national average for England, but those responding as "No Religion '' was higher than the national average.
There are 33 active Anglican churches in York, which is home to the Archbishop of York and the Mother Church, York Minster, and administrative centre of the northern province of the Church of England and the Diocese of York. York is in the Roman Catholic Diocese of Middlesbrough, has eight Roman Catholic churches and a number of different Catholic religious orders.
Leaders of different Christian denominations work together across the city forming a network of churches known as One Voice York.
Other Christian denominations that are active in York include the Religious Society of Friends who have three meeting houses, Methodists within the York Circuit of The Methodist Church York and Hull District, and Unitarians. St Columba 's United Reformed Church in Priory Street, originally built for the Presbyterians, dates from 1879. There is one mosque in York and the city also has a UK Islamic Mission Islamic centre. Various Buddhist traditions are represented in the city and around York.
York 's economy is based on the service industry, which in 2000 was responsible for 88.7 % of employment in the city. The service industries include public sector employment, health, education, finance, information technology (IT) and tourism that accounts for 10.7 % of employment. Tourism has become an important element of the economy, with the city offering a wealth of historic attractions, of which York Minster is the most prominent, and a variety of cultural activities. In 2009, York was the 7th most visited city by UK residents and the 13th most visited by overseas visitors.
Unemployment in York was low at 4.2 % in 2008 compared to the United Kingdom national average of 5.3 %. The biggest employer in York is the City of York Council, with over 7,500 employees. Employers with more than 2,000 staff include Aviva (formerly Norwich Union Life), Network Rail, Northern, York Hospitals NHS Trust and the University of York. Other major employers include British Telecom, CPP Group, Nestlé, NFU Mutual and a number of railway companies.
Today 's economic position is very different from the 1950s, when its prosperity was based on chocolate manufacturing and the railways. This position continued until the early 1980s when 30 % of the workforce were employed by just five employers and 75 % of manufacturing jobs were in four companies. Most industry around the railway has gone, including the carriage works (known as Asea Brown Boveri or ABB at the time of closure), which at its height in the 1880s employed 5,500 people but closed in the mid-1990s. York is the headquarters of the confectionery manufacturer Nestlé York (formerly Nestlé Rowntrees) and home to the KitKat and eponymous Yorkie bar chocolate brands. Terry 's chocolate factory, makers of the Chocolate Orange, was located in the city; but it closed on 30 September 2005, when production was moved by its owners, Kraft Foods, to Poland. The historic factory building is situated next to the Knavesmire racecourse.
Nestlé announced on 20 September 2006 that it would cut 645 jobs at the Rowntree 's chocolate factory in York. This came after a number of other job losses in the city at Aviva, British Sugar and Terry 's chocolate factory. Despite this, the employment situation in York remained fairly buoyant until the effects of the late 2000s recession began to be felt.
Since the closure of the carriage - works, the site has been developed into offices. York 's economy has been developing in the areas of science, technology and the creative industries. The city has become a founding National Science City with the creation of a science park near the University of York. Between 1998 and 2008 York gained 80 new technology companies and 2,800 new jobs in the sector.
Regional gross value added figures for York, at 2005 basic prices in pounds sterling, are:
Under the requirements of the Municipal Corporations Act 1835, York City Council appointed a watch committee which established a police force and appointed a chief constable. On 1 June 1968 the York City, East Riding of Yorkshire and North Riding of Yorkshire police forces were amalgamated to form the York and North East Yorkshire Police. Since 1974, Home Office policing in York has been provided by the North Yorkshire Police. The force 's central headquarters for policing York and nearby Selby in Fulford. Statutory emergency fire and rescue service is provided by the North Yorkshire Fire and Rescue Service, whose headquarters is at Northallerton.
The city 's first hospital, York County Hospital, opened in 1740 in Monkgate funded by public subscription. It closed in 1976 when it was replaced by York Hospital, which opened the same year and gained Foundation status in April 2007. It has 524 adult inpatient beds and 127 special purpose beds providing general healthcare and some specialist inpatient, daycase and outpatient services. It is also known as York District Hospital and YDH.
The Yorkshire Ambulance Service NHS Trust was formed on 1 July 2006 bringing together South Yorkshire Ambulance Service, West Yorkshire Metropolitan Ambulance Service and the North and East Yorkshire parts of Tees, East and North Yorkshire Ambulance Service to provide patient transport. Other forms of health care are provided for locally by clinics and surgeries.
The city 's first subscription library opened in 1794. In 1893 the first free public library, the York Library, was built to mark Queen Victoria 's jubilee. The library was on Clifford Street but a new building was erected on Museum Street in 1927 and is still the library today. The library was extended in 1934 and 1938.
Since 1998 waste management has been co-ordinated via the York and North Yorkshire Waste Partnership. York 's Distribution Network Operator for electricity is CE Electric UK; there are no power stations in the city. Yorkshire Water, which has a local water extraction plant on the River Derwent at Elvington, manages York 's drinking and waste water.
The city has a Magistrates ' Court, and a Crown Court and County Court too. The Crown Court House was designed by the architect John Carr, next to the then prison (including execution area).
Between 1773 and 1777, the Grand Jury House was replaced by John Carr 's elegant Court House for the Assizes of the whole county. The Female Prison was built opposite and mirrors the court building positioned around a circular lawn which became known as the "Eye of the Ridings '', or the "Eye of York ''.
1776 saw the last recorded instance of a wife hanged and burnt for poisoning her husband. Horse theft was a capital offence. The culprits of lesser crimes were brought to court by the city constables and would face a fine. The corporation employed a "common informer '' whose task was to bring criminals to justice.
The former prison is now the Castle Museum but still contains the cells.
York 's location on the River Ouse and in the centre of the Vale of York means that it has always had a significant position in the nation 's transport system. The city grew up as a river port at the confluence of the River Ouse and the River Foss. The Ouse was originally a tidal river, accessible to seagoing ships of the time. Today both of these rivers remain navigable, although the Foss is only navigable for a short distance above the confluence. A lock at Naburn on the Ouse to the south of York means that the river in York is no longer tidal.
Until the end of the 20th century, the Ouse was used by barges to carry freight between York and the port of Hull. The last significant traffic was the supply of newsprint to the local newspaper 's Foss - side print works, which continued until 1997. Today navigation is almost exclusively leisure - oriented.
Like most cities founded by the Romans, York is well served by long distance trunk roads. The city lies at the intersection of the A19 road from Doncaster to Tyneside, the A59 road from Liverpool to York, the A64 road from Leeds to Scarborough, and the A1079 road from York to Hull. The A64 road provides the principal link to the motorway network, linking York to both the A1 (M) and the M1 motorways at a distance of about 10 miles (15 km) from the city. The transpennine M62 motorway is less than 20 miles (30 km) away providing links to Manchester and Liverpool.
The city is surrounded on all sides by an outer ring road, at a distance of some 3 miles (5 km) from the centre of the city, which allows through traffic to by - pass the city. The street plan of the historic core of the city dates from medieval times and is not suitable for modern traffic. As a consequence many of the routes inside the city walls are designated as car free during business hours or restrict traffic entirely. To alleviate this situation, five bus based park and ride sites operate in York. The sites are located towards the edge of the urban area, with easy access from the ring road, and allow out of town visitors to complete their journey into the city centre by bus.
York has been a major railway centre since the first line arrived in 1839 at the beginning of the railway age. For many years the city hosted the headquarters and works of the North Eastern Railway. York railway station is a principal stop on the East Coast Main Line from London to Newcastle and Edinburgh. It takes less than two hours to get to York from London by rail, with at least 25 direct trains each weekday. The station is also served by long distance trains on CrossCountry services linking Edinburgh and Newcastle with destinations in south and west England via Birmingham. TransPennine Express provide a frequent service of semi-fast trains linking York to Newcastle, Scarborough, Leeds, Manchester, Manchester Airport, and Liverpool. Local stopping services by Northern connect York to Selby, Harrogate, Hull, Leeds, Sheffield and many intermediate points, as well as many other stations across Greater Manchester and Lancashire.
York has an airfield at the former RAF Elvington, some 7 miles (11 km) south - east of the city centre, which is the home of the Yorkshire Air Museum. Elvington is used for private aviation. Plans have been drafted to expand the site for business aviation or a full commercial service.
York is linked to Manchester Airport by an hourly direct TransPennine Express train, giving access to the principal airport serving the north of England, with connections to many destinations in Europe, North America, Africa, and Asia. Leeds Bradford Airport is closer to York but the hourly York Air Coach service operated by First York was withdrawn as of April 2009. Leeds Bradford Airport provides connections to most major European and North African airports as well as Pakistan and New York City.
Public transport within the city is largely bus based. First York operates the majority of the city 's local bus services, as well as the York park and ride services. York was the location of the first implementation of FirstGroup 's experimental, and controversial, ftr bus concept, which sought to confer the advantages of a modern tramway system at a lower cost. The service was withdrawn following an election manifesto pledge by the Labour Group at the 2011 local government election. Transdev York and also operate a large number of local bus services. Open top tourist and sightseeing buses are operated by Transdev York on behalf of City Sightseeing.
Rural services, linking local towns and villages with York, are provided by a number of companies with Transdev York, EYMS, Reliance & Stephonsons of Easingwold Operating most of them. Longer distance bus services are provided by a number of operators including, Arriva Yorkshire services to Selby, East Yorkshire Motor Services on routes to Hull, Beverley, Pocklington, Harrogate Bus Company services to Knaresborough and Harrogate. Yorkshire Coastliner links Leeds via York with Scarborough, Filey, Bridlington and Whitby.
English local authorities are required to produce Local Transport Plans (LTPs), strategies for developing local integrated transport as part of a longer - term vision. LTPs are used by central government to allocate funding for transport schemes. The final Local Transport Plan 2006 -- 2011 for York was submitted to central government in March 2006. The plan addresses the fact that traffic in York is predicted to grow considerably over the coming years. The key aims of the plan are to ease congestion and improve accessibility, air quality and safety. Major funding allocations earmarked for the first five years of the plan 's life span include outer ring road improvements, improved management of the highway network, improvements to the bus network including park and ride services, provision of off - road walking and cycling routes, air quality improvements and safety measures.
The University of York 's main campus is on the southern edge of the city at Heslington and is currently undergoing significant expansion with new buildings and departments including Management, Law, Theatre, Film, and Television at Heslington East. The Department of Archaeology and the graduate Centres for Eighteenth Century Studies and Medieval Studies are located in the historic King 's Manor in the city centre. It was York 's only institution with university status until 2006, when the more centrally located York St John University, formerly an autonomous college of the University of Leeds, attained full university status. The city formerly hosted a branch of The University of Law before it moved to Leeds. The University of York also has a highly rated medical school, Hull York Medical School.
The city has two major further education institutions. York College is an amalgamation of York Technical College and York Sixth Form College. Students there study a very wide range of academic and vocational courses, and range from school leavers and sixth formers to people training to make career moves. Askham Bryan College offers further education courses, foundation and honours degrees, specialising in more vocational subjects such as horticulture, agriculture, animal management and even golf course management.
There are 70 local council schools with over 24,000 pupils in the City of York Council area. The City of York Council manages most primary and secondary schools within the city. Primary schools cover education from ages 5 -- 11, with some offering early years education from age 3. From 11 -- 16 education is provided by 10 secondary schools, four of which offer additional education up to the age of 18. In 2007 Oaklands Sports College and Lowfield Comprehensive School merged to become one school known as York High School.
York also has several private schools. St Peter 's School was founded in 627. The scholar Alcuin, who went on to serve Charlemagne, taught there. It was also the school attended by Guy Fawkes. Two schools have Quaker origins: Bootham School is co-educational and The Mount School is all - girls. On the outskirts of the city is Queen Margaret 's School. Pupils from The Minster School, York sing in York Minster choir.
The Theatre Royal, which was established in 1744, produces an annual pantomime which attracts loyal audiences from around the country to see its veteran star, Berwick Kaler. The Grand Opera House and Joseph Rowntree Theatre also offer a variety of productions. The city is home to the Riding Lights Theatre Company, which as well as operating a busy national touring department, also operates a busy youth theatre and educational departments. York is also home to a number of amateur dramatic groups. The Department of Theatre, Film and Television and Student Societies of the University of York put on public drama performances.
The York Mystery Plays are performed in public at intervals, using texts based on the original medieval plays of this type that were performed by the guilds -- often with specific connections to the subject matter of each play. (For instance the Shipwrights ' Play is the Building of Noah 's Ark and the fish - sellers and mariners the Landing of Noah 's Ark). The York Cycle of Mystery Plays or Pageants is the most complete in England. Originally performed from wagons at various locations around the city from the 14th century until 1570, they were revived in 1951 during the Festival of Britain, when York was one of the cities with a regional festival. They became part of the York City Festival every three years and later four years. They were mostly produced in a temporary open - air theatre within the ruins of St. Mary 's Abbey, using some professional but mostly amateur actors. Lead actors have included Christopher Timothy and Robson Green (in the role of Christ) and Dame Judi Dench as a school girl, in 1951, 1954 and 1957. (She remains a Patron of the plays). The cycle was presented in the Theatre Royal in 1992 and 1996, within York Minster in 2000 and in 2002, 2006 and 2010 by Guild groups from wagons in the squares, in the Dean 's Park, or at the Eye of York. They go around the streets, recreating the original productions. In 2012, the York Mystery Plays were performed between 2 and 27 August at St. Mary 's Abbey in the York Museum Gardens.
The Academy of St Olave 's, a chamber orchestra which gives concerts in St Olave 's Church, Marygate, is one of the music groups that perform regularly in York. A former church, St Margaret 's, Walmgate, is the National Centre for Early Music, which hosts concerts, broadcasts, competitions and events including the York Early Music Festival. Students, staff and visiting artists of York St John University music department regularly perform lunchtime concerts in the University chapel. The staff and students of the University of York also perform in the city.
Each September since 1997, York holds an annual Festival of Food and Drink. The aim of the festival is to spotlight food culture in York and North Yorkshire by promoting local food production. The Festival attracts up to 150,000 visitors over 10 days, from all over the country. One of the notable local products is York ham, a mild - flavoured ham with delicate pink colouring. It is traditionally served with Madeira Sauce. As a lightly smoked, dry - cured ham, York ham is saltier but milder in flavour than other European dry - cured hams. Folklore has it that the oak construction for York Minster provided the sawdust for smoking the ham. Robert Burrow Atkinson 's butchery shop, in Blossom Street, is the birthplace of the original "York Ham '' and the reason why the premises became famous.
In the centre of York, in St Helen 's Square, there is the York branch of Bettys Café Tea Rooms. Bettys founder, Frederick Belmont, travelled on the maiden voyage of the Queen Mary in 1936. He was so impressed by the splendour of the ship that he employed the Queen Mary 's designers and craftsmen to turn a dilapidated furniture store in York into an elegant café in St Helen 's Square. A few years after Bettys opened in York war broke out, and the basement ' Bettys Bar ' became a favourite haunt of the thousands of airmen stationed around York. ' Bettys Mirror ', on which many of them engraved their signatures with a diamond pen, remains on display today as a tribute to them.
The Assize of Ale is an annual event in the city where people in medieval costume take part in a pub crawl to raise money for local charities. It has its origins in the 13th century, when an Assize of Bread and Ale was used to regulate the quality of goods. The current version was resurrected in the 1990s by the Sheriff of York and is led by the Guild of Scriveners. In June 2015 York CAMRA listed 101 pubs on its map of the city centre, some of which are hundreds of years old. These include the Golden Fleece, Ye Olde Starre Inne, noted for its sign which has spanned the street since 1733, and The Kings Arms, often photographed during floods. On 18 June 2016, York CAMRA undertook a "Beer Census '' and found 328 unique real ales being served in over 200 pubs in York, reinforcing the city 's reputation as a top UK beer destination.
The Knavesmire, home of York Racecourse, plays host to Yorkshire 's largest beer festival every September run by York CAMRA -- York Beer & Cider Festival. It is housed in a marquee opposite the grandstand of the racecourse in the enclosure and in 2016 will offer over 450 real ales and over 100 ciders.
In 2010 York 's city council and a number of heritage organisations submitted a bid for York 's entire city centre to become a UNESCO World Heritage Site. This nomination, to the UK 's Department for Culture, Media and Sport would have included York on a list of tentative sites to be reviewed by UNESCO itself. York 's bid failed, leading to ' disappointment ' from the team involved. This indirectly led to the city making a successful bid to be part of the UNESCO Creative Cities Network as a city of Media Arts. It is the fourth of these cities, following Lyon, France; Enghien - les - Bains, France; and Sapporo, Japan.
The York area is served by a local newspaper, The Press (known as the Evening Press until April 2006), The York Advertiser newspaper (based at The Press on Walmgate), and three local radio stations Minster FM, Vale Radio and BBC Radio York. Local arts, culture news and events are covered by One&Other. Another digital news website is YorkMix run by former print journalists, that incorporates Local News; What 's On; Food & Drink; Things To Do and Business sections with articles written by residents and local journalists. In August 2016 YorkMix was nominated in two categories in the O2 Media Awards for Yorkshire and The Humber.
On 27 November 2013, Ofcom awarded the 12 - year local TV licence for the York area to a consortium entitled The York Channel, with the channel due to be on air in spring 2015.
York St John University has a Film and Television Production department with links to many major industrial partners. The department hosts an annual festival of student work and a showcase of other regional films.
The University of York has its own television station York Student Television (YSTV) and two campus newspapers Nouse and York Vision. Its radio station URY is the longest running legal independent radio station in the UK, and was voted BBC Radio 1 Student Radio Station of the Year 2005.
The city 's football team is York City who are competing in National League North as of the 2017 -- 18 season. York have played as high as the old Second Division but are best known for their "giant killing '' status in cup competitions, having reached the FA Cup semi-final in 1955 and beaten Manchester United 3 -- 0 during the 1995 -- 96 League Cup. Their matches are played at Bootham Crescent.
York also has a strong rugby league history. York F.C., later known as York Wasps, formed in 1901, were one of the oldest rugby league clubs in the country but the effects of a move to the out of town Huntington Stadium, poor results and falling attendances led to their bankruptcy in 2002. The supporters formed a new club, York City Knights, who now play at the same stadium in Championship 1. There are three amateur rugby league teams in York, New Earswick All Blacks, York Acorn and Heworth. York International 9s is a rugby league nines tournament which takes place in York each year. Amateur side York Lokomotive compete in the Rugby League Conference.
An open rowing club York City Rowing Club is located underneath Lendal Bridge. The rowing clubs of The University of York, York St John University Rowing Club and Leeds University Boat Club as well as York City RC use the Ouse for training. There are two sailing clubs close to York, both of which sail dinghies on the River Ouse. The York RI (Railway Institute) Sailing Club has a club bouse and boat park on the outskirts of Bishopthorpe, a village 3 miles (4.8 km) to the south of York. The Yorkshire Ouse Sailing Club has a club house in the village of Naburn, 5 miles (8.0 km) south of York.
York Racecourse was established in 1731 and from 1990 has been awarded Northern Racecourse of the Year for 17 years running. This major horseracing venue is located on the Knavesmire and sees thousands flocking to the city every year for the 15 race meetings. The Knavesmire Racecourse also hosted Royal Ascot in 2005. In August racing takes place over the four - day Ebor Festival that includes the Ebor Handicap dating from 1843.
Motorbike speedway once took place at York. The track in the Burnholme Estate was completed in 1930 and a demonstration event staged. In 1931 the track staged team and open events and the York team took part in the National Trophy.
York hosts the UK Snooker Championship, which is the second biggest ranking tournament in the sport, at the York Barbican Centre.
On 6 July 2014, York hosted the start of Stage 2 of the 2014 Tour de France. Starting the Départ Fictif from York Racecourse, the riders travelled through the city centre to the Départ Actuel on the A59 just beyond the junction with the Outer Ring Road heading towards Knaresborough. In 2015, the inaugural Tour de Yorkshire was held as a legacy event to build on the popularity of the previous year, with the Day 2 stage finishing in York.
The most notable sportsmen to come from York in recent years are footballer Marco Gabbiadini and former England manager Steve McClaren, who both attended Nunthorpe Grammar School (now called Millthorpe School).
York Minster was the origin (meridian) of the 6 inch and 1: 2500 Ordnance Survey maps for Yorkshire.
York is twinned with Dijon, France (1953), Münster, Germany (1957) and on 22 October 2014, it announced the first ' temporal twinning ' with Jórvík, the Viking city from 866 to 1066.
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when do you find out peter pan is rumple's father | Think Lovely Thoughts - wikipedia
"Think Lovely Thoughts '' is the eighth episode of the third season of the American fantasy drama series Once Upon a Time, and the show 's 52nd episode overall.
In this episode, the group races to Skull Rock in order to save Henry (Jared S. Gilmore) from Peter Pan (Robbie Kay), who plans to harness immortality by taking Henry 's heart. Meanwhile, a young Rumpelstiltskin (Wyatt Oleff) and his scheming father Malcolm (Stephen Lord) make their way to Neverland, which soon becomes a life - altering journey for both of them.
The episode was met with positive reviews from critics; however, the episode saw a significant drop in ratings, with 6.66 million viewers tuning in.
Skull Rock is featured.
In a local tavern yard, a young boy, who is revealed to be a young Rumplestiltskin, begs a man not to hurt his father Malcolm, who is a 3 - card monte cheat. Later on, Malcolm brings Rumplestiltskin to a cabin and asks the women spinning wool to look after him as he attempts to get a real job. Before he goes, he gives his son the corn husk doll as a present. Hours later, the women see that Rumplestiltskin has a huge talent for spinning. While Rumplestiltskin tells them that he believed that Malcolm will come back, the ladies tell him that he returned to the same tavern. The women advise him to take the magic bean and go someplace where his father 's bad reputation wo n't follow him. Rumplestiltskin later return to the same tavern, and just as the ladies told him, sees his father playing games again. Rumplstiltskin coaxes Malcolm to go away somewhere and make a fresh start. Malcolm then remembers the phrase "think lovely thoughts, '' which he used to comfort himself when he was apprenticed to a blacksmith. So they use the bean to go to a place called Neverland, holding hands.
As they land in Neverland, Malcolm tells his son to imagine a cake, and it appears. He then tells him that in Neverland anyone can fly, but as he attempts to take off, he falls to the ground because he is now a grown - up. Malcolm remembers needing Pixie Dust, but Rumplestiltskin is too scared to climb up the tall trees that have the pixie dust flowers, so Malcolm tells him to wait and he 'll get enough for both. He climbs up and sprinkles some dust on himself, saying "I want to fly, '' but just then the shadow comes and mocks him, telling him he does n't belong. On the ground, Rumplestiltskin later weeps, thinking his father has met with an accident after one of his shoes falls from the tree, but then his father climbs down to comfort him, telling him that Neverland is only for children. Unfortunately, as Rumplestiltskin suggests they go somewhere else, Malcolm says he knows he would just go back to his old ways if he did. The shadow then comes to take Rumplestiltskin, believing it is the only way the father can believe he 's a young man. As the shadow takes Rumplestiltskin away he witnesses a green spell coming over Malcolm, who suddenly turns into the infamous Peter Pan, a name that Rumplestiltskin had given his lost doll. After he returned to stay with the women he tells them of what had happen, as the women believe that he would be better off without a father.
Pan and the shadow then arrive at Skull Rock, where the shadow tells Pan that the island was created when Pan decided to stay, and the hourglass shows how much time he has before he stops being young and dies. In doing so, the shadow tells Pan that he broke the rules by staying because Neverland is a place for children to visit in their dreams.
As Emma Swan, Neal, Hook, David, Tinker Bell, and Mary Margaret walk through the forest towards Pan 's camp, Emma confronts Mary Margaret about staying behind with David, which made Emma concerned that she will once again be separated from her family. As Regina and Gold emerged from another location, the reunion does not goes smoothly as Neal tells everyone involved that Gold was planning to kill Henry because of a prophecy. They all draw their weapons on him, but Gold proves his legitimacy by handing over Pandora 's Box to earn their trust, and tells Neal he has no idea who he 's up against as Gold explains to Neal that Pan was responsible for his father Malcolm 's demise. Despite this, Neal made sure that Gold does not use magic and Gold agrees to it. Meanwhile, Hook and Emma discuss Neal 's fate and the future of David when Gold says he may know a cure, as he remembered the elixir that saved him back at Storybrooke. As they finally reach Pan 's camp, the party come up with a plan to keep The Lost Boys at bay, so Regina waves her hand and causes a sleeping spell and the Boys doze off. They then hear Wendy and Emma see her in cage, and Neal breaks her free. She 's startled to see Neal, who she knew as Baelfire, now grown up. She explains that she went back to Neverland to save him, because she remembered Neal telling her that his parents were dead, to which a stunned Gold replied "You told them that? '' But Bae says that it was better than saying his father abandoned him. At first, Wendy lies to the rescuers about where Pan is, but Gold recognizes she 's lying and she comes clean, and admits that Pan really wants the heart of the truest believer so he can be immortal, which is actually Henry 's heart. It 's a trade, she says, because once Pan has the heart, Henry will die. Neal promises he will save her brothers and Regina tells Wendy that John and Michael are safe in Storybrooke. They make a plan to rescue Henry, and send David to Dead Man 's Peak to get water to make a cure. Emma then tells everyone involved that they will all return home once they rescue Henry. So Emma, Regina, Gold, and Neal race off to Skull Rock.
As the individuals prepare their plan of attack, Peter Pan (Robbie Kay) and Henry (Jared S. Gilmore) arrives at Skull Rock, where Pan tells Henry (who is unaware that Pan is actually his great grandfather) that he can save magic, and Henry believed him. As they enter the caves, Pan cast a protection spell to keep anyone with a shadow out. The individuals then reach the island, where Gold eventually penetrated the spell because he has no shadow. The other members finally believe that he wants to save Henry and Neal gives the box back to him, followed by Regina and Emma casting an eclipse spell so they can enter. Henry and Pan finally enter a large chamber that contains a large hourglass on top of a pedestal of golden skulls that shows the magic slowly fading, indicating how much time is left for magic in Neverland. After looking at this, Pan tells Henry it is time to save magic, but he now wants to use Henry 's heart rather than believing in it, then lies to Henry that he 'll live forever in Neverland if he does this. He then is interrupted by a presence, as Gold shows up to confront his father and to stop him from going through with this and takes out the box. Pan says they are really alike because both abandoned their sons, but Gold says he regretted leaving his son the moment he let him go and spent the rest of his life trying to get him back. Pan then responds "Why do you think I call myself Peter Pan? '' and asks Gold to put the box down so they can make a fresh start. After Gold refuses, he waves his hand over the box but nothing happens, as Gold discovers Pan switched boxes, and Pan waves his hand over the real one and places Gold inside it. Pan then returns to finish his scheme to take Henry 's heart by giving him magic to allow him to remove it. As Henry succeeds in doing so, Emma, Regina and Neal arrive to stop Henry from giving it to Pan, but Pan tells Henry that they are lying to him because they are adults even as they tell Henry they believe in him because they love him. Unfortunately, Henry, believing that he can save magic, gives his heart to Pan, who has now emerged victorious in his plot to become immortal. Henry dies as a result.
When Rumple tells Neal that "Peter Pan destroyed my father '', it is similar to a scene in Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope, in which Obi - Wan Kenobi tells Luke Skywalker the story about a Jedi called Darth Vader who was a pupil of Kenobi before he turned to Evil and killed Luke 's father.
Furthermore, the revelation that Peter Pan is actually Rumple 's father is similar to another scene in The Empire Strikes Back where Vader reveals that he is Luke 's father.
This episode features American musician Marilyn Manson as the voice of The Shadow. On October 21, British actor Stephen Lord was announced to be playing Rumplestiltskin 's father, Malcolm / Colin. He featured in this episode, and will also feature on the eleventh episode of the season.
The detail and reveal of Peter Pan 's true identity was kept a secret from cast members, who were banned from finding out until the episode aired. According to Ginnifer Goodwin, "We were so banned, '' she says. "We had to sign our lives away. That 's truly the Rumple story, like we own the children. Some cast members saw it coming and I was shocked, but I guess it makes so much sense because the family is cursed. Each generation is caught in a cycle of sacrificing family for power and it only makes sense that Rumple would be the product of such a villain. ''
The episode saw another decline in the ratings, scoring a 1.9 / 5 among 18 - 49s with only 6.67 million tuning in, making it the lowest rated episode in the series so far and the only one to post below a 2.0. This setback can attributed to the debut of FOX 's science fiction crime drama Almost Human, which had 3.1 / 8 among 18 - 49s with 9.18 million viewers watching, marking the first time that OUAT was beaten by another scripted program since its 2011 debut. It can also be attributed to television coverage of the November 17, 2013 tornado outbreak in several Midwestern states that was shown on ABC rather than Once Upon a Time.
The episode received generally positive reviews from critics.
Amy Ratcliffe of IGN gave the episode the second highest score of the season thus far, after "Ariel, '' giving in an 8.9 out of 10, saying "tonight 's installment of Once was engaging, touching, and action - packed. The twists were complete surprises, and they did n't feel contrived. The rescue party was the most together they 've been and it was fun to watch them jump into action. I felt more invested in the characters than I have at any other point this season, and I ca n't wait to see what happens next. ''
Hillary Busis of Entertainment Weekly commented "Just when you thought Henry 's family tree could n't get any more complicated, Once threw us another genuine curveball. On second thought, "curveball '' does n't seem emphatic enough. Let 's call it a genuine "oh - my - God, holy - crap, did - they - seriously - just - say - what - I - think - they - said? '' ball instead. '' She then added "Okay, I 've made my point. Sense of history repeating aside, though, "Think Lovely Thoughts '' really was full of surprises, thanks particularly to the fairyback that introduced us to a young, adorably big - eyed Rumpelstiltskin -- back in the days when he was still being cared for by his ne'er - do - well dad, whose name is either Malcolm or Colin. '' The latter referring the character name that was a source of confusion in the casting credits before its air date.
Christine Orlando of TV Fanatic also gave the episode a positive review, rating it a 4.5 out of 5, noting Rumpelstiltskin 's subplot, saying "the revelation that Peter Pan was actually Rumpel 's father totally floored me. It ranked up there with watching The Empire Strikes Back when I was 9. I never saw it coming. ''
Andrea Reiher of Zap2it also commented positively on the episode, noting Marilyn Manson 's role, saying he "was awesome as the voice of the Shadow -- super creepy and menacing. ''
Gwen Ihnat of The A.V. Club graded the episode a B, mostly directed at Jared S Gilmore 's performance in the episode: "Almost from the very beginning, Henry has been Once Upon A Time 's sore spot. Some blame has been aimed at poor Jared S. Gilmore 's acting abilities, but let 's face it, Olivier himself could n't carry what the Henry character has had to endure. ''
Liane Bonin Starr of HitFix gave the episode a mixed review, saying "Things are now at their darkest, but somehow this in - between episode was still frustrating. Rumple was dismissed too quickly, Wendy spat out some exposition and then receded into the background, and Henry 's bad decision did n't feel particularly well - played. I realize that Henry needed to commit fully to Pan, but I did n't feel Pan 's case was ever entirely convincing -- not for a kid who only recently found his "real '' parents. I guess Henry, being the good kid that he is, just wanted to do the right thing -- even as his parents had tiny heart attacks watching him do it. I bet he 's getting grounded when they all get back to Storybrooke! ''
Gwen Orel of the Wall Street Journal called Rumpelstiltskin 's subplot "by far the most unsettling backstory yet. ''
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when was the last time the sinabung volcano erupted | Mount Sinabung - wikipedia
Mount Sinabung (Indonesian: Gunung Sinabung, also Dolok Sinabung, Deleng Sinabung, Dolok Sinaboen, Dolok Sinaboeng and Sinabuna) is a Pleistocene - to - Holocene stratovolcano of andesite and dacite in the Karo plateau of Karo Regency, North Sumatra, Indonesia, 40 kilometres (25 mi) from the Lake Toba supervolcano. Many old lava flows are on its flanks and the last known eruption, before recent times, occurred in the year 1600. Solfataric activities (cracks where steam, gas, and lava are emitted) were last observed at the summit in 1912; recent documented events include an eruption in the early hours of 29 August 2010 and eruptions in September and November 2013, January, February and October 2014. A pyroclastic flow in May 2016 killed seven people. Between 2013 and 2014 the alert for a major event was increased with no significant activity. On 2 June 2015, the alert was again increased, and on 26 June 2015, at least 10,000 people were evacuated, fearing a major eruption. The long eruption of Mount Sinabung is similar to Mount Unzen in Japan, which erupted for five years after lying dormant for 200 years.
Mount Sinabung is a Pleistocene - to - Holocene stratovolcano. It is located in a relatively cool area on a fertile plateau with mountains bounding the north. The summit crater of the volcano has a complex, longer form due to vents migrating on the N-S line. The 2,460 meter high andesitic - to - dacitic volcano comes from the Sunda Arc, which is created by the subduction of the Indo - Australian Plate under the Eurasian Plate. The Andaman Islands are on the North - Northwest bound of the arc while the Banda Arc is on the East. Sinabung has a total of four volcanic craters, one of them being active currently.
Mount Sinabung erupted after a centuries - long hiatus in August 2010, and has been continuously active since September 2013. Total erupted volume from 2010 to the end of 2015 was estimated at 0.16 km3 Dense - rock equivalent.
On 29 August 2010, the volcano experienced a minor eruption after several days of rumbling. Ash spewed into the atmosphere up to 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) high and lava was seen overflowing the crater. The volcano had been inactive for over four centuries, with the most recent eruption occurring in 1600. On 31 August 6,000 of the 30,000 villagers who had been evacuated returned to their homes. The volcano was assigned to category "B '' In Indonesia, as it had been dormant for more than 400 years (volcanoes in category "A '', must be monitored frequently). The Indonesian Red Cross Society and the Health Ministry of Indonesia sent doctors and medicines to the region. The National Disaster Management Agency provided face masks and food to assist the evacuees.
On Friday 3 September, two more eruptions were noted. The first happened at 4: 45 a.m., forcing more villagers to leave their houses -- some of them had just returned the day before. This eruption was the most intense so far, with ash spewed up into the atmosphere about 3.0 kilometres (1.9 mi) high. Some hours before the eruption a warning had been issued through the volcanology agency, and most villagers were prepared to leave quickly. A second eruption occurred the same evening, around 6 p.m. The eruption came with earthquakes which could be noticed out to a 25.0 kilometres (15.5 mi) distance around the volcano
On Tuesday 7 September, Mount Sinabung erupted yet again, its biggest eruption yet since it had become active on 29 August 2010 and experts warned of more eruptions to come. Indonesia 's chief vulcanologist, Surono, said "It was the biggest eruption yet and the sound was heard from 8 kilometres away. The smoke was 5,000 metres in the air ''. Heavy rain mixed with the ash to form muddy coatings, a centimetre thick, on buildings and trees. Electricity in one village was cut off, but there were no casualties.
The Indonesian government was reported to have evacuated around 17,500 people from the region on and around the volcano. The government issued the highest - level warning for the area, which was expected to remain in force for around a week, since scientists were unfamiliar with the characteristics of the volcano, due to it having been dormant for so long. The government also set up kitchens for refugees to have access to food and handed out 7,000 masks. Over 10,000 people have been internally evacuated after the eruption, Secretary of the provincial administration, Edy Sofyan told Xinhua by phone. Spokesman of National Disaster Management Agency Priyadi Kardono said the eruption had not been predicted earlier like other volcanoes and that authorities must conduct a quick preparation for emergency work because Mount Sinabung 's seismic activity has been monitored intensively only since Friday after it showed an increase in activity. In the wake of the eruption, the National Disaster Management Agency (Badan Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana / BNPB), supported the roughly 27,489 displaced people by providing shelters. In addition, "BNPB has distributed 1,000 blankets, 1,000 sleeping mats and 500 family tents. The local government has allocated 50 tonnes of rice, 14,000 tins of fish, 1 water truck, 1,000 bottles of ketchup, 240 kg of instant noodles, 500 blankets, 50 family tents, 200 sleeping mats, oxygen bottles / tubes for emergency, and 5,000 packs of vitamin C and B6. ''
The towns nearest to the volcano are Kabanjahe and Berastagi. There were no disruptions reported to air services at the regional airport, Medan 's Polonia. One person was reported dead due to the eruption; he had respiratory problems while fleeing his home.
On Sunday 15 September 2013, the volcano erupted at around 3 a.m local time. More than 3,700 people were evacuated from areas within a 3 kilometre (2 mile) radius of the volcano, and five halls normally used for traditional cultural ceremonies were converted into shelters with at least 1,500 being temporarily housed.
The volcano erupted again on 5 November 2013, for the third time in as many months, forcing thousands of villagers to evacuate. The Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation advised villagers to keep a distance of at least 2 miles from the volcano, while 5,000 people were evacuated from North Sumatra Karo Regency. The eruption has affected the people living around the volcano in more than one way; crops died due to the ash fall leading to an economic change in the area. Sinabung is one of 34 active volcanoes in Sumatra, which straddles the "Pacific Ring of Fire ''. On 11 November 2013, a pyroclastic flow, a fast - moving avalanche of ash, lava fragments and air, was seen racing down the peak. Since the eruption, Mount Sinabung has been very active in terms of having explosions of ash up to 2 times a day.
By 28 December 2013 a lava dome had formed on the summit.
On 4 January 2014, the volcano erupted again. "Mount Sinabung, which has erupted over a hundred times between Jan. 4 through the morning of January 5 is spewing out a 4,000 metre (13,000 ft) high column of ash damaging property and crops and poisoning animals over a wide radius. ''
On 1 February 2014 a further eruption occurred that sent clouds of hot ash 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) into the air and engulfed nearby villages. Reports claim that at least 16 people died as a result of the eruption, which occurred just after residents living more than five kilometers from the mountain had been allowed to return home following a lack of recent volcanic activity. Among the dead were a local television journalist and four high - school students along with their teacher, who were visiting the mountain to see the eruptions up close. Seven of the victims were members of the Indonesian Christian Student Movement (GMKI), who died while trying to save local residents as pyroclastic flows swept across Mount Sinabung.
Eruptions continued in October 2014. On 5 October, four eruptions in the early hours of the morning were reported by the Badan Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana (BNPB). The first one produced an ash plume of up to 2 km in height and a pyroclastic flow of 4.5 km in a southerly direction.
The Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC) reported eruptions between 6 and 10 October, with some evacuations from surrounding villages. Further eruptions between 20 and 25 October have resulted in a meteorological cloud of ash obscuring some satellite observation. On 26 October the pyroclastic flow travelled 3.5 km and resulted in avalanches in the area.
Recent activity on Mount Sinabung has resulted in higher levels of tourism and sight - seeing in the area. The Tourism Agency of the Karo regency has officially proposed several locations to local government as potential tourist sites. Tours to different villages and viewing sites are already available in the area.
An eruption on 22 May 2016 killed at least seven people and critically injuring two more. Activity continued and ash plumes were observed throughout 2016.
Activity increased starting around April 2017, with a large ash eruption on 2 August 2017. Additional activity, including ash plumes, were observed over the next several months. The largest eruption of the year occurred during the last week of December and continued into early 2018.
A large eruption took place on 19 February 2018, producing a very tall eruption column. Indonesia 's National Disaster Mitigation Agency said there were no fatalities or injuries. The eruption blew off at least 1.6 million cubic meters of material from the mountain 's summit. Another eruption occurred almost two months later on 6 April 2018.
An ecosystem responds to volcanism in many different ways depending on the frequency, scale, and severity of the eruptions. Furthermore, it can be assumed that the pyroclastic flow of the eruption, whose temperature was estimated at 700 ° C (1,300 ° F) by Indonesian officials, killed much of the organic matter including plants and animals. As seen in the Mount St. Helens eruption, many insects would likely die due to the ash fall. This abrasion due to the ash causes quick desiccation. Although many insects may have survived from being in trees that were not torn down or deep in the ground, these insects may not live long after the event due to lack of resources. Many larger animals may not have been able to escape the flow in time. However, like at Mt. St. Helens, many of these animals could recover from pools of survivors and from migrations of other species.
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who representated of the british government for the negotiation of the malayan independence | Hari Merdeka - wikipedia
Hari Merdeka (Malaysian for ' Independence Day '), also known as Hari Kebangsaan (National day), refers to the day when the Federation of Malaya 's independence from the British Empire was officially declared. At exactly 09: 30 on 31 August 1957, the declaration was read by the first Chief Minister of Malaya, Tunku Abdul Rahman at the Merdeka Stadium in the presence of thousands of people including Malay Rulers, members of the federal government, and foreign dignitaries.
To commemorate the event, Hari Merdeka was declared a national holiday in Malaysia and observed annually on 31 August. The day should not be confused with Hari Malaysia (' Malaysia Day ') that commemorates the formation of Malaysia on 16 September 1963, when North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore federated with the existing states of the Federation of Malaya.
The effort for independence was spearheaded by Tunku Abdul Rahman, the first Prime Minister of Malaysia, who led a delegation of ministers and political leaders of Malaya in negotiations with the British in London for Merdeka, or independence along with the first president of the Malayan Chinese Association (MCA) Tun Dato Sir Tan Cheng Lock and fifth President of Malaysian Indian Congress Tun V.T. Sambanthan. Once it became clear that the Communist threat posed during the Malayan Emergency was petering out, agreement was reached on 8 February 1956, for Malaya to gain independence from the British Empire. However, logistical and administrative reasons led to the official proclamation of independence in the next year, on 31 August 1957, at Stadium Merdeka (Independence Stadium), in Kuala Lumpur, which was purposely built for the celebrations of national independence day. The announcement of the day was set months earlier by the Tunku in a Melaka meeting of the Alliance.
On the night of 30 August 1957, crowds gathered at the Merdeka Square (Padang) in Kuala Lumpur to witness the handover of power from the British. Prime Minister - designate Tunku Abdul Rahman arrived at 11: 58 p.m. and joined members of the Alliance Party 's youth divisions in observing two minutes of darkness. On the stroke of midnight, the lights were switched back on, and the Union Flag in the square was lowered. The new Flag of Malaya was raised as the national anthem Negaraku was played. This was followed by seven chants of "Merdeka '' by the crowd. Tunku Abdul Rahman later gave a speech hailing the ceremony as the "greatest moment in the life of the Malayan people ''. Before giving the address to the crowd, he was given a necklace by representatives of the Alliance Party youth in honour of this great occasion in history, with a map of Malaya inscribed on it. The event ended at one in the morning the next day.
On the morning of 31 August 1957, the festivities moved to the newly completed Merdeka Stadium. More than 20,000 people witnessed the ceremony, which began at 9: 30 a.m. Those in attendance included rulers of the Malay states, foreign dignitaries, members of the federal cabinet, and citizens. The Queen 's representative, the Duke of Gloucester presented Tunku Abdul Rahman with the instrument of independence. Tunku then proceeded to read the Proclamation of Independence, which culminated in the chanting of "Merdeka! '' seven times with the crowd joining in. The ceremony continued with the raising of the National Flag of Malaya accompanied by the national anthem being played by a military band and a 21 - gun salute, followed by an azan call and a thanksgiving prayer in honour of this great occasion.
The day followed with the solemn installation of the first Yang di - Pertuan Agong, Tuanku Abdul Rahman of Negeri Sembilan, at Jalan Ampang, and the first installation banquet in his honour in the evening followed by a beating retreat performance and a fireworks display. Sports events and other events marked the birth of the new nation.
The foreign guests of honour included:
The Federation of Malaysia, comprising the Federation of Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak and Singapore, was officially declared on 31 August 1963, on the 6th anniversary of Malayan independence. However, it was postponed to 16 September 1963, mainly due to Indonesian and the Philippines ' opposition to the formation of Malaysia. Nevertheless, North Borneo and Singapore declared sovereignty on 31 August 1963. Indonesian opposition later escalated to an military conflict. Indonesia considered Malaysia as a new form of colonisation on the provinces of Sarawak and North Borneo in the island of Borneo (bordering Kalimantan, Indonesia). However, they did not lay claim upon the two territories, unlike the Philippines ' claim on the eastern part of Sabah (rather than the whole of North Borneo). To assure Indonesia that Malaysia was not a form of neocolonialism, a general survey (instead of a referendum) was organised by the United Nations involving interviews of approximately 4,000 people, which received 2,200 memorandums from groups and private individuals. The Cobbold Commission, led by Lord Cobbold, was also formed to determine whether the people of North Borneo and Sarawak wished to join Malaysia. Their eventual findings, which indicated substantial support for Malaysia among the peoples of Sabah and Sarawak, cleared the way for the final proclamation of Malaysia.
The formation of the Federation of Malaysia was then announced on 16 September 1963, as Malaysia Day. The nationwide Independence Day celebration is still held on 31 August, the original independence date of Malaya, while Malaysia Day was a public holiday only in East Malaysia. However, this has caused some minor discontent among East Malaysians in particular, since it has been argued that celebrating the national day on 31 August is too Malaya - centric. In 2009, it was decided that starting 2010, Malaysia Day would be a nationwide public holiday in addition to Hari Merdeka on 31 August.
The 2012 theme proved to be controversial, as it was seen by many Malaysians to be a political slogan rather than a patriotic one (Janji Ditepati was Najib Razak 's campaign jingle in the run - up to the 2013 elections). The official "logo '' was also ridiculed for its unconventional design. A video of the theme song uploaded on YouTube (with lyrics penned by Rais Yatim) garnered an overwhelming number of "dislikes '' because of its overtly political content, which had nothing to do with the spirit of independence. The video has since been taken down.
Starting from 2015, as been stated by the Minister of Communication and Multimedia Ahmad Shabery Cheek, the Independence Day celebration is likely to be held without mentioning the number of years to prevent the people in Sabah and Sarawak from being isolated if the number of independence anniversaries was stated. However, the Minister of Land Development of Sarawak Tan Sri Datuk Amar Dr James Masing reminded that since 16 September had been declared as Malaysia Day, it should be the rallying point for the nation 's unity. He added "Everyone now knows that 31 August is Malaya 's and Sabah 's Independence Day... it 's not our (Sarawak) independence day. They can celebrate it both in Malaya and in Sabah as they have the same Independence Day date, and we can join them there if they invite us. We must right the wrong ''. Masing was commenting on Shabery Cheek 's recent proposal that Malaysia should continue to commemorate 31 August as its Independence Day, without mentioning the anniversary year.
Before 16 September, there was no Malaysia. Let everyone remember that. It 's on 16 September that the four independent countries namely Malaya, Singapore, Sarawak and North Borneo agreed to form Malaysia. And as everyone also knows, Singapore pulled out in 1965
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when is the sims mobile coming out in the uk | The Sims Mobile - Wikipedia
The Sims Mobile is a life simulation game based on The Sims 4 and The Sims FreePlay set for release on Android and iOS devices. It was announced on May 9, 2017 in a launch trailer. It is to feature multiplayer capabilities and will also include story elements.
The game is currently available in Australia, Ireland, Brazil and Spain. The game is supposed to be release worldwide by April 2018
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who was running for governor in new jersey | New Jersey gubernatorial Election, 2017 - wikipedia
Murphy
Guadagno
Chris Christie Republican
Phil Murphy Democratic
The New Jersey gubernatorial election of 2017 was held on November 7, 2017. There were seven candidates. Candidates for Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey run on the same ticket and thus are elected at the same time. Incumbent Republican Governor Chris Christie, who was re-elected to a second term in 2013, was term - limited and could not run for a third consecutive term.
Primary elections took place on June 6, 2017. Kim Guadagno, Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey, won the Republican primary. Woodcliff Lake Mayor Carlos Rendo was her running mate. Phil Murphy, banker and former U.S. Ambassador to Germany, won the Democratic primary. Former State Assembly Speaker Sheila Oliver was his running mate. Seth Kaper - Dale ran as the Green Party candidate; his running mate was Lisa Durden. Pete Rohrman ran as the Libertarian Party candidate; his running mate was Karrese Laguerre. Matt Riccardi ran as the Constitution Party candidate. There were two other independent candidates on the ballot.
Polls closed at 8 pm EST. Murphy won the election, receiving 56.0 % of the vote.
Primary elections took place on June 6, 2017. New Jersey utilizes a semi-closed primary system, meaning that only registered party members may vote in primary elections. However, unaffiliated voters can change their party registration and vote in either party primary on the day of the election.
The deadline to file petitions to qualify for primary elections was April 3, 2017. Eleven contenders submitted petitions which satisfied the minimum 1,000 signatures required. On April 18, 2017, as is required by the New Jersey Election Law Enforcement Commission, the candidates ' financial disclosures, showing the sources of earned income (such as salaries) and unearned income (such as investments), were made public.
Gubernatorial primary candidates utilized what is known as the "matching funds '' program. Those who raised at least $430,000 qualified to receive two dollars in public money for every dollar they raised privately. State law mandates that any primary candidates who qualify for matching funds must participate in at least two primary debates. Candidates who choose not to seek matching funds but commit to raising and spending at least $430,000 can also participate. As of May 8, 2017, in addition to contributions from New Jerseyeans, primary candidates had received donations from 10 other states.
The first debates were held on May 9 and were hosted by Stockton University. The Republicans were the first to debate followed by the Democrats. The debates were live - streamed on Facebook, the university 's website via Livestream and on News 12 New Jersey. The live stream was also simulcasted in Spanish. The second Democratic debate was held on May 11 while the second Republican debate took place on May 18. They were co-hosted by PBS Member network NJTV and NJ Spotlight.
The Republican debates included two of the five candidates: Jack Ciattarelli and Kim Guadagno, who both qualified for matching funds. Hirsh Singh filed a lawsuit to enter the debates, claiming to have raised over $900,000 despite missing a deadline to file. His challenge was rejected by the state courts.
The Democratic debates included four of the six candidates: Jim Johnson, John Wisniewski (who both qualified for matching funds), Phil Murphy (who opted out of the matching funds program and spent enough to qualify for the debates), and Raymond Lesniak (who did not raise enough to qualify for matching funds but loaned his campaign enough money to qualify for the debates).
Hypothetical polling
Hypothetical polling
Seven candidates were on the ballot in the November general election, the lowest number in a New Jersey gubernatorial contest since six ran in 1989.
The following candidates have qualified to appear in the state - sponsored debates:
The following third - party or independent candidates qualified for the ballot but did not raise enough money to qualify for state - sponsored debates:
Complete video of the first debate, October 10, 2017
Complete video of the second debate, October 18, 2017
Hypothetical polling
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who made the original document of constitution of india | Nandalal Bose - wikipedia
Nandalal Bose (Nondo - lal Boshū) (3 December 1882 -- 16 April 1966) was one of the pioneers of modern Indian art and a key figure of Contextual Modernism.
A pupil of Abanindranath Tagore, Bose was known for his "Indian style '' of painting. He became the principal of Kala Bhavan, Santiniketan in 1922. He was influenced by the Tagore family and the murals of Ajanta; his classic works include paintings of scenes from Indian mythologies, women, and village life.
Today, many critics consider his paintings among India 's most important modern paintings. In 1976, the Archaeological Survey of India, Department of Culture, Govt. of India declared his works among the "nine artists '' whose work, "not being antiquities '', were to be henceforth considered "to be art treasures, having regard to their artistic and aesthetic value ''.
He was given the work of illustrating the constitution of India
Nandalal was born on 3 December 1882 in a middle - class Bengali family of Kharagpur, in, Munger district of Bihar state. His father, Purnachandra Bose, was at that time working in the Darbhanga Estate. His mother Kshetramonidevi was a housewife with a skill in improvising toys and dolls for young Nandalal. From his early days Nandalal began taking an interest in modelling images and later, decorating Puja pandals.
In 1898, at the age of fifteen, Nandalal moved to Calcutta for his high school studies in the Central Collegiate School. After clearing his examinations in 1902, he continued his college studies at the same institution. In June 1903 he married Sudhiradevi, the daughter of a family friend. Nanadalal wanted to study art, but he was not given permission by his family. Unable to qualify for promotion in his classes, Nandalal moved to other colleges, joining the Presidency College in 1905 to study commerce. After repeated failures, he persuaded his family to let him study art at Calcutta 's School of Art.
As a young artist, Nandalal Bose was deeply influenced by the murals of the Ajanta Caves. He had become part of an international circle of artists and writers seeking to revive classical Indian culture; a circle that already included Okakura Kakuzō, William Rothenstein, Yokoyama Taikan, Christiana Herringham, Laurence Binyon, Abanindranath Tagore, and the seminal London Modernist sculptors Eric Gill and Jacob Epstein.
To mark the 1930 occasion of Mahatma Gandhi 's arrest for protesting the British tax on salt, Bose created a black on white linocut print of Gandhi walking with a staff. It became the iconic image for the non-violence movement.
His genius and original style were recognised by famous artists and art critics like Gaganendranath Tagore, Ananda Coomaraswamy and O.C. Ganguli. These lovers of art felt that objective criticism was necessary for the development of painting and founded the Indian Society of Oriental Art.
He became principal of the Kala Bhavana (College of Arts) at Tagore 's International University Santiniketan in 1922.
He was also famously asked by Jawaharlal Nehru to sketch the emblems for the Government of India 's awards, including the Bharat Ratna and the Padma Shri. Along with his students, Nandalal Bose took up the historic task of beautifying / decorating the original manuscript of the Constitution of India.
He died on 16 April 1966 in Calcutta.
Today, the National Gallery of Modern Art in Delhi holds 7000 of his works in its collection, including a 1930 black and white linocut of the Dandi March depicting Mahatma Gandhi, and a set of seven posters he later made at the request of Mahatma Gandhi for the 1938 Haripura Session of the Indian National Congress.
In his introduction for the Christie 's catalogue, R. Siva Kumar wrote -
Nandalal Bose (1882 -- 1966) occupies a place in the history of Modern Indian art that combines those of Raphael and Durer in the history of the Renaissance. Like Raphael Nandalal was a great synthesizer, his originality lay in his ability to marshal discrete ideas drawn from Abanindranath Tagore, Rabindranath Tagore, E.B. Havell, Ananda Coomaraswamy, Okakura Kakuzo and Mahatma Gandhi into a unique and unified programme for the creation of a new art movement in India. And like Durer he combined a passion bordering on devotion with an irrepressible analytical mind that compelled him to prise open different art traditions and unravel their syntactic logic, and make them accessible to a new generation of Indian artists. But he did this so quietly and without self - assertive fanfare that the significance of his work is yet to be fully grasped even in India.
Some of his students were Benode Behari Mukherjee, Ramkinkar Baij, Beohar Rammanohar Sinha, K.G. Subramanyan, A. Ramachandran, Henry Dharmasena, Pratima Thakur, Ramananda Bandopadhyay, Sovon Som, Jahar Dasgupta, Sabita Thakur, Menaja Swagnesh, Yash Bombbut, Satyajit Ray, Dinkar K Kowshik and Kondapalli Seshagiri Rao.
Also A.D. Jayathilake was one of his student from Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and had the opportunity to study under Dr. Nandalal Bose in the final batch (1948 - 1952). Dr. Nandalal Bose 's uniquely drawn two paintings; "Arjuna Tree '' and "Mango trees '' are currently with his Sri Lankan Student (A.D. Jaythilake).
In 1956, he became the second artist to be elected Fellow of the Lalit Kala Akademi, India 's National Academy of Art. In 1954, Nandalal Bose was awarded the Padma Vibhushan.
In 1957, the University of Calcutta conferred honorary D. Litt on him. Vishvabharati University honoured him by conferring on him the title of ' Deshikottama '.
The Academy of Fine Arts in Calcutta honoured Nandalal with the Silver Jubilee Medal. The Tagore Birth Centenary Medal was awarded to Nandalal Bose in 1965 by the Asiatic Society of Bengal.
Media related to Nandalal Bose at Wikimedia Commons
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is it legal to bump cars in nascar | Bump and run (AUTO racing) - wikipedia
Bump and run is a technique for passing used in stock car racing, related to the police PIT maneuver. Bump and run is never intentionally used in open - wheel racing due to the extremely high speeds and relative fragility of open - wheel race cars.
A trailing car intentionally bumps the car in front of it. The bump sometimes causes the lead car 's rear tires to momentarily lose traction. The driver of the lead car is forced to correct his steering, slow down, or at least stop accelerating to regain traction and / or car attitude. The trailing driver positions to pass the leading car before the next corner. Bump and run is often done after coming off a corner. It is much more dangerous when done in the middle of a corner because both cars are already loose.
A gentle tap is what is required most of the time. A stronger bump might result in the lead and / or the trailing car spinning out of control, and possibly leading to a multi-car crash.
NASCAR 's newly redesigned car (dubbed the Car of Tomorrow) is expected to hinder the effect of bump and run. The rear bumpers on the cars have been lowered, while the front bumper has been raised. In this configuration, when a trailing car hits a car in the back, the contact is square, and the leading cars rear wheels are not lifted off the track.
Matt Crossman (April 1, 2007). "The art of the bump and run ''. Sporting News. Retrieved 2007 - 04 - 29.
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who believed that the engine of human history is class conflict | Class conflict - wikipedia
Class conflict, frequently referred to as class warfare or class struggle, is the tension or antagonism which exists in society due to competing socioeconomic interests and desires between people of different classes. The view that the class struggle provides the lever for radical social change for the majority is central to the work of Karl Marx and the anarchist Mikhail Bakunin.
Class conflict can take many different forms: direct violence, such as wars fought for resources and cheap labor; indirect violence, such as deaths from poverty, starvation, illness or unsafe working conditions; coercion, such as the threat of losing a job or the pulling of an important investment; or ideologically, such as with books and articles. Additionally, political forms of class conflict exist; legally or illegally lobbying or bribing government leaders for passage of desirable partisan legislation including labor laws, tax codes, consumer laws, acts of congress or other sanction, injunction or tariff. The conflict can be direct, as with a lockout aimed at destroying a labor union, or indirect, as with an informal slowdown in production protesting low wages by workers or unfair labor practices by capital.
In the past the term Class conflict was a term used mostly by socialists, who define a class by its relationship to the means of production -- such as factories, land and machinery. From this point of view, the social control of production and labor is a contest between classes, and the division of these resources necessarily involves conflict and inflicts harm. It can involve ongoing low - level clashes, escalate into massive confrontations, and in some cases, lead to the overall defeat of one of the contending classes. However, in more contemporary times this term is striking chords and finding new definition amongst capitalistic societies in the United States and other Westernized countries.
The anarchist Mikhail Bakunin argued that the class struggle of the working class, peasantry and poor had the potential to lead to a social revolution involving the overthrow of ruling elites, and the creation of libertarian socialism. This was only a potential, and class struggle was, he argued, not always the only or decisive factor in society, but it was central. By contrast, Marxists argue that class conflict always plays the decisive and pivotal role in the history of class - based hierarchical systems such as capitalism and feudalism. Marxists refer to its overt manifestations as class war, a struggle whose resolution in favor of the working class is viewed by them as inevitable under plutocratic capitalism.
Where societies are socially divided based on status, wealth, or control of social production and distribution, class structures arise and are thus coeval with civilization itself. It is well documented since at least European Classical Antiquity (Conflict of the Orders, Spartacus, etc.) and the various popular uprisings in late medieval Europe and elsewhere.
One of the earliest analysis of these conflicts is Friedrich Engels ' The Peasant War in Germany. One of the earliest analyses of the development of class as the development of conflicts between emergent classes is available in Peter Kropotkin 's Mutual Aid. In this work, Kropotkin analyzes the disposal of goods after death in pre-class or hunter - gatherer societies, and how inheritance produces early class divisions and conflict.
Billionaire and friend to Warren Buffett, George Soros addresses the pejorative use of the term by the conservative - right by stating, "Speaking as a person who would be most hurt by this, I think my fellow hedge fund managers call this class warfare because they do n't like to pay more taxes. ''
Bill Moyers, for example, gave a speech at Brennan Center for Justice in December 2013 which was titled "The Great American Class War, '' referring to the current struggle between democracy and plutocracy in the U.S. Chris Hedges wrote a column for Truthdig called "Let 's Get This Class War Started, '' which was a play on Pink 's song "Let 's Get This Party Started. ''
Historian Steve Fraser, author of The Age of Acquiescence: The Life and Death of American Resistance to Organized Wealth and Power, asserts that class conflict is an inevitability if current political and economic conditions continue, noting that "people are increasingly fed up... their voices are not being heard. And I think that can only go on for so long without there being more and more outbreaks of what used to be called class struggle, class warfare. ''
The typical example of class conflict described is class conflict within capitalism. This class conflict is seen to occur primarily between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, and takes the form of conflict over hours of work, value of wages, division of profits, cost of consumer goods, the culture at work, control over parliament or bureaucracy, and economic inequality. The particular implementation of government programs which may seem purely humanitarian, such as disaster relief, can actually be a form of class conflict. In the USA class conflict is often noted in labor / management disputes. As far back as 1933 representative Edward Hamilton of ALPA, the Airline Pilot 's Association, used the term "class warfare '' to describe airline management 's opposition at the National Labor Board hearings in October of that year. Apart from these day - to - day forms of class conflict, during periods of crisis or revolution class conflict takes on a violent nature and involves repression, assault, restriction of civil liberties, and murderous violence such as assassinations or death squads. (Zinn, People 's History)
Although Thomas Jefferson (1743 -- 1826) led the United States as president from 1801 -- 1809 and is considered one of the founding fathers, he died with immense amounts of debt. Regarding the interaction between social classes, he wrote,
I am convinced that those societies (as the Indians) which live without government enjoy in their general mass an infinitely greater degree of happiness than those who live under the European governments. Among the former, public opinion is in the place of law, & restrains morals as powerfully as laws ever did anywhere. Among the latter, under pretence of governing they have divided their nations into two classes, wolves & sheep. I do not exaggerate. This is a true picture of Europe. Cherish therefore the spirit of our people, and keep alive their attention. Do not be too severe upon their errors, but reclaim them by enlightening them. If once they become inattentive to the public affairs, you & I, & Congress & Assemblies, judges & governors shall all become wolves. It seems to be the law of our general nature, in spite of individual exceptions; and experience declares that man is the only animal which devours his own kind, for I can apply no milder term to the governments of Europe, and to the general prey of the rich on the poor.
The investor, and billionaire, and philanthropist Warren Buffett, one of the 10 wealthiest persons in the world, voiced in 2005 and once more in 2006 his view that his class -- the "rich class '' -- is waging class warfare on the rest of society. In 2005 Buffet said to CNN: "It 's class warfare, my class is winning, but they should n't be. '' In a November 2006 interview in The New York Times, Buffett stated that "(t) here 's class warfare all right, but it 's my class, the rich class, that 's making war, and we 're winning. '' Later Warren gave away more than half of his fortune to charitable causes through a program developed by himself and computer software tycoon Bill Gates. In 2011 Buffett called on government legislators to, "... stop coddling the super rich. ''
Noam Chomsky, American linguist, philosopher, and political activist has criticized class war in the United States:
Well, there 's always a class war going on. The United States, to an unusual extent, is a business - run society, more so than others. The business classes are very class - conscious -- they 're constantly fighting a bitter class war to improve their power and diminish opposition. Occasionally this is recognized... The enormous benefits given to the very wealthy, the privileges for the very wealthy here, are way beyond those of other comparable societies and are part of the ongoing class war. Take a look at CEO salaries...
-- Noam Chomsky in OCCUPY: Class War, Rebellion and Solidarity, Second Edition (November 5, 2013)
Max Weber (1864 -- 1920) agrees with the fundamental ideas of Karl Marx about the economy causing class conflict, but claims that class conflict can also stem from prestige and power. Weber argues that classes come from the different property locations. Different locations can largely affect one 's class by their education and the people they associate with. He also states that prestige results in different status groupings. This prestige is based upon the social status of one 's parents. Prestige is an attributed value and many times can not be changed. Weber states that power differences led to the formation of political parties. Weber disagrees with Marx about the formation of classes. While Marx believes that groups are similar due to their economic status, Weber argues that classes are largely formed by social status. Weber does not believe that communities are formed by economic standing, but by similar social prestige. Weber does recognize that there is a relationship between social status, social prestige and classes.
Numerous factors have culminated in what 's known as the Arab Spring. Agenda behind the civil unrest, and the ultimate overthrow of authoritarian governments throughout the Middle - East included issues such as dictatorship or absolute monarchy, human rights violations, government corruption (demonstrated by Wikileaks diplomatic cables), economic decline, unemployment, extreme poverty, and a number of demographic structural factors, such as a large percentage of educated but dissatisfied youth within the population. Also, some, like Slovenian philosopher Slavoj Žižek attribute the 2009 Iranian protests as one of the reasons behind the Arab Spring. The catalysts for the revolts in all Northern African and Persian Gulf countries have been the concentration of wealth in the hands of autocrats in power for decades, insufficient transparency of its redistribution, corruption, and especially the refusal of the youth to accept the status quo. as they involve threats to food security worldwide and prices that approach levels of the 2007 -- 2008 world food price crisis. Amnesty International singled out Wikileaks ' release of US diplomatic cables as a catalyst for the revolts.
Karl Marx (1818 -- 1883) was a German born philosopher who lived the majority of his adult life in London, England. In The Communist Manifesto, Karl Marx argued that a class is formed when its members achieve class consciousness and solidarity. This largely happens when the members of a class become aware of their exploitation and the conflict with another class. A class will then realize their shared interests and a common identity. According to Marx, a class will then take action against those that are exploiting the lower classes.
What Marx points out is that members of each of the two main classes have interests in common. These class or collective interests are in conflict with those of the other class as a whole. This in turn leads to conflict between individual members of different classes.
Marxist analysis of society identifies two main social groups:
Not all class struggle is violent or necessarily radical, as with strikes and lockouts. Class antagonism may instead be expressed as low worker morale, minor sabotage and pilferage, and individual workers ' abuse of petty authority and hoarding of information. It may also be expressed on a larger scale by support for socialist or populist parties. On the employers ' side, the use of union busting legal firms and the lobbying for anti-union laws are forms of class struggle.
Not all class struggle is a threat to capitalism, or even to the authority of an individual capitalist. A narrow struggle for higher wages by a small sector of the working - class, what is often called "economism '', hardly threatens the status quo. In fact, by applying the craft - union tactics of excluding other workers from skilled trades, an economistic struggle may even weaken the working class as a whole by dividing it. Class struggle becomes more important in the historical process as it becomes more general, as industries are organized rather than crafts, as workers ' class consciousness rises, and as they self - organize away from political parties. Marx referred to this as the progress of the proletariat from being a class "in itself '', a position in the social structure, to being one "for itself '', an active and conscious force that could change the world.
Marx largely focuses on the capital industrialist society as the source of social stratification, which ultimately results in class conflict. He states that capitalism creates a division between classes which can largely be seen in manufacturing factories. The proletariat, is separated from the bourgeoisie because production becomes a social enterprise. Contributing to their separation is the technology that is in factories. Technology de-skills and alienates workers as they are no longer viewed as having a specialized skill. Another effect of technology is a homogenous workforce that can be easily replaceable. Marx believed that this class conflict would result in the overthrow of the bourgeoisie and that the private property would be communally owned. The mode of production would remain, but communal ownership would eliminate class conflict.
Even after a revolution, the two classes would struggle, but eventually the struggle would recede and the classes dissolve. As class boundaries broke down, the state apparatus would wither away. According to Marx, the main task of any state apparatus is to uphold the power of the ruling class; but without any classes there would be no need for a state. That would lead to the classless, stateless communist society.
A variety of predominantly trotskyist and anarchist thinkers argue that class conflict existed in Soviet - style societies. Their arguments describe as a class the bureaucratic stratum formed by the ruling political party (known as the Nomenklatura in the Soviet Union) -- sometimes termed a "new class ''. -- that controls and guides the means of production. This ruling class is viewed to be in opposition to the remainder of society, generally considered the proletariat. This type of system is referred by them as state socialism, state capitalism, bureaucratic collectivism or new class societies. (Cliff; Ðilas 1957) Marxism was such a predominate ideological power in what became the Soviet Union since a Marxist group known as the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party was formed in the country, prior to 1917. This party soon divided into two main factions; the Bolsheviks, who were led by Vladimir Lenin, and the Mensheviks, who were led by Julius Martov.
However many Marxist argue that unlike in Capitalism, the Soviet elites did n't own the Means of production, or generated surplus value for their personal wealth like in capitalism, as the generated profit from the economy was equally distributed into Soviet society. Even some trotskyist like Ernest Mandel criticized the concept of a new ruling class as an oxymoron. He said: "The hypothesis of the bureaucracy 's being a new ruling class leads to the conclusion that, for the first time in history, we are confronted with a "ruling class '' which does not exist as a class before it actually rules. ''
Social commentators, historians and socialist theorists had commented on class struggle for some time before Marx, as well as the connection between class struggle, property, and law: Augustin Thierry, François Guizot, François - Auguste Mignet and Adolphe Thiers. The Physiocrats, David Ricardo, and after Marx, Henry George noted the inelastic supply of land and argued that this created certain privileges (economic rent) for landowners. According to the historian Arnold Toynbee, stratification along lines of class appears only within civilizations, and furthermore only appears during the process of a civilization 's decline while not characterizing the growth phase of a civilization.
Proudhon, in What is Property? (1840) states that "certain classes do not relish investigation into the pretended titles to property, and its fabulous and perhaps scandalous history. '' While Proudhon saw the solution as the lower classes forming an alternative, solidarity economy centered on cooperatives and self - managed workplaces, which would slowly undermine and replace capitalist class society, the anarchist Mikhail Bakunin while influenced by Proudhon, insisted that a massive class struggle, by the working class, peasantry and poor, was essential to the creation of libertarian socialism. This would require a (final) showdown in the form of a social revolution.
Fascists have often opposed class struggle and instead have attempted to appeal to the working class while promising to preserve the existing social classes and have proposed an alternative concept known as class collaboration.
Consistent with its internationalist perspective, Orthodox Marxism, and most left tendencies, reject racism, sexism, etc. as struggles within the capitalist order which are distractions from class struggle, the real conflict, which prevent the purported antagonists from acting in their common class interest.
According to Michel Foucault, in the 19th century the essentialist notion of the "race '' was incorporated by racists, biologists, and eugenicists, who gave it the modern sense of "biological race '' which was then integrated to "state racism ''. On the other hand, Foucault claims that when Marxists developed their concept of "class struggle '', they were partly inspired by the older, non-biological notions of the "race '' and the "race struggle ''. In a letter to Friedrich Engels in 1882 Karl Marx wrote: You know very well where we found our idea of class struggle; we found it in the work of the French historians who talked about the race struggle. For Foucault, the theme of social war provides the overriding principle that connects class and race struggle.
Moses Hess, an important theoretician and labor zionist of the early socialist movement, in his "Epilogue '' to "Rome and Jerusalem '' argued that "the race struggle is primary, the class struggle secondary... With the cessation of race antagonism, the class struggle will also come to a standstill. The equalization of all classes of society will necessarily follow the emancipation of all the races, for it will ultimately become a scientific question of social economics. ''
In modern times, emerging schools of thought in the U.S. and other countries hold the opposite to be true. They argue that the race struggle is less important, because the primary struggle is that of class since labor of all races face the same problems and injustices.
Riots with a basically nationalist background are not included.
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metal gear solid 5 when does it take place | Metal Gear Solid V: the Phantom Pain - wikipedia
Metal Gear Solid V: The Phantom Pain is an action - adventure stealth game developed by Kojima Productions and published by Konami. It was released worldwide for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Xbox 360 and Xbox One on September 1, 2015. It is the ninth installment in the series that was directed, written and designed by Hideo Kojima following Metal Gear Solid V: Ground Zeroes, a stand - alone prologue released the previous year, as well as his final work at Konami.
Set in 1984, nine years after the events of Ground Zeroes and a decade before the events of the original Metal Gear, the story follows mercenary leader Punished "Venom '' Snake as he ventures into Soviet - occupied Afghanistan and the Angola -- Zaire border region to exact revenge on the people who destroyed his forces and came close to killing him during the climax of Ground Zeroes. It carries over the tagline of Tactical Espionage Operations first used in Metal Gear Solid: Peace Walker.
The Phantom Pain was critically acclaimed upon release, with its gameplay drawing praise for featuring a variety of mechanics and interconnected systems which allow a high degree of player freedom in approaching objectives. While the story was acknowledged for its emotional power and exploration of mature themes, it drew criticism from some critics for its lack of focus, with further scrutiny over its second half and ending that left several plot points unresolved; this was linked to conclusive evidence of removed content, which led some to suggest that the game was released unfinished. Despite this, The Phantom Pain received perfect review scores from several publications and was described by many critics to be the greatest stealth game of all time. A complete edition that bundles The Phantom Pain and Ground Zeroes together, titled Metal Gear Solid V: The Definitive Experience, was released in October 2016.
Metal Gear Solid V: The Phantom Pain is an action - adventure, stealth game in which players take the role of Punished "Venom '' Snake from a third - person perspective in an open world environment. The gameplay elements were largely unchanged from Ground Zeroes, meaning that players will have to sneak from several points in the game world, avoiding enemy guards, and remaining undetected. Included in Snake 's repertoire are binoculars, maps, a variety of weapons, explosives, and stealth - based items such as cardboard boxes and decoys. Following one of the series traditions, The Phantom Pain encourages players to progress through the game without killing, using non-lethal weapons such as tranquilizer darts to subdue enemies. Players may traverse the game world with vehicles such as jeeps and tanks, in addition to traveling on foot or on horseback, and as certain locations are mountainous, occasionally, players can opt to go rock climbing as a shortcut. They may call for helicopter support against enemy soldiers or request airstrikes that can bomb the target area or change the current weather. Snake can call on AI companions -- including Quiet, a silent female sniper with supernatural abilities; D - Horse, a horse with a customizable saddle for carrying more equipment in the field; D - Walker, a manned, highly agile mobile weapons platform that can provide heavy weapons support; and D - Dog, a wolf pup raised and trained on the new Mother Base to assist him in the field. The companions ' abilities and their effectiveness will depend on the player 's relationship with them. There is a large emphasis based on tactics in The Phantom Pain.
As in Peace Walker, The Phantom Pain features a base - building system that allows players to develop weapons and items from their home base. Recruitment of enemy soldiers and prisoners has also returned for this purpose, allowing the base to grow through organization. The player is given the option to access their base from their real - life smartphones and other devices via a companion app. Unlike in Peace Walker where players can only see Mother Base from the air, they can control Snake as he explores the complex on foot. The Fulton surface - to - air recovery system, an item introduced into gameplay in Peace Walker, returns as well, with players able to transport captured soldiers and other objects such as animals and vehicles back to Mother Base. Money for upgrading Mother Base 's defenses and technology can be collected from objects found all over the map, such as diamonds, shipping containers, and special blueprint boxes, as well as sending recruited soldiers on combat missions around the world. The income is invested in upgrades to the appearance and abilities, weapons and equipment of Snake, his AI companions, and vehicles. For example, Snake 's prosthetic arm can be modified with a taser, echolocation function, or remote controls that allow it to fly as a drone.
The enemy AI has improved in terms of situational awareness. If players frequently use particular weapons or tactics to subdue enemy soldiers, repeats of the mission will see the enemy increase in numbers and be outfitted with better equipment; for example, the frequent use of headshots will see enemy soldiers don metal helmets to make targeting the head harder.
The game has a dynamic weather system and day - night cycle that runs in real - time. The cycle is able to be fast - forwarded when Snake lights a "Phantom Cigar '', a type of electronic cigar; a digital silver Seiko watch panel appears on screen to denote time. The passage of time enables players to analyze the movement of marked enemy forces in the area, such as shifts in sentry patrols and individual patrol routes. Weather effects, such as sandstorms and rain, affects the gameplay environment by reducing visibility or masking the sound of footsteps.
A game design direction allows the player to choose in what order the story events take place by selecting missions in any order they like, and yet still "understand the encompassing message by the end ''.
Kojima spoke about the restrictive nature of previous Metal Gear Solid titles, saying that they "set (the player) on one rail to get from point A to point B, with a certain amount of freedom between ''. In stark contrast, The Phantom Pain offers players new ways of traversal and sneaking methods, such as taking a motorcycle, plane or helicopter to the mission area (however, usage of the former two vehicles was later dropped during development). Players are able to traverse the game world or deploy directly to landing zones that allow for different approaches. A video published after the E3 2015 convention showcased this, with the same mission played four times in a number of different ways: with the player opting for stealth, launching a direct assault via helicopter gunship, attempting to assassinate a target with a sniper rifle, and smuggling an explosive device into an enemy base by way of an unsuspecting patrol vehicle crew. The player 's actions affect the wider game world; for example, sabotaging a radar installation will open up new entry points, which was in order for Kojima to accomplish a "true open world experience ''. According to Famitsu, Konami confirmed that the playable world in The Phantom Pain is two hundred times larger than that of Ground Zeroes, featuring a variety of climate conditions and environments. This allows the players to freely roam the map while proceeding to either story missions or sidequests, as in other games with nonlinear gameplay. In addition, players who have previously played Ground Zeroes are able to import save data into The Phantom Pain and gain special perks.
Metal Gear Solid V: The Phantom Pain includes two multiplayer modes: first, the new Metal Gear Online, developed by Kojima Productions ' newly formed Los Angeles division (now known as Konami Los Angeles Studio). The first footage for multiplayer was revealed in December 2014. While originally set for launch alongside the release of The Phantom Pain, Metal Gear Online was postponed to October 6 for consoles and January 2016 for Microsoft Windows.
The second multiplayer mode is an extension of the Mother Base base - building feature. Players are able to expand their operations to include "Forward Operating Bases '' which can be used to generate resources and income for the single - player campaign. These facilities can be attacked by other players, making a player - versus - player mode available whereby the attacking team attempts to steal resources and / or soldiers and the defending team tries to protect the Forward Operating Base from the intruder. Defenders will be able to call on their friends to aid in the defense, especially if their Forward Operating Base is attacked during a story mission. Players are able to customize the security, staffing, and layout of their Forward Operating Bases, allowing for a large number of compound configurations. Following the success or failure of the intrusion, the location of the attacking player 's Forward Operating Base is revealed to the defending player; however, defending players can only launch a retaliatory strike if the attacker was discovered during their infiltration. The Forward Operating Base feature is intended to be an entirely separate multiplayer experience to Metal Gear Online and is also needed to increase the number of combat units the player can deploy.
During development, Kojima Productions and Konami attracted criticism for their decision to include microtransactions; a system that allows players to pay for access to content in the game. However, a spokesperson for Kojima Productions confirmed that the system was included to benefit players who may not have the time to complete the game, given its scale, and that no content would be available exclusively through microtransactions. Further controversy emerged following the publication of an early review claiming that the Forward Operating Base mode was behind a paywall, which Konami refuted saying that microtransactions acted as an accelerator rather than a paywall.
In the aftermath of the events of Ground Zeroes and the destruction of Militaires Sans Frontières (commonly abbreviated as MSF), Big Boss (Kiefer Sutherland / Akio Ōtsuka) falls into a coma. Nine years later, he awakens and helps lead a new mercenary group, Diamond Dogs. Adopting the codename "Venom Snake '', he ventures into Afghanistan during the Soviet - Afghan War and the Angola -- Zaire border region during the Angolan Civil War to track down the men responsible for MSF 's destruction. Along the way, he becomes reacquainted with his former rival Ocelot (Troy Baker / Satoshi Mikami) and encounters Quiet (Stefanie Joosten), an assassin and sniper with supernatural abilities. While he and Kazuhira Miller (Robin Atkin Downes / Tomokazu Sugita) are initially driven to exact revenge, Snake soon unearths a plot by the Patriots organization to develop a new model of the Metal Gear system known as the ST - 84 "Sahelanthropus ''.
In contrast to previous Metal Gear installments, Kojima Productions conducted the voice acting and motion capture with English - speaking actors and stuntmen first. While facial capturing was used before for Metal Gear Solid 4, it was done separately from the actual voice acting. The Japanese voice acting was dubbed over the English cast 's performance afterward, in contrast to previous releases in the series since Metal Gear Solid 2, which had the characters ' vocal and facial expressions lip - synched specifically to both, Japanese and English voice acting.
Hideo Kojima
At E3 2013, Konami confirmed that actor Kiefer Sutherland would provide Snake 's voice and motion capture work for the game, taking a role over voice actor David Hayter. Kojima 's reason for replacing Hayter was to "have a more subdued performance expressed through subtle facial movements and tone of voice rather than words '', and that he "needed someone who could genuinely convey both the facial and vocal qualities of a man in his late 40s ''. Hollywood producer and director Avi Arad suggested to Kojima that Sutherland could fulfill his requirements. Akio Ōtsuka was unaffected by this casting change and continued to voice Snake in the Japanese version. On March 4, 2015, Kojima revealed that Snake would have less dialogue in The Phantom Pain than previous installments. The reasoning behind it was to make Snake come across as an extension to the player and that he "will act based on (player 's actions) rather than doing things like making spontaneous comments or flirting with women. ''
Other members of the voice cast include Troy Baker as Ocelot, Jay Tavare as Code Talker, James Horan as Skull Face, Robin Atkin Downes as Kazuhira Miller, Christopher Randolph as Dr. Emmerich and Piers Stubbs as Eli. The Japanese dub features Tomokazu Sugita as Miller, Hideyuki Tanaka as Emmerich, Takaya Hashi as Skull Face, Satoshi Mikami as Ocelot, Osamu Saka (whose previous roles include Sergei Gurlukovich in Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty and The End in Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater) as Code Talker, and Yūtarō Honjō as Eli. Dutch - born model Stefanie Joosten provides the likeness, voice and motion capture for the new heroine Quiet, a mute sniper with supernatural abilities who may assist Snake on missions depending on the player 's actions during a certain mission. She also provides the vocals for "Quiet 's Theme ''.
In 1984, nine years after the events of Metal Gear Solid V: Ground Zeroes, Big Boss awakens from a coma in a hospital in Cyprus. Quiet, a Cipher assassin, tries to kill him, but Big Boss is rescued by a heavily bandaged man called Ishmael. The pair escapes the hospital while evading pursuit from Cipher 's soldiers and two superhumans, Tretij Rebenok, the "Third Child '' and the "Man on Fire ''. Although Big Boss loses sight of Ishmael, he is recovered by his ally Revolver Ocelot and brought aboard Diamond Dogs, a new mercenary group founded by Kazuhira Miller on an offshore platform near Seychelles.
Big Boss adopts the code name "Venom Snake '' and begins searching for Cipher. During his journey, Snake becomes involved in the Soviet - Afghan and the Angolan Civil Wars, and he recruits Quiet, who no longer speaks and has gained superhuman abilities; scientist Dr. Huey Emmerich; Eli, a British child believed to be a clone of Snake, who leads a band of child soldiers; and Code Talker, a Navajo expert on parasites forced to work for Cipher.
Snake learns that Cipher 's leader Major Zero was usurped and XOF, a rogue faction of Cipher, was responsible for destroying MSF. XOF 's leader Skull Face considers Cipher 's plan to unite the world for peace as the same as making it culturally American, obliterating other cultures. To avoid this, he intends to release a unique parasite that kills anyone who speaks English. A modified parasite was used to give Quiet and Skull Face 's elite soldiers, the Skulls, their unusual abilities. After releasing the English strain parasite, Skull Face plans to make nuclear weapons available to as many groups as he can, believing that nuclear deterrence will stop the weapons actually being used, attaining world peace while still protecting the integrity of each culture. However, he will secretly retain remote control of the weapons. Skull Face intends to use the threat of the latest Metal Gear system, known as ST - 84 "Sahelanthropus '', to make nuclear weapons desirable again, but as he can not get it to function, he is dependent on the Third Child 's psychic abilities to manipulate it.
During a test, the Third Child turns against Skull Face, having Sahelanthropus seriously wound him and crush the Man on Fire. Although Snake defeats the Metal Gear, he is only able to recover one of Skull Face 's three parasite vials; one goes missing and the other is taken by the Third Child and given to Eli. Skull Face is left to die by Snake and Miller but Huey executes him. The Diamond Dogs return to their base with Sahelanthropus. Following their return, Eli, the Third Child, and the child soldiers steal Sahelanthropus and flee the base. It transpires that the Third Child was not consciously working for Skull Face, but his psychic powers enthralled him to the will of the most vengeful person nearby, meaning Sahelanthropus 's attack was instigated by Eli.
An epidemic of parasites occurs on base forcing Snake to personally kill many of his own men to contain it. To honor them, he has their cremated remains turned into diamonds to carry into battle. Huey is accused of causing the epidemic while attempting to mutate the parasites to sell as weapons. Alongside suspicion of his role in MSF 's destruction, and evidence that he murdered his wife Dr. Strangelove while arguing over using their son in experiments, Snake exiles him from Diamond Dogs. Following this event, Quiet disappears in Afghanistan. Code Talker reveals that Quiet was infected with the English strain parasite with the intention of joining Diamond Dogs in order to spread it, but her allegiance shifted to Snake and so she remained silent to prevent an outbreak. Huey 's mutation of the parasite convinced Quiet that she could not guarantee the safety of Diamond Dogs. Snake finds her and helps her fight an onslaught of vehicles. They defeat the wave but as another one approaches they are forced to hide in a sandstorm. Quiet is then forced to speak to summon help when Snake is bitten by a venomous snake. She flees to avoid causing another epidemic.
It is later revealed that Venom Snake is not actually Big Boss but a loyal MSF medic caught in the same explosion that injured the real Big Boss, Ishmael. During his coma, the medic was transformed into a second Big Boss via plastic surgery and hypnotherapy to serve as a decoy for the actual Big Boss while he wages a covert war against Cipher. Snake goes on to set the events of the Outer Heaven uprising in motion and dies at the hands of Solid Snake. The original Big Boss resurfaces during the Zanzibar Land disturbance. Miller and Ocelot discuss Big Boss ' plans to create Outer Heaven. While Ocelot remains supportive, Miller is disgusted at his former ally 's deception but agrees to continue assisting Venom Snake and Big Boss 's sons in hopes of contributing to the real Big Boss 's downfall.
In February 2012, a site owned by Konami, "Development Without Borders '', promoted development for a new Metal Gear title, for "The "next '' MGS ". The site was recruiting staff for the 2012 GDC pavilion in March, and requested applications for several positions for the latest Metal Gear Solid targeted for "high - end consoles '' and "next - gen Fox engine ''. As the year went on, screenshots and videos of the newly announced Fox Engine were unveiled by the team. This media demonstrated many random settings and characters, although none related to the Metal Gear series. Certain screenshots, however, were noted to feature a character who resembled the Big Boss character of Metal Gear, walking up to a Stryker AFV previously seen in Metal Gear Solid 4.
Konami unveiled Metal Gear Solid: Ground Zeroes at a private function celebrating the twenty - fifth anniversary of the Metal Gear series on August 30, 2012. The game later made its public debut two days later at the 2012 Penny Arcade Expo. Kojima revealed very little detail about the project at the time other than it was a prologue to Metal Gear Solid V, and that it would be the first game to use the Fox Engine, a game engine developed by Kojima Productions. In January 2013, Kojima revealed that Ground Zeroes would be the first title in the series to be subtitled in Arabic, a feature the team had planned for previous games. He also confirmed that the length of the cutscenes was reduced, as he believed that long cutscenes had become outdated.
In an interview with VG247, Kojima expressed concerns over whether or not Ground Zeroes would be released. He claimed that his aim was to target taboos and mature themes, which he considered to be "quite risky '', adding that his roles as creator and producer were in conflict with one another; as creator, Kojima wanted to take the risk of exploring themes that might alienate audiences, but as producer, he had to be able to tone down the content in order to sell as many copies of the game as possible. Ultimately, the role of creator won out, and Kojima described his approach as "prioritizing creativity over sales ''.
At the Spike Video Game Awards in December 2012, a teaser trailer for a game known as The Phantom Pain was shown, credited to a new Swedish developer known as Moby Dick Studio, and was described as being "100 % gameplay ''. Allegedly led by Joakim Mogren, the studio 's mission statement read that it aimed to "deliver an uncompromising, exciting, and touching game experience to people all around the globe. '' After the presentation, commentators speculated that The Phantom Pain was actually a Metal Gear game, noting the protagonist 's resemblance to Big Boss, graphics similar to those produced by the Fox Engine, the quote "V has come to '' at the end of the trailer, and that the title Metal Gear Solid V fits in the negative space and indentations of the game 's logo when using the same font. The name "Joakim '' was an anagram of "Kojima '', the domain name for the studio 's website had only been registered about two weeks prior to the announcement, and that several people wearing Moby Dick Studio shirts were sitting in a VIP area intended for Konami staff. Hideo Kojima stated he was impressed by the trailer and how Mogren was inspired by Metal Gear.
An actor playing a heavily bandaged Mogren appeared in an interview on the March 14, 2013 episode of GameTrailers TV; while stating that he could not reveal many details, he confirmed that more details about The Phantom Pain would be revealed at the upcoming Game Developers Conference, and showed a series of screenshots on an iPad to the show 's host Geoff Keighley. After Keighley pointed out the Fox Engine logo in the screenshots, Mogren appeared nervous and the segment abruptly ended.
On March 27, 2013, at GDC 2013, Kojima confirmed that his studio was behind the trailer, and announced that Metal Gear Solid V would be two separate games; Ground Zeroes would now serve as a prologue for the main game, which was officially announced as Metal Gear Solid V: The Phantom Pain. He subsequently presented a trailer for the game and showcased the Fox Engine. The trailer featured the song "Not Your Kind of People '' from Garbage 's 2012 album of the same name.
While the official trailer announcing the game was running on a PC, the game was released for the seventh and eighth generations of video game consoles. In an interview during E3 2013, when asked about a PC release Kojima stated "We are making it, and it will be on par with the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One versions. '' However, he made it clear that the PC port was not their priority. Kojima confirmed that the visuals seen in the trailer would look close to those in the final game. He also stated that he would like Metal Gear Solid V to be his final Metal Gear game, noting that unlike previous titles where he had announced that he had finished making games in the series, only to return for subsequent games, his involvement with the franchise would be over this time around. Although the trailer had Snake suffering from hallucinations in the form of a flaming whale, Kojima assured that there would be a balance in realism. Kojima later revealed that The Phantom Pain was initially presented as an independent game so as to assess the public and industry response to the Fox Engine, as he felt that announcing the game as part of Metal Gear Solid V would bias reactions to the engine.
On June 10, 2013, at E3 2013, a fourth trailer was shown at the Microsoft press conference, demonstrating the new play mechanics, as well as the cast of characters. The development of an Xbox One version was also announced at the conference. The PlayStation 4 version was announced the following day when Konami uploaded the red band version of the trailer on their YouTube channel in addition to the standard green band version.
The trailers for Metal Gear Solid V showed the game running on a PC hardware, but according to Kojima with textures and character models somewhat based on seventh generation hardware. The developers aimed to improve the technical quality for the versions released for the eighth generation of consoles.
Kojima alluded to the game possibly being "too big to clear '', adding that the game is "200 (times larger) than Ground Zeroes ''. Kojima wanted the player to connect with Snake in The Phantom Pain. To accomplish this, the loss of Mother Base, which the player developed throughout Peace Walker, would serve as motivation for revenge for both Snake and the player. Kojima also tried making Snake relatable to newcomers of the series by making him unaware of what happened in the nine years during which he was in a coma. Weapons, vehicles and other armaments are unlicensed and fictional in The Phantom Pain, just as they were in Ground Zeroes, unlike previous Metal Gear Solid games that included mostly real - world based weaponry.
On June 9, 2014, at E3 2014, a fifth cinematic trailer featuring Mike Oldfield 's song "Nuclear '' was shown at the Sony press conference, unveiling more plot details surrounding the Diamond Dogs and Snake 's antagonistic descent. It was leaked a day earlier, due to an accidental post from Konami 's official YouTube channel. Alongside the new trailer, the official site for Metal Gear Solid V was updated and included new information and images such as the developmental progress of the in - game map and the evolution of Snake 's design across all games in the series. On August 25, 2015, Kojima released a launch trailer showing "Metal Gear 's Evolution and Harmony '' with clips from the previous games along with the reveal of the new "Metal Gear Sahelanthropus ''.
Over $80 million was spent on the development of the game.
The music of The Phantom Pain was produced by Harry Gregson - Williams, making it his fourth Metal Gear title. It was released on September 2, 2015. In July 2015, Rika Muranaka told Fragged Nation in an interview that over 30 commissioned songs were never used, thus playing part in Konami 's budget concerns over the Metal Gear Solid V project. In the game, players can acquire cassette tapes in the field, which can then be played in free - roam, during a mission, the Airborne Command Center, or when the helicopter inserts or extracts Snake. The tapes include a variety of pop songs, instrumentals, and theme music from previous games in the Metal Gear series.
The game 's soundtrack later won the award for Best Score / Soundtrack at The Game Awards 2015. The event also had Stefanie Joosten, Quiet 's voice actress, on stage performing "Quiet 's Theme ''.
In March 2015, Konami announced plans for a corporate restructuring that saw them part ways with Hideo Kojima and his development studio Kojima Productions. As part of the separation, Kojima 's name was removed from the game cover, all of its associated paraphernalia and future releases of Metal Gear Solid V: Ground Zeroes and Metal Gear Solid: The Legacy Collection. A Konami spokesperson stated that Kojima would still be involved with Konami and the Metal Gear franchise, and despite the dispute, the company expressed confidence that the game would be declared Game of the Year.
Metal Gear Solid V: The Phantom Pain was released in different editions. Special Day One editions of the game for each platform featured downloadable content (DLC) vouchers for special weapons and Metal Gear Online experience points. The North American Collector 's Edition (which was available for PS4 and Xbox One) comes with a steelbook and a small - size replica of Snake 's bionic arm; the Premium Package for the Japanese release (which was available for PS4, PS3, and Xbox One) features a full - size replica, which was also sold separately in May 2016. Sony released a PlayStation 4 bundle with the unit painted in the colors of the arm.
The physical PC release of The Phantom Pain only includes a CD key and a disc with a Steam installer contained within. Game files are not included on - disc and must be downloaded.
Tie - in products were also released for the game. Sony Mobile Communications released special edition Walkman, Xperia Z4, Xperia Z3 Tablet Compact, and Xperia J Compact devices, each featuring Outer Heaven emblems, soundtrack audio, and wallpapers. Watch manufacturer Seiko released a digital watch, resembling Venom Snake 's watch from the game. Eyeglasses maker JF Rey produced themed eyewear patterned after what Kaz and Ocelot are wearing in the game. Japanese toy company Sentinel, which previously made an iDroid casing for the iPhone 5 and 5S, produced a transformable figure of the Sahelanthropus, while Kotobukiya readied a 1 / 100 scale kit of the unit. Sports apparel company Puma joined the project through a line of sports jackets, T - shirts, and footwear, including Snake 's sneaking boots.
Square Enix 's PlayArts Kai figure line featured several of the game 's characters, while Kaiyodo produced Venom Snake and a Soviet Army soldier for the RevoMini figure category. An art book, titled The Art of Metal Gear Solid V, was published by Dark Horse Comics on November 2, 2016.
A complete edition of the game, titled Metal Gear Solid V: The Definitive Experience, was released for PlayStation 4, Xbox One and Steam on October 11 in North America, October 13 in Europe, and November 10 in Japan. The bundle includes the Ground Zeroes prologue and The Phantom Pain in one package, along with all previously released downloadable content for both games.
Metal Gear Solid V: The Phantom Pain received "universal acclaim '' from critics, according to review aggregator Metacritic.
Vince Ingenito of IGN awarded the game a score of 10 / 10, complimenting the way the gameplay mechanics worked together and the organic nature of the open - ended missions that allowed players to create their own memorable experiences, without being punished for deviating from stealth. The review concluded that The Phantom Pain is "a gameplay marvel, rewarding intelligence and creativity in a way few games do. '' GameSpot also gave the game a 10 / 10, similarly praising its "near impeccable '' gameplay, commenting that, alongside main and side missions, "emergent scenarios serve as the third pillar of The Phantom Pain 's open - world gameplay experience ''. The review also highlighted the meaningful development of the characters despite being beholden to the original Metal Gear as the conclusion of Venom Snake 's character arc. The Phantom Pain was the twenty - third game -- and the third in the Metal Gear series -- to ever receive a perfect 40 / 40 review rating from Japanese magazine Famitsu.
EGM awarded the game 9.5 / 10, praising the story 's emotional power and thematic concerns exploring the futility of war in a much more compelling and cohesive way than other franchises such as Call of Duty and Battlefield, as well as the way in which the game world responded to the player 's actions. However, the review was critical of the reliance on resource management, particularly in the way assaults on Forward Operating Bases could interrupt and distract from key missions. Destructoid awarded it a score of 9 / 10, saying that the game is "equal parts tough and flashy, and it 's fitting that if this is Kojima 's last Metal Gear, he goes on a high note. ''
Game Informer 's Joe Juba awarded the game 9.25 / 10, praising the mission design for its flexibility and offering players multiple pathways to completion without restricting their choice of weapons or equipment. However, despite seeing the value in restructuring the narrative to compliment the open world platform and the episodic mission structure given the series ' complex mythology, Juba felt that this went too far with the result being that the player could stumble into crucial story elements without context. Polygon 's Michael McWhertor also awarded the game 9 / 10, similarly praising the game mechanics, but directing criticism at the convoluted storyline which it felt hinged on a detailed knowledge of the series ' mythos to the point where it would be inaccessible to newcomers to the franchise.
The Phantom Pain was also positively received outside the traditional gaming media. In a five - star review, The Telegraph 's Kirk McKeand stated that the game "takes the best of a great series and creates a series ' best in the process ''. The review complimented the seamless integration of the gameplay modes and noted the way the game 's Mother Base mode offered satisfactory and meaningful progress, a sentiment echoed by Time 's Matt Peckham, who also complimented the game 's longevity, pacing and artificial intelligence.
While much of The Phantom Pain received plaudits, the game was criticized by some reviewers who felt it was lacking in terms of a focused and compelling narrative with interesting characters, especially when compared to prior Metal Gear titles. Ingenito opined that its story would be divisive for long - term fans, calling it "insubstantial and underdeveloped '', with plot - related questions generally being answered in a "rushed and unsatisfying '' way and a tendency for the game to gloss over its subject matter. He wrote how much of the characterization and memorable moments seen in previous installments had been replaced with individuals doing little more than appearing in scenes, giving information and then standing around. In addition, he called out the frequent lack of communication from Kiefer Sutherland as Venom Snake throughout important plot sections as "positively jarring ''. Kotaku 's Jason Schreier argued that the story was "damn unfulfilling '', having "terrible '' pacing, "incoherent '' dialogue, and "incomprehensible '' character motivations. He echoed Ingenito 's view of Snake, calling him in cutscenes "nearly silent to the point of awkwardness... where his response to emotional events will often just be to look at people. '' David Roberts, writing for GamesRadar, described the story as "unconventional '' and full of "loosely connected scenes '', saying "a whole lot of nothing happens in between quick bursts of exposition ''. He praised Kiefer Sutherland as Snake, but criticized Skullface as being greatly undeveloped as a villain and being met with "one of the most anti-climactic showdowns in video game history ''. Roberts also wrote how the story "drifts along aimlessly '' in the second half and which ultimately felt "hollow '' from not giving closure to the end reveal that the player is not controlling Big Boss. The Phantom Pain was also criticized for forcing players to replay missions on higher difficulty settings to unlock the final missions, with Schreier saying that it added unnecessary padding to a section of plot conveying the game 's most emotional events.
Before the release of the game, the presentation of the female character Quiet became a topic of controversy concerning her appearance. Halo designer David Ellis criticized her for being oversexualized and a negative affirmation of the stereotype of the game industry as "full of man babies ''. Kojima and Konami released Quiet figurines in May 2015 as part of the game 's promotion. The figure 's soft, pliable breasts were criticized in social media and in the press.
The finished game drew more criticism of Quiet 's portrayal in both reviews and opinion pieces. GamesRadar 's David Roberts described Quiet as "one of the most complex and conflicted characters in MGS5 '', but that her depiction was an example of a "juvenile approach to sexuality '' that typifies Kojima 's work and the Metal Gear series as a whole. Michael McWhertor of Polygon described the justification for Quiet 's lack of clothing as "inextricably tied to the game 's convoluted story '', and criticized how the game presented other female characters by "zeroing in on their jiggling breasts and panning across their asses in a silly, oversexualized way. ''
Following the release of the game, those who had bought the Collector 's Edition discovered that the bonus disc included cutscenes and concept art of an in - game mission, "Episode 51: Kingdom of the Flies '', that continued on from the end of the campaign, having not been playable in the game. The story ending was criticised for feeling abrupt and leaving several plot points unresolved, and critics found that the removed mission tied up one such important plot thread whilst also providing closure to the relationship between two of the characters. Consequently, many agreed that the inclusion of Episode 51 would have given the game a more satisfactory conclusion.
Another large criticism of the story was the decision to force players to replay past missions to progress through its second half, with one theory being that original content had been envisioned but which had not been incorporated into the finished game due to time constraints, resulting in the re-used sections. This assumption was supported by further evidence of removed content: not long after the discovery of Chapter 51, users of the Facepunch forums who had been extracting data from the PC version of the game 's files found evidence of a third story chapter, titled "Chapter 3: Peace '', that was not included in the final version of the game. Konami later neither confirmed nor denied that Chapter 3 had been fully cut from the main game. Metal Gear Solid community manager Robert Allen Peeler was asked via Twitter if any upcoming downloadable content would be released for The Phantom Pain, in the hope that the story content would be included, but this was refuted. Many fans also believed that, due to the chapter 's title, it was somehow linked to Konami 's "Nuclear Disarmament Event '' which was opened shortly after launch with the goal of revealing a secret in the game, and which would close once all in - game nuclear weapons that had been manufactured by players were disposed of. Data miners had uncovered a related cutscene within the game 's files that would be released once the event had finished, however speculation still spread that Chapter 3 was connected in some way. Robert Allen Peeler discussed player 's suspicions via Twitter and Reddit and did not deny that further events may occur once the disarmament had concluded. On February 2, 2018, the Nuclear Disarmament Event ending was triggered prematurely on the Steam version of the game, despite there still being over 9000 player nukes in existence at the time, resulting in the release of the previously - uncovered cutscene. After investigation, Konami announced that this was the result of a technical error owing to the game 's servers being sent incorrect values.
Critics attributed the missing content to the disclosed tensions between Konami and Kojima during development, the general consensus being that Konami had given strict deadlines for the game 's release, having been dissatisfied with how much money Kojima had spent on development. Data miners also uncovered numerous other examples of lesser content that had not been included in the game, ranging from gameplay features to cutscenes, but what precisely had been removed as a result of the Konami - Kojima conflict, and what had simply been abandoned earlier in development out of choice, was open to discussion. Regardless, due to the removed story content and subsequent narrative flaws, the game was labeled by some critics as being unfinished. Conversely, GamesRadar argued that the game 's incomplete state was deliberate on Kojima 's part. Speaking to IGN, Kojima himself seemingly alluded to the fact that he considered the game unfinished when stating that the new intellectual property he was developing since leaving Konami (later revealed as Death Stranding) would be "a complete game ''.
After the announcement of Metal Gear Solid V: The Definitive Experience, which would include all previously released downloadable content, several fans took this as an opportunity to voice their concerns via Twitter about the missing content that had been uncovered, particularly with regards to Episode 51. Konami responded that Episode 51 had been removed in the early development stages of the game as it had not been intended to be a pivotal ending to the story, and that there were no future plans to have the mission available to play.
Metal Gear Solid V: The Phantom Pain shipped 3 million physical copies within its first five days of release, across all platforms. On its release date, the game grossed US $ 179 million. The Phantom Pain debuted at number one on the United Kingdom charts. It became the third biggest video game launch of 2015 in the UK, behind Batman: Arkham Knight and The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt. The Phantom Pain was the most successful launch for the series in the UK, beating the previous record holder, Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty, by 37 percent. The game sold 411,199 physical retail copies on PlayStation 3 and PlayStation 4 within the first week of release in Japan, topping the Japanese software sales charts that week.
The game sold noticeably more on the PlayStation family of consoles than the competing Xbox in the UK. Excluding computer sales, The Phantom Pain moved approximately 72 percent of copies on PlayStation 4, roughly three times the amount sold on the Xbox One, which accounted for 22 percent of sales. 3 percent of sales were on PlayStation 3, and 2 percent on Xbox 360. By the end of September 2015, Metal Gear Solid V: The Phantom Pain had shipped 5 million copies, and reached 6 million by the end of December 2015.
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who sings bring your sweet loving home to me | Bring it on Home to Me - wikipedia
"Bring It on Home to Me '' is a song by American soul singer Sam Cooke, released on May 8, 1962 by RCA Victor. Produced by Hugo & Luigi and arranged and conducted by René Hall, the song was the B - side to "Having a Party ''. The song peaked at number two on Billboard 's Hot R&B Sides chart, and also charted at number 13 on the Billboard Hot 100.
The song has become a pop standard, covered by numerous artists of different genres. It is one of The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll.
"Bring It on Home to Me '', like its A-side, "Having a Party '', was written while Cooke was on tour for Henry Wynn. The song was initially offered to fellow singer Dee Clark, who turned it down. While in Atlanta, Cooke called co-producer Luigi Creatore and pitched both numbers; he was sold and booked an immediate recording session in Los Angeles scheduled for two weeks later. The session 's mood "matched the title '' of the song, according to biographer Peter Guralnick, as many friends had been invited. "It was a very happy session, '' recalled engineer Al Schmitt. "Everybody was just having a ball. We were getting people out there (on the floor), and some of the outtakes were hilarious, there was so much ad lib that went on. '' René Hall assembled an eighteen - piece backing group, "composed of six violins, two violas, two cellos, and a sax, plus a seven - piece rhythm section that included two percussionists, two bassists, two guitars, and a piano. ''
The song is a significant reworking of Charles Brown 's 1959 single "I Want to Go Home '', and it retains the gospel flavor and call - and - response format; the song differs significantly in that its refrain ("Bring it to me, bring your sweet lovin ', bring it on home to me '') is overtly secular. The song was the first serious nod to his gospel roots ("(He) felt that he needed more weight, that that light shit would n't sustain him, '' said J.W. Alexander). The song was aiming for a sound similar to Cooke 's former group, the Soul Stirrers. The original, unreleased first take includes vocals from Lou Rawls, J.W. Alexander, Fred Smith (former assistant A&R rep at Keen Records), and "probably '' the Sims Twins. A second, final take leaves Lou Rawls as the only echoing voice.
"Bring It On Home to Me '' was recorded on April 26, 1962, at RCA Studio 1 in Hollywood, California. The engineer present was Al Schmitt, and the session was conducted and arranged by René Hall. The musicians also recorded "Having a Party '' the same day. Credits adapted from the liner notes to the 2003 compilation Portrait of a Legend: 1951 -- 1964.
The most significant cover versions of the song include versions by:
The song was featured in the 2017 film Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2.
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who has the most major wins in golf | List of men 's major championships winning golfers - wikipedia
The men 's major golf championships, also known simply as the majors, are the four most prestigious events in professional golf. The competitions are the Masters Tournament, the U.S. Open, The Open Championship and the PGA Championship, contested annually in that order. Should the same golfer win all four majors in one year, this would be recognized as a grand slam; no one has completed this feat, although Tiger Woods has held all four majors at once, a feat dubbed the Tiger slam.
Jack Nicklaus has won the most majors; he won 18 during his career. Second on the list is Tiger Woods, who has won 14 majors to date; his most recent major victory was at the 2008 U.S. Open. Walter Hagen is third with 11 majors; he and Nicklaus have both won the most PGA Championships with five. Nicklaus also holds the record for the most victories in the Masters, winning the competition six times. Nicklaus also shares the record for the most U.S. Open victories with Willie Anderson, Bobby Jones and Ben Hogan, each winning this competition four times. Harry Vardon holds the record for the most Open Championship victories, winning six times during his career. Nicklaus, Woods, Hogan, Gary Player and Gene Sarazen are the only golfers to have won all four of the majors during their career, thus achieving the so - called career slam.
Although the U.S. Amateur and The Amateur Championship were once considered to be majors, they are no longer recognized as such, and victories in these competitions are not included in the list.
To date, a total of 219 different men have won majors. Of these, 81 have won at least two.
Tiger Woods, who has won 14 majors
Walter Hagen, who won 11 majors during his career
Ben Hogan, who won 9 majors during his career
Gary Player, who won 9 majors during his career
Tom Watson, who has won 8 majors during his career
Bobby Jones, who won four U.S. Opens and three Open Championships, but won a total of 13 Major Championships if you consider the old Majors
Arnold Palmer, who won 7 majors during his career
Gene Sarazen, who won 7 majors during his career
Sam Snead, who won 7 majors during his career
Harry Vardon, who won The Open Championship a record six times, and won one U.S. Open, for a total of seven majors
Nick Faldo, who won six majors during his career
Seve Ballesteros, who won five majors during his career
James Braid, who won five majors during his career
Phil Mickelson, who has won five majors
John Henry Taylor, who won five Open Championships
Willie Anderson, who won four U.S. Opens
Tom Morris, Sr. and Tom Morris, Jr., who both won four Open Championships
Willie Park, Sr., who won four Open Championships
General
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when did the middle ages end in england | England in the Middle Ages - wikipedia
England in the Middle Ages concerns the history of England during the medieval period, from the end of the 5th century through to the start of the Early Modern period in 1485. When England emerged from the collapse of the Roman Empire, the economy was in tatters and many of the towns abandoned. After several centuries of Germanic immigration, new identities and cultures began to emerge, developing into predatory kingdoms that competed for power. A rich artistic culture flourished under the Anglo - Saxons, producing epic poems such as Beowulf and sophisticated metalwork. The Anglo - Saxons converted to Christianity in the 7th century and a network of monasteries and convents was built across England. In the 8th and 9th centuries England faced fierce Viking attacks, and the fighting lasted for many decades, eventually establishing Wessex as the most powerful kingdom and promoting the growth of an English identity. Despite repeated crises of succession and a Danish seizure of power at the start of the 11th century, by the 1060s England was a powerful, centralised state with a strong military and successful economy.
The Norman invasion of England in 1066 led to the defeat and replacement of the Anglo - Saxon elite with Norman and French nobles and their supporters. William the Conqueror and his successors took over the existing state system, repressing local revolts and controlling the population through a network of castles. The new rulers introduced a feudal approach to governing England, eradicating the practice of slavery but creating a much wider body of unfree labourers called serfs. The position of women in society changed as laws regarding land and lordship shifted. England 's population more than doubled during the 12th and 13th centuries, fuelling an expansion of the towns, cities and trade, helped by warmer temperatures across Northern Europe. A new wave of monasteries and friaries were established, while ecclesiastical reforms led to tensions between successive kings and archbishops. Despite developments in England 's governance and legal system, infighting between the Anglo - Norman elite resulted in multiple civil wars and the loss of Normandy.
The 14th century in England saw the Great Famine and the Black Death, catastrophic events that killed around half of England 's population, throwing the economy into chaos and undermining the old political order. Social unrest followed, resulting in the Peasants ' Revolt of 1381, while the changes in the economy resulted in the emergence of a new class of gentry, and the nobility began to exercise power through a system termed bastard feudalism. Nearly 1,500 villages were deserted by their inhabitants and many men and women sought new opportunities in the towns and cities. New technologies were introduced, and England produced some of the great medieval philosophers and natural scientists. English kings in the 14th and 15th centuries laid claim to the French throne, resulting in the Hundred Years ' War. At times England enjoyed huge military success, with the economy buoyed by profits from the international wool and cloth trade, but by 1450 the country was in crisis, facing military failure in France and an ongoing recession. More social unrest broke out, followed by the Wars of the Roses, fought between rival factions of the English nobility. Henry VII 's victory in 1485 conventionally marks the end of the Middle Ages in England and the start of the Early Modern period.
At the start of the Middle Ages, England was a part of Britannia, a former province of the Roman Empire. The local economy had once been dominated by imperial Roman spending on a large military establishment, which in turn helped to support a complex network of towns, roads, and villas. At the end of the 4th century, however, Roman forces had been largely withdrawn, and this economy collapsed. Germanic immigrants began to arrive in increasing numbers during the 5th century, establishing small farms and settlements, and their language, Old English, swiftly spread as people switched from British Celtic and British Latin to the language of this new elite. New political and social identities emerged, including an Anglian culture in the east of England and a Saxon culture in the south, with local groups establishing regiones, small polities ruled over by powerful families and individuals. By the 7th century, some rulers, including those of Wessex, East Anglia, Essex, and Kent, had begun to term themselves kings, living in villae regales, royal centres, and collecting tribute from the surrounding regiones; these kingdoms are often referred to as the Heptarchy.
In the 7th century, the kingdom of Mercia rose to prominence under the leadership of King Penda. Mercia invaded neighbouring lands until it loosely controlled around 50 regiones covering much of England. Mercia and the remaining kingdoms, led by their warrior elites, continued to compete for territory throughout the 8th century. Massive earthworks, such as the defensive dyke built by Offa of Mercia, helped to defend key frontiers and towns. In 789, however, the first Scandinavian raids on England began; these Viking attacks grew in number and scale until in 865 the Danish micel here or Great Army, invaded England, captured York and defeated the kingdom of East Anglia. Mercia and Northumbria fell in 875 and 876, and Alfred of Wessex was driven into internal exile in 878.
However, in the same year Alfred won a decisive victory against the Danes at the Battle of Edington, and he exploited the fear of the Viking threat to raise large numbers of men and using a network of defended towns called burhs to defend his territory and mobilise royal resources. Suppressing internal opposition to his rule, Alfred contained the invaders within a region known as the Danelaw. Under his son, Edward the Elder, and his grandson, Æthelstan, Wessex expanded further north into Mercia and the Danelaw, and by the 950s and the reigns of Eadred and Edgar, York was finally permanently retaken from the Vikings. The West Saxon rulers were now kings of the Angelcynn, that is of the whole English folk.
With the death of Edgar, however, the royal succession became problematic. Æthelred took power in 978 following the murder of his brother Edward, but England was then invaded by Sweyn Forkbeard, the son of a Danish king. Attempts to bribe Sweyn not to attack using danegeld payments failed, and he took the throne in 1013. Swein 's son, Cnut, liquidated many of the older English families following his seizure of power in 1016. Æthelred 's son, Edward the Confessor, had survived in exile in Normandy and returned to claim the throne in 1042. Edward was childless, and the succession again became a concern. England became dominated by the Godwin family, who had taken advantage of the Danish killings to acquire huge wealth. When Edward died in 1066, Harold Godwinson claimed the throne, defeating his rival Norwegian claimant, Harald Hardrada, at the battle of Stamford Bridge.
In 1066, William, the Duke of Normandy, took advantage of the English succession crisis to invade. With an army of Norman followers and mercenaries, he defeated Harold at the battle of Hastings and rapidly occupied the south of England. William used a network of castles to control the major centres of power, granting extensive lands to his main Norman followers and co-opting or eliminating the former Anglo - Saxon elite. Major revolts followed, which William suppressed before intervening in the north - east of England, establishing Norman control of York and devastating the region. Some Norman lords used England as a launching point for attacks into South and North Wales, spreading up the valleys to create new Marcher territories. By the time of William 's death in 1087, England formed the largest part of an Anglo - Norman empire, ruled over by a network of nobles with landholdings across England, Normandy, and Wales. England 's growing wealth was critical in allowing the Norman kings to project power across the region, including funding campaigns along the frontiers of Normandy.
Norman rule, however, proved unstable; successions to the throne were contested, leading to violent conflicts between the claimants and their noble supporters. William II inherited the throne but faced revolts attempting to replace him with his older brother Robert or his cousin Stephen of Aumale. In 1100, William II died while hunting. Despite Robert 's rival claims, his younger brother Henry I immediately seized power. War broke out, ending in Robert 's defeat at Tinchebrai and his subsequent life imprisonment. Robert 's son Clito remained free, however, and formed the focus for fresh revolts until his death in 1128. Henry 's only legitimate son, William, died aboard the White Ship disaster of 1120, sparking a fresh succession crisis: Henry 's nephew, Stephen of Blois, claimed the throne in 1135, but this was disputed by the Empress Matilda, Henry 's daughter. Civil war broke out across England and Normandy, resulting in a long period of warfare later termed the Anarchy. Matilda 's son, Henry, finally agreed to a peace settlement at Winchester and succeeded as king in 1154.
Henry II was the first of the Angevin rulers of England, so - called because he was also the Count of Anjou in Northern France. Henry had also acquired the huge duchy of Aquitaine by marriage, and England became a key part of a loose - knit assemblage of lands spread across Western Europe, later termed the Angevin Empire. Henry reasserted royal authority and rebuilt the royal finances, intervening to claim power in Ireland and promoting the Anglo - Norman colonisation of the country. Henry strengthened England 's borders with Wales and Scotland, and used the country 's wealth to fund a long - running war with his rivals in France, but arrangements for his succession once again proved problematic. Several revolts broke out, led by Henry 's children who were eager to acquire power and lands, sometimes backed by France, Scotland and the Welsh princes. After a final confrontation with Henry, his son Richard I succeeded to the throne in 1189.
Richard spent his reign focused on protecting his possessions in France and fighting in the Third Crusade; his brother, John, inherited England in 1199 but lost Normandy and most of Aquitaine after several years of war with France. John fought successive, increasingly expensive, campaigns in a bid to regain these possessions. John 's efforts to raise revenues, combined with his fractious relationships with many of the English barons, led to confrontation in 1215, an attempt to restore peace through the signing of the Magna Carta, and finally the outbreak of the First Barons ' War. John died having fought the rebel barons and their French backers to a stalemate, and royal power was re-established by barons loyal to the young Henry III. England 's power structures remained unstable and the outbreak of the Second Barons ' War in 1264 resulted in the king 's capture by Simon de Montfort. Henry 's son, Edward, defeated the rebel factions between 1265 and 1267, restoring his father to power.
On becoming king, Edward I rebuilt the status of the monarchy, restoring and extending key castles that had fallen into disrepair. Uprisings by the princes of North Wales led to Edward mobilising a huge army, defeating the native Welsh and undertaking a programme of English colonisation and castle building across the region. Further wars were conducted in Flanders and Aquitaine. Edward also fought campaigns in Scotland, but was unable to achieve strategic victory, and the costs created tensions that nearly led to civil war. Edward II inherited the war with Scotland and faced growing opposition to his rule as a result of his royal favourites and military failures. The Despenser War of 1321 -- 22 was followed by instability and the subsequent overthrow, and possible murder, of Edward in 1327 at the hands of his French wife, Isabella, and a rebel baron, Roger Mortimer. Isabella and Mortimer 's regime lasted only a few years before falling to a coup, led by Isabella 's son Edward III, in 1330.
Like his grandfather, Edward III took steps to restore royal power, but during the 1340s the Black Death arrived in England. The losses from the epidemic, and the recurring plagues that followed it, significantly affected events in England for many years to come. Meanwhile, Edward, under pressure from France in Aquitaine, made a challenge for the French throne. Over the next century, English forces fought many campaigns in a long - running conflict that became known as the Hundred Years ' War. Despite the challenges involved in raising the revenues to pay for the war, Edward 's military successes brought an influx of plundered wealth to many parts of England and enabled substantial building work by the king. Many members of the English elite, including Edward 's son the Black Prince, were heavily involved in campaigning in France and administering the new continental territories.
Edward 's grandson, the young Richard II, faced political and economic problems, many resulting from the Black Death, including the Peasants ' Revolt that broke out across the south of England in 1381. Over the coming decades, Richard and groups of nobles vied for power and control of policy towards France until Henry of Bolingbroke seized the throne with the support of parliament in 1399. Ruling as Henry IV, he exercised power through a royal council and parliament, while attempting to enforce political and religious conformity. His son, Henry V, reinvigorated the war with France and came close to achieving strategic success shortly before his death in 1422. Henry VI became king at the age of only nine months and both the English political system and the military situation in France began to unravel.
A sequence of bloody civil wars, later termed the Wars of the Roses, finally broke out in 1455, spurred on by an economic crisis and a widespread perception of poor government. Edward IV, leading a faction known as the Yorkists, removed Henry from power in 1461 but by 1469 fighting recommenced as Edward, Henry, and Edward 's brother George, backed by leading nobles and powerful French supporters, vied for power. By 1471 Edward was triumphant and most of his rivals were dead. On his death, power passed to his brother Richard of Gloucester, who initially ruled on behalf of the young Edward V before seizing the throne himself as Richard III. The future Henry VII, aided by French and Scottish troops, returned to England and defeated Richard at the battle of Bosworth in 1485, bringing an end to the majority of the fighting, although lesser rebellions against his Tudor dynasty would continue for several years afterwards.
The Anglo - Saxon kingdoms were hierarchical societies, each based on ties of allegiance between powerful lords and their immediate followers. At the top of the social structure was the king, who stood above many of the normal processes of Anglo - Saxon life and whose household had special privileges and protection. Beneath the king were thegns, nobles, the more powerful of which maintained their own courts and were termed ealdormen. The relationship between kings and their nobles was bound up with military symbolism and the ritual exchange of weapons and armour. Freemen, called churls, formed the next level of society, often holding land in their own right or controlling businesses in the towns. Geburs, peasants who worked land belonging to a thegn, formed a lower class still. The very lowest class were slaves, who could be bought and sold and who held only minimal rights.
The balance of power between these different groups changed over time. Early in the period, kings were elected by members of the late king 's council, but primogeniture rapidly became the norm for succession. The kings further bolstered their status by adopting Christian ceremonies and nomenclature, introducing ecclesiastical coronations during the 8th century and terming themselves "Christ 's deputy '' by the 11th century. Huge estates were initially built up by the king, bishops, monasteries and thegns, but in the 9th and 10th centuries these were slowly broken up as a consequence of inheritance arrangements, marriage settlements and church purchases. In the 11th century, the royal position worsened further, as the ealdormen rapidly built up huge new estates, making them collectively much more powerful than the king -- this contributed to the political instability of the final Anglo - Saxon years. As time went by, the position of the churls deteriorated, as their rights were slowly eroded and their duties to their lords increased.
The kingdom of Wessex, which eventually laid claim to England as a whole, evolved a centralised royal administration. One part of this was the king 's council, the witenagemot, comprising the senior clergy, ealdormen, and some of the more important thegns; the council met to advise the king on policy and legal issues. The royal household included officials, thegns and a secretariat of clergy which travelled with the king, conducting the affairs of government as it went. Under the Danish kings, a bodyguard of housecarls also accompanied the court. At a regional level, ealdormen played an important part in government, defence and taxation, and the post of sheriff emerged in the 10th century, administering local shires on behalf of an ealdorman. Anglo - Saxon mints were tightly controlled by the kings, providing a high quality currency, and the whole country was taxed using a system called hidage.
The Anglo - Saxon kings built up a set of written laws, issued either as statutes or codes, but these laws were never written down in their entirety and were always supplemented by an extensive oral tradition of customary law. In the early part of the period local assemblies called moots were gathered to apply the laws to particular cases; in the 10th century these were replaced by hundred courts, serving local areas, and shire moots dealing with larger regions of the kingdom. Many churchmen and thegns were also given permission by the king to hold their own local courts. The legal system depended on a system of oaths, in which the value of different individuals swearing on behalf of the plaintiff or defendant varied according to their social status - the word of a companion of the king, for example, was worth twelve times that of a churl. If fines were imposed, their size similarly varied accord to the oath - value of the individual. The Anglo - Saxon authorities struggled to deal with the bloodfeuds between families that emerged following violent killings, attempting to use a system of weregild, a payment of blood money, as a way of providing an alternative to long - running vendettas.
Within twenty years of the Norman conquest, the former Anglo - Saxon elite were replaced by a new class of Norman nobility, with around 8,000 Normans and French settling in England. The new earls (successors to the ealdermen), sheriffs and church seniors were all drawn from their ranks. In many areas of society there was continuity, as the Normans adopted many of the Anglo - Saxon governmental institutions, including the tax system, mints and the centralisation of law - making and some judicial matters; initially sheriffs and the hundred courts continued to function as before. The existing tax liabilities were captured in Domesday Book, produced in 1086.
Changes in other areas soon began to be felt. The method of government after the conquest can be described as a feudal system, in that the new nobles held their lands on behalf of the king; in return for promising to provide military support and taking an oath of allegiance, called homage, they were granted lands termed a fief or an honour. Major nobles in turn granted lands to smaller landowners in return for homage and further military support, and eventually the peasantry held land in return for local labour services, creating a web of loyalties and resources enforced in part by new honorial courts. This system had been used in Normandy and concentrated more power in the king and the upper elite than the former Anglo - Saxon system of government. The practice of slavery declined in the years after the conquest, as the Normans considered the practice backward and contrary to the teachings of the church. The more prosperous peasants, however, lost influence and power as the Normans made holding land more dependent on providing labour services to the local lord. They sank down the economic hierarchy, swelling the numbers of unfree villeins or serfs, forbidden to leave their manor or seek alternative employment.
At the centre of power, the kings employed a succession of clergy as chancellors, responsible for running the royal chancery, while the familia regis, the military household, emerged to act as a bodyguard and military staff. England 's bishops continued to form an important part in local administration, alongside the nobility. Henry I and Henry II both implemented significant legal reforms, extending and widening the scope of centralised, royal law; by the 1180s, the basis for the future English common law had largely been established, with a standing law court in Westminster -- an early Common Bench -- and travelling judges conducting eyres around the country. King John extended the royal role in delivering justice, and the extent of appropriate royal intervention was one of the issues addressed in the Magna Carta of 1215. The emerging legal system reinvigorated the institution of serfdom in the 13th century by drawing an increasingly sharp distinction between freemen and villeins.
Many tensions existed within the system of government. Royal landownings and wealth stretched across England, and placed the king in a privileged position above even the most powerful of the noble elite. Successive kings, though, still needed more resources to pay for military campaigns, conduct building programmes or to reward their followers, and this meant exercising their feudal rights to interfere in the land - holdings of nobles. This was contentious and a frequent issue of complaint, as there was a growing belief that land should be held by hereditary right, not through the favour of the king. Property and wealth became increasingly focused in the hands of a subset of the nobility, the great magnates, at the expense of the wider baronage, encouraging the breakdown of some aspects of local feudalism. As time went by, the Norman nobility intermarried with many of the great Anglo - Saxon families, and the links with the Duchy began to weaken. By the late 12th century, mobilising the English barons to fight on the continent was proving difficult, and John 's attempts to do so ended in civil war. Civil strife re-emerged under Henry III, with the rebel barons in 1258 -- 59 demanding widespread reforms, and an early version of Parliament was summoned in 1265 to represent the rebel interests.
On becoming king in 1272, Edward I reestablished royal power, overhauling the royal finances and appealing to the broader English elite by using Parliament to authorise the raising of new taxes and to hear petitions concerning abuses of local governance. This political balance collapsed under Edward II and savage civil wars broke out during the 1320s. Edward III restored order once more with the help of a majority of the nobility, exercising power through the exchequer, the common bench and the royal household. This government was better organised and on a larger scale than ever before, and by the 14th century the king 's formerly peripatetic chancery had to take up permanent residence in Westminster. Edward used Parliament even more than his predecessors to handle general administration, to legislate and to raise the necessary taxes to pay for the wars in France. The royal lands -- and incomes from them -- had diminished over the years, and increasingly frequent taxation was required to support royal initiatives. Edward held elaborate chivalric events in an effort to unite his supporters around the symbols of knighthood. The ideal of chivalry continued to develop throughout the 14th century, reflected in the growth of knightly orders (including the Order of the Garter), grand tournaments and round table events.
Society and government in England in the early 14th century were challenged by the Great Famine and the Black Death. The economic and demographic crisis created a sudden surplus of land, undermining the ability of landowners to exert their feudal rights and causing a collapse in incomes from rented lands. Wages soared, as employers competed for a scarce workforce. Legislation was introduced to limit wages and to prevent the consumption of luxury goods by the lower classes, with prosecutions coming to take up most of the legal system 's energy and time. A poll tax was introduced in 1377 that spread the costs of the war in France more widely across the whole population. The tensions spilled over into violence in the summer of 1381 in the form of the Peasants ' Revolt; a violent retribution followed, with as many as 7,000 alleged rebels executed. A new class of gentry emerged as a result of these changes, renting land from the major nobility to farm out at a profit. The legal system continued to expand during the 14th century, dealing with an ever - wider set of complex problems.
By the time that Richard II was deposed in 1399, the power of the major noble magnates had grown considerably; powerful rulers such as Henry IV would contain them, but during the minority of Henry VI they controlled the country. The magnates depended upon their income from rent and trade to allow them to maintain groups of paid, armed retainers, often sporting controversial livery, and buy support amongst the wider gentry; this system has been dubbed bastard feudalism. Their influence was exerted both through the House of Lords at Parliament and through the king 's council. The gentry and wealthier townsmen exercised increasing influence through the House of Commons, opposing raising taxes to pay for the French wars. By the 1430s and 1440s the English government was in major financial difficulties, leading to the crisis of 1450 and a popular revolt under the leadership of Jack Cade. Law and order deteriorated, and the crown was unable to intervene in the factional fighting between different nobles and their followers. The resulting Wars of the Roses saw a savage escalation of violence between the noble leaderships of both sides: captured enemies were executed and family lands attainted. By the time that Henry VII took the throne in 1485, England 's governmental and social structures had been substantially weakened, with whole noble lines extinguished.
Medieval England was a patriarchal society and the lives of women were heavily influenced by contemporary beliefs about gender and authority. However, the position of women varied considerably according to various factors, including their social class; whether they were unmarried, married, widowed or remarried; and in which part of the country they lived. Significant gender inequities persisted throughout the period, as women typically had more limited life - choices, access to employment and trade, and legal rights than men.
In Anglo - Saxon society, noblewomen enjoyed considerable rights and status, although the society was still firmly patriarchal. Some exercised power as abbesses, exerting widespread influence across the early English Church, although their wealth and authority diminished with the monastic reforms of the 9th century. Anglo - Saxon queens began to hold lands in their own right in the 10th century and their households contributed to the running of the kingdom. Although women could not lead military forces, in the absence of their husbands some noblewomen led the defence of manors and towns. Most Anglo - Saxon women, however, worked on the land as part of the agricultural community, or as brewers or bakers.
After the Norman invasion, the position of women in society changed. The rights and roles of women became more sharply defined, in part as a result of the development of the feudal system and the expansion of the English legal system; some women benefited from this, while others lost out. The rights of widows were formally laid down in law by the end of the 12th century, clarifying the right of free women to own property, but this did not necessarily prevent women from being forcibly remarried against their wishes. The growth of governmental institutions under a succession of bishops reduced the role of queens and their households in formal government. Married or widowed noblewomen remained significant cultural and religious patrons and played an important part in political and military events, even if chroniclers were uncertain if this was appropriate behaviour. As in earlier centuries, most women worked in agriculture, but here roles became more clearly gendered, with ploughing and managing the fields defined as men 's work, for example, and dairy production becoming dominated by women.
The years after the Black Death left many women widows; in the wider economy labour was in short supply and land was suddenly readily available. In rural areas peasant women could enjoy a better standard of living than ever before, but the amount of work being done by women may have increased. Many other women travelled to the towns and cities, to the point where they outnumbered men in some settlements. There they worked with their husbands, or in a limited number of occupations, including spinning, making clothes, victualling and as servants. Some women became full - time ale brewers, until they were pushed out of business by the male - dominated beer industry in the 15th century. Higher status jobs and apprenticeships, however, remained closed to women. As in earlier times, noblewomen exercised power on their estates in their husbands ' absence and again, if necessary, defended them in sieges and skirmishes. Wealthy widows who could successfully claim their rightful share of their late husband 's property could live as powerful members of the community in their own right.
An English cultural identity first emerged from the interaction of the Germanic immigrants of the 5th and 6th centuries and the indigenous Romano - British inhabitants. Although early medieval chroniclers described the immigrants as Angles and Saxons, they came from a much wider area across Northern Europe, and represented a range of different ethnic groups. Over the 6th century, however, these different groups began to coalesce into stratified societies across England, roughly corresponding to the later Angle and Saxon kingdoms recorded by Bede in the 8th century. By the 9th century, the term the Angelcynn was being officially used to refer to a single English people, and promoted for propaganda purposes by chroniclers and kings to inspire resistance to the Danish invasions.
The Normans and French who arrived after the conquest saw themselves as different from the English. They had close family and economic links to the Duchy of Normandy, spoke Norman French and had their own distinctive culture. For many years, to be English was to be associated with military failure and serfdom. During the 12th century, the divisions between the English and Normans began to dissolve as a result of intermarriage and cohabitation. By the end of the 12th century, and possibly as early as the 1150, contemporary commentators believed the two peoples to be blending, and the loss of the Duchy in 1204 reinforced this trend. The resulting society still prized wider French cultural values, however, and French remained the language of the court, business and international affairs, even if Parisians mocked the English for their poor pronunciation. By the 14th century, however, French was increasingly having to be formally taught, rather than being learnt naturally in the home, although the aristocracy would typically spend many years of their lives in France and remained entirely comfortable working in French.
During the 12th and 13th centuries, the English began to consider themselves superior to the Welsh, Scots and Bretons. The English perceived themselves as civilised, economically prosperous and properly Christian, while the Celtic fringe was considered lazy, barbarous and backward. Following the invasion of Ireland in the late 12th century, similar feelings were expressed about the Irish, with the distinctions clarified and reinforced in 14th - century English legislation. The English also felt strongly about the foreign traders who lived in the special enclaves in London in the Late Middle Ages; the position of the Jews is described below, but Italian and Baltic traders were also regarded as aliens and were frequently the targets of violence during economic downturns. Even within England, different identities abounded, each with their own sense of status and importance. Regional identities could be important - men and women from Yorkshire, for example, had a clear identity within English society, and professional groups with a distinct identity, such as lawyers, engaged in open fighting with others in cities such as London.
The Jewish community played an important role in England throughout much of the period. The first Jews arrived in England in the aftermath of the Norman invasion, when William the Conqueror brought over wealthy members of the Rouen community in Normandy to settle in London. The Jewish community expanded out across England and provided essential money - lending and banking services that were otherwise banned by the usury laws. During the 12th century, the Jewish financial community grew richer still, operating under royal protection and providing the king with a source of ready credit. All major towns had Jewish centres, and even the smaller towns saw visits by travelling Jewish merchants. Towards the end of Henry II 's reign, however, the king ceased to borrow from the Jewish community and instead turned to extracting money from them through arbitrary taxation and fines. The Jews became vilified and accusations were made that they conducted ritual child murder, encouraging the pogroms carried out against Jewish communities in the reign of Richard I. After an initially peaceful start to John 's reign, the king again began to extort money from the Jewish community and, with the breakdown in order in 1215, the Jews were subject to fresh attacks. Henry III restored some protection and Jewish money - lending began to recover. Despite this, the Jewish community became increasingly impoverished and was finally expelled from England in 1290 by Edward I, being replaced by foreign merchants.
Christianity had been the official imperial religion of the Roman Empire, and the first churches were built in England in the second half of the 4th century, overseen by a hierarchy of bishops and priests. Many existing pagan shrines were converted to Christian use and few pagan sites still operated by the 5th century. The collapse of the Roman system in the late 5th century, however, brought about the end of formal Christian religion in the east of England, and the new Germanic immigrants arrived with their own polytheistic gods, including Woden, Thunor and Tiw, still reflected in various English place names. Despite the resurgence of paganism in England, Christian communities still survived in more western areas such as Gloucestershire and Somerset.
The movement towards Christianity began again in the late 6th and 7th centuries, helped by the conversion of the Franks in Northern France, who carried considerable influence in England. Pope Gregory I sent a team of missionaries to convert King Æthelberht of Kent and his household, starting the process of converting Kent. Augustine became the first Archbishop of Canterbury and started to build new churches across the South - East, reusing existing pagan shrines. Oswald and Oswiu, kings of Northumbria, were converted in the 630s and 640s, and the wave of change carried on through the middle of the 7th century across the kingdoms of Mercia, the South Saxons and the Isle of Wight. The process was largely complete by the end of the 7th century, but left a confusing and disparate array of local practices and religious ceremonies. This new Christianity reflected the existing military culture of the Anglo - Saxons: as kings began to convert in the 6th and 7th centuries, conversion began to be used as a justification for war against the remaining pagan kingdoms, for example, while Christian saints were imbued with martial properties.
The Viking invasions of the 8th and 9th centuries reintroduced paganism to North - East England, leading in turn to another wave of conversion. Indigenous Scandinavian beliefs were very similar to other Germanic groups, with a pantheon of gods including Odin, Thor and Ullr, combined with a belief in a final, apocalyptic battle called Ragnarok. The Norse settlers in England were converted relatively quickly, assimilating their beliefs into Christianity in the decades following the occupation of York, which the Archbishop had survived. The process was largely complete by the early 10th century and enabled England 's leading Churchmen to negotiate with the warlords. As the Norse in mainland Scandinavia started to convert, many mainland rulers recruited missionaries from England to assist in the process.
With the conversion of much of England in the 6th and 7th centuries, there was an explosion of local church building. English monasteries formed the main basis for the church, however, and were often sponsored by local rulers, taking various forms, including mixed communities headed by abbesses, bishop - led communities of monks, and others formed around married priests and their families. Cathedrals were constructed, staffed either with secular canons in the European tradition or, uniquely to England, chapters of monks. These institutions were badly affected in the 9th century by Viking raids and predatory annexations by the nobility. By the start of the 10th century, monastic lands, financial resources and the quality of monasteries ' religious work had been much diminished. Reforms followed under the kings of Wessex who promoted the Benedictine rule then popular on the Continent. A reformed network of around 40 monastic institutions across the south and east of England, under the protection of the king, helped re-establish royal control over the reconquered Danelaw.
The 1066 Norman conquest brought a new set of Norman and French churchmen to power; some adopted and embraced aspects of the former Anglo - Saxon religious system, while others introduced practices from Normandy. Extensive English lands were granted to monasteries in Normandy, allowing them to create daughter priories and monastic cells across the kingdom. The monasteries were brought firmly into the web of feudal relations, with their holding of land linked to the provision of military support to the crown. The Normans adopted the Anglo - Saxon model of monastic cathedral communities, and within seventy years the majority of English cathedrals were controlled by monks; every English cathedral, however, was rebuilt to some extent by the new rulers. England 's bishops remained powerful temporal figures, and in the early 12th - century raised armies against Scottish invaders and built up extensive holdings of castles across the country.
New orders began to be introduced into England. As ties to Normandy waned, the French Cluniac order became fashionable and their houses were introduced in England. The Augustinians spread quickly from the beginning of the 12th century onwards, while later in the century the Cistercians reached England, creating houses with a more austere interpretation of the monastic rules and building the great abbeys of Rievaulx and Fountains. By 1215, there were over 600 monastic communities in England, but new endowments slowed during the 13th century, creating long - term financial problems for many institutions. The Dominican and Franciscan friars arrived in England during the 1220s, establishing 150 friaries by the end of the 13th century; these mendicant orders rapidly became popular, particularly in towns, and heavily influenced local preaching. The religious military orders that became popular across Europe from the 12th century onwards acquired possessions in England, including the Templars, Teutons and Hospitallers.
The Church had a close relationship with the English state throughout the Middle Ages. The bishops and major monastic leaders played an important part in national government, having key roles on the king 's council. Bishops often oversaw towns and cities, managing local taxation and government. This frequently became untenable with the Viking incursions of the 9th century, and in locations such as Worcester the local bishops came to new accommodations with the local ealdormen, exchanging some authority and revenue for assistance in defence. The early English church was racked with disagreement on doctrine, which was addressed by the Synod of Whitby in 664; some issues were resolved, but arguments between the archbishops of Canterbury and York as to which had primacy across Britain began shortly afterwards and continued throughout most of the medieval period.
William the Conqueror acquired the support of the Church for the invasion of England by promising ecclesiastical reform. William promoted celibacy amongst the clergy and gave ecclesiastical courts more power, but also reduced the Church 's direct links to Rome and made it more accountable to the king. Tensions arose between these practices and the reforming movement of Pope Gregory VII, which advocated greater autonomy from royal authority for the clergy, condemned the practice of simony and promoted greater influence for the papacy in church matters. Despite the bishops continuing to play a major part in royal government, tensions emerged between the kings of England and key leaders within the English Church. Kings and archbishops clashed over rights of appointment and religious policy, and successive archbishops including Anselm, Theobald of Bec, Thomas Becket and Stephen Langton were variously forced into exile, arrested by royal knights or even killed. By the early 13th century, however, the church had largely won its argument for independence, answering almost entirely to Rome.
In the 1380s, several challenges emerged to the traditional teachings of the Church, resulting from the teachings of John Wycliffe, a member of Oxford University. Wycliffe argued that scripture was the best guide to understanding God 's intentions, and that the superficial nature of the liturgy, combined with the abuses of wealth within the Church and the role of senior churchmen in government, distracted from that study. A loose movement that included many members of the gentry pursued these ideas after Wycliffe 's death in 1384 and attempted to pass a Parliamentary bill in 1395: the movement was rapidly condemned by the authorities and was termed "Lollardy ''. The English bishops were charged to control and counter this trend, disrupting Lollard preachers and to enforcing the teaching of suitable sermons in local churches. By the early 15th century, combating Lollard teachings had become a key political issue, championed by Henry IV and his Lancastrian followers, who used the powers of both the church and state to combat the heresy.
Pilgrimages were a popular religious practice throughout the Middle Ages in England, with the tradition dating back to the Roman period. Typically pilgrims would travel short distances to a shrine or a particular church, either to do penance for a perceived sin, or to seek relief from an illness or other condition. Some pilgrims travelled further, either to more distant sites within Britain or, in a few cases, onto the continent.
During the Anglo - Saxon period, many shrines were built on former pagan sites which became popular pilgrimage destinations, while other pilgrims visited prominent monasteries and sites of learning. Senior nobles or kings would travel to Rome, which was a popular destination from the 7th century onwards; sometimes these trips were a form of convenient political exile. Under the Normans, religious institutions with important shrines, such as Glastonbury, Canterbury and Winchester, promoted themselves as pilgrimage destinations, maximising the value of the historic miracles associated with the sites. Accumulating relics became an important task for ambitious institutions, as these were believed to hold curative powers and lent status to the site. Indeed, by the 12th century reports of posthumous miracles by local saints were becoming increasing common in England, adding to the attractiveness of pilgrimages to prominent relics.
Participation in the Crusades was also seen as a form of pilgrimage, and indeed the same Latin word, peregrinatio, was sometimes applied to both activities. While English participation in the First Crusade between 1095 and 1099 was limited, England played a prominent part in the Second, Third and Fifth Crusades over the next two centuries, with many crusaders leaving for the Levant during the intervening years. The idea of undertaking a pilgrimage to Jerusalem was not new in England, however, as the idea of religiously justified warfare went back to Anglo - Saxon times. Many of those who took up the Cross to go on a Crusade never actually left, often because the individual lacked sufficient funds to undertake the journey. Raising funds to travel typically involved crusaders selling or mortgaging their lands and possessions, which affected their families and, at times, considerably affected the economy as a whole.
England had a diverse geography in the medieval period, from the Fenlands of East Anglia or the heavily wooded Weald, through to the upland moors of Yorkshire. Despite this, medieval England broadly formed two zones, roughly divided by the rivers Exe and Tees: the south and east of England had lighter, richer soils, able to support both arable and pastoral agriculture, while the poorer soils and colder climate of the north and west produced a predominantly pastoral economy. Slightly more land was covered by trees than in the 20th century, and bears, beavers and wolves lived wild in England, bears being hunted to extinction by the 11th century and beavers by the 12th. Of the 10,000 miles of roads that had been built by the Romans, many remained in use and four were of particular strategic importance -- the Icknield Way, the Fosse Way, Ermine Street and Watling Street -- which criss - crossed the entire country. The road system was adequate for the needs of the period, although it was significantly cheaper to transport goods by water. The major river networks formed key transport routes, while many English towns formed navigable inland ports.
For much of the Middle Ages, England 's climate differed from that in the 21st century. Between the 9th and 13th centuries England went through the Medieval Warm Period, a prolonged period of warmer temperatures; in the early 13th century, for example, summers were around 1 ° C warmer than today and the climate was slightly drier. These warmer temperatures allowed poorer land to be brought into cultivation and for grapevines to be cultivated relatively far north. The Warm Period was followed by several centuries of much cooler temperatures, termed the Little Ice Age; by the 14th century spring temperatures had dropped considerably, reaching their coldest in the 1340s and 1350s. This cold end to the Middle Ages significantly affected English agriculture and living conditions.
Even at the start of the Middle Ages the English landscape had been shaped by human occupation over many centuries. Much woodland was new, the result of fields being reclaimed by brush after the collapse of the Roman Empire. Human intervention had established wood pastures, an ancient system for managing woods and animals, and coppicing, a more intensive approach to managing woodlands. Other agricultural lands included arable fields and pastorage, while in some parts of the country, such as the South - West, waste moorland remained testament to earlier over-farming in the Bronze Age. England 's environment continued to be shaped throughout the period, through the building of dykes to drain marshes, tree clearance and the large - scale extraction of peat. Managed parks for hunting game, including deer and boars, were built as status symbols by the nobility from the 12th century onwards, but earlier versions of parks, such as hays, may have originated as early as the 7th century.
The English economy was fundamentally agricultural, depending on growing crops such as wheat, barley and oats on an open field system, and husbanding sheep, cattle and pigs. In the late Anglo - Saxon period many peasants moved away from living in isolated hamlets and instead came together to form larger villages engaged in arable cultivation. Agricultural land became typically organised around manors, and was divided between some fields that the landowner would manage directly, called demesne land, and the majority of the fields that would be cultivated by local peasants. These peasants would pay rent to the landowner either through agricultural labour on the lord 's demesne fields or through rent in the form of cash and produce. By the 11th century, a market economy was flourishing across much of England, while the eastern and southern towns were heavily involved in international trade. Around 6,000 watermills were built to grind flour, freeing up labour for other more productive agricultural tasks.
Although the Norman invasion caused some damage as soldiers looted the countryside and land was confiscated for castle building, the English economy was not greatly affected. Taxes were increased, however, and the Normans established extensive forests that were exploited for their natural resources and protected by royal laws. The next two centuries saw huge growth in the English economy, driven in part by the increase in the population from around 1.5 million in 1086 to between 4 and 5 million in 1300. More land, much of it at the expense of the royal forests, was brought into production to feed the growing population and to produce wool for export to Europe. Many hundreds of new towns, some of them planned communities, were built across England, supporting the creation of guilds, charter fairs and other medieval institutions which governed the growing trade. Jewish financiers played a significant role in funding the growing economy, along with the new Cistercian and Augustinian religious orders that emerged as major players in the wool trade of the north. Mining increased in England, with a silver boom in the 12th century helping to fuel the expansion of the money supply.
Economic growth began to falter at the end of the 13th century, owing to a combination of overpopulation, land shortages and depleted soils. The Great Famine shook the English economy severely and population growth ceased; the first outbreak of the Black Death in 1348 then killed around half the English population. The agricultural sector shrank rapidly, with higher wages, lower prices and diminishing profits leading to the final demise of the old demesne system and the advent of the modern farming system centring on the charging of cash rents for lands. As returns on land fell, many estates, and in some cases entire settlements, were simply abandoned, and nearly 1,500 villages were deserted during this period. A new class of gentry emerged who rented farms from the major nobility. Unsuccessful government attempts were made to regulate wages and consumption, but these largely collapsed in the decades following the Peasants ' Revolt of 1381.
The English cloth industry grew considerably at the start of the 15th century, and a new class of international English merchant emerged, typically based in London or the South - West, prospering at the expense of the older, shrinking economies of the eastern towns. These new trading systems brought about the end of many of the international fairs and the rise of the chartered company. Fishing in the North Sea expanded into deeper waters, backed by commercial investment from major merchants. Between 1440 and 1480, however, Europe entered a recession and England suffered the Great Slump: trade collapsed, driving down agricultural prices, rents and ultimately the acceptable levels of royal taxation. The resulting tensions and discontent played an important part in Jack Cade 's popular uprising in 1450 and the subsequent Wars of the Roses. By the end of Middle Ages the economy had begun to recover and considerable improvements were being made in metalworking and shipbuilding that would shape the Early Modern economy.
Technology and science in England advanced considerably during the Middle Ages, driven in part by the Greek and Islamic thinking that reached England from the 12th century onwards. Many advances were made in scientific ideas, including the introduction of Arabic numerals and a sequence of improvements in the units used for measuring time. Clocks were first built in England in the late 13th century, and the first mechanical clocks were certainly being installed in cathedrals and abbeys by the 1320s. Astrology, magic and palm reading were also considered important forms of knowledge in medieval England, although some doubted their reliability.
The period produced some influential English scholars. Roger Bacon, a philosopher and Franciscan friar, produced works on natural philosophy, astronomy and alchemy; his work set out the theoretical basis for future experimentation in the natural sciences. William of Ockham helped to fuse Latin, Greek and Islamic writing into a general theory of logic; "Ockham 's Razor '' was one of his oft - cited conclusions. English scholars since the time of Bede had believed the world was probably round, but Johannes de Sacrobosco estimated the circumference of the earth in the 13th century. Despite the limitations of medieval medicine, Gilbertus Anglicus published the Compendium Medicinae, one of the longest medical works ever written in Latin. Prominent historical and science texts began to be translated into English for the first time in the second half of the 14th century, including the Polychronicon and The Travels of Sir John Mandeville. The universities of Oxford and Cambridge were established during the 11th and 12th centuries, drawing on the model of the University of Paris.
Technological advances proceeded in a range of areas. Watermills to grind grain had existed during most of the Anglo - Saxon period, using horizontal mill designs; from the 12th century on many more were built, eliminating the use of hand mills, with the older horizontal mills gradually supplanted by a new vertical mill design. Windmills began to be built in the late 12th century and slowly became more common. Water - powered fulling mills and powered hammers first appeared in the 12th century; water power was harnessed to assist in smelting by the 14th century, with the first blast furnace opening in 1496. New mining methods were developed and horse - powered pumps were installed in English mines by the end of the Middle Ages. The introduction of hopped beer transformed the brewing industry in the 14th century, and new techniques were invented to better preserve fish. Glazed pottery became widespread in the 12th and 13th centuries, with stoneware pots largely replacing wooden plates and bowls by the 15th century. William Caxton and Wynkyn de Worde began using the printing press during the late 15th century. Transport links were also improved; many road bridges were either erected or rebuilt in stone during the long economic boom of the 12th and 13th centuries. England 's maritime trade benefited from the introduction of cog ships, and many docks were improved and fitted with cranes for the first time.
Warfare was endemic in early Anglo - Saxon England, and major conflicts still occurred approximately every generation in the later period. Groups of well - armed noblemen and their households formed the heart of these armies, supported by larger numbers of temporary troops levied from across the kingdom, called the fyrd. By the 9th century, armies of 20,000 men could be called up for campaigns, with another 28,000 men available to guard urban defences. The most common weapon was the spear, with swords used by the wealthier nobles; cavalry was probably less common than in wider Europe, but some Anglo - Saxons did fight from horseback. The Viking attacks on England in the 9th century led to developments in tactics, including the use of shield walls in battle, and the Scandinavian seizure of power in the 11th century introduced housecarls, a form of elite household soldier who protected the king.
Anglo - Norman warfare was characterised by attritional military campaigns, in which commanders tried to raid enemy lands and seize castles in order to allow them to take control of their adversaries ' territory, ultimately winning slow but strategic victories. Pitched battles were occasionally fought between armies but these were considered risky engagements and usually avoided by prudent commanders. The armies of the period comprised bodies of mounted, armoured knights, supported by infantry. Crossbowmen become more numerous in the 12th century, alongside the older shortbow. At the heart of these armies was the familia regis, the permanent military household of the king, which was supported in war by feudal levies, drawn up by local nobles for a limited period of service during a campaign. Mercenaries were increasingly employed, driving up the cost of warfare considerably, and adequate supplies of ready cash became essential for the success of campaigns.
In the late 13th century Edward I expanded the familia regis to become a small standing army, forming the core of much larger armies up to 28,700 strong, largely comprising foot soldiers, for campaigns in Scotland and France. By the time of Edward III, armies were smaller in size, but the troops were typically better equipped and uniformed, and the archers carried the longbow, a potentially devastating weapon. Cannons were first used by English forces at battles such as Crécy in 1346. Soldiers began to be contracted for specific campaigns, a practice which may have hastened the development of the armies of retainers that grew up under bastard feudalism. By the late 15th century, however, English armies were somewhat backward by wider European standards; the Wars of the Roses were fought by inexperienced soldiers, often with outdated weapons, allowing the European forces which intervened in the conflict to have a decisive effect on the outcomes of battles.
The first references to an English navy occur in 851, when chroniclers described Wessex ships defeating a Viking fleet. These early fleets were limited in size but grew in size in the 10th century, allowing the power of Wessex to be projected across the Irish Sea and the English Channel; Cnut 's fleet had as many as 40 vessels, while Edward the Confessor could muster 80 ships. Some ships were manned by sailors called lithesmen and bustsecarls, probably drawn from the coastal towns, while other vessels were mobilised as part of a national levy and manned by their regular crews. Naval forces played an important role during the rest of the Middle Ages, enabling the transportation of troops and supplies, raids into hostile territory and attacks on enemy fleets. English naval power became particularly important after the loss of Normandy in 1204, which turned the English Channel from a friendly transit route into a contested and critical border region. English fleets in the 13th and 14th centuries typically comprised specialist vessels, such as galleys and large transport ships, and pressed merchant vessels conscripted into action; the latter increasingly included cogs, a new form of sailing ship. Battles might be fought when one fleet found another at anchor, such as the English victory at Sluys in 1340, or in more open waters, as off the coast of Winchelsea in 1350; raiding campaigns, such as the French attacks on the south of England between 1338 and 1339, could cause devastation from which some towns never fully recovered.
Many of the fortifications built by the Romans in England survived into the Middle Ages, including the walls surrounding their military forts and cities. These defences were often reused during the unstable post-Roman period. The Anglo - Saxon kings undertook significant planned urban expansion in the 8th and 9th centuries, creating burhs, often protected with earth and wood ramparts. Burh walls sometimes utilised older Roman fortifications, both for practical reasons and to bolster their owners ' reputations through the symbolism of former Roman power.
Although a small number of castles had been built in England during the 1050s, after the conquest the Normans began to build timber motte and bailey and ringwork castles in large numbers to control their newly occupied territories. During the 12th century the Normans began to build more castles in stone, with characteristic square keeps that supported both military and political functions. Royal castles were used to control key towns and forests, whilst baronial castles were used by the Norman lords to control their widespread estates; a feudal system called the castle - guard was sometimes used to provide garrisons. Castles and sieges continued to grow in military sophistication during the 12th century, and in the 13th century new defensive town walls were constructed across England.
By the 14th century, castles were combining defences with luxurious, sophisticated living arrangements and landscaped gardens and parks. Early gunpowder weapons were used to defend castles by the end of the 14th century and gunports became an essential feature for a fashionable castle. The economics of maintaining castles meant that many were left to decline or abandoned; in contrast, a small number of castles were developed by the very wealthy into palaces that hosted lavish feasts and celebrations amid elaborate architecture. Smaller defensible structures called tower houses emerged in the north of England to protect against the Scottish threat. By the late medieval period, town walls were increasingly less military in character and more often expressions of civic pride or part of urban governance: many grand gatehouses were built in the 14th and 15th centuries for these purposes.
Medieval England produced art in the form of paintings, carvings, books, fabrics and many functional but beautiful objects. A wide range of materials were used, including gold, glass and ivory, the art usually drawing overt attention to the materials utilised in the designs. Anglo - Saxon artists created carved ivories, illuminated manuscripts, embroidered cloths, crosses and stone sculpture, although relatively few of these have survived to the modern period. They produced a wide range of metalwork, frequently using gold and garnets, with brooches, buckles, sword hilts and drinking horns particularly favoured designs. Early designs, such as those found at the Sutton Hoo burial, used a zoomorphic style, heavily influenced by German fashions, in which animal shapes were distorted into flowing shapes and positioned alongside geometric patterns. From the 7th century onwards more naturalistic designs became popular, showing a plasticity of form and incorporating both animals and people into the designs. In the 10th century, Carolingian styles, inspired by Classical imagery, began to enter from the continent, becoming widely used in the reformed Benedictine monasteries across the south and east of England.
The Norman conquest introduced northern French artistic styles, particular in illuminated manuscripts and murals, and reduced the demand for carvings. In other artistic areas, including embroidery, the Anglo - Saxon influence remained evident into the 12th century, and the famous Bayeux Tapestry is an example of older styles being reemployed under the new regime. Stained glass became a distinctive form of English art during this later medieval period, although the coloured glass for these works was almost entirely imported from Europe. Little early stained glass in England has survived, but it typically had both an ornamental and educational function, while later works also commemorated the sponsors of the windows into the designs. English tapestry making and embroidery in the early 14th century were of an especially high quality; works produced by nuns and London professionals were exported across Europe, becoming known as the opus anglicanum. English illuminated books, such as the Queen Mary Psalter, were also famous in this period, featuring rich decoration, a combination of grotesque and natural figures and rich colours. The quality of illuminated art in England declined significantly in the face of competition from Flanders in the 14th century, and later English illuminated medieval pieces generally imitated Flemish styles.
The Anglo - Saxons produced extensive poetry in Old English, some of which was written down as early as the 9th century, although most surviving poems were compiled in the 10th and early 11th century. Beowulf, probably written between 650 and 750, is typical of these poems, portraying a vivid, heroic tale, ending with the protagonist 's death at the hands of a dragon, but still showing signs of the new Christian influences in England. Old English was also used for academic and courtly writing from the 9th century onwards, including translations of popular foreign works, including The Pastoral Care.
Poetry and stories written in French were popular after the Norman conquest, and by the 12th century some works on English history began to be produced in French verse. Romantic poems about tournaments and courtly love became popular in Paris and this fashion spread into England in the form of lays; stories about the court of King Arthur were also fashionable, due in part to the interest of Henry II. English continued to be used on a modest scale to write local religious works and some poems in the north of England, but most major works were produced in Latin or French. In the reign of Richard II there was an upsurge in the use of Middle English in poetry, sometimes termed "Ricardian poetry '', although the works still emulated French fashions. The work of Geoffrey Chaucer from the 1370s onwards, however, culminating in the influential Canterbury Tales, was uniquely English in style. Major pieces of courtly poetry continued to be produced into the 15th century by Chaucher 's disciples, and Thomas Malory compiled the older Arthurian tales to produce Le Morte d'Arthur.
Music and singing were important in England during the medieval period, being used in religious ceremonies, court occasions and to accompany theatrical works. Singing techniques called gymel were introduced in England in the 13th century, accompanied by instruments such as the guitar, harp, pipes and organ. Henry IV sponsored an extensive range of music in England, while his son Henry V brought back many influences from occupied France. Carols became an important form of music in the 15th century; originally these had been a song sung during a dance with a prominent refrain -- the 15th century form lost the dancing and introduced strong religious overtones. Ballads were also popular from the late 14th century onwards, including the Ballad of Chevy Chase and others describing the activities of Robin Hood. Miracle plays were performed to communicate the Bible in various locations. By the late 14th century, these had been extended into vernacular mystery plays which performed annually over several days, broken up into various cycles of plays; a handful have survived into the 21st century. Guilds competed to produce the best plays in each town and performances were often an expression of civic identity.
In the century after the collapse of the Romano - British economy, very few substantial buildings were constructed and many villas and towns were abandoned. New long - and round - houses were constructed in some settlements, while in others timber buildings were built imitating the older Roman styles. The Germanic immigrants constructed small rectangular buildings from wood, and occasionally grander halls. However, the conversion to Christianity in the 6th and 7th centuries reintroduced Italian and French masons, and these craftsmen built stone churches, low in height, following a narrow, rectangular plan, plastered inside and fitted with glass and colourful vestments. This Romanesque style developed throughout the period, featuring characteristic circular arches. By the 10th and 11th centuries, much larger churches and monastery buildings were being built, featuring square and circular towers after the contemporary European fashion. The palaces constructed for the nobility centred on great timber halls, while manor houses began to appear in rural areas.
The Normans brought with them architectural styles from their own duchy, where austere stone churches were preferred. Under the early Norman kings this style was adapted to produce large, plain cathedrals with ribbed vaulting. During the 12th century the Anglo - Norman style became richer and more ornate, with pointed arches derived from French architecture replacing the curved Romanesque designs; this style is termed Early English Gothic and continued, with variation, throughout the rest of the Middle Ages. In the early 14th century the Perpendicular Gothic style was created in England, with an emphasis on verticality, immense windows and soaring arcades. Fine timber roofs in a variety of styles, but in particular the hammerbeam, were built in many English buildings. In the 15th century the architectural focus turned away from cathedrals and monasteries in favour of parish churches, often decorated with richly carved woodwork; in turn, these churches influenced the design of new chantry chapels for existing cathedrals.
Meanwhile, domestic architecture had continued to develop, with the Normans, having first occupied the older Anglo - Saxon dwellings, rapidly beginning to build larger buildings in stone and timber. The elite preferred houses with large, ground - floor halls but the less wealthy constructed simpler houses with the halls on the first floor; master and servants frequently lived in the same spaces. Wealthier town - houses were also built using stone, and incorporated business and domestic arrangements into a single functional design. By the 14th century grander houses and castles were sophisticated affairs: expensively tiled, often featuring murals and glass windows, these buildings were often designed as a set of apartments to allow greater privacy. Fashionable brick began to be used in some parts of the country, copying French tastes. Architecture that emulated the older defensive designs remained popular. Less is known about the houses of peasants during this period, although many peasants appear to have lived in relatively substantial, timber - framed long - houses; the quality of these houses improved in the prosperous years following the Black Death, often being built by professional craftsmen.
The first history of medieval England was written by Bede in the 8th century; many more accounts of contemporary and ancient history followed, usually termed chronicles. In the 16th century, the first academic histories began to be written, typically drawing primarily on the chroniclers and interpreting them in the light of current political concerns. Edward Gibbon 's 18th - century writings were influential, presenting the medieval period as a dark age between the glories of Rome and the rebirth of civilisation in the Early Modern period. Late Victorian historians continued to use the chroniclers as sources, but also deployed documents such as Domesday Book and Magna Carta, alongside newly discovered financial, legal and commercial records. They produced a progressive account of political and economic development in England. The growth of the British Empire spurred interest in the various periods of English hegemony during the Middle Ages, including the Angevin Empire and the Hundred Years ' War.
By the 1930s, older historical analyses were challenged by a range of neo-positivist, Marxist and econometric approaches, supported by a widening body of documentary, archaeological and scientific evidence. Marxist and Neo-Marxist analyses continued to be popular in the post-war years, producing seminal works on economic issues and social protests. Post-modern analysis became influential in the 1970s and 1980s, focusing on identity, gender, interpretation and culture. Many studies focused on particular regions or groups, drawing on new records and new scientific approaches, including landscape and environmental archaeology. Fresh archaeological finds, such as the Staffordshire Hoard, continue to challenge previous interpretations, and historical studies of England in the Middle Ages have never been so diverse as in the early 21st century.
The period has also been used in a wide range of popular culture. William Shakespeare 's plays on the lives of the medieval kings have proved to have had long lasting appeal, heavily influencing both popular interpretations and histories of figures such as King John and Henry V. Other playwrights have since taken key medieval events, such as the death of Thomas Becket, and used them to draw out contemporary themes and issues. The medieval mystery plays continue to be enacted in key English towns and cities. Film - makers have drawn extensively on the medieval period, often taking themes from Shakespeare or the Robin Hood ballads for inspiration. Historical fiction set in England during the Middle Ages remains persistently popular, with the 1980s and 1990s seeing a particular growth of historical detective fiction. The period has also inspired fantasy writers, including J.R.R. Tolkien 's stories of Middle - earth. English medieval music was revived from the 1950s, with choral and musical groups attempting to authentically reproduce the original sounds. Medieval living history events were first held during the 19th and early 20th centuries, and the period has inspired a considerable community of historical re-enactors, part of England 's growing heritage industry.
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i don't want to be all by myself song | All by Myself - wikipedia
"All by Myself '' is a song by American artist Eric Carmen released in 1975. The verse is based on the second movement (Adagio sostenuto) of Sergei Rachmaninoff 's Piano Concerto No. 2 in C minor, Opus 18. The chorus is borrowed from the song "Let 's Pretend '', which Carmen wrote and recorded with the Raspberries in 1972.
The song was the first released on Carmen 's first solo LP after leaving the power pop group the Raspberries and was released as the first single in December 1975, to great acclaim. It reached number 2 on the Billboard Hot 100, number 1 on Cash Box Top 100 Singles and number 3 in Canada. The single sold more than one million copies in the United States and was certified gold by the RIAA in April 1976. "All By Myself '' was Carmen 's first of eight US Top 40 hits. In the UK, however, this was his only Top 40 success, peaking at number 12. In a 2006 poll for UK 's Five programme Britain 's Favourite Break - up Songs, Eric Carmen 's version of this song was voted seventeenth.
Rachmaninoff 's music was in the public domain in the United States and Carmen thought no copyright existed on it, but it was still protected outside the U.S. Subsequent to the release of the album, he was contacted by the Rachmaninoff estate and informed otherwise. An agreement was reached in which the estate would receive 12 percent of the royalties from "All by Myself '' as well as from "Never Gonna Fall in Love Again '', which was based on the third movement from Rachmaninoff 's Symphony No. 2.
Carmen has stated that he also incorporated part of another melody into this song. The melody was taken from his previous hit with the Raspberries, "Let 's Pretend. ''
Carmen 's original version has spawned numerous cover versions by such artists as Rico J. Puno in 1976, Celine Dion in 1996, Frank Sinatra, Igudesman & Joo, Il Divo, and Only Men Aloud!.
The slide guitar solo was performed by famed studio guitarist Hugh McCracken.
Carmen performed "All By Myself '' and his follow - up hit, "Never Gonna Fall in Love Again, '' on The Midnight Special television program on July 23, 1976 (season 4, episode 37). The show was hosted by The Spinners.
One of the most notable cover versions of "All by Myself '' was recorded by Celine Dion in 1996. It was the fourth (or third, depending on the country) hit single from her album Falling into You. Produced by David Foster at Compass Point Studios in The Bahamas, it was released on October 7, 1996 in Europe, January 13, 1997 in Australia, and March 11, 1997 in North America.
There were three music videos made. The first one was released in October 1996. It contains fragments from Dion 's photo session for the Falling into You album cover and some scenes from her Live à Paris concert. It was made for the single version and it was directed by Nigel Dick. The second version was made for the UK market with the same white T - shirt scenes but adding footage of a young couple in love at Christmas time, instead of scenes from Dion 's concert. This was made for the album version. Finally, a live music video was released in March 1997 in North America (from the 1996 concert in Montreal).
Dion performed this song many times during world tours, TV shows and music events such as the Grammy Awards (1997), Billboard Music Awards (1997) and Bambi Awards (1996). A performance from her 2008 - 2009 Taking Chances Tour can be found on the Taking Chances World Tour: The Concert DVD / CD. It is currently included in the set list of Dion 's Las Vegas residency show Céline which premiered on March 15, 2011. The song was also performed during the 2013 Sans attendre Tour; the Quebec City performance was included in the Céline... une seule fois / Live 2013 CD / DVD. The song was also performed in Dion 's 2017 European tour, and 2018 tour.
Dion also recorded a Spanish version of "All by Myself, '' called "Sola otra vez '' (English: By Myself Again). It was added to the Falling into You Latin American / Spanish edition, and as a B - side to other singles from that album. This version became available worldwide on Dion 's later compilation The Collector 's Series, Volume One. The CD single was released in 1996 in Brazil only. Dion 's "Sola otra vez '' was selected the number one Spanish language cover of an English pop song by TheSpanishVersion.Org.
The "All by Myself '' single became one of Dion 's biggest hits in the United States, reaching number 1 on the Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks (for three weeks) and the Latin Pop Airplay (two weeks). It peaked at number 4 on the Billboard Hot 100 (number 7 on the Billboard Hot 100 Airplay and number 5 on the Hot 100 Singles Sales). It was also a top 10 hit in France, United Kingdom, Wallonia in Belgium and the Republic of Ireland. In Canada, "All by Myself '' was released as a promotional single only, hitting number 1 on the Adult Contemporary Chart. "All by Myself '' was certified gold in the US (500,000), and silver in the UK (200,000) and France (165,000).
The track was included on some editions of Dion 's greatest hits All the Way... A Decade of Song in 1999 and on My Love: Essential Collection in 2008.
This version also features on the ITV game show Take Me Out if the contestant leaves the show without a date.
Dion 's cover received positive reviews. New York Times editor Stephen Holden wrote that the remake, along with "Because You Loved Me, '' "are the strongest cuts on an album crammed with formulaic romantic bombast. '' Dave Sholin from the Gavin Report commented: "Demand by both programmers and the public for this rendition of Eric Carmen 's 1976 smash made it the obvious choice to be the third single lifted off Celine 's multi-platinum and Grammy - nominated album, Falling Into You. '' Music.uk.launch.yahoo.com editor Dan Leroy wrote: "Trying to out - emote Eric Carmen was almost crazy enough to work. '' Entertainment Weekly editor Chuck Eddy said: ''... But only in her desolate cover of Eric Carmen 's All by Myself does she truly crash through the glass ceiling of passion. ''
shipments figures based on certification alone
In 1994, "All By Myself '' was covered by New Zealand singer Margaret Urlich. Her version reached # 100 in Australia in November 1994, and # 26 in New Zealand in March 1995.
The 2001 motion picture Bridget Jones 's Diary featured a cover version performed by Jamie O'Neal showing actress Renée Zellweger singing to it in the famous pajamas scene. This track is also played over the other Bridget Jones films Bridget Jones: The Edge of Reason and Bridget Jones 's Baby.
In 2008, the male voice choir Only Men Aloud! covered the song on their self - named album and also released it as a single.
The Carmen version is used in the video introduction for Conan O'Brien 's "Legally Prohibited from Being Funny on Television Tour '', when an obese and bearded version of the talk show host struggles to cope with losing his job as host of Tonight Show. The Carmen version is also featured in the second season 's episode 17 of the popular 1990s sitcom Friends (set on Joey & Chandler 's friendship), and a season 4 episode of the hit sitcom That ' 70s Show whereas Eric Forman breaks up with Donna Pinciotti. It was also featured in the films Under Wraps, Bridget Jones ' Diary and To Die For. The version is used also in the film I nuovi mostri directed by Dino Risi, with Ornella Muti and Yorgo Voyagis. In the Disney film Zootopia, a snippet is heard of it as the main character, Judy Hopps, browses through one depressing song after another on her clock radio.
A character is featured performing the song as karaoke in the 2001 Angel episode "Happy Anniversary ''.
The song was used in advertisements:
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where does the expression on tenterhooks come from | Tenterhook - wikipedia
Tenterhooks are hooks in a device called a tenter. Tenters were originally large wooden frames which were used as far back as the 14th century in the process of making woollen cloth. After a piece of cloth was woven, it still contained oil from the fleece and some dirt. A craftsman called a fuller (also called a tucker or wa (u) lker) cleaned the woollen cloth in a fulling mill, and then had to dry it carefully or the woollen fabric would shrink. To prevent this shrinkage, the fuller would place the wet cloth on a tenter, and leave it to dry outdoors. The lengths of wet cloth were stretched on the tenter (from Latin tendere, meaning "to stretch '') using tenterhooks (hooked nails driven through the wood) all around the perimeter of the frame to which the cloth 's edges (selvedges) were fixed, so that as it dried the cloth would retain its shape and size. In some manufacturing areas, entire tenter - fields, larger open spaces full of tenters, were once common.
By the mid-18th century, the phrase "on tenterhooks '' came to mean being in a state of tension, uneasiness, anxiety, or suspense, i.e. figuratively stretched like the cloth on the tenter.
John Ford 's 1633 play Broken Heart contains the lines: "There is no faith in woman. Passion, O, be contain 'd! My very heart - strings Are on the tenters. ''
In 1690 the periodical The General History of Europe used the term in the modern sense: "The mischief is, they will not meet again these two years, so that all business must hang upon the tenterhooks till then. ''
In 1826, English periodical Monthly magazine or British register of literature, sciences, and the belles - lettres contained the line "I hope (though the wish is a cruel one) that my fair readers, if any such readers have deigned to follow me thus far, are on tenterhooks to know to whom the prize was adjudged. '' In a letter to his wife the same year, American educator Francis Wayland (waiting for his promised appointment as President of Brown University) wrote "I was never so much on tenter hooks before. ''
The word tenter is still used today to refer to production line machinery employed to stretch polyester films and similar fabrics. The spelling stenter is also found.
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who played lady mormont in game of thrones | Bella Ramsey - Wikipedia
Bella Ramsey (born 2003) is an English actress. She made her professional acting debut as the young noblewoman Lyanna Mormont in the HBO fantasy television series Game of Thrones.
Ramsey was born in Nottingham, Nottinghamshire and started acting as a hobby at the age of four through Stagecoach Theatre Arts and went for seven years. Ramsey then went to The Television Workshop, where she began auditioning for professional jobs. Her father, Alex, is a businessman and she has an older sister. Ramsey does her schooling online.
Since 2016, Ramsey has played Lyanna Mormont in the HBO fantasy drama television series Game of Thrones. The part of Lyanna Mormont is Ramsey 's first credited role. After her debut appearance in one scene in the seventh episode of the sixth season of Game of Thrones, fans and critics noted Ramsey as a standout actress for portraying her character 's no - nonsense leadership style. This reaction was repeated after her appearance in the season finale, with The Hollywood Reporter calling her "season 6 's breakout star ''. She returned for the seventh season.
Ramsey also stars in 2017 TV adaptation of The Worst Witch books as the title character, Mildred Hubble.
Ramsey also stars in the 2018 Netflix original series Hilda as the title character.
She is represented by actor 's agency Conway van Gelder Grant.
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where are the australian swimming championships being held | Australian Swimming Championships - Wikipedia
The Australian Swimming Championships is the national Swimming championships for Australia. It is organized by Swimming Australia, and is held annually in both long course (50m) and short course (25m) pools (2 separate meets). The two meets are the country 's top domestic meet for their respective course.
The meet usually also double as a selection event for international competitions such as the: Olympics, World Championships, Commonwealth Games and Pan Pacific Championships. Some consider the meet the second - toughest domestic competition in the world, behind the USA 's national championships.
The venue of the first edition of the championships was Wylie 's Baths near Coogee Beach.
The state that wins the most points at the championships is awarded the Kieran Shield, named in memory of Barney B. Kieran, a swimmer from New South Wales, who was a world record holder, and who died, aged 18, in 1905.
The 1990 Australian Swimming Championships saw events for disabled athletes added for the first time.
See List of Australian Championships records in swimming
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what is the purpose of a viewing at a funeral | Viewing (funeral) - Wikipedia
In funeral services, a viewing (sometimes referred to as calling hours, reviewal, funeral visitation or a wake in the United States, Canada and Ireland) is the time that the family and friends come to see the deceased after they have been prepared by a funeral home. It is generally recommended that any body to be viewed be embalmed in order to create the best possible presentation of the deceased. A viewing may take place at the funeral parlor, in a family home or at a church or chapel prior to the actual funeral service. Some cultures, such as the Māori of New Zealand, often take the body to the Marae or tribal community hall.
Viewing is sometimes combined with a service called a wake although in some places the term wake is interchangeable with viewing. Many authorities consider the viewing important to the grieving process as it gives a chance to say goodbye on a personal level. It also can make it easier to accept the reality of the death, which can often seem unreal especially in the industrial world where death is handled by professionals and the family may only know of a death through phone calls rather than experiencing it as it occurs.
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season 3 episode 3 rick and morty date | Rick and Morty (season 3) - Wikipedia
The third season of the animated television series Rick and Morty originally aired in the United States on Cartoon Network 's late night programming block, Adult Swim. It premiered with "The Rickshank Rickdemption, '' which aired unannounced on April 1, 2017 and was replayed every half hour from 8pm to 12am ET, as part of Adult Swim 's annual April Fools ' prank. The episode was also simulcast as a looping live stream on Adult Swim 's site. The remaining episodes began airing on July 30, 2017. The season will feature a total of 10 episodes.
The actors and actresses listed below lend their voices to the corresponding animated characters.
Other cast members of the season, who each have voiced one or more characters, include: Dan Harmon, Brandon Johnson, Tom Kenny, Maurice LaMarche, Nolan North, Cassie Steele, Kari Wahlgren, Laura Bailey, John DiMaggio, Ryan Ridley, Scott Chernoff, Dan Benson, Clancy Brown, Echo Kellum, Melique Berger, William Holmes, Tara Strong, Jeff B. Davis, Jonas Briedis, Phil Hendrie, Rob Paulsen, Alex Jayne Go, Jennifer Hale and Mariana Wise.
Rick is interrogated via a mind - computer link, inside a galactic federal prison. Summer and Morty attempt to rescue him, but they are captured by SEAL Team Ricks, who take them to the Citadel of Ricks and decide to assassinate Rick. Back at the prison, Rick tricks both the federal agents and his aspiring assassins by switching bodies with them. He then teleports the entire Citadel into the federal prison, prompting a massive battle. Amid the confusion, Rick rescues Morty and Summer and uses the Galactic Federation 's mainframe to make their currency worthless. The Federation falls into chaos and collapses as a result, with the aliens leaving Earth. Back at home, Jerry asks Beth to choose between him and Rick, but she chooses Rick. After the new status quo is established, Rick reveals to Morty that his ulterior motive was to become his de facto male influence. This escalates into a nonsensical angry rant, centered around Rick 's desire to find more of the discontinued McDonald 's Szechuan sauce, a promotional product for the 1998 film Mulan.
Rick takes Morty and Summer to a Mad Max-esque version of Earth, where they are chased by a group of scavengers, known as Death Stalkers. Rick notices that the group is carrying a valuable rock of Isotope 322, so he and the kids join them in hope of stealing it. Summer falls in love with the Death Stalkers ' leader, while Morty is given the strength of a giant arm, which takes him in search of its killer. Rick leaves and replaces the kids with androids to fool Beth. When he returns, he helps the Death Stalkers use the Isotope to power a more advanced civilization. Summer does n't like how the change softens the Death Stalkers, and she decides to follow Rick and Morty back home. Before leaving, Rick steals the Isotope. The experience helps the kids overcome their parents ' divorce. Summer reconciles with Jerry, and Morty realizes he must live his own life.
Rick turns himself into a pickle to get out of attending school - ordered family therapy, but Beth takes Rick 's serum which would revert the transformation. Left alone, Rick eventually rolls down into an open sewer drain, where he manages to manipulate the nervous systems of dead roaches and rats to build himself a mobile exoskeleton, with added weapons such as razors and drills. He unwittingly escapes into a foreign government agency. The guards try to kill Rick, under orders from the agency director, but Rick kills them all. In the process, Rick battles and ultimately befriends a prisoner named Jaguar. Rick changes his mind and decides to attend the therapy session, arriving towards the end. Dr. Wong gives her diagnosis, observing that Rick crafts relationships that punish emotions and vulnerability. On their way home, Rick apologizes to Beth for deceiving her and uses the serum to turn human again. Morty and Summer wish to continue seeing Dr. Wong, but Rick and Beth ignore them.
At Morty 's insistence, Rick agrees to join the Vindicators, a group of intergalactic superheroes, to fight their arch - nemesis, Worldender. Rick can not hide his disdain for the superheroes, while Morty is thrilled. The next morning, the Vindicators enter Worldender 's base, only to find that the previous night a drunk Rick had killed him and set up a variety of puzzles that the Vindicators must solve to survive. They start arguing and kill one another, while Morty solves all the puzzles, as he knows what Rick had in mind when he put them up. After all puzzles are solved, the only ones left alive are Rick, Morty and Supernova, a member of the Vindicators. Supernova tries to kill Rick and Morty, but before she can do so, the three of them are transported to a party, where she gets away.
To bolster Jerry 's self - esteem, Rick takes him on an adventure at Morty 's request. They visit an otherworldly resort within an immortality field so Jerry wo n't be harmed while away. Jerry encounters Risotto Groupon, an alien who blames Rick for his kingdom being usurped. Risotto enlists Jerry in a plot to kill Rick, but Jerry backs out after Rick apologizes for ruining his marriage. Meanwhile, Summer deals with self - esteem issues as well. Her boyfriend, Ethan, leaves her for a larger - breasted girlfriend, and Summer attempts to enlarge her own breasts using one of Rick 's devices. Her aim is off, and she grows to freakish proportions. Morty wants to call Rick for assistance, but Beth refuses. Arrogantly trying to prove her own self - worth, Beth repeatedly fails to fix the problem and is tricked into releasing three tiny technical support workers that were trapped inside the machine. Once Morty figures out how the machine works, he restores Summer 's size and spitefully uses it to deform Ethan as an act of vengeance.
After a six - day outer space adventure that leaves them on the verge of psychological collapse, Rick and Morty decide to spend some time at an alien spa. There, they use a machine that extracts a person 's negative personality traits. However, without Rick and Morty knowing, those traits are transposed into toxic physical counterparts, characterized by Rick 's arrogance and Morty 's self - loathing. On the other hand, the true Rick becomes more considerate, and Morty 's confidence soars, which allows him to start dating girls. Toxic Rick uses a moonlight tower to remake the whole Earth in his own image, but the true Rick reverts the situation by merging back with him. Morty avoids merging back with his toxic counterpart and goes on to live a The Wolf of Wall Street type scenario. Rick tracks him down with the help of Jessica, Morty 's classmate, and restores order by re-injecting the negative personality traits into him.
As Rick and Morty adventure to Atlantis, the episode shifts focus towards the Ricks and Mortys living at the Citadel. A group of Mortys journey to a portal to have their wishes granted. A rookie cop Rick starts working with an experienced Morty to take down drug dealers. A Rick working at Simple Rick 's wafer factory, where the key ingredient comes from said Simple Rick hooked up to a machine to re-experience his best memories, holds Simple Rick hostage after he does n't get a promotion. An election is held for the new president of the Citadel. Despite being the underdog, the Morty Party candidate manages to secure the presidency thanks to his views on Ricks and Mortys. His former campaign manager fails to assassinate him after discovering that the new president is actually Evil Morty from "Close Rick - counters of the Rick Kind ''.
After Morty requests to have a traumatic memory deleted, Rick reveals a room where he has been storing a number of memories he has removed from Morty. However, as it turns out, besides the memories that Morty did n't want to keep from their adventures, the room also contains memories of moments where Rick was made to look foolish and had them forcibly removed. This revelation prompts a fight, during which Rick and Morty have their memories accidentally erased. Morty scours the memories to replace the ones he lost, but is displeased with the truth he finds, and convinces Rick to both kill themselves. Summer enters the room moments before they commit suicide. At this point, it is revealed that Rick has a contingency plan should this happen. Summer, following written instructions, tranquilizes Rick and Morty, restores their memories and drags them to the living room. Rick and Morty wake up on the couch, believing that they slept through an entire "Interdimensional Cable '' episode.
On August 12, 2015, Adult Swim announced that the series had been renewed for a third season. Roiland reportedly began writing on November 2, 2015. Mike McMahan announced that the first episode was recorded on February 18, 2016. On February 5, 2017, Dan Harmon, answering questions regarding the delayed release, announced on his podcast, Harmontown, that the show was in the animation process, after a long period of writing. On June 24, 2017, Harmon wrote a series of posts on Twitter, explaining that the writing process took that long to complete, because of his perfectionism.
The season currently holds a 100 % approval rating from review aggregation site Rotten Tomatoes based on nine reviews, with an average rating of 9.25 out of 10.
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how to name the intersection of a line and a plane | Line -- plane intersection - wikipedia
In analytic geometry, the intersection of a line and a plane in three - dimensional space can be the empty set, a point, or a line. It is the entire line if that line is embedded in the plane, and is the empty set if the line is parallel to the plane but outside it. Otherwise, the line cuts through the plane at a single point.
Distinguishing these cases, and determining equations for the point and line in the latter cases, have use in computer graphics, motion planning, and collision detection.
In vector notation, a plane can be expressed as the set of points p (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (p)) for which
where n (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (n)) is a normal vector to the plane and p 0 (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (p_ (0))) is a point on the plane. (The notation a ⋅ b (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (a) \ cdot \ mathbf (b)) denotes the dot product of the vectors a (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (a)) and b (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (b)).)
The vector equation for a line is
where l (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (l)) is a vector in the direction of the line, l 0 (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (l_ (0))) is a point on the line, and d (\ displaystyle d) is a scalar in the real number domain. Substituting the equation for the line into the equation for the plane gives
Expanding gives
And solving for d (\ displaystyle d) gives
If l ⋅ n = 0 (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (l) \ cdot \ mathbf (n) = 0) then the line and plane are parallel. There will be two cases: if (p 0 − l 0) ⋅ n = 0 (\ displaystyle (\ mathbf (p_ (0)) - \ mathbf (l_ (0))) \ cdot \ mathbf (n) = 0) then the line is contained in the plane, that is, the line intersects the plane at each point of the line. Otherwise, the line and plane have no intersection.
If l ⋅ n ≠ 0 (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (l) \ cdot \ mathbf (n) \ neq 0) there is a single point of intersection. The value of d (\ displaystyle d) can be calculated and the point of intersection is given by
A line is described by all points that are a given direction from a point. Thus a general point on a line can be represented as
where l a = (x a, y a, z a) (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (l) _ (a) = (x_ (a), y_ (a), z_ (a))) and l b = (x b, y b, z b) (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (l) _ (b) = (x_ (b), y_ (b), z_ (b))) are two distinct points along the line.
Similarly a general point on a plane can be represented as
where p k = (x k, y k, z k) (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (p) _ (k) = (x_ (k), y_ (k), z_ (k))), k = 0, 1, 2 (\ displaystyle k = 0, 1, 2) are three points in the plane which are not co-linear.
The point at which the line intersects the plane is therefore described by setting the point on the line equal to the point on the plane, giving the parametric equation:
This can be rewritten as
which can be expressed in matrix form as:
The point of intersection is then equal to
If the line is parallel to the plane then the vectors l b − l a (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (l) _ (b) - \ mathbf (l) _ (a)), p 1 − p 0 (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (p) _ (1) - \ mathbf (p) _ (0)), and p 2 − p 0 (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (p) _ (2) - \ mathbf (p) _ (0)) will be linearly dependent and the matrix will be singular. This situation will also occur when the line lies in the plane.
If the solution satisfies the condition t ∈ (0, 1), (\ displaystyle t \ in (0, 1),), then the intersection point is on the line between l a (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (l) _ (a)) and l b (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (l) _ (b)).
If the solution satisfies
then the intersection point is in the plane inside the triangle spanned by the three points p 0 (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (p) _ (0)), p 1 (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (p) _ (1)) and p 2 (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (p) _ (2)).
This problem is solved by inverting the matrix:
In the ray tracing method of computer graphics a surface can be represented as a set of pieces of planes. The intersection of a ray of light with each plane is used to produce an image of the surface. In vision - based 3D reconstruction, a subfield of computer vision, depth values are commonly measured by so - called triangulation method, which finds the intersection between light plane and ray reflected toward camera.
The algorithm can be generalised to cover intersection with other planar figures, in particular, the intersection of a polyhedron with a line.
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who has the most passing yards in college football | List of NCAA Division I FBS career Passing yards Leaders - wikipedia
The following is a list of football quarterbacks in NCAA Division I FBS and its predecessors who have thrown for 12,000 yards or more in their collegiate careers. Statistics are current through the end of the 2017 season. Players active during the 2017 season are shown in bold.
"Career Leaders and Records for Passing Yards ''. Sports Reference. Retrieved 2015 - 11 - 08.
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under what circumstances might a governor of a state commute a sentence | Pardon - wikipedia
A pardon is a government decision to allow a person who has been convicted of a crime to be free and absolved of that conviction, as if they were never convicted.
Today, pardons are granted in many countries when individuals have demonstrated that they have paid their debt to society, or are otherwise considered to be deserving of them. Pardons are sometimes offered to persons who were either wrongfully convicted or who claim that they were wrongfully convicted. In some jurisdictions, accepting a pardon implicitly constitutes an admission of guilt (see Burdick v. United States in the United States), the offer is refused in some cases. Cases of wrongful conviction are nowadays more often dealt with by appeal rather than by pardon; however, a pardon is sometimes offered when innocence is undisputed in order to avoid the costs that are associated with a retrial. Clemency plays a very important role when capital punishment is applied.
The Parole Board of Canada (PBC) is the federal agency responsible for making pardon decisions under the Criminal Records Act (CRA). Under the CRA, the PBC can issue, grant, deny, and revoke pardons.
In 2012, the Parliament of Canada passed the Safe Streets and Communities Act, which changed a number of elements regarding the criminal justice system. The Act replaced the term "pardon '' with "record suspension '', and the pardon system was similarly changed.
A pardon keeps a judicial record of a conviction separate and apart from other criminal records, and gives law - abiding citizens an opportunity to reintegrate into Canadian society.
The CRA removes all information about the conviction for which an individual received the pardon from the Canadian Police Information Centre (CPIC). Federal agencies can not give out information about the conviction without approval from the Minister of Public Safety Canada.
A pardon does not, however, erase the fact that an individual was convicted of a crime. The criminal record is not erased, but it is kept separate and apart from other (non-pardoned) criminal records.
A pardon removes disqualifications caused by a criminal conviction, such as the ability to contract with the federal government, or eligibility for Canadian citizenship.
If an individual in receipt of a pardon is convicted of a new offence, the information may lead to a reactivation of the criminal record for which the pardon was received in CPIC.
A pardon does not guarantee entry or visa privileges to another country. Before travelling to another country, individuals must still contact the authorities of the country in question to find out what the requirements are to enter that country.
Processing of pardons by the National Parole Board generally takes six months for a summary offence and 12 months for an indictable offence. If the Parole Board proposes to deny the application, it can take 24 months to process.
Individuals can apply for a pardon if they were convicted as an adult of a criminal offence in Canada, or of an offence under a federal act or regulation of Canada, or if they were convicted of a crime in another country and were transferred to Canada under the Transfer of Offenders Act or International Transfer of Offenders Act. Non-Canadian citizens are not eligible for a Canadian pardon unless they were convicted of a crime in Canada.
To be eligible for a pardon or record suspension, individuals must have completed all of their sentences and a waiting period.
Individuals are considered to have completed all of their sentences if they have:
Prior to 2012, following completion of all of their sentences, individuals must have completed a waiting period, as follows:
Effective 13 March 2012, the eligibility criteria and waiting periods changed:
Applicants for a record suspension must be able to show that they have completed their sentences in full and provide proof of payment.
Individuals can apply for a pardon by filling out the application forms available from the Parole Board and by paying a $631 pardon application fee.
In Canada, clemency is granted by the Governor - General of Canada or the Governor in Council (the federal cabinet) under the royal prerogative of mercy. Applications are also made to the National Parole Board, as in pardons, but clemency may involve the commutation of a sentence, or the remission of all or part of the sentence, a respite from the sentence (for a medical condition) or a relief from a prohibition (e.g., to allow someone to drive who has been prohibited from driving).
In Chile, the institution of pardon (indulto) is regulated in the Criminal Code (article 93, No 4o), which deals with the extinction of criminal liability. A pardon "only grants the remission or the commutation of the sentence; it does not remove the condition of having been condemned ''. The pardon may be either general, when it is granted to all those covered by a specific law passed by qualified quorum in National Congress, or particular, when it is granted by Supreme Decree of the President of the Republic. In Chile 's presidential regime, the President is the Head of State; in this capacity, he or she has the discretionary power to grant particular pardons. He or she is not obliged to seek opinion or approval from other authorities, although, the granting of pardons is limited by the norms of Law No. 18.050 (1981), and its Regulations (Decree No. 1542 of 1981 on particular pardons), which forbid particular pardons for those convicted of a crime of terrorism.
Pardons and acts of clemency (grâces) are granted by the President of France, who, ultimately, is the sole judge of the propriety of the measure. It is a prerogative of the President which is directly inherited from that of the Kings of France. The convicted person sends a request for pardon to the President of the Republic. The prosecutor of the court that pronounced the verdict reports on the case, and the case goes to the Ministry of Justice 's directorate of criminal affairs and pardons for further consideration.
If granted, the decree of pardon is signed by the President, the Prime Minister, the Minister of Justice, and possibly other ministers involved in the consideration of the case. It is not published in the Journal Officiel.
The decree may spare the applicant from serving the balance of his or her sentence, or commute the sentence to a lesser one. It does not suppress the right for the victim of the crime to obtain compensation for the damages it suffered, and does not erase the condemnation from the criminal record.
When the death penalty was in force in France, all capital sentences resulted in a presidential review for a possible clemency. Executions were carried out if and only if the President rejected clemency, by signing a document on which it was written: "decides to let justice take its course ''.
The Parliament of France, on occasions, grants amnesty. This is a different concept and procedure from that described above, although the phrase "presidential amnesty '' (amnistie présidentielle) is sometimes pejoratively applied to some acts of parliament traditionally voted upon after a presidential election, granting amnesty for minor crimes.
Similar to the United States, the right to grant pardon in Germany is divided between the federal and the state level. Federal jurisdiction in matters of criminal law is mostly restricted to appeals against decisions of state courts. Only "political '' crimes like treason or terrorism are tried on behalf of the federal government by the highest state courts. Accordingly, the category of persons eligible for a federal pardon is rather narrow. The right to grant a federal pardon lies in the office of the President of Germany, but he or she can transfer this power to other persons, such as the chancellor or the minister of justice.
In early 2007, there was a widespread public discussion about the granting of pardons in Germany after convicted Red Army Faction terrorist Christian Klar, who was serving six consecutive sentences of life imprisonment, filed a petition for pardon. President Horst Köhler ultimately denied his request.
For all other (and therefore the vast majority of) convicts, pardons are in the jurisdiction of the states. In some states it is granted by the respective cabinet, but in most states the state constitution vests the authority in the state prime minister. As on the federal level, the authority may be transferred. Amnesty can be granted only by federal law.
The Constitution of Greece grants the power of pardon to the President of the Republic (Art. 47, § 1). He / She can pardon, commute or remit punishment imposed by any court, on the proposal of the Minister of Justice and after receiving the opinion (not the consent necessarily) of the Pardon Committee.
Prior to the Transfer of the sovereignty in 1997, the power of pardon was a royal prerogative of mercy of the monarch of the United Kingdom. This was used and cited the most often in cases of inmates who had been given the death penalty: from 1965 to 1993 (when the death penalty was formally abolished) death sentences were automatically commuted to life imprisonment under the Royal Prerogative.
Since the Transfer, the Chief Executive of Hong Kong now exercises the power to grant pardons and commute penalties under section 12 of article 48 Basic Law of Hong Kong. "The Chief Executive of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region shall exercise the following powers and functions... to pardon persons convicted of criminal offences or commute their penalties ''.
Under the Constitution of India (Article 72), the President of India can grant a pardon or reduce the sentence of a convicted person, particularly in cases involving capital punishment. A similar and parallel power vests in the Governors of each State under Article 161.
The Constitution of India vests sovereign power in the President and governors. The governance in the Centre and states is carried out in the name of President and Governor respectively. A President is empowered with the power to pardon under Article 72 of the Indian Constitution. Article 72 says that the President shall have the power to grant pardons, reprieves, respites or remissions of punishment or to suspend, remit or commute the sentence of any person convicted of any offence. The meaning of these terms is as follows:
The pardoning powers of the Indian President are elucidated in Art 72 of the Indian Constitution. There are five different types of pardoning which are mandated by law. 1. Pardon: means completely absolving the person of the crime and letting him go free. The pardoned criminal will be like a normal citizen. 2. Commutation: means changing the type of punishment given to the guilty into a less harsh one, for example, a death penalty commuted to a life sentence. 3. Reprieve: means a delay allowed in the execution of a sentence, usually a death sentence, for a guilty person to allow him some time to apply for Presidential Pardon or some other legal remedy to prove his innocence or successful rehabilitation. 4. Respite: means reducing the quantum or degree of the punishment to a criminal in view of some special circumstances, like pregnancy, mental condition etc. 5. Remission: means changing the quantum of the punishment without changing its nature, for example reducing 20 year rigorous imprisonment to 10 years.
The Article 72 reads:
(1) The President shall have the power to grant pardons, reprieves, respites or remission of punishment or to suspend remit or commute the sentence of any persons convicted of any offence -
(a) in all cases where the punishment or sentence is by a court martial;
(b) in all cases where the punishment or sentence is for an offence against any law relating to a matter to which the executive power of the Union extends;
(c) in all cases where the sentence is a sentence of death.
(2) Nothing in sub - clause (a) of clause (1) shall alter the power conferred by law on any officer of the Armed Forces of the Union to suspend, remit or commute a sentence passed by a Court Martial.
(3) Nothing in sub-clause (c) of clause (1) shall affect the power to suspend remit or commute a sentence of death exercisable by the Governor of a State under any law for the time being in force.
Similarly, as per article 161: Governor of a State has the power to grant pardons, reprieves, respites or remissions of punishment or to suspend, remit or commute the sentence of any person convicted of any offence against any law relating to a matter to which the executive power of the State extends. Please note that President can grant pardon to a person awarded death sentence. But Governor of State does not enjoy this power.
The question is whether this power to grant pardon is absolute or this power of pardon shall be exercised by the President on the advice of Council of Ministers. The pardoning power of President is NOT absolute. It is governed by the advice of the Council of Ministers. This has not been discussed by the Constitution but is the practical truth. Further, the Constitution does not provide for any mechanism to question the legality of decisions of President or governors exercising mercy jurisdiction. But the SC in Epuru Sudhakar case has given a small window for judicial review of the pardon powers of President and governors for the purpose of ruling out any arbitrariness. The court has earlier held that court has retained the power of judicial review even on a matter which has been vested by the Constitution solely in the Executive.
However, it is important to note that India has a unitary legal system and there is no separate body of state law. All crimes are crimes against the Union of India. Therefore, a convention has developed that the Governor 's powers are exercised for only minor offenses, while requests for pardons and reprieves for major offenses and offenses committed in the Union Territories are deferred to the President.
Both the President and Governor are bound by the advice of their respective Councils of Ministers and hence the exercise of this power is of an executive character. It is therefore subject to Judicial Review as held by the Supreme Court of India in the case of Maru Ram v. Union of India (1980) INSC 213, 1981 (1) SCC 107, Supreme Court. It was subsequently confirmed by Kehar Singh v. Union of India (1988) INSC 370, 1989 (1) SCC 204, Supreme Court. In the case of Epuru Sudhakar & Anr vs Govt. Of A.P. & Ors (2006) INSC 638, Supreme Court, it was held that "clemency is subject to judicial review and that it can not be dispensed as a privilege or act of grace ''. The court made these observation while quashing the decision of then Governor of Andhra Pradesh Sushil Kumar Shinde in commuting the sentence of a convicted Congress activist.
In the Islamic Republic of Iran, the Supreme Leader has the power to pardon and offer clemency under Article 110, § 1, § § 11.
The Irish constitution states (in Article 13.6) that "The right of pardon and the power to commute or remit punishment imposed by any court exercising criminal jurisdiction are hereby vested in the President, but such power of commutation or remission may also be conferred by law on other authorities ''.
The power of clemency is nominally exercised by the president. However, the President of Ireland must act "on the advice '' of the Government (cabinet), so in practice the clemency decisions are made by the government of the day and the president has no discretion in the matter. The responsibility can also be delegated to people or bodies other than the president.
Amnesty and immunity, on the other hand, are usually dealt with by an Act of the Oireachtas rather than by a general form of pardon or a slate of individual pardons.
There are two methods by which a pardon may proceed:
In the first procedure, aimed at miscarriages of justice, the Minister for Justice may recommend to the Government that they formally advise the President to grant a pardon, and any conditions along with it. 1993 Criminal Procedure Act provides the method by which a person convicted of an offense may apply for a pardon. Under this procedure, the person must:
Then they can apply in writing to the Minister for Justice for a pardon. The minister may then "make or cause to be made such inquiries as they consider necessary '' and may refuse to grant the pardon on his / her own initiative, or if they think the person should be pardoned, bring such argument to cabinet.
Section six of the act allows a Minister for Justice to seek or receive a pardon request from someone whose case is not a ' miscarriage of justice ', but has some other fault, such as an archaic law, a law being misapplied by a rogue judge, a reduction in the harshness of a sentence or a substitution of a sentence, without having to go through the procedure above, gone through appeals, or presented new facts. It also allows the minister to waive the procedure in a case of miscarriage of justice if the specific case warrants it. It may also allow prospective pardons as it allows the minister to pardon someone who has not been convicted yet, which the other procedure requires.
The government itself may assemble a committee to study the case in more detail on their behalf. This may consist of anyone, and any number, but the chair must be:
This special committee may look to any material it sees fit to make its decision, even if it was not, or would not be, available to a jury or trial judge in a normal court. The government do not have to be bound by the committee recommendations.
Under Section 7 (5) of the act, the same powers of the Minister for Justice apply to the Minister for Defense in the case of military officers and enlisted convicted by courts martial.
The Minister for Justice or Defense may also, in their absolute discretion, pay compensation, determined by them alone, to any person given a pardon, if this compensation is applied for. If they think the compensation is too low they may challenge for a higher figure in the High Court.
List of people who have received a Presidential Pardon since 1938
The power is used very infrequently compared to, for example, pardons in the United States.
In Israel the President has the power to pardon criminals or give them clemency. The pardon is given following a recommendation by the Minister of Justice.
After the Kav 300 affair, President Chaim Herzog issued a pardon to four members of the Shin Bet prior to them being indicted. This unusual act was the first of its kind in Israel.
In Italy, the President of the Republic may "grant pardons, or commute punishments '' according to article 87 of the Italian Constitution. Like other acts of the president, the pardon requires the countersignature of the competent government minister. The Constitutional Court of Italy has ruled that the Minister of Justice is obliged to sign acts of pardon.
The pardon may remove the punishment altogether or change its form. Unless the decree of pardon states otherwise, the pardon does not remove any incidental effects of a criminal conviction, such as a mention in a certificate of conduct (174 c.p.) or the loss of civil rights.
According to article 79 of the Italian Constitution the Parliament may grant amnesty (article 151 c.p.) and pardon (article 174 c.p.) by law deliberated a majority of two thirds of the components. The last general pardon, discounting 3 years from sentences, was approved in 2006.
In Poland, the President is granted the right of pardon by Article 139 of the Constitution of the Republic of Poland. As of October 2008, 7,819 people were pardoned, while 3,046 people 's appeals were declined.
The President of the Russian Federation is granted the right of pardon by Article 89 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation. The chain of pardon committees manage lists of people eligible for pardon and directs them to the President for signing. While President Boris Yeltsin frequently used his power of pardon (1998 - 7, 8 thousand cases), his successor Vladimir Putin is much more hesitant; he granted five pardons in 2014 and two in 2015.
Pardon can be requested in any time. The next request can be submitted in minimum one year after the previous one.
Under section 84 (2) (j) of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 (Act 108 of 1996), the President of the Republic of South Africa is responsible for pardoning or reprieving offenders. This power of the President is only exercised in highly exceptional cases.
To pardon a person is to forgive a person for his / her deeds. The pardon process is therefore not available to persons who maintain their innocence and is not an advanced form of appeal procedure.
Pardon is only granted for minor offences after a period of ten years has elapsed since the relevant conviction.
For many serious offences (for example if the relevant court viewed the offence in such a serious light that direct imprisonment was imposed) pardon will not be granted even if more than ten years have elapsed since the conviction.
The derecho de gracia ("right of grace '') or indulto ("pardon '') is acknowledged by the Spanish Constitution of 1978 as a privilege of the King of Spain (article 62. i: "Functions of the King ''). The Spanish Constitution defines it as a renounce on the State 's part of its own punitive power on behalf of an individual, founded on reasons of equity or public interest. The Constitution subjects royal pardons to the Law and forbids general pardons, so they have to be granted individually. Theoretically, a royal pardon can be granted for a general offense or accessory offenses alone; if it is granted for a general offense, the accessory ones it implies are also pardoned, with the exception of punishments involving political rights (i.e., removal of the right to run for a public office as a result of a sentence), which have to be explicitly mentioned in the pardon decree if they are going to be pardoned.
The procedure and requirements for the grant of the pardon are given by the Law of 18 June 1870, modified by the Law 1 / 1988 of 14 January. The application for royal pardon has to be carried out by the convicted person himself, his relatives or any other person in his name. The convicting court will then issue a report of the case, which shall be considered along with the public comments of the Prosecutor and the victims of the crime if there were any. All of this is gathered by the Minister of Justice, who will present the pardon issue to the Cabinet of Ministers. If the Cabinet decides a pardon should be granted, then the Minister of Justice will recommend as such to the King. Pardons are issued by Royal Decree and have to be published in the Boletín Oficial del Estado ("Public Journal '').
Pardons are not commonly conceded in Spain but for offenders convicted for minor crimes who are about to complete their sentence and have shown good behaviour and repentance. Dating back to medieval times, several organisations and religious brotherhoods still hold the right of granting pardons as part of some privilege or other granted to them by the King of Spain. The scope of this privilege depends on the royal charter received by the organisation when their right to concede pardons was granted, though it usually holds only for minor offenses in very especial conditions; this right is implicitly acknowledged by the public offices nowadays, though it is not exercised but following the usual procedure for royal pardons. Traditionally, they will propose some petty criminal about to end his sentence for pardon being granted to him, and he / she will be released following the tradition to which the pardon holds, usually during the Holy Week. This type of pardons are distinguished from the usual ones in that they only release the prisoner from jail, halting the sentence, but do not pardon the offense itself.
In Switzerland, pardons may be granted by the Swiss Federal Assembly for crimes prosecuted by the federal authorities. For crimes under cantonal jurisdiction, cantonal law designates the authority competent to grant pardons (if any). In most cantons, the cantonal parliament may pardon felonies, and the cantonal government may pardon misdemeanors and minor infractions.
The president of Turkey is granted the right of pardon under certain circumstances defined in the constitution, article 104. According to the article, the president can "remit, on grounds of chronic illness, disability, or old age, all or part of the sentences imposed on certain individuals ''. After the convict 's or his or her proxy 's application, if the Council of Forensic Medicine determines that the convict suffers from chronic illness, disability, or old age, the Ministry of Justice presents the situation to the president, and the president can choose to grant a pardon.
Additionally, the parliament of Turkey has the power to announce general amnesty.
The power to grant pardons and reprieves in the United Kingdom is known as the Royal prerogative of mercy. It was traditionally in the absolute power of the monarch to pardon an individual for a crime, whether or not he or she had been convicted, and thereby commute any penalty; the power was then delegated both to the judiciary and the Sovereign 's ministers. Since the creation of legal rights of appeal, the Royal prerogative of mercy is no longer exercised by the person of the sovereign, or by the judiciary, but only by the government.
In constitutional terms, under the doctrine of the Rule of Law, the power of ministers to overrule the judiciary by commuting criminal sanctions imposed resolves different and sometimes conflicting public interests. In civil matters, only the legislative branch, and not ministers, have the power to override the judiciary.
Until the nineteenth century, for many crimes the sentence was mandatory and was formally pronounced in court immediately upon conviction, but judges and ministers were given powers to exercise the Royal prerogative of mercy out of court, in order to mitigate the rigour of the law. Before there was any general form of criminal appeal, a judge might grant a pardon either by way of clemency, because he felt in his opinion that the law was unduly harsh (for example, in the case of convictions of minors), that the verdict was dubious, that to seek public approval, or it was otherwise in the public interest. Capital sentences imposed by the Assizes were generally executed when the Assize was concluded and as the circuit judge left the town, so there was a limited window of time to apply to a judge or directly to the Crown for a pardon. Especially for Assizes that were far away from the then capital and major cities of London, York, Durham, Edinburgh, or Dublin, a pardon might well arrive too late. Perhaps as a form of temporary punishment, to give solace, to avoid public disorder, to consult or obtain further evidence, or to maximise the public approval of the King 's mercy, judges often did not grant their pardons until their departures; the convict often hoped until his last moments that the sentence of death would not actually be executed, and it was generally popular for a reprieve to arrive at the scaffold at the very moment of the execution.
Conditional pardons were granted to many in the 18th century, in return for transportation to British colonies overseas for life in lieu, especially to the Australian Colonies.
The first known General Pardon in post-Conquest England was issued during the celebrations at the coronation of King Edward III in 1327. In 2006, all soldiers from England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland who were executed for cowardice during the First World War were given a statutory pardon by an Act of Parliament, resolving a long - running controversy about the justice of their executions. (See the Armed Forces Act 2006.)
Today the Sovereign only grants pardons upon the advice of her ministers: currently they are the Secretary of State for Justice, for England and Wales, the First Minister of Scotland, or the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland. The Secretary of State for Defence is responsible for military cases. It is the standard policy of the Government to only grant pardons to those who are considered "morally '' innocent of the offence, as opposed to those who may have been wrongly convicted by a misapplication of the law. Pardons are generally no longer issued prior to a conviction, but only after the conviction. The use of the Royal prerogative of mercy is now a rare occurrence, given that the Criminal Cases Review Commission and the Scottish Criminal Cases Review Commission are now avenues to statutory remedies against miscarriages of justice.
Therefore, the grant of pardons is now very rare occurrence indeed, and the vast majority of acknowledged miscarriages of justice were decided upon by the courts. During the Birmingham Six case, Home Secretary Douglas Hurd stressed that he could only make the decision for a pardon if he was "convinced of (their) innocence '', which at the time he was not.
One recent case was that of two drug smugglers, John Haase and Paul Bennett. They were pardoned in July 1996 from their sentences of imprisonment both of 18 years, having served some ten months, on the advice of Home Secretary Michael Howard. This was intended as a reward for their information given to the authorities, but there were speculations as to the motives of the Home Secretary. In 2008 they were sentenced to imprisonment for 20 and 22 years, respectively, after subsequent discovery that their information given was unreliable.
In 1980, after the courts had dismissed their appeals, the Home Secretary, William Whitelaw, used the Royal prerogative of mercy to free David Cooper and Michael McMahon from their imprisonment, both having been convicted of murder on poor evidence.
Under the Act of Settlement, a pardon can not prevent a person from being impeached by Parliament, but a pardon may commute any penalties imposed for the conviction. In England and Wales no person may be pardoned for an offence under Section 11 of the Habeas Corpus Act 1679 (unlawfully transporting prisoners out of England and Wales).
In the United States, the pardon power for federal crimes is granted to the President of the United States under Article II, Section 2 of the United States Constitution which states that the President "shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment ''. The U.S. Supreme Court has interpreted this language to include the power to grant pardons, conditional pardons, commutations of sentence, conditional commutations of sentence, remissions of fines and forfeitures, respites, and amnesties.
All federal pardon petitions are addressed to the President, who grants or denies the request. Typically, applications for pardons are referred for review and non-binding recommendation by the Office of the Pardon Attorney, an official of the United States Department of Justice. The percentage of pardons and reprieves granted varies from administration to administration; however, fewer pardons have been granted since World War II.
The pardon power has been controversial from the enactment of the United States Constitution.
The pardon power of the President extends only to an offense recognizable under federal law. However, the governors of most of the 50 states have the power to grant pardons or reprieves for offenses under state criminal law. In other states, that power is committed to an appointed agency or board, or to a board and the governor in some hybrid arrangement (in some states the agency is merged with that of the parole board, as in the Oklahoma Pardon and Parole Board).
Nine states in the United States have Boards of Pardons and Paroles that exclusively grant all state pardons. These states are: Alabama (Board of Pardons and Paroles), Connecticut (Board of Pardons and Paroles), Georgia (Board of Pardons and Paroles), Idaho (Commission of Pardons and Paroles), Minnesota (Board of Pardons), Nebraska (Board of Pardons), Nevada (Board of Pardon Commissioners), South Carolina (Board of Probation, Parole and Pardon), and Utah (Board of Pardons and Parole).
On at least three occasions, state governors -- George Ryan of Illinois in 2003, Toney Anaya of New Mexico in 1986 and Martin O'Malley of Maryland in 2014 -- have commuted all death sentences in their respective states prior to leaving office.
These terms differ subtly from country to country, but generally:
Some criminals who testify for the prosecution put their life in jeopardy by doing so. To encourage witnesses to testify, the government may offer witness protection. In the United States Federal Witness Protection Program, about "95 % of (witnesses in the program) are... criminals. '' Those who testify for the prosecution may be offered immunity from prosecution for their own crimes.
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which city is known as manchester of india | List of cities and towns in India by nicknames - Wikipedia
This partial list of city nicknames in India compiles the aliases, sobriquets and slogans that cities in India are known by (or have been known by) historically, officially, or unofficially, to locals, outsiders, or their tourism chambers of commerce.
Gold capital of India
Chandrapur - Black Golden City
The silver city of India
Steel city of Odisha
Royal Heritage City of West Bengal
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who established the first permanent french settlement in the new world | French colonization of the Americas - wikipedia
The French colonization of the Americas began in the 16th century, and continued on into the following centuries as France established a colonial empire in the Western Hemisphere. France founded colonies in much of eastern North America, on a number of Caribbean islands, and in South America. Most colonies were developed to export products such as fish, sugar, and furs.
As they colonized the New World, the French established forts and settlements that would become such cities as Quebec and Montreal in Canada; Detroit, Green Bay, St. Louis, Cape Girardeau, Mobile, Biloxi, Baton Rouge and New Orleans in the United States; and Port - au - Prince, Cap - Haïtien (founded as Cap - Français) in Haiti, Cayenne in French Guiana and São Luís (founded as Saint - Louis de Maragnan) in Brazil.
The French first came to the New World as explorers, seeking a route to the Pacific Ocean and wealth. Major French exploration of North America began under the rule of Francis I, King of France. In 1524, Francis sent Italian - born Giovanni da Verrazzano to explore the region between Florida and Newfoundland for a route to the Pacific Ocean. Verrazzano gave the names Francesca and Nova Gallia to that land between New Spain and English Newfoundland, thus promoting French interests.
In 1534, Francis I of France sent Jacques Cartier on the first of three voyages to explore the coast of Newfoundland and the St. Lawrence River. He founded New France by planting a cross on the shore of the Gaspé Peninsula. The French subsequently tried to establish several colonies throughout North America that failed, due to weather, disease, or conflict with other European powers. Cartier attempted to create the first permanent European settlement in North America at Cap - Rouge (Quebec City) in 1541 with 400 settlers but the settlement was abandoned the next year after bad weather and attacks from Native Americans in the area. A small group of French troops were left on Parris Island, South Carolina in 1562 to build Charlesfort, but left after a year when they were not resupplied by France. Fort Caroline established in present - day Jacksonville, Florida, in 1564, lasted only a year before being destroyed by the Spanish from St. Augustine. An attempt to settle convicts on Sable Island off Nova Scotia in 1598 failed after a short time. In 1599, a sixteen - person trading post was established in Tadoussac (in present - day Quebec), of which only five men survived the first winter. In 1604, Saint Croix Island in Acadia was the site of a short - lived French colony, much plagued by illness, perhaps scurvy. The following year the settlement was moved to Port Royal.
Samuel de Champlain founded Quebec (1608) and explored the Great Lakes. In 1634, Jean Nicolet founded La Baye des Puants (present - day Green Bay), which is one of the oldest permanent European settlements in America. In 1634, Sieur de Laviolette founded Trois - Rivières. In 1642, Paul de Chomedey, Sieur de Maisonneuve, founded Fort Ville - Marie which is now known as Montreal. Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette founded Sault Sainte Marie (1668) and Saint Ignace (1671) and explored the Mississippi River. At the end of the 17th century, René - Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle established a network of forts going from the Gulf of Mexico to the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River. Fort Saint Louis was established in Texas in 1685, but was gone by 1688. Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac founded Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit (modern - day Detroit) in 1701 and Jean - Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville founded La Nouvelle Orléans (New Orleans) in 1718. Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville founded Baton Rouge in 1719.
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The French were eager to explore North America but New France remained largely unpopulated. Due to the lack of women, intermarriages between French and Indians were frequent, giving rise to the Métis people. Relations between the French and Indians were usually peaceful. As the 19th - century historian Francis Parkman stated:
"Spanish civilization crushed the Indian; English civilization scorned and neglected him; French civilization embraced and cherished him ''
To boost the French population, Cardinal Richelieu issued an act declaring that Indians converted to Catholicism were considered as "natural Frenchmen '' by the Ordonnance of 1627:
"The descendants of the French who are accustomed to this country (New France), together with all the Indians who will be brought to the knowledge of the faith and will profess it, shall be deemed and renowned natural Frenchmen, and as such may come to live in France when they want, and acquire, donate, and succeed and accept donations and legacies, just as true French subjects, without being required to take no letters of declaration of naturalization. ''
Louis XIV also tried to increase the population by sending approximately 800 young women nicknamed the "King 's Daughters ''. However, the low density of population in New France remained a very persistent problem. At the beginning of the French and Indian War (1754 -- 1763), the British population in North America outnumbered the French 20 to 1. France fought a total of six colonial wars in North America (see the four French and Indian Wars as well as Father Rale 's War and Father Le Loutre 's War).
In 1562, Charles IX, under the leadership of Admiral Gaspard de Coligny sent Jean Ribault and a group of Huguenot settlers in an attempt to colonize the Atlantic coast and found a colony on a territory which will take the name of the French Florida. They discovered the probe and Port Royal Island, which will be called by Parris Island in South Carolina, on which he built a fort named Charlesfort. The group, led by René Goulaine de Laudonnière, moved to the south where they founded the Fort Caroline on the Saint John 's river in Florida on June 22, 1564.
This irritated the Spanish who claimed Florida and opposed the Protestant settlers for religious reasons. In 1565, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés led a group of Spaniards and founded Saint Augustine, 60 kilometers south of Fort Caroline. Fearing a Spanish attack, Ribault planned to move the colony but a storm suddenly destroyed his fleet. On 20 September 1565 the Spaniards, commanded by Menéndez de Avilés, attacked and massacred all the Fort Caroline occupants including Jean Ribault.
The French interest in Canada focused first on fishing off the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. However, at the beginning of the 17th century, France was more interested in fur from North America. The fur trading post of Tadoussac was founded in 1600. Four years later, Champlain made his first trip to Canada in a trade mission for fur. Although he had no formal mandate on this trip, he sketched a map of the St. Lawrence River and in writing, on his return to France, a report entitled Savages (Relation of his stay in a tribe of Montagnais near Tadoussac).
Champlain needed to report his findings to Henry IV. He participated in another expedition to New France in the spring of 1604, conducted by Pierre Du Gua de Monts. It helped the foundation of a settlement on Saint Croix Island, the first French settlement in the New World, which would be given up the following winter. The expedition then founded the colony of Port - Royal.
In 1608, Champlain founded a fur post that would become the city of Quebec, which would become the capital of New France. In Quebec, Champlain forged alliances between France and the Huron and Ottawa against their traditional enemies, the Iroquois. Champlain and other French travelers then continued to explore North America, with canoes made from Birch bark, to move quickly through the Great Lakes and their tributaries. In 1634, the Normand explorer Jean Nicolet pushed his exploration to the West up to Wisconsin.
Following the capitulation of Quebec by the Kirke brothers, the British occupied the city of Quebec and Canada from 1629 to 1632. Samuel de Champlain was taken prisoner and there followed the bankruptcy of the Company of One Hundred Associates. Following the Treaty of Saint - Germain - en - Laye, France took possession of the colony in 1632. The city of Trois - Rivières was founded in 1634. In 1642, the Angevin Jérôme le Royer de la Dauversière founded Ville - Marie (later Montreal) which was at that time, a fort as protection against Iroquois attacks (the first great Iroquois war lasted from 1642 to 1667).
Despite this rapid expansion, the colony developed very slowly. The Iroquois wars and diseases were the leading causes of death in the French colony. In 1663 when Louis XIV provided the Royal Government, the population of New France was only 2500 European inhabitants. That year, to increase the population, Louis XIV sent between 800 and 900 ' King 's Daughters ' to become the wives of French settlers. The population of New France reached subsequently 7000 in 1674 and 15000 in 1689.
From 1689 to 1713, the French settlers were faced with almost incessant war during the French and Indian Wars. From 1689 to 1697, they fought the British in the Nine Years ' War. The war against the Iroquois continued even after the Treaty of Rijswijk until 1701, when the two parties agreed on peace. Then, the war against the English took over in the War of the Spanish Succession. In 1690 and 1711, Quebec City had successfully resisted the attacks of the English navy and then British army. Nevertheless, the British took advantage of the second war. With the signing of the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, France ceded to Britain Acadia (with a population of 1700 people), Newfoundland and Hudson Bay. Under the Sovereign Council, the population of the colony grew faster. However, the population growth was far inferior to that of the British Thirteen Colonies to the south. In the middle of the 18th century, New France accounted for 60,000 people while the British colonies had more than one million people. This placed the colony at a great military disadvantage against the British. The war between the colonies resumed in 1744, lasting until 1748. A final and decisive war began in 1754. The Canadiens and the French were helped by numerous alliances with Native Americans, but they were usually outnumbered on the battlefield.
On May 17, 1673, explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette began exploring the Mississippi River, known to the Sioux as does Tongo, or to the Miami - Illinois as missisipioui (the great river). They reached the mouth of the Arkansas and then up the river, after learning that it flowed into the Gulf of Mexico and not to the California Sea (Pacific Ocean).
In 1682, the Normand Cavelier de la Salle and the Italian Henri de Tonti came down the Mississippi to its Delta. They left from Fort Crevecoeur on the Illinois River, along with 23 French and 18 Native Americans. In April 1682, they arrived at the mouth of the Mississippi; they planted a cross and a column bearing the arms of the king of France. La Salle returned to France and won over the Secretary of State of the Navy to give him the command of Louisiana. He believed that it was close to New Spain by drawing a map on which the Mississippi seemed much further west than its actual rate. He set up a maritime expedition with four ships and 320 emigrants, but it ended in disaster when he failed to find the Mississippi Delta and was killed in 1687.
In 1698, Pierre LeMoyne d'Iberville left La Rochelle and explored the area around the mouth of the Mississippi. He stopped between Isle - aux - Chats (now Cat Island) and Isle Surgeres (renamed Isle - aux - Vascular or Ship Island) on February 13, 1699 and continued his explorations to the mainland, with his brother Jean - Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville to Biloxi. He built a precarious fort, called ' Maurepas ' (later ' Old Biloxi '), before returning to France. He returned twice in the Gulf of Mexico and established a fort at Mobile in 1702.
From 1699 to 1702, Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville was governor of Louisiana. His brother succeeded him in that post from 1702 to 1713. He was again governor from 1716 to 1724 and again 1733 to 1743. In 1718, Jean - Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville commanded a French expedition in Louisiana. He founded the city of New Orleans, in homage to Regent Duke of Orleans. The architect Adrian de Pauger drew the orthogonal plane of the Old Square.
In 1718, there were only 700 Europeans in Louisiana. The Mississippi Company arranged for ships to bring 800 more, who landed in Louisiana in 1718, doubling the European population. John Law encouraged Germans, particularly Germans of the Alsatian region who had recently fallen under French rule, and the Swiss to emigrate.
Prisoners were set free in Paris in September 1719 onwards, under the condition that they marry prostitutes and go with them to Louisiana. The newly married couples were chained together and taken to the port of embarkation. In May 1720, after complaints from the Mississippi Company and the concessioners about this class of French immigrants, the French government prohibited such deportations. However, there was a third shipment of prisoners in 1721.
The last French and Indian War resulted in the dissolution of New France, with Canada going to Great Britain and Louisiana going to Spain. Only the islands of Saint - Pierre - et - Miquelon are still in French hands.
In 1802 Spain returned Louisiana to France, but Napoleon sold it to the United States in 1803. The French left many toponyms (Illinois, Vermont, Bayous...) and ethnonyms (Sioux, Coeur d'Alene, Nez Percé...) in North America.
A major French settlement lay on the island of Hispaniola, where France established the colony of Saint - Domingue on the western third of the island in 1664. Nicknamed the "Pearl of the Antilles '', Saint - Domingue became the richest colony in the Caribbean due to slave plantation production of sugar cane. It had the highest slave mortality rate in the western hemisphere. A 1791 slave revolt, the only ever successful slave revolt, began the Haitian Revolution, led to freedom for the colony 's slaves in 1794 and, a decade later, complete independence for the country, which renamed itself Haiti. France briefly also ruled the eastern portion of the island, which is now the Dominican Republic.
During the 17th and 18th centuries, France ruled much of the Lesser Antilles at various times. Islands that came under French rule during part or all of this time include Dominica, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Marie - Galante, Martinique, St. Barthélemy, St. Croix, St. Kitts, St. Lucia, St. Martin, St. Vincent and Tobago. Control of many of these islands was contested between the French, the British and the Dutch; in the case of St. Martin, the island was divided in two, a situation that persists to this day. Great Britain captured some of France 's islands during the Seven Years ' War and the Napoleonic Wars. Following the latter conflict, France retained control of Guadeloupe, Martinique, Marie - Galante, St. Barthélemy, and its portion of St. Martin; all remain part of France today. Guadeloupe (including Marie - Galante and other nearby islands) and Martinique each is an overseas department of France, while St. Barthélemy and St. Martin each became an overseas collectivity of France in 2007.
France Antarctique (formerly also spelled France antartique) was a French colony south of the Equator, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, which existed between 1555 and 1567, and had control over the coast from Rio de Janeiro to Cabo Frio. The colony quickly became a haven for the Huguenots, and was ultimately destroyed by the Portuguese in 1567. On November 1, 1555, French vice-admiral Nicolas Durand de Villegaignon (1510 -- 1575), a Catholic knight of the Order of Malta, who later would help the Huguenots to find a refuge against persecution, led a small fleet of two ships and 600 soldiers and colonists, and took possession of the small island of Serigipe in the Guanabara Bay, in front of present - day Rio de Janeiro, where they built a fort named Fort Coligny. The fort was named in honor of Gaspard de Coligny (then a Catholic statesman, who about a year later would become a Huguenot), an admiral who supported the expedition and would use the colony in order to protect his co-religionists. To the still largely undeveloped mainland village, Villegaignon gave the name of Henriville, in honour of Henry II, the King of France, who also knew of and approved the expedition, and had provided the fleet for the trip. Villegaignon secured his position by making an alliance with the Tamoio and Tupinambá Indians of the region, who were fighting the Portuguese.
Unchallenged by the Portuguese, who initially took little notice of his landing, Villegaignon endeavoured to expand the colony by calling for more colonists in 1556. He sent one of his ships, the Grande Roberge, to Honfleur, entrusted with letters to King Henry II, Gaspard de Coligny and according to some accounts, the Protestant leader John Calvin. After one ship was sent to France to ask for additional support, three ships were financed and prepared by the king of France and put under the command of Sieur De Bois le Comte, a nephew of Villegagnon. They were joined by 14 Calvinists from Geneva, led by Philippe de Corguilleray, including theologians Pierre Richier and Guillaume Chartrier. The new colonists, numbering around 300, included 5 young women to be wed, 10 boys to be trained as translators, as well as 14 Calvinists sent by Calvin, and also Jean de Léry, who would later write an account of the colony. They arrived in March 1557. The relief fleet was composed of: The Petite Roberge, with 80 soldiers and sailors was led by Vice Admiral Sieur De Bois le Comte. The Grande Roberge, with about 120 on board, captained by Sieur de Sainte - Marie dit l'Espine. The Rosée, with about 90 people, led by Captain Rosée. Doctrinal disputes arose between Villegagnon and the Calvinists, especially in relation to the Eucharist, and in October 1557 the Calvinists were banished from Coligny island as a result. They settled among the Tupinamba until January 1558, when some of them managed to return to France by ship together with Jean de Léry, and five others chose to return to Coligny island where three of them were drowned by Villegagnon for refusing to recant.
In 1560 Mem de Sá, the new Governor - General of Brazil, received from the Portuguese government the command to expel the French. With a fleet of 26 warships and 2,000 soldiers, on 15 March 1560, he attacked and destroyed Fort Coligny within three days, but was unable to drive off their inhabitants and defenders, because they escaped to the mainland with the help of the Native Brazilians, where they continued to live and to work. Admiral Villegaignon had returned to France in 1558, disgusted with the religious tension that existed between French Protestants and Catholics, who had come also with the second group (see French Wars of Religion). Urged by two influential Jesuit priests who had come to Brazil with Mem de Sá, named José de Anchieta and Manuel da Nóbrega, and who had played a big role in pacifying the Tamoios, Mem de Sá ordered his nephew, Estácio de Sá to assemble a new attack force. Estácio de Sá founded the city of Rio de Janeiro on March 1, 1565, and fought the Frenchmen for two more years. Helped by a military reinforcement sent by his uncle, on January 20, 1567, he imposed final defeat on the French forces and decisively expelled them from Brazil, but died a month later from wounds inflicted in the battle. Coligny 's and Villegaignon 's dream had lasted a mere 12 years.
Equinoctial France was the contemporary name given to the colonization efforts of France in the 17th century in South America, around the line of Equator, before "tropical '' had fully gained its modern meaning: Equinoctial means in Latin "of equal nights '', i.e., on the Equator, where the duration of days and nights is nearly the same year round. The French colonial empire in the New World also included New France (Nouvelle France) in North America, particularly in what is today the province of Quebec, Canada, and for a very short period (12 years) also Antarctic France (France Antarctique, in French), in present - day Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. All of these settlements were in violation of the papal bull of 1493, which divided the New World between Spain and Portugal. This division was later defined more exactly by the Treaty of Tordesillas.
France Équinoxiale started in 1612, when a French expedition departed from Cancale, Brittany, France, under the command of Daniel de la Touche, Seigneur de la Ravardière, and François de Razilly, admiral. Carrying 500 colonists, it arrived in the Northern coast of what is today the Brazilian state of Maranhão. De la Ravardière had discovered the region in 1604 but the death of the king postponed his plans to start its colonization. The colonists soon founded a village, which was named "Saint - Louis '', in honor of the French king Louis IX. This later became São Luís in Portuguese, (1) the only Brazilian state capital founded by France. On 8 September, Capuchin friars prayed the first mass, and the soldiers started building a fortress. An important difference in relation to France Antarctique is that this new colony was not motivated by escape from religious persecutions to Protestants (see French Wars of Religion). The colony did not last long. A Portuguese army assembled in the Captaincy of Pernambuco, under the command of Alexandre de Moura, was able to mount a military expedition, which defeated and expelled the French colonists in 1615, less than four years after their arrival in the land. Thus, it repeated the disaster spelt for the colonists of France Antarctique, in 1567. A few years later, in 1620, Portuguese and Brazilian colonists arrived in number and São Luís started to develop, with an economy based mostly in sugar cane and slavery.
French traders and colonists tried again to settle a France Équinoxiale further North, in what is today French Guiana, in 1626, 1635 (when the capital, Cayenne, was founded) and 1643. Twice a Compagnie de la France Équinoxiale was founded, in 1643 and 1645, but both foundered as a result of misfortune and mismanagement. It was only after 1674, when the colony came under the direct control of the French crown and a competent Governor took office, that France Équinoxiale became a reality. To this day, French Guiana is a department of France.
French Guiana was first settled by the French in 1604, although its earliest settlements were abandoned in the face of hostilities from the indigenous population and tropical diseases. The settlement of Cayenne was established in 1643, but was abandoned. It was re-established in the 1660s. Except for brief occupations by the English and Dutch in the 17th century, and by the Portuguese in the 19th century, Guiana has remained under French rule ever since. From 1851 to 1951 it was the site of a notorious penal colony, Devil 's Island (Île du Diable). Since 1946, French Guiana has been an overseas department of France.
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when are national elections held in the united states | Election Day (United states) - wikipedia
In the United States, Election Day is the day set by law for the general elections of federal public officials. It is statutorily set as "the Tuesday next after the first Monday in the month of November '' or "the first Tuesday after November 1 ''. The earliest possible date is November 2, and the latest possible date is November 8.
For federal offices (President, Vice President, and United States Congress), Election Day occurs only in even - numbered years. Presidential elections are held every four years, in years divisible by four, in which electors for President and Vice President are chosen according to the method determined by each state. Elections to the United States House of Representatives and the United States Senate are held every two years; all Representatives are elected to serve two - year terms and are up for election every two years, while Senators serve six - year terms, staggered so that one third of Senators are elected in any given general election. General elections in which presidential candidates are not on the ballot are referred to as midterm elections. Terms for those elected begin in January the following year; the President and Vice President are inaugurated ("sworn in '') on Inauguration Day, which is usually on January 20.
Many state and local government offices are also elected on Election Day as a matter of convenience and cost saving, although a handful of states hold elections for state offices (such as governor) during odd - numbered "off years '', or during other even - numbered "midterm years '', and may hold special elections for offices that have become vacant. Congress has mandated a uniform date for presidential (3 U.S.C. § 1) and congressional (2 U.S.C. § 1 and 2 U.S.C. § 7) elections, though early voting is nonetheless authorized in many states.
Election Day is a civic holiday in some states, including Delaware, Hawaii, Kentucky, Montana, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, West Virginia, and the territory of Puerto Rico. Some other states require that workers be permitted to take time off with pay. California Elections Code Section 14000 provides that employees otherwise unable to vote must be allowed two hours off with pay, at the beginning or end of a shift. A federal holiday, Democracy Day, to coincide with Election Day has been proposed. Other movements in the IT and automotive industries encourage employers to voluntarily give their employees paid time off on Election Day.
No federal law regulated the 1788 federal election. In 1792, federal law permitted each state to conduct presidential elections in the state (i.e., to choose their electors) at any time in a 34 - day period before the first Wednesday of December, which was the day set for the meeting of the electors of the U.S. president and vice-president (the Electoral College), in their respective states. This gave each state some flexibility in the holding of their elections. An election date in November was seen as convenient because the harvest would have been completed (important in an agrarian society) and the winter - like storms would not yet have begun in earnest (especially an advantage in the days before paved roads and snowplows). However, in this arrangement the states that voted later could be influenced by a candidate 's victories in the states that voted earlier, a problem later exacerbated by improved communications via train and telegraph. In close elections, the states that voted last might well determine the outcome.
A uniform date for choosing presidential electors was instituted by the Congress in 1845. Many theories have been advanced as to why the Congress settled on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The actual reasons, as shown in records of Congressional debate on the bill in December 1844, were fairly prosaic. The bill initially set the day for choosing presidential electors on "the first Tuesday in November, '' in years divisible by four (1848, 1852, etc.). But it was pointed out that in some years the period between the first Tuesday in November and the first Wednesday in December (when the electors are required to meet in their state capitals to vote) would be more than 34 days, in violation of the existing Electoral College law. So, the bill was reworded to move the date for choosing presidential electors to the Tuesday after the first Monday in November, a date scheme already used in New York. The period between Election Day and the first Wednesday in December is always 29 days. The effect of the change was to make November 2 the earliest day on which Election Day may fall.
In 1845, the United States was largely an agrarian society. Farmers often needed a full day to travel by horse - drawn vehicles to the county seat to vote. Tuesday was established as election day because it did not interfere with the Biblical Sabbath or with market day, which was on Wednesday in many towns.
In modern times, the United States is no longer primarily an agrarian society, and Tuesday is now normally a work day throughout the country with most voters working on that day. This has led activists to object to Election Day being on a Tuesday on the grounds that it decreases voter turnout. They advocate either making Election Day a federal holiday or allowing voters to cast their ballots over two or more days. Activists also encourage workplaces to allow their employees paid time off in lieu of such mandates and encourage voters to make use of early voting and postal voting facilities when available and convenient.
Several commentators have noted the irony of Election Day being a regular working day, while Veterans Day, which typically falls on November 11, is a federal holiday. Many have called for the holidays to be merged, so citizens can have a day off to vote. This would be seen as a way to honor veterans by exercising the democratic right to vote.
Delaware, Hawaii, Kentucky, Montana, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, West Virginia, and the territory of Puerto Rico have declared Election Day a civic holiday. Some other states require that workers be permitted to take time off from employment without loss of pay. California Elections Code Section 14000 and New York State Election Law provide that employees without sufficient time to vote must be allowed two hours off with pay, at the beginning or end of a shift. Democracy Day, a planned federal holiday to coincide with Election Day, was unsuccessfully proposed in the U.S. House of Representatives and the U.S. Senate in 2005. It was later reintroduced in the Senate in 2014 and has not been enacted.
Some employers allow their employees to come in late or leave early on Election Day to allow them an opportunity to get to their precinct and vote. The United Auto Workers union has negotiated making Election Day a holiday for workers of U.S. domestic auto manufacturers. In July 2016, venture capitalist Hunter Walk began encouraging tech companies to give their employees time off to vote on Election Day. Walk 's campaign evolved into a website, TakeOffElectionDay.com, which now highlights the 140 + tech companies (including Spotify, Wikimedia Foundation, Autodesk, and Square, Inc.) that are giving their employees time to vote on Election Day.
Most states allow for early voting, allowing voters to cast ballots before the Election Day. Early voting periods vary from 4 to 50 days prior to Election Day. Unconditional early voting in person is allowed in 32 states and in D.C. Also, most states have some kind of absentee ballot system. Unconditional absentee voting by mail is allowed in 27 states and D.C., and with an excuse in another 21 states. Unconditional permanent absentee voting is allowed in 7 states and in D.C.
In Colorado, Oregon and Washington State all major elections are by postal voting, with ballot papers sent to voters several weeks before Election Day. In Colorado and Oregon, all postal votes must be received by a set time on Election Day, as is common with absentee ballots in most states (except overseas military ballots, which receive more time by federal law). Washington State requires postal votes be postmarked by Election Day. For the 2008 presidential election, 32 % of votes were early votes.
Elected offices of municipalities, counties (in most states), and other local entities (such as school boards and other special - purpose districts) have their elections subject to rules of their state, and in some states, they vary according to choices of the jurisdiction in question. For instance, in Connecticut, all towns, cities, and boroughs hold elections in every odd - numbered year, but as of 2004, 16 have them on the first Monday in May, while the other 153 are on Election Day. In Massachusetts, the 50 cities are required to hold their elections on Election Day, but the 301 towns may choose any date, and most have traditionally held their elections in early spring, after the last snowfall.
(federal) = federal holidays, (state) = state holidays, (religious) = religious holidays, (week) = weeklong holidays, (month) = monthlong holidays, (36) = Title 36 Observances and Ceremonies Bold indicates major holidays commonly celebrated in the United States, which often represent the major celebrations of the month.
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when do new episodes of hawaii five o start | Hawaii Five - 0 (2010 TV series) - Wikipedia
Hawaii Five - 0 is an American action police procedural television series, which premiered on Monday, September 20, 2010 on CBS. The series is a reboot of the original series, which aired on CBS from 1968 to 1980. Like the original series, the show follows an elite state police task force which is set up to fight major crimes in the state of Hawaii. The series is produced by K / O Paper Products and 101st Street Television in association with CBS Productions, originally an in - name - only unit of but folded into CBS Television Studios, which has produced the series since the beginning of season three. On March 23, 2017, CBS renewed the series for an eighth season which premiered on September 29, 2017 and is set to conclude on May 18, 2018. On April 18, 2018, CBS renewed the series for a ninth season.
The series covers the actions of a small, specialized DPS task force in Hawaii, headed by Lt. Commander Steve McGarrett, USNR. The task force answers only to the Governor of the state of Hawaii and is given full immunity and means. The task force has no restrictions and is always backed by the Governor. The team is able to investigate crimes ranging from terrorism to kidnapping as well as murder and robberies. McGarrett chooses Honolulu PD Detective - Sergeant Danny "Danno '' Williams as his partner and unofficial second in command of the team. He fills out the team by selecting HPD lieutenant Chin Ho Kelly, his father 's protégé, and Chin 's cousin, Kono Kalakaua, a rookie HPD officer. DHS Special Agent Lori Weston is also assigned to the team later on, although she is later forced to return to the DHS by the governor. They are assisted by Dr. Max Bergman, a medical examiner for the County of Honolulu, and Jerry Ortega, Chin 's high school classmate and a conspiracy theorist. Steve later adds Lou Grover, a HPD SWAT commander, and for a brief time, Catherine Rollins, Steve 's girlfriend and a former USNR lieutenant. Following Max, Chin, and Kono 's departures, McGarrett fills in their spots by hiring high - achieving HPD academy washout Tani Rey, and later, Junior Reigns, a former Navy SEAL - turned - Police Candidate. The team is now assisted by Dr. Noelani Cunha as the medical examiner, along with two confidential informants: Kamekona Tupuola, and Kono 's husband Adam Noshimuri, and Sergeant Duke Lukela, their HPD liaison.
The idea to bring Hawaii Five - O back to television had been under consideration well before the 2010 version was announced. The first attempt was a one - hour pilot for a new series that was made in 1996 but never aired, although a few clips were found years later and are available online. Produced and written by Stephen J. Cannell, it was intended to star Gary Busey and Russell Wong as the new Five - 0 team. Original cast member James MacArthur briefly returned as Dan Williams, this time as governor of Hawaii, with cameos made by other former Five - O regulars. Another attempt was made to turn the project into a film by Warner Bros. but that also was scrapped.
On August 12, 2008, CBS announced that it would bring Hawaii Five - O back to the network schedule for the 2009 -- 10 television season. The new version would be an updated present - day sequel, this time centering on Steve McGarrett, who succeeds his late father Steve (Jack Lord 's character in the original series) as the head of the unit. Edward Allen Bernero, executive producer and showrunner of Criminal Minds, was to helm the new take, which he described as "Hawaii Five - O, version 2.0 ''. It was also to incorporate most of the iconic elements from the original, including the "Book ' em, Danno '' catchphrase, into the remake. Bernero, who was a fan of the original, and had a ring tone of the series ' theme song on his cell phone, had always wanted to bring the series back to TV.
In October 2009, it was announced that Alex Kurtzman and Roberto Orci had signed on to script a pilot episode, and that Peter M. Lenkov would serve as the series showrunner. Kurtzman and Orci decided to reboot the original concept similar to their work on the 2009 Star Trek film, rather than a sequel to the original series. Production on the pilot was shot in and around Honolulu in March 2010.
On May 17, 2010, the Hawaii Five - O remake was picked up by CBS, which scheduled it for Monday nights in the 10 -- 11 p.m. time slot. The news was good for the state of Hawaii, which hoped that the remake will pump new life into the economy. Production of the remainder of the first season started in June 2010. On June 24, 2010, the producers announced that it will use the warehouse at the former Honolulu Advertiser building as the official soundstage studio for the series starting in July 2010. Exteriors representing Five - 0 headquarters in the series are located at the Ali'iolani Hale in Honolulu, directly across the street from Iolani Palace, which represented Five - O headquarters in the original series.
On October 21, 2010, CBS announced that the first season had been given a full season order of 24 episodes. Subsequent seasons have consisted of between 23 and 25 episodes.
This revival series uses a zero as the last character in its title instead of the letter "O '' that is used in the title of the original series. According to Los Angeles Times, a CBS insider said that the disambiguation was necessary because of search engine results. When Variety conducted its own search engine test on Google, it found that "Hawaii Five - 0 '' (with the zero) had 263,000 results while "Hawaii Five - O '' (with the letter O) had over 1.7 million.
Online voting by viewers determined the ending of the January 14, 2013 episode "Kapu '' ("Forbidden ''), with two zones, Eastern and Central Time Zones, and Mountain and Pacific Time Zones, each getting their own result. Each alternative ending could be seen online after the episode aired.
In October 2013 it was announced that the show was planning a fan built episode. Fans of the show were able to vote on several elements of the show including scene of the crime, victim, murder weapon, suspect and take down. Once production began fans were also able to vote for props, cast wardrobe, music, and the episode title. The episode aired on April 4, 2014, and was titled "Hoʻi Hou '' ("Reunited '')
In February 2010, it was announced that Daniel Dae Kim had been cast to play Chin Ho Kelly, an ex-cop trained by Steve McGarrett 's father. He was the first actor cast for the remake. Several days later, Alex O'Loughlin was cast as Steve McGarrett, the son of ex-cop John McGarrett (portrayed by William Sadler). The producers pay homage to the original series throughout the first year by making one of Steve 's hobbies restoring his father 's 1974 Mercury Marquis, which is in fact the actual car driven by Jack Lord in the latter half of the original series ' run. Actress Grace Park was later cast as rookie detective Kona "Kono '' Kalakaua. Although in the original series, the character of Kono was male, the reboot series swapped the cop 's gender in order to steer clear of a task force void of women. Scott Caan was cast as Danny "Danno '' Williams. In the recurring cast are Jean Smart as Governor Pat Jameson and Masi Oka as the medical examiner Max Bergman. Oka was upgraded to series regular for the second season.
Of note, several recurring roles have been filled by surviving members of the original cast. Al Harrington, who played Det. Ben Kokua in the original series, now plays a friend of McGarrett 's, Mamo Kahike. Dennis Chun, who had various guest roles in the original series and is the son of Kam Fong Chun (the actor that portrayed the original Chin Ho), has a recurring role as HPD Sgt. Duke Lukela in the remake. James MacArthur, the last surviving main cast member from the original series, agreed to guest - star in a first - season episode; however, he died on October 28, 2010, before filming his appearance.
Larisa Oleynik was cast as Jessica Kaye (changed to Jenna Kaye in the episode broadcast), scheduled to join the Five - 0 task force in the show 's 19th episode. Oleynik appeared on a recurring basis for the remainder of the 2010 -- 11 season, with an option to become a regular in season 2; however, her character was killed off in season 2, episode 10. It was also announced that Terry O'Quinn would be joining the cast of the show in season two, along with Lauren German, who would play Lori Weston, a former Homeland Security (and FBI agent) official assigned by the new governor to keep an eye on the team.
Since the show began in 2010 Michelle Borth had a recurring role where she appeared as on and off Steve McGarrett 's girlfriend, Lt. Catherine Rollins, a Navy Lieutenant. On March 26, 2012, CBS announced that Borth would become a cast regular on Hawaii Five - 0 for season 3. On March 27, 2014, it was announced that she would not be returning for the fifth season, with the reason for her departure left unknown. On April 24, 2015 it was announced that Borth would return as a guest star for the shows fifth - season finale. In July 2015 it was announced that Borth would have a recurring role in the first three episodes of the shows 6th season. On September 8, 2016 it was announced that Borth would be returning as a guest for the shows 150th episode. Christine Lahti was also cast in a recurring role as Doris McGarrett, the thought - to - be-deceased mother of Steve McGarrett.
On July 10, 2013 ahead of the show 's fourth season it was announced that Chi McBride would have a guest spot in the first episode of the season. On November 21, 2013 it was announced that McBride would become a series regular beginning with the seasons 10th episode. After appearing as a guest star in several season four episodes, Jorge Garcia who plays the character of Jerry Ortega (a conspiracy theorist and high school classmate of Chin 's) was promoted to series regular commencing season five. This is the second time Kim and Garcia serve as regulars together with Lost being the first.
Beginning with the second episode of the 2016 -- 17 season, Claire Forlani had a recurring role as Alicia Brown, a retired criminal profiler who helped the team find a serial killer.
On November 17, 2016, it was announced that Masi Oka who portrays Dr. Max Bergman would be departing the series after the thirteenth episode of the seventh season.
On June 30, 2017, ahead of the series 's eighth season, it was announced that series regulars Daniel Dae Kim and Grace Park would be departing the series due to a salary dispute with CBS. Kim and Park had been seeking pay equality with co-stars Alex O'Loughlin and Scott Caan, but did not reach satisfactory deals with CBS Television Studios. CBS 's final offer to Kim and Park was 10 -- 15 % lower than what O'Loughlin and Caan make in salary. An update of their characters would be given in the first episode of the new season.
Following Kim 's and Park 's departures it was announced that longtime recurring cast member Ian Anthony Dale who portrays Kono Kalakaua 's husband Adam Noshimuri had been upped to series regular for the eighth season. It was also announced that Meaghan Rath and Beulah Koale would join the series as new characters and new members of Five - 0.
On July 21, 2017 it was announced that recurring cast members Taylor Wily, Kimee Balmilero, and Dennis Chun would also be upped to series regulars for the eighth season.
On March 19, 2018 it was announced that Michelle Borth would once again return to the series in a guest role for the twentieth episode of the series eighth season.
Hawaii Five - 0 uses the original show theme song composed by Morton Stevens. Critics received an early copy of the pilot with a synthesizer and guitar - based version of the theme. After negative reaction to the reworked song spread quickly online, Kurtzman said he and others realized that changing the music was a mistake, and arranged for studio musicians, including three who had worked on the original from 1968, to rerecord the theme "exactly as it was '', except shortened to 30 seconds from its original length of about 60 seconds. Original instrumental music is composed by Brian Tyler and Keith Power.
Hawaii Five - 0: Original Songs from the Television Series is a soundtrack album featuring music used in the CBS television series Hawaii Five - 0. The first volume in the series received attention for how show producers integrated these new and previously unreleased tracks from major - name artists into the second - season episodes. This method contrasted with the norm for TV soundtracks, which tend to be compilations of previously released music that is already available individually or on other albums. Hawaii Five - 0: Original Songs from the Television Series was released on October 4, 2011.
The car driven by the original Steve McGarrett in Hawaii Five - O is a 1974 Mercury Marquis. The car has belonged to stuntman John Nordlum since the original series ended. Nordlum has let the car be used in the new series, where it is said to have belonged to Steve McGarrett 's father John. The license plate is still F6 - 3958.
The series premiered in the United States on CBS on September 20, 2010, exactly 42 years after the premiere of the original series. Canada 's Global TV and NTV premiered the show at the same time as the United States premiere. Hawaii Five - 0 has been syndicated for broadcast in several countries worldwide, including Australia. the United Kingdom, and South Africa, Mongolia.
The show has received mostly positive reviews. Metacritic gave season one of the show a 66 out of 100 aggregate score based on reviews from 29 critics. Rotten Tomatoes gave season one a score of 74 % based on 23 reviews. The site 's consensus calls it: "A brisk, slick reboot of an old favorite, Hawaii Five - 0 's picturesque locales and attractive cast make for pleasurable viewing. ''
On May 19, 2010, The Honolulu Advertiser offered an opinion about the new version: "A smart script, slick production values and maybe a splash of nostalgia got the remake of Hawaii Five - O placed on the CBS prime - time lineup this fall, but it will take more than beefcake and a remixed theme song to keep the show on the air. '' The piece also pointed out that times have changed since the original left the air, citing other shows that were set in Hawaii which have come and gone. It expressed a hope that the producers will succeed in bringing a new life to the title with this remake. Hawaii Five - 0 was also in the Guinness World Records 2012 for Highest - Rated New Show in the U.S. with a record 19.34 million viewers for its January 23, 2011 episode (Kai eʻe).
Series star Scott Caan was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor -- Series, Miniseries or Television Film for his role as Danny on Hawaii Five - 0. Hawaii Five - 0 also won the "Favorite New TV Drama '' at the 37th People 's Choice Awards on January 5, 2011.
Hawaii Five - 0 made several positive effects on the state 's economy since it began airing. Various Hawaii - based businesses saw an increase in sales after they were featured in episodes of the show. Visitor numbers to the USS Missouri Memorial Association, after being featured in some of the episodes, increased 25 percent, helping the site achieve a record year in 2010. Waiola Shave Ice, the business run by Kamekona on the show, saw a 20 percent increase in shave ice sales, along with a 30 percent rise in T - shirt sales. Kona Brewing Company also saw a 60 percent increase in sales after their beers were featured as McGarrett 's favored alcoholic beverage in several episodes. In addition, residents from other states visit Hawaii based on viewing the series.
New episodes currently air on Friday nights at 9 / 8c pm on CBS. All previous 7 seasons are available for streaming on Netflix as well as purchase on DVD. The most recent five episodes are available for free on CBS.com and the CBS app. All episodes are also available with CBS All Access including new episodes which stream live.
TNT has acquired the off - network rights to air the series. Episodes began airing on the cable channel in August 2014.
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who wrote the theme to the andy griffith show | The Andy Griffith show - wikipedia
The Andy Griffith Show is an American situation comedy which aired on CBS from October 3, 1960, to September 6, 1971, with a total of 249 half - hour episodes spanning over 8 seasons, first in black and white and then in color, which partially originated from an episode of The Danny Thomas Show. It originally starred Andy Griffith in the role of Andy Taylor, the widowed sheriff of the fictional small community of Mayberry, North Carolina. Other major characters include Andy 's inept but well - meaning deputy, who is also his cousin, Barney Fife (Don Knotts); Andy 's spinster aunt and housekeeper, "Aunt '' Bee Taylor (Frances Bavier), and Andy 's precocious young son, Opie (Ron Howard). Eccentric townspeople and temperamental girlfriends complete the cast. Regarding the tone of the show, Griffith said that despite a contemporary setting, the show evoked nostalgia, stating in a Today Show interview: "Well, though we never said it, and though it was shot in the ' 60s, it had a feeling of the ' 30s. It was, when we were doing it, of a time gone by. ''
The series never placed lower than seventh in the Nielsen ratings and ended its final season at number one. On separate occasions, it has been ranked by TV Guide as the 9th - best and 13th - best show in American television history. Though neither Griffith nor the show won awards during its 11 - season run, co-stars Knotts and Bavier accumulated a combined total of six Emmy Awards. The series spawned its own spinoff, Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C. (1964) and a reunion telemovie, Return to Mayberry (1986). After the eighth season, when Andy Griffith became one of the original cast members to leave the show, it was retitled Mayberry, RFD with Ken Berry and Buddy Foster replacing Andy Griffith and Ron Howard in new roles. Reruns of the show are often aired to TV Land, MeTV, and SundanceTV, while the complete series is available on DVD. The show has also been made available on streaming video services such as Netflix. An annual festival celebrating the show, Mayberry Days, is held each year in Griffith 's hometown of Mount Airy, North Carolina.
Sheldon Leonard, producer of The Danny Thomas Show, and Danny Thomas hired veteran comedy writer Arthur Stander (who had written many of the "Danny Thomas '' episodes) to create a pilot show for Andy Griffith, featuring him as justice of the peace and newspaper editor in a small town. At the time, Broadway, film, and radio star Griffith was interested in attempting a television role, and the William Morris Agency told Leonard that Griffith 's rural background and previous rustic characterizations were suited to the part. After conferences between Leonard and Griffith in New York, Griffith flew to Los Angeles and filmed the episode. On February 15, 1960, The Danny Thomas Show episode "Danny Meets Andy Griffith '' aired. In the episode Griffith played fictional Sheriff Andy Taylor of Mayberry, North Carolina, who arrests Danny Williams (Thomas 's character) for running a stop sign. Future players in The Andy Griffith Show, Frances Bavier and Ron Howard, appeared in the episode as townspeople Henrietta Perkins and Opie Taylor (the sheriff 's son). General Foods, sponsor of The Danny Thomas Show, had first access to the spin - off and committed to it immediately. On October 3, 1960, at 9: 30 pm, The Andy Griffith Show made its debut.
The show 's production team included producers Aaron Ruben (1960 -- 65) and Bob Ross (1965 -- 68). First - season writers (many of whom worked in pairs) included Jack Elinson, Charles Stewart, Arthur Stander and Frank Tarloff (as "David Adler ''), Benedict Freedman and John Fenton Murray, Leo Solomon and Ben Gershman, and Jim Fritzell and Everett Greenbaum. During season six, Greenbaum and Fritzell left the show and Ruben departed for Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C., a show which he owned in part. Writer Harvey Bullock left after season six. Bob Sweeney directed the first three seasons save the premiere.
The show was filmed at Desilu Studios, with exteriors filmed at Forty Acres in Culver City, California. Woodsy locales were filmed north of Beverly Hills at Franklin Canyon.
Don Knotts, who knew Griffith professionally and had seen The Danny Thomas Show episode, called Griffith during the developmental stages of the show and suggested the Sheriff character needed a deputy. Griffith agreed. Knotts auditioned for the show 's creator and executive producer, Sheldon Leonard, and was offered a five - year contract playing Barney Fife.
The show 's theme music, "The Fishin ' Hole '', was composed by Earle Hagen and Herbert Spencer, with lyrics written by Everett Sloane, who also guest starred as Jubal Foster in the episode "The Keeper of the Flame '' (1962). Whistling in the opening sequence, as well as the closing credits sequence, was performed by Earle Hagen. One of the show 's tunes, "The Mayberry March '', was reworked a number of times in different tempo, styles and orchestrations as background music.
The show 's sole sponsor was General Foods, with promotional consideration paid for (in the form of cars) by Ford Motor Company (mentioned in the credits).
Initially, Griffith played Taylor as a heavy - handed country bumpkin, grinning from ear to ear and speaking in a hesitant, frantic manner. The style recalled that used in the delivery of his popular monologues such as "What It Was, Was Football ''. He gradually abandoned the ' rustic Taylor ' and developed a serious and thoughtful characterization. Producer Aaron Ruben recalled:
He was being that marvelously funny character from No Time for Sergeants, Will Stockdale (a role Griffith played on stage and in film)... One day he said, ' My God, I just realized that I 'm the straight man. I 'm playing straight to all these kooks around me. ' He did n't like himself (in first year reruns)... and in the next season he changed, becoming this Lincolnesque character.
As Griffith stopped portraying some of the sheriff 's more unsophisticated character traits and mannerisms, it was impossible for him to create his own problems and troubles in the manner of other central sitcom characters such as Lucy in I Love Lucy or Archie Bunker in All in the Family, whose problems were the result of their temperaments, philosophies and attitudes. Consequently, the characters around Taylor were employed to create the problems and troubles, with rock - solid Taylor stepping in as problem solver, mediator, advisor, disciplinarian and counselor.
The series plot revolves around Sheriff Andy Taylor (Andy Griffith) and his life in sleepy, slow - paced fictional Mayberry, North Carolina. Sheriff Taylor 's level - headed approach to law enforcement makes him the scourge of local moonshiners and out - of - town criminals, while his abilities to settle community problems with common - sense advice, mediation, and conciliation make him popular with his fellow citizens. His professional life, however, is complicated by the repeated gaffes of his inept deputy, Barney Fife (Don Knotts). Barney is portrayed as Andy 's cousin in the first, second, and sixth episodes, but is never again referred to as such. Andy socializes with male friends in the Main Street barber shop and dates various ladies until a schoolteacher becomes his steady interest in season three. At home, Andy enjoys fishing trips with his son, Opie (Ronny Howard), and quiet evenings on the front porch with his maiden aunt and housekeeper, Aunt Bee (Frances Bavier). Opie tests his father 's parenting skills season after season, and Aunt Bee 's ill - considered romances and adventures cause her nephew concern.
Andy 's friends and neighbors include barber Floyd Lawson (Howard McNear -- but played by Walter Baldwin in the 1960 episode "Stranger in Town ''), service station attendants and cousins Gomer Pyle (Jim Nabors) and Goober Pyle (George Lindsey), and local drunkard Otis Campbell (Hal Smith). There were two mayors: Mayor Pike, who was more relaxed, and Mayor Stoner, who had a more assertive personality. On the distaff side, townswoman Clara Edwards (Hope Summers), Barney 's sweetheart Thelma Lou (Betty Lynn) and Andy 's schoolteacher sweetheart Helen Crump (Aneta Corsaut) become semi-regulars. Ellie Walker (Elinor Donahue) is Andy 's girlfriend in the first season, while Peggy McMillan (Joanna Moore) is a nurse who becomes his girlfriend in season 3. Ernest T. Bass (Howard Morris) made his first appearance in Episode # 94 ("Mountain Wedding ''). In the color seasons, County Clerk Howard Sprague (Jack Dodson) and handyman Emmett Clark (Paul Hartman) appear regularly, while Barney 's replacement deputy Warren Ferguson (Jack Burns) appears in season six. Unseen characters such as telephone operator Sarah, and Barney 's love interest, local diner waitress Juanita Beasley, as mentioned in the first season, are often referenced. In the series ' last few episodes, farmer Sam Jones (Ken Berry) debuts, and later becomes the lead of the show 's sequel, Mayberry R.F.D..
Don Knotts, Aneta Corsaut, Jack Dodson, and Betty Lynn also appeared on Andy Griffith 's later show Matlock.
The show comprises 8 full seasons and 249 episodes -- 159 episodes in black and white (seasons 1 -- 5) and 90 in color (seasons 6 -- 8). Griffith appears in all 249 episodes with Howard coming in second at 209. Only Griffith, Howard, Bavier, Knotts, and Hope Summers appeared in all eight seasons.
Knotts left the show at the end of season five to pursue a career in films (on the show it is told that he takes a job as a detective with the State Police in Raleigh) but returned to make five guest appearances as Barney in seasons six through eight. His last appearance in the final season in a story about a summit meeting with Russian dignitaries "ranked eleventh among single comedy programs most watched in television between 1960 and (1984), with an audience of thirty - three and a half million. ''
In 1964, daytime reruns began airing. The show was retitled Andy of Mayberry to distinguish the repeat episodes from the new episodes airing in prime time. As of 2017, the show has been seen in syndication for 53 years.
At the end of season four (May 1964), the backdoor pilot "Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C. '' aired, and the following September, the spinoff series Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C. debuted with Jim Nabors in the role of Gomer and Frank Sutton as drill instructor Sergeant Vince Carter.
In the last episodes of the eighth season, as Andy Griffith was preparing to leave, the character Sam Jones, played by Ken Berry, was introduced as the new star, and the series was reitled Mayberry R.F.D.. Most of the cast members continued their original roles, with Bavier becoming Sam 's housekeeper. To create a smooth transition, Andy and Helen were married in the first episode with the new title and remained for a few additional episodes before leaving with a move to Raleigh, effectively ending their appearances. After RFD 's cancellation in 1971, George Lindsey played Goober for many years on the popular country - variety show Hee Haw.
In 1986, the reunion telemovie Return to Mayberry was broadcast with several cast members reprising their original roles. Absent, however, was Frances Bavier. She was living in Siler City, North Carolina, in ill health, and declined to participate. In the TV movie, Aunt Bee is portrayed as deceased (and in fact Bavier did die three years later), with Andy visiting her grave.
Griffith and Howard reprised their roles a final time for a Funny or Die skit supporting the 2008 presidential campaign of Barack Obama.
The Andy Griffith Show consistently placed in the top ten during its run.
A Nielsen study conducted during the show 's final season (1967 -- 68) indicated the show ranked number one among blue collar workers followed by The Lucy Show and Gunsmoke. Among white collar workers, the show ranked number three following Saturday Movies and The Dean Martin Show. The Andy Griffith Show is one of only three shows to have its final season be the number one ranked show on television, the other two being I Love Lucy and Seinfeld. In 1998, more than five million people a day watched the show 's reruns on 120 stations.
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Dell Comics published two The Andy Griffith Show comic books during the show 's first run, with art work by Henry Scarpelli. In 2004, copies in near - mint condition were priced in excess of $500 each. The show 's enduring popularity has spawned considerable merchandise since its first run, including board games, bobblehead dolls, kitchenware, books, and other items. In 2007, a line of canned foods inspired by the series was made available in grocery stores across America. Griffith 's hometown of Mount Airy, North Carolina annually hosts a week - long "Mayberry Days '' celebration featuring concerts, parades, and appearances by the show 's players.
In 1997, the episode "Opie the Birdman '' was ranked No. 24 on TV Guide 's 100 Greatest Episodes of All Time. In 2002, TV Guide ranked The Andy Griffith Show ninth on its list of the 50 Best Shows of All Time. Bravo ranked Andy Taylor 63rd on their list of the 100 greatest TV characters.
In 2003, the country band Rascal Flatts released the song Mayberry and many of the lyrics pay tribute to the show.
The cable television network TV Land erected bronze statues of Andy and Opie in Mount Airy and Raleigh, North Carolina (see: Pullen Park).
The Taylor Home Inn in Clear Lake, Wisconsin, is a bed - and - breakfast modeled after the Taylor Home.
The Mayberry Cafe in Danville, Indiana, features Aunt Bee 's Fried Chicken and a replica of Andy 's Ford Galaxy police car.
In 2013, TV Guide ranked The Andy Griffith Show # 15 on their list of the 60 Greatest Shows of All Time.
In the late 1980s, Premier Promotions released various episodes on VHS. Most tapes had either two or four episodes. In the early to mid-1990s, United American Video released VHS tapes of various episodes. They either had two or three episodes. These compilations were culled from episodes early in the show 's run that had lapsed into the public domain; these episodes continue to be circulated on unofficial video releases.
Between 2004 and 2006, Paramount Home Entertainment and later in 2006, CBS DVD released all eight seasons as single - season packages on Region 1 DVD. The Andy Griffith Show: The Complete Series was first released as a 40 - disc boxed set in 2007. In addition to all 249 episodes of the series, its bonus features included the episode "Danny Meets Andy Griffith '' from The Danny Thomas Show which served as the pilot, the episode "Opie Joins the Marines '' from Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C. which featured Ron Howard and the 95 - minute, made - for - television comedy film Return to Mayberry. In 2016, The Andy Griffith Show: The Complete Series was repackaged and released again as a 39 - disc set that featured all 249 episodes of the series but did not include the bonus feature disc.
Sixteen episodes from the season three, which lapsed into the public domain after CBS neglected to file copyright renewals on the episodes in 1989, are available on discount DVDs. The 2007 lawsuit CBS Operations Inc v. Reel Funds International Inc. ruled that the episodes in question were derivative works based on the copyrighted episodes even though the episodes themselves were not under copyright and granted CBS indirect copyright over the public domain episodes; the ruling enjoined Reel Funds International, a public domain distributor, from selling DVDs with those episodes within the jurisdiction of the United States District Court for the Northern District of Texas.
Note: The Region 1 release of The Third Season contains two episodes edited for syndication: "The Darlings Are Coming '', which had several scenes cut, and "Barney Mends a Broken Heart '', which had its epilogue cut.
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tamil nadu state marketing corporation limited perambalur tamil nadu | TASMAC - wikipedia
The Tamil Nadu State Marketing Corporation (TASMAC) is a company owned by the Government of Tamil Nadu, which has a monopoly over wholesale and retail vending of alcoholic beverages in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It controls the Indian Made Foreign Liquor (IMFL) trade in the state.
TASMAC was established in 1983 by the Chief Minister M.G. Ramachandran (MGR) for wholesale vending of alcohol in Tamil Nadu. The state has a long history of prohibition, first implemented partially in 1937 by the Indian National Congress government of C. Rajagopalachari. Between 1973 and 2001, it was lifted briefly during 1971 - 74, 1981 -- 87 and 1990 - 91. After 1983, TASMAC was in charge of wholesale liquor sales in the state whenever prohibition was lifted. In 2001, prohibition was lifted again and TASMAC became the wholesale monopoly for alcohol. For retail vending, the state auctioned off licenses for running liquor shops and bars. But this led to the formation of cartels and loss of revenue to the state. The government tried to counter this by introducing a lot system from the financial year 2001 - 02, where potential bidders bid for shops grouped by revenue. But the lot system could not prevent cartelisation, as bidders later withdrew in favour of others. In October 2003, the government passed an amendment to the Tamil Nadu Prohibition Act, 1937, making TASMAC the sole retail vendor of alcohol in the state. By 2004 all private outlets selling alcohol were either shut down or taken over by the company. This monopoly established by the ADMK government of J. Jayalalitha came into effect on 29 November 2003. The DMK government of M. Karunanidhi which took power in 2006, did not revise its predecessor 's policy and TASMAC continues to control the alcohol industry in the state.
TASMAC is wholly owned by the government of Tamil Nadu, coming under the purview of the Ministry of Prohibition and Excise. Its headquarters is situated at the CMDA towers in Egmore, Chennai. It is governed by a board whose members belong to the Indian Administrative Service (IAS). The company organisation is divided territorially into five regions - Chennai, Coimbatore, Madurai, Trichy and Salem each under a regional manager. These regions are further divided into 33 districts run by district managers. As of 2010, the company has around 30,000 employees and operates about 6800 retail liquor outlets throughout the state. Employees of TASMAC are not considered as government employees and are not entitled to the benefits and legal rights (like statutory pay, paid holidays and an 8 - hour workday) of other employees of the state. The retail outlets do not have individual names. Instead they are named as "TASMAC Shop XXX '', where XXX stands for the outlet number. They are popularly referred to as "wine shops '', though they sell other kinds of liquor as well. About half the outlets have bars attached to them.
Since the take over by the government, TASMAC has seen an annual revenue of growth of around 20 percent every year. The turnover in 1983 (the year of incorporation) was 183 Crore Rupees. In 2002 - 03 before the take over of retail vending, the turnover was 3499.75 Crore Rupees, out of which the government got a tax revenue of 2,828.09 Crore Rupees. After the take over of retail vending, the tax revenue shot up to 3,639 Crore Rupees in the financial year 2003 - 04. The tax revenue has two components - excise tax and sales tax each constituting roughly 50 % of the total. A large part of the tax revenue is accounted as profit for the state since it is both the wholesale and retail vendor and the difference in the prices goes directly to the state exchequer. In the following four financial years revenue increased to 4872, 6087, 7300 and 8822 Crore Rs respectively. In 2005 - 06, the 23 - year - old record for alcohol sales revenue in the state was broken. The 10,000 Crore (100 Billion) Rupees mark was reached in the financial year 2008 - 09, when the revenue was 10,601.5 Crore Rupees. For the financial years 2009 - 10 and 2010 - 11 it stood at 12,491 and 14,965 Crores respectively. Besides the tax revenue, the company also makes money by selling annual licenses to run bars in its retail outlets. The steady growth in revenue is accounted for by the periodical increase in retail prices and by increasing alcohol consumption in the state. Hard liquors like whiskey, rum, wine, brandy and vodka account for about 80 % of the sales and beer accounts for the remaining 20 %.
The reorganisation of retail alcohol trade in the state has brought record revenues for the government allowing it to increase spending on welfare schemes. While consumption of alcohol has increased among the population, deaths due to consumption of contaminated illicit liquor (common during the prohibition era) have gone down. The monopoly trade has led to widespread irregularities like adulteration, corruption, overpricing and black marketing in the retail outlets. It has also led to increased complaints about disturbances created by drunk patrons from residents in areas where the retail outlets are situated. High retail prices (due to a higher tax rate) and absence of a wide range of choices have led to a thriving alcohol tourism industry in the neighbouring union territory of Puducherry, where alcohol prices are lower and different brands are available. TASMAC has been forced to offer more choices of brands to counter the increase in smuggling of non-available alcohol brands into the state.
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why are water towers shaped like light bulbs | Water tower - wikipedia
A water tower is an elevated structure supporting a water tank constructed at a height sufficient to pressurize a water supply system for the distribution of potable water, and to provide emergency storage for fire protection. In some places, the term standpipe is used interchangeably to refer to a water tower. Water towers often operate in conjunction with underground or surface service reservoirs, which store treated water close to where it will be used. Other types of water towers may only store raw (non-potable) water for fire protection or industrial purposes, and may not necessarily be connected to a public water supply.
Water towers are able to supply water even during power outages, because they rely on hydrostatic pressure produced by elevation of water (due to gravity) to push the water into domestic and industrial water distribution systems; however, they can not supply the water for a long time without power, because a pump is typically required to refill the tower. A water tower also serves as a reservoir to help with water needs during peak usage times. The water level in the tower typically falls during the peak usage hours of the day, and then a pump fills it back up during the night. This process also keeps the water from freezing in cold weather, since the tower is constantly being drained and refilled.
Although the use of elevated water storage tanks has existed since ancient times in various forms, the modern use of water towers for pressurized public water systems developed during the mid-19th century, as steam - pumping became more common, and better pipes that could handle higher pressures were developed. In the United Kingdom, standpipes consisted of tall, exposed, n - shaped pipes, used for pressure relief and to provide a fixed elevation for steam - driven pumping engines which tended to produce a pulsing flow, while the pressurized water distribution system required constant pressure. Standpipes also provided a convenient fixed location to measure flow rates. Designers typically enclosed the riser pipes in decorative masonry or wooden structures. By the late 19th - Century, standpipes grew to include storage tanks to meet the ever - increasing demands of growing cities.
Many early water towers are now considered historically significant and have been included in various heritage listings around the world. Some are converted to apartments or exclusive penthouses. In certain areas, such as New York City in the United States, smaller water towers are constructed for individual buildings. In California and some other states, domestic water towers enclosed by siding (tankhouses) were once built (1850s -- 1930s) to supply individual homes; windmills pumped water from hand - dug wells up into the tank in New York.
Water towers were used to supply water stops for steam locomotives on railroad lines. Early steam locomotives required water stops every 7 to 10 miles (11 to 16 km).
A variety of materials can be used to construct a typical water tower; steel and reinforced or prestressed concrete are most often used (with wood, fiberglass, or brick also in use), incorporating an interior coating to protect the water from any effects from the lining material. The reservoir in the tower may be spherical, cylindrical, or an ellipsoid, with a minimum height of approximately 6 metres (20 ft) and a minimum of 4 m (13 ft) in diameter. A standard water tower typically has a height of approximately 40 m (130 ft).
Pressurization occurs through the hydrostatic pressure of the elevation of water; for every 10.20 centimetres (4.016 in) of elevation, it produces 1 kilopascal (0.145 psi) of pressure. 30 m (98.43 ft) of elevation produces roughly 300 kPa (43.511 psi), which is enough pressure to operate and provide for most domestic water pressure and distribution system requirements.
The height of the tower provides the pressure for the water supply system, and it may be supplemented with a pump. The volume of the reservoir and diameter of the piping provide and sustain flow rate. However, relying on a pump to provide pressure is expensive; to keep up with varying demand, the pump would have to be sized to meet peak demands. During periods of low demand, jockey pumps are used to meet these lower water flow requirements. The water tower reduces the need for electrical consumption of cycling pumps and thus the need for an expensive pump control system, as this system would have to be sized sufficiently to give the same pressure at high flow rates.
Very high volumes and flow rates are needed when fighting fires. With a water tower present, pumps can be sized for average demand, not peak demand; the water tower can provide water pressure during the day and pumps will refill the water tower when demands are lower.
Using wireless sensor networks to monitor water levels inside the tower allows municipalities to automatically monitor and control pumps without installing and maintaining expensive data cables.
Water towers can be surrounded by ornate coverings including fancy brickwork, a large ivy - covered trellis or they can be simply painted. Some city water towers have the name of the city painted in large letters on the roof, as a navigational aid to aviators and motorists. Sometimes the decoration can be humorous. An example of this are water towers built side by side, labeled HOT and COLD. Cities in the United States possessing side - by - side water towers labeled HOT and COLD include Granger, Iowa; Canton, Kansas; Pratt, Kansas and St. Clair, Missouri (Eveleth, Minnesota at one time had two such towers, but no longer does). When a third water tower was built next to the Okemah, Oklahoma set of Hot and Cold towers, the town briefly considered naming it "Running '', but eventually decided to use "Home of Woody Guthrie ''. The House in the Clouds in Thorpeness, located in the English county of Suffolk, was built to resemble a house in order to disguise the eyesore, whilst the lower floors were used for accommodation. When the town was connected to the mains water supply, the water tower was dismantled and converted to additional living space.
Sapp Bros. truck stops use a water tower with a handle and spout -- looking like a coffee pot -- as the company logo. Many of their facilities have decorated actual water towers (presumably non-functional) on - site.
The first and original "Mushroom '' -- Svampen in Swedish -- was built in Örebro in Sweden in the early 1950s and later copies were built around the world including Saudi Arabia and Kuwait.
Many small towns in the United States use their water towers to advertise local tourism, their local high school sports teams, or other locally notable facts. Since the water tower is often the highest point in the town (in small towns), antennas, public address systems, cameras and tornado warning sirens are sometimes placed on them as well.
Many water towers serve manufacturing and other commercial facilities. These are often decorated with the name of the company that the water tower serves.
The technology dates to at least the 19th century, and for a long time New York City required that all buildings higher than six stories be equipped with a rooftop water tower. Two companies in New York build water towers, both of which are family businesses in operation since the 19th century.
The original water tower builders were barrel makers who expanded their craft to meet a modern need as buildings in the city grew taller in height. Even today, no sealant is used to hold the water in. The wooden walls of the water tower are held together with steel cables or straps, but water leaks through the gaps when first filled. As the water saturates the wood, it swells, the gaps close and become impermeable.
The rooftop water towers store 25,000 to 50,000 litres (5,500 to 11,000 imp gal) of water until it is needed in the building below. The upper portion of water is skimmed off the top for everyday use while the water in the bottom of the tower is held in reserve to fight fire. When the water drops below a certain level, a pressure switch, level switch or float valve will activate a pump or open a public water line to refill the water tower.
Architects and builders have taken varied approaches to incorporating water towers into the design of their buildings. On many large commercial buildings, water towers are completely hidden behind an extension of the facade of the building. For cosmetic reasons, apartment buildings often enclose their tanks in rooftop structures, either simple unadorned rooftop boxes, or ornately decorated structures intended to enhance the visual appeal of the building. Many buildings, however, leave their water towers in plain view atop utilitarian framework structures.
Water towers are common in India, where the electricity supply is erratic in most places.
If the pumps fail (such as during a power outage), then water pressure will be lost, causing potential public health concerns. Many U.S. states require a "boil - water advisory '' to be issued if water pressure drops below 20 pounds per square inch (140 kPa). This advisory presumes that the lower pressure might allow pathogens to enter the system.
Water towers are often regarded as monuments of civil engineering. Some have been converted to serve modern purposes, as for example, the Wieża Ciśnień (Wrocław water tower) in Wrocław, Poland which is today a restaurant complex. Others have been converted to residential use.
Historically, railroads that used steam locomotives required a means of replenishing the locomotive 's tenders. Water towers were common along the railroad. The tenders were usually replenished by water cranes, which were fed by a water tower.
Some water towers are also used as observation towers, and some restaurants, such as the Goldbergturm in Sindelfingen, Germany, or the second of the three Kuwait Towers, in the State of Kuwait. It is also common to use water towers as the location of transmission mechanisms in the UHF range with small power, for instance for closed rural broadcasting service, amateur radio, or cellular telephone service.
In hilly regions, local topography can be substituted for structures to elevate the tanks. These tanks are often nothing more than concrete cisterns terraced into the sides of local hills or mountains, but function identically to the traditional water tower. The tops of these tanks can be landscaped or used as park space, if desired.
The Chicago Bridge and Iron Company have built many of the water spheres and spheroids found in the United States. The website World 's Tallest Water Sphere describes the distinction between a water sphere and water spheroid thus:
A water sphere is a type of water tower that has a large sphere at the top of its post. The sphere looks like a golf ball sitting on a tee or a round lollipop. A cross section of a sphere in any direction (east - west, north - south, or top - bottom) is a perfect circle. A water spheroid looks like a water sphere, but the top is wider than it is tall. A spheroid looks like a round pillow that is somewhat flattened. A cross section of a spheroid in two directions (east - west or north - south) is an ellipse, but in only one direction (top - bottom) is it a perfect circle. Both spheres and spheroids are special - case ellipsoids: spheres have symmetry in 3 directions, spheroids have symmetry in 2 directions. Scalene ellipsoids have 3 unequal length axes and three unequal cross sections.
The Union Watersphere is a water tower topped with a sphere - shaped water tank in Union, New Jersey and characterized as the World 's Tallest Water Sphere. A Star Ledger article suggested a water tower in Erwin, North Carolina completed in early 2012, 219.75 ft (66.98 m) tall and holding 500,000 US gallons (1,900 m), had become the World 's Tallest Water Sphere. However photographs of the Erwin water tower revealed the new tower to be a water spheroid. The water tower in Braman, Oklahoma, built by the Kaw Nation and completed in 2010, is 220.6 ft (67.2 m) tall and can hold 350,000 US gallons (1,300 m). Slightly taller than the Union Watersphere, it is also a spheroid. Another tower in Oklahoma, built in 1986 and billed as the "largest water tower in the country '', is 218 ft (66 m) tall, can hold 500,000 US gallons (1,900 m), and is located in Edmond.
The Earthoid, a perfectly spherical tank located in Germantown, Maryland is 100 ft (30 m) tall and holds 2,000,000 US gallons (7,600 m) of water. The name is taken from it being painted to resemble a globe of the world. The golf ball - shaped tank of the water tower at Gonzales, California is supported by three tubular legs and reaches about 125 ft (38 m) high. The Watertoren (or Water Towers) in Eindhoven, Netherlands contain three spherical tanks, each 10 m (33 ft) in diameter and capable of holding 500 cubic metres (130,000 US gal) of water, on three 43.45 m (142.6 ft) spires were completed in 1970.
Alternatives to water towers are simple pumps mounted on top of the water pipes to increase the water pressure. This new approach is more straightforward, but also more subject to potential public health risks; if the pumps fail, then loss of water pressure may result in entry of contaminants into the water system. Most large water utilities do not use this approach, given the potential risks.
There were originally over 400 standpipe water towers in the United States, but very few remain today, including:
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as the leading actor in the us foreign policy the president is known as | George F. Kennan - wikipedia
George Frost Kennan (February 16, 1904 -- March 17, 2005) was an American diplomat and historian. He was known best as an advocate of a policy of containment of Soviet expansion during the Cold War on which he later reversed himself. He lectured widely and wrote scholarly histories of the relations between USSR and the United States. He was also one of the group of foreign policy elders known as "The Wise Men ''.
During the late 1940s, his writings inspired the Truman Doctrine and the U.S. foreign policy of "containing '' the Soviet Union. His "Long Telegram '' from Moscow during 1946 and the subsequent 1947 article "The Sources of Soviet Conduct '' argued that the Soviet regime was inherently expansionist and that its influence had to be "contained '' in areas of vital strategic importance to the United States. These texts provided justification for the Truman administration 's new anti-Soviet policy. Kennan played a major role in the development of definitive Cold War programs and institutions, notably the Marshall Plan.
Soon after his concepts had become U.S. policy, Kennan began to criticize the foreign policies that he had seemingly helped begin. Subsequently, prior to the end of 1948, Kennan became confident that positive dialogue could commence with the Soviet government. His proposals were discounted by the Truman administration and Kennan 's influence was marginalized, particularly after Dean Acheson was appointed Secretary of State in 1949. Soon thereafter, U.S. Cold War strategy assumed a more assertive and militaristic quality, causing Kennan to lament about what he believed was an abrogation of his previous assessments.
In 1950, Kennan left the Department of State -- except for two brief ambassadorial stints in Moscow and Yugoslavia -- and became a realist critic of U.S. foreign policy. He continued to analyze international affairs as a faculty member of the Institute for Advanced Study from 1956 until his death at age 101.
Kennan was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, to Kossuth Kent Kennan, a lawyer specializing in tax law, a descendant of dirt - poor Scotch - Irish settlers of 18th - century Connecticut and Massachusetts, who was named after the Hungarian patriot Lajos Kossuth (1802 -- 94), and Florence James Kennan. Mrs. Kennan died two months later due to peritonitis from a ruptured appendix, though Kennan long believed that she died after giving birth to him. The boy always lamented not having a mother; he was never close to his father or stepmother, however, he was close to his older sisters.
At the age of eight, he went to Germany to stay with his stepmother in order to learn German. He attended St. John 's Military Academy in Delafield, Wisconsin, and arrived at Princeton University in the second half of 1921. Unaccustomed to the elite atmosphere of the Ivy League, the shy and introverted Kennan found his undergraduate years difficult and lonely. After receiving his bachelor 's degree in History in 1925, Kennan considered applying to law school, but decided it was too expensive and instead opted to apply to the newly formed United States Foreign Service. He passed the qualifying examination and after seven months of study at the Foreign Service School in Washington he gained his first job as a vice consul in Geneva, Switzerland. Within a year he was transferred to a post in Hamburg, Germany. During 1928 Kennan considered quitting the Foreign Service to attend college. Instead, he was selected for a linguist training program that would give him three years of graduate - level study without having to quit the service.
In 1929 Kennan began his program on history, politics, culture, and the Russian language at the University of Berlin 's Oriental Institute. In doing so, he would follow in the footsteps of his grandfather 's younger cousin, George Kennan (1845 -- 1924), a major 19th century expert on Imperial Russia and author of Siberia and the Exile System, a well - received 1891 account of the Czarist prison system. During the course of his diplomatic career, Kennan would master a number of other languages, including German, French, Polish, Czech, Portuguese, and Norwegian.
In 1931 Kennan was stationed at the legation in Riga, Latvia, where, as third secretary, he worked on Soviet economic affairs. From his job, Kennan "grew to mature interest in Russian affairs ''. When the U.S. began formal diplomacy with the Soviet government during 1933 after the election of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Kennan accompanied Ambassador William C. Bullitt to Moscow. By the mid-1930s Kennan was among the professionally trained Russian experts of the staff of the embassy in Moscow, along with Charles E. Bohlen and Loy W. Henderson. These officials had been influenced by the long - time director of the State Department 's division of East European Affairs, Robert F. Kelley. They believed that there was little basis for cooperation with the Soviet Union, even against potential adversaries. Meanwhile, Kennan studied Stalin 's Great Purge, which would affect his opinion of the internal dynamics of the Soviet regime for the rest of his life.
Kennan found himself in strong disagreement with Joseph E. Davies, Bullitt 's successor as ambassador to the Soviet Union, who defended the Great Purge and other aspects of Stalin 's rule. Kennan did not have any influence on Davies 's decisions, and the latter even suggested that Kennan be transferred out of Moscow for "his health ''. Kennan again contemplated resigning from the service, but instead decided to accept the Russian desk at the State Department in Washington. By September 1938, Kennan had been reassigned to a job at the legation in Prague. After the occupation of the Czechoslovak Republic by Nazi Germany at the beginning of World War II, Kennan was assigned to Berlin. There, he endorsed the United States ' Lend - Lease policy, but warned against displaying any notion of American endorsement for the Soviets, whom he considered to be an unfit ally. He was interned in Germany for six months after Germany, followed by the other Axis states, declared war on the United States in December 1941.
In September 1942 Kennan was assigned as a counselor in Lisbon, Portugal, where he begrudgingly performed a job administrating intelligence and base operations. In January 1944 he was sent to London, where he served as counselor of the American delegation to the European Advisory Commission, which worked to prepare Allied policy in Europe. There, Kennan became even more disenchanted with the State Department, which he believed was ignoring his qualifications as a trained specialist. However, within months of beginning the job, he was appointed deputy chief of the mission in Moscow upon request of W. Averell Harriman, the ambassador to the U.S.S.R.
In Moscow, Kennan again felt that his opinions were being ignored by Harry S. Truman and policymakers in Washington. Kennan tried repeatedly to persuade policymakers to abandon plans for cooperation with the Soviet government in favor of a sphere of influence policy in Europe to reduce the Soviets ' power there. Kennan believed that a federation needed to be established in western Europe to counter Soviet influence in the region and to compete against the Soviet stronghold in eastern Europe.
Kennan served as deputy head of the mission in Moscow until April 1946. Near the end of that term, the Treasury Department requested that the State Department explain recent Soviet behavior, such as its disinclination to endorse the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. Kennan responded on February 22, 1946, by sending a lengthy 5,500 - word telegram (sometimes cited as being more than 8,000 words) from Moscow to Secretary of State James Byrnes outlining a new strategy for diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union. At the "bottom of the Kremlin 's neurotic view of world affairs is the traditional and instinctive Russian sense of insecurity ''. After the Russian Revolution, this sense of insecurity became mixed with communist ideology and "Oriental secretiveness and conspiracy ''.
Soviet international behavior depended mainly on the internal necessities of Joseph Stalin 's regime; according to Kennan, Stalin needed a hostile world in order to legitimize his autocratic rule. Stalin thus used Marxism - Leninism as a "justification for the Soviet Union 's instinctive fear of the outside world, for the dictatorship without which they did not know how to rule, for cruelties they did not dare not to inflict, for sacrifice they felt bound to demand... Today they can not dispense with it. It is the fig leaf of their moral and intellectual respectability ''.
The solution was to strengthen Western institutions in order to render them invulnerable to the Soviet challenge while awaiting the mellowing of the Soviet regime.
Kennan 's new policy of containment, in the words of his later ' X ' article, was that Soviet pressure had to "be contained by the adroit and vigilant application of counterforce at a series of constantly shifting geographical and political points ''.
This dispatch brought Kennan to the attention of Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal, a major advocate of a confrontational policy with regard to the Soviets, the United States ' former wartime ally. Forrestal helped bring Kennan back to Washington, where he served as the first deputy for foreign affairs at the National War College and then strongly influenced his decision to publish the "X '' article.
The goal of his policy was to withdraw all the U.S. forces from Europe. The settlement reached would give the Kremlin sufficient reassurance against the establishment of regimes in Eastern Europe hostile to the Soviet Union, tempering the degree of control over that area that the Soviet leaders felt it necessary to exercise.
Meanwhile, in March 1947, Truman appeared before Congress to request funding for the Truman Doctrine to fight Communism in Greece. "I believe that it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures. ''
Unlike the "long telegram '', Kennan 's well - timed article appearing in the July 1947 issue of Foreign Affairs with the pseudonym "X '', entitled "The Sources of Soviet Conduct '', did not begin by emphasizing "traditional and instinctive Russian sense of insecurity ''; instead it asserted that Stalin 's policy was shaped by a combination of Marxist -- Leninist ideology, which advocated revolution to defeat the capitalist forces in the outside world and Stalin 's determination to use the notion of "capitalist encirclement '' in order to legitimize his regimentation of Soviet society so that he could consolidate his political power. Kennan argued that Stalin would not (and moreover could not) moderate the supposed Soviet determination to overthrow Western governments. Thus,
the main element of any United States policy toward the Soviet Union must be a long - term, patient but firm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies... Soviet pressure against the free institutions of the Western world is something that can be contained by the adroit and vigilant application of counterforce at a series of constantly shifting geographical and political points, corresponding to the shifts and manoeuvers of Soviet policy, but which can not be charmed or talked out of existence.
His new policy of containment declared that Soviet pressure had to "be contained by the adroit and vigilant application of counter-force at a series of constantly shifting geographical and political points ''. The goal of his policy was to withdraw all the U.S. forces from Europe. "The settlement reached would give the Kremlin sufficient reassurance against the establishment of regimes in Eastern Europe hostile to the Soviet Union, tempering the degree of control over that area that the Soviet leaders felt it necessary to exercise ''.
Kennan further argued that the United States would have to perform this containment alone but if it could do so without undermining its own economic health and political stability, the Soviet party structure would undergo a period of immense strain eventually resulting in "either the break - up or the gradual mellowing of Soviet power ''.
The publication of the "X '' article soon began one of the more intense debates of the Cold War. Walter Lippmann, a leading American commentator on international affairs, strongly criticized the "X '' article. Lippmann argued that Kennan 's strategy of containment was "a strategic monstrosity '' that could "be implemented only by recruiting, subsidizing and supporting a heterogeneous array of satellites, clients, dependents, and puppets ''. Lippmann argued that diplomacy should be the basis of relations with the Soviets; he suggested that the U.S. withdraw its forces from Europe and reunify and demilitarize Germany. Meanwhile, it was soon revealed informally that "X '' was indeed Kennan. This information seemed to give the "X '' article the status of an official document expressing the Truman administration 's new policy toward Moscow.
Kennan had not intended the "X '' article as a prescription for policy. For the rest of his life, Kennan continued to reiterate that the article did not imply an automatic commitment to resist Soviet "expansionism '' wherever it occurred, with little distinction of primary and secondary interests. The article did not make it obvious that Kennan favored employing political and economic rather than military methods as the chief agent of containment. "My thoughts about containment '' said Kennan in a 1996 interview to CNN, "were of course distorted by the people who understood it and pursued it exclusively as a military concept; and I think that that, as much as any other cause, led to (the) 40 years of unnecessary, fearfully expensive and disoriented process of the Cold War ''.
Additionally, the administration made few attempts to explain the distinction between Soviet influence and international Communism to the U.S. public. "In part, this failure reflected the belief of many in Washington '', writes historian John Lewis Gaddis, "that only the prospect of an undifferentiated global threat could shake Americans out of their isolationist tendencies that remained latent among them ''.
In a PBS television interview with David Gergen in 1996, Kennan again reiterated that he did not regard the Soviets as primarily a military threat, noting that "they were not like Hitler ''. Kennan 's opinion was that this misunderstanding:
all came down to one sentence in the "X '' article where I said that wherever these people, meaning the Soviet leadership, confronted us with dangerous hostility anywhere in the world, we should do everything possible to contain it and not let them expand any further. I should have explained that I did n't suspect them of any desire to launch an attack on us. This was right after the war, and it was absurd to suppose that they were going to turn around and attack the United States. I did n't think I needed to explain that, but I obviously should have done it.
The "X '' article meant sudden fame for Kennan. After the long telegram, he recalled later, "My official loneliness came in fact to an end... My reputation was made. My voice now carried. ''
Between April 1947 and December 1948, when George C. Marshall was Secretary of State, Kennan was more influential than he was at any other period in his career. Marshall valued his strategic sense and had him create and direct what is now named the Policy Planning Staff, the State Department 's internal think tank. Kennan became the first Director of Policy Planning. Marshall relied heavily on him to prepare policy recommendations. Kennan played a central role in the drafting of the Marshall Plan.
Although Kennan regarded the Soviet Union as too weak to risk war, he nonetheless considered it an enemy capable of expanding into Western Europe through subversion, given the popular support for Communist parties in Western Europe, which remained demoralized by the devastation of the Second World War. To counter this potential source of Soviet influence, Kennan 's solution was to direct economic aid and covert political help to Japan and Western Europe to revive Western governments and assist international capitalism; by doing so the United States would help to rebuild the balance of power. In June 1948, Kennan proposed covert assistance to left - wing parties not oriented toward Moscow and to labor unions in Western Europe in order to engineer a rift between Moscow and working - class movements in Western Europe.
As the United States was initiating the Marshall Plan, Kennan and the Truman administration hoped that the Soviet Union 's rejection of Marshall aid would strain its relations with its Communist allies in Eastern Europe. Kennan initiated a series of efforts to exploit the schism between the Soviets and Josip Broz Tito 's Yugoslavia. Kennan proposed conducting covert action in the Balkans to further decrease Moscow 's influence.
The administration 's new vigorously anti-Soviet policy also became evident when, at Kennan 's suggestion, the U.S. changed its hostility to Francisco Franco 's anti-communists regime in Spain in order to secure U.S. influence in the Mediterranean. Kennan had observed during 1947 that the Truman Doctrine implied a new consideration of Franco. His suggestion soon helped begin a new phase of U.S. -- Spanish relations, which ended with military cooperation after 1950.
Kennan 's influence rapidly decreased when Dean Acheson became Secretary of State, succeeding the ailing George Marshall during 1949 and 1950. Acheson did not regard the Soviet "threat '' as chiefly political, and he saw the Berlin blockade starting in June 1948, the first Soviet test of a nuclear weapon in August 1949, the Communist revolution in China a month later, and the beginning of the Korean War in June 1950 as evidence. Truman and Acheson decided to delineate the Western sphere of influence and to create a system of alliances.
This policy was realized as NSC - 68, a classified report issued by the United States National Security Council in April 1950 and written by Paul Nitze, Kennan 's successor as director of policy planning. Kennan and Charles Bohlen, another State Department expert on Russia, argued about the wording of NSC - 68, which became the basis of Cold War policy. Kennan rejected the idea that Stalin had a grand design for world conquest implicit in Nitze 's report and argued that he actually feared overextending Russian power. Kennan even argued that NSC - 68 should not have been drafted at all, as it would make U.S. policies too rigid, simplistic, and militaristic. Acheson overruled Kennan and Bohlen, endorsing the assumption of Soviet menace implied by NSC - 68.
Kennan opposed the building of the hydrogen bomb and the rearmament of Germany, which were policies encouraged by the assumptions of NSC - 68. During the Korean War (which began when North Korea invaded South Korea in June 1950), when rumors started circulating in the State Department that plans were being made to advance beyond the 38th parallel into North Korea, an act that Kennan considered dangerous, he engaged in intense arguments with Assistant Secretary of State for the Far East Dean Rusk, who apparently endorsed Acheson 's goal to forcibly unite the Koreas.
Kennan lost influence with Acheson, who in any case relied much less on his staff than Marshall had. Kennan resigned as director of policy planning in December 1949 but stayed in the department as counselor until June 1950. In January 1950, Acheson replaced Kennan with Nitze, who was much more comfortable with the calculus of military power. Afterwards, Kennan accepted an appointment as Visitor to the Institute for Advanced Study from fellow moderate Robert Oppenheimer, Director of the Institute.
Despite his influence, Kennan was never really comfortable in government. He always regarded himself as an outsider and had little patience with critics. W. Averell Harriman, the U.S. ambassador in Moscow when Kennan was deputy between 1944 and 1946, remarked that Kennan was "a man who understood Russia but not the United States ''.
In December 1951, President Truman nominated Kennan to be the next United States ambassador to the USSR. His appointment was endorsed strongly by the Senate.
In many respects (to Kennan 's consternation) the priorities of the administration emphasized creating alliances against the Soviets more than negotiating differences with them. In his memoirs, Kennan recalled, "So far as I could see, we were expecting to be able to gain our objectives... without making any concessions though, only ' if we were really all - powerful, and could hope to get away with it. ' I very much doubted that this was the case. ''
At Moscow, Kennan found the atmosphere even more regimented than on his previous trips, with police guards following him everywhere, discouraging contact with Soviet citizens. At the time, Soviet propaganda charged the U.S. with preparing for war, which Kennan did not wholly dismiss. "I began to ask myself whether... we had not contributed... by the overmilitarization of our policies and statements... to a belief in Moscow that it was war we were after, that we had settled for its inevitability, that it was only a matter of time before we would unleash it. ''
In September 1952, Kennan made a statement that cost him his ambassadorship. In an answer to a question at a press conference, Kennan compared his conditions at the ambassador 's residence in Moscow to those he had encountered while interned in Berlin during the first few months of the Second World War. While his statement was not unfounded, the Soviets interpreted it as an implied analogy with Nazi Germany. The Soviets then declared Kennan persona non grata and refused to allow him to re-enter the USSR. Kennan acknowledged retrospectively that it was a "foolish thing for me to have said ''.
Kennan returned to Washington, where he became embroiled in disagreements with Dwight D. Eisenhower 's hawkish Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles. Even so, he was able to work constructively with the new administration. During the summer of 1953 President Eisenhower asked Kennan to manage the first of a series of top - secret teams, dubbed Operation Solarium, examining the advantages and disadvantages of continuing the Truman administration 's policy of containment and of seeking to "roll back '' existing areas of Soviet influence. Upon completion of the project, the president seemed to endorse the group 's recommendations.
By lending his prestige to Kennan 's position, the president tacitly signaled his intention to formulate the strategy of his administration within the framework of its predecessor 's, despite the misgivings of some within the Republican Party. The critical difference between the Truman and Eisenhower policies of containment had to do with Eisenhower 's concerns that the United States could not indefinitely afford great military spending. The new president thus sought to minimize costs not by acting whenever and wherever the Soviets acted (a strategy designed to avoid risk) but rather whenever and wherever the United States could afford to act.
During John F. Kennedy 's 1960 presidential election campaign Kennan wrote to the future president to offer some suggestions on how his administration should improve the country 's foreign affairs. Kennan wrote, "What is needed is a succession of... calculated steps, timed in such a way as not only to throw the adversary off balance but to keep him off it, and prepared with sufficient privacy so that the advantage of surprise can be retained. '' He also urged the administration to "assure a divergence of outlook and policy between the Russians and Chinese, '' which could be accomplished by improving relations with Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev who had wanted to distance himself from the Communist Chinese. He wrote, "We should... without deceiving ourselves about Khrushchev 's political personality and without nurturing any unreal hopes, be concerned to keep him politically in the running and to encourage the survival in Moscow of the tendencies he personifies ''. Additionally, he recommended that the United States work toward creating divisions within the Soviet bloc by undermining its power in Eastern Europe and encouraging the independent propensities of satellite governments.
Although Kennan had not been considered for a job by Kennedy 's advisers, the president himself offered Kennan the choice of ambassadorship in either Poland or Yugoslavia. Kennan was more interested in Yugoslavia, so he accepted Kennedy 's offer and began his job in Yugoslavia during May 1961.
Kennan was tasked with trying to strengthen Yugoslavia 's policy against the Soviets and to encourage other states in the Eastern bloc to pursue autonomy from the Soviets. Kennan found his ambassadorship in Belgrade to be much improved from his experiences in Moscow a decade earlier. He commented, "I was favored in being surrounded with a group of exceptionally able and loyal assistants, whose abilities I myself admired, whose judgment I valued, and whose attitude toward myself was at all times... enthusiastically cooperative... Who was I to complain? '' Kennan found the Yugoslav government treated the American diplomats politely, in contrast from the way in which the Russians treated him in Moscow. He wrote that the Yugoslavs "considered me, rightly or wrongly, a distinguished person in the U.S., and they were pleased that someone whose name they had heard before was being sent to Belgrade ''.
Kennan found it difficult to perform his job in Belgrade. President Josip Broz Tito and his foreign minister, Koča Popović, began to suspect that Kennedy would adopt an anti-Yugoslav policy during his term. Tito and Popović considered Kennedy 's decision to observe Captive Nations Week as an indication that the United States would assist anticommunist liberation efforts in Yugoslavia. Tito also believed that the CIA and the Pentagon were the true directors of American foreign policy. Kennan attempted to restore Tito 's confidence in the American foreign policy establishment but his efforts were compromised by a pair of diplomatic blunders, the Bay of Pigs Invasion, and the U-2 spy incident.
Relations between Yugoslavia and the United States quickly began to worsen. In September 1961, Tito held a conference of nonaligned nations, where he delivered speeches that the U.S. government interpreted as being pro-Soviet. According to historian David Mayers, Kennan argued that Tito 's perceived pro-Soviet policy was in fact a ploy to "buttress Khrushchev 's position within the Politburo against hardliners opposed to improving relations with the West and against China, which was pushing for a major Soviet -- U.S. showdown ''. This policy also earned Tito "credit in the Kremlin to be drawn upon against future Chinese attacks on his communist credentials ''. While politicians and government officials expressed growing concern about Yugoslavia 's relationship with the Soviets, Kennan believed that the country had an "anomalous position in the Cold War that objectively suited U.S. purposes ''. Kennan also believed that within a few years, Yugoslavia 's example would cause states in the Eastern bloc to demand more social and economic autonomy from the Soviets.
By 1962, Congress had passed legislation to deny financial aid grants to Yugoslavia, to withdraw the sale of spare parts for Yugoslav warplanes, and to revoke the country 's most favored nation status. Kennan strongly protested the legislation, arguing that it would only result in a straining of relations between Yugoslavia and the U.S. Kennan came to Washington during the summer of 1962 to lobby against the legislation but was unable to elicit a change from Congress. President Kennedy endorsed Kennan privately but remained noncommittal publicly, as he did not want to jeopardize his slim majority support in Congress on a potentially contentious issue. With U.S. -- Yugoslav relations getting progressively worse, Kennan tendered his resignation as ambassador during late July 1963.
In 1957 Kennan was invited by the BBC to give the annual Reith Lectures -- a series of six radio lectures, which were titled Russia, the Atom and the West. For these, Kennan explored the history, effect, and possible consequences of relations between Russia and the West.
After the end of his brief ambassadorial post in Yugoslavia during 1963, Kennan spent the rest of his life in academe, becoming a major realist critic of U.S. foreign policy. Having spent 18 months as a scholar at the Institute for Advanced Study between 1950 and 1952, Kennan permanently joined the faculty of the Institute 's School of Historical Studies in 1956. During his career there, Kennan wrote seventeen books and scores of articles on international relations. He won the Pulitzer Prize for History, the National Book Award for Nonfiction, the Bancroft Prize, and the Francis Parkman Prize for Russia Leaves the War, published in 1956. He again won a Pulitzer and a National Book Award in 1968 for Memoirs, 1925 -- 1950. A second volume, taking his reminiscences up to 1963 was published in 1972. Among his other works were American Diplomacy 1900 -- 1950, Sketches from a Life, published in 1989, and Around the Cragged Hill in 1993.
His properly historical works amount to a six - volume account of the relations between Russia and the West from 1875 to his own time; the period from 1894 to 1914 was planned but not completed. He was chiefly concerned with:
Political realism formed the basis of Kennan 's work as a diplomat and historian and remains relevant to the debate over American foreign policy, which since the 19th century has been characterized by a shift from the Founding Fathers ' realist school to the idealistic or Wilsonian school of international relations. According to the realist tradition, security is based on the principle of a balance of power, whereas Wilsonianism (considered impractical by realists) relies on morality as the sole determining factor in statecraft. According to the Wilsonians the spread of democracy abroad as a foreign policy is important and morals are valid universally. During the Presidency of Bill Clinton, American diplomacy represented the Wilsonian school to such a degree that those in favor of the realism likened President Clinton 's policies to social work. According to Kennan, whose concept of American diplomacy was based on the realist approach, such moralism without regard to the realities of power and the national interest is self - defeating and will result in the decrease of American power.
In his historical writings and memoirs, Kennan laments in great detail the failings of democratic foreign policy makers and those of the United States in particular. According to Kennan, when American policymakers suddenly confronted the Cold War, they had inherited little more than rationale and rhetoric "utopian in expectations, legalistic in concept, moralistic in (the) demand it seemed to place on others, and self - righteous in the degree of high - mindedness and rectitude... to ourselves ''. The source of the problem is the force of public opinion, a force that is inevitably unstable, unserious, subjective, emotional, and simplistic. Kennan has insisted that the U.S. public can only be united behind a foreign policy goal on the "primitive level of slogans and jingoistic ideological inspiration ''.
Containment during 1967, when he published the first volume of his memoirs, involved something other than the use of military "counterforce ''. He was never pleased that the policy he influenced was associated with the arms build - up of the Cold War. In his memoirs, Kennan argued that containment did not demand a militarized U.S. foreign policy. "Counterforce '' implied the political and economic defense of Western Europe against the disruptive effect of the war on European society. Exhausted by war, the Soviet Union posed no serious military threat to the United States or its allies at the beginning of the Cold War but rather an ideological and political rival.
During the 1960s, Kennan criticized U.S. involvement in Vietnam, arguing that the United States had little vital interest in the region. Kennan believed that the USSR, Britain, Germany, Japan, and North America remained the areas of vital U.S. interests. During the 1970s and 1980s, he was a major critic of the renewed arms race as détente was ended.
In 1989 President George H. W. Bush awarded Kennan the Medal of Freedom, the nation 's greatest civilian honor. Yet he remained a realist critic of recent U.S. presidents, urging the U.S. government to "withdraw from its public advocacy of democracy and human rights '', saying that the "tendency to see ourselves as the center of political enlightenment and as teachers to a great part of the rest of the world strikes me as unthought - through, vainglorious and undesirable ''. These ideas were particularly applicable to U.S. relations with China and Russia. Kennan opposed the Clinton administration 's war in Kosovo and its expansion of NATO (the establishment of which he had also opposed half a century earlier), expressing fears that both policies would worsen relations with Russia. He described NATO enlargement as a "strategic blunder of potentially epic proportions ''.
Kennan remained vigorous and alert during the last years of his life, although arthritis had him using a wheelchair. During his later years, Kennan concluded that "the general effect of Cold War extremism was to delay rather than hasten the great change that overtook the Soviet Union ''. At age 98 he warned of the unforeseen consequences of waging war against Iraq. He warned that attacking Iraq would amount to waging a second war that "bears no relation to the first war against terrorism '' and declared efforts by the Bush administration to associate al Qaeda with Saddam Hussein "pathetically unsupportive and unreliable ''. Kennan went on to warn:
Anyone who has ever studied the history of American diplomacy, especially military diplomacy, knows that you might start in a war with certain things on your mind as a purpose of what you are doing, but in the end, you found yourself fighting for entirely different things that you had never thought of before... In other words, war has a momentum of its own and it carries you away from all thoughtful intentions when you get into it. Today, if we went into Iraq, like the president would like us to do, you know where you begin. You never know where you are going to end.
In February 2004 scholars, diplomats, and Princeton alumni gathered at the university 's campus to celebrate Kennan 's 100th birthday. Among those in attendance were Secretary of State Colin Powell, international relations theorist John Mearsheimer, journalist Chris Hedges, former ambassador and career Foreign Service officer Jack F. Matlock, Jr., and Kennan 's biographer, John Lewis Gaddis.
Kennan died on March 17, 2005, at age 101 at his home in Princeton, New Jersey. He was survived by his wife Annelise, whom he married in 1931, and his four children, eight grandchildren, and six great - grandchildren. Annelise died in 2008 at the age of 98.
In an obituary in the New York Times, Kennan was described as "the American diplomat who did more than any other envoy of his generation to shape United States policy during the cold war '' to whom "the White House and the Pentagon turned when they sought to understand the Soviet Union after World War II ''. Of Kennan, historian Wilson D. Miscamble remarked that "(o) ne can only hope that present and future makers of foreign policy might share something of his integrity and intelligence ''. Foreign Policy described Kennan as "the most influential diplomat of the 20th century ''. Henry Kissinger said that Kennan "came as close to authoring the diplomatic doctrine of his era as any diplomat in our history '', while Colin Powell called Kennan "our best tutor '' in dealing with the foreign policy issues of the 21st century.
During his career, Kennan received a number of awards and honors. As a scholar and writer, Kennan was a two - time recipient of both the Pulitzer Prizes and the National Book Award, and had also received the Francis Parkman Prize, the Ambassador Book Award and the Bancroft Prize. Among Kennan 's numerous other awards and distinctions were the Testimonial of Loyal and Meritorious Service from the Department of State (1953), Princeton 's Woodrow Wilson Award for Distinguished Achievement in the Nation 's Service (1976), the Order of the Pour le Mérite (1976), the Albert Einstein Peace Prize (1981), the Peace Prize of the German Book Trade (1982), the American Academy of Arts and Letters Gold Medal (1984), the American Whig - Cliosophic Society 's James Madison Award for Distinguished Public Service (1985), the Franklin D. Roosevelt Foundation Freedom from Fear Medal (1987), the Presidential Medal of Freedom (1989), the Distinguished Service Award from the Department of State (1994), and the Library of Congress Living Legend (2000). Kennan had also received 29 honorary degrees and was honored in his name with the George F. Kennan Chair in National Security Strategy at the National War College and the George F. Kennan Professorship at the Institute for Advanced Study.
Historian Wilson D. Miscamble argues that Kennan played a critical role in developing the foreign policies of the Truman administration. He also states that Kennan did not believe in either global or strongpoint containment; he simply wanted to restore the balance of power between the United States and the Soviets. Like historian John Lewis Gaddis, Miscamble concedes that although Kennan personally preferred political containment, his recommendations ultimately resulted in a policy directed more toward strongpoint than to global containment.
Noting the large - scale Mexican immigration to the Southwestern United States, Kennan said in 2002 there were "unmistakable evidences of a growing differentiation between the cultures, respectively, of large southern and southwestern regions of this country, on the one hand '', and those of "some northern regions ''. In the former, "the very culture of the bulk of the population of these regions will tend to be primarily Latin - American in nature rather than what is inherited from earlier American traditions... Could it really be that there was so little of merit (in America) that it deserves to be recklessly trashed in favor of a polyglot mix - mash? '' Mayers argues that Kennan throughout his career represented the "tradition of militant nativism '' that resembled or even exceeded the Know Nothings of the 1850s. Mayers adds that Kennan also believed American women had too much power.
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when was my family and other animals written | My Family and Other Animals - wikipedia
My Family and Other Animals (1956) is an autobiographical work by British naturalist Gerald Durrell. It tells of the years that he lived as a child with his siblings and widowed mother on the Greek island of Corfu between 1935 and 1939. It describes the life of the Durrell family in a humorous manner, and explores the fauna of the island. It is the first and most well - known of Durrell 's ' Corfu trilogy, ' together with Birds, Beasts, and Relatives (1969) and The Garden of the Gods (1978).
Durrell had already written several successful books about his trips collecting animals in the wild for zoos when he published My Family and Other Animals in 1956. Its comic exaggeration of the foibles of his family -- especially his eldest brother Lawrence Durrell, who became a celebrated novelist and poet -- and his heartfelt appreciation of the natural world made it very successful. Durrell was able to found the Jersey Zoological Park (now known as the Durrell Wildlife Park) in the Channel Islands. He also became known as a novel - writer and television personality. His books helped stimulate the development of tourism in Corfu.
The book is an autobiographical account of five years in the childhood of naturalist Gerald Durrell, age 10 at the start of the saga, of his family, pets and life during a sojourn on the island of Corfu. The book is divided into three sections, marking the three villas where the family lived on the island. Gerald is the youngest in a family consisting of their widowed mother, the eldest son Larry, the gun - mad Leslie, and diet - obsessed sister Margo together with Roger the dog. They are fiercely protected by their taxi - driver friend Spiro (Spiros "Americano '' Halikiopoupenelos) and mentored by the polymath Dr. Theodore Stephanides who provides Gerald with his education in natural history. Other human characters, chiefly eccentric, include Gerald 's private tutors, the artistic and literary visitors Larry invites to stay, and the local people who befriend the family.
The book was written in 1955 in Bournemouth, where Durrell was recuperating from a severe attack of jaundice. Whereas Durrell often claimed to find writing a chore, this book was different: his first wife Jacquie recalled "Never have I known Gerry work as he did then; it seemed to pour out of him ''. Durrell maintained "he had started off like a good cook with three ingredients which, delicious alone, were even better in combination: namely, the spellbinding landscape of a Greek island before tourism succeeded in spoiling it for tourists; his discovery of and friendship with the wild denizens, both animal and Greek, of that island; and the eccentric conduct of all members of his family. '' The book was an instant success.
Although My Family is presented as autobiographical, if not completely objective, the events described are not always true -- in particular Larry lived in another part of Corfu with his first wife Nancy Durrell, whom Gerald does not mention at all. The chronology of events as they occur in the book is also inaccurate, and the reason for the Durrells ' departure from Corfu (World War II) is not given; instead, it is implied that the family returned to England for the sake of Gerald 's education.
However, the book does succeed in preserving the impressions of ten - to fifteen - year - old Gerald extremely vividly and with a great deal of light - hearted humour. Despite the omissions and inaccuracies, Lawrence Durrell commented "This is a very wicked, very funny, and I 'm afraid rather truthful book -- the best argument I know for keeping thirteen - year - olds at boarding - schools and not letting them hang about the house listening in to conversations of their elders and betters ''.
The book was first published by Rupert Hart - Davis Ltd in 1956 and in paperback by Penguin Books in 1959 and has remained in print ever since.
My Family and Other Animals was made into a ten - part BBC television series in 1987 written by Charles Wood and directed by Peter Barber - Fleming. It starred Hannah Gordon as Louisa Durrell and Brian Blessed as Spiro Amerikanos, with Darren Redmayne playing the young Gerry. Nigel Marven of the Natural History Unit, Bristol was responsible for the animals side of the production; Denis McKeown, then PhD student in Psychology University of Sussex did the training of the famous pigeon Quasimodo in the series. The whistling for the theme tune was provided by Ken Barrie who was also the original voice of the children 's television character Postman Pat.
In 2005, it was adapted by the BBC as a 90 - minute film, My Family and Other Animals, starring Eugene Simon as the young Gerry, Imelda Staunton as Mrs. Durrell and Omid Djalili as Spiro. This adaptation was written by Simon Nye.
On 3 April 2016 ITV began running the six - part series The Durrells, also adapted by Simon Nye. Loosely based on the book, it stars Keeley Hawes as Louisa Durrell and Milo Parker as Gerald Durrell. The second series of The Durrells ran on ITV between 30 April and 28 May 2017. The third series started airing on ITV on 18 March 2018. The first series is set in 1935, the second in 1936 and the third in 1937.
In 2006, the Jersey Arts Centre 's Theatre in Education company produced the first stage version, in celebration of the 50th anniversary of the book 's publication in 1956. Adapted and directed by Daniel Austin, the play premiered on 22 February 2007 at Rouge Bouillon School in St Helier.
Several works have referenced the title of Durrell 's book, including Simon Doonan 's memoir Nasty: My Family and Other Glamorous Varmints, Kirin Narayan 's memoir My Family and Other Saints, and Josephine Feeney 's novel My Family and Other Natural Disasters. In Nanny Ogg 's Cookbook by Terry Pratchett, there is reference to a fictional book titled My Family and Other Werewolves. Clare Balding 's 2014 autobiography is titled My Animals and Other Family.
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who was the most recent president to be impeached | Impeachment in the United States - wikipedia
Impeachment in the United States is an enumerated power of the legislature that allows formal charges to be brought against a civil officer of government for crimes alleged to have been committed. Most impeachments have concerned alleged crimes committed while in office, though there have been a few cases in which Congress has impeached and convicted officials partly for prior crimes. The actual trial on such charges, and subsequent removal of an official upon conviction, is separate from the act of impeachment itself. Impeachment proceedings have been initiated against several presidents of the United States. Andrew Johnson and Bill Clinton are the only two presidents to have been successfully impeached by the House of Representatives, and both were later acquitted by the Senate. The impeachment process against Richard Nixon was never completed, as Nixon resigned his office before the vote of the full House for impeachment, but such a vote was widely expected to pass, and the threat of it and a subsequent conviction in the Senate was the impetus for Nixon 's departure. To date, no president has been removed from office by impeachment and conviction. The impeached official continues in office until conviction.
Impeachment is analogous to indictment in regular court proceedings; trial by the other house is analogous to the trial before judge and jury in regular courts. Typically, the lower house of the legislature impeaches the official and the upper house conducts the trial.
At the federal level, Article Two of the United States Constitution states in Section 4 that "The President, Vice President, and all civil Officers of the United States shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for, and conviction of, Treason, Bribery, or other High Crimes and Misdemeanors. '' The House of Representatives has the sole power of impeaching, while the United States Senate has the sole power to try all impeachments. The removal of impeached officials is automatic upon conviction in the Senate. In Nixon v. United States (1993), the Supreme Court determined that the federal judiciary can not review such proceedings.
Impeachment can also occur at the state level: state legislatures can impeach state officials, including governors, in accordance with their respective state constitutions.
At the Philadelphia Convention, Benjamin Franklin noted that, historically, the removal of "obnoxious '' chief executives had been accomplished by assassination. Franklin suggested that a proceduralized mechanism for legal removal -- impeachment -- would be preferable.
Impeachment proceedings may be commenced by a member of the House of Representatives on her or his own initiative, either by presenting a list of the charges under oath or by asking for referral to the appropriate committee. The impeachment process may be initiated by non-members. For example, when the Judicial Conference of the United States suggests a federal judge be impeached, a charge of actions constituting grounds for impeachment may come from a special prosecutor, the President, or state or territorial legislature, grand jury, or by petition.
The type of impeachment resolution determines the committee to which it is referred. A resolution impeaching a particular individual is typically referred to the House Committee on the Judiciary. A resolution to authorize an investigation regarding impeachable conduct is referred to the House Committee on Rules, and then to the Judiciary Committee. The House Committee on the Judiciary, by majority vote, will determine whether grounds for impeachment exist. If the Committee finds grounds for impeachment, it will set forth specific allegations of misconduct in one or more articles of impeachment. The Impeachment Resolution, or Article (s) of Impeachment, are then reported to the full House with the committee 's recommendations.
The House debates the resolution and may at the conclusion consider the resolution as a whole or vote on each article of impeachment individually. A simple majority of those present and voting is required for each article for the resolution as a whole to pass. If the House votes to impeach, managers (typically referred to as "House managers '', with a "lead House manager '') are selected to present the case to the Senate. Recently, managers have been selected by resolution, while historically the House would occasionally elect the managers or pass a resolution allowing the appointment of managers at the discretion of the Speaker of the United States House of Representatives. These managers are roughly the equivalent of the prosecution / district attorney in a standard criminal trial.
Also, the House will adopt a resolution in order to notify the Senate of its action. After receiving the notice, the Senate will adopt an order notifying the House that it is ready to receive the managers. The House managers then appear before the bar of the Senate and exhibit the articles of impeachment. After the reading of the charges, the managers return and make a verbal report to the House.
The proceedings unfold in the form of a trial, with each side having the right to call witnesses and perform cross-examinations. The House members, who are given the collective title of managers during the course of the trial, present the prosecution case, and the impeached official has the right to mount a defense with his own attorneys as well. Senators must also take an oath or affirmation that they will perform their duties honestly and with due diligence. After hearing the charges, the Senate usually deliberates in private. The Constitution requires a two thirds super majority to convict a person being impeached.
The Senate enters judgment on its decision, whether that be to convict or acquit, and a copy of the judgment is filed with the Secretary of State. Upon conviction in the Senate, the official is automatically removed from office and may also be barred from holding future office. The removed official is also liable to criminal prosecution. The President may not grant a pardon in the impeachment case, but may in any resulting criminal case.
Beginning in the 1980s with Harry E. Claiborne, the Senate began using "Impeachment Trial Committees '' pursuant to Senate Rule XI. These committees presided over the evidentiary phase of the trials, hearing the evidence and supervising the examination and cross-examination of witnesses. The committees would then compile the evidentiary record and present it to the Senate; all senators would then have the opportunity to review the evidence before the chamber voted to convict or acquit. The purpose of the committees was to streamline impeachment trials, which otherwise would have taken up a great deal of the chamber 's time. Defendants challenged the use of these committees, claiming them to be a violation of their fair trial rights as well as the Senate 's constitutional mandate, as a body, to have "sole power to try all impeachments. '' Several impeached judges sought court intervention in their impeachment proceedings on these grounds, but the courts refused to become involved due to the Constitution 's granting of impeachment and removal power solely to the legislative branch, making it a political question.
In the United Kingdom, impeachment was a procedure whereby a member of the House of Commons could accuse someone of a crime. If the Commons voted for the impeachment, a trial would then be held in the House of Lords. Unlike a bill of attainder, a law declaring a person guilty of a crime, impeachments did not require royal assent, so they could be used to remove troublesome officers of the Crown even if the monarch was trying to protect them.
The monarch, however, was above the law and could not be impeached, or indeed judged guilty of any crime. When King Charles I was tried before the Rump Parliament of the New Model Army in 1649 he denied that they had any right to legally indict him, their king, whose power was given by God and the laws of the country, saying: "no earthly power can justly call me (who is your King) in question as a delinquent... no learned lawyer will affirm that an impeachment can lie against the King. '' While the House of Commons pronounced him guilty and ordered his execution anyway, the jurisdictional issue tainted the proceedings.
With this example in mind, the delegates to the Philadelphia Convention chose to include an impeachment procedure in Article II, Section 4 of the Constitution which could be applied to any government official; they explicitly mentioned the President to ensure there would be no ambiguity. Opinions differed, however, as to the reasons Congress should be able to initiate an impeachment. Initial drafts listed only treason and bribery, but George Mason favored impeachment for "maladministration '' (incompetence). James Madison argued that impeachment should only be for criminal behavior, arguing that a maladministration standard would effectively mean that the President would serve at the pleasure of the Senate. Thus the delegates adopted a compromise version allowing impeachment for "treason, bribery and other high crimes and misdemeanors. ''
The precise meaning of the phrase "high crimes and misdemeanors '' is somewhat ambiguous; some scholars, such as Kevin Gutzman, argue that it can encompass even non-criminal abuses of power. Whatever its theoretical scope, however, Congress traditionally regards impeachment as a power to use only in extreme cases. The House of Representatives has actually initiated impeachment proceedings 62 times since 1789. Two cases did not come to trial because the individuals had left office.
Actual impeachments of 19 federal officers have taken place. Of these, 15 were federal judges: thirteen district court judges, one court of appeals judge (who also sat on the Commerce Court), and one Supreme Court Associate Justice. Of the other four, two were Presidents, one was a Cabinet secretary, and one was a U.S. Senator. Of the 19 impeached officials, eight were convicted. One, former judge Alcee Hastings, was elected as a member of the United States House of Representatives after being removed from office.
The 1797 impeachment of Senator William Blount of Tennessee stalled on the grounds that the Senate lacked jurisdiction over him. No other member of Congress has ever been impeached. The Constitution does give authority to the Senate and House, so that each body may expel its own members. (see List of United States senators expelled or censured and List of United States Representatives expelled, censured, or reprimanded). Expulsion removes the individual from functioning as a representative or senator because of their misbehavior, but unlike impeachment, expulsion can not result in barring an individual from holding future office.
While the actual impeachment of a federal public official is a rare event, demands for impeachment, especially of presidents, are common, going back to the administration of George Washington in the mid-1790s. In fact, most of the 63 resolutions mentioned above were in response to presidential actions.
While almost all of them were for the most part frivolous and were buried as soon as they were introduced, several did have their intended effect. Treasury Secretary Andrew Mellon and Supreme Court Justice Abe Fortas both resigned in response to the threat of impeachment hearings, and, most famously, President Richard Nixon resigned from office after the House Judiciary Committee had already reported articles of impeachment to the floor.
State legislatures can impeach state officials, including governors. The court for the trial of impeachments may differ somewhat from the federal model -- in New York, for instance, the Assembly (lower house) impeaches, and the State Senate tries the case, but the members of the seven - judge New York State Court of Appeals (the state 's highest, constitutional court) sit with the senators as jurors as well. Impeachment and removal of governors has happened occasionally throughout the history of the United States, usually for corruption charges. A total of at least eleven U.S. state governors have faced an impeachment trial; a twelfth, Governor Lee Cruce of Oklahoma, escaped impeachment conviction by a single vote in 1912. Several others, most recently Alabama 's Robert J. Bentley, have resigned rather than face impeachment, when events seemed to make it inevitable. The most recent impeachment of a state governor occurred on January 14, 2009, when the Illinois House of Representatives voted 117 -- 1 to impeach Rod Blagojevich on corruption charges; he was subsequently removed from office and barred from holding future office by the Illinois Senate on January 29. He was the eighth U.S. state governor to be removed from office.
The procedure for impeachment, or removal, of local officials varies widely. For instance, in New York a mayor is removed directly by the governor "upon being heard '' on charges -- the law makes no further specification of what charges are necessary or what the governor must find in order to remove a mayor.
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what was the real reason the rifleman went off the air | The Rifleman - wikipedia
The Rifleman is an American Western television program starring Chuck Connors as rancher Lucas McCain and Johnny Crawford as his son Mark McCain. It was set in the 1870s and 1880s in the fictional town of North Fork, New Mexico Territory. The show was filmed in black - and - white, half - hour episodes. The Rifleman aired on ABC from September 30, 1958, to April 8, 1963, as a production of Four Star Television. It was one of the first prime time series on American television to show a widowed parent raising a child.
The program was titled to reflect McCain 's use of a Winchester rifle, customized to allow repeated firing by cycling its lever action. He demonstrated this technique in the opening credits of every episode, as well as a second modification that allowed him to cycle the action with one hand.
The series centers on Lucas McCain, a Union Civil War veteran and widower. McCain had been a lieutenant in the 11th Indiana Infantry Regiment, and he had received a battlefield commission at the Battle of Five Forks just before the end of the war. Having previously been a homesteader, McCain buys a ranch outside the fictitious town of North Fork, New Mexico Territory, in the pilot episode. He and his son Mark had come from Enid, Oklahoma, following the death of his wife when his son was six years old.
The opening theme at the beginning of each episode depicted McCain walking down the street of a town while rapid - firing his Winchester 44 - 40 1892 model rifle that had been modified at the trigger and lever. The rifle 's modification allowed McCain to fire the rifle only by hand pumping the lever, which had a pin imbedded in it to trip the weapon 's trigger. At various points during the series, episodes would show McCain deftly handling and shooting the rifle ambidextrously.
The pilot episode, "The Sharpshooter '', was originally telecast on CBS as part of Dick Powell 's Zane Grey Theatre on March 7, 1958; it was repeated (in edited form) as the first episode of the series on ABC. Regulars on the program included Marshal Micah Torrance (R.G. Armstrong was the original marshal for two episodes, the first and the fourth), Sweeney the bartender (Bill Quinn), and a half - dozen other residents of North Fork (played by Hope Summers, Joan Taylor, Patricia Blair, John Harmon, and Harlan Warde). Fifty - one episodes of the series were directed by Joseph H. Lewis (director of 1950s Gun Crazy and known for his film noir style). Ida Lupino directed one episode, "The Assault ''. Connors wrote several episodes. Robert Culp (of CBS 's Trackdown, another Four Star - produced series), wrote one two - part episode, and Frank Gilroy wrote "End of a Young Gun ''.
The February 17, 1959 episode of The Rifleman was a spin - off for an NBC series, Law of the Plainsman, starring Michael Ansara as Marshal Sam Buckhart. In the episode "The Indian '', Buckhart comes to North Fork to look for Indians suspected of murdering a Texas Ranger and his family.
The series was set during the 1880s; a wooden plaque next to the McCain home states that the home was rebuilt by Lucas McCain and his son Mark in August 1881.
A common thread in the series is that people deserve a second chance; Marshal Micah Torrance is a recovering alcoholic, and McCain gives a convict a job on his ranch in "The Marshal ''. Royal Dano appeared as a former Confederate States of America soldier in "The Sheridan Story '' who is given a job on the McCain ranch and encounters General Philip Sheridan, the man who cost him his arm in battle. Learning why the man wants him dead, Sheridan arranges for medical care for his wounded former foe, quoting Abraham Lincoln 's last orders to "... bind up the nation 's wounds ''.
McCain has human foibles. In "Death Trap '', an episode with Philip Carey as former gunman (and old adversary) Simon Battles, he is unwilling to believe the man has changed and become a doctor. It takes a gunfight (with Battles fighting alongside him) to make him admit he is wrong. In "Two Ounces Of Tin '' with Sammy Davis, Jr., as Tip Corey (a former circus trick - shot artist turned gunman), McCain angrily orders him off the ranch when he finds him demonstrating his skills to Mark. McCain has a reputation in the Indian Territory of Oklahoma, where he first acquired the nickname "the Rifleman '', and where his wife had died in a smallpox epidemic.
The series was created by Arnold Laven and developed by Sam Peckinpah, who would become a director of Westerns. Peckinpah, who wrote and directed many early episodes, based many characters and plots on his own childhood on a ranch. His insistence on violent realism and complex characterizations, as well as his refusal to sugarcoat the lessons he felt the Rifleman 's son needed to learn about life, put him at odds with the show 's producers at Four Star. Peckinpah left the show and created a short - lived series, The Westerner, with Brian Keith.
Seven actors played the town doctor during the series (usually known as "Doc Burrage ''): Edgar Buchanan, Fay Roope, Rhys Williams, Jack Kruschen, Robert Burton, Ralph Moody and Bert Stevens. Several actors also played blacksmith Nels Swenson.
More than 500 actors made guest appearances in more than 970 credited roles during the five - year run of the series. Guest stars included veteran actors: John Anderson, Richard Anderson, Whit Bissell, John Carradine, Lon Chaney, Jr., Ellen Corby, Sammy Davis, Jr., John Dehner, Jack Elam, Med Flory, Dabbs Greer, Rodolfo Hoyos, Jr., L.Q. Jones, John Milford, Rex Holman, Agnes Moorehead, Denver Pyle, and Lee Van Cleef, most appearing multiple times in different roles. Several then - newcomers also appeared in the series, including Claude Akins, James Coburn (credited as "Jim '') Mark Goddard, Dan Blocker, Dennis Hopper, Michael Landon, Warren Oates, Harry Dean Stanton, Robert Vaughn, and Robert Culp. Notable people in other fields also made cameo appearances such as future baseball Hall of Famers Duke Snider and Don Drysdale, comedian Buddy Hackett and writer, director and producer Paul Mazursky.
Westerns were popular when The Rifleman premiered, and producers tried to find gimmicks to distinguish one show from another. The Rifleman 's gimmick was a modified Winchester Model 1892 rifle, with a large ring lever drilled and tapped for a set screw. The lever design allowed him to cock the rifle by spinning it around his hand. In addition, the screw could be positioned to depress the trigger every time he worked the lever, allowing for rapid fire, emptying the magazine in under five seconds during the opening credits on North Fork 's main street.
The # 8 - 32 UNC trigger - trip screw pin was used in two configurations: with the screw head turned inside (close to the trigger) or, more often, outside the trigger guard with a locknut on the outside (to secure its position). In some episodes, the screw was removed, when rapid - fire action was not required. When properly adjusted, the screw "squeezed '' the trigger when the lever was fully closed. The rapid - fire mechanism was originally designed to keep Connors from puncturing his finger with the trigger as he quickly cycled the action of the rifle. With this modification, it was not necessary for Connors to pull the trigger for each shot and therefore he did not have to place his finger in harm 's way.
The rifle may have appeared in every episode, but it was not always fired; some plots did not require violent solutions (for example, one involving Mark 's rigid new teacher). McCain attempts to solve as many problems as possible without resorting to shooting, yet still manages to kill 120 villains over the show 's five - year run. It is notable that McCain almost never carried a pistol.
The rifle was an anachronism, as the show was set 12 years before John Browning designed any such rifle.
The 1892 Winchester caliber. 44 - 40 carbine with a standard 20 - inch barrel used on the set of The Rifleman appeared with two different types of levers. The backwards, round - D - style loop was used in the early episodes. Sometimes the rifle McCain uses has a saddle ring (the purpose of this ring is to allow the rider to tie the gun with a lanyard, to secure it in the scabbard). The lever style later changed to a flatter lever (instead of the large loop) with no saddle ring.
McCain fires 12 shots from his rifle during the opening credits: seven shots in the first close - up and five more as the camera switches to another view. The blank cartridges are shorter than standard cartridges, so the magazine will hold more of the blanks. The soundtrack contained a dubbed 13th shot, to allow the firing to end with a section of the theme music. The rifle was chambered for the. 44 / 40 W.C.F. (Winchester Center Fire) cartridge, which was used in both revolvers and rifles. He could supposedly fire off his first round in three - tenths of a second, which certainly helped in a showdown.
Gunsmith James S. Stembridge modified two Model 1892s for use in regular and close - up filming. In addition, a Spanish - made Gárate y Anitúa "El Tigre '' lever action, a near - copy of the Model 1892, was modified for use as a knockabout gun. The El Tigre is seen in scenes where the rifle is in a saddle scabbard and is not drawn; and in stunts where the rifle was thrown to the ground, used as a club, or in any stunt where there was the possibility of damage to the original Winchester 1892s. These three rifles were the only ones used by Connors during the run of the series.
The now - defunct Stembridge Gunsmiths provided the rifles and ammunition. Ammunition was quarter - load 5 - in - 1 blank cartridges containing smokeless powder, which did not produce the thick clouds of smoke the genuine black powder cartridges of the 1880s did. Most (if not all) of the sound effects for the rifle shots were dubbed, which is why the rifle sounded so different from the other gunshots on the show.
The 1892 Winchester is a top - eject rifle (opening the action by pushing the finger - lever forward moves the bolt rearward and thereby opens the top of the receiver). Loaded rounds or empty cases from the chamber eject straight up when the lever is pushed fully open (forward). When Connors cycled the action by spinning the rifle to his side, the cartridge in the action could fall out. Therefore, the rifle was modified with a plunger, which would hold the round in place.
The Winchester Model 1892 rifle was designed by John Moses Browning and, other than general appearance, it has nothing in common with earlier lever - action rifles using the same class of cartridges. The significant improvement was the addition of vertical lugs that securely lock the bolt and receiver when the gun fires. Winchester originally produced this gun from 1892 to 1941; total production was slightly over 1,000,000. 27 variations in five chamberings were made over the course of production, but the basic design was largely unaltered. As with the earlier Model 1873, the light and handy Model 1892 was chambered for handgun cartridges, favored by many Westerners to simplify ammunition supply problems by using the same cartridge in both a handgun and a rifle. The Model 1892 was replaced by the Browning - designed Model 1894, which also had an impressive manufacturing history, with over 7,000,000 produced, and is still being produced to this day by a successor to Winchester. The Model 94 's popularity and long production history may be related to it being the first Winchester to be designed for the then - new "smokeless '' powder.
MPI Home Video has released The Rifleman on DVD in Region 1 in a number of versions. It has released single - disc DVDs with five episodes; from 2002 -- 2006 it released six sets, each with 20 episodes. The releases are random collections of episodes, rather than the original broadcast order. These releases are out of print, since MPI Home Video no longer owns the rights to the series. Levy - Gardner - Laven Productions, the original producer, is again the sole copyright owner of The Rifleman series.
In late 2013, Levy - Gardner - Laven Productions, Inc. announced it would be the only authorized outlet to offer for the very first time all 168 episodes of The Rifleman, the original series, newly restored and assembled in DVD box sets. The episodes will be released in sequential order, by season, in high quality boxed sets with exclusive special features. The first boxed set of all Season 1 episodes were made available on December 4, 2013 for $69.95. The second season was released on November 28, 2014. Season 3 was released on December 2, 2015. Season 4 was released in November 2016.
In late 2011, CBS announced plans to remake the original Rifleman series. Chris Columbus was slated to be the executive producer and direct, with Robert Levy, Steven Gardner, and Arthur Gardner (related to original producers Levy - Gardner - Laven) as executive producers. The remake project was canceled a few months later, without a pilot episode being made.
The TV show was also adapted into a comic book by Dan Spiegle, distributed by Dell Comics.
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how many times have the penguins and capitals met in the playoffs | Capitals -- Penguins rivalry - wikipedia
The Capitals -- Penguins rivalry is a hockey rivalry between the Washington Capitals and Pittsburgh Penguins of the National Hockey League. Both teams have played in the Metropolitan Division of the Eastern Conference since 2013. This rivalry stems from the eleven playoff series that the two teams have met in, which is second most between NHL expansion teams behind the Dallas Stars and the St. Louis Blues (who have twelve meetings). Pittsburgh has emerged victorious in every series except for the 1994 Eastern Conference Quarterfinals and 2018 Eastern Conference Semifinals. There is also only a 250 - mile drive between the cities of Washington and Pittsburgh, allowing visiting fans of both teams to attend each other 's games in fairly large quantities. In addition to the geography and deep playoff history, the emergence of Alexander Ovechkin (Washington) and Sidney Crosby (Pittsburgh) as two of the NHL 's biggest superstars has fueled the rivalry.
Starting in the early 1980s, Pittsburgh and Washington had developed some animosity towards each other, but their matchup was never considered one of the top rivalries because they were rarely good at the same time. The two teams had never even made it to the playoffs in the same year until 1989 when the Capitals lost to the Penguins ' cross-state rivals, the Philadelphia Flyers, in the division semifinals and the Penguins lost to the Flyers in the division finals. The next season, the Capitals and Penguins went in opposite directions. The Capitals finished third in the Patrick Division and made it to the Wales Conference Finals against the Boston Bruins (but lost that series 4 -- 0), while the Penguins did not even make the playoffs.
The 1990 -- 91 season marked the start of the rivalry. Pittsburgh and Washington finished first and third in the Patrick Division, respectively. The Penguins won a tight division semifinal series against the New Jersey Devils in seven games while the Capitals finished off the New York Rangers in six games. In the division finals, the Caps won Game 1 in Pittsburgh, 4 -- 2. The Pens went on to win the next three games, starting with a high - scoring 7 -- 6 OT affair in Game 2, followed by two 3 -- 1 victories in Washington. Pittsburgh would close out the series in Game 5 with a 4 -- 1 victory. They would go on to win the conference finals against Boston and the Stanley Cup Finals against the Minnesota North Stars, winning both series in six games.
In 1991 -- 92, the Capitals finished second in the division and the Penguins finished third. This set up a second consecutive playoff meeting between the two teams. This time, the Caps took a 3 -- 1 series lead by winning Games 1 and 2 on their home ice and then followed a Game 3 loss with a 7 -- 2 drubbing of the Penguins in Pittsburgh. Dino Ciccarelli scored four goals in that game and was one of five Washington players to have a multi-point game that night. The Penguins would not give up, responding with a 5 -- 2 win in Game 5 in Landover. Pittsburgh then won both Games 6 and 7 by two goals each to win the series in seven games. After this series, the Penguins would defeat the New York Rangers in the Division Finals and win eleven consecutive games to their second Stanley Cup.
1992 -- 93 would see both teams capture the top two spots in the Patrick Division. Pittsburgh won the division with a franchise record 119 points in the regular season, including an NHL - record 17 - game winning streak. However, the third - place team in the division, the New York Islanders, would upset both Washington and Pittsburgh in the division semifinals and finals, respectively, thus preventing a third consecutive Caps -- Pens playoff matchup.
Before the 1993 -- 94 season, the NHL renamed its divisions and made minor realignments. Pittsburgh was placed in the Northeast Division (formerly known as the Adams Division), while Washington remained in the newly named Atlantic Division that was formerly known as the Patrick Division. In spite of the divisional realignment, the two teams met once again in the Stanley Cup playoffs in the first round. The Penguins won the Northeast Division and earned the second seed in the newly named Eastern Conference (formerly the Wales Conference), while the Capitals earned the seventh seed. Unlike the previous two meetings, it was the Capitals that won the series 4 -- 2. Washington won Game 1 in Pittsburgh and the next five games were won by the home team. Joe Juneau and Michal Pivonka of the Capitals would post identical stats over the course of the series (3 goals and 4 assists in 6 games). The Capitals were unable to duplicate their first round success in the conference semifinals, falling to the President 's Trophy - winning (and eventual champion) New York Rangers in five games.
After the lockout - shortened 1994 -- 95 season, the Penguins earned the third seed in the East, while the Capitals earned the sixth seed. This set up another first round matchup between the two teams. Just like the year prior, the Capitals won Game 1 in Pittsburgh, and won two of the next three games to take a 3 -- 1 series lead. This time, however, the Penguins responded with three straight wins, starting with an overtime win in Game 5 at Civic Arena. This gave Pittsburgh a 4 -- 3 series win. Pittsburgh centre Ron Francis scored 3 goals and tallied 11 assists during the series. The eventual Stanley Cup champion, New Jersey Devils, went on to defeat the Penguins in the conference semifinals, 4 -- 1.
Pittsburgh and Washington met once again in the conference quarterfinals in the 1996 playoffs as the second and seventh seeds in the East, respectively. The Capitals shocked the Penguins and won the first two games of the series in Pittsburgh by two goals each, but the Penguins won Game 3 by a 4 -- 1 score. Petr Nedved scored in the fourth overtime period of Game 4 to tie the series at two games apiece. Pittsburgh won Games 5 and 6 to take the series in six games. They also went on to beat the Rangers in the conference semifinals, but lost Game 7 of the Eastern Conference Finals to the Florida Panthers.
Before the 1998 -- 99 season, the NHL realigned its divisions once more. However, the Capitals and Penguins remained interdivisional opponents, as the Penguins were placed in the new Atlantic Division and the Capitals were placed in the new Southeast Division.
The two rivals would not meet in the playoffs again until 2000. Washington won the Southeast Division title and earned the second seed in the East, while Pittsburgh squeaked in as the seventh seed. Unlike the other series in the playoffs, this matchup was played with a 1 -- 2 -- 2 -- 1 -- 1 format (team with home ice advantage plays Games 1, 4, 5, and 7 at home). The Penguins won the first three games in the series, starting with a 7 -- 0 win at the MCI Center. The next four games were all close as each of them were decided by one goal. Washington won Game 4 at home, but lost in Game 5 marking their fifth playoff series loss to the Pittsburgh Penguins.
In the 2000 -- 01 season, the Capitals won a weak Southeast Division once more and earned the third seed in the conference, while the Penguins earned the sixth seed. In the first round, the Caps started the series with a 1 -- 0 win over the Pens, but lost the next two games. Game 4 in Pittsburgh went to overtime and Jeff Halpern scored for Washington to tie the series at two before heading back to D.C. However, Pittsburgh would respond with a 2 -- 1 win in Games 5 and 6 (with Game 6 being ended in overtime by Martin Straka) thus defeating the Capitals once again. The Penguins would go onto the Conference Finals before being defeated in five games by the Devils.
The rivalry cooled off significantly for the next five years after the 2001 playoff encounter, as Washington and Pittsburgh combined for only one playoff appearance during this time (Washington lost to the Tampa Bay Lightning in the 2003 Eastern Conference Quarterfinals). The misfortunes of the two teams in the regular season would earn them the ability to draft high - end talent. Alexander Semin (13th overall, 2002), Alexander Ovechkin (1st overall, 2004), and Nicklas Backstrom (4th overall, 2006) were drafted by the Capitals, while Ryan Whitney (5th overall, 2002), Marc - Andre Fleury (1st overall, 2003), Evgeni Malkin (2nd overall, 2004), Sidney Crosby (1st overall, 2005), and Jordan Staal (2nd overall, 2006) were drafted by the Penguins. These players did their part in quickly turning the fortunes of their respective teams around. Crosby and Ovechkin, the most highly touted player on each team, first met on November 22, 2005, with Crosby getting a goal and an assist and Ovechkin getting an assist. The Penguins won 5 -- 4. The two phenoms lived up to their expectations, as they tallied 106 (Ovechkin) and 103 points (Crosby) to finish third and sixth in the NHL scoring race, respectively. However, both teams missed the playoffs that year. Ovechkin 's 52 goals placed him third all - time for goals scored by a rookie in a single regular season, behind Teemu Selanne (76) and Mike Bossy (53)
In 2006 -- 07, Crosby notched 36 goals and 84 assists (120 points) to lead the league in points and win the Art Ross Trophy. Ovechkin had a strong season as well, scoring 46 goals and 46 assists (92 points). The Penguins would improve much more quickly than the Capitals, as they secured their first playoff spot since 2001 by defeating the Capitals in their final meeting of the year. They were unable to find much success in the playoffs, as they were handed a 4 -- 1 series loss to the stronger, much more experienced Ottawa Senators in the conference quarterfinals.
2007 -- 08 saw both teams make the playoffs in the same year for the first time since 2001. The Capitals lost to the Philadelphia Flyers in the conference quarterfinals in seven games preventing a conference semifinals matchup with the Penguins. Pittsburgh made it to the Finals against the Detroit Red Wings (defeating the Flyers in the conference finals), only to lose the series 4 -- 2.
The rivalry reached new heights in 2008 -- 09. The Capitals finished as the second - best team in the Eastern Conference, while the Penguins finished as the fourth. All three of the League 's three leading scorers during the regular season played for either Washington or Pittsburgh (Evgeni Malkin, 113 points; Alexander Ovechkin, 110 points; Sidney Crosby, 103 points). In the playoffs, the Capitals defeated the New York Rangers 4 -- 3 in the conference quarterfinals, while the Penguins defeated their Pennsylvania rivals, the Flyers, in six games. With the first (Boston Bruins), second (Washington Capitals), fourth (Pittsburgh Penguins), and sixth (Carolina Hurricanes) seeds remaining in the East, this set up the eighth playoff meeting between the Caps and the Pens.
The Caps -- Pens 2009 series began in Washington. Sidney Crosby opened the scoring on a wrist shot in the first period, only to have Capitals centre David Steckel tie the game later on. Pittsburgh later found themselves trying to kill a 5 - on - 3 penalty, and Washington capitalized on it on a goal by Alexander Ovechkin assisted by Alex Semin to take a 2 -- 1 lead. Mark Eaton tied the score at two a little over halfway into the game, but it was Tomas Fleischmann who scored the only goal of the third period to give Washington a 3 -- 2 win and a 1 -- 0 series lead. Game 2 proved to be one of the most notable games in Caps - Pens playoff history, as Crosby and Ovechkin both scored hat - tricks in the game. Steckel was the only other player in the game to score a goal, thus giving Washington a 4 -- 3 win (with Ovechkin 's third goal being the winning goal) and a 2 -- 0 series lead with the series shifting to Pittsburgh.
In Game 3, Washington got the start they wanted, as Ovechkin opened the scoring for the Caps. Fellow Russians Evgeni Malkin and Ruslan Fedotenko scored in the second and third period, respectively, to give the Pens a 2 -- 1 lead in the game. With 1: 23 left in regulation, Nicklas Backstrom tied the game for Washington. The Caps were unable to build off of his goal in overtime, as Penguins ' defenceman Kris Letang 's shot deflected off Capitals ' defenceman Shaone Morrisonn past goalie Semyon Varlamov and into the net to give Pittsburgh a 3 -- 2 overtime win and cut Washington 's series lead in half. In Game 4, Washington scored first once more (from Nick Backstrom assisted by Alex Semin), but just like the previous game, Pittsburgh took the lead, this time from a power play goal by Sergei Gonchar and even - strength goals from Bill Guerin and Ruslan Fedotenko. Winger Chris Clark scored in the second period for Washington to make it 3 -- 2. The Caps and Pens traded goals until the end of the game for a 5 -- 3 final score in favor of Pittsburgh. The series was tied 2 -- 2 heading back to the Verizon Center.
A Yanni concert in Pittsburgh had forced the two teams to play Games 4 and 5 on back - to - back days. Game 5 started with Steckel missing a wide - open net 19 seconds into the first period; the two teams got into a scrum at the end of the period. Alexander Ovechkin and John Erskine of Washington and Brooks Orpik and Evgeni Malkin of Pittsburgh all received roughing penalties. In the second period, Jordan Staal scored for Pittsburgh. Ovechkin responded with his ninth goal of the playoffs to tie the score at one; he followed that with assisting on Backstrom 's power play goal to put Washington ahead, 2 -- 1. Fedotenko and Matt Cooke both scored to put Pittsburgh ahead 3 -- 2 in the third period, but then Ovechkin, with 4: 08 remaining in regulation, tied the score at three with his second goal of the game and tenth goal of the playoffs (Backstrom assisted on his goal for his second point of the game). In overtime, Washington defenceman Milan Jurcina tripped Evgeni Malkin and got a penalty for it. This proved costly, as Malkin attempted a pass to Sidney Crosby which was broken up by Caps ' defenceman Tom Poti and deflected into the net past Semyon Varlamov to give Pittsburgh a 4 -- 3 overtime win and a 3 -- 2 series lead heading back to Mellon Arena. Game 6 began with a goal by Bill Guerin to give Pittsburgh a 1 -- 0 lead 5: 55 into the first period. Viktor Kozlov and Tomas Fleischmann later scored to make it 2 -- 1 in favor of Washington, however, Mark Eaton scored on the power play for Pittsburgh after Brian Pothier took an interference penalty. The Capitals and Penguins headed into the second intermission with Game 6 tied at two. Pittsburgh and Washington started the third period by trading power play goals by Kris Letang and Brooks Laich, respectively, and then Kozlov scored at even strength to put the Caps ahead by one. Sidney Crosby then scored with 4: 18 remaining to tie the game at four. The game went to overtime and the series was on the line for Washington, but they still pulled through as David Steckel scored a goal assisted by Brooks Laich and Matt Bradley to force a seventh game back in D.C. Alexander Ovechkin finished the game with three assists.
For the third time in their storied playoff history, the Washington Capitals and Pittsburgh Penguins played a Game 7 against each other, with Pittsburgh having won both previous Game 7s. It would prove to be a disastrous start for the Caps as they fell behind 5 -- 0 (Crosby and Malkin each got two points from Pittsburgh 's five goals). Ovechkin spoiled the shutout on an unassisted goal in the second period, but then Crosby scored an unassisted goal of his own, this time on the power play and in the third period. Brooks Laich scored afterward, but the Penguins held on for a 6 -- 2 Game 7 win to advance to the Eastern Conference Finals. Crosby scored two goals and had an assist in the game to finish the series with 13 points (8 goals and 5 assists) while Ovechkin finished with 14 points (8 goals and 6 assists) in the series. The Penguins would eventually play in the Stanley Cup Finals against the Detroit Red Wings for the second consecutive season. They would win that series in seven games to win their third Stanley Cup.
In May 2010, the NHL announced that the 2011 NHL Winter Classic was going to be played by the Capitals and Penguins, with the game being held on New Year 's Day of 2011 at Heinz Field in Pittsburgh. Pittsburgh scored first off an Evgeni Malkin breakaway in the second period before Washington rallied for three straight goals, including two by Eric Fehr. The Capitals held on to defeat the Penguins 3 -- 1. This game is also notable for being the beginning of Sidney Crosby 's concussion issues, as Caps ' centre Dave Steckel clipped him in the head by accident behind the play. Crosby returned to the Penguins ' lineup four days later against the Tampa Bay Lightning, but after getting hit by defenceman Victor Hedman, he did not play another game for ten months.
Washington and Pittsburgh would remain very competitive for the next few years, as the two teams combined for only one playoff-less season (Capitals in 2013 -- 14) from 2009 -- 2015. However, they never met in the playoffs during this time. They came close in 2011, but had the Penguins held their 3 -- 1 series lead in the conference quarterfinals against Tampa Bay, they would have faced Washington in the next round.
Before the 2013 -- 14 season, the NHL realigned into a two - conference, four - division setup. The Capitals and Penguins were both placed into the newly formed Metropolitan Division, making the two teams divisional rivals for the first time since the 1992 -- 93 season. The NHL also changed its playoff format to make divisional playoff matchups more common. This ignited the rivalry for years to come.
The Washington Capitals and Pittsburgh Penguins met in three straight playoffs, writing another chapter in their storied playoff history against each other. They have been arguably the two best teams in the league, finishing as the top two teams in the Eastern Conference in back - to - back seasons from 2016 -- 2017, and just the division in 2018. Despite their high regular season finishes in the first two seasons, they have been paired as second round opponents both times.
In the 2015 -- 16 season, Washington and Pittsburgh finished as the top two teams in their division as well as their conference. Washington won the President 's Trophy with 120 points. In the first round, the Capitals beat the Flyers in six games, while the Penguins beat the Rangers in five games to set up the ninth playoff meeting between the Caps and Pens, and the first one in seven years.
In Game 1, Capitals left winger Andre Burakovsky opened the scoring off a rush a little over halfway through the first period only for Pittsburgh to bounce back in the second period with goals by defenceman Ben Lovejoy and centre Evgeni Malkin. Right winger T.J. Oshie then tied the game for Washington later in the period and then scored less than nine minutes into the third to give his team a 3 -- 2 lead. Their lead was relatively short - lived as Penguins centre Nick Bonino evened the game about five minutes later sending Game 1 into overtime. In the extra session, Oshie skated around the Penguins ' goal with the puck for a wraparound chance, but goaltender Matt Murray got a piece of it. In referee Dan O'Rourke's eyes, the puck had crossed the line, so he signaled a goal The play then was under review, and after a closer look, the puck had gone over the line by the length of a stick blade, and the referees awarded the goal to the Capitals giving Oshie the hat - trick and Washington a 1 -- 0 series lead. Game 2 was a tight, low - scoring affair and it was Pittsburgh who evened the series with a 2 -- 1 win. Pittsburgh 's goals were scored by left winger Carl Hagelin and former - Capital Eric Fehr, and Washington 's only goal was scored by centre Marcus Johansson. Capitals goalie Braden Holtby made 35 saves, while his counterpart Matt Murray made only 23.
The series shifted to the Consol Energy Center for Game 3. The Penguins opened the game with first period goals from right wingers Patric Hornqvist and Tom Kuhnhackl to grab a 2 -- 0 lead heading into the first intermission. Carl Hagelin added to the Penguins ' lead with a goal in the second period for a 3 -- 0 lead. Washington would try to comeback as Alexander Ovechkin and Justin Williams scored in the third period for the Caps to cut Pittsburgh 's lead to 3 -- 2. That would turn out to be the final score of the game, giving the Penguins a 2 -- 1 series lead. Pittsburgh 's Kris Letang, however, was suspended for the next game for leaving his feet just before hitting Marcus Johansson. He was originally whistled for interference, and then was suspended one game by the NHL 's Department of Player Safety for making Johansson 's head the main point of contact. Game 4 began with a backhanded shot by centre Jay Beagle that went over Matt Murray 's shoulder to give the Capitals a 1 -- 0 lead three minutes into the game. That lead lasted for about seven minutes, as Penguins ' defenceman Trevor Daley scored a goal from a slapshot that deflected off Caps ' defenceman Karl Alzner and past Holtby to tie the game. Early in the second period, Pittsburgh centre Matt Cullen scored after a lucky bounce off the boards that sent the puck on his stick to set him up for a breakaway goal. Later in the period, however, Washington tied the game after defenceman John Carlson roofed a shot past Murray and into the net. Late in the third period, Alzner received a penalty for high - sticking Sidney Crosby, but the Penguins could not capitalize and the game went to overtime. The sudden - death overtime period did not last long, as Hornqvist scored for Pittsburgh 2: 34 into overtime to give the Penguins a 3 -- 2 win in the game and a 3 -- 1 series lead. Pittsburgh had lost eight consecutive playoff overtimes prior to this game.
The Capitals could not afford to lose another game, as they faced elimination heading into Game 5. They got off to a good start in Game 5, grabbing a 1 -- 0 lead off of an Ovechkin slapshot. The Penguins quickly responded with a goal from Chris Kunitz that was scored from a rebound in front of the net, but Washington regained the lead later on when Ovechkin assisted on Oshie 's go - ahead goal that made the score 2 -- 1. Justin Williams followed this by capitalizing on a Brian Dumoulin turnover to put the Capitals ahead, 3 -- 1. There was no scoring in the third period, giving Washington a 3 -- 1 win to keep their season alive. The Capitals got off to a disastrous start in Game 6, surrendering the first three goals of the game to Pittsburgh (scored twice by right winger Phil Kessel and once by Carl Hagelin). Oshie scored late in the second period to give Washington some life and make the score 3 -- 1. Justin Williams and John Carlson both scored in the third period to tie the game for Washington after being down 3 -- 0. The game went to overtime. Nick Bonino scored the overtime winner for the Pens off a rebound in front of Caps ' goaltender Braden Holtby to give the Penguins a 4 -- 3 win in the game and a 4 -- 2 win in the series.
This was Pittsburgh 's eighth playoff series win against the Capitals in nine meetings. Alexander Ovechkin of the Capitals and Carl Hagelin of the Penguins lead the series with seven points (two goals, five assists; and three goals, four assists, respectively) in six games. Pittsburgh went on to win their fourth Stanley Cup.
2016 -- 17 saw the two rivals not only finish as the top two regular season teams in their conference, but also the top two teams in the entire National Hockey League. The Capitals finished with the best regular season record, beating the Toronto Maple Leafs in the conference quarterfinals, while the Penguins finished with the second best record and defeated the Columbus Blue Jackets in their series. This marked the tenth Washington -- Pittsburgh playoff series.
Game 1 was held at the Verizon Center in D.C. There was no scoring in the first period, but in the second period Penguins ' captain Sidney Crosby scored two goals before two minutes had elapsed in the period. Before the second intermission, his star counterpart, Alexander Ovechkin, took a slapshot and blazed the puck past Fleury and into the cut the Pittsburgh lead in half. At the start of the third period, Evgeny Kuznetsov tied the game. Pittsburgh regained the lead after centre Scott Wilson made a pass to Nick Bonino that sent him on a breakaway, which Bonino capitalized on with a wrist shot. Despite a flurry of Capitals chances to tie the game, the Penguins held on to win Game 1 3 -- 2 and take a 1 -- 0 series lead. Game 2 was won by Pittsburgh 6 -- 2, behind two - goal performances from Phil Kessel and rookie Jake Guentzel, along with a goal by Matt Cullen and Evgeni Malkin. Nick Backstrom had two points for the Capitals. Holtby was pulled after stopping 11 of 14 shots, being replaced by backup Philipp Grubauer. Fleury stopped 34 of 36 shots for the Penguins in the game.
The Capitals headed to PPG Paints Arena in a 2 -- 0 series hole. They got the start they wanted in Game 3 as Backstrom put Washington ahead 1 -- 0 in the first period on a five - on - three power play. It was n't until the third period that the Caps got an insurance goal with Kuznetsov 's 2 -- 0 goal 9: 46 into the third period. With only a couple of minutes left in regulation, the Penguins were down by two goals and had been kept off the scoreboard, but that was short - lived, as Evgeni Malkin cut the Caps ' lead in half. That was followed by defenceman Justin Schultz firing the puck past Holtby to tie the game. Both of the Pens ' goals were scored while their own net was empty to make room for an extra skater. The Penguins headed into overtime with confidence, but their comeback fell short as Washington 's defenceman Kevin Shattenkirk scored a power play goal in the extra session to cut Pittsburgh 's series lead in half. This game was also noted for Capitals ' defenceman Matt Niskanen 's hit on Sidney Crosby; Niskanen was assesed five and a game misconduct. The NHL reviewed the hit, and deemed it not a dirty hit, so Niskanen did not face any discipline. In Game 4, the Penguins did not have Crosby in the lineup because of "concussion - related '' symptoms. They did, however, jump out to a 2 -- 0 lead after goals from Patric Hornqvist in the first period and Justin Schultz in the second period. The Capitals roared back with two second period goals of their own, scored 1: 12 apart from Kuznetsov and defenceman Nate Schmidt. Later in the period, John Carlson was called for roughing, putting the Penguins on the power play. Pittsburgh capitalized on the man advantage, with Justin Schultz getting the power play goal. The game went down to the wire, as the score remained 3 -- 2 with just over a minute to play. In the final minutes, Oshie was called for high - sticking Nick Bonino, however, replays showed that Oshie 's stick never even touched Bonino 's face; regardless, Bonino did not receive an embellishment call. The Penguins held on to win Game 4, 3 -- 2, to take a 3 -- 1 series lead heading into D.C. for Game 5.
The series shifted back to the Verizon Center for Game 5. With Sidney Crosby back in the lineup and the Penguins up 2 -- 1 after two periods, they had a chance to close out the series and earn a trip back to the Eastern Conference Finals, but it all went downhill for them starting from the puck drop for the third period. Nicklas Backstrom, Evgeny Kuznetsov, and Alexander Ovechkin scored to help the Caps bounce back to win Game 5, 4 -- 2, and send the series back to Western Pennsylvania for Game 6. Washington rode their momentum generated in Game 5 into Game 6, as they tallied the first five goals of the game. John Carlson, T.J. Oshie, and Nicklas Backstrom scored once each for the Capitals, while André Burakovsky scored two. With Washington leading 5 -- 0 with minutes left, Pittsburgh scored two goals, yet the Caps still won 5 -- 2. Braden Holtby made 16 saves on 18 shots to send the series to a decisive Game 7 on Washington ice.
For the fourth time in history, the Washington Capitals and Pittsburgh Penguins played a Game 7 against each other. The first period did not have any goals scored: Marc - Andre Fleury and his counterpart, Holtby, were having a solid game thus far. In the second period, the Penguins used a Washington turnover to generate a scoring chance: Jake Guentzel made a timely pass to teammate Bryan Rust, who scored to put the visitors on the board. This proved to be the only goal of the period, as the Penguins went into the second intermission up 1 -- 0. Then, in the third period, Patric Hornqvist wristed a shot over Holtby 's shoulder to add insurance to Pittsburgh 's lead. The Penguins did not relinquish their 2 -- 0 lead, as they shut out their arch - rivals in Washington to advance to the Eastern Conference Finals for the second consecutive year. Fleury made 29 saves for Pittsburgh in the deciding win. The Penguins went on to defeat Ottawa in the conference finals and followed that series victory with a defeat of the Nashville Predators in the Stanley Cup Finals in six games.
The Capitals held home ice advantage again in the 2018 match - up, clinching the Metropolitan Division title with 105 points and ousting the Blue Jackets in the first round in six games after losing the first two games at home. The Penguins finished 2nd in the division and defeated the Flyers in 6 games as well. This would be the third consecutive second round match - up between the two teams.
Both teams were missing key players for the start of the series due to injuries sustained in their respective first - round series. The Penguins were without Evgeni Malkin for the first two games and Carl Hagelin for the first three, while the Capitals did not have Andre Burakovsky for the entire series. The scoring in game one started quickly, as Evgeny Kuznetsov netted a breakaway opportunity on a pass from Alexander Ovechkin just 17 seconds into the game. Ovechkin himself then doubled the lead on another quick strike, only 28 seconds into the third period. The Penguins responded with three goals in a five - minute span, with Patric Hornqvist and Jake Guentzel scoring off deflections and Sidney Crosby potting the game - tying goal. The comeback resulted in a 3 -- 2 victory for Pittsburgh.
The Capitals came back to tie the series after a convincing second game victory, with the help of a 32 - save effort from Braden Holtby. The scoring began quickly again, as Ovechkin recorded the first tally just over a minute into the game. Lars Eller assisted on each of the next two goals, as rookie Jakub Vrana scored his first career playoff goal on the power play and Brett Connolly sniped a breakaway chance two minutes into the second period. The Penguins appeared to have fought their way back to a 3 -- 2 deficit, but a potential tap - in goal from Patric Hornqvist was disallowed following video review. The Capitals took the 4 -- 1 victory and a tied series to Pittsburgh. Game three was an exciting back - and - forth affair, with three lead changes. Following a scoreless first period, John Carlson fired a slap shot past Matt Murray less than a minute into the second period: the third time the Capitals had scored in the first minute of a period in the series. Guentzel and Hornqvist replied for the Penguins, with Malkin assisting the latter power play goal in his first game back. The two teams continued alternating scoring, with goals from Chandler Stephenson, Crosby, and Matt Niskanen. With the game tied 3 -- 3 and a little over a minute left in regulation, Washington took the lead off an odd man chance. Ovechkin initially hit the post off a cross-ice pass from Nicklas Backstrom, but was able to bat the mid-air puck past Murray and into the net, giving Washington a 2 -- 1 series lead.
Capitals top line winger Tom Wilson was involved in separate controversial plays in Games 2 and 3. In Game 2, Wilson made contact with the head of Brian Dumoulin, sandwiching the defenseman between himself and Alex Ovechkin. Dumoulin exited the game, but would return for Game 3. The next game, Wilson delivered a hard hit to the shoulder of Zach Aston - Reese, giving the rookie center a concussion and broken jaw. Wilson would receive a three game suspension from the NHL Department of Player Safety, and Aston - Reese missed the remainder of the series from the sustained injuries.
The Washington Capitals took the two time defending Stanley Cup Champion Penguins down in six games winning the series 4 -- 2. The Capitals won in overtime 2 -- 1 playing in Pittsburgh for game six in the series.
As of May 11, 2018
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which statements about the etiology and genetic risk for diabetes mellitus are correct | Complications of diabetes mellitus - wikipedia
The complications of diabetes mellitus are far less common and less severe in people who have well - controlled blood sugar levels. Acute complications include hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia, diabetic coma and nonketotic hyperosmolar coma. Chronic complications occur due to a mix of microangiopathy, macrovascular disease and immune dysfunction in the form of autoimmune disease or poor immune response, most of which are difficult to manage. Microangiopathy can affect all vital organs, kidneys, heart and brain, as well as eyes, nerves, lungs and locally gums and feet. Macrovascular problems can lead to cardiovascular disease including erectile dysfunction. Female infertility may be due to endocrine dysfunction with impaired signalling on a molecular level.
Other health problems compound the chronic complications of diabetes such as smoking, obesity, high blood pressure, elevated cholesterol levels, and lack of regular exercise which are accessible to management as they are modifiable. Non-modifiable risk factors of diabetic complications are type of diabetes, age of onset, and genetic factors, both protective and predisposing have been found.
Complications of diabetes mellitus are acute and chronic. Risk factors for them can be modifiable or not modifiable. Overall, complications are far less common and less severe in people with well - controlled blood sugar levels. However, (non-modifiable) risk factors such as age at diabetes onset, type of diabetes, gender and genetics play a role. Some genes appear to provide protection against diabetic complications, as seen in a subset of long - term diabetes type 1 survivors without complications.
As of 2010, there were about 675,000 diabetes - related emergency department (ED) visits in the U.S. which involved neurological complications, 409,000 ED visits with kidney complications, and 186,000 ED visits with eye complications.
Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is an acute and dangerous complication that is always a medical emergency and requires prompt medical attention. Low insulin levels cause the liver to turn fatty acid to ketone for fuel (i.e., ketosis); ketone bodies are intermediate substrates in that metabolic sequence. This is normal when periodic, but can become a serious problem if sustained. Elevated levels of ketone bodies in the blood decrease the blood 's pH, leading to DKA. On presentation at hospital, the patient in DKA is typically dehydrated, and breathing rapidly and deeply. Abdominal pain is common and may be severe. The level of consciousness is typically normal until late in the process, when lethargy may progress to coma. Ketoacidosis can easily become severe enough to cause hypotension, shock, and death. Urine analysis will reveal significant levels of ketone bodies (which have exceeded their renal threshold blood levels to appear in the urine, often before other overt symptoms). Prompt, proper treatment usually results in full recovery, though death can result from inadequate or delayed treatment, or from complications (e.g., brain edema). Ketoacidosis is much more common in type 1 diabetes than type 2.
Nonketotic hyperosmolar coma (HNS) is an acute complication sharing many symptoms with DKA, but an entirely different origin and different treatment. A person with very high (usually considered to be above 300 mg / dl (16 mmol / L)) blood glucose levels, water is osmotically drawn out of cells into the blood and the kidneys eventually begin to dump glucose into the urine. This results in loss of water and an increase in blood osmolarity. If fluid is not replaced (by mouth or intravenously), the osmotic effect of high glucose levels, combined with the loss of water, will eventually lead to dehydration. The body 's cells become progressively dehydrated as water is taken from them and excreted. Electrolyte imbalances are also common and are always dangerous. As with DKA, urgent medical treatment is necessary, commonly beginning with fluid volume replacement. Lethargy may ultimately progress to a coma, though this is more common in type 2 diabetes than type 1.
Hypoglycemia, or abnormally low blood glucose, is an acute complication of several diabetes treatments. It is rare otherwise, either in diabetic or non-diabetic patients. The patient may become agitated, sweaty, weak, and have many symptoms of sympathetic activation of the autonomic nervous system resulting in feelings akin to dread and immobilized panic. Consciousness can be altered or even lost in extreme cases, leading to coma, seizures, or even brain damage and death. In patients with diabetes, this may be caused by several factors, such as too much or incorrectly timed insulin, too much or incorrectly timed exercise (exercise decreases insulin requirements) or not enough food (specifically glucose containing carbohydrates). The variety of interactions makes cause identification difficult in many instances.
It is more accurate to note that iatrogenic hypoglycemia is typically the result of the interplay of absolute (or relative) insulin excess and compromised glucose counterregulation in type 1 and advanced type 2 diabetes. Decrements in insulin, increments in glucagon, and, absent the latter, increments in epinephrine are the primary glucose counterregulatory factors that normally prevent or (more or less rapidly) correct hypoglycemia. In insulin - deficient diabetes (exogenous) insulin levels do not decrease as glucose levels fall, and the combination of deficient glucagon and epinephrine responses causes defective glucose counterregulation.
Furthermore, reduced sympathoadrenal responses can cause hypoglycemia unawareness. The concept of hypoglycemia - associated autonomic failure (HAAF) in diabetes posits that recent incidents of hypoglycemia causes both defective glucose counterregulation and hypoglycemia unawareness. By shifting glycemic thresholds for the sympathoadrenal (including epinephrine) and the resulting neurogenic responses to lower plasma glucose concentrations, antecedent hypoglycemia leads to a vicious cycle of recurrent hypoglycemia and further impairment of glucose counterregulation. In many cases (but not all), short - term avoidance of hypoglycemia reverses hypoglycemia unawareness in affected patients, although this is easier in theory than in clinical experience.
In most cases, hypoglycemia is treated with sugary drinks or food. In severe cases, an injection of glucagon (a hormone with effects largely opposite to those of insulin) or an intravenous infusion of dextrose is used for treatment, but usually only if the person is unconscious. In any given incident, glucagon will only work once as it uses stored liver glycogen as a glucose source; in the absence of such stores, glucagon is largely ineffective. In hospitals, intravenous dextrose is often used.
Diabetic coma is a medical emergency in which a person with diabetes mellitus is comatose (unconscious) because of one of the acute complications of diabetes:
The damage to small blood vessels leads to a microangiopathy, which can cause one or more of the following:
Macrovascular disease leads to cardiovascular disease, to which accelerated atherosclerosis is a contributor:
The immune response is impaired in individuals with diabetes mellitus. Cellular studies have shown that hyperglycemia both reduces the function of immune cells and increases inflammation.
Type 2 diabetes in youth brings a much higher prevalence of complications like diabetic kidney disease, retinopathy and peripheral neuropathy than type 1 diabetes, though no significant difference in the odds of arterial stiffness and hypertension.
A 1988 study over 41 months found that improved glucose control led to initial worsening of complications but was not followed by the expected improvement in complications. In 1993 it was discovered that the serum of diabetics with neuropathy is toxic to nerves, even if its blood sugar content is normal. Research from 1995 also challenged the theory of hyperglycemia as the cause of diabetic complications. The fact that 40 % of diabetics who carefully controlled their blood sugar nevertheless developed neuropathy made clear other factors were involved. In a 2013 meta - analysis of 6 randomized controlled trials involving 27,654 patients, tight blood glucose control reduced the risk for some macrovascular and microvascular events but without effect on all - cause mortality and cardiovascular mortality.
Research from 2007 suggested that in type 1 diabetics, the continuing autoimmune disease which initially destroyed the beta cells of the pancreas may also cause retinopathy, neuropathy, and nephropathy. In 2008 it was even suggested to treat retinopathy with drugs to suppress the abnormal immune response rather than by blood sugar control.
The known familial clustering of the type and degree of diabetic complications indicates, that genetics play a role in causing complications:
Chronic elevation of blood glucose level leads to damage of blood vessels called angiopathy. The endothelial cells lining the blood vessels take in more glucose than normal, since they do not depend on insulin. They then form more surface glycoproteins than normal, and cause the basement membrane to grow thicker and weaker. The resulting problems are grouped under "microvascular disease '' due to damage to small blood vessels and "macrovascular disease '' due to damage to the arteries.
Studies show that DM1 and DM2 cause a change in balancing of metabolites such as carbohydrates, blood coagulation factors, and lipids. and subsequently bring about complications like microvascular and cardiovascular complications.
The role of metalloproteases and inhibitors in diabetic renal disease is unclear.
Numerous researches have found inconsistent results about the role of vitamins in diabetic risk and complications.
Thiamine acts as an essential cofactor in glucose metabolism, therefore, it may modulate diabetic complications by controlling glycemic status in diabetic patients. Additionally, deficiency of thiamine was observed to be associated with dysfunction of β - cells and impaired glucose tolerance. Different studies indicated possible role of thiamin supplementation on the prevention or reversal of early stage diabetic nephropathy, as well as significant improvement on lipid profile.
Low serum B12 level is a common finding in diabetics especially those taking Metformin or in advanced age. Vitamin B12 deficiency has been linked to two diabetic complications; atherosclerosis and diabetic neuropathy.
Low plasma concentrations of folic acid were found to be associated with high plasma homocysteine concentrations. In clinical trials, homocysteine concentrations were effectively reduced within 4 to 6 weeks of oral supplementation of folic acid. Moreover, since the activity of endothelial NO synthase enzyme might be potentially elevated by folate, folate supplementation might be capable of restoring the availability of NO in endothelium, therefore, improving endothelial function and reducing the risk for atherosclerosis. van Etten et al., found that a single dose of folic acid might help in reducing the risk of vascular complications and enhancing endothelial function in adults with type 2 diabetes by improving nitric oxide status.
Three vitamins, ascorbic acid; α - tocopherol; and β - carotene, are well recognized for their antioxidant activities in human. Free radical - scavenging ability of antioxidants may reduce the oxidative stress and thus may protect against oxidative damage. Based on observational studies among healthy individuals, antioxidant concentrations were found to be inversely correlated with several biomarkers of insulin resistance or glucose intolerance.
Modulating and ameliorating diabetic complications may improve the overall quality of life for diabetic patients. For example; when elevated blood pressure was tightly controlled, diabetic related deaths were reduced by 32 % compared to those with less controlled blood pressure.
Many observational and clinical studies have been conducted to investigate the role of vitamins on diabetic complications,
In the First National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES I) Epidemiologic Follow - up Study, vitamin supplementations were associated with 24 % reduction on the risk of diabetes, observed during 20 years of follow - up.
Many observational studies and clinical trials have linked several vitamins with the pathological process of diabetes; these vitamins include folate, thiamine, β - carotene, and vitamin E, C, B12, and D.
Vitamin D insufficiency is common in diabetics. Observational studies show that serum vitamin D is inversely associated with biomarkers of diabetes; impaired insulin secretion, insulin resistance, and glucose intolerance. It has been suggested that vitamin D may induce beneficial effects on diabetic complications by modulating differentiation and growth of pancreatic β - cells and protecting these cells from apoptosis, thus improving β - cells functions and survival. Vitamin D has also been suggested to act on immune system and modulate inflammatory responses by influencing proliferation and differentiation of different immune cells., Moreover, deficiency of vitamin D may contribute to diabetic complications by inducing hyperparathyroidism, since elevated parathyroid hormone levels are associated with reduced β - cells function, impaired insulin sensitivity, and glucose intolerance. Finally, vitamin D may reduce the risk of vascular complications by modulating lipid profile.
Vitamin C has been proposed to induce beneficial effects by two other mechanisms. It may replace glucose in many chemical reactions due to its similarity in structure, may prevent the non-enzymatic glycosylation of proteins, and might reduce glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) levels. Secondly, vitamin C has also been suggested to play a role in lipid regulation as a controlling catabolism of cholesterol to bile acid.
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who played darth maul in the phantom menace | Darth Maul - wikipedia
Darth Maul is a fictional character in the Star Wars franchise. Trained as Darth Sidious 's first apprentice, he serves as a Sith Lord and a master of wielding a double - bladed lightsaber. He first appears in Star Wars: Episode I -- The Phantom Menace (portrayed by Ray Park and voiced by Peter Serafinowicz). Darth Maul later makes appearances in the television series Star Wars: The Clone Wars and Star Wars Rebels, as well as in the 2018 film Solo: A Star Wars Story, all voiced by Samuel Witwer.
After getting frustrated with a drawing of production designer Gavin Bocquet, Iain McCaig started covering it in tape. Both he and Lucas liked the result, described as "a kind of Rorschach pattern ''. The final drawing had McCaig 's own face, with the skin removed, and some Rorschach experimentation (dropping ink onto paper, folding it in half then opening).
Darth Maul 's head originally had feathers, based on prayer totems, but the Creature Effects crew led by Nick Dudman interpreted those feathers as horns, modifying his features into those common in popular depictions of the devil.
His clothing was also modified, from a tight body suit with a muscle pattern to the Sith robe based on samurai pleats, because the lightsaber battles involved much jumping, spinning, running, and rolling. Another concept had Maul a masked figure, something that could rival Darth Vader, while the senatorial characters would sport painted and tattooed faces. It was later decided to apply the painted and tattooed faces to Maul rather than the senator.
Darth Maul was physically portrayed by actor and martial artist Ray Park in The Phantom Menace. The character was voiced by comedian / voice actor / director Peter Serafinowicz in The Phantom Menace and Lego videogame adaptation of the prequel trilogy; while Samuel Witwer performed the character 's voice in the animated series The Clone Wars, Rebels, and in the live action movie Solo: A Star Wars Story. Actors Gregg Berger, Jess Harnell, Stephen Stanton, Clint Bajakian, and David W. Collins have all voiced him in Legends adaptations and minor appearances.
Introduced in Star Wars: Episode I -- The Phantom Menace, Darth Maul is ordered by Darth Sidious to capture Queen Padmé Amidala. On Tatooine, Maul fights Qui - Gon Jinn while approaching the Queen 's starship. While Anakin Skywalker (the future Darth Vader) gets on board, Qui - Gon engages Maul in a lightsaber duel, but the Jedi Master escapes. Eventually, Maul fights Qui - Gon and Obi - Wan Kenobi simultaneously. Maul duels Qui - Gon and eventually kills him. Although Obi - Wan is almost knocked down into a reactor pit, he uses the Force to propel himself out of the pit, and equips himself with Qui - Gon 's lightsaber to bisect Maul, seemingly killing him, after which the two separated pieces of Maul 's body fall into the pit.
Ray Park reprises his role from The Phantom Menace as Darth Maul with Sam Witwer providing the voice, reprising his role from the animated series, The Clone Wars and Star Wars Rebels. Maul is revealed to be the figure that crime lord Dryden Vos, the public leader of the crime syndicate Crimson Dawn, answers to. Qi'ra tells Maul that Vos and his men were killed by Tobias Beckett and his accomplices, but neglects to name Han Solo and Chewbacca. Maul commands her to meet with him on Dathomir and warns her that they will work more closely from now on, igniting his lightsaber.
Darth Maul appears in the fourth and fifth seasons of the animated series Star Wars: The Clone Wars.
In the third season, Darth Maul 's origins are elaborated upon: he is portrayed as a warrior of the Nightbrother clan on the planet Dathomir inhabited by the dominant Nightsister witchcraft society led by Mother Talzin. Maul 's tattoos are described as the markings of a warrior (in contrast to earlier sources which identify his body art as Sith markings). Talzin has Savage Opress find his long - lost brother.
In the fourth season, Darth Maul is revealed to be alive, having survived his presumed death at Obi - Wan Kenobi 's hands. Having ended up on the junkyard planet Lotho Minor via a dumpster craft, Maul has suffered from amnesia since Obi - Wan defeated him. Opress finds Maul and brings him to the devastated Dathomir, where Talzin restores Maul 's mind and gives him robotic legs. Maul and Opress set about a plan to exact revenge on Obi - Wan. Maul proceeds to attack a village on planet Raydonia as his first attempt on Obi - Wan 's life, only to be thwarted due to Asajj Ventress ' unexpected appearance to collect a bounty on Opress. Maul and Opress overpower Obi - Wan and Ventress, but Maul lets them go upon realizing that the Jedi know of his existence, deciding to await another opportunity.
In the fifth season, Maul takes Opress as his apprentice, and begins building a criminal empire. Needing followers, they travel to Florrum and manage to convince Weequay pirate Jiro and his crew to join them and betray their leader Hondo Ohnaka. Maul 's pirates attack Hondo 's loyal forces, and Maul once again duels Obi - Wan while Opress fights and kills Jedi Master Adi Gallia. Obi - Wan and Hondo forces retreat and regroup inside Hondo 's compound. Maul 's forces eventually break in and Obi - Wan draws the two brothers away from the pirates, engaging them in a two - on - one duel while the pirate factions fight elsewhere in the compound. Obi - Wan, though outnumbered, cuts off Opress ' arm and forces the Sith Lords to retreat. Meanwhile, Honda wins back his crew by "persuading '' them under threat of heavy artillery. Obi - Wan blows off one of Maul 's robotic legs and badly damages Maul 's ship. Maul and Opress manage to escape, but get stuck in dead space due to the damage to their ship. After several days, they are found close to death by the Death Watch Mandalorian warriors, led by Pre Vizsla, who gives Maul a new set of legs and Opress a new mechanical arm. Maul offers Vizsla the chance to reclaim Mandalore by recruiting the Black Sun and Pyke crime families and Jabba the Hutt 's minions to create the criminal syndicate named The Shadow Collective.
From there, Maul engineers Vizsla 's rise to power: he orders his henchmen to attack Mandalore so the Death Watch can arrest them and appear as heroes to the denizens who have long lived under Duchess Satine Kryze 's pacifist rule. Vizsla betrays Maul, imprisoning both Savage and him. Easily breaking free, Maul challenges Vizsla to a duel to take over the Death Watch and Mandalore; he succeeds in killing Vizsla and then claims his former co-conspirator's darksaber. He wins the loyalty of most Death Watch members, but Bo Katan retreats along with those loyal to their previous leader. Maul then puts the disgraced former prime minister Almec, whom Satine had imprisoned for corruption, in power as a puppet leader, solidifying his control over Mandalore. Maul then anticipates Satine being broken out of prison and her attempt to contact the Jedi Council as part of his plan to get Obi - Wan to Mandalore. Once Obi - Wan arrives and attempts to rescue Satine, Maul captures him and exacts revenge on the Jedi by murdering Satine right in front of him, hoping to make the Jedi suffer as much as he once did. Obi - Wan is later freed by the Night Owl rebels (Bo Katan 's Death Watch faction) who request Republic aid.
Maul senses Darth Sidious arriving on Mandalore. Although impressed with his former apprentice 's survival, Sidious declares Maul a rival and uses the Force to push and choke him and Opress. He then engages them both in lightsaber combat, fatally injuring Opress. After Opress dies from his wounds, Sidious reminds Maul of the Rule of Two, and tells him that he has been replaced. Enraged, Maul pulls out both his lightsaber and darksaber and proceeds to fight Sidious on equal ground, but Sidious ultimately defeats him. Maul pleads for mercy, but Sidious ignores him and tortures him with blasts of Force lightning. Sidious reveals that he has no intention of killing Maul, remarking that he has other uses for his former apprentice.
An older Maul appears in the season 2 finale of Star Wars Rebels. Tracked by an Inquisitor named the Eighth Brother, Maul is stranded on the ancient Sith world of Malachor, where he is discovered by series protagonist Ezra Bridger among the ruins. Introducing himself as "Old Master '' and seeking revenge against Sidious, Maul leads Ezra into an ancient Sith temple, where they discover a holocron that Maul claims can give them the knowledge needed to defeat the Sith. After recovering it, the two find Ezra 's master Kanan Jarrus and former Jedi Ahsoka Tano locked in battle with the Eighth Brother. They also find the Fifth Brother and the Seventh Sister, who have been pursuing the Rebels for some time. Maul -- having cast aside the title of Darth -- then reveals a new lightsaber disguised as a walking stick and joins the Jedi in battling their enemies.
After the Inquisitors retreat, Maul wins the Jedi 's trust by denouncing the Sith, and tells them that he can not defeat Darth Vader on his own. Working together, he and the Jedi ascend towards the top of the Sith temple and successfully defeat the three Inquisitors. It is then that Maul reveals his intention to take Ezra as his apprentice, having already tricked him into activating the temple. After blinding Kanan, Maul briefly duels Ahsoka before facing Kanan again, only to be knocked off the temple 's edge. However, he survives the fall and escapes Malachor in the Eighth Brother 's TIE Fighter.
Months after the events on Malachor, Maul once again reveals himself to the Jedi as he takes the Ghost 's crew hostage. He threatens to kill them unless Kanan and Ezra bring both the Sith and Jedi holocrons to him. Despite an attempt by the Rebels to escape, Maul successfully recaptures them and takes them to a remote base in the Outer Rim where he awaits the arrival of the Jedi. After they arrive, the holocrons are hazardously united allowing Ezra and Maul to see visions of their desires: Ezra sees images of a way to destroy the Sith, images including "twin suns '', while Maul sees a vision of his own. Kanan begs Ezra to look away before he sees something he does n't want to while Maul tells him to ignore Kanan and keep looking. Ezra heeds his master 's words and breaks off the connection, which causes a great explosion. Maul escapes in the confusion, uttering, "He lives. ''
Maul reappears after finding the Rebellion 's secret base. He tells Ezra that because the connection was severed, they got bits and pieces of each other 's visions. With the holocrons destroyed from the events of their previous meeting, Maul discovered another way to get the information he needed. With Ezra he travels to Dathomir, former home of the Night Sisters, and recreates one of their spells to temporarily meld his and Ezra 's minds. After the spell is completed Ezra, who was still looking for a way to destroy the Sith, and Maul realize they are both looking for Obi - Wan Kenobi.
In the episode "Twin Suns '', Maul is shown lost on Tatooine. He decides to use Ezra to lure Obi - Wan out of hiding. During their confrontation, Maul deduces that Obi - Wan is not only hiding, but is protecting someone. In a swift duel, Obi - Wan fatally wounds Maul. As he lies dying in Obi - Wan 's arms, Maul asks if the person he is protecting is the Chosen One, and Obi - Wan replies "he is ''. Maul declares that this "Chosen One '' will avenge them, and dies.
In 2017, Marvel released Star Wars: Darth Maul a 5 - issue prequel series centered on Darth Maul before the events of The Phantom Menace.
Dark Horse Comics produced Darth Maul: Son of Dathomir based on the scripts and storyboards of an unproduced 4 - episode story arc intended for The Clone Wars Season 6. After killing Savage Opress, Darth Sidious takes Maul to a Separatist prison, where Count Dooku tortures him for information about the Shadow Collective. Prime Minister Almec arranges Maul 's escape and the latter then heads back to Zanbar to command the Death Watch army. However, he is followed there by General Grievous and his droids, who then battle with Maul and the Mandalorians. While they put up a fierce fight, Maul and his minions are ultimately overwhelmed by the droids. During the battle, Maul tears through the droid ranks and attacks Grievous, but is overpowered and forced to retreat. Afterwards, Maul confers with Mother Talzin (revealed to be his biological mother) and plots to draw out Sidious by capturing Dooku and General Grievous. The scheme works, and Talzin is able to restore herself to her physical form, but she sacrifices herself to save Maul. Although Maul escapes with a company of loyal Mandalorians, the Shadow Collective has fallen apart due to the conflict with Sidious, as the Hutts, Pykes, and Black Sun have all abandoned Maul.
In flashbacks during the novel Star Wars: Ahsoka, it is revealed that during the final days of the Clone Wars, Maul and his forces were besieged on Mandalore by an army of clone troopers led by Ahsoka Tano and Captain Rex. During the siege, Maul confronts and duels Ahsoka, and though he proves to be the stronger fighter, the former Jedi outwits him and traps him in a ray shield. However, before Maul can be taken into official custody, Order 66 is enacted and the clone troopers following Ahsoka turn on her, with the exception of Rex. With Rex 's life in peril, Ahsoka abandons the chance of killing Maul, allowing the former Sith to escape once again. This battle was originally intended to be depicted in the series finale of The Clone Wars had the series not been prematurely cancelled -- Anakin and Obi - Wan were dispatched to Mandalore with Ahsoka, but were immediately called back to Coruscant to rescue Chancellor Palpatine, thus leading into the opening sequence of Revenge of the Sith.
With the 2012 acquisition of Lucasfilm by The Walt Disney Company, most of the licensed Star Wars novels and comics produced since the originating 1977 film Star Wars were rebranded as Star Wars Legends and declared non-canon to the franchise in April 2014.
As portrayed in the novel Darth Plagueis, the titular Sith Lord sends his apprentice, Darth Sidious, to the Force - rich world of Dathomir. A Dathomiri witch, or Night - sister, senses Sidious ' power in the Force and approaches him. She assumes he is a Jedi and begs him to take her Zabrak infant son. She realizes Sidious is not a Jedi, and explains how she is trying to save her son from a Nightsister named Talzin, who killed Maul 's father. It is implied that Maul has a twin brother and that Talzin is only aware of one child. Sidious realizes the infant is strong in the Force, and would become a threat if found by the Jedi. Concealing the existence of his own master, Sidious raises Maul to believe that he is a Sith apprentice, but he actually intends him to be an expendable -- albeit useful -- minion rather than an heir. Maul himself acknowledges his shortcomings, such as his limited understanding of politics, even as he tries to become a true Sith.
As portrayed in the novel Darth Maul: Shadow Hunter, Maul was raised by Sidious for as long as he can remember. He then trains Maul as a Sith, marking his body with Sith tattoos. Maul initially goes on several missions of terror for his master, killing politicians, crime bosses, merchants and warlords.
Several sources depict Maul returning from the dead in several different forms. The story "Resurrection '' from Star Wars Tales 9 depicts a cult creating a duplicate of Maul as a replacement for Darth Vader, only for Vader to kill him. The story "Phantom Menaces '' in Star Wars Tales # 17 (set after Return of the Jedi) depicts Luke Skywalker visiting Maul 's home planet of Iridonia in an ambassadorial capacity, where he faces a "solid state hologram '' of Maul projected from Maul 's salvaged brain as part of a scientist 's attempt to recreate Maul as Iridonia 's "champion ''. Luke recognizes the disruption that Maul 's existence is causing in the Force, and shuts down the life - support systems keeping the brain alive.
In 2005, Dark Horse Comics published Star Wars: Visionaries, a compilation of comic art short stories. One story "Old Wounds '', considered to be non-canonical to Star Wars lore, depicts Maul, now with longer horns on his head, surviving his bisection at Obi - Wan 's hands, replacing his missing bottom half with cybernetic legs, similar to those of General Grievous. He then follows Obi - Wan throughout the galaxy, finally tracking him down on Tatooine a few years after the events of Star Wars: Episode III -- Revenge of the Sith. Maul taunts Obi - Wan, saying that after he kills him, he will take a toddler - aged Luke Skywalker to his master, Emperor Palpatine. Maul plans to kill Darth Vader, and resume his rightful place at Palpatine 's side as his apprentice. He ignites his new double - bladed lightsaber, and engages Obi - Wan in a lightsaber duel, but Obi - Wan again bests him in combat, cutting off his opponent 's horns. The Sith Lord is killed, unexpectedly, by a blaster bolt to the head from Owen Lars. Obi - Wan thanks Owen, and says he will take Maul 's body into the desert and burn it so he can never come back.
In early 2012, a young adult novel entitled Star Wars: The Wrath of Darth Maul was released by Scholastic. In the 2014 novel, Star Wars: Maul: Lockdown, set before The Phantom Menace, Darth Maul is sent into an infamous galactic prison. Maul is also featured prominently in comic series starting in this period, Star Wars: The Clone Wars: The Sith Hunters & Darth Maul: Death Sentence. Set in the period of the Clone Wars around the various episodes that featured Maul, Sith Hunters and Death Sentence detail his and Savage Opress ' journey across the galaxy as they seek vengeance on the Jedi.
Since the release of The Phantom Menace, Darth Maul has proven to be a popular character. IGN named Darth Maul the 16th greatest Star Wars character, noting, "Of the countless characters to walk in and out of the Star Wars saga, none looks or acts more badass than Darth Maul. ''
Darth Maul - related merchandise was popular among Hasbro Star Wars toy lines, with plastic recreations of his double bladed lightsaber and various action figures in his likeness developed. Darth Maul has been the focal point of the toy marketing campaign surrounding the 2012 re-release of The Phantom Menace, being featured on the packaging for the toy line.
In December 2017, an 8 - year - old Ontario boy went viral on the Internet with a video of him pretending to be Darth Maul and displaying his martial arts skills.
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when was the term the american dream coined | James Truslow Adams - wikipedia
New York University (then Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn) (Bachelor 's)
James Truslow Adams (October 18, 1878 -- May 18, 1949) was an American writer and historian. He was not related to the Adams family (though he wrote a book about the family in 1930). He was not an academic, but a freelance author who helped to popularize the latest scholarship about American history and his three - volume history of New England is well regarded by scholars.
Adams was born in Brooklyn, New York, to a wealthy family, the son of Elizabeth Harper (née Truslow) and William Newton Adams, Jr.
His father had been born in Caracas, Venezuela. His paternal grandfather William Newton Adams Sr. was American with roots in Virginia and his paternal grandmother Carmen Michelena de Salias was a Venezuelan of Spanish (Basque) descent.
Adams took his bachelor 's degree from the New York University Tandon School of Engineering (then Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn) in 1898, and a MA degree from Yale University in 1900. He entered investment banking, rising to partner in a New York Stock Exchange member firm. In 1912, he considered his savings ample enough to switch to a career as a writer.
In 1917, he served with Colonel House on President Wilson 's commission, "The Inquiry '', to prepare data for the Paris Peace Conference. By 1918, he was a captain in the Military Intelligence Division of the General Staff of the U.S. Army. By late 1918, he was selected for the U.S. delegation to the Paris Peace Conference. His main task consisted in the provision of maps and the selection of plans and atlases that should be acquired by the War College, the American Geographical Society, and the Library of Congress.
Adams gained national attention with his trilogy on the history of New England (1921 -- 26), winning the Pulitzer Prize for the first volume. Scholars welcomed his social history of the colonial era, Provincial Society, 1690 - 1763 (1927). He wrote popular books and magazine articles in a steady stream. His Epic of America was an international bestseller, and was included in Life Magazine 's list of the 100 outstanding books of 1924 - 1944. He was also the editor of a scholarly multi-volume Dictionary of American History. Adams was the editor, with Roy V. Coleman as managing editor, of The Atlas of American History (New York: Charles Scribner 's Sons, 1943), and The Album of American History, 4 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner 's Sons, 1944).
Adams coined the term "American Dream '' in his 1931 book The Epic of America. His American Dream is "that dream of a land in which life should be better and richer and fuller for everyone, with opportunity for each according to ability or achievement. It is a difficult dream for the European upper classes to interpret adequately, and too many of us ourselves have grown weary and mistrustful of it. It is not a dream of motor cars and high wages merely, but a dream of social order in which each man and each woman shall be able to attain to the fullest stature of which they are innately capable, and be recognized by others for what they are, regardless of the fortuitous circumstances of birth or position. ''
However, Adams felt the American Dream was in peril during the 1920s and 30s. He complained that "money making and material improvements... mere extensions of the material basis of existence, '' had gained ascendancy, becoming "goods in themselves... (mimicking) the aspects of moral virtues. '' The original American Dream had always been about "quality and spiritual values '': "The American dream that has lured tens of millions of all nations to our shores in the past century has not been a dream of merely material plenty, although that has doubtless counted heavily. It has been much more than that. '' He warned that "in our struggle to ' make a living ' '' we were neglecting "to live. '' The Epic of America was his attempt save a "priceless heritage, '' and sustain the distinctly American understanding of progress in humane and moral terms. The true American Dream was of "a genuine individual search and striving for the abiding values of life, '' and for the "common man to rise to full stature '' in the free realms of "communal spiritual and intellectual life. ''
A quote from one of Adams ' essays "There are obviously two educations. One should teach us how to make a living and the other how to live '' is widely misattributed to John Adams. The quote is part of an essay by Adams entitled ' To "Be '' or to "Do '': A Note on American Education ' which appeared in the June, 1929 issue of Forum. The essay is very critical of American education, both in school and at the university level, and explores the role of American culture and class - consciousness in forming that system of education.
In a more complete version of that quote, Adams says: "There are obviously two educations. One should teach us how to make a living and the other how to live. Surely these should never be confused in the mind of any man who has the slightest inkling of what culture is. For most of us it is essential that we should make a living... In the complications of modern life and with our increased accumulation of knowledge, it doubtless helps greatly to compress some years of experience into far fewer years by studying for a particular trade or profession in an institution; but that fact should not blind us to another -- namely, that in so doing we are learning a trade or a profession, but are not getting a liberal education as human beings. ''
Adams lived in Southport, Connecticut, where he died of a heart attack.
After 1930, Adams was active in the American Academy of Arts and Letters serving as both chancellor and treasurer of that organization. He was also a member of the National Institute of Arts and Letters, the Massachusetts Historical Society, American Antiquarian Society, American Historical Association, and the American Philosophical Society. Among British societies, he was honored as a fellow of the Royal Society of Literature.
For years a photo of Andrew Carnegie has been proliferating on the Internet attached to Adams ' name.
Adams wrote 21 monographs between 1916 and 1945. He was also editor in chief of the Dictionary of American History, The Atlas of American History, and other volumes.
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a program designed to create spreadsheets which can later be used to analyzed statistical data | Spreadsheet - wikipedia
A spreadsheet is an interactive computer application for organization, analysis and storage of data in tabular form. Spreadsheets are developed as computerized simulations of paper accounting worksheets. The program operates on data entered in cells of a table. Each cell may contain either numeric or text data, or the results of formulas that automatically calculate and display a value based on the contents of other cells. A spreadsheet may also refer to one such electronic document.
Spreadsheet users can adjust any stored value and observe the effects on calculated values. This makes the spreadsheet useful for "what - if '' analysis since many cases can be rapidly investigated without manual recalculation. Modern spreadsheet software can have multiple interacting sheets, and can display data either as text and numerals, or in graphical form.
Besides performing basic arithmetic and mathematical functions, modern spreadsheets provide built - in functions for common financial and statistical operations. Such calculations as net present value or standard deviation can be applied to tabular data with a pre-programmed function in a formula. Spreadsheet programs also provide conditional expressions, functions to convert between text and numbers, and functions that operate on strings of text.
Spreadsheets have replaced paper - based systems throughout the business world. Although they were first developed for accounting or bookkeeping tasks, they now are used extensively in any context where tabular lists are built, sorted, and shared.
LANPAR, available in 1969, was the first electronic spreadsheet on mainframe and time sharing computers. LANPAR was an acronym: LANguage for Programming Arrays at Random. VisiCalc was the first electronic spreadsheet on a microcomputer, and it helped turn the Apple II computer into a popular and widely used system. Lotus 1 - 2 - 3 was the leading spreadsheet when DOS was the dominant operating system. Excel now has the largest market share on the Windows and Macintosh platforms. A spreadsheet program is a standard feature of an office productivity suite; since the advent of web apps, office suites now also exist in web app form. Web based spreadsheets are a relatively new category.
A spreadsheet consists of a table of cells arranged into rows and columns and referred to by the X and Y locations. X locations, the columns, are normally represented by letters, "A '', "B '', "C '', etc., while rows are normally represented by numbers, 1, 2, 3, etc. A single cell can be referred to by addressing its row and column, "C10 '' for instance. This electronic concept of cell references was first introduced in LANPAR (Language for Programming Arrays at Random) (co-invented by Rene Pardo and Remy Landau) and a variant used in VisiCalc, and known as "A1 notation ''. Additionally, spreadsheets have the concept of a range, a group of cells, normally contiguous. For instance, one can refer to the first ten cells in the first column with the range "A1: A10 ''. LANPAR innovated forward referencing / natural order calculation which did n't re-appear until Lotus 123 and Microsoft 's MultiPlan Version 2.
In modern spreadsheet applications, several spreadsheets, often known as worksheets or simply sheets, are gathered together to form a workbook. A workbook is physically represented by a file, containing all the data for the book, the sheets and the cells with the sheets. Worksheets are normally represented by tabs that flip between pages, each one containing one of the sheets, although Numbers changes this model significantly. Cells in a multi-sheet book add the sheet name to their reference, for instance, "Sheet 1! C10 ''. Some systems extend this syntax to allow cell references to different workbooks.
Users interact with sheets primarily through the cells. A given cell can hold data by simply entering it in, or a formula, which is normally created by preceding the text with an equals sign. Data might include the string of text hello world, the number 5 or the date 16 - Dec - 91. A formula would begin with the equals sign, = 5 * 3, but this would normally be invisible because the display shows the result of the calculation, 15 in this case, not the formula itself. This may lead to confusion in some cases.
The key feature of spreadsheets is the ability for a formula to refer to the contents of other cells, which may in turn be the result of a formula. To make such a formula, one simply replaces a number with a cell reference. For instance, the formula = 5 * C10 would produce the result of multiplying the value in cell C10 by the number 5. If C10 holds the value 3 the result will be 15. But C10 might also hold its own formula referring to other cells, and so on.
The ability to chain formulas together is what gives a spreadsheet its power. Many problems can be broken down into a series of individual mathematical steps, and these can be assigned to individual formulas in cells. Some of these formulas can apply to ranges as well, like the SUM function that adds up all the numbers within a range.
Spreadsheets share many principles and traits of databases, but spreadsheets and databases are not the same thing. A spreadsheet is essentially just one table, whereas a database is a collection of many tables with machine - readable semantic relationships between them. While it is true that a workbook that contains three sheets is indeed a file containing multiple tables that can interact with each other, it lacks the relational structure of a database. Spreadsheets and databases are interoperable -- sheets can be imported into databases to become tables within them, and database queries can be exported into spreadsheets for further analysis.
A spreadsheet program is one of the main components of an office productivity suite, which usually also contains a word processor, a presentation program, and a database management system. Programs within a suite use similar commands for similar functions. Usually sharing data between the components is easier than with a non-integrated collection of functionally equivalent programs. This was particularly an advantage at a time when many personal computer systems used text - mode displays and commands, instead of a graphical user interface.
The word ' spreadsheet ' came from ' spread ' in its sense of a newspaper or magazine item (text or graphics) that covers two facing pages, extending across the center fold and treating the two pages as one large page. The compound word ' spread - sheet ' came to mean the format used to present book - keeping ledgers -- with columns for categories of expenditures across the top, invoices listed down the left margin, and the amount of each payment in the cell where its row and column intersect -- which were, traditionally, a "spread '' across facing pages of a bound ledger (book for keeping accounting records) or on oversized sheets of paper (termed ' analysis paper ') ruled into rows and columns in that format and approximately twice as wide as ordinary paper.
A batch "spreadsheet '' is indistinguishable from a batch compiler with added input data, producing an output report, i.e., a 4GL or conventional, non-interactive, batch computer program. However, this concept of an electronic spreadsheet was outlined in the 1961 paper "Budgeting Models and System Simulation '' by Richard Mattessich. The subsequent work by Mattessich (1964a, Chpt. 9, Accounting and Analytical Methods) and its companion volume, Mattessich (1964b, Simulation of the Firm through a Budget Computer Program) applied computerized spreadsheets to accounting and budgeting systems (on mainframe computers programmed in FORTRAN IV). These batch Spreadsheets dealt primarily with the addition or subtraction of entire columns or rows (of input variables), rather than individual cells.
In 1962 this concept of the spreadsheet, called BCL for Business Computer Language, was implemented on an IBM 1130 and in 1963 was ported to an IBM 7040 by R. Brian Walsh at Marquette University, Wisconsin. This program was written in Fortran. Primitive timesharing was available on those machines. In 1968 BCL was ported by Walsh to the IBM 360 / 67 timesharing machine at Washington State University. It was used to assist in the teaching of finance to business students. Students were able to take information prepared by the professor and manipulate it to represent it and show ratios etc. In 1964, a book entitled Business Computer Language was written by Kimball, Stoffells and Walsh and both the book and program were copyrighted in 1966 and years later that copyright was renewed
Applied Data Resources had a FORTRAN preprocessor called Empires.
In the late 1960s Xerox used BCL to develop a more sophisticated version for their timesharing system.
A key invention in the development of electronic spreadsheets was made by Rene K. Pardo and Remy Landau, who filed in 1970 U.S. Patent 4,398,249 on a spreadsheet automatic natural order calculation algorithm. While the patent was initially rejected by the patent office as being a purely mathematical invention, following 12 years of appeals, Pardo and Landau won a landmark court case at the Predecessor Court of the Federal Circuit (CCPA), overturning the Patent Office in 1983 -- establishing that "something does not cease to become patentable merely because the point of novelty is in an algorithm. '' However, in 1995 the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit ruled the patent unenforceable.
The actual software was called LANPAR -- LANguage for Programming Arrays at Random. This was conceived and entirely developed in the summer of 1969, following Pardo and Landau 's recent graduation from Harvard University. Co-inventor Rene Pardo recalls that he felt that one manager at Bell Canada should not have to depend on programmers to program and modify budgeting forms, and he thought of letting users type out forms in any order and having an electronic computer calculate results in the right order ("Forward Referencing / Natural Order Calculation ''). Pardo and Landau developed and implemented the software in 1969.
LANPAR was used by Bell Canada, AT&T and the 18 operating telephone companies nationwide for their local and national budgeting operations. LANPAR was also used by General Motors. Its uniqueness was Pardo 's co-invention incorporating forward referencing / natural order calculation (one of the first "non-procedural '' computer languages) as opposed to left - to - right, top to bottom sequence for calculating the results in each cell that was used by VisiCalc, SuperCalc, and the first version of Multiplan. Without forward referencing / natural order calculation, the user had to manually recalculate the spreadsheet as many times as necessary until the values in all the cells had stopped changing. Forward referencing / natural order calculation by a compiler was the cornerstone functionality required for any spreadsheet to be practical and successful.
The LANPAR system was implemented on GE400 and Honeywell 6000 online timesharing systems, enabling users to program remotely via computer terminals and modems. Data could be entered dynamically either by paper tape, specific file access, on line, or even external data bases. Sophisticated mathematical expressions, including logical comparisons and "if / then '' statements, could be used in any cell, and cells could be presented in any order.
In 1968, three former employees from the General Electric computer company headquartered in Phoenix, Arizona set out to start their own software development house. A. Leroy Ellison, Harry N. Cantrell, and Russell E. Edwards found themselves doing a large number of calculations when making tables for the business plans that they were presenting to venture capitalists. They decided to save themselves a lot of effort and wrote a computer program that produced their tables for them. This program, originally conceived as a simple utility for their personal use, would turn out to be the first software product offered by the company that would become known as Capex Corporation. "AutoPlan '' ran on GE 's Time - sharing service; afterward, a version that ran on IBM mainframes was introduced under the name AutoTab. (National CSS offered a similar product, CSSTAB, which had a moderate timesharing user base by the early 1970s. A major application was opinion research tabulation.)
AutoPlan / AutoTab was not a WYSIWYG interactive spreadsheet program, it was a simple scripting language for spreadsheets. The user defined the names and labels for the rows and columns, then the formulas that defined each row or column. In 1975, Autotab - II was advertised as extending the original to a maximum of "1,500 rows and columns, combined in any proportion the user requires... ''
The IBM Financial Planning and Control System was developed in 1976, by Brian Ingham at IBM Canada. It was implemented by IBM in at least 30 countries. It ran on an IBM mainframe and was among the first applications for financial planning developed with APL that completely hid the programming language from the end - user. Through IBM 's VM operating system, it was among the first programs to auto - update each copy of the application as new versions were released. Users could specify simple mathematical relationships between rows and between columns. Compared to any contemporary alternatives, it could support very large spreadsheets. It loaded actual financial data drawn from the legacy batch system into each user 's spreadsheet on a monthly basis. It was designed to optimize the power of APL through object kernels, increasing program efficiency by as much as 50 fold over traditional programming approaches.
An example of an early "industrial weight '' spreadsheet was APLDOT, developed in 1976 at the United States Railway Association on an IBM 360 / 91, running at The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory in Laurel, MD. The application was used successfully for many years in developing such applications as financial and costing models for the US Congress and for Conrail. APLDOT was dubbed a "spreadsheet '' because financial analysts and strategic planners used it to solve the same problems they addressed with paper spreadsheet pads.
Because of Dan Bricklin and Bob Frankston 's implementation of VisiCalc on the Apple II in 1979 and the IBM PC in 1981, the spreadsheet concept became widely known in the late 1970s and early 1980s. VisiCalc was the first spreadsheet that combined all essential features of modern spreadsheet applications (except for forward referencing / natural order recalculation), such as WYSIWYG interactive user interface, automatic recalculation, status and formula lines, range copying with relative and absolute references, formula building by selecting referenced cells. Unaware of LANPAR at the time PC World magazine called VisiCalc the first electronic spreadsheet.
Bricklin has spoken of watching his university professor create a table of calculation results on a blackboard. When the professor found an error, he had to tediously erase and rewrite a number of sequential entries in the table, triggering Bricklin to think that he could replicate the process on a computer, using the blackboard as the model to view results of underlying formulas. His idea became VisiCalc, the first application that turned the personal computer from a hobby for computer enthusiasts into a business tool.
VisiCalc went on to become the first "killer application '', an application that was so compelling, people would buy a particular computer just to use it. VisiCalc was in no small part responsible for the Apple II 's success. The program was later ported to a number of other early computers, notably CP / M machines, the Atari 8 - bit family and various Commodore platforms. Nevertheless, VisiCalc remains best known as an Apple II program.
SuperCalc was a spreadsheet application published by Sorcim in 1980, and originally bundled (along with WordStar) as part of the CP / M software package included with the Osborne 1 portable computer. It quickly became the de facto standard spreadsheet for CP / M and was ported to MS - DOS in 1982.
The acceptance of the IBM PC following its introduction in August, 1981, began slowly, because most of the programs available for it were translations from other computer models. Things changed dramatically with the introduction of Lotus 1 - 2 - 3 in November, 1982, and release for sale in January, 1983. Since it was written especially for the IBM PC, it had good performance and became the killer app for this PC. Lotus 1 - 2 - 3 drove sales of the PC due to the improvements in speed and graphics compared to VisiCalc on the Apple II.
Lotus 1 - 2 - 3, along with its competitor Borland Quattro, soon displaced VisiCalc. Lotus 1 - 2 - 3 was released on January 26, 1983, started outselling then-most - popular VisiCalc the very same year, and for a number of years was the leading spreadsheet for DOS.
Microsoft released the first version of Excel for the Macintosh on September 30, 1985, and then ported it to Windows, with the first version being numbered 2.05 (to synchronize with the Macintosh version 2.2) and released in November 1987. The Windows 3. x platforms of the early 1990s made it possible for Excel to take market share from Lotus. By the time Lotus responded with usable Windows products, Microsoft had begun to assemble their Office suite. By 1995, Excel was the market leader, edging out Lotus 1 - 2 - 3, and in 2013, IBM discontinued Lotus 1 - 2 - 3 altogether.
With the advent of advanced web technologies such as Ajax circa 2005, a new generation of online spreadsheets has emerged. Equipped with a rich Internet application user experience, the best web based online spreadsheets have many of the features seen in desktop spreadsheet applications. Some of them such as EditGrid, Google Sheets, Microsoft Excel Online, Smartsheet, or Zoho Sheet also have strong multi-user collaboration features or offer real time updates from remote sources such as stock prices and currency exchange rates.
Gnumeric is a free, cross-platform spreadsheet program that is part of the GNOME Free Software Desktop Project. OpenOffice.org Calc and the closely related LibreOffice Calc (using the LGPL license) are free and open - source spreadsheets.
Notable current spreadsheet software:
Discontinued spreadsheet software:
A number of companies have attempted to break into the spreadsheet market with programs based on very different paradigms. Lotus introduced what is likely the most successful example, Lotus Improv, which saw some commercial success, notably in the financial world where its powerful data mining capabilities remain well respected to this day.
Spreadsheet 2000 attempted to dramatically simplify formula construction, but was generally not successful.
The main concepts are those of a grid of cells, called a sheet, with either raw data, called values, or formulas in the cells. Formulas say how to mechanically compute new values from existing values. Values are generally numbers, but can also be pure text, dates, months, etc. Extensions of these concepts include logical spreadsheets. Various tools for programming sheets, visualizing data, remotely connecting sheets, displaying cells ' dependencies, etc. are commonly provided.
A "cell '' can be thought of as a box for holding data. A single cell is usually referenced by its column and row (C2 would represent the cell containing the value 30 in the example table below). Usually rows, representing the dependent variables, are referenced in decimal notation starting from 1, while columns representing the independent variables use 26 - adic bijective numeration using the letters A-Z as numerals. Its physical size can usually be tailored to its content by dragging its height or width at box intersections (or for entire columns or rows by dragging the column - or row - headers).
An array of cells is called a sheet or worksheet. It is analogous to an array of variables in a conventional computer program (although certain unchanging values, once entered, could be considered, by the same analogy, constants). In most implementations, many worksheets may be located within a single spreadsheet. A worksheet is simply a subset of the spreadsheet divided for the sake of clarity. Functionally, the spreadsheet operates as a whole and all cells operate as global variables within the spreadsheet (each variable having ' read ' access only except its own containing cell).
A cell may contain a value or a formula, or it may simply be left empty. By convention, formulas usually begin with = sign.
A value can be entered from the computer keyboard by directly typing into the cell itself. Alternatively, a value can be based on a formula (see below), which might perform a calculation, display the current date or time, or retrieve external data such as a stock quote or a database value.
The Spreadsheet Value Rule
Computer scientist Alan Kay used the term value rule to summarize a spreadsheet 's operation: a cell 's value relies solely on the formula the user has typed into the cell. The formula may rely on the value of other cells, but those cells are likewise restricted to user - entered data or formulas. There are no ' side effects ' to calculating a formula: the only output is to display the calculated result inside its occupying cell. There is no natural mechanism for permanently modifying the contents of a cell unless the user manually modifies the cell 's contents. In the context of programming languages, this yields a limited form of first - order functional programming.
A standard of spreadsheets since the 1980s, this optional feature eliminates the need to manually request the spreadsheet program to recalculate values (nowadays typically the default option unless specifically ' switched off ' for large spreadsheets, usually to improve performance). Some earlier spreadsheets required a manual request to recalculate, since recalculation of large or complex spreadsheets often reduced data entry speed. Many modern spreadsheets still retain this option.
Recalculation generally requires that there are no circular dependencies in a spreadsheet. A dependency graph is a graph that has a vertex for each object to be updated, and an edge connecting two objects whenever one of them needs to be updated earlier than the other. Dependency graphs without circular dependencies form directed acyclic graphs, representations of partial orderings (in this case, across a spreadsheet) that can be relied upon to give a definite result.
This feature refers to updating a cell 's contents periodically with a value from an external source -- such as a cell in a "remote '' spreadsheet. For shared, Web - based spreadsheets, it applies to "immediately '' updating cells another user has updated. All dependent cells must be updated also.
Once entered, selected cells (or the entire spreadsheet) can optionally be "locked '' to prevent accidental overwriting. Typically this would apply to cells containing formulas but might be applicable to cells containing "constants '' such as a kilogram / pounds conversion factor (2.20462262 to eight decimal places). Even though individual cells are marked as locked, the spreadsheet data are not protected until the feature is activated in the file preferences.
A cell or range can optionally be defined to specify how the value is displayed. The default display format is usually set by its initial content if not specifically previously set, so that for example "31 / 12 / 2007 '' or "31 Dec 2007 '' would default to the cell format of date. Similarly adding a % sign after a numeric value would tag the cell as a percentage cell format. The cell contents are not changed by this format, only the displayed value.
Some cell formats such as "numeric '' or "currency '' can also specify the number of decimal places.
This can allow invalid operations (such as doing multiplication on a cell containing a date), resulting in illogical results without an appropriate warning.
Depending on the capability of the spreadsheet application, each cell (like its counterpart the "style '' in a word processor) can be separately formatted using the attributes of either the content (point size, color, bold or italic) or the cell (border thickness, background shading, color). To aid the readability of a spreadsheet, cell formatting may be conditionally applied to data; for example, a negative number may be displayed in red.
A cell 's formatting does not typically affect its content and depending on how cells are referenced or copied to other worksheets or applications, the formatting may not be carried with the content.
In most implementations, a cell, or group of cells in a column or row, can be "named '' enabling the user to refer to those cells by a name rather than by a grid reference. Names must be unique within the spreadsheet, but when using multiple sheets in a spreadsheet file, an identically named cell range on each sheet can be used if it is distinguished by adding the sheet name. One reason for this usage is for creating or running macros that repeat a command across many sheets. Another reason is that formulas with named variables are readily checked against the algebra they are intended to implement (they resemble Fortran expressions). Use of named variables and named functions also makes the spreadsheet structure more transparent.
In place of a named cell, an alternative approach is to use a cell (or grid) reference. Most cell references indicate another cell in the same spreadsheet, but a cell reference can also refer to a cell in a different sheet within the same spreadsheet, or (depending on the implementation) to a cell in another spreadsheet entirely, or to a value from a remote application.
A typical cell reference in "A1 '' style consists of one or two case - insensitive letters to identify the column (if there are up to 256 columns: A -- Z and AA -- IV) followed by a row number (e.g., in the range 1 -- 65536). Either part can be relative (it changes when the formula it is in is moved or copied), or absolute (indicated with $ in front of the part concerned of the cell reference). The alternative "R1C1 '' reference style consists of the letter R, the row number, the letter C, and the column number; relative row or column numbers are indicated by enclosing the number in square brackets. Most current spreadsheets use the A1 style, some providing the R1C1 style as a compatibility option.
When the computer calculates a formula in one cell to update the displayed value of that cell, cell reference (s) in that cell, naming some other cell (s), cause the computer to fetch the value of the named cell (s).
A cell on the same "sheet '' is usually addressed as:
A cell on a different sheet of the same spreadsheet is usually addressed as:
Some spreadsheet implementations in Excel allow a cell references to another spreadsheet (not the current open and active file) on the same computer or a local network. It may also refer to a cell in another open and active spreadsheet on the same computer or network that is defined as shareable. These references contain the complete filename, such as:
In a spreadsheet, references to cells automatically update when new rows or columns are inserted or deleted. Care must be taken, however, when adding a row immediately before a set of column totals to ensure that the totals reflect the additional rows values -- which they often do not.
A circular reference occurs when the formula in one cell refers -- directly, or indirectly through a chain of cell references -- to another cell that refers back to the first cell. Many common errors cause circular references. However, some valid techniques use circular references. These techniques, after many spreadsheet recalculations, (usually) converge on the correct values for those cells.
Likewise, instead of using a named range of cells, a range reference can be used. Reference to a range of cells is typically of the form (A1: A6), which specifies all the cells in the range A1 through to A6. A formula such as "= SUM (A1: A6) '' would add all the cells specified and put the result in the cell containing the formula itself.
In the earliest spreadsheets, cells were a simple two - dimensional grid. Over time, the model has expanded to include a third dimension, and in some cases a series of named grids, called sheets. The most advanced examples allow inversion and rotation operations which can slice and project the data set in various ways.
A formula identifies the calculation needed to place the result in the cell it is contained within. A cell containing a formula therefore has two display components; the formula itself and the resulting value. The formula is normally only shown when the cell is selected by "clicking '' the mouse over a particular cell; otherwise it contains the result of the calculation.
A formula assigns values to a cell or range of cells, and typically has the format:
where the expression consists of:
When a cell contains a formula, it often contains references to other cells. Such a cell reference is a type of variable. Its value is the value of the referenced cell or some derivation of it. If that cell in turn references other cells, the value depends on the values of those. References can be relative (e.g., A1, or B1: B3), absolute (e.g., $ A $1, or $ B $1: $ B $3) or mixed row -- or column-wise absolute / relative (e.g., $ A1 is column-wise absolute and A $1 is row-wise absolute).
The available options for valid formulas depends on the particular spreadsheet implementation but, in general, most arithmetic operations and quite complex nested conditional operations can be performed by most of today 's commercial spreadsheets. Modern implementations also offer functions to access custom - build functions, remote data, and applications.
A formula may contain a condition (or nested conditions) -- with or without an actual calculation -- and is sometimes used purely to identify and highlight errors. In the example below, it is assumed the sum of a column of percentages (A1 through A6) is tested for validity and an explicit message put into the adjacent right - hand cell.
Further examples:
The best way to build up conditional statements is step by step composing followed by trial and error testing and refining code.
A spreadsheet does not, in fact, have to contain any formulas at all, in which case it could be considered merely a collection of data arranged in rows and columns (a database) like a calendar, timetable or simple list. Because of its ease of use, formatting and hyperlinking capabilities, many spreadsheets are used solely for this purpose.
Spreadsheets usually contain a number of supplied functions, such as arithmetic operations (for example, summations, averages and so forth), trigonometric functions, statistical functions, and so forth. In addition there is often a provision for user - defined functions. In Microsoft Excel these functions are defined using Visual Basic for Applications in the supplied Visual Basic editor, and such functions are automatically accessible on the worksheet. In addition, programs can be written that pull information from the worksheet, perform some calculations, and report the results back to the worksheet. In the figure, the name sq is user - assigned, and function sq is introduced using the Visual Basic editor supplied with Excel. Name Manager displays the spreadsheet definitions of named variables x & y.
Functions themselves can not write into the worksheet, but simply return their evaluation. However, in Microsoft Excel, subroutines can write values or text found within the subroutine directly to the spreadsheet. The figure shows the Visual Basic code for a subroutine that reads each member of the named column variable x, calculates its square, and writes this value into the corresponding element of named column variable y. The y column contains no formula because its values are calculated in the subroutine, not on the spreadsheet, and simply are written in.
Whenever a reference is made to a cell or group of cells that are not located within the current physical spreadsheet file, it is considered as accessing a "remote '' spreadsheet. The contents of the referenced cell may be accessed either on first reference with a manual update or more recently in the case of web based spreadsheets, as a near real time value with a specified automatic refresh interval.
Many spreadsheet applications permit charts, graphs or histograms to be generated from specified groups of cells that are dynamically re-built as cell contents change. The generated graphic component can either be embedded within the current sheet or added as a separate object.
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, first Javelin Software and Lotus Improv appeared. Unlike models in a conventional spreadsheet, they utilized models built on objects called variables, not on data in cells of a report. These multi-dimensional spreadsheets enabled viewing data and algorithms in various self - documenting ways, including simultaneous multiple synchronized views. For example, users of Javelin could move through the connections between variables on a diagram while seeing the logical roots and branches of each variable. This is an example of what is perhaps its primary contribution of the earlier Javelin -- the concept of traceability of a user 's logic or model structure through its twelve views. A complex model can be dissected and understood by others who had no role in its creation.
In these programs, a time series, or any variable, was an object in itself, not a collection of cells that happen to appear in a row or column. Variables could have many attributes, including complete awareness of their connections to all other variables, data references, and text and image notes. Calculations were performed on these objects, as opposed to a range of cells, so adding two time series automatically aligns them in calendar time, or in a user - defined time frame. Data were independent of worksheets -- variables, and therefore data, could not be destroyed by deleting a row, column or entire worksheet. For instance, January 's costs are subtracted from January 's revenues, regardless of where or whether either appears in a worksheet. This permits actions later used in pivot tables, except that flexible manipulation of report tables was but one of many capabilities supported by variables. Moreover, if costs were entered by week and revenues by month, the program could allocate or interpolate as appropriate. This object design enabled variables and whole models to reference each other with user - defined variable names, and to perform multidimensional analysis and massive, but easily editable consolidations.
Trapeze, a spreadsheet on the Mac, went further and explicitly supported not just table columns, but also matrix operators.
Spreadsheets that have a formula language based upon logical expressions, rather than arithmetic expressions are known as logical spreadsheets. Such spreadsheets can be used to reason deductively about their cell values.
Just as the early programming languages were designed to generate spreadsheet printouts, programming techniques themselves have evolved to process tables (also known as spreadsheets or matrices) of data more efficiently in the computer itself.
Spreadsheets are a popular end - user development tool. EUD denotes activities or techniques in which people who are not professional developers create automated behavior and complex data objects without significant knowledge of a programming language. Many people find it easier to perform calculations in spreadsheets than by writing the equivalent sequential program. This is due to several traits of spreadsheets.
A "spreadsheet program '' is designed to perform general computation tasks using spatial relationships rather than time as the primary organizing principle.
It is often convenient to think of a spreadsheet as a mathematical graph, where the nodes are spreadsheet cells, and the edges are references to other cells specified in formulas. This is often called the dependency graph of the spreadsheet. References between cells can take advantage of spatial concepts such as relative position and absolute position, as well as named locations, to make the spreadsheet formulas easier to understand and manage.
Spreadsheets usually attempt to automatically update cells when the cells they depend on change. The earliest spreadsheets used simple tactics like evaluating cells in a particular order, but modern spreadsheets calculate following a minimal recomputation order from the dependency graph. Later spreadsheets also include a limited ability to propagate values in reverse, altering source values so that a particular answer is reached in a certain cell. Since spreadsheet cells formulas are not generally invertible, though, this technique is of somewhat limited value.
Many of the concepts common to sequential programming models have analogues in the spreadsheet world. For example, the sequential model of the indexed loop is usually represented as a table of cells, with similar formulas (normally differing only in which cells they reference).
Spreadsheets have evolved to use scripting programming languages like VBA as a tool for extensibility beyond what the spreadsheet language makes easy.
While spreadsheets represented a major step forward in quantitative modeling, they have deficiencies. Their shortcomings include the perceived unfriendliness of alpha - numeric cell addresses.
Other problems associated with spreadsheets include:
While there are built - in and third - party tools for desktop spreadsheet applications that address some of these shortcomings, awareness and use of these is generally low. A good example of this is that 55 % of Capital market professionals "do n't know '' how their spreadsheets are audited; only 6 % invest in a third - party solution
Spreadsheet risk is the risk associated with deriving a materially incorrect value from a spreadsheet application that will be utilised in making a related (usually numerically - based) decision. Examples include the valuation of an asset, the determination of financial accounts, the calculation of medicinal doses or the size of load - bearing beam for structural engineering. The risk may arise from inputting erroneous or fraudulent data values, from mistakes (or incorrect changes) within the logic of the spreadsheet or the omission of relevant updates (e.g., out of date exchange rates). Some single - instance errors have exceeded US $1 billion. Because spreadsheet risk is principally linked to the actions (or inaction) of individuals it is defined as a sub-category of operational risk.
In the report into the 2012 JPMorgan Chase trading loss, a lack of control over spreadsheets used for critical financial functions was cited as a factor in the trading losses of more than six billion dollars which were reported as a result of derivatives trading gone bad.
Despite this, research carried out by ClusterSeven revealed that around half (48 %) of c - level executives and senior managers at firms reporting annual revenues over £ 50m said there were either no usage controls at all or poorly applied manual processes over the use of spreadsheets at the firms.
In 2013 Thomas Herndon, a graduate student of economics at the University of Massachusetts Amherst found major coding flaws in the spreadsheet used by the economists Carmen Reinhart and Kenneth Rogoff in a very influential 2010 journal article. The Reinhart and Rogoff article was widely used as justification to drive 2010 -- 2013 European austerity programs.
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who said don't fire until you see | Battle of Bunker Hill - wikipedia
United Colonies
The Battle of Bunker Hill was fought on June 17, 1775, during the Siege of Boston in the early stages of the American Revolutionary War. The battle is named after Bunker Hill in Charlestown, Massachusetts, which was peripherally involved in the battle. It was the original objective of both the colonial and British troops, though the majority of combat took place on the adjacent hill which later became known as Breed 's Hill.
On June 13, 1775, the leaders of the colonial forces besieging Boston learned that the British were planning to send troops out from the city to fortify the unoccupied hills surrounding the city, which would give them control of Boston Harbor. In response, 1,200 colonial troops under the command of William Prescott stealthily occupied Bunker Hill and Breed 's Hill. During the night, the colonists constructed a strong redoubt on Breed 's Hill, as well as smaller fortified lines across the Charlestown Peninsula.
By daybreak of June 17, the British became aware of the presence of colonial forces on the Peninsula and mounted an attack against them that day. Two assaults on the colonial positions were repulsed with significant British casualties; the third and final attack carried the redoubt after the defenders ran out of ammunition. The colonists retreated to Cambridge over Bunker Hill, leaving the British in control of the Peninsula.
The battle was a tactical, though somewhat Pyrrhic victory for the British, as it proved to be a sobering experience for them, involving many more casualties than the Americans had incurred, including a large number of officers. The battle had demonstrated that inexperienced militia were able to stand up to regular army troops in battle. Subsequently, the battle discouraged the British from any further frontal attacks against well defended front lines. American casualties were comparatively much fewer, although their losses included General Joseph Warren and Major Andrew McClary, the final casualty of the battle.
The battle led the British to adopt a more cautious planning and maneuver execution in future engagements, which was evident in the subsequent New York and New Jersey campaign, and arguably helped rather than hindered the American forces. Their new approach to battle was actually giving the Americans greater opportunity to retreat if defeat was imminent. The costly engagement also convinced the British of the need to hire substantial numbers of foreign mercenaries to bolster their strength in the face of the new and formidable Continental Army.
Boston, situated on a peninsula, was largely protected from close approach by the expanses of water surrounding it, which were dominated by British warships. In the aftermath of the battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775, the colonial militia, a force of about 15,000 men, had surrounded the town, and effectively besieged it. Under the command of Artemas Ward, they controlled the only land access to Boston itself (the Roxbury Neck), but, lacking a navy, were unable to even contest British domination of the waters of the harbor. The British troops, a force of about 6,000 under the command of General Thomas Gage, occupied the city, and were able to be resupplied and reinforced by sea. In theory, they were thus able to remain in Boston indefinitely.
However, the land across the water from Boston contained a number of hills, which could be used to advantage. If the militia could obtain enough artillery pieces, these could be placed on the hills and used to bombard the city until the occupying army evacuated it or surrendered. It was with this in mind that the Knox Expedition, led by Henry Knox, later transported cannon from Fort Ticonderoga to the Boston area.
The Charlestown Peninsula, lying to the north of Boston, started from a short, narrow isthmus (known as the Charlestown Neck) at its northwest and extended about 1 mile (1.6 km) southeastward into Boston Harbor. Bunker Hill, with an elevation of 110 feet (34 m), lay at the northern end of the peninsula. Breed 's Hill, at a height of 62 feet (19 m), was more southerly and nearer to Boston. The town of Charlestown occupied flats at the southern end of the peninsula. At its closest approach, less than 1,000 feet (305 m) separated the Charlestown Peninsula from the Boston Peninsula, where Copp 's Hill was at about the same height as Breed 's Hill. While the British retreat from Concord had ended in Charlestown, General Gage, rather than immediately fortifying the hills on the peninsula, had withdrawn those troops to Boston the day after that battle, turning the entire Charlestown Peninsula into a no man 's land.
Throughout May, in response to orders from Gage requesting support, the British received reinforcements, until they reached a strength of about 6,000 men. On May 25, three generals arrived on HMS Cerberus: William Howe, John Burgoyne, and Henry Clinton. Gage began planning with them to break out of the city, finalizing a plan on June 12. This plan began with the taking of the Dorchester Neck, fortifying the Dorchester Heights, and then marching on the colonial forces stationed in Roxbury. Once the southern flank had been secured, the Charlestown heights would be taken, and the forces in Cambridge driven away. The attack was set for June 18.
On June 13, the Massachusetts Provincial Congress was notified, by express messenger from the Committee of Safety in Exeter, New Hampshire, that a New Hampshire gentleman "of undoubted veracity '' had, while visiting Boston, overheard the British commanders making plans to capture Dorchester and Charlestown. On June 15, the Massachusetts Committee of Safety decided that additional defenses needed to be erected. General Ward directed General Israel Putnam to set up defenses on the Charlestown Peninsula, specifically on Bunker Hill.
On the night of June 16, colonial Colonel William Prescott led about 1,200 men onto the peninsula in order to set up positions from which artillery fire could be directed into Boston. This force was made up of men from the regiments of Prescott, Putnam (the unit was commanded by Thomas Knowlton), James Frye, and Ebenezer Bridge. At first, Putnam, Prescott, and their engineer, Captain Richard Gridley, disagreed as to where they should locate their defense. Some work was performed on Bunker Hill, but Breed 's Hill was closer to Boston and viewed as being more defensible. Arguably against orders, they decided to build their primary redoubt there. Prescott and his men, using Gridley 's outline, began digging a square fortification about 130 feet (40 m) on a side with ditches and earthen walls. The walls of the redoubt were about 6 feet (1.8 m) high, with a wooden platform inside on which men could stand and fire over the walls.
The works on Breed 's Hill did not go unnoticed by the British. General Clinton, out on reconnaissance that night, was aware of them, and tried to convince Gage and Howe that they needed to prepare to attack the position at daylight. British sentries were also aware of the activity, but most apparently did not think it cause for alarm. Then, in the early predawn, around 4 a.m., a sentry on board HMS Lively spotted the new fortification, and notified her captain. Lively opened fire, temporarily halting the colonists ' work. Aboard his flagship HMS Somerset, Admiral Samuel Graves awoke, irritated by the gunfire that he had not ordered. He stopped it, only to have General Gage countermand his decision when he became fully aware of the situation in the morning. He ordered all 128 guns in the harbor, as well as batteries atop Copp 's Hill in Boston, to fire on the colonial position, which had relatively little effect. The rising sun also alerted Prescott to a significant problem with the location of the redoubt -- it could easily be flanked on either side. He promptly ordered his men to begin constructing a breastwork running down the hill to the east, deciding he did not have the manpower to also build additional defenses to the west of the redoubt.
When the British generals met to discuss their options, General Clinton, who had urged an attack as early as possible, preferred an attack beginning from the Charlestown Neck that would cut off the colonists ' retreat, reducing the process of capturing the new redoubt to one of starving out its occupants. However, he was outvoted by the other three generals. Howe, who was the senior officer present and would lead the assault, was of the opinion that the hill was "open and easy of ascent and in short would be easily carried. '' General Burgoyne concurred, arguing that the "untrained rabble '' would be no match for their "trained troops ''. Orders were then issued to prepare the expedition.
When General Gage surveyed the works from Boston with his staff, Loyalist Abijah Willard recognized his brother - in - law Colonel Prescott. "Will he fight? '' asked Gage. "(A) s to his men, I can not answer for them; '' replied Willard, "but Colonel Prescott will fight you to the gates of hell. '' Prescott lived up to Willard 's word, but his men were not so resolute. When the colonists suffered their first casualty, Asa Pollard of Billerica, a young private killed by cannon fire, Prescott gave orders to bury the man quickly and quietly, but a large group of men gave him a solemn funeral instead, with several deserting shortly thereafter.
It took six hours for the British to organize an infantry force and to gather up and inspect the men on parade. General Howe was to lead the major assault, drive around the colonial left flank, and take them from the rear. Brigadier General Robert Pigot on the British left flank would lead the direct assault on the redoubt, and Major John Pitcairn led the flank or reserve force. It took several trips in longboats to transport Howe 's initial forces (consisting of about 1,500 men) to the eastern corner of the peninsula, known as Moulton 's Point. By 2 p.m., Howe 's chosen force had landed. However, while crossing the river, Howe noted the large number of colonial troops on top of Bunker Hill. Believing these to be reinforcements, he immediately sent a message to Gage, requesting additional troops. He then ordered some of the light infantry to take a forward position along the eastern side of the peninsula, alerting the colonists to his intended course of action. The troops then sat down to eat while they waited for the reinforcements.
Prescott, seeing the British preparations, called for reinforcements. Among the reinforcements were Joseph Warren, the popular young leader of the Massachusetts Committee of Safety, and Seth Pomeroy, an aging Massachusetts militia leader. Both of these men held commissions of rank, but chose to serve as infantry. Prescott ordered the Connecticut men under Captain Knowlton to defend the left flank, where they used a crude dirt wall as a breastwork, and topped it with fence rails and hay. They also constructed three small v - shaped trenches between this dirt wall and Prescott 's breastwork. Troops that arrived to reinforce this flank position included about 200 men from the 1st and 3rd New Hampshire regiments, under Colonels John Stark and James Reed. Stark 's men, who did not arrive until after Howe landed his forces (and thus filled a gap in the defense that Howe could have taken advantage of, had he pressed his attack sooner), took positions along the breastwork on the northern end of the colonial position. When low tide opened a gap along the Mystic River to the north, they quickly extended the fence with a short stone wall to the water 's edge. Colonel Stark placed a stake about 100 feet (30 m) in front of the fence and ordered that no one fire until the regulars passed it. Just prior to the action, further reinforcements arrived, including portions of Massachusetts regiments of Colonels Brewer, Nixon, Woodbridge, Little, and Major Moore, as well as Callender 's company of artillery.
Behind the colonial lines, confusion reigned. Many units sent toward the action stopped before crossing the Charlestown Neck from Cambridge, which was under constant fire from gun batteries to the south. Others reached Bunker Hill, but then, uncertain about where to go from there, milled around. One commentator wrote of the scene that "it appears to me there never was more confusion and less command. '' While General Putnam was on the scene attempting to direct affairs, unit commanders often misunderstood or disobeyed orders.
By 3 p.m., the British reinforcements, which included the 47th Foot and the 1st Marines, had arrived, and the British were ready to march. Brigadier General Pigot 's force, gathering just south of Charlestown village, were taking casualties from sniper fire, and Howe asked Admiral Graves for assistance in clearing out the snipers. Graves, who had planned for such a possibility, ordered incendiary shot fired into the village, and then sent a landing party to set fire to the town. The smoke billowing from Charlestown lent an almost surreal backdrop to the fighting, as the winds were such that the smoke was kept from the field of battle.
Pigot, commanding the 5th, 38th, 43rd, 47th, and 52nd regiments, as well as Major Pitcairn 's Marines, were to feint an assault on the redoubt. However, they continued to be harried by snipers in Charlestown, and Pigot, when he saw what happened to Howe 's advance, ordered a retreat.
General Howe led the light infantry companies and grenadiers in the assault on the American left flank, expecting an easy effort against Stark 's recently arrived troops. His light infantry were set along the narrow beach, in column, in order to turn the far left flank of the colonial position. The grenadiers were deployed in the middle. They lined up four deep and several hundred across. As the regulars closed, John Simpson, a New Hampshire man, prematurely fired, drawing an ineffective volley of return fire from the regulars. When the regulars finally closed within range, both sides opened fire. The colonists inflicted heavy casualties on the regulars, using the fence to steady and aim their muskets, and benefit from a modicum of cover. With this devastating barrage of musket fire, the regulars retreated in disarray, and the militia held their ground.
The regulars reformed on the field and marched out again. This time, Pigot was not to feint; he was to assault the redoubt, possibly without the assistance of Howe 's force. Howe, instead of marching against Stark 's position along the beach, marched instead against Knowlton 's position along the rail fence. The outcome of the second attack was much the same as the first. One British observer wrote, "Most of our Grenadiers and Light - infantry, the moment of presenting themselves lost three - fourths, and many nine - tenths, of their men. Some had only eight or nine men a company left... '' Pigot did not fare any better in his attack on the redoubt, and again ordered a retreat. Meanwhile, in the rear of the colonial forces, confusion continued to reign. General Putnam tried, with only limited success, to send additional troops from Bunker Hill to Breed 's Hill to support the men in the redoubt and along the defensive lines.
The British rear was also in some disarray. Wounded soldiers that were mobile had made their way to the landing areas, and were being ferried back to Boston, and the wounded lying on the field of battle were the source of moans and cries of pain. General Howe, deciding that he would try again, sent word to General Clinton in Boston for additional troops. Clinton, who had watched the first two attacks, sent about 400 men from the 2nd Marines and the 63rd Foot, and then followed himself to help rally the troops. In addition to the new reserves, he also convinced about 200 of the wounded to form up for the third attack. During the interval between the second and third assaults, General Putnam continued trying to direct troops toward the action. Some companies, and leaderless groups of men, moved toward the action; others retreated. John Chester, a Connecticut captain, seeing an entire company in retreat, ordered his company to aim muskets at that company to halt its retreat; they turned about and headed back to the battlefield.
The third assault, concentrated on the redoubt (with only a feint on the colonists ' flank), was successful, although the colonists again poured musket fire into the British ranks, and it cost the life of Major Pitcairn. The defenders had run out of ammunition, reducing the battle to close combat. The British had the advantage once they entered the redoubt, as their troops were equipped with bayonets on their muskets while most of the colonists were not. Colonel Prescott, one of the last colonists to leave the redoubt, parried bayonet thrusts with his normally ceremonial sabre. It is during the retreat from the redoubt that Joseph Warren was killed.
The retreat of much of the colonial forces from the peninsula was made possible in part by the controlled retreat of the forces along the rail fence, led by John Stark and Thomas Knowlton, which prevented the encirclement of the hill. Their disciplined retreat, described by Burgoyne as "no flight; it was even covered with bravery and military skill '', was so effective that most of the wounded were saved; most of the prisoners taken by the British were mortally wounded. General Putnam attempted to reform the troops on Bunker Hill; however the flight of the colonial forces was so rapid that artillery pieces and entrenching tools had to be abandoned. The colonists suffered most of their casualties during the retreat on Bunker Hill. By 5 p.m., the colonists had retreated over the Charlestown Neck to fortified positions in Cambridge, and the British were in control of the peninsula.
The British had taken the ground but at a great loss; they had suffered 1,054 casualties (226 dead and 828 wounded), with a disproportionate number of these officers. The casualty count was the highest suffered by the British in any single encounter during the entire war. General Clinton, echoing Pyrrhus of Epirus, remarked in his diary that "A few more such victories would have shortly put an end to British dominion in America. '' British dead and wounded included 100 commissioned officers, a significant portion of the British officer corps in North America. Much of General Howe 's field staff was among the casualties. Major Pitcairn had been killed, and Lieutenant Colonel James Abercrombie fatally wounded. General Gage, in his report after the battle, reported the following officer casualties (listing lieutenants and above by name):
The colonial losses were about 450, of whom 140 were killed. Most of the colonial losses came during the withdrawal. Major Andrew McClary was technically the highest ranking colonial officer to die in the battle; he was hit by cannon fire on Charlestown Neck, the last person to be killed in the battle. He was later commemorated by the dedication of Fort McClary in Kittery, Maine. A serious loss to the Patriot cause, however, was the death of Dr. Joseph Warren. He was the President of Massachusetts ' Provincial Congress, and he had been appointed a Major General on June 14. His commission had not yet taken effect when he served as a volunteer private three days later at Bunker Hill. Only thirty men were captured by the British, most of them with grievous wounds; twenty died while held prisoner. The colonials also lost numerous shovels and other entrenching tools, as well as five out of the six cannon they had brought to the peninsula.
When news of the battle spread through the colonies, it was reported as a colonial loss, as the ground had been taken by the enemy, and significant casualties were incurred. George Washington, who was on his way to Boston as the new commander of the Continental Army, received news of the battle while in New York City. The report, which included casualty figures that were somewhat inaccurate, gave Washington hope that his army might prevail in the conflict.
A British officer in Boston, after the battle
The Massachusetts Committee of Safety, seeking to repeat the sort of propaganda victory it won following the battles at Lexington and Concord, commissioned a report of the battle to send to England. Their report, however, did not reach England before Gage 's official account arrived on July 20. His report unsurprisingly caused friction and argument between the Tories and the Whigs, but the casualty counts alarmed the military establishment, and forced many to rethink their views of colonial military capability. King George 's attitude toward the colonies hardened, and the news may have contributed to his rejection of the Continental Congress ' Olive Branch Petition, the last substantive political attempt at reconciliation. Sir James Adolphus Oughton, part of the Tory majority, wrote to Lord Dartmouth of the colonies, "the sooner they are made to Taste Distress the sooner will (Crown control over them) be produced, and the Effusion of Blood be put a stop to. '' About a month after receiving Gage 's report the Proclamation of Rebellion would be issued in response; this hardening of the British position would also lead to a hardening of previously weak support for the rebellion, especially in the southern colonies, in favor of independence.
Gage 's report had a more direct effect on his own career. His dismissal from office was decided just three days after his report was received, although General Howe did not replace him until October 1775. Gage wrote another report to the British Cabinet, in which he repeated earlier warnings that "a large army must at length be employed to reduce these people '', that would require "the hiring of foreign troops ''.
Much has been written in the wake of this battle over how it was conducted. Both sides made strategic and tactical missteps which could have altered the outcome of the battle. While hindsight often gives a biased view, some things seem to be apparent after the battle that might reasonably have been within the reach of the command of the day.
Years after the battle, and after Israel Putnam was dead, General Dearborn published an account of the battle in Port Folio magazine, accusing General Putnam of inaction, cowardly leadership and failing to supply reinforcements during the battle, which subsequently sparked a long lasting and major controversy among veterans of the war, various friends, family members and historians. People were shocked by the rancor of the attack, and this prompted a forceful response from defenders of Putnam, including such notables as John and Abigail Adams. Historian Harold Murdock wrote that Dearborn 's account "abounds in absurd misstatements and amazing flights of imagination. '' The Dearborn attack received considerable attention because at the time he was in the middle of considerable controversy himself. He had been relieved of one of the top commands in the War of 1812 due to his mistakes. He had also been nominated to serve as Secretary of War by President Monroe, but was rejected by the United States Senate (which was the first time that the Senate had voted against confirming a presidential cabinet choice).
The colonial forces, while nominally under the overall command of General Ward, with General Putnam and Colonel Prescott leading in the field, often acted quite independently. This was evident in the opening stages of the battle, when a tactical decision was made that had strategic implications. After deliberating with General Putnam and Colonel Gridley, Colonel Prescott and his staff, apparently in contravention of orders, decided to fortify Breed 's Hill rather than Bunker Hill. The fortification of Breed 's Hill was more provocative; it would have put offensive artillery closer to Boston. It also exposed the forces there to the possibility of being trapped, as they probably could not properly defend against attempts by the British to land troops and take control of Charlestown Neck. If the British had taken that step, they might have had a victory with many fewer casualties.
While the front lines of the colonial forces were generally well managed, the scene behind them, especially once the action began, was significantly disorganized, due at least in part to a poor chain of command. Only some of the militias operated directly under Ward 's and Putnam 's authority, and some commanders also disobeyed orders, staying at Bunker Hill rather than joining in the defense on the third British assault. Several officers were subjected to court martial and cashiered. Colonel Prescott was of the opinion that the third assault would have been repulsed, had his forces in the redoubt been reinforced with either more men, or more supplies of ammunition and powder.
The British leadership, for its part, acted slowly once the works on Breed 's Hill were spotted. It was 2 p.m. when the troops were ready for the assault, roughly ten hours after the Lively first opened fire. This leisurely pace gave the colonial forces time to reinforce the flanking positions that had been poorly defended. Gage and Howe decided that a frontal assault on the works would be a simple matter, when an encircling move (gaining control of Charlestown Neck), would have given them a more resounding victory. (This move would not have been without risks of its own, as the colonists could have made holding the Neck expensive with fire from the high ground in Cambridge.) But the British leadership was excessively optimistic, believing that "two regiments were sufficient to beat the strength of the province ''.
Once in the field, Howe, rather than focusing on the redoubt, opted (twice) to dilute the force attacking the redoubt with a flanking maneuver against the colonial left. It was only with the third attack, when the flank attack was merely a feint, and the main force (now also reinforced with additional reserves) squarely targeted the redoubt, that the attack succeeded.
Following the taking of the peninsula, the British arguably had a tactical advantage that they could have used to press into Cambridge. General Clinton proposed this to Howe; having just led three assaults with grievous casualties, he declined the idea. The colonial military leaders eventually recognized Howe as a tentative decision - maker, to his detriment; in the aftermath of the Battle of Long Island (1776), he again had tactical advantages that might have delivered Washington 's army into his hands, but again refused to act.
Historian John Ferling maintains that had General Gage used the Royal Navy to secure the narrow neck to the Charleston peninsula, cutting the Americans off from the mainland, he could have achieved a far less costly victory, but he was motivated by revenge over patriot resistance at the Battles of Lexington and Concord and relatively heavy British losses, and also felt that the colonial militia were completely untrained and could be overtaken with little effort, opting for a frontal assault.
The famous order "Do n't fire until you see the whites of their eyes '' was popularized in stories about the battle of Bunker Hill. It is uncertain as to who said it there, since various histories, including eyewitness accounts, attribute it to Putnam, Stark, Prescott, or Gridley, and it may have been said first by one, and repeated by the others. It was also not an original statement. The idea dates originally to the general - king Gustavus Adolphus (1594 -- 1632) who gave standing orders to his musketeers: "never to give fire, till they could see their own image in the pupil of their enemy 's eye ''. Gustavus Adolphus 's military teachings were widely admired and imitated and caused this saying to be often repeated. It was used by General James Wolfe on the Plains of Abraham, when his troops defeated Montcalm 's army on September 13, 1759. The earliest similar quote came from the Battle of Dettingen on June 27, 1743, where Lieutenant - Colonel Sir Andrew Agnew of Lochnaw warned his Regiment, the Royal Scots Fusiliers, not to fire until they could "see the white of their e'en. '' The phrase was also used by Prince Charles of Prussia in 1745, and repeated in 1755 by Frederick the Great, and may have been mentioned in histories the colonial military leaders were familiar with. Whether or not it was actually said in this battle, it was clear that the colonial military leadership were regularly reminding their troops to hold their fire until the moment when it would have the greatest effect, especially in situations where their ammunition would be limited.
A significant number of notable people fought in this battle. Henry Dearborn and William Eustis, for example, went on to distinguished military and political careers; both served in Congress, the Cabinet, and in diplomatic posts. Others, like John Brooks, Henry Burbeck, Christian Febiger, Thomas Knowlton, and John Stark, became well known for later actions in the war. Stark became known as the "Hero of Bennington '' for his role in the 1777 Battle of Bennington. Free African - Americans also fought in the battle; notable examples include Barzillai Lew, Salem Poor, and Peter Salem. Another notable participant was Daniel Shays, who later became famous for his army of protest in Shays ' Rebellion. Israel Potter was immortalized in Israel Potter: His Fifty Years of Exile, a novel by Herman Melville. Colonel John Paterson commanded the Massachusetts First Militia, served in Shays ' Rebellion, and became a congressman from New York. Lt. Col. Seth Read, who served under John Paterson at Bunker Hill, went on to settle Geneva, New York and Erie, Pennsylvania, and was said to have been instrumental in the phrase E pluribus unum being added to U.S. coins. George Claghorn of the Massachusetts militia was shot in the knee at Bunker Hill and went on after the war to become the master builder of the USS Constitution, a.k.a. "Old Ironsides '', which is the oldest naval vessel in the world that is still commissioned and afloat.
John Trumbull 's painting, The Death of General Warren at the Battle of Bunker Hill (displayed in lede), was created as an allegorical depiction of the battle and Warren 's death, not as an actual pictorial recording of the event. The painting shows a number of participants in the battle including a British officer, John Small, among those who stormed the redoubt, yet came to be the one holding the mortally wounded Warren and preventing a fellow redcoat from bayoneting him. He was friends of Putnam and Trumbull. Other central figures include Andrew McClary who was the last man to fall in the battle.
The Bunker Hill Monument is an obelisk that stands 221 feet (67 m) high on Breed 's Hill. On June 17, 1825, the fiftieth anniversary of the battle, the cornerstone of the monument was laid by the Marquis de Lafayette and an address delivered by Daniel Webster. (When Lafayette died, he was buried next to his wife at the Cimetière de Picpus under soil from Bunker Hill, which his son Georges sprinkled over him.) The Leonard P. Zakim Bunker Hill Memorial Bridge was specifically designed to evoke this monument. There is also a statue of William Prescott showing him calming his men down.
The National Park Service operates a museum dedicated to the battle near the monument, which is part of the Boston National Historical Park. A cyclorama of the battle was added in 2007 when the museum was renovated.
In nearby Cambridge, a small granite monument just north of Harvard Yard bears this inscription: "Here assembled on the night of June 16, 1775, 1200 Continental troops under command of Colonel Prescott. After prayer by President Langdon, they marched to Bunker Hill. '' See footnote for picture. (Samuel Langdon, a Congregational minister, was Harvard 's 11th president.) Another small monument nearby marks the location of the Committee of Safety, which had become the Patriots ' provisional government as Tories left Cambridge. These monuments are on the lawn to the west of Harvard 's Littaeur Center, which is itself the west of Harvard 's huge Science Center. See footnote for map.
Bunker Hill Day, observed every June 17, is a legal holiday in Suffolk County, Massachusetts (which includes the city of Boston), as well as Somerville in Middlesex County. Prospect Hill, site of colonial fortifications overlooking the Charlestown Neck, is now in Somerville, which was previously part of Charlestown. State institutions in Massachusetts (such as public institutions of higher education) in Boston also celebrate the holiday. However, the state 's FY2011 budget requires that all state and municipal offices in Suffolk County be open on Bunker Hill Day and Evacuation Day.
On June 16 and 17, 1875, the centennial of the battle was celebrated with a military parade and a reception featuring notable speakers, among them General William Tecumseh Sherman and Vice President Henry Wilson. It was attended by dignitaries from across the country. Celebratory events also marked the sesquicentennial (150th anniversary) in 1925 and the bicentennial in 1975.
Over the years the Battle of Bunker Hill has been commemorated on four U.S. Postage stamps.
Major sources Most of the information about the battle itself in this article comes from the following sources.
Minor sources Specific facts not necessarily covered by the major sources come from the following sources.
Commemorations Various commemorations of the battle are described in the following sources.
About the battle
About people in the battle
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what does the ring say on lord of the rings | One Ring - wikipedia
The One Ring is an artefact that appears as the central plot element in J.R.R. Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings (1954 -- 55). It is described in an earlier story, The Hobbit (1937), as a magic ring of invisibility. In the sequel, The Lord of the Rings, Tolkien ascribes to the Ring a darker character, with malevolent power going far beyond conferring invisibility: it was created by Sauron the Dark Lord as part of his design to win dominion over Middle - earth. The Lord of the Rings concerns the quest to destroy the Ring to keep Sauron from fulfilling his design.
In The Lord of the Rings and the posthumously published The Silmarillion, Tolkien provides a detailed internal development from the forging of the Ring to its destruction. In the fictional context of Middle - earth, these events take place during several thousand years in the Second and Third Age of Arda.
The One Ring was forged by the Dark Lord Sauron during the Second Age to gain dominion over the free peoples of Middle - earth. In disguise as Annatar, or "Lord of Gifts '', he aided the Elven smiths of Eregion and their leader Celebrimbor in the making of the Rings of Power. He then forged the One Ring himself in the fires of Mount Doom.
Sauron intended it to be the most powerful of all Rings, able to rule and control those who wore the others. Since the other Rings were themselves powerful, Sauron was obliged to place much of his own power into the One to achieve his purpose.
Creating the Ring simultaneously strengthened and weakened Sauron 's power. On the one hand, as long as Sauron had the Ring, he could control the power of all the other Rings, and thus he was significantly more powerful after its creation than before; and putting such a great portion of his own power into the Ring ensured Sauron 's continued existence so long as the Ring existed. On the other hand, by binding his power within the Ring, Sauron became dependent on it -- without it, his power was significantly diminished.
The Ring seemed to be made simply of gold, but it was impervious to damage. It could be destroyed only by throwing it into the pit of the volcanic Mount Doom where it was originally forged. Unlike other rings, the One Ring was not susceptible to dragon fire. Like some lesser rings forged by the Elves as "essays in the craft '' -- but unlike the other Rings of Power -- the One Ring bore no gem. Its identity could be determined by a little - known but simple test: when placed in a fire, it displayed a fiery Tengwar inscription in the Black Speech of Mordor, with two lines from a rhyme of lore describing the Rings:
Three Rings for the Elven - kings under the sky, Seven for the Dwarf - lords in their halls of stone, Nine for Mortal Men doomed to die, One for the Dark Lord on his dark throne In the Land of Mordor where the Shadows lie. One Ring to rule them all, One Ring to find them, One Ring to bring them all and in the darkness bind them In the Land of Mordor where the Shadows lie.
The lines inscribed on the Ring (in boldface above) were pronounced by Sauron when he forged the Ring. The Elven smiths heard him chanting them, and thereupon became aware of his purpose and took off their own Rings to foil his plan.
A person wearing the Ring would enter a shadowy world revealing the physical world from a different aspect, from which physical objects were harder to see. The wearer was mostly invisible to ordinary beings, such as Men, but highly visible to the Nazgûl. The Ring dimmed the wearer 's sight, while at the same time sharpening the other senses.
The enigmatic Tom Bombadil appeared to be unaffected by the Ring and to have some power over it; when he wore the Ring, it did not make him invisible, and Frodo could not become invisible to him by wearing the Ring. Also, Tom played with the Ring like a conjurer borrowing someone 's watch for a trick, seemingly making it disappear and reappear.
The Ring slowly but inevitably corrupted its bearer, regardless of the bearer 's initial intent. For this reason the Wise, including Gandalf, Elrond, and Galadriel, refused to wield it themselves, but determined instead that it should be destroyed. The corrupting power of the ring was apparently stronger on individuals more inclined to evil and selfishness: it took almost immediate hold of the greedy Sméagol as soon as he saw it, and corrupted Boromir after a few months of near proximity, while its effects were only starting to be seen in the well - meaning Bilbo after his sixty years ' possession.
The Ring had the ability to change size. As well as adapting to fingers of varying size, from Sauron 's to Frodo 's, it sometimes suddenly expanded to escape from its wearer.
The words of the ring - inscription are in Black Speech, a language devised by Sauron and used in the land of Mordor. The inscription reflects the One Ring 's power to control the other Rings of Power. The writing uses Elvish letters (tengwar), in a mode (i.e. orthography) adapted to the Black Speech.
Normally the One Ring appeared perfectly plain and featureless, but when heated its inscription appeared in fiery letters. A drawing of the inscription and a translation provided by Gandalf appears in Book I, Chapter 2 of The Fellowship of the Ring, "The Shadow of the Past ''.
Gandalf speaks the words in Black Speech in Book II, Chapter 2, "The Council of Elrond '':
Ash nazg durbatulûk, ash nazg gimbatul, Ash nazg thrakatulûk agh burzum - ishi krimpatul.
Translated, the words mean:
One ring to rule them all, one ring to find them, One ring to bring them all and in the darkness bind them.
When Isildur took the Ring from Sauron 's hand, it was burning hot, so the letters were legible. Isildur was able to transcribe the inscription before it faded as the Ring cooled. This transcription survived in a document Isildur left in Gondor before marching north to the Gladden Fields, where he was killed and the Ring lost.
Gandalf learned of the Ring 's inscription when he read Isildur 's account. When Gandalf subsequently heated the ring that Bilbo Baggins had left to Frodo, the inscription reappeared. The wizard then had no doubt that Frodo 's ring was the One Ring. When Gandalf recited the inscription in Black Speech at the Council of Elrond, everyone trembled:
The change in the wizard 's voice was astounding. Suddenly it became menacing, powerful, harsh as stone. A shadow seemed to pass over the high sun, and the porch for a moment grew dark. All trembled, and the Elves stopped their ears.
The first Ballantine paperback edition of The Fellowship of the Ring printed the inscription upside - down. Some recent editions accidentally omit the first half of the translation in Book I, Chapter 2. This error was corrected in the 50th Anniversary edition.
The term Ring - bearer is used in The Lord of the Rings to describe a person who has possessed the One Ring. The term is also used to refer to bearers of other Rings of Power.
In The Lord of the Rings, Frodo Baggins was appointed Ring - bearer by the Council of Elrond in Rivendell. His task was to carry the One Ring from Rivendell to the Crack of Doom in Mordor and to destroy it before Sauron or his servants could recover it. During this journey, Frodo 's companion Samwise Gamgee also carried the ring briefly while Frodo was held captive in the Tower of Cirith Ungol. Near the onset of this journey the Ring was handled also by Tom Bombadil, upon whom the Ring had no apparent effect, and by Gandalf, who cast it into Frodo 's fireplace to verify that it was the One Ring.
Frodo inherited the Ring from his uncle Bilbo Baggins. In Tolkien 's earlier novel, The Hobbit, Bilbo found the Ring in the caverns beneath the Misty Mountains. It had been lost in the caverns by Gollum, who used the invisibility it conferred to hunt orcs to eat. Gollum, a hobbit previously known as Sméagol, had kept the Ring for hundreds of years. He had murdered his friend Déagol to get the Ring shortly after Déagol found it in the river Anduin. Many centuries earlier the Ring had betrayed Isildur and fallen from his finger into the Anduin as he was eluding orcs -- who killed him when he became visible. Isildur in turn had cut the Ring from the hand of Sauron, who had made the Ring and let much of his power flow into it. Sauron was the Ring 's true master, and the only being who could bend it completely to his will.
Though Déagol and Gandalf had handled the Ring, the only individuals ever to wear it were Sauron, Isildur, Sméagol / Gollum, Bilbo, Frodo, Tom Bombadil, and Samwise. None but Bilbo, Frodo, and Samwise are actually called "Ring - bearers '' in any of Tolkien 's works. As Ring - bearers, they were granted passage to the Undying Lands, though Sam lived in the Shire for many years after the departure of Bilbo and Frodo before making the journey himself.
After its original forging (about S.A. 1600) Sauron waged the War of the Elves and Sauron against the Elves and all who opposed him. Sauron invaded and destroyed Eregion, and killed Celebrimbor, the maker of the three rings of the Elves. However, King Tar - Minastir of Númenor sent a great fleet to Middle - earth, and with this aid Gil - galad destroyed Sauron 's army and forced Sauron to return to Mordor.
In S.A. 3261, Ar - Pharazôn, the last and most powerful king of Númenor, landed at Umbar at the head of an immense army to do battle with Sauron. The sheer size and might of the Númenórean army was enough to force Sauron 's armies to flee. Sauron surrendered to Ar - Pharazôn and was taken back to Númenor as a prisoner. Tolkien, in a letter written in 1958 (# 211) wrote that the surrender was both "voluntary and cunning '' so he could gain access to Númenor. Sauron was able to use the Númenóreans ' fear of death as a way to turn them against the Valar, and manipulate them into worshipping his master, Morgoth, and performing human sacrifice.
Although Sauron 's body was destroyed in the Fall of Númenor, his spirit was able to travel back to Middle - earth and wield the One Ring in his renewed war against the Last Alliance of Elves and Men between S.A. 3429 and 3441. Tolkien emphasized that Sauron used his ring in Númenor to gain complete control over its people; and while Sauron 's body perished in the Fall, the Ring somehow made it back to Middle - earth. Tolkien wrote, "I do not think one need boggle at this spirit carrying off the One Ring, upon which his power of dominating minds now largely depended. '' (letter # 211).
Sauron was killed again by Gil - galad and Elendil at the end of the Last Alliance. The Ring was cut from Sauron 's hand by Elendil 's son, Isildur, on the slopes of Mount Doom. Though counselled to destroy the Ring, he was swayed by its power and kept it safe instead, "as weregild for my father, and my brother ''. A few years later, Isildur was ambushed by orcs by the River Anduin near the Gladden Fields; he put on the Ring to escape, but it slipped from his finger as he swam across the river, and, suddenly visible, he was killed by the orcs. Since the Ring indirectly caused Isildur 's death, it was known in Gondorian lore as "Isildur 's Bane ''.
The Ring remained hidden on the river bed for almost two and a half millennia, until it was discovered on a fishing trip by a Stoor hobbit named Déagol. His friend and relative Sméagol, who had gone fishing with him, was immediately ensnared by the Ring 's power and demanded that Déagol give it to him as a "birthday present ''; when Déagol refused, Sméagol strangled him and took it for himself. The Ring corrupted his body and mind, turning him into the creature known as Gollum. The Ring, which Sauron had endowed with a will of its own, manipulated Gollum into hiding in a cave under the Misty Mountains near Mirkwood, where Sauron was beginning to resurface. There Gollum remained for nearly 500 years, until the Ring tired of him and fell off his finger as he was hunting an orc.
As is told in The Hobbit, Bilbo found the Ring shortly afterward while lost in the tunnels near Gollum 's lair. When The Hobbit was written, Tolkien had not yet conceived of the Ring 's sinister history. Thus, in the first edition of The Hobbit, Gollum offers to surrender the Ring to Bilbo as a reward for winning the Riddle Game. When Tolkien revised the nature of the Ring for The Lord of the Rings, he realized that the Ring 's grip on Gollum would never permit him to give it up willingly. Tolkien therefore revised the second edition of The Hobbit: after losing the Riddle Game to Bilbo, Gollum went to get his "Precious '' (as he always called it) so he could kill and eat Bilbo, but flew into a rage when he found the Ring missing. Deducing from Bilbo 's last question -- "What have I got in my pocket? '' -- that Bilbo had found the Ring, Gollum chased him through the caves, not realizing that the hobbit had discovered the Ring 's powers of invisibility and was following him to the cave 's exit. Bilbo escaped Gollum and the goblins by remaining invisible, but when he rejoined Gandalf and the dwarves he was travelling with, he decided not to tell them that the Ring had made him invisible. In fact he told them a story that closely followed the first edition of The Hobbit: that Gollum had given him the Ring and showed him the way out. Gandalf was not convinced and later forced the real story from Bilbo; he was thus immediately suspicious of the Ring.
Gollum eventually left the Misty Mountains to track down and reclaim the Ring. He wandered for decades, and was drawn to Mordor, where he was captured by Sauron 's forces. He was interrogated by Sauron himself, who learned that the Ring had been found and was currently held by one "Baggins '' in the land of "Shire ''.
In T.A. 3001, the Ring was beginning to strain Bilbo, leaving him feeling "stretched - out and thin '', and so he decided to leave the Shire, intending to pass the Ring to his adopted heir Frodo Baggins. He briefly gave in to the Ring 's power, even calling it "my precious ''; alarmed, Gandalf spoke harshly to his old friend to persuade him to give it up, which Bilbo eventually did, becoming the first Ringbearer to surrender it willingly.
By this time Sauron had regained much of his power, and the Dark Tower in Mordor had been rebuilt. Gollum, released from Mordor, was captured by Gandalf and Aragorn, and from him Gandalf learned that Sauron now knew where to find the Ring. To prevent Sauron from reclaiming his Ring, Frodo and eight other companions set out from Rivendell for Mordor in an attempt to destroy the Ring in the fires of Mount Doom. During the quest, Frodo gradually became more and more susceptible to the Ring 's power, and feared that it was going to corrupt him. When he and his faithful companion Samwise Gamgee discovered Gollum on their trail and "tamed '' him into guiding them to Mordor, Frodo began to feel a strange bond with the wretched, treacherous creature, while Gollum warmed to Frodo 's kindness and made at least some effort to keep his promise. Gollum eventually gave in to the Ring 's temptation, however, and betrayed them to the spider Shelob. Believing Frodo to be dead, Sam bore the Ring himself for a short time and experienced the temptation it induced; he wore it briefly twice, but never succumbed to it.
Sam rescued Frodo from a band of orcs at the Tower of Cirith Ungol. The hobbits, followed by Gollum, eventually arrived at Mount Doom, where Frodo was overcome by the Ring 's power and claimed it for himself. At that moment, however, Gollum attacked him and bit off his finger, taking back the Ring. Gollum was too close to the edge: as he gloated over his prize he fell into the fires of Mount Doom, taking the Ring with him, thus destroying it and Sauron 's power.
The Ring 's primary power was control of the other Rings of Power and domination of the wills of their users. The Ring also conferred power to dominate the wills of other beings whether they were wearing Rings or not -- but only in proportion to the user 's native capacity. In the same way, it amplified any inherent power its owner possessed.
A mortal wearing the Ring became effectively invisible except to those able to perceive the non-physical world, with only a thin, shaky shadow discernible in the brightest sunlight. The Ring would also extend the life of a mortal possessor indefinitely by preventing natural aging. Gandalf explained that it does not "grant new life '', but that the possessor merely "continues '' until life becomes unbearably wearisome. However, the Ring could not protect its bearer from destruction; Gollum perished in the Crack of Doom while in possession of the Ring, and even Sauron himself could not preserve his body from destruction during the downfall of Númenor. Likewise, the Ring could not protect its bearer from physical harm; Frodo was seriously injured by the Witch - king on Weathertop, and lost a finger when Gollum bit it off -- on both occasions while wearing the Ring. Sauron himself suffered the death of his physical body at the hands of Gil - galad and Elendil while wearing the Ring. Like the Nine Rings, the One Ring could physically corrupt mortals who wear it for extended periods of time, eventually transforming them into wraiths. Hobbits were more resistant to this process than Men: Gollum, who possessed the ring for five - hundred years did not become wraith - like because he did not wear the ring often after taking it to the tunnels of the Misty Mountains.
The Ring might also have given its wielder the ability to read minds, as Galadriel suggested to Frodo when he wondered why he could not read the thoughts of others as she did.
Within the land of Mordor where it was forged, the Ring 's power increased so significantly that even without wearing it the bearer could draw upon it, and could acquire an aura of terrible power. When Sam encountered an orc in the Tower of Cirith Ungol while holding the Ring, he appeared to the orc as a powerful warrior cloaked in shadow "(holding) some nameless menace of power and doom. '' The orc was so terrified that it fled. Similarly at Mount Doom, when Frodo and Sam were attacked by Gollum, Frodo grabbed the Ring and appeared as "a figure robed in white... (that) held a wheel of fire. '' Frodo told Gollum "in a commanding voice '' that "If you touch me ever again, you shall be cast yourself into the Fire of Doom, '' a statement fulfilled when Gollum fell into Mount Doom with the Ring. Although the Ring was certainly invoked with this statement, it is unclear whether Frodo was prophesying (Frodo had previously seen less sinister visions while in possession of the Ring), or if Frodo was actively laying a curse upon Gollum.
As the Ring contained a large part of Sauron 's power, it was endowed with a malevolent sentience of sorts. While separated from Sauron, the Ring would strive to return to him by manipulating its bearer to claim ownership of it, or by abandoning the bearer at an opportune moment. For example, it slipped from Isildur 's finger during the ambush at Gladden Fields; moments later he was killed by orcs, leaving the Ring 's whereabouts unknown to Sauron 's enemies. It also slipped off Gollum 's finger when the time was right for it to be brought back into the world at large. Warned by Bilbo of the Ring 's tendency to slip off, Frodo carried the Ring on a chain.
To master all of the Ring 's capabilities, a Ring wielder would need a disciplined and well - trained mind, a strong will, and great native power. Those with weaker minds, such as Hobbits and lesser Men, would gain little benefit from the Ring, let alone realize its full potential. Even for someone with the necessary strength, it would have taken time to master the Ring 's power to the point where he was strong enough to overthrow Sauron. The prospect of mastery is the main appeal that the Ring holds for those who come in contact with it. The Ring appears as a symbol of hope, offering the power to defeat Sauron and bring peace to the world. Yet in the end, its inherent malevolence would twist its bearer into another Dark Lord as evil as Sauron, regardless of one 's intentions at the outset.
Despite its power, the Ring did not render its bearer omnipotent. Three times Sauron suffered military defeat while bearing the Ring, first by Gil - galad in the War of Sauron and the Elves, again by Ar - Pharazôn when Númenórean power so overawed his armies that they deserted him, and again at the end of the Second Age with his personal defeat by Gil - galad and Elendil. Tolkien indicates, however, that such a defeat would not have been possible in the waning years of the Third Age, when the strength of the free peoples was greatly diminished. There were no remaining heroes of the stature of Gil - galad, Elendil, or Isildur; the strength of the Elves was fading and they were departing to the Blessed Realm; the Dwarves had been driven out of Moria and would have been unwilling to concentrate their strength in any event; and the Númenórean kingdoms had either declined or been destroyed, and had few allies.
Of the several bearers of the One Ring, three were still alive following the Ring 's destruction, the hobbits Bilbo Baggins, Frodo Baggins, and Samwise Gamgee. Bilbo, having borne the Ring longest of the three, had reached a very advanced age for a hobbit. Frodo suffered both physical and psychological scars from his strenuous quest to destroy the Ring. Samwise, having only briefly kept the Ring, was affected the least and simply carried on a normal life following the Ring 's destruction.
In consideration of the trials the Ring - bearers had endured, special dispensation was granted them by the Valar to travel to the Undying Lands, where it was hoped they could find rest and healing. At the close of The Return of the King, Bilbo and Frodo embark for the voyage to the West along with Galadriel, Elrond, and many of their folk, as well as Gandalf. Near the end of his life, Samwise is also said to have been taken to the Undying Lands, after living in the Shire for many years and raising a large family.
Tolkien emphasized that the restorative sojourn of the Ring - bearers in the Undying Lands would not have been permanent. As mortals, subject to the Gift of Men, they would eventually die and leave the world of Eä.
Tolkien wrote the following about the idea behind the One Ring: "I should say that it was a mythical way of representing the truth that potency (or perhaps potentiality) if it is to be exercised, and produce results, has to be externalized and so as it were passes, to a greater or lesser degree, out of one 's direct control. '' (Letter # 211, 1958).
Tolkien always strongly held that The Lord of the Rings was not allegorical, particularly in reference to political events of his time such as World War II or the Cold War. At the same time he conceded "applicability '' as being within the "freedom '' of the reader, and indeed many people have been inclined to view the One Ring as a symbol or metaphor. The notion of a power too great for humans to safely possess is an evocative one, and already in the 1930s there were technologies available to suggest the idea. By the time the work was published, though not when most of it was written, the existence of nuclear power and nuclear weapons were common knowledge, and the Ring was often taken as symbolic of them. The effect of the Ring and its physical and spiritual after - effects on Bilbo and Frodo are obsessions that have been compared with drug addiction; actor Andy Serkis who played Gollum in the film trilogy cited drug addiction as an inspiration for his performance.
Parallels have been drawn between the literary device of Tolkien 's Cursed Ring and the titular ring in Richard Wagner 's Der Ring des Nibelungen. Tolkien dismissed critics ' direct comparisons to Wagner, telling his publisher, "Both rings were round, and there the resemblance ceases. '' According to Humphrey Carpenter 's biography of Tolkien, the author held Wagner 's interpretation of the relevant Germanic myths in contempt. In the contrary sense, some critics hold that Tolkien 's work borrows so liberally from Wagner that Tolkien 's work exists in the shadow of Wagner 's. Others, such as Tom Shippey and Gloriana St. Clair, attribute the resemblances to the fact that Tolkien and Wagner have created homologue works based in the same sources. However, Shippey and other researchers have written on an intermediary position, stating that both the authors, indeed, used the same source materials but that Tolkien was, in fact, indebted to some of the original developments, insights and artistic uses made upon those sources that first appeared in Wagner, and sought to improve upon them.
In the 1981 BBC Radio serial of The Lord of the Rings, the Nazgûl chant the Ring - inscription; it is also recited by them in part during Peter Jackson 's The Hobbit, specifically during the film The Battle of the Five Armies.
In The Lord of the Rings film trilogy, the wearer of the Ring is always portrayed as moving through a shadowy realm where everything is distorted. In the book, neither Bilbo Baggins nor Frodo Baggins ever mentioned anything about this while using the Ring, but when Sam puts on the Ring at the end of The Two Towers he does experience something similar to this. Sam never wore the Ring on screen in Jackson 's films. The actual Ring for the movies was designed and created by Jens Hansen Gold & Silversmith in Nelson, New Zealand, and was based on a simple wedding ring.
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how old are the characters on young and the restless | The Young and the Restless cast members - Wikipedia
The Young and the Restless is an American television soap opera, created by William J. Bell and Lee Phillip Bell for CBS. It first aired on March 26, 1973. The longest - running current cast member is Doug Davidson, who has portrayed private investigator Paul Williams since May 23, 1978. Jeanne Cooper, who portrayed the soap opera 's matriarch Katherine Chancellor, holds the record for the series ' longest - running cast member, airing from November 1973 until her death in May 2013. Melody Thomas Scott and Eric Braeden, who portray Nikki and Victor Newman, are the second and third longest - running cast members, having joined in February 1979 and February 1980, respectively. Kate Linder has portrayed Esther Valentine since April 1982, and rounds out the series ' top four longest - running cast members. The following list is of cast members who are currently on the show: both main and recurring members, as well as those who are debuting, departing or returning from the series.
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characters in the movie what eating gilbert grape | What 's Eating Gilbert Grape - wikipedia
What 's Eating Gilbert Grape is a 1993 American drama film directed by Lasse Hallström and starring Johnny Depp, Juliette Lewis, Darlene Cates, and Leonardo DiCaprio. The film follows 24 - year - old Gilbert (Depp), a grocery store clerk caring for his morbidly obese mother (Cates) and his mentally impaired younger brother (DiCaprio) in a sleepy Midwestern town. Peter Hedges wrote the screenplay, adapted from his 1991 novel of the same name. The film was well - received; DiCaprio received his first Academy Award nomination for his role.
In the small town of Endora, Iowa, Gilbert Grape (Johnny Depp) is busy caring for Arnie (Leonardo DiCaprio), his mentally challenged brother, as they wait for the many tourists ' trailers to pass through town during an annual Airstreamer 's Club gathering at a nearby recreational area. His mother, Bonnie (Darlene Cates), gave up on life after her husband hanged himself in the basement seven years earlier. She spends almost all of her time on the couch watching TV and eating. With Bonnie unable to care for her children on her own due to her morbid obesity, Gilbert has taken responsibility for repairing the old house and looking after Arnie, who has a habit of climbing the town water tower, while his sisters Amy (Laura Harrington) and Ellen (Mary Kate Schellhardt) do the rest. The relationship between the brothers is of both care and protection, as Gilbert continually enforces the "nobody touches Arnie '' policy. A new FoodLand supermarket has opened, threatening the small Lamson 's Grocery where Gilbert works. In addition, Gilbert is having an affair with a married woman, Betty Carver (Mary Steenburgen).
The family is looking forward to Arnie 's 18th birthday. A young woman named Becky (Juliette Lewis) and her grandmother are stuck in town when the International Harvester Travelall pulling their trailer breaks down. Gilbert 's unusual life circumstances threaten to get in the way of their budding romance. In order to spend time with Becky to watch the sunset, Gilbert leaves Arnie alone in the bath. He returns home late and finds that Arnie is still in the bath the following morning, shivering in the (now cold) water; his guilt is compounded by his family 's anger. His affair with Betty ends when she leaves town in search of a new life following her husband 's death -- he drowned in the family 's wading pool after suffering a heart attack. Becky becomes close to both Gilbert and Arnie. While they are distracted during one of their talks, Arnie returns to the water tower that he is always trying to climb. Arnie is arrested after being rescued from the top of the tower, causing his mother -- who has not left the house in seven years -- to become the object of pointing, laughing, and gawking from the townspeople as she goes to the police station, forcing Arnie 's release.
Soon after, Arnie tries to run away yet again from his bath and in his frustration, Gilbert finally snaps, hitting Arnie several times. Guilty and appalled at himself, Gilbert runs out and drives away in his truck without another word. Arnie also runs out and goes to Becky 's, who takes care of him for the evening until he is picked up by his sisters. After some soul searching aided by Becky, Gilbert returns home during the birthday party to make amends to his family for running out and to be forgiven by Arnie which, with only the slightest hesitation, he is. He apologizes to his mother for his behavior and promises that he is not ashamed of her and that he will not let her be hurt any more. She admits to Gilbert her knowledge of what a burden she has become to the family, and he forgives her. He introduces her to Becky -- something he had been reluctant to do earlier.
Following Arnie 's 18th birthday party, Bonnie climbs the stairs to her bedroom for the first time since her husband 's suicide. Arnie later tries to wake her but discovers that she has died. The children, not willing to let their mother become the joke of the town by having her corpse lifted from the house by crane, empty their family home of possessions and set it on fire. A year later, Gilbert describes what happened to his family after his mother 's death, as Gilbert and his brother Arnie wait by the side of a road for Becky, who arrives with her grandmother, and picks them up.
What 's Eating Gilbert Grape was shot in Texas, in various towns and cities; Austin and Pflugerville were primary locations, as well as Manor, where the water tower featured in the film was located.
Film Review quoted actor Leonardo DiCaprio:
I had to really research and get into the mind of somebody with a disability like that. So I spent a few days at a home for mentally retarded teens. We just talked and I watched their mannerisms. People have these expectations that mentally retarded children are really crazy, but it 's not so. It 's refreshing to see them because everything 's so new to them.
The film had a limited release on December 17, 1993 and wide release on March 4, 1994. The wide release garnered $2,104,938 on its first weekend. Total domestic gross for the film was $10,032,765.
The film received positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film was given an 89 % "Certified Fresh '' score and an average rating of 7.3 / 10 based on 45 reviews. The site 's consensus states that the film is "sentimental and somewhat predictable, but those are small complaints, given the tender atmosphere and moving performances at the heart of What 's Eating Gilbert Grape. '' The New York Times film critic Janet Maslin praised DiCaprio 's performance, writing "the film 's real show - stopping turn comes from Mr. DiCaprio, who makes Arnie 's many tics so startling and vivid that at first he is difficult to watch... The performance has a sharp, desperate intensity from beginning to end. '' Roger Ebert of Chicago Sun - Times described it as "... one of the most enchanting films of the year '' and said that DiCaprio deserved to win the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for which he was nominated. Todd McCarthy of Variety found the film a "bemused view on life '' and remarked that "Depp manages to command center screen with a greatly affable, appealing characterization. '' The Washington Post 's Desson Howe thought the film was an earnest but highly predictable effort. Film Review praised Leonardo DiCaprio as the mentally handicapped brother, calling it "a performance of astonishing innocence and spontaneity '', bringing "a touching credibility to a very difficult part ''.
The film was nominated for the prestigious Grand Prix of the Belgian Syndicate of Cinema Critics.
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is there a season 2 of la reina del sur | La Reina del Sur (telenovela) - wikipedia
La Reina del Sur (lit. The Queen of the South) is a Spanish - language telenovela produced by the American television network Telemundo, in conjunction with the Antena 3 network and RTI Producciones. Based on a novel of the same name by Spanish author Arturo Pérez - Reverte, the drama depicts the rise of Teresa Mendoza (Kate del Castillo), a young woman from Mexico who becomes the most powerful drug trafficker in southern Spain. La Reina del Sur was nominated for Novela of the Year, Favorite Lead Actress, and Best Bad Luck Video. With a $10 million budget it is the second most expensive telenovela ever produced by Telemundo, the first being El Señor de los Cielos. An English language remake, Queen of the South, premiered in June 2016 on USA Network, starring Alice Braga.
The series is the television adaptation of the literary work of the same name of Spanish author Arturo Pérez - Reverte. It is the chronicle of the rise to power of a Mexican woman within the world of international drug trafficking. Teresa Mendoza begins her adventure as a humble young woman in love with a pilot employed by the Mexican cartels. When they execute her boyfriend, Teresa flees, desperate to avoid the same fate. Her escape takes her to the south of Spain where she tries to start a new life. However, she is once again immersed in the world of narcotics trafficking, and for a second time, she suffers the death of a beloved man. After several blows, Teresa decides to take the reins of her destiny and becomes the head of her own organization. Through strategic alliances and a strong sense for business, Teresa "La Mexicana '' begins to control an intercontinental drug distribution business. However, her great success is accompanied by a high personal price, and Teresa 's happiness and heart are tested.
On May 11, 2017 Telemundo confirmed that the series would be renewed to a second season. On Monday, May 15, 2017, Telemundo in its programming for the 2017 -- 18 a preview of the series.
An English language remake, Queen of the South, premiered in June 2016 on USA Network, starring Alice Braga.
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what affect did the red scare have on u.s. government policies | Red Scare - wikipedia
A "Red Scare '' is promotion, real and imagined, of widespread fear and government paranoia by a society or state, about a potential rise of communism, anarchism, or radical leftism. The term is most often used to refer to two periods in the history of the United States with this name. The First Red Scare, which occurred immediately after World War I, was imagined by US elites in order to threaten the American labor movement, quell an ongoing anarchist revolution and excuse violence committed to squash political radicalism. The Second Red Scare, which occurred immediately after World War II, was preoccupied with imagining the existence of national or foreign communist infiltratrators and of subversions to U.S. society; these fictions were used to protect traditional control over the federal government.
The first Red Scare began following the Bolshevik Russian Revolution of 1917 and the intensely patriotic years of World War I as anarchist and left - wing social agitation aggravated national, social, and political tensions. Political scientist, and former member of the Communist Party Murray B. Levin wrote that the Red Scare was "a nationwide anti-radical hysteria provoked by a mounting fear and anxiety that a Bolshevik revolution in America was imminent -- a revolution that would change Church, home, marriage, civility, and the American way of Life. '' Newspapers exacerbated those political fears into anti-foreign sentiment because varieties of radical anarchism were becoming popular as possible solutions to poverty, often by recent European immigrants (cf. hyphenated - Americans). When the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) backed several labor strikes in 1916 and 1917, the press portrayed them as "radical threats to American society '' inspired by "left - wing, foreign agents provocateurs. '' Those on the side of the IWW claim that the press "misrepresented legitimate labor strikes '' as "crimes against society, '' "conspiracies against the government, '' and "plots to establish communism. '' Opponents, on the other hand, saw these as an extension of the radical, anarchist foundations of the IWW, which contends that all workers should be united as a social class and that capitalism and the wage system should be abolished.
In April 1919, authorities discovered a plot for mailing 36 bombs to prominent members of the U.S. political and economic establishment: J.P. Morgan Jr., John D. Rockefeller, Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, U.S. Attorney General Alexander Mitchell Palmer, and immigration officials. On June 2, 1919, in eight cities, eight bombs simultaneously exploded. One target was the Washington, D.C., house of U.S. Attorney General Palmer, where the explosion killed the bomber, who evidence indicated was an Italian - American radical from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Afterwards, Palmer ordered the U.S. Justice Department to launch the Palmer Raids (1919 -- 21).
Yet, in 1918, before the bombings, President Woodrow Wilson had pressured the Congress to legislate the anti-anarchist Sedition Act of 1918 to protect wartime morale by deporting putatively undesirable political people. Law professor David D. Cole reports that President Wilson 's "federal government consistently targeted alien radicals, deporting them... for their speech or associations, making little effort to distinguish terrorists from ideological dissidents. ''
Initially, the press praised the raids; The Washington Post said, "There is no time to waste on hairsplitting over (the) infringement of liberty '', and The New York Times said the injuries inflicted upon the arrested were "souvenirs of the new attitude of aggressiveness which had been assumed by the Federal agents against Reds and suspected - Reds. '' In the event, the Palmer Raids were criticized as unconstitutional by twelve publicly prominent lawyers, including (future Supreme Court Justice) Felix Frankfurter, who published A Report on the Illegal Practices of The United States Department of Justice, documenting systematic violations of the Fourth, Fifth, Sixth, and Eighth Amendments to the U.S. Constitution via Palmer - authorized "illegal acts '' and "wanton violence ''. Defensively, Palmer then warned that a government - deposing left - wing revolution would begin on 1 May 1920 -- May Day, the International Workers ' Day. When it failed to happen, he was ridiculed and lost much credibility. Strengthening the legal criticism of Palmer was that fewer than 600 deportations were substantiated with evidence, out of the thousands of resident aliens arrested and deported. In July 1920, Palmer 's once - promising Democratic Party bid for the U.S. presidency failed. Wall Street was bombed on September 2, 1920, near Federal Hall National Memorial and the JP Morgan Bank. Although both anarchists and Communists were suspected as being responsible for the bombing, ultimately no individuals were indicted for the bombing in which 38 died and 141 were injured.
In 1919 -- 20, several states enacted "criminal syndicalism '' laws outlawing advocacy of violence in effecting and securing social change. The restrictions included free speech limitations. Passage of these laws, in turn, provoked aggressive police investigation of the accused persons, their jailing, and deportation for being suspected of being either communist or left - wing. Regardless of ideological gradation, the Red Scare did not distinguish between communism, anarchism, socialism, or social democracy.
The second Red Scare occurred after World War II (1939 -- 45), and was popularly known as "McCarthyism '' after its most famous supporter, Senator Joseph McCarthy. McCarthyism coincided with increased popular fear of communist espionage consequent to a Soviet Eastern Europe, the Berlin Blockade (1948 -- 49), the Chinese Civil War, the confessions of spying for the Soviet Union given by several high - ranking U.S. government officials, and the Korean War.
The events of the late 1940s, early 1950s - the trial of Ethel and Julius Rosenberg (1953), the trial of Alger Hiss, the Iron Curtain (1945 -- 1991) around Eastern Europe, and the Soviet Union 's first nuclear weapon test in 1949 (RDS - 1) - surprised the American public, influencing popular opinion about U.S. National Security, that, in turn, connected to fear of the Soviet Union hydrogen - bombing the United States, and fear of the Communist Party of the United States of America (CPUSA). In Canada, the 1946 Kellock -- Taschereau Commission investigated espionage after top secret documents concerning RDX, radar and other weapons were handed over to the Soviets by a domestic spy - ring. At the House Un-American Activities Committee, former CPUSA members and NKVD spies, Elizabeth Bentley and Whittaker Chambers, testified that Soviet spies and communist sympathizers had penetrated the U.S. government before, during and after World War II. Other U.S. citizen spies confessed to their acts of espionage in situations where the statute of limitations on prosecuting them had run out. In 1949, anti -- communist fear, and fear of American traitors, was aggravated by the Chinese Communists winning the Chinese Civil War against the Western - sponsored Kuomintang, their founding of the People 's Republic of China, and later Chinese intervention in the Korean War (1950 -- 53) against U.S. ally South Korea.
A few of the events during the Red Scare were also due to a power struggle between J. Edgar Hoover and the Central Intelligence Agency. Hoover had instigated and aided some of the investigations of members of the CIA with "leftist '' history, like Cord Meyer. This conflict could also be traced back to the conflict between Hoover and William J. Donovan, going back to the first Red Scare, but especially during World War II. Donovan ran the OSS (CIA 's predecessor). They had differing opinions on the nature of the alliance with the Soviet Union, conflicts over jurisdiction, conflicts of personality, the OSS hiring of communists and criminals as agents, etc.
By the 1930s, communism had become an attractive economic ideology among some in the United States, particularly among labor leaders and the intelligentsia. At its zenith in 1939, the CPUSA had some 50,000 members. In 1940, soon after World War II began in Europe, the U.S. Congress legislated the Alien Registration Act (aka the Smith Act, 18 USC § 2385) making it a crime to "knowingly or willfully advocate, abet, advise or teach the duty, necessity, desirability or propriety of overthrowing the Government of the United States or of any State by force or violence, or for anyone to organize any association which teaches, advises or encourages such an overthrow, or for anyone to become a member of or to affiliate with any such association '' -- and required Federal registration of all foreign nationals. Although principally deployed against communists, the Smith Act was also used against right - wing political threats such as the German - American Bund, and the perceived racial disloyalty of the Japanese - American population, (cf. hyphenated - Americans).
In 1941, after Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union, the CPUSA 's official position became pro-war, opposing labor strikes in the weapons industry and supporting the U.S. war effort against the Axis Powers. With the slogan "Communism is Twentieth - Century Americanism '', the chairman, Earl Browder, advertised the CPUSA 's integration to the political mainstream. In contrast, the Trotskyist Socialist Workers Party opposed U.S. participation in the war and supported labor strikes, even in the war - effort industry. For this reason, James P. Cannon and other SWP leaders were convicted per the Smith Act.
In March 1947, President Harry S. Truman signed Executive Order 9835, creating the "Federal Employees Loyalty Program '' establishing political - loyalty review boards who determined the "Americanism '' of Federal Government employees, and recommended termination of those who had confessed to spying for the Soviet Union, as well as some suspected of being "Un-American ''. It also was the template for several state legislatures ' loyalty acts, such as California 's Levering Act. The House Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC) and the committees of Senator Joseph McCarthy (R., Wisc.) conducted character investigations of "American communists '' (actual and alleged), and their roles in (real and imaginary) espionage, propaganda, and subversion favoring the Soviet Union -- in the process revealing the extraordinary breadth of the Soviet spy network in infiltrating the federal government; the process also launched the successful political career of Richard Nixon, and Robert F. Kennedy, as well as that of Joseph McCarthy. McCarthy, a freshman Senator who died soon thereafter, realized little political gain from the process.
Senator McCarran introduced the McCarran Internal Security Act of 1950 that was passed by the U.S. Congress and which modified a great deal of law to restrict civil liberties in the name of security. President Truman declared the act a "mockery of the Bill of Rights '' and a "long step toward totalitarianism '' because it represented a government restriction on the freedom of opinion. He vetoed the act but his veto was overridden by Congress. Much of the bill eventually was repealed.
The Second Red Scare profoundly altered the temper of American society. Its later characterizations may be seen as contributory to the popularity of anti-communist espionage (My Son John, 1952) and science fiction movies (The Thing From Another World, 1951) with stories and themes of the infiltration, subversion, invasion, and destruction of American society by un -- American thought and inhuman beings. Even a baseball team, the Cincinnati Reds, temporarily renamed themselves the "Cincinnati Redlegs '' to avoid the money - losing and career - ruining connotations inherent in being ball - playing "Reds '' (communists).
In 1995, the American government revealed details of the Venona Project, combined with the opening of the former USSR 's ComIntern archives, provided substantial validation of intelligence gathering by Americans for the Soviet Union from 1940 through 1980.
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states in the midwest region of the us | Midwestern United states - wikipedia
The Midwestern United States, also referred to as the American Midwest, Middle West, or simply the Midwest, is one of four geographic regions defined by the United States Census Bureau. It occupies the northern central part of the United States of America. It was officially named the North Central region by the Census Bureau until 1984. It is located between the Northeastern U.S. and the Western U.S., with Canada to its north and the Southern U.S. to its south.
The Census Bureau 's definition consists of 12 states in the north central United States: Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, Ohio, South Dakota, and Wisconsin. The region generally lies on the broad Interior Plain between the states occupying the Appalachian Mountain range and the states occupying the Rocky Mountain range. Major rivers in the region include, from east to west, the Ohio River, the Upper Mississippi River, and the Missouri River. A 2012 report from the United States Census put the population of the Midwest at 65,377,684. The Midwest is divided by the Census Bureau into two divisions. The East North Central Division includes Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio and Wisconsin, all of which are also part of the Great Lakes region. The West North Central Division includes Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, North Dakota, Nebraska, and South Dakota, several of which are located at least partly, within the Great Plains region.
Chicago is the most populated city in the American Midwest and the third most populous in the entire country. Other large Midwest cities include (in order by population): Indianapolis, Columbus, Detroit, Milwaukee, Kansas City, Omaha, Minneapolis, Cleveland, Wichita, St. Louis, Cincinnati, and Des Moines. Chicago and its suburbs form the largest metropolitan statistical area with 9.8 million people, followed by Metro Detroit, Minneapolis -- St. Paul, Greater St. Louis, Greater Cleveland, Greater Cincinnati, Kansas City metro area, and the Columbus metro area.
The term Midwestern has been in use since the 1880s to refer to portions of the central United States. A variant term, Middle West, has been used since the 19th century and remains relatively common. Another term sometimes applied to the same general region is the heartland. Other designations for the region have fallen out of use, such as the Northwest or Old Northwest (from "Northwest Territory '') and Mid-America. The Northwest Territory (1787) was one of the earliest territories of the United States, stretching northwest from the Ohio River to northern Minnesota and the upper - Mississippi. The upper - Mississippi watershed including the Missouri and Illinois Rivers was the setting for the earlier French settlements of the Illinois Country.
Economically the region is balanced between heavy industry and agriculture (large sections of this land area make up the United States ' Corn Belt), with finance and services such as medicine and education becoming increasingly important. Its central location makes it a transportation crossroads for river boats, railroads, autos, trucks and airplanes. Politically the region swings back and forth between the parties, and thus is heavily contested and often decisive in elections.
After the sociological study Middletown (1929), which was based on Muncie, Indiana, commentators used Midwestern cities (and the Midwest generally) as "typical '' of the nation. Earlier, the rhetorical question, ' Will it play in Peoria? ', had become a stock phrase using Peoria, Illinois to signal whether something would appeal to mainstream America. The region has a higher employment - to - population ratio (the percentage of employed people at least 16 years - old) than the Northeast, the West, the South, or the Sun Belt states as of 2011.
Traditional definitions of the Midwest include the Northwest Ordinance Old Northwest states and many states that were part of the Louisiana Purchase. The states of the Old Northwest are also known as Great Lakes states and are east - north central in the United States. The Ohio River runs along the southeastern section while the Mississippi River runs north to south near the center. Many of the Louisiana Purchase states in the west - north central United States, are also known as Great Plains states, where the Missouri River is a major waterway joining with the Mississippi. The Midwest lies north of the 36 ° 30 ′ parallel that the 1820 Missouri Compromise established as the dividing line between future slave and non-slave states.
The Midwest Region is defined by the U.S. Census Bureau as these 12 states:
The Midwest Region of the National Park Service consists of these twelve states plus the state of Arkansas.
The Council of State Governments, an organization for communication and coordination among state governments, includes in its Midwest regional office 11 states from the above list, omitting Missouri, which is in the CSG South region.
The vast central area of the U.S., into Canada, is a landscape of low, flat to rolling terrain in the Interior Plains. Most of its eastern two - thirds form the Interior Lowlands. The Lowlands gradually rise westward, from a line passing through eastern Kansas, up to over 5,000 feet (1,500 m) in the unit known as the Great Plains. Most of the Great Plains area is now farmed.
While these states are for the most part relatively flat, consisting either of plains or of rolling and small hills, there is a measure of geographical variation. In particular, the following areas exhibit a high degree of topographical variety: the eastern Midwest near the foothills of the Appalachian Mountains; the Great Lakes Basin; the Ozark Mountains of southern Missouri; the rugged topography of Southern Indiana and Southern Illinois; and the Driftless Area of northwestern Illinois, southwestern Wisconsin, southeastern Minnesota, and northeastern Iowa.
Proceeding westward, the Appalachian Plateau topography gradually gives way to gently rolling hills and then (in central Ohio) to flat lands converted principally to farms and urban areas. This is the beginning of the vast Interior Plains of North America. As a result, prairies cover most of the Great Plains states. Iowa and much of Illinois lie within an area called the prairie peninsula, an eastward extension of prairies that borders conifer and mixed forests to the north, and hardwood deciduous forests to the east and south.
Geographers subdivide the Interior Plains into the Interior Lowlands and the Great Plains on the basis of elevation. The Lowlands are mostly below 1,500 feet (460 m) above sea level whereas the Great Plains to the west are higher, rising in Colorado to around 5,000 feet (1,500 m). The Lowlands, then, are confined to parts of Minnesota, Iowa, Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, Tennessee, and Kentucky. Missouri and Arkansas have regions of Lowlands elevations, but in the Ozarks (within the Interior Highlands) are higher. Those familiar with the topography of eastern Ohio may be confused by this; that region is hilly, but its rocks are horizontal and are an extension of the Appalachian Plateau.
The Interior Plains are largely coincident with the vast Mississippi River Drainage System (other major components are the Missouri and Ohio Rivers). These rivers have for tens of millions of years been eroding downward into the mostly horizontal sedimentary rocks of Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic ages. The modern Mississippi River system has developed during the Pleistocene Epoch of the Cenozoic.
Rainfall decreases from east to west, resulting in different types of prairies, with the tallgrass prairie in the wetter eastern region, mixed - grass prairie in the central Great Plains, and shortgrass prairie towards the rain shadow of the Rockies. Today, these three prairie types largely correspond to the corn / soybean area, the wheat belt, and the western rangelands, respectively.
Although hardwood forests in the northern Midwest were clear - cut in the late 19th century, they were replaced by new growth. Ohio and Michigan 's forests are still growing. The majority of the Midwest can now be categorized as urbanized areas or pastoral agricultural areas.
Among the American Indians Paleoindian cultures were the earliest in North America, with a presence in the Great Plains and Great Lakes areas from about 12,000 BCE to around 8,000 BCE.
Following the Paleo - Indian period is the Archaic period (8,000 BCE to 1,000 BCE), the Woodland Tradition (1,000 BCE to 100 CE), and the Mississippian Period (900 to 1500 CE). Archaeological evidence indicates that Mississippian culture traits probably began in the St. Louis, Missouri area and spread northwest along the Mississippi and Illinois rivers and entered the state along the Kankakee River system. It also spread northward into Indiana along the Wabash, Tippecanoe, and White Rivers.
Mississippian peoples in the Midwest were mostly farmers who followed the rich, flat floodplains of Midwestern rivers. They brought with them a well - developed agricultural complex based on three major crops -- maize, beans, and squash. Maize, or corn, was the primary crop of Mississippian farmers. They gathered a wide variety of seeds, nuts, and berries, and fished and hunted for fowl to supplement their diets. With such an intensive form of agriculture, this culture supported large populations.
The Mississippi period was characterized by a mound - building culture. The Mississippians suffered a tremendous population decline about 1400, coinciding with the global climate change of the Little Ice Age. Their culture effectively ended before 1492.
The major tribes of the Great Lakes region included the Hurons, Ottawa, Chippewas or Ojibwas, Potawatomis, Winnebago (Ho - chunk), Menominees, Sacs, Neutrals, Fox, and the Miami. Most numerous were the Hurons and Chippewas. Fighting and battle were often launched between tribes, with the losers forced to flee.
Most are of the Algonquian language family. Some tribes -- such as the Stockbridge - Munsee and the Brothertown -- are also Algonkian - speaking tribes who relocated from the eastern seaboard to the Great Lakes region in the 19th century. The Oneida belong to the Iroquois language group and the Ho - Chunk of Wisconsin are one of the few Great Lakes tribes to speak a Siouan language. American Indians in this area did not develop a written form of language.
In the 16th century, American Indians used projectiles and tools of stone, bone, and wood to hunt and farm. They made canoes for fishing. Most of them lived in oval or conical wigwams that could be easily moved away. Various tribes had different ways of living. The Ojibwas were primarily hunters and fishing was also important in the Ojibwas economy. Other tribes such as Sac, Fox, and Miami, both hunted and farmed.
They were oriented toward the open prairies where they engaged in communal hunts for buffalo (bison). In the northern forests, the Ottawas and Potawatomis separated into small family groups for hunting. The Winnebagos and Menominees used both hunting methods interchangeably and built up widespread trade networks extending as far west as the Rockies, north to the Great Lakes, south to the Gulf of Mexico, and east to the Atlantic Ocean.
The Hurons reckoned descent through the female line, while the others favored the patrilineal method. All tribes were governed under chiefdoms or complex chiefdoms. For example, Hurons were divided into matrilineal clans, each represented by a chief in the town council, where they met with a town chief on civic matters. But Chippewa people 's social and political life was simpler than that of settled tribes.
The religious beliefs varied among tribes. Hurons believed in Yoscaha, a supernatural being who lived in the sky and was believed to have created the world and the Huron people. At death, Hurons thought the soul left the body to live in a village in the sky. Chippewas were a deeply religious people who believed in the Great Spirit. They worshiped the Great Spirit through all their seasonal activities and viewed religion as a private matter: each person 's relation with his personal guardian spirit was part of his thinking every day of life. Ottawa and Potawatomi people had very similar religious beliefs to those of the Chippewas.
The Plains Indians are the indigenous peoples who live on the plains and rolling hills of the Great Plains of North America. Their colorful equestrian culture and famous conflicts with settlers and the US Army have made the Plains Indians archetypical in literature and art for American Indians everywhere.
Plains Indians are usually divided into two broad classifications, with some degree of overlap. The first group were fully nomadic, following the vast herds of buffalo. Some tribes occasionally engaged in agriculture; growing tobacco and corn primarily. These included the Blackfoot, Arapaho, Assiniboine, Cheyenne, Comanche, Crow, Gros Ventre, Kiowa, Lakota, Lipan, Plains Apache (or Kiowa Apache), Plains Cree, Plains Ojibwe, Sarsi, Shoshone, Stoney, and Tonkawa.
The second group of Plains Indians (sometimes referred to as Prairie Indians) were the semi-sedentary tribes who, in addition to hunting buffalo, lived in villages and raised crops. These included the Arikara, Hidatsa, Iowa, Kaw (or Kansa), Kitsai, Mandan, Missouria, Nez Perce, Omaha, Osage, Otoe, Pawnee, Ponca, Quapaw, Santee, Wichita, and Yankton.
The nomadic tribes of the Great Plains survived on hunting, some of their major hunts centered on deer and buffalo. Some tribes are described as part of the ' Buffalo Culture ' (sometimes called, for the American Bison). Although the Plains Indians hunted other animals, such as elk or antelope, bison was their primary game food source. Bison flesh, hide, and bones from Bison hunting provided the chief source of raw materials for items that Plains Indians made, including food, cups, decorations, crafting tools, knives, and clothing.
The tribes followed the bison 's seasonal grazing and migration. The Plains Indians lived in teepees because they were easily disassembled and allowed the nomadic life of following game. When Spanish horses were obtained, the Plains tribes rapidly integrated them into their daily lives. By the early 18th century, many tribes had fully adopted a horse culture. Before their adoption of guns, the Plains Indians hunted with spears, bows, and bows and arrows, and various forms of clubs. The use of horses by the Plains Indians made hunting (and warfare) much easier.
Among the most powerful and dominant tribes were the Dakota or Sioux, who occupied large amounts of territory in the Great Plains of the Midwest. The area of the Great Sioux Nation spread throughout the South and Midwest, up into the areas of Minnesota and stretching out west into the Rocky Mountains. At the same time, they occupied the heart of prime buffalo range, and also an excellent region for furs they could sell to French and American traders for goods such as guns. The Sioux (Dakota) became the most powerful of the Plains tribes and the greatest threat to American expansion.
The Sioux comprise three major divisions based on Siouan dialect and subculture:
Today, the Sioux maintain many separate tribal governments scattered across several reservations, communities, and reserves in the Dakotas, Nebraska, Minnesota, and Montana in the United States, as well as Manitoba and southern Saskatchewan in Canada.
European settlement of the area began in the 17th century following French exploration of the region and became known as New France. The French period began with the exploration of the Saint Lawrence River by Jacques Cartier in 1534 and ending with their expulsion by the British, who split New France with Spain in 1763.
In 1673, the governor of New France sent Jacques Marquette, a Catholic priest and missionary, and Louis Jolliet, a fur trader to map the way to the Northwest Passage to the Pacific. They traveled through Michigan 's upper peninsula to the northern tip of Lake Michigan. On canoes, they crossed the massive lake and landed at present - day Green Bay, Wisconsin. They entered the Mississippi River on June 17, 1673.
Marquette and Jolliet soon realized that the Mississippi could not possibly be the Northwest Passage because it flowed south. Nevertheless, the journey continued. They recorded much of the wildlife they encountered. They turned around at the junction of the Mississippi River and Arkansas River and headed back.
Marquette and Jolliet were the first to map the northern portion of the Mississippi River. They confirmed that it was easy to travel from the St. Lawrence River through the Great Lakes all the way to the Gulf of Mexico by water, that the native peoples who lived along the route were generally friendly, and that the natural resources of the lands in between were extraordinary. New France officials led by LaSalle followed up and erected a 4,000 - mile network of fur trading posts.
At the end of the American Revolution, there were few, if any, American settlers in the Midwest. However, the U.S. gained possession of the entire Midwest east of the Mississippi, and pioneers headed to Ohio, where large tracts had been awarded to war veterans.
While French control ended in 1763 after their defeat by Britain, most of the several hundred French settlers in small villages along the Mississippi River and its tributaries remained and were not disturbed by the new British government. By the terms of the Treaty of Paris, Spain was given Louisiana; the area west of the Mississippi. St. Louis and Ste. Genevieve in Missouri were the main towns, but there was little new settlement. France regained Louisiana from Spain in exchange for Tuscany by the terms of the Treaty of San Ildefonso in 1800. Napoleon had lost interest in reestablishing a French colonial empire in North America following the Haitian Revolution and together with the fact that France could not effectively defend Louisiana from Great Britain, he sold the territory to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. Meanwhile, the British maintained forts and trading posts in U.S. territory, not giving them up until the mid-1790s by the Jay Treaty.
American settlement began either via routes over the Appalachian Mountains or through the waterways of the Great Lakes. Fort Pitt (now Pittsburgh) at the source of the Ohio River became the main base for settlers moving into the Midwest. Marietta, Ohio in 1787 became the first settlement in Ohio, but not until the defeat of Indian tribes at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794 was large - scale settlement possible. Large numbers also came north from Kentucky into southern Ohio, Indiana and Illinois.
The region 's fertile soil produced corn and vegetables; most farmers were self - sufficient. They cut trees and claimed the land, then sold it to newcomers and then moved further west to repeat the process.
In 1803, President Thomas Jefferson commissioned the Lewis and Clark expedition that took place between May 1804 and September 1806. The goal was to explore the Louisiana Purchase, and establish trade and U.S. sovereignty over the native peoples along the Missouri River. The Lewis and Clark Expedition established relations with more than two dozen indigenous nations west of the Missouri River. The Expedition returned east to St. Louis in the spring of 1806.
In 1791, General Arthur St. Clair became commander of the United States Army and led a punitive expedition with two Regular Army regiments and some militia. Near modern - day Fort Recovery, his force advanced to the location of Indian settlements near the headwaters of the Wabash River, but on November 4 they were routed in battle by a tribal confederation led by Miami Chief Little Turtle and Shawnee chief Blue Jacket. More than 600 soldiers and scores of women and children were killed in the battle, which has since borne the name "St. Clair 's Defeat. '' It remains the greatest defeat of a U.S. Army by Native Americans.
The British had a long - standing goal of building a "neutral '', but pro-British Indian buffer state in the American Midwest. They demanded a neutral Indian state at the peace conference that ended the War of 1812, but failed to gain any of it because they had lost control of the region in the Battle of Lake Erie and the Battle of the Thames in 1813, where Tecumseh was killed. The British then abandoned the Indians south of the lakes. The Indians were major losers in the War of 1812. Apart from the short Black Hawk War of 1832, the days of Indian warfare east of the Mississippi River had ended.
Yankee settlers from New England started arriving in Ohio before 1800, and spread throughout the northern half of the Midwest. Most of them started as farmers, but later the larger proportion moved to towns and cities as entrepreneurs, businessmen, and urban professionals. Since its beginnings in the 1830s, Chicago has grown to dominate the Midwestern metropolis landscape for over a century.
Historian John Bunker has examined the worldview of the Yankee settlers in the Midwest:
Because they arrived first and had a strong sense of community and mission, Yankees were able to transplant New England institutions, values, and mores, altered only by the conditions of frontier life. They established a public culture that emphasized the work ethic, the sanctity of private property, individual responsibility, faith in residential and social mobility, practicality, piety, public order and decorum, reverence for public education, activists, honest, and frugal government, town meeting democracy, and he believed that there was a public interest that transcends particular and stick ambitions. Regarding themselves as the elect and just in a world rife with sin, air, and corruption, they felt a strong moral obligation to define and enforce standards of community and personal behavior... This pietistic worldview was substantially shared by British, Scandinavian, Swiss, English - Canadian and Dutch Reformed immigrants, as well as by German Protestants and many of the Forty - Eighters.
Midwestern politics pitted Yankees against the German Catholics and Lutherans, who were often led by the Irish Catholics. These large groups, Buenker argues:
Generally subscribed to the work ethic, a strong sense of community, and activist government, but were less committed to economic individualism and privatism and ferociously opposed to government supervision of the personal habits. Southern and eastern European immigrants generally leaned more toward the Germanic view of things, while modernization, industrialization, and urbanization modified nearly everyone 's sense of individual economic responsibility and put a premium on organization, political involvement, and education.
Three waterways have been important to the development of the Midwest. The first and foremost was the Ohio River, which flowed into the Mississippi River. Development of the region was halted until 1795 due to Spain 's control of the southern part of the Mississippi and its refusal to allow the shipment of American crops down the river and into the Atlantic Ocean.
The second waterway is the network of routes within the Great Lakes. The opening of the Erie Canal in 1825 completed an all - water shipping route, more direct than the Mississippi, to New York and the seaport of New York City. In 1848, The Illinois and Michigan Canal breached the continental divide spanning the Chicago Portage and linking the waters of the Great Lakes with those of the Mississippi Valley and the Gulf of Mexico. Lakeport and river cities grew up to handle these new shipping routes. During the Industrial Revolution, the lakes became a conduit for iron ore from the Mesabi Range of Minnesota to steel mills in the Mid-Atlantic States. The Saint Lawrence Seaway (1862, widened 1959) opened the Midwest to the Atlantic Ocean.
The third waterway, the Missouri River, extended water travel from the Mississippi almost to the Rocky Mountains.
In the 1870s and 1880s, the Mississippi River inspired two classic books -- Life on the Mississippi and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn -- written by native Missourian Samuel Clemens, who used the pseudonym Mark Twain. His stories became staples of Midwestern lore. Twain 's hometown of Hannibal, Missouri is a tourist attraction offering a glimpse into the Midwest of his time.
Inland canals in Ohio and Indiana constituted another important waterway, which connected with Great Lakes and Ohio River traffic. The commodities that the Midwest funneled into the Erie Canal down the Ohio River contributed to the wealth of New York City, which overtook Boston and Philadelphia.
During the mid-19th century, the region got its first railroads, and the railroad junction in Chicago became the world 's largest. During the century, Chicago became the nation 's railroad center. By 1910, over 20 railroads operated passenger service out of six different downtown terminals. Even today, a century after Henry Ford, six Class I railroads meet in Chicago.
In the period from 1890 to 1930, many Midwestern cities were connected by electric interurban railroads, similar to streetcars. The Midwest had more interurbans than any other region. In 1916, Ohio led all states with 2,798 miles (4,503 km), Indiana followed with 1,825 miles (2,937 km). These two states alone had almost a third of the country 's interurban trackage. The nation 's largest interurban junction was in Indianapolis. During the 1900s (decade), the city 's 38 percent growth in population was attributed largely to the interurban.
Competition with automobiles and buses undermined the interurban and other railroad passenger business. By 1900, Detroit was the world center of the auto industry, and soon practically every city within 200 miles was producing auto parts that fed into its giant factories.
In 1903, Henry Ford founded the Ford Motor Company. Ford 's manufacturing -- and those of automotive pioneers William C. Durant, the Dodge brothers, Packard, and Walter Chrysler -- established Detroit 's status in the early 20th century as the world 's automotive capital. The proliferation of businesses created a synergy that also encouraged truck manufacturers such as Rapid and Grabowsky.
The growth of the auto industry was reflected by changes in businesses throughout the Midwest and nation, with the development of garages to service vehicles and gas stations, as well as factories for parts and tires. Today, greater Detroit remains home to General Motors, Chrysler, and the Ford Motor Company.
The Northwest Ordinance region, comprising the heart of the Midwest, was the first large region of the United States that prohibited slavery (the Northeastern United States emancipated slaves in the 1830s). The regional southern boundary was the Ohio River, the border of freedom and slavery in American history and literature (see Uncle Tom 's Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe and Beloved by Toni Morrison).
The Midwest, particularly Ohio, provided the primary routes for the Underground Railroad, whereby Midwesterners assisted slaves to freedom from their crossing of the Ohio River through their departure on Lake Erie to Canada. Created in the early 19th century, the Underground Railroad was at its height between 1850 and 1860. One estimate suggests that by 1850, 100,000 slaves had escaped via the Underground Railroad.
The Underground Railroad consisted of meeting points, secret routes, transportation, and safe houses and assistance provided by abolitionist sympathizers. Individuals were often organized in small, independent groups; this helped to maintain secrecy because individuals knew some connecting "stations '' along the route, but knew few details of their immediate area. Escaped slaves would move north along the route from one way station to the next. Although the fugitives sometimes traveled on boat or train, they usually traveled on foot or by wagon.
The region was shaped by the relative absence of slavery (except for Missouri), pioneer settlement, education in one - room free public schools, democratic notions brought by American Revolutionary War veterans, Protestant faiths and experimentation, and agricultural wealth transported on the Ohio River riverboats, flatboats, canal boats, and railroads.
The first violent conflicts leading up to the Civil War occurred between two neighboring Midwestern states, Kansas and Missouri, involving anti-slavery Free - Staters and pro-slavery "Border Ruffian '' elements, that took place in the Kansas Territory and the western frontier towns of Missouri roughly between 1854 and 1858. At the heart of the conflict was the question of whether Kansas would enter the Union as a free state or slave state. As such, Bleeding Kansas was a proxy war between Northerners and Southerners over the issue of slavery. The term "Bleeding Kansas '' was coined by Horace Greeley of the New York Tribune; the events it encompasses directly presaged the Civil War.
Setting in motion the events later known as "Bleeding Kansas '' was the Kansas - Nebraska Act. The Act created the territories of Kansas and Nebraska, opened new lands that would help settlement in them, repealed the Missouri Compromise, and allowed settlers in those territories to determine through popular sovereignty whether to allow slavery within their boundaries. It was hoped the Act would ease relations between the North and the South, because the South could expand slavery to new territories, but the North still had the right to abolish slavery in its states. Instead, opponents denounced the law as a concession to the slave power of the South.
The new Republican Party, born in the Midwest (Ripon, Wisconsin, 1854) and created in opposition to the Act, aimed to stop the expansion of slavery and soon emerged as the dominant force throughout the North.
An ostensibly democratic idea, popular sovereignty stated that the inhabitants of each territory or state should decide whether it would be a free or slave state; however, this resulted in immigration en masse to Kansas by activists from both sides. At one point, Kansas had two separate governments, each with its own constitution, although only one was federally recognized. On January 29, 1861, Kansas was admitted to the Union as a free state, less than three months before the Battle of Fort Sumter officially began the Civil War.
The calm in Kansas was shattered in May 1856 by two events that are often regarded as the opening shots of the Civil War. On May 21, the Free Soil town of Lawrence, Kansas was sacked by an armed pro ‐ slavery force from Missouri. A few days later, the Sacking of Lawrence led abolitionist John Brown and six of his followers to execute five men along the Pottawatomie Creek in Franklin County, Kansas, in retaliation.
The so - called "Border War '' lasted for another four months, from May through October, between armed bands of pro ‐ slavery and Free Soil men. The U.S. Army had two garrisons in Kansas, the First Cavalry Regiment at Fort Leavenworth and the Second Dragoons and Sixth Infantry at Fort Riley. The skirmishes endured until a new governor, John W. Geary, managed to prevail upon the Missourians to return home in late 1856. A fragile peace followed, but violent outbreaks continued intermittently for several more years.
National reaction to the events in Kansas demonstrated how deeply divided the country had become. The Border Ruffians were widely applauded in the South, even though their actions had cost the lives of numerous people. In the North, the murders committed by Brown and his followers were ignored by most and lauded by a few.
The civil conflict in Kansas was a product of the political fight over slavery. Federal troops were not used to decide a political question, but they were used by successive territorial governors to pacify the territory so that the political question of slavery in Kansas could finally be decided by peaceful, legal, and political means.
The election of Abraham Lincoln in November 1860 was the final trigger for secession by the Southern states. Efforts at compromise, including the "Corwin Amendment '' and the Crittenden Compromise, failed. Southern leaders feared that Lincoln would stop the expansion of slavery and put it on a course toward extinction.
The U.S. federal government was supported by 20 mostly - Northern free states in which slavery already had been abolished, and by five slave states that became known as the border states. All of the Midwestern states but one, Missouri, banned slavery. Though most battles were fought in the South, skirmishes between Kansas and Missouri continued until culmination with the Lawrence Massacre on August 21, 1863. Also known as Quantrill 's Raid, the massacre was a rebel guerrilla attack by Quantrill 's Raiders, led by William Clarke Quantrill, on pro-Union Lawrence, Kansas. Quantrill 's band of 448 Missouri guerrillas raided and plundered Lawrence, killing more than 150 and burning all the business buildings and most of the dwellings. Pursued by federal troops, the band escaped to Missouri.
Lawrence was targeted due to the town 's long support of abolition and its reputation as a center for Redlegs and Jayhawkers, which were free - state militia and vigilante groups known for attacking and families in Missouri 's pro-slavery western counties.
By the time of the American Civil War, European immigrants bypassed the East Coast of the United States to settle directly in the interior: German immigrants to Ohio, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Michigan, Illinois, and Missouri; Irish immigrants to port cities on the Great Lakes, especially Chicago; Danes, Czechs, Swedes, and Norwegians to Iowa, Nebraska, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and the Dakotas; and Finns to Upper Michigan and northern / central Minnesota. Poles, Hungarians, and Jews settled in Midwestern cities.
The U.S. was predominantly rural at the time of the Civil War. The Midwest was no exception, dotted with small farms all across the region. The late 19th century saw industrialization, immigration, and urbanization that fed the Industrial Revolution, and the heart of industrial domination and innovation was in the Great Lakes states of the Midwest, which only began its slow decline by the late 20th century.
A flourishing economy brought residents from rural communities and immigrants from abroad. Manufacturing and retail and finance sectors became dominant, influencing the American economy.
In addition to manufacturing, printing, publishing, and food processing also play major roles in the Midwest 's largest economy. Chicago was the base of commercial operations for industrialists John Crerar, John Whitfield Bunn, Richard Teller Crane, Marshall Field, John Farwell, Julius Rosenwald and many other commercial visionaries who laid the foundation for Midwestern and global industry.
In the 20th century, African American migration from the Southern United States into the Midwestern states changed Chicago, St. Louis, Cleveland, Milwaukee, Kansas City, Cincinnati, Detroit, Omaha, Minneapolis and many other cities in the Midwest, as factories and schools enticed families by the thousands to new opportunities. Chicago alone gained hundreds of thousands of black citizens from the Great Migration and the Second Great Migration.
The Gateway Arch monument in St. Louis, clad in stainless steel and built in the form of a flattened catenary arch, is the tallest man - made monument in the United States, and the world 's tallest arch. Built as a monument to the westward expansion of the United States, it is the centerpiece of the Jefferson National Expansion Memorial and has become an internationally famous symbol of St. Louis and the Midwest.
As the Midwest opened up to settlement via waterways and rail in the mid-1800s, Germans began to settle there in large numbers. The largest flow of German immigration to America occurred between 1820 and World War I, during which time nearly six million Germans immigrated to the United States. From 1840 to 1880, they were the largest group of immigrants.
The Midwestern cities of Milwaukee, Cincinnati, St. Louis, and Chicago were favored destinations of German immigrants. By 1900, the populations of the cities of Cleveland, Milwaukee, Hoboken, and Cincinnati were all more than 40 percent German American. Dubuque and Davenport, Iowa, had even larger proportions; in Omaha, Nebraska, the proportion of German Americans was 57 percent in 1910. In many other cities of the Midwest, such as Fort Wayne, Indiana, German Americans were at least 30 percent of the population. Many concentrations acquired distinctive names suggesting their heritage, such as the "Over-the - Rhine '' district in Cincinnati and "German Village '' in Columbus, Ohio.
A favorite destination was Milwaukee, known as "the German Athens ''. Radical Germans trained in politics in the old country dominated the city 's Socialists. Skilled workers dominated many crafts, while entrepreneurs created the brewing industry; the most famous brands included Pabst, Schlitz, Miller, and Blatz.
While half of German immigrants settled in cities, the other half established farms in the Midwest. From Ohio to the Plains states, a heavy presence persists in rural areas into the 21st century.
Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, German Americans showed a high interest in becoming farmers, and keeping their children and grandchildren on the land. Western railroads, with large land grants available to attract farmers, set up agencies in Hamburg and other German cities, promising cheap transportation, and sales of farmland on easy terms. For example, the Santa Fe Railroad hired its own commissioner for immigration, and sold over 300,000 acres (1,200 km) to German - speaking farmers.
The term West was applied to the region in the early years of the country. In 1789, the Northwest Ordinance was enacted, creating the Northwest Territory, which was bounded by the Great Lakes and the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers. Because the Northwest Territory lay between the East Coast and the then - far - West, the states carved out of it were called the Northwest. In the early 19th century, anything west of the Mississippi River was considered the West. The first recorded use of the term Midwestern to refer to a region of the central U.S. occurred in 1886, Midwest appeared in 1894, and Midwesterner in 1916.
Following the settlement of the western prairie, some considered the row of states from North Dakota to Kansas to be part of the Midwest.
The states of the "old Northwest '' are now called the "East North Central States '' by the United States Census Bureau and the "Great Lakes region '' is also a popular term. The states just west of the Mississippi River and the Great Plains states are called the "West North Central States '' by the Census Bureau. Some entities in the Midwest are still referred to as "Northwest '' due to historical reasons (for example, Northwestern University in Illinois).
Agriculture is one of the biggest drivers of local economies in the Midwest, accounting for billions of dollars worth of exports and thousands of jobs. The area consists of some of the richest farming land in the world. The region 's fertile soil combined with the steel plow has made it possible for farmers to produce abundant harvests of grain and cereal crops, including corn, wheat, soybeans, oats, and barley, to become known today as the nation 's "breadbasket. ''
Farms spread from the colonies westward along with the settlers. In cooler regions, wheat was often the crop of choice when lands were newly settled, leading to a "wheat frontier '' that moved westward over the course of years. Also very common in the antebellum Midwest was farming corn while raising hogs, complementing each other especially since it was difficult to get grain to market before the canals and railroads. After the "wheat frontier '' had passed through an area, more diversified farms including dairy and beef cattle generally took its place.
The very dense soil of the Midwest plagued the first settlers who were using wooden plows, which were more suitable for loose forest soil. On the prairie, the plows bounced around and the soil stuck to them. This problem was solved in 1837 by an Illinois blacksmith named John Deere who developed a steel moldboard plow that was stronger and cut the roots, making the fertile soils of the prairie ready for farming.
The tallgrass prairie has been converted into one of the most intensive crop producing areas in North America. Less than one tenth of one percent (< 0.09 %) of the original landcover of the tallgrass prairie biome remains. States formerly with landcover in native tallgrass prairie such as Iowa, Illinois, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Nebraska, and Missouri have become valued for their highly productive soils and are included in the Corn Belt. As an example of this land use intensity, Illinois and Iowa rank 49th and 50th out of 50 states in total uncultivated land remaining.
The introduction and broad adoption of scientific agriculture since the mid-19th century contributed to economic growth in the United States. This development was facilitated by the Morrill Act and the Hatch Act of 1887 which established in each state a land - grant university (with a mission to teach and study agriculture) and a federally funded system of agricultural experiment stations and cooperative extension networks which place extension agents in each state. Iowa State University became the nation 's first designated land - grant institution when the Iowa Legislature accepted the provisions of the 1862 Morrill Act on September 11, 1862, making Iowa the first state in the nation to do so.
The Corn Belt is a region of the Midwest where corn has, since the 1850s, been the predominant crop, replacing the native tall grasses. The "Corn Belt '' region is defined typically to include Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, southern Michigan, western Ohio, eastern Nebraska, eastern Kansas, southern Minnesota, and parts of Missouri. As of 2008, the top four corn - producing states were Iowa, Illinois, Nebraska, and Minnesota, together accounting for more than half of the corn grown in the United States. The Corn Belt also sometimes is defined to include parts of South Dakota, North Dakota, Wisconsin, and Kentucky. The region is characterized by relatively level land and deep, fertile soils, high in organic matter.
Former Vice President Henry A. Wallace, a pioneer of hybrid seeds, declared in 1956 that the Corn Belt developed the "most productive agricultural civilization the world has ever seen ''. Today, the U.S. produces 40 percent of the world crop.
Iowa produces the largest corn crop of any state. In 2012, Iowa farmers produced 18.3 percent of the nation 's corn, while Illinois produced 15.3 percent. In 2011, there were 13.7 million harvested acres of corn for grain, producing 2.36 billion bushels, which yielded 172.0 bu / acre, with US $14.5 billion of corn value of production.
Soybeans were not widely cultivated in the United States until the early 1930s, and by 1942, it became the world 's largest soybean producer, due in part to World War II and the "need for domestic sources of fats, oils, and meal ''. Between 1930 and 1942, the United States ' share of world soybean production skyrocketed from three percent to 46.5 percent, largely due to the Midwest, and by 1969, it had risen to 76 percent. Iowa and Illinois rank first and second in the nation in soybean production. In 2012, Iowa produced 14.5 percent, and Illinois produced 13.3 percent of the nation 's soybeans.
Wheat is produced throughout the Midwest and is the principal cereal grain in the country. The U.S. is ranked third in production volume of wheat, with almost 58 million tons produced in the 2012 -- 2013 growing season, behind only China and India (the combined production of all European Union nations is larger than China) The U.S. ranks first in crop export volume; almost 50 percent of total wheat produced is exported.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture defines eight official classes of wheat: durum wheat, hard red spring wheat, hard red winter wheat, soft red winter wheat, hard white wheat, soft white wheat, unclassed wheat, and mixed wheat. Winter wheat accounts for 70 to 80 percent of total production in the U.S., with the largest amounts produced in Kansas (10.8 million tons) and North Dakota (9.8 million tons). Of the total wheat produced in the country, 50 percent is exported, valued at US $9 billion.
Midwestern states also lead the nation in other agricultural commodities, including pork (Iowa), beef and veal (Nebraska), dairy (Wisconsin), and chicken eggs (Iowa).
Chicago is the economic and financial heartbeat of the Midwest and has the third largest gross metropolitan product in the United States -- approximately $532 billion according to 2010 estimates, after only the urban agglomerations of New York City and Los Angeles, in the first and second place, respectively. Chicago was named the fourth most important business center in the world in the MasterCard Worldwide Centers of Commerce Index.
The Chicago Board of Trade (established 1848) listed the first ever standardized "exchange traded '' forward contracts, which were called futures contracts. In 1883, the standardized system of North American time zones was adopted by the general time convention of railway managers in Chicago. This gave the continent its uniform system for telling time.
As a major world financial center, the city is home to the headquarters of the Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago (the Seventh District of the Federal Reserve). The city is also home to major financial and futures exchanges, including the Chicago Stock Exchange, the Chicago Board Options Exchange (CBOE), and the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (the "Merc ''), which is owned, along with the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT) by Chicago 's CME Group. The CME Group, in addition, owns the New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX), the Commodities Exchange Inc. (COMEX) and the Dow Jones Indexes.
Like the rest of the United States, the Midwest is predominantly Christian.
The majority of Midwesterners are Protestants, with rates from 48 percent in Illinois to 63 percent in Iowa. However, the Roman Catholic Church is the largest single denomination, varying between 18 percent and 34 percent of the state populations. Lutherans are prevalent in the Upper Midwest, especially in Minnesota and the Dakotas with their large Scandinavian and German populations. Southern Baptists compose about 15 percent of Missouri 's population, but much smaller percentages in other Midwestern states.
Judaism is practiced by 2.5 percent and Islam is practiced by 1 percent or less of the population, with higher concentrations in major urban areas. People with no religious affiliation make up 13 -- 16 percent of the Midwest 's population. Surveys show 54 percent of Midwesterners regularly attend church.
Many Midwestern universities, both public and private, are members of the Association of American Universities (AAU), an international organization of leading public and private research universities devoted to maintaining a strong system of academic research and education. Of the 62 members from the U.S. and Canada, 16 are located in the Midwest including private schools Case Western Reserve University, Northwestern University, the University of Chicago, and Washington University in St. Louis. Member public institutions of the AAU include the University of Illinois at Urbana - Champaign, Indiana University Bloomington, the University of Iowa, Iowa State University, the University of Kansas, the University of Michigan, Michigan State University, the University of Minnesota, the University of Missouri, the Ohio State University, Purdue University, and the University of Wisconsin -- Madison.
Other notable major research - intensive public universities include the University of Cincinnati, Kansas State University, and the University of Nebraska -- Lincoln.
Numerous state university systems have established regional campuses statewide. The numerous state teachers colleges were upgraded into state universities after 1945.
Other notable private institutions include the University of Notre Dame, John Carroll University, Loyola University Chicago, DePaul University, Creighton University, Drake University, Marquette University, and Xavier University. Local boosters, usually with a church affiliation, created numerous colleges in the mid-19th century. In terms of national rankings, the most prominent today include Carleton College, Denison University, DePauw University, Earlham College, Grinnell College, Kalamazoo College, Kenyon College, Knox College, Macalester College, Lawrence University, Oberlin College, Wheaton College, and The College of Wooster.
The heavy German immigration played a major role in establishing musical traditions, especially choral and orchestral music. Czech and German traditions combined to sponsor the polka.
The African American migration from the South brought jazz to the Midwest, along with blues, and rock and roll, with major contributions to jazz, funk, and R&B, and even new subgenres such as the Motown Sound and techno from Detroit or house music from Chicago. In the 1920s, South Side Chicago was the base for Jelly Roll Morton (1890 -- 1941). Kansas City developed its own jazz style.
The electrified Chicago blues sound exemplifies the genre, as popularized by record labels Chess and Alligator and portrayed in such films as The Blues Brothers, Godfathers and Sons, and Adventures in Babysitting.
Rock and roll music was first identified as a new genre in 1951 by Cleveland, Ohio, disc jockey Alan Freed who began playing this music style while popularizing the term "rock and roll '' to describe it. By the mid-1950s, rock and roll emerged as a defined musical style in the United States, deriving most directly from the rhythm and blues music of the 1940s, which itself developed from earlier blues, boogie woogie, jazz, and swing music, and was also influenced by gospel, country and western, and traditional folk music. Freed 's contribution in identifying rock as a new genre helped establish the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, located in Cleveland. Chuck Berry, a Midwesterner from St. Louis, was among the first successful rock and roll artists and influenced many other rock musicians.
Notable soul and R&B musicians associated with Motown that had their origins in the area include Aretha Franklin, The Supremes, Mary Wells, Four Tops, The Jackson 5, Smokey Robinson & the Miracles, Stevie Wonder, The Marvelettes, The Temptations, and Martha and the Vandellas. These artists achieved their greatest success in the 1960s and 1970s. Michael Jackson, from the Jackson 5, went on to have an extremely successful solo career from the 1970s through the 2000s. Known as the "King of Pop '', he went on to become one of the bestselling solo artists of all time and the most - awarded artist of all time. His sister, Janet Jackson, also had an extremely successful solo career in the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s.
In the 1970s and 1980s, native Midwestern musicians such as John Mellencamp and Bob Seger found great success with a style of rock music that came to be known as heartland rock, which were characterized by lyrical themes that focused on and appealed to the Midwestern working class. Other successful Midwestern rock artists emerged during this time, including REO Speedwagon, Styx, and Kansas.
In the 1990s, the Chicago - based band The Smashing Pumpkins emerged and went on to become one of the most successful alternative rock artists of the decade. Also in the 1990s, the Midwest was at the center of the emerging Midwest emo movement, with bands like The Get Up Kids (Missouri), Cursive (Nebraska) and Cap'n Jazz (Illinois) blending earlier hardcore punk sounds with a more melodic indie rock sentiment. This hybrid of styles came to be known as Midwest emo. Chicago - based artists Fall Out Boy and Plain White T 's popularized the genre in the early part of the 21st century.
In the late 1990s, Eminem and Kid Rock emerged from the Detroit area. Eminem went on to become one of the most commercially successful and critically acclaimed rappers of all time. Meanwhile, Kid Rock successfully mixed elements of rap, hard rock, heavy metal, country rock, and pop in forming his own unique sound. Both artists are known for celebrating their Detroit roots.
Numerous classical composers live and have lived in midwestern states, including Easley Blackwood, Kenneth Gaburo, Salvatore Martirano, and Ralph Shapey (Illinois); Glenn Miller and Meredith Willson (Iowa); Leslie Bassett, William Bolcom, Michael Daugherty, and David Gillingham (Michigan); Donald Erb (Ohio); Dominick Argento and Stephen Paulus (Minnesota). Also notable is Peter Schickele, born in Iowa and partially raised in North Dakota, best known for his classical music parodies attributed to his alter ego of P.D.Q. Bach.
Professional sports leagues such as the National Football League (NFL), Major League Baseball (MLB), National Basketball Association (NBA), National Hockey League (NHL) and Major League Soccer (MLS) have team franchises in several Midwestern cities:
Successful teams include the St. Louis Cardinals (11 World Series titles), Cincinnati Reds (5 World Series titles), Chicago Bulls (6 NBA titles), the Detroit Pistons (3 NBA titles), the Green Bay Packers (4 Super Bowl titles, 13 total NFL championships), the Detroit Red Wings (11 Stanley Cup titles), and the Chicago Blackhawks (6 Stanley Cup titles).
In NCAA college sports, the Big Ten Conference and the Big 12 Conference feature the largest concentration of top Midwestern Division I football and men 's and women 's basketball teams in the region, including the Illinois Fighting Illini, Indiana Hoosiers, Iowa Hawkeyes, Iowa State Cyclones, Kansas Jayhawks, Kansas State Wildcats, Michigan Wolverines, Michigan State Spartans, Minnesota Golden Gophers, Nebraska Cornhuskers, Northwestern Wildcats, Ohio State Buckeyes, Purdue Boilermakers, and the Wisconsin Badgers.
Other notable Midwestern college sports teams include the Butler Bulldogs, Cincinnati Bearcats, Creighton Bluejays, Dayton Flyers, Indiana State Sycamores, Marquette Golden Eagles, Milwaukee Panthers, Missouri Tigers, Missouri State Bears, Northern Illinois Huskies, Notre Dame Fighting Irish, Western Michigan Broncos, Wichita State Shockers, and Xavier Musketeers. Of this second group of schools, Butler, Dayton, Indiana State and Missouri State do not play top - level college football (all playing in the second - tier Division I FCS), and Creighton, Marquette, Milwaukee, Wichita State and Xavier do not sponsor football at all.
The Milwaukee Mile hosted its first motor race in 1903, and is one of the oldest tracks in the world. The Indianapolis Motor Speedway, opened in 1909, is a prestigious auto racing track which annually hosts the Indianapolis 500, the Brickyard 400, and the Indianapolis Motorcycle Grand Prix. The Road America and Mid-Ohio road courses opened in the 1950s and 1960s respectively. Other motorsport venues in the Midwest are Indianapolis Raceway Park, Michigan International Speedway, Chicagoland Speedway, Kansas Speedway, Gateway International Raceway, and the Iowa Speedway. The Kentucky Speedway is just outside the officially defined Midwest, but is linked with the region because the track is located in the Cincinnati metropolitan area.
Notable professional golf tournaments in the Midwest include the WGC - Bridgestone Invitational, Memorial Tournament, BMW Championship and John Deere Classic.
Differences in the definition of the Midwest mainly split between the Great Plains region on one side, and the Great Lakes region on the other. While some point to the small towns and agricultural communities in Kansas, Iowa, the Dakotas, and Nebraska of the Great Plains as representative of traditional Midwestern lifestyles and values, others assert that the industrial cities of the Great Lakes -- with their histories of 19th - and early - 20th - century immigration, manufacturing base, and strong Catholic influence -- are more representative of the Midwestern experience. In South Dakota, for instance, West River (the region west of the Missouri River) shares cultural elements with the western United States, while East River has more in common with the rest of the Midwest.
Two other regions, Appalachia and the Ozark Mountains, overlap geographically with the Midwest -- Appalachia in Southern Ohio and the Ozarks in Southern Missouri. The Ohio River has long been a boundary between North and South and between the Midwest and the Upper South. All of the lower Midwestern states, especially Missouri, have a major Southern component, and Missouri was a slave state before the Civil War.
Western Pennsylvania, which contains the cities of Erie and Pittsburgh, plus the Western New York cities of Buffalo and possibly Rochester, share history with the Midwest, but overlap with Appalachia and the Northeast as well.
Kentucky is rarely considered part of the Midwest, although it can be grouped with it in some contexts. It is categorized as Southern by the Census Bureau and is usually classified as such, especially from a cultural standpoint.
In addition to intra-American regional overlaps, the Upper Peninsula of Michigan has historically had strong cultural ties to Canada, partly as a result of early settlement by French Canadians. Moreover, the Yooper accent shares some traits with Canadian English, further demonstrating transnational cultural connections. Similar but less pronounced mutual Canadian - American cultural influence occurs throughout the Great Lakes region.
The accents of the region are generally distinct from those of the South and of the urban areas of the American Northeast. To a lesser degree, they are also distinct from the accent of the American West.
The accent characteristic of most of the Midwest is considered by many to be that of "standard '' American English or General American. This accent is preferred by many national radio and television broadcasters.
This may have started because many prominent broadcast personalities -- such as Walter Cronkite, Harry Reasoner, Johnny Carson, David Letterman, Rush Limbaugh, Tom Brokaw, John Madden, and Casey Kasem -- came from this region and so created this perception. A November 1998 National Geographic article attributed the high number of telemarketing firms in Omaha to the "neutral accents '' of the area 's inhabitants. Currently, many cities in the Great Lakes region are undergoing the Northern cities vowel shift away from the standard pronunciation of vowels.
The dialect of Minnesota, western Wisconsin, much of North Dakota and Michigan 's Upper Peninsula is referred to as the Upper Midwestern Dialect (or "Minnesotan ''), and has Scandinavian and Canadian influences.
Missouri has elements of three dialects, specifically: Northern Midland, in the extreme northern part of the state, with a distinctive variation in St. Louis and the surrounding area; Southern Midland, in the majority of the state; and Southern, in the southwestern and southeastern parts of the state, with a bulge extending north in the central part, to include approximately the southern one - third.
The rate of potentially preventable hospital discharges in the Midwestern United States fell from 2005 to 2011 for overall conditions, acute conditions, and chronic conditions.
All cities listed have a population of 250,000 or more.
The Midwest has been an important region in national elections, with highly contested elections in closely divided states often deciding the national result. In 1860 -- 1920, both parties often selected either their president or vice president from the region.
One of the two major political parties in the United States, the Republican Party, originated in the Midwest in the 1850s; Ripon, Wisconsin had the first local meeting while Jackson, Michigan had the state county meeting of the new party. Its membership included many Yankees who had settled the upper Midwest. The party opposed the expansion of slavery and stressed the Protestant ideals of thrift, a hard work ethic, self - reliance, democratic decision making, and religious tolerance.
In the early 1890s the wheat - growing regions were strongholds of the short - lived Populist movement in the Plains states.
Starting in the 1890s the middle class urban Progressive movement became influential in the region (as it was in other regions), with Wisconsin a major center. Under the LaFolletes Wisconsin fought against the GOP bosses and for efficiency, modernization, and the use of experts to solve social, economic, and political problems. Theodore Roosevelt 's 1912 Progressive Party had the best showing in this region; carrying the states of Michigan, Minnesota, and South Dakota. In 1924, La Follette, Sr. 's 1924 Progressive Party did well in the region, but only carried his home base of Wisconsin.
The Midwest -- especially the areas west of Chicago -- has always been a stronghold of isolationism, a belief that America should not involve itself in foreign entanglements. This position was largely based on the many German American and Swedish - American communities. Isolationist leaders included the La Follettes, Ohio 's Robert A. Taft, and Colonel Robert McCormick, publisher of the Chicago Tribune.
As of 2016, the Midwest is home to several critical swing states that do not have a strong allegiance to either the Democratic or Republican party including Iowa and Ohio. Upper Midwestern states of Illinois, Michigan, Minnesota and Wisconsin reliably voted Democratic in every presidential election from 1992 to 2012. The Great Plains states of North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, and Kansas have voted for the Republican candidate in every presidential election since 1940, except for Democrat Lyndon B. Johnson in 1964. Indiana is usually considered a Republican stronghold, voting that party 's presidential candidate in every election since 1940 except for Johnson in 1964 and Barack Obama in 2008.
As a result of the 2016 elections, Republicans now control the governors ' office in all Midwestern states except Minnesota. Republicans also control every partisan state legislature in the Midwest except Illinois. The unicameral Nebraska Legislature is officially nonpartisan.
The state government of Illinois is currently divided between Republican Governor Bruce Rauner and Democratic super majorities and in the State House and State Senate. The state currently has two Democratic senators, and an 11 -- 7 Democratic majority US House of Representatives delegation.
Many analysts consider Iowa the most evenly divided state in the country, but it has leaned Democratic for at least the past fifteen years. Iowa had a Democratic governor from 1999 until Terry Branstad was re-elected in the mid-term elections in 2010, and has had both one Democratic and one Republican senator since the early 1980s until the 2014 election when Republican Joni Ernst defeated Democrat Bruce Braley in a tightly contested race. As for Iowa 's House delegation, Republicans currently hold a 3 to 1 seat majority. Between 1992 and 2012, Iowa also voted for the Democratic presidential candidate in all elections except 2004, but in 2016 the state went to the Republicans by 10 percentage points. As a result of the 2016 elections, Republicans hold a majority in the Iowa House of Representatives and the Iowa Senate.
Minnesota voters have not voted for a Republican candidate for president since 1972, longer than any other state. Minnesota was the only U.S. state (along with Washington, D.C.) to vote for its native son Walter Mondale over Ronald Reagan in 1984. However, the recent Democratic victories have often been fairly narrow, such as the 2016 Presidential Election. Minnesota also elected and re-elected a Republican governor (Tim Pawlenty), as well as supported some of the strongest gun concealment laws in the nation. Republicans currently hold control of both houses of the Minnesota state legislature.
Consistently, Ohio is a battleground state in presidential elections. No Republican has won the office without winning Ohio. This trend has contributed to Ohio 's reputation as a quintessential swing state. At the state level, however, Republicans are currently dominant. With the exception of one justice of the Supreme Court of Ohio, all political offices open to statewide election are held by Republicans. Republicans have a majority in the Ohio House of Representatives and a supermajority in the Ohio Senate. At the federal level, Ohio currently has one Democratic and one Republican U.S. Senator. As a result of the 2012 elections, 12 of Ohio 's 16 members of the U.S. House of Representatives are Republicans.
The Great Plains states of North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, and Kansas have been strongholds for the Republicans for many decades. These four states have gone for the Republican candidate in every presidential election since 1940, except for Lyndon B. Johnson 's landslide over Barry Goldwater in 1964. Although North Dakota and South Dakota have often elected Democrats to Congress, after the 2012 election both states ' congressional delegations are majority Republican. Nebraska has elected Democrats to the Senate and as Governor in recent years, but the state 's House delegation has been all - Republican since 1995, and both of its Senators are Republican. Kansas has elected a majority of Democrats as governor since 1956, but has not elected a Democratic Senator since 1932. Both of Kansas 's U.S. Senators and all four of its U.S. House members are Republican.
Missouri was historically considered a "bellwether state '', having voted for the winner in every presidential election since 1904, with three exceptions: in 1956 for Democrat Adlai Stevenson II; in 2008 for Republican John McCain; and in 2012 for Republican Mitt Romney. Missouri 's House delegation has generally been evenly divided, with the Democrats holding sway in the large cities at the opposite ends of the state, Kansas City and St. Louis (although the Kansas City suburbs are now trending Republican), and the Republicans controlling the rest of the state, save for a pocket of Democratic strength in Columbia, home to the University of Missouri. However, as a result of the 2012 elections, Republicans now have a 6 -- 2 majority in the state 's House delegation, with African - American Democrats representing the major cities. Missouri 's Senate seats were mostly controlled by Democrats until the latter part of the 20th century, but the Republicans have held one or both Senate seats continuously since 1976.
All Midwestern states use primary election to select delegates for both the Democratic and Republican national conventions, except for Iowa and Minnesota. The Iowa caucuses in early January of leap years are the first votes in the presidential nominating process for both major parties, and attract enormous media attention.
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after the revolutionary war what did the united states of america need to create | Continental Army - wikipedia
The Continental Army was formed by the Second Continental Congress after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War by the colonies that became the United States of America. Established by a resolution of the Congress on June 14, 1775, it was created to coordinate the military efforts of the Thirteen Colonies in their revolt against the rule of Great Britain. The Continental Army was supplemented by local militias and troops that remained under control of the individual states or were otherwise independent. General George Washington was the commander - in - chief of the army throughout the war.
Most of the Continental Army was disbanded in 1783 after the Treaty of Paris ended the war. The 1st and 2nd Regiments went on to form the nucleus of the Legion of the United States in 1792 under General Anthony Wayne. This became the foundation of the United States Army in 1796.
The Continental Army consisted of soldiers from all 13 colonies and, after 1776, from all 13 states. When the American Revolutionary War began at the Battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775, the colonial revolutionaries did not have an army. Previously, each colony had relied upon the militia, made up of part - time citizen - soldiers, for local defense, or the raising of temporary "provincial regiments '' during specific crises such as the French and Indian War of 1754 -- 63. As tensions with Great Britain increased in the years leading to the war, colonists began to reform their militias in preparation for the perceived potential conflict. Training of militiamen increased after the passage of the Intolerable Acts in 1774. Colonists such as Richard Henry Lee proposed forming a national militia force, but the First Continental Congress rejected the idea.
On April 23, 1775, the Massachusetts Provincial Congress authorized the raising of a colonial army consisting of 26 company regiments. New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut soon raised similar but smaller forces. On June 14, 1775, the Second Continental Congress decided to proceed with the establishment of a Continental Army for purposes of common defense, adopting the forces already in place outside Boston (22,000 troops) and New York (5,000). It also raised the first ten companies of Continental troops on a one - year enlistment, riflemen from Pennsylvania, Maryland, Delaware and Virginia to be used as light infantry, who became the 1st Continental Regiment in 1776.
On June 15, 1775, the Congress elected by unanimous vote George Washington as Commander - in - Chief, who accepted and served throughout the war without any compensation except for reimbursement of expenses.
On July 18, 1775, the Congress requested all colonies form militia companies from "all able bodied effective men, between sixteen and fifty years of age. '' It was not uncommon for men younger than sixteen to enlist as most colonies had no requirement of parental consent for those under twenty - one (adulthood).
Four major - generals (Artemas Ward, Charles Lee, Philip Schuyler, and Israel Putnam) and eight brigadier - generals (Seth Pomeroy, Richard Montgomery, David Wooster, William Heath, Joseph Spencer, John Thomas, John Sullivan, and Nathanael Greene) were appointed by the Second Continental Congress in the course of a few days. After Pomeroy did not accept, John Thomas was appointed in his place.
As the Continental Congress increasingly adopted the responsibilities and posture of a legislature for a sovereign state, the role of the Continental Army became the subject of considerable debate. Some Americans had a general aversion to maintaining a standing army; but on the other hand the requirements of the war against the British required the discipline and organization of a modern military. As a result, the army went through several distinct phases, characterized by official dissolution and reorganization of units.
Soldiers in the Continental Army were citizens who had volunteered to serve in the army (but were paid), and at various times during the war, standard enlistment periods lasted from one to three years. Early in the war the enlistment periods were short, as the Continental Congress feared the possibility of the Continental Army evolving into a permanent army. The army never numbered more than 17,000 men. Turnover proved a constant problem, particularly in the winter of 1776 -- 77, and longer enlistments were approved. Broadly speaking, Continental forces consisted of several successive armies, or establishments:
In addition to the Continental Army regulars, local militia units, raised and funded by individual colonies / states, participated in battles throughout the war. Sometimes the militia units operated independently of the Continental Army, but often local militias were called out to support and augment the Continental Army regulars during campaigns. (The militia troops developed a reputation for being prone to premature retreats, a fact that Brigadier - General Daniel Morgan integrated into his strategy at the Battle of Cowpens in 1781.)
The financial responsibility for providing pay, food, shelter, clothing, arms, and other equipment to specific units was assigned to states as part of the establishment of these units. States differed in how well they lived up to these obligations. There were constant funding issues and morale problems as the war continued. This led to the army offering low pay, often rotten food, hard work, cold, heat, poor clothing and shelter, harsh discipline, and a high chance of becoming a casualty.
At the time of the Siege of Boston, the Continental Army at Cambridge, Massachusetts, in June 1775, is estimated to have numbered from 14 -- 16,000 men from New England (though the actual number may have been as low as 11,000 because of desertions). Until Washington 's arrival, it remained under the command of Artemas Ward, while John Thomas acted as executive officer and Richard Gridley commanded the artillery corps and was chief engineer. It was during this siege that Washington allegedly uttered his famous words, "It is cold out here. '' This was a poetic representation of the harsh conditions the men endured during the summer of the siege, and a reference to a political cartoon by Benjamin Franklin. It served as a piece of satire as it was a remark about cold conditions, while the men experienced some of the hottest temperatures of that year.
The British force in Boston was increasing by fresh arrivals. It numbered then about 10,000 men. Major Generals Howe, Clinton, and Burgoyne, had arrived late in May and joined General Gage in forming and executing plans for dispersing the rebels. Feeling strong with these veteran officers and soldiers around him -- and the presence of several Men - of - War under Admiral Graves -- the governor issued a proclamation, declaring martial law, branding the entire Continental Army and supporters as "rebels '' and "parricides of the Constitution. '' Amnesty was offered to those who gave up their allegiance to the Continental Army and Congress in favor of the British authorities, though Samuel Adams and John Hancock were still wanted for high treason. This proclamation only served to strengthen the resolve of the Congress and Army.
After the British evacuation of Boston (prompted by the placement of Continental artillery overlooking the city in March 1776), the Continental Army relocated to New York. For the next five years, the main bodies of the Continental and British armies campaigned against one another in New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. These campaigns included the notable battles of Trenton, Princeton, Brandywine, Germantown, and Morristown, among many others.
The Continental Army was racially integrated, a condition the United States Army would not see again until Truman ordered the desegregation of the military in 1948. African American slaves were promised freedom in exchange for military service in New England, and made up one fifth of the Northern Continental Army.
Throughout its existence, the Army was troubled by poor logistics, inadequate training, short - term enlistments, interstate rivalries, and Congress 's inability to compel the states to provide food, money or supplies. In the beginning, soldiers enlisted for a year, largely motivated by patriotism; but as the war dragged on, bounties and other incentives became more commonplace. Two major mutinies late in the war drastically diminished the reliability of two of the main units, and there were constant discipline problems.
The army increased its effectiveness and success rate through a series of trials and errors, often at great human cost. General Washington and other distinguished officers were instrumental leaders in preserving unity, learning and adapting, and ensuring discipline throughout the eight years of war. In the winter of 1777 -- 1778, with the addition of Baron von Steuben, of Prussian origin, the training and discipline of the Continental Army began to vastly improve. (This was the infamous winter at Valley Forge.) Washington always viewed the Army as a temporary measure and strove to maintain civilian control of the military, as did the Continental Congress, though there were minor disagreements about how this was carried out.
Near the end of the war, the Continental Army was augmented by a French expeditionary force (under General Rochambeau) and a squadron of the French navy (under the Comte de Barras), and in the late summer of 1781 the main body of the army travelled south to Virginia to rendezvous with the French West Indies fleet under Admiral Comte de Grasse. This resulted in the Siege of Yorktown, the decisive Battle of the Chesapeake, and the surrender of the British southern army. This essentially marked the end of the land war in America, although the Continental Army returned to blockade the British northern army in New York until the peace treaty went into effect two years later, and battles took place elsewhere between British forces and those of France and its allies.
A small residual force remained at West Point and some frontier outposts until Congress created the United States Army by their resolution of June 3, 1784.
Planning for the transition to a peacetime force had begun in April 1783 at the request of a congressional committee chaired by Alexander Hamilton. The commander - in - chief discussed the problem with key officers before submitting the army 's official views on 2 May. Significantly, there was a broad consensus of the basic framework among the officers. Washington 's proposal called for four components: a small regular army, a uniformly trained and organized militia, a system of arsenals, and a military academy to train the army 's artillery and engineer officers. He wanted four infantry regiments, each assigned to a specific sector of the frontier, plus an artillery regiment. His proposed regimental organizations followed Continental Army patterns but had a provision for increased strength in the event of war. Washington expected the militia primarily to provide security for the country at the start of a war until the regular army could expand -- the same role it had carried out in 1775 and 1776. Steuben and Duportail submitted their own proposals to Congress for consideration.
Although Congress declined on May 12 to make a decision on the peace establishment, it did address the need for some troops to remain on duty until the British evacuated New York City and several frontier posts. The delegates told Washington to use men enlisted for fixed terms as temporary garrisons. A detachment of those men from West Point reoccupied New York without incident on November 25. When Steuben 's effort in July to negotiate a transfer of frontier forts with Major General Frederick Haldimand collapsed, however, the British maintained control over them, as they would into the 1790s. That failure and the realization that most of the remaining infantrymen 's enlistments were due to expire by June 1784 led Washington to order Knox, his choice as the commander of the peacetime army, to discharge all but 500 infantry and 100 artillerymen before winter set in. The former regrouped as Jackson 's Continental Regiment under Colonel Henry Jackson of Massachusetts. The single artillery company, New Yorkers under John Doughty, came from remnants of the 2nd Continental Artillery Regiment.
Congress issued a proclamation on October 18, 1783, which approved Washington 's reductions. On November 2, Washington then released his Farewell Order to the Philadelphia newspapers for nationwide distribution to the furloughed men. In the message he thanked the officers and men for their assistance and reminded them that "the singular interpositions of Providence in our feeble condition were such, as could scarcely escape the attention of the most unobserving; while the unparalleled perseverance of the Armies of the United States, through almost every possible suffering and discouragement for the space of eight long years, was little short of a standing miracle. ''
Washington believed that the blending of persons from every colony into "one patriotic band of Brothers '' had been a major accomplishment, and he urged the veterans to continue this devotion in civilian life.
Washington said farewell to his remaining officers on December 4 at Fraunces Tavern in New York City. On December 23 he appeared in Congress, then sitting at Annapolis, and returned his commission as commander - in - chief: "Having now finished the work assigned me, I retire from the great theatre of Action; and bidding an Affectionate farewell to this August body under whose orders I have so long acted, I here offer my Commission, and take my leave of all the employments of public life. '' Congress ended the War of American Independence on January 14, 1784, by ratifying the definitive peace treaty that had been signed in Paris on September 3.
Congress had again rejected Washington 's concept for a peacetime force in October 1783. When moderate delegates then offered an alternative in April 1784 which scaled the projected army down to 900 men in one artillery and three infantry battalions, Congress rejected it as well, in part because New York feared that men retained from Massachusetts might take sides in a land dispute between the two states. Another proposal to retain 350 men and raise 700 new recruits also failed. On June 2 Congress ordered the discharge of all remaining men except twenty - five caretakers at Fort Pitt and fifty - five at West Point. The next day it created a peace establishment acceptable to all interests.
The plan required four states to raise 700 men for one year 's service. Congress instructed the Secretary at War to form the troops into eight infantry and two artillery companies. Pennsylvania, with a quota of 260 men, had the power to nominate a lieutenant colonel, who would be the senior officer. New York and Connecticut each were to raise 165 men and nominate a major; the remaining 110 men came from New Jersey. Economy was the watchword of this proposal, for each major served as a company commander, and line officers performed all staff duties except those of chaplain, surgeon, and surgeon 's mate. Under Josiah Harmar, the First American Regiment slowly organized and achieved permanent status as an infantry regiment of the new Regular Army. The lineage of the First American Regiment is carried on by the 3rd United States Infantry Regiment (The Old Guard).
However the United States military realized it needed a well - trained standing army following St. Clair 's Defeat on November 4, 1791, when a force led by General Arthur St. Clair was almost entirely wiped out by the Western Confederacy near Fort Recovery, Ohio. The plans, which were supported by U.S. President George Washington and Henry Knox, Secretary of War, led to the disbandment of the Continental Army and the creation of the Legion of the United States. The command would be based on the 18th - century military works of Henry Bouquet, a professional Swiss soldier who served as a colonel in the British army, and French Marshal Maurice de Saxe. In 1792 Anthony Wayne, a renowned hero of the American Revolutionary War, was encouraged to leave retirement and return to active service as Commander - in - Chief of the Legion with the rank of Major General.
The legion was recruited and raised in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. It was formed into four sub-legions. These were created from elements of the 1st and 2nd Regiments from the Continental Army. These units then became the First and Second Sub-Legions. The Third and Fourth Sub-Legions were raised from further recruits. From June 1792 to November 1792, the Legion remained cantoned at Fort LaFayette in Pittsburgh. Throughout the winter of 1792 -- 93, existing troops along with new recruits were drilled in military skills, tactics and discipline at Legionville on the banks of the Ohio River near present - day Baden, Pennsylvania. The following Spring the newly named Legion of the United States left Legionville for the Northwest Indian War, a struggle between American Indian tribes affiliated with the Western Confederacy in the area south of the Ohio River. The overwhelmingly successful campaign was concluded with the decisive victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers on August 20, 1794, Maj. Gen. Anthony Wayne applied the techniques of wilderness operations perfected by Sullivan 's 1779 expedition against the Iroquois. The training the troops received at Legionville was also seen as an instrumental to this overwhelming victory.
Nevertheless, Steuben 's Blue Book remained the official manual for the legion, as well as for the militia of most states, until Winfield Scott in 1835. In 1796, the United States Army was raised following the discontinuation with the legion of the United States. This preceded the graduation of the first cadets from United States Military Academy at West Point, New York, which was established in 1802.
During the American Revolutionary War, the Continental Army initially wore ribbons, cockades and epaulettes of various colors as an ad hoc form of rank insignia, as General George Washington wrote in 1775:
"As the Continental Army has unfortunately no uniforms, and consequently many inconveniences must arise from not being able to distinguish the commissioned officers from the privates, it is desired that some badge of distinction be immediately provided; for instance that the field officers may have red or pink colored cockades in their hats, the captains yellow or buff, and the subalterns green. ''
In 1776 captains were to have buff or white cockades.
Later on in the war, the Continental Army established its own uniform with a black cockade (as used in much of the British Army) among all ranks and the following insignia:
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when did dirty harry say make my day | Go ahead, make my day - Wikipedia
"Go ahead, make my day '' is a catchphrase written by Charles B. Pierce and spoken by the character Harry Callahan from the 1983 film Sudden Impact. In 2005, it was chosen as No. 6 on the American Film Institute list, AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Movie Quotes.
The phrase "go ahead, make my day '' was written by Charles B. Pierce, an independent filmmaker who is credited with "story by '' in the film Sudden Impact. The actual origins of the phrase came from Pierce 's father Mack, who used to tell him as a child, "Just let me come home one more day, without you mowing that lawn, son just go ahead... make my day ''.
At the beginning of the movie, Harry Callahan (Clint Eastwood) goes into a diner for a morning cup of coffee where he discovers a robbery in progress. He kills all but one of the robbers in a shootout. However, the surviving robber grabs the fleeing waitress Loretta (Mara Corday), holds his gun to her head, and threatens to shoot. Instead of backing off, Harry points his. 44 Magnum revolver into the man 's face and dares him to shoot, saying with clenched teeth and in his characteristic rough grumble, "Go ahead, make my day, '' meaning that if the robber attempts to harm Loretta in any way, Harry would be happy to dispatch the robber. At the end of the film, Harry, again, says "Come on, make my day '' just before shooting Mick the rapist, who aims his stolen shotgun at Harry 's lover, Jennifer Spencer.
When speaking out against taxes at the 1985 American Business Conference, President Ronald Reagan, himself a former actor, stated "I have my veto pen drawn and ready for any tax increase that Congress might even think of sending up. And I have only one thing to say to the tax increasers. Go ahead -- make my day. '' Pierce reacted to this saying that his proudest moment was telling his father, "Tonight the President Ronald Reagan of the United States just quoted you. ''
The movie Sudden Impact became popular in Kenya in the early 1990s. Kenyan kids pronounced ' make my day ' as "Makmende '' probably due to influence of the local dialects. Over time, Makmende came to be used by children to refer to those who behaved in a conceited manner. In 2010, Makmende was turned into an Internet sensation all over Kenya 's Internet community when Just a Band created a superhero character in the music video of their song "Ha He. '' The song Action by Finnish band LOVEX features the line in their song lyrics.
During his speech at the 2012 Republican National Convention, Eastwood ended by referencing the line. In February 2015, The Economist featured the headline "Go ahead, Angela, make my day '' in reference to the European debt crisis.
"Stand - your - ground '' statutes referring to a person 's right to self - defense are sometimes referred to as "make my day '' statutes.
That phrase, although in its Italian localization "Coraggio... fatti ammazzare '', was also chosen as the title for the Italian version of the film, and it has become a catchphrase in Italy as well.
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the branch of science that deals with living things is called | Index of branches of science - wikipedia
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where can i get a new guinea singing dog | New Guinea singing dog - wikipedia
Canis hallstromi Troughton, 1957
The New Guinea singing dog or New Guinea Highland dog (Canis lupus dingo or Canis familiaris) is a type of rare dog native to the New Guinea Highlands of the island of New Guinea. Its taxonomic status is debated.
The dog is noted for its unique vocalization. Little is known about New Guinea singing dogs in the wild and there are only two photographs of wild sightings: one taken in 1989 and published by Australian mammalogist Tim Flannery, and the other taken in August 2012 by wilderness adventure guide, Tom Hewett in the Star Mountains region of West Papua.
In 2016, the New Guinea Highland Wild Dog Foundation announced to the media that it and the University of Papua had located and photographed a group of fifteen "highland wild dogs ''.
On 26 of October, 1897 the Lieutenant - Governor of British New Guinea, Sir William MacGregor, was on Mount Scratchley, Central Province, Papua New Guinea. At an elevation of 7,000 feet (2,100 m) he recorded that "animals are rare '' but listed "wild dog ''. MacGregor obtained the first specimen and later Charles Walter De Vis wrote a description of it in 1911. De Vis summarised from his description that:
... it is not a "truly a wild dog ''; in other words that there was a time when its forebears were not wild... But if we decide that this dog is merely feral, of a domestic breed run wild, as dogs are apt to do, how are we to account for its habitat on Mount Scratchley?
In 1956, Albert Speer and J.P. Sinclair obtained a pair of singing dogs in the Lavani Valley that was situated in Southern Highlands Province, Papua New Guinea. The two dogs had been obtained from natives. The dogs were sent to Sir Edward Hallstrom who had set up a native animal study center in Nondugi, and from there to the Taronga Zoo in Sydney, Australia. In 1957, Ellis Troughton examined the two singing dog specimens from the Taronga Zoo and classified them as a distinct species Canis hallstromi in honour of Hallstrom.
Troughton described the type specimen as follows:
Specimens. -- Male holotype, female allotype, in possession of Sir Edward Hallstrom at Taronga Zoological Park, Sydney, for eventual lodgment in the collection of the Australian Museum. General characters: Muzzle or rostral region short and narrow in contrast with the remarkable facial or bi-zygomatic width, imparting the strikingly vulpine or fox - like appearance. This comparison is sustained in the narrow body and very short bushy tail which measures little more than one third of the combined head - and - body length, with the width of the brush a fraction under 4 inches (10 cm). The fleshy, softlyfurred, triangulate ears remain erect, though rounded and curved forward in conch - like fashion. Colour (Ridgway) of the head a clear tawny brown; the back a darker russet - brown owing to the admixture of blackish - brown hairs, the darker hairs enclosing a yellowish "saddlemark '' somewhat more conspicuous in the female. Outer shoulders and hips clear ochraceous - tawny; tail about tawny - olive brindled above with blackish - brown, tip white; four paws whitish. Underparts a light buffy, a dark mark across the jaw separating the light chin - spot from the pale undersurface. Dimensions of Holotype: Head and body approximately 650 millimetres (26 in); tail exactly 245 millimetres (9.6 in), less brush; heel to longest toe, less nail, 145 millimetres (5.7 in); dew - claw from base to ground, 25 millimetres (0.98 in); ear, length from outer base to tip 75 millimetres (3.0 in), midwidth 40 millimetres (1.6 in); longest vibrissa 52 millimetres (2.0 in); length of head to extremity of sagittal crest 180 millimetres (7.1 in) (approx.) and bi-zygomatic width 100 millimetres (3.9 in); rear molar to incisor 90 millimetres (3.5 in); width across incisors 23 millimetres (0.91 in); height of upper canine 16 millimetres (0.63 in).
In the third edition of Mammal Species of the World published in 2005, the mammalogist W. Christopher Wozencraft listed under the wolf Canis lupus the subspecies Canis lupus dingo with Canis hallstomi included as a taxonomic synonym for Canis lupus dingo. Wozencraft 's classification remains debated by zoologists. Janice Koler - Matznick and others disagree with Wozencraft, and believe that Canis hallstromi should not be classified under Canis lupus dingo on the grounds that it has behavioral, morphological, and molecular characteristics that are distinct from the wolf. In 2017, a review of the latest scientific information proposed that the New Guinea singing dog is a type of domestic dog Canis familiaris Linnaeus 1758.
A haplotype (haploid genotype) is a group of genes in an organism that are inherited together from a single parent. In 2011, a study looked at the maternal lineage through the use of Mitochondrial DNA (mDNA) as a genetic marker of the Australian dingo and the New Guinea Singing Dog. The mDNA haplotype A29, or a haplotype one step away, was found in all of the Australian dingoes and New Guinea Singing Dogs studied, indicating a common female ancestry. In 2012, a study looked at the dingo male lineage using Y chromosome DNA (yDNA) as a genetic marker and found two yDNA haplotypes. Haplotype H3 could be found in domestic dogs in East Asia and Northern Europe. Haplotype H60 had not been previously reported, but was one step away from haplotype H5 that could be found in East Asian domestic dogs. Only the New Guinea Singing Dog and dingoes from north - eastern Australia showed haplotype H60, which implies a genetic relationship and that the dingo reached Australia from New Guinea.
In 2016, a study compared sequences of the entire mDNA genome and 13 DNA loci of the cell nucleus from dingoes and New Guinea singing dogs and found that there are two distinct populations of dingo in Australia. The northwestern dingoes were estimated to have diverged 8,300 YBP somewhere in Sahul (a landmass which once included Australia, New Guinea, and some surrounding islands), followed by a divergence of the New Guinea singing dog from the southeastern dingo 7,800 YBP. The New Guinea singing dog then became a distinct, but closely related, lineage. The lack of fossil evidence from northern Australia and Papua New Guinea could be explained by their tropical climates and acidic soils. These dates suggest that dingoes spread from Papua New Guinea to Australia over the land bridge at least twice. These dates were well before the human Neolithic Expansion through the Malay Peninsula around 5,500 YBP. Therefore, Neolithic humans were not responsible for bringing the dingo to Australia.
Also in 2016, a literature review found that: "there is no convincing evidence that New Guinea wild - living dogs and some, or all, pre-colonization New Guinea village dogs were distinct forms. Further, there is no definitive evidence that either high altitude wild - living dogs were formerly isolated from other New Guinea canids or that the animals that were the founding members of captive populations of New Guinea Singing Dogs were wild - living animals or the progeny of wild - living animals rather than being born and raised as members of village populations of domestic dogs. We conclude that: (1) at the time of European colonization, wild dogs and most, if not all, village dogs of New Guinea comprised a single though heterogeneous gene pool (2) eventual resolution of the phylogenetic relationships of New Guinea wild dogs will apply equally to all or most of the earliest New Guinea village - based, domesticated, dogs; and (3) there remain places in New Guinea, such as Suabi and neighbouring communities, where the local village - based population of domestic dogs continues to be dominated by individuals whose genetic inheritance can be traced to pre-colonization canid forebears. ''
The New Guinea singing dog is similar to the dingo in morphology apart from the dingo 's greater height at the withers. Compared with other species in its genus, the New Guinea singing dog is described as relatively short - legged and broad - headed. These dogs have an average shoulder height of 31 -- 46 centimetres (12 -- 18 in) and weigh 9 -- 14 kilograms (20 -- 31 lb). They do not have rear dewclaws.
The limbs and spine of the New Guinea singing dog are very flexible and they can spread their legs sideways to 90 °, comparable to the Norwegian Lundehund. They can also rotate their front and hind paws more than domestic dogs, which enables them to climb trees with thick bark or branches that can be reached from the ground; however their climbing skills do not reach the same level as those of the gray fox.
The eyes, which are highly reflective, are almond - shaped and are angled upwards from the inner to outer corners with dark eye rims. Eye color ranges from dark amber to dark - brown. Their eyes exhibit a bright green glow when lights are shone on them in low light conditions. There are two features which researchers believe allow singing dogs to see more clearly in low light. One feature is that of their pupils, which open wider and allow in more light than in other dog varieties. The other is that they possess a higher concentration of cells in the tapetum.
New Guinea singing dogs have erect, pointed, fur - lined ears. As with other wild dogs, the ears ' perk ', or lay forward, which is suspected to be an important survival feature for the species. The ears can be rotated like a directional receiver to pick up faint sounds. Their tails are bushy, long enough to reach the hock, free of kinks, and have a white tip.
Pups are born with a dark chocolate brown pelt with gold flecks and reddish tinges, which changes to light brown by the age of six weeks. Adult coloration occurs around four months of age. For adult dogs, the colors brown, black, and tan have been reported, all with white points. The sides of the neck and zonal stripes behind the scapula are golden. Black and very dark guard hair is generally lightly allocated over the hair of the spine, concentrating on the back of the ears and the surface of the tail over the white tip. The muzzle is always black on young dogs. Generally, all colors have white markings underneath the chin, on the paws, chest and tail tip. About one third also have white markings on the muzzle, face and neck. By 7 years of age, the black muzzle begins to turn gray.
All sightings in the wild were of single dogs or pairs. Some dogs are more comfortable in pairs and others in small groups, but based on singing dogs in captivity, it has been inferred that wild singing dogs do not form permanent packs. Flannery 's short 1988 report on dogs in the mountains of Papua New Guinea is regarded as the only available report on direct observation of wild specimens. He described them as "extraordinarily shy '' and "almost preternaturally canny ''. According to Robert Bino (a student from the University of Papua New Guinea), these dogs use their resting places under roots and ledges in New Guinea only sporadically. Bino theorized that these dogs are highly mobile and forage alone and concluded that they therefore might use several hiding places in their home range.
During research observations, the examined dogs generally showed a lower threshold of behavior (e.g., scent rolling) than other domestic dogs, as well as an earlier developmental onset than other domestic dogs or grey wolves (e.g., hackle biting at two weeks compared to other domestic dogs / grey wolves at 6 weeks) and a quantitative difference (e.g., reduced expression of intraspecific affiliate behaviors). The dogs observed did not show the typical canid play bow; however, Imke Voth found this behavior during examinations in the 1980s.
Several unique behaviors have been exhibited by New Guinea singing dogs:
During estrus, when potential partners are present, same - sex singers often fight to the point of severe injury. Furthermore, adults also display a high degree of aggression towards unfamiliar dogs, which would indicate that they are strongly territorial. Their distinctive aggression could not be observed to that extent among Australian dingoes (who live without human contact).
Researchers have noted rough play behavior by the mothers towards their pups, which often switched over to agonistic behavior, as well as "handling ''. The mothers did not adequately react to the pups ' shouts of pain but rather interpreted it as further "invitation '' for "playing ''. The researchers stated that this behavior was noted in their subjects only and does not necessarily apply to all singers.
New Guinea singing dogs are named for their distinctive and melodious howl, which is characterized by a sharp increase in pitch at the start and very high frequencies at the end. According to observations made by Ortolani, the howling of these dogs can be clearly differentiated from that of Australian dingoes, and differs significantly from that of grey wolves and coyotes.
An individual howl lasts an average of 3 seconds, but can last as long as 5 seconds. At the start, the frequency rises and stabilizes for the rest of the howling, but normally shows abrupt changes in frequency. Modulations can change quickly every 300 -- 500 milliseconds or every second. Five to eight overtones can generally be distinguished in a spectrographic analysis of the howling. Sonograms show that their howl can be compared to the song of a humpback whale.
New Guinea singing dogs sometimes howl together which is commonly referred to as chorus howling. During chorus howling, one dog starts and others join in shortly afterward. In most cases, chorus howling is well synchronized, and the howls of the group end nearly simultaneously. Spontaneous howling is most common during the morning and evening hours. A trill, with a distinctly "bird - like '' character, is emitted during high arousal. It is a high - frequency pulsed signal whose spectral appearance suggests a continuous source that is periodically interrupted, and might last as long as 800 milliseconds. Such a sound is not known for any other canid; however, a similar sound (with lower frequency) has been described for a dhole at the Moscow Zoo. When they are kept with dogs that bark, singers may mimic the other dogs.
Like other dingo types, female singers come into heat once a year rather than twice a year normally associated with domestic breeds. Their breeding season generally starts in August and ends during December. Gestation averages 63 days. In Tierpark Berlin, 80 % of the litters were born in October and November and the gestation period was 58 to 64 days. The litter size was 1 to 6 pups. Reports of 25 female singers in captivity showed that when they did not conceive during their first annual estrus, about 65 % have a second estrus cycle, sometimes even a third, 8 -- 16 weeks later.
Males in captivity often participate in raising the pups, including the regurgitation of food. Female singers are protective of their young and will aggressively attack their male counterpart if they feel he poses a danger to the puppies. During the first breeding season following their birth, especially if there is a potential mate present, pups are often aggressively attacked by the same - sex parent.
Reports from local sources in Papua New Guinea from the 1970s and the mid-1990s indicate that singer - like wild dogs found in New Guinea, whether they were pure singers or hybrids, fed on small to middle - sized marsupials, rodents, birds and fruits. Robert Bino stated that their prey consisted of cuscuses, wallabies, dwarf cassowaries and other birds. Singers in captivity do not require a specialized diet but they seem to thrive on lean raw meat diets based on poultry, beef, elk, deer, or bison.
Singing dogs have been reported engaging in kleptoparasitic behavior towards Papuan eagles. In turn, the birds have been known to successfully kill adult dogs.
As of 2015, since New Guinea singing dogs are, in taxonomic candidates, subspecies or varietals and not at the species level, International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) treats of them only as an subset of dingoes, Canis lupus ssp. dingo, so their evident rarity is obscured by dingoes as a whole being "previously... listed as Lower Risk / least concern '' though "(i) mproved information since then has resulted in the taxon being reassessed as Vulnerable. '' IUCN does note that "Dingo 's (sic) were formerly widespread throughout the world (Corbett 1995) and although populations of wild dogs remain abundant in Australia and other countries, the proportion of pure dingoes is declining through hybridization with domestic dogs. '' However, "in New Guinea, the Department of Environment and Conservation has indicated that measures will be initiated to protect New Guinea singing dogs (I.L. Brisbin pers. comm.). ''
Since 1956, New Guinea singing dogs have been obtained or sighted in the wild chiefly in mountainous terrain around the central segment of the New Guinea Highlands, a major island - extensive East - West running mountain range formation, as the 1956 dogs obtained by Speer and Sinclair (see ' History and classification ' section above) were in what 's now typically spelled the Lavani Valley slightly to the East, the Star Mountains slightly to the West of center sited reports through 1976. Reports of Kalam people capturing NGSDs in the mid-1970s imply the human tribe 's range just off center East on the Northeast mainland coast (see ' Relationship with humans ' section below). The 1989 and perhaps later locations of Timothy Flannery 's photograph and sightings is not known for purposes of this article, but may be detailed in his 1998 book. A 2007 sighting in the Kaijende Highlands was East of center. The 2012 sighting was near Puncak Mandala slightly to the West, all in the highlands around the range 's spine.
The reported habitat of the New Guinea singing dog consists of mountains and swampy mountain regions of Papua New Guinea at an altitude of 2,500 to 4,700 meters. The main vegetation zones are the mixed forest, beech and mossy forest, sub-alpine coniferous forest and alpine grassland. Based on archaeological, ethnographic, and circumstantial evidence, it can be assumed that singers were once distributed over the whole of New Guinea and later restricted to the upper mountains. Since there have been no verified sightings of these dogs in Papua New Guinea since the 1970s until an August, 2012 photograph in the wild, these dogs are now apparently rare.
There were reports of singers in the Star Mountains until 1976, and in the mid-1970s reports of capture and training but not breeding by Kalam people, whose Kalam language is part of the Madang languages in Northeast coastal mainland New Guinea and a bit offshore (see ' Relationship with humans ' section below).
In 1989, Tim Flannery was able to take a picture of a black - and - tan dog in a dokfuma. It is important to note that although Flannery made sightings of dogs, there was no way for him to verify them as pure or hybrid or that they were, in fact NGSD at all. In his 1998 book Throwim Way Leg, Flannery states that the dokfuma (which he describes as subalpine grassland with the ground being sodden moss, lichens and herbs growing atop a swamp) at 3,200 meters elevation had plenty of singing dogs which could usually be heard at the beginning and end of each day. When alone in his campsite one day a group of canines came within several hundred meters of him. Flannery apparently did not have his camera along or ready since he reported no pictures taken.
In 1996 Robert Bino undertook a field study of these dogs, but was not able to observe any wild singers and instead used signs, such as scats, paw prints, urine markings and prey remnants, to make conclusions about their behavior. No DNA sampling was conducted. There have been reports from local residents that wild dogs have been seen or heard in higher reaches of the mountains.
In a 2007 report, a more recent sighting was the fleeting glimpse of a dog at Lake Tawa in the Kaijende Highlands. Local assistants assured the researchers that the dogs at Lake Tawa were wild - living dogs since there were no villages near that location. It needs to be made clear, however, that "wild - living '' does not necessarily mean that canines observed by natives are NGSD. It is possible that they are simply feral domestic dogs or NGSD hybrids.
On August 24, 2012, the second known photograph of a New Guinea singing dog in the wild was taken by Tom Hewitt, Director of Adventure Alternative Borneo, in the Jayawijaya Mountains or Star Mountains of Papua Province, Indonesia, Western New Guinea by a trek party returning from Puncak Mandala, at approximately 4,760 m high the highest peak in the Jayawijaya range and second highest freestanding mountain of Oceania, Australasia, New Guinea and Indonesia (though Hewitt himself seems to erroneously say this peak is in the Star Mountains which are adjacent to the Jayawijaya range, and also casually calls the region ' West Papua ' rather than Indonesia 's Papua Province in the Western geopolitical ' half ' of the New Guinea landmasses, while his identification of the peak is quite clear, including its estimated elevation which is distinctive among New Guinea 's peaks). In a valley flanked by waterfalls on both sides among approximately 4 km (13,000 ft) high limestone peaks, replete with such flora and fauna as cycads, grasses and blooms of the highlands, cuscuses, possums, tree kangaroos unidentified ground - nesting birds in swamp grass, and a bird - of - paradise species heard but not seen, Hewitt relates that his veteran trek guide called out "dog '' four times and pointed to fetch Hewitt and his trek client from their explorations behind large boulders and have them realize that ahead and above the guide and camp cook on a rocky outcrop was a dog, in Hewitt 's words "not scared, but... genuinely curious... as we were of it, and it certainly felt like a rare meeting for both sides. The guides and cook were also surprised. '' While the guide had at first approached "quite close '', the dog retreated as the party came toward it, though it stayed on the hillside while being photographed for a mutual observation session of about 15 minutes. Hewitt only became fully aware of the importance of his party 's sighting and photograph of this dog when he contacted Tom Wendt, New Guinea Singing Dog International (NGSDI) 's founder upon returning home, then regretting that he did not videorecord the encounter. Hewitt and Wendt observe that West Papuan locals report that sightings are rare, and that New Guinea singing dogs have not been domesticated by current human inhabitants of their area.
In 2016, a literature review found that "there is no definitive evidence that... the founding members of captive populations of New Guinea Singing Dogs were wild - living animals or the progeny of wild - living animals rather than being born and raised as members of village populations of domestic dogs. ''
According to the New Guinea Singing Dog Conservation Society as of 2015, the complete list of zoos around the world where captive New Guinea singing dogs are kept is short relative to most zoo species, highlighting their varietal endangered condition after suspected extinction in the wild and the paucity of the zoo gene pool.
The onset of European culture with its domesticated dogs spelled the beginning of the end for pure New Guinea singing dogs in the lowlands. "Singing Dogs are very gentle and friendly with people, though inclined to be a bit shy with strangers at first, '' wrote New York owner Phillip Persky. "They are not at all aggressive with people '' Sharon McKenzie said. "I 've never heard of a case of a Singing Dog biting anyone. '' "They are notorious escape artists, '' Mr. Persky reported, "and can climb and jump with cat - like agility, so enclosures have to be secure. '' They are great diggers and can climb fences as easily as a squirrel. They can get through a space you would not have thought a snake could get through, '' Sharon laughed. "This is the only breed I know of in which bitches are dominant '', Sharon observed. "Bitches really call the shots. ''
According to reports from the late 1950s and mid-1970s, wild dogs believed to be singers were shy and avoided contact with humans. It was reported in the mid-1970s that the Kalam in the highlands of Papua caught young singers and raised them as hunting aids but did not breed them. Some of these dogs probably stayed with the Kalam and reproduced. The Eipo tribe kept and bred wild dogs as playmates for their children. Although the majority of the highland tribes never used village dogs as a food source, it is known that even today they attempt to catch, kill and eat wild dogs. Some local myths mention these dogs as bringers of fire and speech or as the spirits of the deceased. Dog - findings in archaeological sites of New Guinea are rare, mostly consisting of teeth (used as ornaments) and trophy - skulls. One grave has been discovered. The earliest singer remains was a tooth found in the lowlands. It was estimated to be about 5,500 years old. Findings from the highlands were thought to be of similar age, on a stratigraphical basis, but as of 2001 had not been dated. Since the beginning of the 20th century, the inhabitants of the highlands started to keep chickens, and singers had a penchant for poultry. To add to the problem, natives kept other domestic dogs. The crossbred dogs were generally larger in size, as well as less of a challenge to train, so they tended to be of more value than singing dogs. One might conclude that the relationship between the contemporary New Guineans and their dogs will give information about how they treated the singers, but modern "village dogs '' are not genetically representative of pure New Guinea singing dogs.
In the past, the New Guinea singing dog was considered "unworthy '' of scientific study, as it was regarded as an insignificant variety of feral domestic dog. However, due to its potential value as a resource for the determination of the process of canid evolution and domestication, particularly in relation to the dingo, as well as several of its unique genetic, behavioral, ecological, reproductive and morphological characteristics, limited research has been undertaken. The New Guinea Department of Environment and Conservation has announced protection measures.
Hybridization is one of the most serious threats facing the New Guinea dingo. NGD are handicapped, as are many canids such as the Australian dingo, by their susceptibility to being bred by canines other than those of their own kind. This vulnerability has and is still causing a "watering down '' of dingo genes needed to maintain purity.
There are two organizations that exist for the sole purpose of conserving and preserving New Guinea singing dogs. The organizations, New Guinea Singing Dog Conservation Society founded in 1997 and New Guinea Singing Dog International, a preservation, captive breed, adoption and pet education group. Both are based in the United States.
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which of these is not an option for an appellate judge | Appellate procedure in the United States - wikipedia
United States appellate procedure involves the rules and regulations for filing appeals in state courts and federal courts. The nature of an appeal can vary greatly depending on the type of case and the rules of the court in the jurisdiction where the case was prosecuted. There are many types of standard of review for appeals, such as de novo and abuse of discretion. However, most appeals begin when a party files a petition for review to a higher court for the purpose of overturning the lower court 's decision.
An appellate court is a court that hears cases on appeal from another court. Depending on the particular legal rules that apply to each circumstance, a party to a court case who is unhappy with the result might be able to challenge that result in an appellate court on specific grounds. These grounds typically could include errors of law, fact, procedure or due process. In different jurisdictions, appellate courts are also called appeals courts, courts of appeals, superior courts, or supreme courts.
The specific procedures for appealing, including even whether there is a right of appeal from a particular type of decision, can vary greatly from state to state. The right to file an appeal can also vary from state to state; for example, the New Jersey Constitution vests judicial power in a Supreme Court, a Superior Court, and other courts of limited jurisdiction, with an appellate court being part of the Superior Court.
A party who files an appeal is called an "appellant '', "plaintiff in error '', "petitioner '' or "pursuer '', and a party on the other side is called a "appellee ''. A "cross-appeal '' is an appeal brought by the respondent. For example, suppose at trial the judge found for the plaintiff and ordered the defendant to pay $50,000. If the defendant files an appeal arguing that he should not have to pay any money, then the plaintiff might file a cross-appeal arguing that the defendant should have to pay $200,000 instead of $50,000.
The appellant is the party who, having lost part or all their claim in a lower court decision, is appealing to a higher court to have their case reconsidered. This is usually done on the basis that the lower court judge erred in the application of law, but it may also be possible to appeal on the basis of court misconduct, or that a finding of fact was entirely unreasonable to make on the evidence.
The appellant in the new case can be either the plaintiff (or claimant), defendant, third - party intervenor, or respondent (appellee) from the lower case, depending on who was the losing party. The winning party from the lower court, however, is now the respondent. In unusual cases the appellant can be the victor in the court below, but still appeal.
An appellee is the party to an appeal in which the lower court judgment was in its favor. The appellee is required to respond to the petition, oral arguments, and legal briefs of the appellant. In general, the appellee takes the procedural posture that the lower court 's decision should be affirmed.
An appeal "as of right '' is one that is guaranteed by statute or some underlying constitutional or legal principle. The appellate court can not refuse to listen to the appeal. An appeal "by leave '' or "permission '' requires the appellant to obtain leave to appeal; in such a situation either or both of the lower court and the court may have the discretion to grant or refuse the appellant 's demand to appeal the lower court 's decision. In the Supreme Court, review in most cases is available only if the Court exercises its discretion and grants a writ of certiorari.
In tort, equity, or other civil matters either party to a previous case may file an appeal. In criminal matters, however, the state or prosecution generally has no appeal "as of right ''. And due to the double jeopardy principle, the state or prosecution may never appeal a jury or bench verdict of acquittal. But in some jurisdictions, the state or prosecution may appeal "as of right '' from a trial court 's dismissal of an indictment in whole or in part or from a trial court 's granting of a defendant 's suppression motion. Likewise, in some jurisdictions, the state or prosecution may appeal an issue of law "by leave '' from the trial court or the appellate court. The ability of the prosecution to appeal a decision in favor of a defendant varies significantly internationally. All parties must present grounds to appeal, or it will not be heard.
By convention in some law reports, the appellant is named first. This can mean that where it is the defendant who appeals, the name of the case in the law reports reverses (in some cases twice) as the appeals work their way up the court hierarchy. This is not always true, however. In the federal courts, the parties ' names always stay in the same order as the lower court when an appeal is taken to the circuit courts of appeals, and are re-ordered only if the appeal reaches the Supreme Court.
Many jurisdictions recognize two types of appeals, particularly in the criminal context. The first is the traditional "direct '' appeal in which the appellant files an appeal with the next higher court of review. The second is the collateral appeal or post-conviction petition, in which the petitioner - appellant files the appeal in a court of first instance -- usually the court that tried the case.
The key distinguishing factor between direct and collateral appeals is that the former occurs in state courts, and the latter in federal courts.
Relief in post-conviction is rare and is most often found in capital or violent felony cases. The typical scenario involves an incarcerated defendant locating DNA evidence demonstrating the defendant 's actual innocence.
"Appellate review '' is the general term for the process by which courts with appellate jurisdiction take jurisdiction of matters decided by lower courts. It is distinguished from judicial review, which refers to the court 's overriding constitutional or statutory right to determine if a legislative act or administrative decision is defective for jurisdictional or other reasons (which may vary by jurisdiction).
In most jurisdictions the normal and preferred way of seeking appellate review is by filing an appeal of the final judgment. Generally, an appeal of the judgment will also allow appeal of all other orders or rulings made by the trial court in the course of the case. This is because such orders can not be appealed "as of right ''. However, certain critical interlocutory court orders, such as the denial of a request for an interim injunction, or an order holding a person in contempt of court, can be appealed immediately although the case may otherwise not have been fully disposed of.
There are two distinct forms of appellate review, "direct '' and "collateral ''. For example, a criminal defendant may be convicted in state court, and lose on "direct appeal '' to higher state appellate courts, and if unsuccessful, mount a "collateral '' action such as filing for a writ of habeas corpus in the federal courts. Generally speaking, "(d) irect appeal statutes afford defendants the opportunity to challenge the merits of a judgment and allege errors of law or fact... (Collateral review), on the other hand, provide (s) an independent and civil inquiry into the validity of a conviction and sentence, and as such are generally limited to challenges to constitutional, jurisdictional, or other fundamental violations that occurred at trial. '' "Graham v. Borgen '', 483 F 3d. 475 (7th Cir. 2007) (no. 04 - 4103) (slip op. at 7) (citation omitted).
In Anglo - American common law courts, appellate review of lower court decisions may also be obtained by filing a petition for review by prerogative writ in certain cases. There is no corresponding right to a writ in any pure or continental civil law legal systems, though some mixed systems such as Quebec recognize these prerogative writs.
After exhausting the first appeal as of right, defendants usually petition the highest state court to review the decision. This appeal is known as a direct appeal. The highest state court, generally known as the Supreme Court, exercises discretion over whether it will review the case. On direct appeal, a prisoner challenges the grounds of the conviction based on an error that occurred at trial or some other stage in the adjudicative process.
An appellant 's claim (s) must usually be preserved at trial. This means that the defendant had to object to the error when it occurred in the trial. Because constitutional claims are of great magnitude, appellate courts might be more lenient to review the claim even if it was not preserved. For example, Connecticut applies the following standard to review unpreserved claims: 1. the record is adequate to review the alleged claim of error; 2. the claim is of constitutional magnitude alleging the violation of a fundamental right; 3. the alleged constitutional violation clearly exists and clearly deprived the defendant of a fair trial; 4. if subject to harmless error analysis, the state has failed to demonstrate harmlessness of the alleged constitutional violation beyond a reasonable doubt.
All States have a post-conviction relief process. Similar to federal post-conviction relief, an appellant can petition the court to correct alleged fundamental errors that were not corrected on direct review. Typical claims might include ineffective assistance of counsel and actual innocence based on new evidence. These proceedings are normally separate from the direct appeal, however some states allow for collateral relief to be sought on direct appeal. After direct appeal, the conviction is considered final. An appeal from the post conviction court proceeds just as a direct appeal. That is, it goes to the intermediate appellate court, followed by the highest court. If the petition is granted the appellant could be released from incarceration, the sentence could be modified, or a new trial could be ordered.
A "notice of appeal '' is a form or document that in many cases is required to begin an appeal. The form is completed by the appellant or by the appellant 's legal representative. The nature of this form can vary greatly from country to country and from court to court within a country.
The specific rules of the legal system will dictate exactly how the appeal is officially begun. For example, the appellant might have to file the notice of appeal with the appellate court, or with the court from which the appeal is taken, or both.
Some courts have samples of a notice of appeal on the court 's own web site. In New Jersey, for example, the Administrative Office of the Court has promulgated a form of notice of appeal for use by appellants, though using this exact form is not mandatory and the failure to use it is not a jurisdictional defect provided that all pertinent information is set forth in whatever form of notice of appeal is used.
The deadline for beginning an appeal can often be very short: traditionally, it is measured in days, not months. This can vary from country to country, as well as within a country, depending on the specific rules in force. In the U.S. federal court system, criminal defendants must file a notice of appeal within 10 days of the entry of either the judgment or the order being appealed, or the right to appeal is forfeited.
Generally speaking the appellate court examines the record of evidence presented in the trial court and the law that the lower court applied and decides whether that decision was legally sound or not. The appellate court will typically be deferential to the lower court 's findings of fact (such as whether a defendant committed a particular act), unless clearly erroneous, and so will focus on the court 's application of the law to those facts (such as whether the act found by the court to have occurred fits a legal definition at issue).
If the appellate court finds no defect, it "affirms '' the judgment. If the appellate court does find a legal defect in the decision "below '' (i.e., in the lower court), it may "modify '' the ruling to correct the defect, or it may nullify ("reverse '' or "vacate '') the whole decision or any part of it. It may, in addition, send the case back ("remand '' or "remit '') to the lower court for further proceedings to remedy the defect.
In some cases, an appellate court may review a lower court decision "de novo '' (or completely), challenging even the lower court 's findings of fact. This might be the proper standard of review, for example, if the lower court resolved the case by granting a pre-trial motion to dismiss or motion for summary judgment which is usually based only upon written submissions to the trial court and not on any trial testimony.
Another situation is where appeal is by way of "re-hearing ''. Certain jurisdictions permit certain appeals to cause the trial to be heard afresh in the appellate court.
Sometimes, the appellate court finds a defect in the procedure the parties used in filing the appeal and dismisses the appeal without considering its merits, which has the same effect as affirming the judgment below. (This would happen, for example, if the appellant waited too long, under the appellate court 's rules, to file the appeal.)
Generally, there is no trial in an appellate court, only consideration of the record of the evidence presented to the trial court and all the pre-trial and trial court proceedings are reviewed -- unless the appeal is by way of re-hearing, new evidence will usually only be considered on appeal in "very '' rare instances, for example if that material evidence was unavailable to a party for some very significant reason such as prosecutorial misconduct.
In some systems, an appellate court will only consider the written decision of the lower court, together with any written evidence that was before that court and is relevant to the appeal. In other systems, the appellate court will normally consider the record of the lower court. In those cases the record will first be certified by the lower court.
The appellant has the opportunity to present arguments for the granting of the appeal and the appellee (or respondent) can present arguments against it. Arguments of the parties to the appeal are presented through their appellate lawyers, if represented, or "pro se '' if the party has not engaged legal representation. Those arguments are presented in written briefs and sometimes in oral argument to the court at a hearing. At such hearings each party is allowed a brief presentation at which the appellate judges ask questions based on their review of the record below and the submitted briefs.
In an adversarial system, appellate courts do not have the power to review lower court decisions unless a party appeals it. Therefore, if a lower court has ruled in an improper manner, or against legal precedent, that judgment will stand if not appealed -- even if it might have been overturned on appeal.
The United States legal system generally recognizes two types of appeals: a trial "de novo '' or an appeal on the record.
A trial de novo is usually available for review of informal proceedings conducted by some minor judicial tribunals in proceedings that do not provide all the procedural attributes of a formal judicial trial. If unchallenged, these decisions have the power to settle more minor legal disputes once and for all. If a party is dissatisfied with the finding of such a tribunal, one generally has the power to request a trial "de novo '' by a court of record. In such a proceeding, all issues and evidence may be developed newly, as though never heard before, and one is not restricted to the evidence heard in the lower proceeding. Sometimes, however, the decision of the lower proceeding is itself admissible as evidence, thus helping to curb frivolous appeals.
In some cases, an application for "trial de novo '' effectively erases the prior trial as if it had never taken place. The Supreme Court of Virginia has stated that ' "This Court has repeatedly held that the effect of an appeal to circuit court is to "annul the judgment of the inferior tribunal as completely as if there had been no previous trial. '' ' The only exception to this is that if a defendant appeals a conviction for a crime having multiple levels of offenses, where they are convicted on a lesser offense, the appeal is of the lesser offense; the conviction represents an acquittal of the more serious offenses. "(A) trial on the same charges in the circuit court does not violate double jeopardy principles,... subject only to the limitation that conviction in (the) district court for an offense lesser included in the one charged constitutes an acquittal of the greater offense, permitting trial de novo in the circuit court only for the lesser - included offense. ''
In an appeal on the record from a decision in a judicial proceeding, both appellant and respondent are bound to base their arguments wholly on the proceedings and body of evidence as they were presented in the lower tribunal. Each seeks to prove to the higher court that the result they desired was the just result. Precedent and case law figure prominently in the arguments. In order for the appeal to succeed, the appellant must prove that the lower court committed reversible error, that is, an impermissible action by the court acted to cause a result that was unjust, and which would not have resulted had the court acted properly. Some examples of reversible error would be erroneously instructing the jury on the law applicable to the case, permitting seriously improper argument by an attorney, admitting or excluding evidence improperly, acting outside the court 's jurisdiction, injecting bias into the proceeding or appearing to do so, juror misconduct, etc. The failure to formally object at the time, to what one views as improper action in the lower court, may result in the affirmance of the lower court 's judgment on the grounds that one did not "preserve the issue for appeal '' by objecting.
In cases where a judge rather than a jury decided issues of fact, an appellate court will apply an "abuse of discretion '' standard of review. Under this standard, the appellate court gives deference to the lower court 's view of the evidence, and reverses its decision only if it were a clear abuse of discretion. This is usually defined as a decision outside the bounds of reasonableness. On the other hand, the appellate court normally gives less deference to a lower court 's decision on issues of law, and may reverse if it finds that the lower court applied the wrong legal standard.
In some cases, an appellant may successfully argue that the law under which the lower decision was rendered was unconstitutional or otherwise invalid, or may convince the higher court to order a new trial on the basis that evidence earlier sought was concealed or only recently discovered. In the case of new evidence, there must be a high probability that its presence or absence would have made a material difference in the trial. Another issue suitable for appeal in criminal cases is effective assistance of counsel. If a defendant has been convicted and can prove that his lawyer did not adequately handle his case and that there is a reasonable probability that the result of the trial would have been different had the lawyer given competent representation, he is entitled to a new trial.
A lawyer traditionally starts an oral argument to any appellate court with the words "May it please the court. ''
After an appeal is heard, the "mandate '' is a formal notice of a decision by a court of appeal; this notice is transmitted to the trial court and, when filed by the clerk of the trial court, constitutes the final judgment on the case, unless the appeal court has directed further proceedings in the trial court. The mandate is distinguished from the appeal court 's opinion, which sets out the legal reasoning for its decision. In some jurisdictions the mandate is known as the "remittitur ''.
The result of an appeal can be:
There can be multiple outcomes, so that the reviewing court can affirm some rulings, reverse others and remand the case all at the same time. Remand is not required where there is nothing left to do in the case. "Generally speaking, an appellate court 's judgment provides ' the final directive of the appeals courts as to the matter appealed, setting out with specificity the court 's determination that the action appealed from should be affirmed, reversed, remanded or modified ' ''.
Some reviewing courts who have discretionary review may send a case back without comment other than review improvidently granted. In other words, after looking at the case, they chose not to say anything. The result for the case of review improvidently granted is effectively the same as affirmed, but without that extra higher court stamp of approval.
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when was the parthenon in nashville tennessee built | Parthenon (Nashville) - wikipedia
The Parthenon in Centennial Park, Nashville, Tennessee is a full - scale replica of the original Parthenon in Athens. It was designed by Confederate veteran William Crawford Smith and built in 1897 as part of the Tennessee Centennial Exposition.
Today the Parthenon, which functions as an art museum, stands as the centerpiece of Centennial Park, a large public park just west of downtown Nashville. Alan LeQuire 's 1990 re-creation of the Athena Parthenos statue is the focus of the Parthenon just as it was in ancient Greece. The statue of Athena Parthenos within is a reconstruction of the long - lost original to careful scholarly standards: she is cuirassed and helmeted, carries a shield on her left arm and a small 6 - foot - high (1.8 m) statue of Nike (Victory) in her right palm, and stands 42 feet (13 m) high, gilt with more than 8 pounds (3.6 kg) of gold leaf; an equally colossal serpent rears its head between her and her shield. Since the building is complete and its decorations were polychromed (painted in colors) as close to the presumed original as possible, this replica of the original Parthenon in Athens serves as a monument to what is considered the pinnacle of classical architecture. The plaster replicas of the Parthenon Marbles found in the naos (the east room of the main hall) are direct casts of the original sculptures which adorned the pediments of the Athenian Parthenon, dating back to 438 BC. The surviving originals are housed in the British Museum in London and at the Acropolis Museum in Athens.
Nashville 's moniker, the "Athens of the South '', influenced the choice of the building as the centerpiece of the 1897 Centennial Exposition. A number of buildings at the Exposition were based on ancient originals, however the Parthenon was the only one that was an exact reproduction. It was also the only one that was preserved by the city, although the Knights of Pythias Pavilion building was purchased and moved to nearby Franklin, Tennessee.
Major Eugene Castner Lewis was the director of the Tennessee Centennial Exposition and it was at his suggestion that a reproduction of the Parthenon be built in Nashville to serve as the centerpiece of Tennessee 's Centennial Celebration. Lewis also served as the chief civil engineer for the Nashville, Chattanooga and St. Louis Railroad. Originally built of plaster, wood, and brick, the Parthenon was not intended to be permanent, but the cost of demolishing the structure combined with its popularity with residents and visitors alike resulted in it being left standing after the Exposition. In 1895 George Julian Zolnay was "employed to make models for the ornamentation '' for the building. Within the next 20 years, weather had defaced the landmark; it was then rebuilt on the same foundations, in concrete, in a project that started in 1920; the exterior was completed in 1925 and the interior in 1931.
Some of the most elaborate events that occurred at the Parthenon were the Spring Pageants of 1913 and 1914. These extravaganzas were theatrical productions on a massive scale. With casts of up to 500, the Pageants brought in audiences from surroundings states and rail prices were lowered to encourage attendance. The entire city of Nashville reveled in the opportunity to celebrate the "Athens of the South. '' The 1913 performance was entitled The Fire Regained, a play written by Sidney Mttron Hirsch, and featured a mythological storyline enhanced by theatrical spectacle popular in that era. The 1914 production, "The Mystery at Thanatos, '' had a similarly mythological plot, but was shorter and better received. A copy of the script is on file at the Nashville Public Library. The most impressive thing about these Pageants was the incredible use of visual spectacle. Both shows featured impressive displays ranging from chariot races to huge dance numbers to thousands of live birds to set pieces that shot flames, all set against the backdrop of the majestic Nashville Parthenon.
As an art museum, the Parthenon 's permanent collection is a group of 63 paintings by 19th - and 20th - century American artists donated by James M. Cowan. Additional gallery spaces provide a venue for a variety of temporary shows and exhibits.
In the summertime, local theatre productions use the building as a backdrop for classic Greek plays such as Euripides ' Medea and Sophocles ' Antigone, performing (usually for free) on the steps of the Parthenon. Other performances, such as Mary Zimmerman 's Metamorphoses, have been done inside, at the foot of Athena 's statue.
It contains a replica, completed in 1990, of the Athena Parthenos statue which was in the original Parthenon in Athens.
The Parthenon got a full makeover in 2002 with a much needed cleaning and restoration to the exterior. The exterior lighting was upgraded to allow the columns of the building to be illuminated with different colors than the facade, allowing a uniquely versatile display of effects for events.
The Parthenon served as the location for the political rally in the climactic scene of Robert Altman 's 1975 film Nashville. It was also used as a backdrop for the battle against the Hydra in the 2010 film Percy Jackson & the Olympians: The Lightning Thief. It features in the title and lyrics of the song Nashville Parthenon from the album Etiquette, by Casiotone for the Painfully Alone. It was used in the 2000 PBS series Greeks: Crucible of Civilization. A poem titled "Ganymede '' in Heather Ross Miller 's Celestial Navigator: Writing Poems with Randall Jarrell features the Parthenon.
The structure also figures in the climax of the Hector Lassiter novel, "Three Chords & The Truth, '' by Craig McDonald.
Statue of Athena
Statues
The center of the statues
View from the corner
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how far is it from here to rockford illinois | Illinois - wikipedia
Illinois (/ ˌɪlɪˈnɔɪ / (listen) IL - ih - NOY) is a state in the Midwestern region of the United States. It is the 5th most populous state and 25th largest state in terms of land area, and is often noted as a microcosm of the entire country. With Chicago in the northeast, small industrial cities and great agricultural productivity in central and northern Illinois, and natural resources like coal, timber, and petroleum in the south, Illinois has a diverse economic base and is a major transportation hub. The Port of Chicago connects the state to other global ports from the Great Lakes, via the Saint Lawrence Seaway, to the Atlantic Ocean, as well as the Great Lakes to the Mississippi River, via the Illinois Waterway. For decades, O'Hare International Airport has been ranked as one of the world 's busiest airports. Illinois has long had a reputation as a bellwether both in social and cultural terms and politics.
Although today the state 's largest population center is around Chicago in the northeastern part of the state, the state 's European population grew first in the west, with French Canadians who settled along the Mississippi River, and gave the area the name Illinois country. After the American Revolutionary War established the United States, American settlers began arriving from Kentucky in the 1780s via the Ohio River, and the population grew from south to north. In 1818, Illinois achieved statehood. After construction of the Erie Canal increased traffic and trade through the Great Lakes, Chicago was founded in the 1830s on the banks of the Chicago River, at one of the few natural harbors on southern Lake Michigan. John Deere 's invention of the self - scouring steel plow turned Illinois 's rich prairie into some of the world 's most productive and valuable farmland, attracting immigrant farmers from Germany and Sweden. The Illinois and Michigan Canal (1848) made transportation between the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River valley faster and cheaper. New railroads carried immigrants to new homes, as well as being used to ship commodity crops to Eastern markets. The state became a transportation hub for the nation.
By 1900, the growth of industrial jobs in the northern cities and coal mining in the central and southern areas attracted immigrants from Eastern and Southern Europe. Illinois was an important manufacturing center during both world wars. The Great Migration from the South established a large community of African Americans in the state, including Chicago, who created the city 's famous jazz and blues cultures. Chicago, the center of the Chicago Metropolitan Area, became a global alpha - level city.
Three U.S. presidents have been elected while living in Illinois: Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant, and Barack Obama. Additionally, Ronald Reagan, whose political career was based in California, was the only U.S. president born and raised in Illinois. Today, Illinois honors Lincoln with its official state slogan, Land of Lincoln, which has been displayed on its license plates since 1954. The Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum is located in the state capital of Springfield.
"Illinois '' is the modern spelling for the early French Catholic missionaries and explorers ' name for the Illinois Native Americans, a name that was spelled in many different ways in the early records.
American scholars previously thought the name "Illinois '' meant "man '' or "men '' in the Miami - Illinois language, with the original iliniwek transformed via French into Illinois. This etymology is not supported by the Illinois language, as the word for ' man ' is ireniwa and plural ' men ' is ireniwaki. The name Illiniwek has also been said to mean "tribe of superior men '', which is a false etymology. The name "Illinois '' derives from the Miami - Illinois verb irenwe wa "he speaks the regular way ''. This was taken into the Ojibwe language, perhaps in the Ottawa dialect, and modified into ilinwe (pluralized as ilinwe k). The French borrowed these forms, changing the / we / ending to spell it as - ois, a transliteration for its pronunciation in French of that time. The current spelling form, Illinois, began to appear in the early 1670s, when French colonists had settled in the western area. The Illinois ' name for themselves, as attested in all three of the French missionary - period dictionaries of Illinois, was Inoka, of unknown meaning and unrelated to the other terms.
American Indians of successive cultures lived along the waterways of the Illinois area for thousands of years before the arrival of Europeans. The Koster Site has been excavated and demonstrates 7,000 years of continuous habitation. Cahokia, the largest regional chiefdom and urban center of the Pre-Columbian Mississippian culture, was located near present - day Collinsville, Illinois. They built an urban complex of more than 100 platform and burial mounds, a 50 acres (20 ha) plaza larger than 35 football fields, and a woodhenge of sacred cedar, all in a planned design expressing the culture 's cosmology. Monks Mound, the center of the site, is the largest Pre-Columbian structure north of the Valley of Mexico. It is 100 feet (30 m) high, 951 feet (290 m) long, 836 feet (255 m) wide and covers 13.8 acres (5.6 ha). It contains about 814,000 cubic yards (622,000 m) of earth. It was topped by a structure thought to have measured about 105 feet (32 m) in length and 48 feet (15 m) in width, covered an area 5,000 square feet (460 m), and been as much as 50 feet (15 m) high, making its peak 150 feet (46 m) above the level of the plaza. The finely crafted ornaments and tools recovered by archaeologists at Cahokia include elaborate ceramics, finely sculptured stonework, carefully embossed and engraved copper and mica sheets, and one funeral blanket for an important chief fashioned from 20,000 shell beads. These artifacts indicate that Cahokia was truly an urban center, with clustered housing, markets, and specialists in toolmaking, hide dressing, potting, jewelry making, shell engraving, weaving and salt making. The civilization vanished in the 15th century for unknown reasons, but historians and archeologists have speculated that the people depleted the area of resources. Many indigenous tribes engaged in constant warfare. According to Suzanne Austin Alchon, "At one site in the central Illinois River valley, one - third of all adults died as a result of violent injuries. '' The next major power in the region was the Illinois Confederation or Illini, a political alliance. As the Illini declined during the Beaver Wars era, members of the Algonquian - speaking Potawatomi, Miami, Sauk, and other tribes including the Fox (Mesquakie), Ioway, Kickapoo, Mascouten, Piankashaw, Shawnee, Wea, and Winnebago (Ho - Chunk) came into the area from the east and north around the Great Lakes.
French explorers Jacques Marquette and Louis Jolliet explored the Illinois River in 1673. Marquette soon after founded a mission at the Grand Village of the Illinois in Illinois Country. In 1680, French explorers under René - Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle and Henri de Tonti constructed a fort at the site of present - day Peoria, and in 1682, a fort atop Starved Rock in today 's Starved Rock State Park. French Empire Canadiens came south to settle particularly along the Mississippi River, and Illinois was part of first New France and then of La Louisiane until 1763, when it passed to the British with their defeat of France in the Seven Years ' War. The small French settlements continued, although many French migrated west to Ste. Genevieve and St. Louis, Missouri to evade British rule.
A few British soldiers were posted in Illinois, but few British or American settlers moved there, as the Crown made it part of the territory reserved for Indians west of the Appalachians, and then part of the British Province of Quebec. In 1778, George Rogers Clark claimed Illinois County for Virginia. In a compromise, Virginia ceded the area to the new United States in 1783 and it became part of the Northwest Territory, to be administered by the federal government and later organized as states. Connecticut ceded northern Illinois in 1786 (see Connecticut Western Reserve).
The Illinois - Wabash Company was an early claimant to much of Illinois. The Illinois Territory was created on February 3, 1809, with its capital at Kaskaskia, an early French settlement.
During the discussions leading up to Illinois 's admission to the Union, the proposed northern boundary of the state was moved twice. The original provisions of the Northwest Ordinance had specified a boundary that would have been tangent to the southern tip of Lake Michigan. Such a boundary would have left Illinois with no shoreline on Lake Michigan at all. However, as Indiana had successfully been granted a 10 - mile northern extension of its boundary to provide it with a usable lakefront, the original bill for Illinois statehood, submitted to Congress on January 23, 1818, stipulated a northern border at the same latitude as Indiana 's, which is defined as 10 miles (16 km) north of the southernmost extremity of Lake Michigan. But the Illinois delegate, Nathaniel Pope, wanted more. Pope lobbied to have the boundary moved further north, and the final bill passed by Congress did just that; it included an amendment to shift the border to 42 ° 30 ' north, which is approximately 51 miles (82 km) north of the Indiana northern border. This shift added 8,500 square miles (22,000 km) to the state, including the lead mining region near Galena. More importantly, it added nearly 50 miles of Lake Michigan shoreline and the Chicago River. Pope and others envisioned a canal that would connect the Chicago and Illinois rivers, and thus, connect the Great Lakes to the Mississippi.
In 1818, Illinois became the 21st U.S. state. The capital remained at Kaskaskia, headquartered in a small building rented by the state. In 1819, Vandalia became the capital, and over the next 18 years, three separate buildings were built to serve successively as the capitol building. In 1837, the state legislators representing Sangamon County, under the leadership of state representative Abraham Lincoln, succeeded in having the capital moved to Springfield, where a fifth capitol building was constructed. A sixth capitol building was erected in 1867, which continues to serve as the Illinois capitol today.
Though it was ostensibly a "free state '', there was slavery in Illinois. The ethnic French had owned black slaves since the 1720s, and American settlers had already brought slaves into the area from Kentucky. Slavery was nominally banned by the Northwest Ordinance, but that was not enforced for those already holding slaves. When Illinois became a sovereign state in 1818, the Ordinance no longer applied, and about 900 slaves were held in the state. As the southern part of the state, later known as "Egypt '' or "Little Egypt '', was largely settled by migrants from the South, the section was hostile to free blacks. Settlers were allowed to bring slaves with them for labor but, in 1822, state residents voted against making slavery legal. Still, most residents opposed allowing free blacks as permanent residents. Some settlers brought in slaves seasonally or as house servants. The Illinois Constitution of 1848 was written with a provision for exclusionary laws to be passed. In 1853, John A. Logan helped pass a law to prohibit all African Americans, including freedmen, from settling in the state.
In 1832, the Black Hawk War was fought in Illinois and current - day Wisconsin between the United States and the Sauk, Fox (Meskwaki) and Kickapoo Indian tribes. It represents the end of Indian resistance to white settlement in the Chicago region. The Indians had been forced to leave their homes and move to Iowa in 1831; when they attempted to return, they were attacked and eventually defeated by U.S. militia. The survivors were forced back to Iowa.
The winter of 1830 -- 1831 is called the "Winter of the Deep Snow ''; a sudden, deep snowfall blanketed the state, making travel impossible for the rest of the winter, and many travelers perished. Several severe winters followed, including the "Winter of the Sudden Freeze ''. On December 20, 1836, a fast - moving cold front passed through, freezing puddles in minutes and killing many travelers who could not reach shelter. The adverse weather resulted in crop failures in the northern part of the state. The southern part of the state shipped food north and this may have contributed to its name: "Little Egypt '', after the Biblical story of Joseph in Egypt supplying grain to his brothers.
By 1839, the Latter Day Saints had founded a utopian city called Nauvoo. Located in Hancock County along the Mississippi River, Nauvoo flourished and soon rivaled Chicago for the position of the state 's largest city. But in 1844, the Latter Day Saint movement founder Joseph Smith was killed in the Carthage Jail, about 30 miles away from Nauvoo. Following a succession crisis (Latter Day Saints), Brigham Young led most Latter Day Saints out of Illinois in a mass exodus to present - day Utah; after close to six years of rapid development, Nauvoo rapidly declined afterward.
Chicago gained prominence as a Great Lakes port and then as an Illinois and Michigan Canal port after 1848, and as a rail hub soon afterward. By 1857, Chicago was Illinois 's largest city. With the tremendous growth of mines and factories in the state in the 19th century, Illinois was the ground for the formation of labor unions in the United States.
In 1847, after lobbying by Dorothea L. Dix, Illinois became one of the first states to establish a system of state - supported treatment of mental illness and disabilities, replacing local almshouses. Dix came into this effort after having met J.O. King, a Jacksonville, Illinois businessman, who invited her to Illinois where he had been working to build an asylum for the insane. With the lobbying expertise of Dix, plans for the Jacksonville State Hospital (now known as the Jacksonville Developmental Center) were signed into law on March 1, 1847.
During the American Civil War, Illinois ranked fourth in men who served (more than 250,000) in the Union Army, a figure surpassed by only New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio. Beginning with President Abraham Lincoln 's first call for troops and continuing throughout the war, Illinois mustered 150 infantry regiments, which were numbered from the 7th to the 156th regiments. Seventeen cavalry regiments were also gathered, as well as two light artillery regiments. The town of Cairo, at the southern tip of the state at the confluence of the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers, served as a strategically important supply base and training center for the Union army. For several months, both General Grant and Admiral Foote had headquarters in Cairo.
During the Civil War, and more so afterwards, Chicago 's population skyrocketed, which increased its prominence. The Pullman Strike and Haymarket Riot, in particular, greatly influenced the development of the American labor movement. From Sunday, October 8, 1871, until Tuesday, October 10, 1871, the Great Chicago Fire burned in downtown Chicago, destroying 4 square miles (10 km).
At the turn of the 20th century, Illinois had a population of nearly 5 million. Many people from other parts of the country were attracted to the state by employment caused by the then - expanding industrial base. Whites were 98 % of the state 's population. Bolstered by continued immigration from southern and eastern Europe, and by the African - American Great Migration from the South, Illinois grew and emerged as one of the most important states in the union. By the end of the century, the population had reached 12.4 million.
The Century of Progress World 's Fair was held at Chicago in 1933. Oil strikes in Marion County and Crawford County led to a boom in 1937, and by 1939, Illinois ranked fourth in U.S. oil production. Illinois manufactured 6.1 percent of total United States military armaments produced during World War II, ranking seventh among the 48 states. Chicago became an ocean port with the opening of the Saint Lawrence Seaway in 1959. The seaway and the Illinois Waterway connected Chicago to both the Mississippi River and the Atlantic Ocean. In 1960, Ray Kroc opened the first McDonald 's franchise in Des Plaines (which still exists as a museum, with a working McDonald 's across the street).
Illinois had a prominent role in the emergence of the nuclear age. In 1942, as part of the Manhattan Project, the University of Chicago conducted the first sustained nuclear chain reaction. In 1957, Argonne National Laboratory, near Chicago, activated the first experimental nuclear power generating system in the United States. By 1960, the first privately financed nuclear plant in the United States, Dresden 1, was dedicated near Morris. In 1967, Fermilab, a national nuclear research facility near Batavia, opened a particle accelerator, which was the world 's largest for over 40 years. With eleven plants currently operating, Illinois leads all states in the amount of electricity generated from nuclear power.
In 1961, Illinois became the first state in the nation to adopt the recommendation of the American Law Institute and pass a comprehensive criminal code revision that repealed the law against sodomy. The code also abrogated common law crimes and established an age of consent of 18. The state 's fourth constitution was adopted in 1970, replacing the 1870 document.
The first Farm Aid concert was held in Champaign to benefit American farmers, in 1985. The worst upper Mississippi River flood of the century, the Great Flood of 1993, inundated many towns and thousands of acres of farmland.
Illinois is located in the Midwest Region of the United States and is one of the eight states and Canadian Province of Ontario in the bi-national Great Lakes region of North America.
Illinois 's eastern border with Indiana consists of a north - south line at 87 ° 31 ′ 30 '' west longitude in Lake Michigan at the north, to the Wabash River in the south above Post Vincennes. The Wabash River continues as the eastern / southeastern border with Indiana until the Wabash enters the Ohio River. This marks the beginning of Illinois 's southern border with Kentucky, which runs along the northern shoreline of the Ohio River. Most of the western border with Missouri and Iowa is the Mississippi River; Kaskaskia is an exclave of Illinois, lying west of the Mississippi and reachable only from Missouri. The state 's northern border with Wisconsin is fixed at 42 ° 30 ' north latitude. The northeastern border of Illinois lies in Lake Michigan, within which Illinois shares a water boundary with the state of Michigan, as well as Wisconsin and Indiana.
Though Illinois lies entirely in the Interior Plains, it does have some minor variation in its elevation. In extreme northwestern Illinois, the Driftless Area, a region of unglaciated and therefore higher and more rugged topography, occupies a small part of the state. Charles Mound, located in this region, has the state 's highest elevation above sea level at 1,235 feet (376 m). Other highlands include the Shawnee Hills in the south, and there is varying topography along its rivers; the Illinois River bisects the state northeast to southwest. The floodplain on the Mississippi River from Alton to the Kaskaskia River is known as the American Bottom.
Illinois has three major geographical divisions. Northern Illinois is dominated by Chicagoland, which is the city of Chicago and its suburbs, and the adjoining exurban area into which the metropolis is expanding. As defined by the federal government, the Chicago metro area includes several counties in Illinois, Indiana, and Wisconsin, and has a population of over 9.8 million people. Chicago itself is a cosmopolitan city, densely populated, industrialized, and the transportation hub of the nation, and settled by a wide variety of ethnic groups. The city of Rockford, Illinois 's third - largest city and center of the state 's fourth largest metropolitan area, sits along Interstates 39 and 90 some 75 miles (121 km) northwest of Chicago. The Quad Cities region, located along the Mississippi River in northern Illinois, had a population of 381,342 in 2011.
The midsection of Illinois is a second major division, called Central Illinois. It is an area of mainly prairie and known as the Heart of Illinois. It is characterized by small towns and medium - small cities. The western section (west of the Illinois River) was originally part of the Military Tract of 1812 and forms the conspicuous western bulge of the state. Agriculture, particularly corn and soybeans, as well as educational institutions and manufacturing centers, figure prominently in Central Illinois. Cities include Peoria; Springfield, the state capital; Quincy; Decatur; Bloomington - Normal; and Champaign - Urbana.
The third division is Southern Illinois, comprising the area south of U.S. Route 50, including Little Egypt, near the juncture of the Mississippi River and Ohio River. Southern Illinois is the site of the ancient city of Cahokia, as well as the site of the first state capital at Kaskaskia, which today is separated from the rest of the state by the Mississippi River. This region has a somewhat warmer winter climate, different variety of crops (including some cotton farming in the past), more rugged topography (due to the area remaining unglaciated during the Illinoian Stage, unlike most of the rest of the state), as well as small - scale oil deposits and coal mining. The Illinois suburbs of St. Louis, such as East St. Louis are located in this region and collectively they are known as the Metro - East. The other somewhat significant concentration of population in Southern Illinois is the Carbondale - Marion - Herrin, Illinois Combined Statistical Area centered on Carbondale and Marion, a two - county area that is home to 123,272 residents. A portion of southeastern Illinois is part of the extended Evansville, Indiana Metro Area, locally referred to as the Tri-State with Indiana and Kentucky. Seven Illinois counties are in the area.
In addition to these three, largely latitudinally defined divisions, all of the region outside the Chicago Metropolitan area is often called "downstate '' Illinois. This term is flexible, but is generally meant to mean everything outside the Chicago - area. Thus, some cities in Northern Illinois, such as DeKalb, which is west of Chicago, and Rockford -- which is actually north of Chicago -- are considered to be "downstate ''.
Illinois has a climate that varies widely throughout the year. Because of its nearly 400 - mile distance between its northernmost and southernmost extremes, as well as its mid-continental situation, most of Illinois has a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfa), with hot, humid summers and cold winters. The southern part of the state, from about Carbondale southward, has a humid subtropical climate (Koppen Cfa), with more moderate winters. Average yearly precipitation for Illinois varies from just over 48 inches (1,219 mm) at the southern tip to around 35 inches (889 mm) in the northern portion of the state. Normal annual snowfall exceeds 38 inches (965 mm) in the Chicago area, while the southern portion of the state normally receives less than 14 inches (356 mm). The all - time high temperature was 117 ° F (47 ° C), recorded on July 14, 1954, at East St. Louis, while the all - time low temperature was − 36 ° F (− 38 ° C), recorded on January 5, 1999, at Congerville. A temperature of − 37 ° F (− 39 ° C), was recorded on January 15, 2009, at Rochelle.
Illinois averages approximately 51 days of thunderstorm activity a year, which ranks somewhat above average in the number of thunderstorm days for the United States. Illinois is vulnerable to tornadoes with an average of 35 occurring annually, which puts much of the state at around five tornadoes per 10,000 square miles (30,000 km) annually. While tornadoes are no more powerful in Illinois than other states, some of Tornado Alley 's deadliest tornadoes on record have occurred in the state. The Tri-State Tornado of 1925 killed 695 people in three states; 613 of the victims died in Illinois. Other significant high - casualty tornadoes include the 1896 St. Louis -- East St. Louis tornado, which killed 111 people in East St. Louis and a May 1917 tornado that killed 101 people in Charleston and Mattoon. Modern developments in storm forecasting and tracking have caused death tolls from tornadoes to decline dramatically, with the 1967 Belvidere -- Oak Lawn tornado outbreak (58 fatalities) and 1990 Plainfield tornado (29 fatalities) standing out as exceptions. On November 17, 2013, an EF4 tornado touched down and ripped through Washington, Illinois. There were three fatalities.
The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Illinois was 12,801,539 on July 1, 2016, a 0.23 % decrease since the 2010 United States Census. Illinois is the most populous state in the Midwest region. Chicago, the third most populous city in the United States, is the center of the Chicago metropolitan area. Chicagoland, as this area is known locally, comprises only 8 % of the land area of the state, but contains 65 % of the state 's residents.
According to the 2010 Census, the racial composition of the state was:
In the same year 15.8 % of the total population was of Hispanic or Latino origin (they may be of any race).
The state 's most populous ethnic group, non-Hispanic white, has declined from 83.5 % in 1970 to 63.3 % in 2011. As of 2011, 49.4 % of Illinois 's population younger than age 1 were minorities (note: children born to white Hispanics are counted as minority group).
At the 2007 estimates from the U.S. Census Bureau, there were 1,768,518 foreign - born inhabitants of the state or 13.8 % of the population, with 48.4 % from Latin America, 24.6 % from Asia, 22.8 % from Europe, 2.9 % from Africa, 1.2 % from Northern America and 0.2 % from Oceania. Of the foreign - born population, 43.7 % were naturalized U.S. citizens and 56.3 % were not U.S. citizens. In 2007, 6.9 % of Illinois 's population was reported as being under age 5, 24.9 % under age 18 and 12.1 % were age 65 and over. Females made up approximately 50.7 % of the population.
According to the 2007 estimates, 21.1 % of the population had German ancestry, 13.3 % had Irish ancestry, 8 % had British ancestry, 7.9 % had Polish ancestry, 6.4 % had Italian ancestry, 4.6 % listed themselves as American, 2.4 % had Swedish ancestry, 2.2 % had French ancestry, other than Basque, 1.6 % had Dutch ancestry, and 1.4 % had Norwegian ancestry. Illinois also has large numbers of African Americans and Latinos (mostly Mexicans and Puerto Ricans).
Chicago, along the shores of Lake Michigan, is the nation 's third largest city. In 2000, 23.3 % of Illinois 's population lived in the city of Chicago, 43.3 % in Cook County, and 65.6 % in the counties of the Chicago metropolitan area: Will, DuPage, Kane, Lake, and McHenry counties, as well as Cook County. The remaining population lives in the smaller cities and rural areas that dot the state 's plains. As of 2000, the state 's center of population was at 41 ° 16 ′ 42 '' N 88 ° 22 ′ 49 '' W / 41.278216 ° N 88.380238 ° W / 41.278216; - 88.380238, located in Grundy County, northeast of the village of Mazon.
Note: Births in table do n't add up, because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number.
Chicago is the largest city in the state and the third most populous city in the United States, with its 2010 population of 2,695,598. The U.S. Census Bureau currently lists seven other cities with populations of over 100,000 within Illinois. Based upon the Census Bureau 's official 2010 population: Aurora, a Chicago satellite town that eclipsed Rockford for the title of second most populous city in Illinois; its 2010 population was 197,899. Rockford, at 152,871, is the third largest city in the state, and is the largest city in the state not located within the Chicago suburbs. Joliet, located in metropolitan Chicago, is the fourth largest city in the state, with a population of 147,433. Naperville, a suburb of Chicago, is fifth with 141,853. Naperville and Aurora share a boundary along Illinois Route 59. Springfield, the state 's capital, comes in as sixth most populous with 117,352 residents. Peoria, which decades ago was the second-most populous city in the state, is seventh with 115,007. The eighth largest and final city in the 100,000 club is Elgin, a northwest suburb of Chicago, with a 2010 population of 108,188.
The most populated city in the state south of Springfield is Belleville, with 44,478 people at the 2010 census. It is located in the Illinois portion of Greater St. Louis (often called the Metro - East area), which has a rapidly growing population of over 700,000 people.
Other major urban areas include the Champaign - Urbana Metropolitan Area, which has a combined population of almost 230,000 people, the Illinois portion of the Quad Cities area with about 215,000 people, and the Bloomington - Normal area with a combined population of over 165,000.
Major cities and towns
The official language of Illinois is English, although between 1923 and 1969 state law gave official status to "the American language. '' Nearly 80 % of people in Illinois speak English natively, and most of the rest speak it fluently as a second language. A number of dialects of American English are spoken, ranging from Inland Northern American English and African - American English around Chicago, to Midland American English in Central Illinois to Southern American English in the far south.
Over 20 % of Illinoians speak a language other than English at home, of which Spanish is by far the most widespread at more than 12 % of the total population. A sizeable number of Polish speakers is present in the Chicago Metropolitan Area.
Roman Catholics constitute the single largest religious denomination in Illinois; they are heavily concentrated in and around Chicago, and account for nearly 30 % of the state 's population. However, taken together as a group, the various Protestant denominations comprise a greater percentage of the state 's population than do Catholics. In 2010 Catholics in Illinois numbered 3,648,907. The largest Protestant denominations were the United Methodist Church with 314,461, and the Southern Baptist Convention, with 283,519 members. Illinois has one of the largest concentrations of Missouri Synod Lutherans in the United States.
Illinois played an important role in the early Latter Day Saint movement, with Nauvoo, Illinois, becoming a gathering place for Mormons in the early 1840s. Nauvoo was the location of the succession crisis, which led to the separation of the Mormon movement into several Latter Day Saint sects. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints, the largest of the sects to emerge from the Mormon schism, has over 55,000 adherents in Illinois today.
Chicago and its suburbs are also home to a large and growing population of Hindus, Muslims, Baha'is and Buddhists. Muslims constituted the largest non-Christian group with 359,264 adherents. Illinois has the largest concentration of Muslims by state in the country with 2800 Muslims per 100,000 citizens. The largest and oldest surviving Bahá'í House of Worship in the world is located in Wilmette, Illinois and the oldest standing mosque in the U.S. is the Al - Sadiq Mosque of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, located in the Bronzeville neighborhood of Chicago. The Chicago area has a large Jewish community, particularly in the suburbs of Skokie and Morton Grove. Current Chicago Mayor Rahm Emanuel is the Windy City 's first Jewish mayor.
The dollar gross state product for Illinois was estimated to be US $772 billion in 2015. The state 's 2010 per capita gross state product was estimated to be US $45,302, and its per capita personal income was estimated to be US $41,411 in 2009.
As of May 2017, the state 's unemployment rate was 4.6 %.
Illinois 's state income tax is calculated by multiplying net income by a flat rate. In 1990, that rate was set at 3 %, but in 2010, the General Assembly voted in a temporary increase in the rate to 5 %; the new rate went into effect on January 1, 2011; the personal income rate partially sunset on January 1, 2015 to 3.75 %, while the corporate income tax fell to 5.25 %. There are two rates for state sales tax: 6.25 % for general merchandise and 1 % for qualifying food, drugs, and medical appliances. The property tax is a major source of tax revenue for local government taxing districts. The property tax is a local -- not state -- tax, imposed by local government taxing districts, which include counties, townships, municipalities, school districts, and special taxation districts. The property tax in Illinois is imposed only on real property.
Illinois 's major agricultural outputs are corn, soybeans, hogs, cattle, dairy products, and wheat. In most years, Illinois is either the first or second state for the highest production of soybeans, with a harvest of 427.7 million bushels (11.64 million metric tons) in 2008, after Iowa 's production of 444.82 million bushels (12.11 million metric tons). Illinois ranks second in U.S. corn production with more than 1.5 billion bushels produced annually. With a production capacity of 1.5 billion gallons per year, Illinois is a top producer of ethanol, ranking third in the United States in 2011. Illinois is a leader in food manufacturing and meat processing. Although Chicago may no longer be "Hog Butcher for the World, '' the Chicago area remains a global center for food manufacture and meat processing, with many plants, processing houses, and distribution facilities concentrated in the area of the former Union Stock Yards. Illinois also produces wine, and the state is home to two American viticultural areas. In the area of The Meeting of the Great Rivers Scenic Byway, peaches and apples are grown. The German immigrants from agricultural backgrounds who settled in Illinois in the mid - to late 19th century are in part responsible for the profusion of fruit orchards in that area of Illinois. Illinois 's universities are actively researching alternative agricultural products as alternative crops.
Illinois is one of the nation 's manufacturing leaders, boasting annual value added productivity by manufacturing of over $107 billion in 2006. As of 2011, Illinois is ranked as the 4th most productive manufacturing state in the country, behind California, Texas, and Ohio. About three - quarters of the state 's manufacturers are located in the Northeastern Opportunity Return Region, with 38 percent of Illinois 's approximately 18,900 manufacturing plants located in Cook County. As of 2006, the leading manufacturing industries in Illinois, based upon value - added, were chemical manufacturing ($18.3 billion), machinery manufacturing ($13.4 billion), food manufacturing ($12.9 billion), fabricated metal products ($11.5 billion), transportation equipment ($7.4 billion), plastics and rubber products ($7.0 billion), and computer and electronic products ($6.1 billion).
By the early 2000s, Illinois 's economy had moved toward a dependence on high - value - added services, such as financial trading, higher education, law, logistics, and medicine. In some cases, these services clustered around institutions that hearkened back to Illinois 's earlier economies. For example, the Chicago Mercantile Exchange, a trading exchange for global derivatives, had begun its life as an agricultural futures market. Other important non-manufacturing industries include publishing, tourism, and energy production and distribution.
Venture capitalists funded a total of approximately $62 billion in the US economy in 2016. Of this amount, Illinois based companies received approximately $1.1 billion. Similarly, in FY 2016 the US federal government spent $461 billion on contracts in the US. Of this amount, Illinois based companies received approximately $8.7 billion.
Illinois is a net importer of fuels for energy, despite large coal resources and some minor oil production. Illinois exports electricity, ranking fifth among states in electricity production and seventh in electricity consumption.
The coal industry of Illinois has its origins in the middle 19th century, when entrepreneurs such as Jacob Loose discovered coal in locations such as Sangamon County. Jacob Bunn contributed to the development of the Illinois coal industry, and was a founder and owner of the Western Coal & Mining Company of Illinois. About 68 % of Illinois has coal - bearing strata of the Pennsylvanian geologic period. According to the Illinois State Geological Survey, 211 billion tons of bituminous coal are estimated to lie under the surface, having a total heating value greater than the estimated oil deposits in the Arabian Peninsula. However, this coal has a high sulfur content, which causes acid rain unless special equipment is used to reduce sulfur dioxide emissions. Many Illinois power plants are not equipped to burn high - sulfur coal. In 1999, Illinois produced 40.4 million tons of coal, but only 17 million tons (42 %) of Illinois coal was consumed in Illinois. Most of the coal produced in Illinois is exported to other states and countries. In 2008, Illinois exported 3 million tons of coal and was projected to export 9 million tons in 2011, as demand for energy grows in places such as China, India, and elsewhere in Asia and Europe. As of 2010, Illinois was ranked third in recoverable coal reserves at producing mines in the nation. Most of the coal produced in Illinois is exported to other states, while much of the coal burned for power in Illinois (21 million tons in 1998) is mined in the Powder River Basin of Wyoming.
Mattoon was recently chosen as the site for the Department of Energy 's FutureGen project, a 275 megawatt experimental zero emission coal - burning power plant that the DOE just gave a second round of funding. In 2010, after a number of setbacks, the city of Mattoon backed out of the project.
Illinois is a leading refiner of petroleum in the American Midwest, with a combined crude oil distillation capacity of nearly 900,000 barrels per day (140,000 m / d). However, Illinois has very limited crude oil proved reserves that account for less than 1 % of U.S. crude oil proved reserves. Residential heating is 81 % natural gas compared to less than 1 % heating oil. Illinois is ranked 14th in oil production among states, with a daily output of approximately 28,000 barrels (4,500 m) in 2005.
Nuclear power arguably began in Illinois with the Chicago Pile - 1, the world 's first artificial self - sustaining nuclear chain reaction in the world 's first nuclear reactor, built on the University of Chicago campus. There are six operating nuclear power plants in Illinois: Braidwood, Byron, Clinton, Dresden, LaSalle, and Quad Cities. With the exception of the single - unit Clinton plant, each of these facilities has two reactors. Three reactors have been permanently shut down and are in various stages of decommissioning: Dresden - 1 and Zion - 1 and 2. Illinois ranked first in the nation in 2010 in both nuclear capacity and nuclear generation. Generation from its nuclear power plants accounted for 12 percent of the nation 's total. In 2007, 48 % of Illinois 's electricity was generated using nuclear power. The Morris Operation is the only de facto high - level radioactive waste storage site in the United States.
Illinois has seen growing interest in the use of wind power for electrical generation. Most of Illinois was rated in 2009 as "marginal or fair '' for wind energy production by the U.S. Department of Energy, with some western sections rated "good '' and parts of the south rated "poor ''. These ratings are for wind turbines with 50 - metre (160 ft) hub heights; newer wind turbines are taller, enabling them to reach stronger winds farther from the ground. As a result, more areas of Illinois have become prospective wind farm sites. As of September 2009, Illinois had 1116.06 MW of installed wind power nameplate capacity with another 741.9 MW under construction. Illinois ranked ninth among U.S. states in installed wind power capacity, and sixteenth by potential capacity. Large wind farms in Illinois include Twin Groves, Rail Splitter, EcoGrove, and Mendota Hills.
As of 2007, wind energy represented only 1.7 % of Illinois 's energy production, and it was estimated that wind power could provide 5 -- 10 % of the state 's energy needs. Also, the Illinois General Assembly mandated in 2007 that by 2025, 25 % of all electricity generated in Illinois is to come from renewable resources.
Illinois is ranked second in corn production among U.S. states, and Illinois corn is used to produce 40 % of the ethanol consumed in the United States. The Archer Daniels Midland corporation in Decatur, Illinois is the world 's leading producer of ethanol from corn.
The National Corn - to - Ethanol Research Center (NCERC), the world 's only facility dedicated to researching the ways and means of converting corn (maize) to ethanol is located on the campus of Southern Illinois University Edwardsville.
University of Illinois at Urbana - Champaign is one of the partners in the Energy Biosciences Institute (EBI), a $500 million biofuels research project funded by petroleum giant BP.
Illinois has numerous museums; the greatest concentration of these is in Chicago. Several museums in the city of Chicago are considered some of the best in the world. These include the John G. Shedd Aquarium, the Field Museum of Natural History, the Art Institute of Chicago, the Adler Planetarium, and the Museum of Science and Industry.
The modern Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum in Springfield is the largest and most attended presidential library in the country. The Illinois State Museum boasts a collection of 13.5 million objects that tell the story of Illinois life, land, people, and art. The ISM is among only 5 % of the nation 's museums that are accredited by the American Alliance of Museums. Other historical museums in the state include the Polish Museum of America in Chicago; Magnolia Manor in Cairo; Easley Pioneer Museum in Ipava; the Elihu Benjamin Washburne; Ulysses S. Grant Homes, both in Galena; and the Chanute Air Museum, located on the former Chanute Air Force Base in Rantoul.
The Chicago metropolitan area also has two zoos: The very large Brookfield Zoo, located approximately 13 miles west of the city center in suburban Brookfield, contains over 2300 animals and covers 216 acres (87 ha). The Lincoln Park Zoo is located in huge Lincoln Park on Chicago 's North Side, approximately 3 miles (4.8 km) north of the Loop. The zoo covers over 35 acres (14 ha) within the park.
Vandalia State House State Historic Site in Vandalia
The Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago
Magnolia Manor is a Victorian period historic house museum in Cairo.
Lincoln Home National Historic Site in Springfield
The Polish Museum of America in Chicago
A Railway Post Office preserved at the Illinois Railway Museum in Union
Illinois is a leader in music education having hosted the Midwest Clinic: An International Band and Orchestra Conference since 1946, as well being home to the Illinois Music Educators Association (IMEA), one of the largest professional music educator 's organizations in the country. Each summer since 2004, Southern Illinois University Carbondale has played host to the Southern Illinois Music Festival, which presents dozens of performances throughout the region. Past featured artists include the Eroica Trio and violinist David Kim.
Chicago, in the northeast corner of the state, is a major center for music in the midwestern United States where distinctive forms of blues (greatly responsible for the future creation of rock and roll), and house music, a genre of electronic dance music, were developed.
The Great Migration of poor black workers from the South into the industrial cities brought traditional jazz and blues music to the city, resulting in Chicago blues and "Chicago - style '' Dixieland jazz. Notable blues artists included Muddy Waters, Junior Wells, Howlin ' Wolf and both Sonny Boy Williamsons; jazz greats included Nat King Cole, Gene Ammons, Benny Goodman and Bud Freeman. Chicago is also well known for its soul music.
In the early 1930s, Gospel music began to gain popularity in Chicago due to Thomas A. Dorsey 's contributions at Pilgrim Baptist Church.
In the 1980s and 1990s, heavy rock, punk and hip hop also became popular in Chicago. Orchestras in Chicago include the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, the Lyric Opera of Chicago and the Chicago Sinfonietta.
As one of the United States ' major metropolises, all major sports leagues have teams headquartered in Chicago.
Many minor league teams also call Illinois their home. They include:
The state features 13 athletic programs that compete in NCAA Division I, the highest level of U.S. college sports.
The two most prominent are the Illinois Fighting Illini and Northwestern Wildcats, both members of the Big Ten Conference and the only ones competing in one of the so - called "Power Five conferences ''. The Fighting Illini football team has won five national championships and three Rose Bowl Games, whereas the men 's basketball team has won 17 conference seasons and played five Final Fours. Meanwhile, the Wildcats have won eight football conference championships and one Rose Bowl Game.
The Northern Illinois Huskies from DeKalb, Illinois compete in the Mid-American Conference winning 4 conference championships and earning a bid in the Orange Bowl along with producing Heisman candidate Jordan Lynch at quarterback. The Huskies are the state 's only other team competing in the Football Bowl Subdivision, the top level of NCAA football.
Four schools have football programs that compete in the second level of Division I football, the Football Championship Subdivision. The Illinois State Redbirds (Normal, adjacent to Bloomington) and Southern Illinois Salukis (the latter representing Southern Illinois University 's main campus in Carbondale) are members of the Missouri Valley Conference (MVC) for non-football sports and the Missouri Valley Football Conference (MVFC). The Western Illinois Leathernecks (Macomb) are full members of the Summit League, which does not sponsor football, and also compete in the MVFC. The Eastern Illinois Panthers (Charleston) are members of the Ohio Valley Conference (OVC).
The city of Chicago is home to four Division I programs that do not sponsor football. The DePaul Blue Demons, with main campuses in Lincoln Park and the Loop, are members of the Big East Conference. The Loyola Ramblers, with their main campus straddling the Edgewater and Rogers Park community areas on the city 's far north side, compete in the MVC. The UIC Flames, from the Near West Side next to the Loop, are in the Horizon League. The Chicago State Cougars, from the city 's south side, compete in the Western Athletic Conference.
Finally, two non-football Division I programs are located downstate. The Bradley Braves (Peoria) are MVC members, and the SIU Edwardsville Cougars (in the Metro East region across the Mississippi River from St. Louis) compete in the OVC.
The city was formerly home to several other teams that either failed to survive, or that belonged to leagues that folded.
The NFL 's Arizona Cardinals, who currently play in the Phoenix suburb of Glendale, Arizona, played in Chicago as the Chicago Cardinals, until moving to St. Louis, Missouri after the 1959 season. An NBA expansion team known as the Chicago Packers in 1961 -- 62 and the Chicago Zephyrs the following year moved to Baltimore after the 1962 -- 63 season. The franchise is now known as the Washington Wizards.
The Peoria Chiefs and Kane County Cougars are minor league baseball teams affiliated with MLB. The Schaumburg Boomers and Lake County Fielders are members of the North American League, and the Southern Illinois Miners, Gateway Grizzlies, Joliet Slammers, Windy City ThunderBolts and Normal CornBelters belong to the Frontier League.
In addition to the Chicago Wolves, the AHL also has the Rockford IceHogs serving as the AHL affiliate of the Chicago Blackhawks. The second incarnation of the Peoria Rivermen plays in the SPHL.
Motor racing oval tracks at the Chicagoland Speedway in Joliet, the Chicago Motor Speedway in Cicero and the Gateway International Raceway in Madison, near St. Louis, have hosted NASCAR, CART, and IRL races, whereas the Sports Car Club of America, among other national and regional road racing clubs, have visited the Autobahn Country Club in Joliet, the Blackhawk Farms Raceway in South Beloit and the former Meadowdale International Raceway in Carpentersville. Illinois also has several short tracks and dragstrips. The dragstrip at Gateway International Raceway and the Route 66 Raceway, which sits on the same property as the Chicagoland Speedway, both host NHRA drag races.
Illinois features several golf courses such as Olympia Fields, Medinah, Midlothian, Cog Hill and Conway Farms, which have often hosted the BMW Championship, Western Open and Women 's Western Open.
Also, the state has hosted 13 editions of the U.S. Open (latest at Olympia Fields in 2003), six editions of the PGA Championship (latest at Medinah in 2006), three editions of the U.S. Women 's Open (latest at The Merit Club), the 2009 Solheim Cup (at Rich Harvest Farms) and the 2012 Ryder Cup (at Medinah).
The John Deere Classic is a regular PGA Tour event played in the Quad Cities since 1971, whereas the Encompass Championship is a Champions Tour event since 2013. Previously the LPGA State Farm Classic was an LPGA Tour event from 1976 to 2011.
The Illinois state parks system began in 1908 with what is now Fort Massac State Park, becoming the first park in a system encompassing over 60 parks and about the same number of recreational and wildlife areas.
Areas under the protection and control of the National Park Service include: the Illinois and Michigan Canal National Heritage Corridor near Lockport, the Lewis and Clark National Historic Trail, the Lincoln Home National Historic Site in Springfield, the Mormon Pioneer National Historic Trail, the Trail of Tears National Historic Trail, the American Discovery Trail, and the Pullman National Monument. The federal government also manages the Shawnee National Forest and the Midewin National Tallgrass Prairie.
The government of Illinois, under the Constitution of Illinois, has three branches of government: executive, legislative and judicial. The executive branch is split into several statewide elected offices, with the Governor as chief executive. Legislative functions are granted to the Illinois General Assembly. The judiciary is composed of the Supreme Court and lower courts.
The Illinois General Assembly is the state legislature, composed of the 118 - member Illinois House of Representatives and the 59 - member Illinois Senate. The members of the General Assembly are elected at the beginning of each even - numbered year. The Illinois Compiled Statutes (ILCS) are the codified statutes of a general and permanent nature.
The executive branch is composed of six elected officers and their offices as well as numerous other departments. The six elected officers are: Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Attorney General, Secretary of State, Comptroller, and Treasurer. The government of Illinois has numerous departments, agencies, boards and commissions, but the so - called code departments provide most of the state 's services.
The Judiciary of Illinois is the unified court system of Illinois. It consists of the Supreme Court, Appellate Court, and Circuit Courts. The Supreme Court oversees the administration of the court system.
The administrative divisions of Illinois are counties, townships, precincts, cities, towns, villages, and special - purpose districts. The basic subdivision of Illinois are the 102 counties. 85 of the 102 counties are in turn divided into townships and precincts. Municipal governments are the cities, villages, and incorporated towns. Some localities possess home rule, which allows them to govern themselves to a certain extent.
Illinois is a Democratic stronghold and considered one of the most Democratic states in the nation. Historically, Illinois was a political swing state, with near - parity existing between the Republican and the Democratic parties. However, in recent elections, the Democratic Party has gained ground and Illinois has come to be seen as a solid "blue '' state in presidential contests. Chicago and most of Cook County votes have long been strongly Democratic. However, the "collar counties '' (the suburbs surrounding Chicago 's Cook County, Illinois), can be seen as moderate voting districts. College towns like Carbondale, Champaign and Normal also lean Democratic.
Republicans continue to prevail in the outlying Chicago exurban areas, as well as rural northern and central Illinois; Republican support is also strong in southern Illinois, outside the East St. Louis metropolitan area. From 1920 until 1972, the state was carried by the victor of each of these presidential elections -- 14 elections. In fact, Illinois was long seen as a national bellwether, supporting the winner in every election in the 20th century except for 1916 and 1976. By contrast, Illinois has trended more toward the Democratic party and such, has voted for their presidential candidates in the last six elections; in 2000, George W. Bush became the first Republican to win the presidency without carrying Illinois or Vermont. Chicago resident and former president Barack Obama easily won the state 's 21 electoral votes in 2008, with 61.9 % of the vote. In 2010, incumbent Governor Pat Quinn was re-elected with 47 % of the vote, while Republican Mark Kirk was elected to the Senate with 48 % of the vote. In 2012, President Obama easily carried Illinois again with 58 % to Republican Mitt Romney 's 41 %. In 2014, Republican Bruce Rauner defeated Governor Quinn 50 % -- 46 % to become Illinois 's first Republican governor in 12 years when he was sworn in on January 12, 2015, while Democratic Senator Dick Durbin was re-elected with 53 % of the vote. In 2016, Hillary Clinton carried Illinois with 55 % of the vote and Tammy Duckworth defeated incumbent Mark Kirk 54 % to 40 %. George W. Bush and Donald Trump are the only Republicans to win the White House without carrying Illinois or Vermont.
Politics in the state have been infamous for highly visible corruption cases, as well as for crusading reformers, such as governors Adlai Stevenson and James R. Thompson. In 2006, former Governor George Ryan was convicted of racketeering and bribery, leading to a 6 ⁄ - year prison sentence. In 2008, then - Governor Rod Blagojevich was served with a criminal complaint on corruption charges, stemming from allegations that he conspired to sell the vacated Senate seat left by President Barack Obama to the highest bidder. Subsequently, on December 7, 2011, Rod Blagojevich was sentenced to 14 years in prison for those charges, as well as perjury while testifying during the case, totaling 18 convictions. In the late 20th century, Congressman Dan Rostenkowski was imprisoned for mail fraud; former governor and federal judge Otto Kerner, Jr. was imprisoned for bribery; Secretary of State Paul Powell was investigated and found to have gained great wealth through bribes, and State Auditor of Public Accounts (Comptroller) Orville Hodge was imprisoned for embezzlement. In 1912, William Lorimer, the GOP boss of Chicago, was expelled from the U.S. Senate for bribery and in 1921, Governor Len Small was found to have defrauded the state of a million dollars.
Three presidents have claimed Illinois as their political base: Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant, and Barack Obama. Lincoln was born in Kentucky, but moved to Illinois at the age of 21; he served in the General Assembly and represented the 7th congressional district in the US House of Representatives before his election as President. Ulysses S. Grant was born in Ohio and had a military career that precluded settling down, but on the eve of the Civil War, and approaching middle age, Grant moved to Illinois and thus claimed it as his home when running for President. Barack Obama was born and raised in Hawaii (other than a four - year period of his childhood spent in Indonesia) and made Illinois his home and base after completing law school and later represented the state in the US Senate.
Only one person elected President of the United States was actually born in Illinois. Ronald Reagan was born in Tampico, raised in Dixon and educated at Eureka College. Reagan moved to Los Angeles as a young adult and later became Governor of California before being elected President.
Nine African - Americans have served as members of the United States Senate. Three of them have represented Illinois, the most of any single state: Carol Moseley - Braun, Barack Obama, and Roland Burris, who was appointed to replace Obama after his election to the presidency. Moseley - Braun was the first African - American woman to become a U.S. Senator.
Two families from Illinois have played particularly prominent roles in the Democratic Party, gaining both statewide and national fame.
The Stevenson family, initially rooted in central Illinois and later based in the Chicago metropolitan area, has provided four generations of Illinois officeholders.
The Daley family 's powerbase was in Chicago.
The Illinois State Board of Education (ISBE) is autonomous of the governor and the state legislature, and administers public education in the state. Local municipalities and their respective school districts operate individual public schools, but the ISBE audits performance of public schools with the Illinois School Report Card. The ISBE also makes recommendations to state leaders concerning education spending and policies.
Education is compulsory from ages 7 to 17 in Illinois. Schools are commonly but not exclusively divided into three tiers of primary and secondary education: elementary school, middle school or junior high school, and high school. District territories are often complex in structure. Many areas in the state are actually located in two school districts -- one for high school, the other for elementary and middle schools. And such districts do not necessarily share boundaries. A given high school may have several elementary districts that feed into it, yet some of those feeder districts may themselves feed into multiple high school districts.
Using the criterion established by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, there are eleven "National Universities '' in the state. As of 19 August 2010, six of these rank in the "first tier '' (that is, the top quartile) among the top 500 National Universities in the United States, as determined by the U.S. News & World Report rankings: the University of Chicago (4), Northwestern University (12), the University of Illinois at Urbana - Champaign (41), Loyola University Chicago (99), the Illinois Institute of Technology (108), DePaul University (123), University of Illinois at Chicago (129), Illinois State University (149), Southern Illinois University Carbondale (153), and Northern Illinois University (194).
The University of Chicago is continuously ranked as one of the world 's top ten universities on various independent university rankings, and its Booth School of Business, along with Northwestern 's Kellogg School of Management consistently rank within the top 5 graduate business schools in the country and top 10 in the world. The University of Illinois at Urbana - Champaign is often ranked among the best engineering schools in the world and in United States.
Illinois also has more than 20 additional accredited four - year universities, both public and private, and dozens of small liberal arts colleges across the state. Additionally, Illinois supports 49 public community colleges in the Illinois Community College System.
Because of its central location and its proximity to the Rust Belt and Grain Belt, Illinois is a national crossroads for air, auto, rail, and truck traffic.
From 1962 until 1998, Chicago 's O'Hare International Airport (ORD) was the busiest airport in the world, measured both in terms of total flights and passengers. While it was surpassed by Atlanta 's Hartsfield in 1998, with 59.3 million domestic passengers annually, along with 11.4 million international passengers in 2008, O'Hare remains one of the two or three busiest airports in the world, and some years still ranks number one in total flights. It is a major hub for United Airlines and American Airlines, and a major airport expansion project is currently underway. Chicago Midway International Airport (MDW), which had been the busiest airport in the world until supplanted by O'Hare in 1962, is now the secondary airport in the Chicago metropolitan area. For a time in the late 1960s and 1970s, Midway was nearly vacant except for general aviation, but growth in the area, combined with political deadlock over the building of a new major airport in the region, has caused a resurgence for Midway. It is now a major hub for Southwest Airlines, and services many other airlines as well. Midway served 17.3 million domestic and international passengers in 2008.
Illinois has an extensive passenger and freight rail transportation network. Chicago is a national Amtrak hub and in - state passengers are served by Amtrak 's Illinois Service, featuring the Chicago to Carbondale Illini and Saluki, the Chicago to Quincy Carl Sandburg and Illinois Zephyr, and the Chicago to St. Louis Lincoln Service. Currently there is trackwork on the Chicago -- St. Louis line to bring the maximum speed up to 110 mph (180 km / h), which would reduce the trip time by an hour and a half. Nearly every North American railway meets at Chicago, making it the largest and most active rail hub in the country. Extensive commuter rail is provided in the city proper and some immediate suburbs by the Chicago Transit Authority 's ' L ' system. The largest suburban commuter rail system in the United States, operated by Metra, uses existing rail lines to provide direct commuter rail access for hundreds of suburbs to the city and beyond.
In addition to the state 's rail lines, the Mississippi River and Illinois River provide major transportation routes for the state 's agricultural interests. Lake Michigan gives Illinois access to the Atlantic Ocean by way of the Saint Lawrence Seaway.
Illinois is among many US states with a well developed interstate highway system. Illinois has the distinction of having the most primary (two - digit) interstates pass through it among all the 50 states with 13 (with the new addition of Interstate 41 near Wisconsin), as well as the 3rd most interstate mileage behind California and Texas.
Major U.S. Interstate highways crossing the state include: Interstate 24 (I - 24), I - 39, I - 41, I - 55, I - 57, I - 64, I - 70, I - 72, I - 74, I - 80, I - 88, I - 90, and I - 94.
Among the U.S. highways that pass through the state, the primary ones are: US 6, US 12, US 14, US 20, US 24, US 30, US 34, US 36, US 40, US 41, US 45, US 50, US 51, US 52, US 54, US 60, US 62, and US 67.
Standard license plate introduced in 2017
Standard license plate 2001 to 2016
Illinois license plate design used throughout the 1980s and 1990s, displaying the Land of Lincoln slogan that has been featured on the state 's plates since 1954
Coordinates: 40 ° N 89 ° W / 40 ° N 89 ° W / 40; - 89
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who is running for us senate in nc this year | United States Senate elections, 2018 - wikipedia
Mitch McConnell Republican
Elections to the United States Senate will be held November 6, 2018, with 33 of the 100 seats in the Senate being contested in regular elections and two seats being contested in special elections. The winners will serve six - year terms from January 3, 2019, to January 3, 2025. Currently, Democrats have 26 seats up for election, including the seats of two independents who caucus with them. Republicans have nine seats up for election. The seats up for regular election in 2018 were last up for election in 2012; in addition, special elections will be scheduled if vacancies occur, as has already happened in Minnesota and Mississippi.
Other elections that will be held on this date include the elections to the U.S. House of Representatives, 39 Governorships as well as various other state and local elections.
Republicans can only afford to have a net loss of one Senate seat and still have a working majority of 50 Senators and Republican Vice President Mike Pence, who is able to cast a tie - breaking vote in accordance with Article One of the United States Constitution. Three of the Republican seats are open as a result of retirements in Tennessee, Utah, and Arizona. Democrats are defending ten seats in states won by Donald Trump in the 2016 presidential election, while Republicans are only defending one seat in a state won by Hillary Clinton in 2016. According to FiveThirtyEight, Democrats face the most unfavorable Senate map in 2018 that any party has ever faced in any election.
Democrats are expected to target the Republican - held Senate seats in Arizona (open seat) and Nevada. Democrats could also target seats in Texas, Mississippi (at least one of the two seats) and Tennessee 's open - seat. Republicans are expected to target Democratic - held seats in Indiana, Missouri, Montana, North Dakota, and West Virginia, all of which voted for Mitt Romney in the 2012 presidential election and Donald Trump in the 2016 presidential election, as well as seats in Florida, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, and Michigan, all of which voted for Donald Trump in the 2016 election. Other races may also become competitive closer to election day.
Among the 33 Class 1 Senate seats up for regular election in 2018 are 23 currently held by Democrats, two by independents who caucus with the Senate Democrats, and eight by Republicans. The Class 2 seats in Minnesota and Mississippi held by interim appointees are also up for election; both incumbent appointees are running in their elections to finish the unexpired terms.
(edit this section here) Most election predictors use:
For the regularly scheduled general elections. Shading added for future events.
In these special elections, the winners will be elected coincidingly with the other races of the 2018 Senate elections, but will be seated before January 3, 2019, when elected and qualified. Ordered by election date, then by state, then by class.
In these general elections, the winners will be elected for the term beginning January 3, 2019.
All of the elections involve the Class 1 seats; ordered by state.
Jeff Flake Republican
One - term Republican Jeff Flake was elected with 49 % of the vote in 2012. He has declared he will retire at the end of his term.
U.S. Representative Martha McSally won the Republican nomination in a three - way primary on August 28, 2018, against Joe Arpaio and Kelli Ward.
U.S. Representative Kyrsten Sinema easily secured the Democratic nomination.
Dianne Feinstein Democratic
Four - term Democrat Dianne Feinstein won a special election in 1992 and was elected to full terms in 1994, 2000, 2006, and 2012. She is running for re-election and will advance to the general election after securing the top spot in the June 5 jungle primary.
President pro tempore of the California State Senate Kevin de León will advance to the general election after securing the second spot in the June 5 primary. Other Democratic candidates included community advocate Adrienne Nicole Edwards, Eugene Patterson Harris, David Hildebrand, Douglas Howard Pierce, and Alison Hartson.
Republican candidates included Paul Allen Taylor.
Derrick Michael Reid ran with the Libertarian Party.
Independent candidates included biologist Tim Gildersleeve, Lee W. Olson, and evangelist Ling Ling Shi.
Chris Murphy Democratic
One - term Democrat Chris Murphy was elected with 55 % of the vote in 2012. He is running for re-election.
Businessmen Matthew Corey received the Republican nomination.
Tom Carper Democratic
Three - term Democrat Tom Carper won re-election with 66 % of the vote in 2012. He announced he was running for re-election during an interview on MSNBC on July 24, 2017. He defeated Dover community activist Kerri Evelyn Harris for the Democratic nomination. Sussex County Councilman Robert Arlett won the Republican nomination.
Bill Nelson Democratic
Three - term Democrat Bill Nelson was re-elected with 55 % of the vote in 2012. He is seeking re-election to a fourth term in office.
Florida Governor Rick Scott won the Republican nomination. First elected in 2010 and re-elected in 2014, Scott 's term as Governor of Florida is set to end by January 2019, due to term limits.
Edward Janowski is running as an independent.
Mazie Hirono Democratic
One - term Democrat Mazie Hirono was elected with 63 % of the vote in 2012. She is running.
Ron Curtis is the Republican nominee.
Joe Donnelly Democratic
One - term Democrat Joe Donnelly was elected with 50.04 % of the vote in 2012. He is running. He won the Democratic primary unopposed.
State Representative Mike Braun won the May 8 Republican primary. U.S. Representatives Luke Messer and Todd Rokita also ran for the Republican nomination.
James Johnson is running as an independent.
Angus King Independent
One - term Independent Senator Angus King was elected in a three - way race with 53 % of the vote in 2012. King has caucused with the Democratic Party since taking office in 2013, but he has left open the possibility of caucusing with the Republican Party in the future.
King is running.
State Senator Eric Brakey ran unopposed for the Republican nomination.
Public school teacher and founder of UClass Zak Ringelstein ran unopposed for the Democratic nomination.
The election will be conducted with ranked choice voting, as opposed to "First - past - the - post voting '', after Maine voters passed a citizen referendum approving the change in 2016 and a June 2018 referendum sustaining the change..
Ben Cardin Democratic
Two - term Democrat Ben Cardin was re-elected with 56 % of the vote in 2012. He won the Democratic primary.
Tony Campbell, Evan Cronhardt, Nnabu Eze, Gerald Smith, and Blaine Taylor were seeking the Republican nomination, With Campbell winning.
Arvin Vohra, vice chairman of the Libertarian National Committee, is seeking the Libertarian Party nomination.
Independents Neal Simon and Edward Shlikas are running.
Elizabeth Warren Democratic
One - term Democrat Elizabeth Warren was elected with 54 % of the vote in 2012. She is running.
State Representative Geoff Diehl, attorney and founder of Better for America, John Kingston, former Romney aide Beth Lindstrom, are running for the Republican nomination.
Shiva Ayyadurai is running as an independent. Shiva started as in early 2017 as the first Republican in the race, but went independent in November 2017.
Debbie Stabenow Democratic
Three - term Democrat Debbie Stabenow was re-elected with 59 % of the vote in 2012. She was renominated without Democratic opposition. On the Republican side, businessman John James was nominated. Independent candidate Marcia Squier is also running. She ran as a Green Party candidate for Michigan 's 14th congressional district in 2016.
Amy Klobuchar Democratic
Two - term Democrat Amy Klobuchar was re-elected with 65 % of the vote in 2012. She is running.
State Representative Jim Newberger is running for the Republican nomination.
Tina Smith Democratic
Two - term Democrat Al Franken announced that he would resign in December 2017, following allegations of sexual harassment. Mark Dayton, Governor of Minnesota, appointed Lt. Gov. Tina Smith on January 2, 2018, as an interim Senator until the November 2018 election. She defeated primary challenger Richard Painter in the Democratic primary held on August 14.
Incumbent Tina Smith is running against Republican Karin Housley in the general election for a full term ending January 3, 2021.
Roger Wicker Republican
One - term Republican Roger Wicker won re-election with 57 % of the vote in 2012. He was appointed in 2007 and won a special election in 2008 to serve the remainder of Trent Lott 's term. He is running.
David Baria won the Democratic nomination in a run - off on June 26.
Cindy Hyde - Smith Republican
Seven - term Republican Thad Cochran, who won re-election with 59.9 % of the vote in 2014, announced that he would resign April 1, 2018 due to health reasons. Phil Bryant, Governor of Mississippi, announced on March 21, 2018, that he would appoint Mississippi Agriculture Commissioner Cindy Hyde - Smith to fill the vacancy. She will be running in the special election.
On November 6, a nonpartisan jungle primary will take place on the same day as the regularly scheduled U.S. Senate election for the seat currently held by Roger Wicker. Party affiliations are not printed on the ballot. If no candidate gains 50 % of the votes, a runoff special election between the top two candidates will be held three weeks later on November 27, 2018.
Former United States Secretary of Agriculture and member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Mississippi 's 2nd congressional district Mike Espy and Tobey Bartee are running as Democratic candidates. Republican Chris McDaniel is also running.
Claire McCaskill Democratic
Two - term Democrat Claire McCaskill was re-elected with 55 % of the vote in 2012. She was renominated.
Attorney General Josh Hawley won the Republican nomination. Japheth Campbell has declared his candidacy for the Libertarian nomination.
Jon Tester Democratic
Two - term Democrat Jon Tester was re-elected with 49 % of the vote in 2012. He won the Democratic nomination in the June 5 primary with no opposition.
State Auditor Matthew Rosendale won the Republican nomination in the June 5 primary. State Senator Albert Olszewski, former judge Russell Fagg, and Troy Downing also ran for the Republican nomination.
Deb Fischer Republican
One - term Republican Deb Fischer was elected with 58 % of the vote in 2012. She ran for and won the Republican nomination in the May 15 primary. Other Republicans who ran include retired professor Jack Heidel, Todd Watson, and Dennis Frank Macek.
Lincoln Councilwoman Jane Raybould ran for and won the Democratic nomination in the May 15 primary. Other Democrats who ran include Frank Svoboda, Chris Janicek, and Larry Marvin, who was a candidate in 2008, 2012, and 2014.
Jim Schultz is running for the Libertarian nomination.
Dean Heller Republican
Incumbent Republican Dean Heller is the Republican nominee. He was appointed to the seat in 2011 and then elected with 46 % of the vote in 2012. Heller considered running for governor, but chose to seek re-election.
Nevada is the only state in the midterm elections that has an incumbent Republican Senator in a state that Hillary Clinton won in 2016.
Representative Jacky Rosen is the Democratic nominee.
Bob Menendez Democratic
Republican Bob Hugin was nominated to face two - term Democrat Bob Menendez, who was re-elected with 59 % of the vote in 2012. Menendez was originally appointed to the seat in January 2006. He is running.
Martin Heinrich Democratic
One - term Democrat Martin Heinrich was elected with 51 % of the vote in 2012. He is running. Mick Rich won the Republican nomination unopposed.
Aubrey Dunn Jr., New Mexico Commissioner of Public Lands and otherwise the first Libertarian to ever hold statewide elected office in history, announced his run for the seat, but stepped aside in August to allow former Governor of New Mexico, Gary Johnson 's candidacy.
Kirsten Gillibrand Democratic
One - term Democrat Kirsten Gillibrand was elected with 72 % of the vote in 2012. She had previously been appointed to the seat in 2009 and won a special election to remain in office in 2010. She is running.
Private equity executive Chele Chiavacci Farley has been nominated for U.S. Senate by the Republican and Conservative Parties.
Heidi Heitkamp Democratic
One - term Democrat Heidi Heitkamp was elected with 50 % of the vote in 2012. She won the Democratic nomination unopposed.
Representative Kevin Cramer won the Republican nomination in the June 12 primary. Former Niagara, North Dakota Mayor Thomas O'Neill also ran for the Republican nomination.
Sherrod Brown Democratic
Two - term Democrat Sherrod Brown was re-elected with 51 % of the vote in 2012. He is running and was unopposed in Democratic primary.
U.S. Representative Jim Renacci ran for and won the Republican nomination in the May 8 primary. Other Republicans who ran include investment banker Michael Gibbons, businesswoman Melissa Ackison, Dan Kiley, and Don Elijah Eckhart.
Bob Casey Jr. Democratic
Two - term Democrat Bob Casey Jr. was re-elected with 54 % of the vote in 2012. He is running and won the Democratic primary unopposed.
U.S. Representative Lou Barletta ran for and won the Republican nomination in the May 15 primary. Jim Christiana also ran for the Republican nomination.
Sheldon Whitehouse Democratic
Two - term Democrat Sheldon Whitehouse was re-elected with 64 % of the vote in 2012. He is running.
Former Rhode Island Supreme Court Associate Justice Robert Flanders is the Republican nominee.
Bob Corker Republican
Two - term Republican Bob Corker was re-elected with 65 % of the vote in 2012. Senator Corker filed his Statement of Candidacy with the Secretary of the U.S. Senate to run for re-election, but on September 26, 2017, Senator Corker announced his intent to retire.
Aaron Pettigrew and Republican U.S. Representative Marsha Blackburn ran for the Republican nomination. Marsha Blackburn is the Republican nominee.
Former Tennessee Governor Phil Bredesen is the Democratic nominee.
Ted Cruz Republican
One - term Republican Ted Cruz was elected with 57 % of the vote in 2012. He overwhelmingly won the Republican primary on March 6, 2018. Television producer Bruce Jacobson, Houston energy attorney Stefano de Stefano, former mayor of La Marque Geraldine Sam, Mary Miller, and Thomas Dillingham were Cruz 's opponents.
U.S. Representative Beto O'Rourke won the Democratic nomination on March 6, 2018. Other Democrats who ran include Irasema Ramirez Hernandez and Edward Kimbrough.
Nurse Carl Bible ran as an independent.
Bob McNeil ran with the American Citizen Party.
Orrin Hatch Republican
Seven - term Republican Orrin Hatch was re-elected with 65 % of the vote in 2012. Hatch is the President pro tempore of the United States Senate, as well as the second most - senior Senator. Before the 2012 election, Hatch said that he would retire at the end of his seventh term if he was re-elected. Hatch initially announced his re-election campaign on March 9, 2017, but later announced his plans to retire on January 2, 2018. Former 2012 Republican presidential nominee Mitt Romney is running for the seat.
Professor James Singer was running for the Democratic nomination, but he dropped out and endorsed Salt Lake County Councilwoman Jenny Wilson, who made her Senate bid official on July 17, 2017. Danny Drew also was running, but dropped out and endorsed Jenny Wilson. Mitchell Kent Vice was defeated for the Democratic nomination by Wilson.
Bernie Sanders Independent
Two - term Independent Senator Bernie Sanders was re-elected with 71 % of the vote in 2012. Sanders, one of two independent members of Congress, has caucused with the Democratic Party since taking office in 2007. In November 2015, Sanders announced his plans to run as a Democrat, rather than an Independent, in all future elections. He won the nomination easily.
Tim Kaine Democratic
One - term Democrat Tim Kaine was elected with 53 % of the vote in 2012. He was re-nominated unopposed. Prince William County Supervisor Corey Stewart is the Republican nominee. Matt Waters is the Libertarian nominee.
Maria Cantwell Democratic
Three - term Democrat Maria Cantwell was re-elected with 61 % of the vote in 2012. She is running.
Washington hold non-partisan blanket primaries, in which the top two finishers advance to the general election regardless of party. Cantwell and former state Republican Party chair Susan Hutchison are facing each other in November.
Joe Manchin Democratic
One - term Democrat Joe Manchin was elected with 61 % of the vote in 2012. He originally won the seat in a 2010 special election. Manchin is running for re-election and won the May 8 Democratic primary. Environmental activist Paula Jean Swearengin, also ran for the Democratic nomination.
West Virginia Attorney General Patrick Morrisey received the Republican nomination in the May 8 primary. Representative Evan Jenkins, coal miner Bo Copley, Jack Newbrough, Don Blankenship, and Tom Willis ran for the Republican nomination.
Tammy Baldwin Democratic
One - term Democrat Tammy Baldwin was elected with 51 % of the vote in 2012. She is running.
State Senator Leah Vukmir and businessman and member of Wisconsin Board of Veterans Affairs Kevin Nicholson ran for the Republican nomination, with Vukmir proceeding.
John Barrasso Republican
One - term Republican John Barrasso was elected with 76 % of the vote in 2012. Barrasso was appointed to the seat in 2007 and won a special election in 2008. He is running.
59 year old Gary Trauner, a Jackson Hole businessman and U.S. House candidate in 2006 and 2008, is the Democratic nominee.
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when was the last time the falcons were in the super bowl | Atlanta Falcons - wikipedia
National Football League (1966 -- present)
Black, Red, Silver, White
Conference championships (2)
Division championships (6)
The Atlanta Falcons are a professional American football team based in Atlanta. The Falcons compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the league 's National Football Conference (NFC) South division. The Falcons joined the NFL in 1965 as an expansion team, after the NFL offered then - owner Rankin Smith a franchise to keep him from joining the rival American Football League (AFL).
In their 51 years of existence, the Falcons have compiled a record of 350 -- 450 -- 6 (341 -- 437 -- 6 in the regular season and 9 -- 13 in the playoffs), winning division championships in 1980, 1998, 2004, 2010, 2012, and 2016. The Falcons have appeared in two Super Bowls, the first being during the 1998 season in Super Bowl XXXIII, where they lost to the Denver Broncos 34 -- 19, and the second being a 34 -- 28 overtime defeat by the New England Patriots in Super Bowl LI.
The Falcons ' current home field is Mercedes - Benz Stadium, which opened in time for the 2017 season; the team 's headquarters and practice facilities are located at a 50 - acre site in Flowery Branch, Georgia.
Professional football first came to Atlanta in 1962, when the American Football League staged two preseason contests, with one featuring the Denver Broncos vs. the Houston Oilers and the second pitting the Dallas Texans against the Oakland Raiders. Two years later, the AFL held another exhibition, this time with the New York Jets taking on the San Diego Chargers.
In 1965, after the Atlanta -- Fulton County Stadium (then known simply as Atlanta Stadium) was built, the city of Atlanta felt the time was right to start pursuing professional football. One independent group which had been active in NFL exhibition promotions in Atlanta applied for franchises in both the American Football League and the National Football League, acting entirely on its own with no guarantee of stadium rights. Another group reported it had deposited earnest money for a team in the AFL.
With everyone running in different directions, some local businessmen worked out a deal and were awarded an AFL franchise on June 7, 1965, contingent upon acquiring exclusive stadium rights from city officials. NFL Commissioner Pete Rozelle, who had been moving slowly in Atlanta matters, was spurred by the AFL interest and headed on the next plane down to Atlanta to block the rival league 's claim on the city of Atlanta. He forced the city to make a choice between the two leagues. By June 30, the city picked Rankin Smith and the NFL.
The Atlanta Falcons franchise began on June 30, 1965, when NFL Commissioner Pete Rozelle granted ownership to 41 - year - old Rankin Smith Sr. Smith, an Executive Vice President of Life Insurance Company of Georgia at the time, paid $8.5 million the highest price in NFL history at the time for a franchise. Former commissioner Pete Rozelle and Smith made the deal in about five minutes and the Atlanta Falcons brought the largest and most popular sport to the city of Atlanta. The Atlanta expansion franchise became the 15th NFL franchise, and they were awarded the first pick in the 1966 NFL draft as well as the final pick in each of the first five rounds. The Falcons drafted All - American linebacker Tommy Nobis from the University of Texas with the first pick of the draft, making him the first - ever Falcon. The league also held the 1966 NFL Expansion Draft six weeks later in which the Falcons selected unprotected players from existing franchises. Although the Falcons selected many good players in those drafts, they still were not able to win right away.
The Atlanta Falcons Football Club received its nickname on August 29, 1965. Miss Julia Elliott, a school teacher from Griffin, Georgia, was singled out from many people who suggested "Falcons '' as the nickname for the new franchise. Elliott wrote: "the Falcon is proud and dignified, with great courage and fight. It never drops its prey. It is deadly and has a great sporting tradition. ''
The Falcons had their first season in 1966, and their first preseason game on August 1, 1966, losing to the Philadelphia Eagles. Under head coach Norb Hecker they lost their first nine regular - season games in 1966 and secured their first victory on the road against the New York Giants. The team finished the 1960s with only 12 wins. The Falcons had their first Monday Night Football game in Atlanta during the 1970 season, losing 20 -- 7 to the Miami Dolphins. The only two winning seasons in this twelve - year period were 1971 and 1973.
In the 1978 season, the Falcons qualified for the playoffs for the first time and won the Wild Card game against the Eagles 14 -- 13. The following week, they lost to the Dallas Cowboys 27 -- 20 in the Divisional Playoffs.
In the 1980 season, after a nine - game winning streak, the Falcons posted a franchise then - best record of 12 -- 4 and captured their first NFC West division title. The next week, their dream season ended at home with a loss to the Cowboys 30 -- 27 in the divisional playoffs. In the strike - shortened 1982 season, the Falcons made the playoffs but lost to the Minnesota Vikings, 30 -- 24. Falcons coach Leeman Bennett was fired after the loss. The team would then have losing seasons for the next eight years.
In 1989, the Falcons drafted cornerback Deion Sanders in the first round, who helped them for the next four years, setting many records for the franchise. "Neon Deion '' (a.k.a. "Prime Time '') had a flashy appeal and helped bring media attention to one of the league 's most anonymous franchises. Sanders was also famous for playing on major league baseball teams (the New York Yankees and the Atlanta Braves) while simultaneously playing in the NFL.
After defeating the New Orleans Saints in the NFC Wild Card game, the Falcons ' 1991 season ended in a divisional playoff loss to the Washington Redskins. In 1991, the Falcons drafted Brett Favre as the thirty - third overall pick. During his rookie season, he played in two games where he amassed a record of 4 passing attempts with 0 receptions and 2 interceptions. The following February, Favre was traded to the Green Bay Packers.
In 1992, the Atlanta Falcons opened a new chapter in their history moving into the newly constructed Georgia Dome, where the team has defeated all 31 other NFL teams at least during its time there.
In 1998, under recently acquired head coach Dan Reeves, quarterback Chris Chandler and running back Jamal Anderson the "Dirty Bird '' Falcons had their greatest season to date. On November 8, they beat the New England Patriots 41 -- 10, ending a streak of 22 losses at cold - weather sites. The team finished with a franchise - best 14 -- 2 regular season record and the NFC West division championship. On January 17, 1999, the Falcons upset the top - seeded Vikings at the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome in the NFC Championship Game 30 -- 27, in an exciting overtime victory. However, in their first - ever Super Bowl appearance, they lost 34 -- 19 to the defending champion Denver Broncos in Super Bowl XXXIII.
In the second game of the Falcons 1999 season, running back Jamal Anderson, who had been a key player in the Falcons ' 1998 success, suffered a season - ending knee injury. The Falcons finished the season with a very disappointing 5 -- 11 regular season record. In 2000, the Falcons suffered through another horrendous season finishing 4 -- 12 and once again missing the playoffs.
In the 2001 NFL draft, the Falcons orchestrated a trade with the San Diego Chargers, acquiring the first overall pick (which was used on quarterback Michael Vick) in exchange for wide receiver - return specialist Tim Dwight and the fifth overall pick (used on running back LaDainian Tomlinson).
The Falcons finished the 2001 season with a record of 7 -- 9 and missed the playoffs. Jessie Tuggle retired following 14 seasons in Atlanta. On December 6, 2001, Arthur M. Blank reached a preliminary agreement with the Falcons ' Taylor Smith to purchase the team. In a special meeting prior to Super Bowl XXXVI in New Orleans on February 2, 2002, NFL owners voted unanimously to approve the purchase.
The 2002 season saw the Falcons return to the playoffs with a regular season record of 9 -- 6 -- 1, tying the Pittsburgh Steelers. It was Vick 's first year as the starter, and the team, with newly acquired running back Warrick Dunn, delivered the Green Bay Packers their first home playoff loss ever. A 20 - 6 loss to the Donovan McNabb - led Philadelphia Eagles the following week, however, ended the Falcons ' season.
On March 19, 2003, the Falcons presented their new logo. During the 2003 preseason Vick broke his leg and missed the first twelve games of the season. After losing 7 straight games, the decision was made to release head coach Dan Reeves. Wade Phillips acted as interim coach for the final 3 games. Although the Falcons won 3 of their last 4 games after the return of Vick, they ended up with a 5 -- 11 record that year. In 2004, a new head coach, Jim L. Mora, was hired and Vick returned for the full season. The Falcons went 11 -- 5, winning their third division title and earning a first - round bye into the playoffs. In the divisional playoffs, the Falcons defeated the St. Louis Rams, 47 -- 17, in the Georgia Dome, advancing to the NFC Championship Game, which they lost to the Eagles, 27 -- 10.
The Falcons again fell short of achieving back - to - back winning seasons in 2005, going 8 -- 8. In 2006, Michael Vick became the first quarterback in league history to rush for more than 1,000 yards in a season, with 1,039. After finishing the season 7 -- 9, however, coach Jim Mora was dismissed and Bobby Petrino, the University of Louisville 's football coach, replaced him. Before the 2007 season began, Vick was suspended indefinitely by the NFL after pleading guilty to charges involving dog fighting in the state of Virginia. On December 10, 2007, Vick received a 23 - month prison sentence and was officially cut from the Atlanta roster.
For the 2007 season, the Falcons were forced to start Joey Harrington at quarterback. On December 11, 13 games into his first NFL season as head coach, Bobby Petrino resigned without notice to coach at the University of Arkansas, leaving the beleaguered players only a note in the locker room. Secondary Coach Emmitt Thomas was named interim coach for the final three games of the season on December 12. The Falcons ended the year with a dismal 4 -- 12 record.
After the tumultuous and disappointing 2007 season, the Falcons made a number of moves, hiring a new General Manager and head coach, drafting a new starting quarterback, and signing a starting running back.
On January 13, 2008, the Falcons named former Patriots director of college football scouting Thomas Dimitroff General Manager. On January 23, Jacksonville Jaguars defensive coach and former linebackers coach for the 2000 Super Bowl champion Baltimore Ravens Mike Smith was named the Falcons ' new head coach. Chargers back - up RB Michael Turner agreed to a 6 - year deal, $30 million deal on March 2. On April 26, Matt Ryan (quarterback from Boston College) was drafted third overall in the 2008 NFL draft by the Falcons.
The Falcons finished the 2008 regular season with a record of 11 -- 5, and the # 5 seed in the playoffs. On December 21, 2008, Atlanta beat the Minnesota Vikings 24 -- 17 to clinch a wild card spot, earning a trip to the playoffs for the first time since 2004. The Falcons would go on to lose in the wild - card round of the 2008 NFL playoffs to the eventual NFC champion Arizona Cardinals, 30 -- 24.
Matt Ryan started all 16 games in his rookie season and was named the Associated Press Offensive Rookie of the Year. First - year head coach Mike Smith was named 2008 NFL Coach of the Year.
Although they failed to make the playoffs in 2009 the team rallied to win their final three regular season games to record back - to - back winning seasons for the first time in franchise history. The Falcons defeated the Tampa Bay Buccaneers 20 -- 10 in the final game of the season to improve their record to 9 -- 7.
In 2010, with a regular season record of 13 -- 3, the Falcons secured a third straight winning season, their fourth overall divisional title, and the top overall seed in the NFC playoffs; however, the Falcons were overpowered by the eventual Super Bowl XLV champion Green Bay Packers in the NFC Divisional Playoffs 48 -- 21. The Falcons scored 414 points -- the fifth-most in franchise history. The team sent an NFL - high and franchise - best nine players to the 2011 Pro Bowl.
The Falcons made a surprise trade up with the Cleveland Browns in the 2011 NFL draft to select Alabama wide receiver Julio Jones sixth overall. In exchange, the Falcons gave up their first -, second - and fourth - round draft picks in 2011, and their first and fourth draft picks in 2012. Jones, along with teammates Tony Gonzalez and Roddy White, have since been dubbed Atlanta 's "Big Three '' (based on their total number of reception yards). On August 30, 2011, Sports Illustrated senior writer Peter King, who correctly predicted the 2011 Super Bowl, made his predictions for the 2011 season and picked the Falcons to defeat the San Diego Chargers in the 2012 Super Bowl. The Falcons finished the season at 10 -- 6, securing the fifth seed after a Week 17 beatdown of Tampa Bay in which the Falcons pulled their starters after leading 42 -- 0 just 23 minutes into the game.
The Falcons then went on to play the New York Giants in a 2011 NFC Wild Card Game at MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford, New Jersey. The first half was a defensive struggle, with the first points coming off of a safety by the Falcons, giving Atlanta a 2 -- 0 lead. In the 2nd quarter, though, Eli Manning connected with Hakeem Nicks for a short touchdown pass to make it 7 -- 2 Giants heading into the 2nd half. Then the Giants took control, as Manning threw for two more TD passes to Mario Manningham and Nicks and the defense completed its shutout of the Falcons to give the New York Giants the win, 24 -- 2, and the Falcons their third straight playoff loss with Matt Ryan and Mike Smith. After the season Defense Coordinator Brian VanGorder accepted a coaching job at Auburn University, and the offensive coordinator Mike Mularkey took the head coaching job in Jacksonville.
Atlanta exploded out of the gate, going a franchise best 8 -- 0 and remaining the last unbeaten team in the NFL that year. Their hopes to get an undefeated season came to an end with a 27 -- 31 loss to the division rival Saints. Julio Jones had a remarkable second year, grabbing 10 touchdowns and 1,198 yards. The Falcons finished the season 13 -- 3, and clinched the number one seed in the NFC playoffs.
The Falcons played the Seattle Seahawks in their first playoff game. Although they went down 28 -- 27 with only 31 seconds left on the clock, Matt Ryan led the team to their first playoff victory, 30 -- 28. It was the only playoff victory in the Mike Smith era.
The Atlanta Falcons then advanced to face the San Francisco 49ers. The Falcons seized control of the game early with a Matt Bryant field goal, a trio of Matt Ryan touchdown passes caught by Julio Jones and Tony Gonzalez coupled with outstanding defensive play. By the end of the half, the score was 24 -- 14. The tides of the game began to shift in the second half as the 49ers rallied back with a pair of Frank Gore touchdown runs. Atlanta 's offense attempted to reply but were ultimately shut down by the 49er defense. A few series later, late in the 4th quarter with little time remaining, Atlanta found themselves in a 4th and 4 situation at the 10 - yard line. The Falcons needed just 10 more yards to secure victory and advance to their first Super Bowl berth in 14 years. Matt Ryan fired a pass to Roddy White which was ultimately broken up by inside linebacker NaVorro Bowman, resulting in a 28 -- 24 defeat.
Following the success of the previous season, the Falcons were an expected Super Bowl contender. However, injuries hampered the team 's performance and the team finished the season 4 -- 12. With that, the streak of consecutive winning seasons came to an end and Mike Smith had his first losing season as a head coach. Tony Gonzalez, in his final season in the NFL, was selected to the 2014 Pro Bowl as a starter representing Team Rice. Following the conclusion of the 2012 season, director of player personnel Les Snead departed the team to join the St. Louis Rams and Dave Caldwell, assistant to general manager Thomas Dimitroff, left the team to join the Jacksonville Jaguars. Scott Pioli, former GM of the New England Patriots, was announced as the Falcons ' new assistant GM. Mike Smith was given a one - year extension on his contract as head coach. The Falcons had the 6th overall pick in the 2014 NFL draft with which they selected Jake Matthews, who played as offensive tackle for Texas A&M.
Despite having another rough season, the Falcons still had an opportunity to qualify for the playoffs at the end of the regular season. The Falcons hosted the Carolina Panthers in their regular season finale, with the winners clinching the NFC South division. Unfortunately, the Falcons lost in a 34 -- 3 blowout as Matt Ryan threw two interceptions that were returned for touchdowns and got sacked six times. The Falcons finished the season 6 -- 10, marking the second consecutive losing season for the team. The following day, Mike Smith was fired after seven seasons as head coach. The Falcons would soon hire Seattle Seahawks defensive coordinator Dan Quinn as the team 's 16th head coach. The Falcons had the 8th overall pick in the 2015 NFL draft with which they selected Vic Beasley, a defensive end from Clemson University.
In February 2015, the team was investigated by the NFL for alleged use of artificial crowd noise in the Georgia Dome. The Falcons lost a 2016 NFL Draft selection as a result of the league 's investigation.
Dan Quinn 's first season saw a 5 -- 0 start, the team 's best start in four years. They would then struggle throughout the rest of the season by losing 8 of their last 11 games, resulting in an 8 -- 8 record. They did, however, give the Panthers their only regular season loss. The Falcons used their first - round pick in the 2016 NFL Draft on safety Keanu Neal from the University of Florida.
In the Falcons ' 25th and final season in the Georgia Dome, Atlanta lost their Week 1 game to the Buccaneers 24 -- 31. The Falcons would then win their next four including one over the Panthers, when the franchise set new records. Matt Ryan threw for 503 yards, and Julio Jones caught twelve passes for 300 yards. With a 41 -- 13 thrashing of the San Francisco 49ers in Week 15, the Falcons improved to 9 -- 5 and secured their first winning season since 2012. One week later, the Falcons defeated the Panthers in Charlotte, North Carolina and clinched their first NFC South division title since 2012. In their last regular season game at the Georgia Dome, the Falcons defeated the New Orleans Saints, and secured an 11 -- 5 record and a first round bye.
In the divisional round of the playoffs, Atlanta defeated the Seahawks 36 -- 20 in the Georgia Dome, and hosted their last game at the Dome against the Green Bay Packers in the NFC Championship Game on January 22, 2017. The Falcons defeated the Packers 44 -- 21 to advance to Super Bowl LI as the NFC champions. Atlanta was up 28 -- 3 late in the third quarter, and the New England Patriots scored 31 unanswered points, with the last 6 in the first - ever overtime in the Super Bowl. The Patriots ' 25 - point comeback was the largest in Super Bowl history.
In 2016, the Falcons scored 540 points in the regular season, the seventh-most in NFL history, tied with the Greatest Show on Turf (the 2000 St. Louis Rams). However, the Falcons defense gave up 406 points, 27th in the league.
The Falcons moved into their new home, the Mercedes - Benz Stadium, this season. Their first game ever played at the new stadium was a preseason loss to the Arizona Cardinals. The first regular season game at the new stadium was a rematch of the 2016 -- 17 NFC Championship, with Atlanta defeating Green Bay 34 -- 23. Their first loss of the season was a 23 -- 17 home defeat to the Buffalo Bills in week 4. The team returned to the playoffs with a 10 - 6 record (albeit with a third - place finish in the NFC South). The Falcons defeated the Los Angeles Rams 26 - 13 in the Wild Card round, but their 2017 season came to an end a week later in the Divisional Playoff round at the hands of the eventual Super Bowl champion Philadelphia Eagles 15 - 10.
The Falcons have called three stadiums home in their 51 years of existence, and its third home in their history opened in the late summer of 2017. The first was the Atlanta -- Fulton County Stadium, sharing with the Atlanta Braves Major League Baseball team until 1991. In 1992, the Georgia Dome was built, and the Falcons played there from its opening to the 2016 season. The Dome has been frequently used for college football, including Georgia State football and college bowl games such as the Peach Bowl.
In an effort to replace the aging Georgia Dome and potentially host a future Super Bowl, team owner Arthur Blank proposed a deal with the city of Atlanta to build a new state - of - the - art stadium not far from where the Georgia Dome is located. Blank will contribute $800 million and the city of Atlanta will contribute an additional $200 million via bonds backed by the city 's hotel / motel tax towards the construction of a retractable roof stadium. Blank will contribute additional money for cost overruns if it is needed. The team will provide up to $50 million towards infrastructure costs that were n't included in the construction budget and to retire the remaining debt on the Georgia Dome. In addition, Blank 's foundation and the city will each provide $15 million for development in surrounding neighborhoods. Though the total cost of the stadium was initially estimated to be around $1 billion, the total cost was revised to $1.5 billion according to Blank. In March 2013, the Atlanta City Council voted 11 -- 4 in favor of building the stadium. The retractable roof Mercedes - Benz Stadium broke ground in May 2014, and became the third home stadium for the Falcons and the first for the new Atlanta United FC Major League Soccer club upon opening in 2017.
The Atlanta Falcons ' colors are red, black, silver and white. When the team began play in 1966, the Falcons wore red helmets with a black falcon crest logo. In the center of the helmet was a center black stripe surrounded by two gold stripes and two white stripes. These colors represented the two college rival schools in the state of Georgia; rival schools Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets (white and gold) and the Georgia Bulldogs (red and black). Although the gold was removed after several seasons, the white remains to this day. They wore white pants and either black or white jerseys. At first, the falcon crest logo was also put on the jersey sleeves, but it was replaced by a red and white stripe pattern four years later. They switched from black to red jerseys in 1971, and the club began to wear silver pants in 1978.
A prototype white helmet was developed for the team prior to the 1974 season, but was never worn.
In 1990, the uniform design changed to black helmets, silver pants, and either black or white jerseys. The numbers on the white jerseys were black, but were changed to red in 1997. (The red numerals could be seen on the away jerseys briefly in 1990.)
Both the logo and uniforms changed in 2003. The logo was redesigned with red and silver accents to depict a more powerful, aggressive falcon, which now more closely resembles the capital letter F.
Although the Falcons still wore black helmets, the new uniforms featured jerseys and pants with red trim down the sides. The uniform design consisted of either black or white jerseys, and either black or white pants. During that same year, a red alternate jersey with black trim was also introduced. The Falcons also started wearing black cleats with these uniforms.
In 2004, the red jerseys became the primary jerseys, and the black ones became the alternate, both worn with white pants. In select road games, the Falcons wear black pants with white jerseys. The Falcons wore an all - black combination for home games against their archrivals, the New Orleans Saints, winning the first two contests (24 -- 21 in 2004 and 36 -- 17 in 2005), but losing 31 -- 13 in 2006. The Falcons wore the all black combination against the New Orleans Saints for four straight seasons starting in 2004, With the last time being in 2007, losing 34 -- 14. They wore the combination again in 2006, against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in Week 2. The Falcons won that game, 14 -- 3. The Falcons also wore their all - black uniform in 2007 against the New York Giants, and in 2008 against the Carolina Panthers and against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers (for the second time).
In the 1980s, the Falcons wore their white uniforms at home most of the time because of the heat. When the Falcons started playing in a dome, the team switched to their dark uniforms for home games but have worn their white uniforms at home a few times since switching to the dome. It was announced at the 2009 state of the franchise meeting that the Falcons would wear 1966 throwback uniforms for a couple games during the 2009 season. The Atlanta Falcons wore 1966 throwback jerseys for two home games in 2009 -- against the Carolina Panthers on September 20 and against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers on November 29. The Falcons won both of those games. They donned the throwbacks again for 2 games in 2010, against Baltimore and San Francisco, winning both of those games as well.
In every season except for their debut season, the Falcons have shared a division with the New Orleans Saints (first the NFC West, and now the NFC South). Over this time, a heated rivalry has developed between the two cities ' franchises. Atlanta leads the series 51 -- 45.
In addition, the Falcons share a similar, yet smaller, rivalry with the Carolina Panthers, with both teams having been in the NFC West from the Panthers ' founding in 1995 to the NFL realignment in 2002, where they have been in the NFC South since then. The Falcons lead the series 27 -- 17.
Includes postseason records
Source:
Note: W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties
Running backs
Wide receivers
Tight ends
Defensive linemen
Defensive backs
Special teams
Unrestricted FAs
Restricted FAs
Exclusive - Rights FAs
Roster updated February 12, 2018 Depth chart Transactions 37 Active, 9 Inactive, 22 FAs
Sanders and Humphrey are the only two players in the Hall of Fame that have been inducted based substantially on their service with the Falcons. Andersen spent eight of his 25 NFL seasons with the Falcons, and remains the team 's all - time scoring leader, but he also played his first 13 NFL seasons with the New Orleans Saints, also leading that team 's career scoring list.
The Atlanta Falcons organization does not officially retire jersey numbers, but considers certain players ' jerseys worthy of being honored. The Falcons Ring of Honor, which is featured in the rafters of the Georgia Dome, honors individual players.
In their history, the Atlanta Falcons have had 15 head coaches.
→ Coaching staff → Management → More NFL staffs
Falcons ' flagship radio station is WZGC 92.9 The Game. Wes Durham, son of longtime North Carolina Tar Heels voice Woody Durham, is the Falcons ' play - by - play announcer, with former Atlanta Falcons QB and pro football veteran, Dave Archer serving as color commentator.
In 2014, The CW owned - and - operated station WUPA became the official television station of the Falcons, gaining rights to its preseason games, which are produced by CBS Sports.
In the regular season, the team 's games are seen on Fox 's O&O affiliate WAGA. When the Falcons challenge an AFC team, CBS affiliate WGCL will air those games while Sunday night games are televised on WXIA, the local NBC affiliate.
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after constantinople fell what became the capitol of christendom | Constantinople - wikipedia
Κωνσταντινούπολις (in Greek)
6 km (2.3 sq mi) enclosed within Constantinian Walls
Constantinople (Greek: Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis; Latin: Constantinopolis) was the capital city of the Roman / Byzantine Empire (330 -- 1204 and 1261 -- 1453), and also of the brief Latin (1204 -- 1261), and the later Ottoman (1453 -- 1923) empires. It was reinaugurated in 324 AD from ancient Byzantium as the new capital of the Roman Empire by Emperor Constantine the Great, after whom it was named, and dedicated on 11 May 330 AD.
From the mid-5th century to the early 13th century, Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest city in Europe. It was instrumental in the advancement of Christianity during Roman and Byzantine times as the home of the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople and as the guardian of Christendom 's holiest relics such as the Crown of Thorns and the True Cross. After the final loss of its provinces in the early 15th century, the Byzantine Empire was reduced to just Constantinople and its environs, along with Morea in Greece, and the city eventually fell to the Ottomans after a 53 - day siege on 29 May 1453.
Constantinople was famed for its massive and complex defences. Although besieged on numerous occasions by various peoples, the defences of Constantinople proved invulnerable for nearly nine hundred years before the city was taken in 1204 by the Crusader armies of the Fourth Crusade, and after it was liberated in 1261 by the Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos, a second and final time in 1453 when it was conquered by the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II. The first wall of the city was erected by Constantine I, and surrounded the city on both land and sea fronts. Later, in the 5th century, the Praetorian Prefect Anthemius under the child emperor Theodosius II undertook the construction of the Theodosian Walls, which consisted of a double wall lying about 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) to the west of the first wall and a moat with palisades in front. This formidable complex of defences was one of the most sophisticated of Antiquity. The city was built intentionally to rival Rome, and it was claimed that several elevations within its walls matched the ' seven hills ' of Rome. Because it was located between the Golden Horn and the Sea of Marmara the land area that needed defensive walls was reduced, and this helped it to present an impregnable fortress enclosing magnificent palaces, domes, and towers, the result of the prosperity it achieved from being the gateway between two continents (Europe and Asia) and two seas (the Mediterranean and the Black Sea).
The city was also famed for its architectural masterpieces, such as the Greek Orthodox cathedral of Hagia Sophia, which served as the seat of the Ecumenical Patriarchate, the sacred Imperial Palace where the Emperors lived, the Galata Tower, the Hippodrome, the Golden Gate of the Land Walls, and the opulent aristocratic palaces lining the arcaded avenues and squares. The University of Constantinople was founded in the fifth century and contained numerous artistic and literary treasures before it was sacked in 1204 and 1453, including its vast Imperial Library which contained the remnants of the Library of Alexandria and had over 100,000 volumes of ancient texts.
Constantinople never truly recovered from the devastation of the Fourth Crusade and the decades of misrule by the Latins. Although the city partially recovered in the early years after the restoration under the Palaiologos dynasty, the advent of the Ottomans and the subsequent loss of the Imperial territories until it became an enclave inside the fledgling Ottoman Empire rendered the city severely depopulated when it fell to the Ottoman Turks, whereafter it replaced Edirne (Adrianople) as the new capital of the Ottoman Empire.
According to Pliny the Elder in his Natural History, the first known name of a settlement on the site of Constantinople was Lygos, a settlement of likely Thracian origin founded between the 13th and 11th century BC. The site, according to the founding myth of the city, was abandoned by the time Greek settlers from the city - state of Megara founded Byzantium (Greek: Βυζάντιον, Byzántion) in around 657 BC, across from the town of Chalcedon on the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus.
The origins of the name of Byzantion, more commonly known by the later Latin Byzantium, are not entirely clear, though some suggest it is of Thraco - Illyrian origin. The founding myth of the city has it told that the settlement was named after the leader of the Megarian colonists, Byzas. The later Byzantines of Constantinople themselves would maintain that the city was named in honour of two men, Byzas and Antes, though this was more likely just a play on the word Byzantion.
The city was briefly renamed Augusta Antonina in the early 3rd century by the Emperor Septimius Severus (193 -- 211), having razed the city to the ground in 196 AD for supporting a rival contender in the civil war and rebuilt, in honour of his son Antoninus, the later Emperor Caracalla. The name appears to have been quickly forgotten and abandoned, and the city reverted to Byzantium / Byzantion after either the assassination of Caracalla in 217 or, at the latest, the fall of the Severan dynasty in 235.
Byzantium took on the name of Konstantinoupolis ("city of Constantine '', Constantinople) after its re-foundation under Roman emperor Constantine I, who transferred the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to Byzantium in 330 AD and designated his new capital officially as Nova Roma (Νέα Ῥώμη) ' New Rome '. During this time, the city was also called ' Second Rome ', ' Eastern Rome ', and Roma Constantinopolitana. As the city became the sole remaining capital of the Roman Empire after the fall of the West, and its wealth, population, and influence grew, the city also came to have a multitude of nicknames.
As the largest and wealthiest city in Europe during the 4th -- 13th centuries and a centre of culture and education of the Mediterranean basin, Constantinople came to be known by prestigious titles such as Basileuousa (Queen of Cities) and Megalopolis (the Great City) and was, in colloquial speech, commonly referred to as just Polis (η πόλη) ' the City ' by Constantinopolitans and provincial Byzantines alike.
In the language of other peoples, Constantinople was referred to just as reverently. The medieval Vikings, who had contacts with the empire through their expansion in eastern Europe (Varangians) used the Old Norse name Miklagarðr (from mikill ' big ' and garðr ' city '), and later Miklagard and Miklagarth. In Arabic, the city was sometimes called Rūmiyyat al - kubra (Great City of the Romans) and in Persian as Takht - e Rum (Throne of the Romans).
In East and South Slavic languages, including in medieval Russia, Constantinople has been referred to as Tsargrad (Царьград) or Carigrad, ' City of the Caesar (Emperor) ', from the Slavonic words tsar (' Caesar ' or ' King ') and grad (' city '). This was presumably a calque on a Greek phrase such as Βασιλέως Πόλις (Vasileos Polis), ' the city of the emperor (king) '.
The modern Turkish name for the city, İstanbul, derives from the Greek phrase eis tin polin (εἰς τὴν πόλιν), meaning "into the city '' or "to the city ''. This name was used in Turkish alongside Kostantiniyye, the more formal adaptation of the original Constantinople, during the period of Ottoman rule, while western languages mostly continued to refer to the city as Constantinople until the early 20th century. In 1928, the Turkish alphabet was changed from Arabic script to Latin script. After that, as part of the 1920s Turkification movement, Turkey started to urge other countries to use Turkish names for Turkish cities, instead of other transliterations to Latin script that had been used in the Ottoman times. In time the city came to be known as Istanbul and its variations in most world languages.
The name "Constantinople '' is still used by members of the Eastern Orthodox Church in the title of one of their most important leaders, the Orthodox patriarch based in the city, referred to as "His Most Divine All - Holiness the Archbishop of Constantinople New Rome and Ecumenical Patriarch. '' In Greece today, the city is still called Konstantinoúpolis / Konstantinoúpoli (Κωνσταντινούπολις / Κωνσταντινούπολη) or simply just "the City '' (Η Πόλη / Η Πόλις).
Constantinople was founded by the Roman Emperor Constantine I (272 -- 337 AD) in 324 on the site of an already - existing city, Byzantium, which was settled in the early days of Greek colonial expansion, in around 657 BC, by colonists of the city - state of Megara. This is the first major settlement that would develop on the site of later Constantinople, but the first known settlements was that of Lygos, referred to in Pliny 's Natural Histories, Apart from this, little is known about this initial settlement. The site, according to the founding myth of the city, was abandoned by the time Greek settlers from the city - state of Megara founded Byzantium (Greek: Βυζάντιον, Byzántion) in around 657 BC, (14) across from the town of Chalcedon on the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus.
The city maintained independence as a city - state until it was annexed by Darius I in 512 BC into the Persian Empire, who saw the site as the optimal location to construct a pontoon bridge crossing into Europe as Byzantium was situated at the narrowest point in the Bosphorus strait. Persian rule lasted until 478 BC when as part of the Greek counterattack to the Second Persian Invasion of Greece, a Greek army led by the Spartan general Pausanias captured the city which remained an independent, yet subordinate, city under the Athenians, and later to the Spartans after 411 BC. A farsighted treaty with the emergent power of Rome in c. 150 BC which stipulated tribute in exchange for independent status allowed it to enter Roman rule unscathed. This treaty would pay dividends retrospectively as Byzantium would maintain this independent status, and prosper under peace and stability in the Pax Romana, for nearly three centuries until the late 2nd century AD.
Byzantium was never a major influential city - state like that of Athens, Corinth, and Sparta, but the city enjoyed relative peace and steady growth as a prosperous trading city lent by its remarkable position. The site lay astride the land route from Europe to Asia and the seaway from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean, and had in the Golden Horn an excellent and spacious harbour. Already then, in Greek and early Roman times, Byzantium was famous for its strategic geographic position that made it difficult to besiege and capture, and its position at the crossroads of the Asiatic - European trade route over land and as the gateway between the Mediterranean and Black Seas made it too valuable a settlement to abandon, as Emperor Septimius Severus later realized when he razed the city to the ground for supporting Pescennius Niger 's claimancy. It was a move greatly criticized by the contemporary consul and historian Cassius Dio who said that Severus had destroyed "a strong Roman outpost and a base of operations against the barbarians from Pontus and Asia ''. He would later rebuild Byzantium towards the end of his reign, in which it would be briefly renamed Augusta Antonina, fortifying it with a new city wall in his name, the Severan Wall.
Constantine had altogether more colourful plans. Having restored the unity of the Empire, and, being in the course of major governmental reforms as well as of sponsoring the consolidation of the Christian church, he was well aware that Rome was an unsatisfactory capital. Rome was too far from the frontiers, and hence from the armies and the imperial courts, and it offered an undesirable playground for disaffected politicians. Yet it had been the capital of the state for over a thousand years, and it might have seemed unthinkable to suggest that the capital be moved to a different location. Nevertheless, Constantine identified the site of Byzantium as the right place: a place where an emperor could sit, readily defended, with easy access to the Danube or the Euphrates frontiers, his court supplied from the rich gardens and sophisticated workshops of Roman Asia, his treasuries filled by the wealthiest provinces of the Empire.
Constantinople was built over 6 years, and consecrated on 11 May 330. Constantine divided the expanded city, like Rome, into 14 regions, and ornamented it with public works worthy of an imperial metropolis. Yet, at first, Constantine 's new Rome did not have all the dignities of old Rome. It possessed a proconsul, rather than an urban prefect. It had no praetors, tribunes, or quaestors. Although it did have senators, they held the title clarus, not clarissimus, like those of Rome. It also lacked the panoply of other administrative offices regulating the food supply, police, statues, temples, sewers, aqueducts, or other public works. The new programme of building was carried out in great haste: columns, marbles, doors, and tiles were taken wholesale from the temples of the empire and moved to the new city. In similar fashion, many of the greatest works of Greek and Roman art were soon to be seen in its squares and streets. The emperor stimulated private building by promising householders gifts of land from the imperial estates in Asiana and Pontica and on 18 May 332 he announced that, as in Rome, free distributions of food would be made to the citizens. At the time, the amount is said to have been 80,000 rations a day, doled out from 117 distribution points around the city.
Constantine laid out a new square at the centre of old Byzantium, naming it the Augustaeum. The new senate - house (or Curia) was housed in a basilica on the east side. On the south side of the great square was erected the Great Palace of the Emperor with its imposing entrance, the Chalke, and its ceremonial suite known as the Palace of Daphne. Nearby was the vast Hippodrome for chariot - races, seating over 80,000 spectators, and the famed Baths of Zeuxippus. At the western entrance to the Augustaeum was the Milion, a vaulted monument from which distances were measured across the Eastern Roman Empire.
From the Augustaeum led a great street, the Mese (Greek: Μέση (Οδός) lit. "Middle (Street) ''), lined with colonnades. As it descended the First Hill of the city and climbed the Second Hill, it passed on the left the Praetorium or law - court. Then it passed through the oval Forum of Constantine where there was a second Senate - house and a high column with a statue of Constantine himself in the guise of Helios, crowned with a halo of seven rays and looking toward the rising sun. From there, the Mese passed on and through the Forum Tauri and then the Forum Bovis, and finally up the Seventh Hill (or Xerolophus) and through to the Golden Gate in the Constantinian Wall. After the construction of the Theodosian Walls in the early 5th century, it was extended to the new Golden Gate, reaching a total length of seven Roman miles.
The importance of Constantinople increased, but it was gradual. From the death of Constantine in 337 to the accession of Theodosius I, emperors had been resident only in the years 337 - 8, 347 -- 51, 358 -- 61, 368 -- 69. Its status as a capital was recognized by the appointment of the first known Urban Prefect of the City Honoratus, who held office from 11 December 359 until 361. The urban prefects had concurrent jurisdiction over three provinces each in the adjacent dioceses of Thrace (in which the city was located), Pontus and Asia comparable to the 100 - mile extraordinary jurisdiction of the prefect of Rome. The emperor Valens, who hated the city and spent only one year there, nevertheless built the Palace of Hebdomon on the shore of the Propontis near the Golden Gate, probably for use when reviewing troops. All the emperors up to Zeno and Basiliscus were crowned and acclaimed at the Hebdomon. Theodosius I founded the Church of John the Baptist to house the skull of the saint (today preserved at the Topkapı Palace), put up a memorial pillar to himself in the Forum of Taurus, and turned the ruined temple of Aphrodite into a coach house for the Praetorian Prefect; Arcadius built a new forum named after himself on the Mese, near the walls of Constantine.
After the shock of the Battle of Adrianople in 378, in which the emperor Valens with the flower of the Roman armies was destroyed by the Visigoths within a few days ' march, the city looked to its defences, and in 413 -- 414 Theodosius II built the 18 - metre (60 - foot) - tall triple - wall fortifications, which were not to be breached until the coming of gunpowder. Theodosius also founded a University near the Forum of Taurus, on 27 February 425.
Uldin, a prince of the Huns, appeared on the Danube about this time and advanced into Thrace, but he was deserted by many of his followers, who joined with the Romans in driving their king back north of the river. Subsequent to this, new walls were built to defend the city and the fleet on the Danube improved.
After the barbarians overran the Western Roman Empire, Constantinople became the indisputable capital city of the Roman Empire. Emperors were no longer peripatetic between various court capitals and palaces. They remained in their palace in the Great City and sent generals to command their armies. The wealth of the eastern Mediterranean and western Asia flowed into Constantinople.
The emperor Justinian I (527 -- 565) was known for his successes in war, for his legal reforms and for his public works. It was from Constantinople that his expedition for the reconquest of the former Diocese of Africa set sail on or about 21 June 533. Before their departure, the ship of the commander Belisarius was anchored in front of the Imperial palace, and the Patriarch offered prayers for the success of the enterprise. After the victory, in 534, the Temple treasure of Jerusalem, looted by the Romans in 70 AD and taken to Carthage by the Vandals after their sack of Rome in 455, was brought to Constantinople and deposited for a time, perhaps in the Church of St. Polyeuctus, before being returned to Jerusalem in either the Church of the Resurrection or the New Church.
Chariot - racing had been important in Rome for centuries. In Constantinople, the hippodrome became over time increasingly a place of political significance. It was where (as a shadow of the popular elections of old Rome) the people by acclamation showed their approval of a new emperor, and also where they openly criticized the government, or clamoured for the removal of unpopular ministers. In the time of Justinian, public order in Constantinople became a critical political issue.
Throughout the late Roman and early Byzantine periods, Christianity was resolving fundamental questions of identity, and the dispute between the orthodox and the monophysites became the cause of serious disorder, expressed through allegiance to the horse - racing parties of the Blues and the Greens. The partisans of the Blues and the Greens were said to affect untrimmed facial hair, head hair shaved at the front and grown long at the back, and wide - sleeved tunics tight at the wrist; and to form gangs to engage in night - time muggings and street violence. At last these disorders took the form of a major rebellion of 532, known as the "Nika '' riots (from the battle - cry of "Conquer! '' of those involved).
Fires started by the Nika rioters consumed Constantine 's basilica of Hagia Sophia (Holy Wisdom), the city 's principal church, which lay to the north of the Augustaeum. Justinian commissioned Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus to replace it with a new and incomparable Hagia Sophia. This was the great cathedral of the Orthodox Church, whose dome was said to be held aloft by God alone, and which was directly connected to the palace so that the imperial family could attend services without passing through the streets. The dedication took place on 26 December 537 in the presence of the emperor, who exclaimed, "O Solomon, I have outdone thee! '' Hagia Sophia was served by 600 people including 80 priests, and cost 20,000 pounds of gold to build.
Justinian also had Anthemius and Isidore demolish and replace the original Church of the Holy Apostles built by Constantine with a new church under the same dedication. This was designed in the form of an equal - armed cross with five domes, and ornamented with beautiful mosaics. This church was to remain the burial place of the Emperors from Constantine himself until the 11th century. When the city fell to the Turks in 1453, the church was demolished to make room for the tomb of Mehmet II the Conqueror. Justinian was also concerned with other aspects of the city 's built environment, legislating against the abuse of laws prohibiting building within 100 feet (30 m) of the sea front, in order to protect the view.
During Justinian I 's reign, the city 's population reached about 500,000 people. However, the social fabric of Constantinople was also damaged by the onset of the Plague of Justinian between 541 -- 542 AD. It killed perhaps 40 % of the city 's inhabitants.
In the early 7th century, the Avars and later the Bulgars overwhelmed much of the Balkans, threatening Constantinople with attack from the west. Simultaneously, the Persian Sassanids overwhelmed the Prefecture of the East and penetrated deep into Anatolia. Heraclius, son of the exarch of Africa, set sail for the city and assumed the purple. He found the military situation so dire that he is said to have contemplated withdrawing the imperial capital to Carthage, but relented after the people of Constantinople begged him to stay. The citizens lost their right to free grain in 618 when Heraclius realised that the city could no longer be supplied from Egypt as a result of the Persian wars: the population fell substantially as a result.
While the city withstood a siege by the Sassanids and Avars in 626, Heraclius campaigned deep into Persian territory and briefly restored the status quo in 628, when the Persians surrendered all their conquests. However, further sieges followed the Arab conquests, first from 674 to 678 and then in 717 to 718. The Theodosian Walls kept the city impregnable from the land, while a newly discovered incendiary substance known as Greek Fire allowed the Byzantine navy to destroy the Arab fleets and keep the city supplied. In the second siege, the second ruler of Bulgaria, Khan Tervel, rendered decisive help. He was called Saviour of Europe.
In the 730s Leo III carried out extensive repairs of the Theodosian walls, which had been damaged by frequent and violent attacks; this work was financed by a special tax on all the subjects of the Empire.
Theodora, widow of the Emperor Theophilus (died 842), acted as regent during the minority of her son Michael III, who was said to have been introduced to dissolute habits by her brother Bardas. When Michael assumed power in 856, he became known for excessive drunkenness, appeared in the hippodrome as a charioteer and burlesqued the religious processions of the clergy. He removed Theodora from the Great Palace to the Carian Palace and later to the monastery of Gastria, but, after the death of Bardas, she was released to live in the palace of St Mamas; she also had a rural residence at the Anthemian Palace, where Michael was assassinated in 867.
In 860, an attack was made on the city by a new principality set up a few years earlier at Kiev by Askold and Dir, two Varangian chiefs: Two hundred small vessels passed through the Bosporus and plundered the monasteries and other properties on the suburban Prince 's Islands. Oryphas, the admiral of the Byzantine fleet, alerted the emperor Michael, who promptly put the invaders to flight; but the suddenness and savagery of the onslaught made a deep impression on the citizens.
In 980, the emperor Basil II received an unusual gift from Prince Vladimir of Kiev: 6,000 Varangian warriors, which Basil formed into a new bodyguard known as the Varangian Guard. They were known for their ferocity, honour, and loyalty. It is said that, in 1038, they were dispersed in winter quarters in the Thracesian theme when one of their number attempted to violate a countrywoman, but in the struggle she seized his sword and killed him; instead of taking revenge, however, his comrades applauded her conduct, compensated her with all his possessions, and exposed his body without burial as if he had committed suicide. However, following the death of an Emperor, they became known also for plunder in the Imperial palaces. Later in the 11th Century the Varangian Guard became dominated by Anglo - Saxons who preferred this way of life to subjugation by the new Norman kings of England.
The Book of the Eparch, which dates to the 10th century, gives a detailed picture of the city 's commercial life and its organization at that time. The corporations in which the tradesmen of Constantinople were organised were supervised by the Eparch, who regulated such matters as production, prices, import, and export. Each guild had its own monopoly, and tradesmen might not belong to more than one. It is an impressive testament to the strength of tradition how little these arrangements had changed since the office, then known by the Latin version of its title, had been set up in 330 to mirror the urban prefecture of Rome.
In the 9th and 10th centuries, Constantinople had a population of between 500,000 and 800,000.
In the 8th and 9th centuries, the iconoclast movement caused serious political unrest throughout the Empire. The emperor Leo III issued a decree in 726 against images, and ordered the destruction of a statue of Christ over one of the doors of the Chalke, an act that was fiercely resisted by the citizens. Constantine V convoked a church council in 754, which condemned the worship of images, after which many treasures were broken, burned, or painted over with depictions of trees, birds or animals: One source refers to the church of the Holy Virgin at Blachernae as having been transformed into a "fruit store and aviary ''. Following the death of her son Leo IV in 780, the empress Irene restored the veneration of images through the agency of the Second Council of Nicaea in 787.
The iconoclast controversy returned in the early 9th century, only to be resolved once more in 843 during the regency of Empress Theodora, who restored the icons. These controversies contributed to the deterioration of relations between the Western and the Eastern Churches.
In the late 11th century catastrophe struck with the unexpected and calamitous defeat of the imperial armies at the Battle of Manzikert in Armenia in 1071. The Emperor Romanus Diogenes was captured. The peace terms demanded by Alp Arslan, sultan of the Seljuk Turks, were not excessive, and Romanus accepted them. On his release, however, Romanus found that enemies had placed their own candidate on the throne in his absence; he surrendered to them and suffered death by torture, and the new ruler, Michael VII Ducas, refused to honour the treaty. In response, the Turks began to move into Anatolia in 1073. The collapse of the old defensive system meant that they met no opposition, and the empire 's resources were distracted and squandered in a series of civil wars. Thousands of Turkoman tribesmen crossed the unguarded frontier and moved into Anatolia. By 1080, a huge area had been lost to the Empire, and the Turks were within striking distance of Constantinople.
Under the Comnenian dynasty (1081 -- 1185), Byzantium staged a remarkable recovery. In 1090 -- 91, the nomadic Pechenegs reached the walls of Constantinople, where Emperor Alexius I with the aid of the Kipchaks annihilated their army. In response to a call for aid from Alexius, the First Crusade assembled at Constantinople in 1096, but declining to put itself under Byzantine command set out for Jerusalem on its own account. John II built the monastery of the Pantocrator (Almighty) with a hospital for the poor of 50 beds.
With the restoration of firm central government, the empire became fabulously wealthy. The population was rising (estimates for Constantinople in the 12th century vary from some 100,000 to 500,000), and towns and cities across the realm flourished. Meanwhile, the volume of money in circulation dramatically increased. This was reflected in Constantinople by the construction of the Blachernae palace, the creation of brilliant new works of art, and general prosperity at this time: an increase in trade, made possible by the growth of the Italian city - states, may have helped the growth of the economy. It is certain that the Venetians and others were active traders in Constantinople, making a living out of shipping goods between the Crusader Kingdoms of Outremer and the West, while also trading extensively with Byzantium and Egypt. The Venetians had factories on the north side of the Golden Horn, and large numbers of westerners were present in the city throughout the 12th century. Toward the end of Manuel I Komnenos 's reign, the number of foreigners in the city reached about 60,000 -- 80,000 people out of a total population of about 400,000 people. In 1171, Constantinople also contained a small community of 2,500 Jews. In 1182, all Latin (Western European) inhabitants of Constantinople were massacred.
In artistic terms, the 12th century was a very productive period. There was a revival in the mosaic art, for example: Mosaics became more realistic and vivid, with an increased emphasis on depicting three - dimensional forms. There was an increased demand for art, with more people having access to the necessary wealth to commission and pay for such work. According to N.H. Baynes (Byzantium, An Introduction to East Roman Civilization):
On 25 July 1197, Constantinople was struck by a severe fire which burned the Latin Quarter and the area around the Gate of the Droungarios (Turkish: Odun Kapısı) on the Golden Horn. Nevertheless, the destruction wrought by the 1197 fire paled in comparison with that brought by the Crusaders. In the course of a plot between Philip of Swabia, Boniface of Montferrat and the Doge of Venice, the Fourth Crusade was, despite papal excommunication, diverted in 1203 against Constantinople, ostensibly promoting the claims of Alexius, son of the deposed emperor Isaac. The reigning emperor Alexius III had made no preparation. The Crusaders occupied Galata, broke the defensive chain protecting the Golden Horn, and entered the harbour, where on 27 July they breached the sea walls: Alexius III fled. But the new Alexius IV found the Treasury inadequate, and was unable to make good the rewards he had promised to his western allies. Tension between the citizens and the Latin soldiers increased. In January 1204, the protovestiarius Alexius Murzuphlus provoked a riot, it is presumed, to intimidate Alexius IV, but whose only result was the destruction of the great statue of Athena, the work of Phidias, which stood in the principal forum facing west.
In February 1198, the people rose again: Alexius IV was imprisoned and executed, and Murzuphlus took the purple as Alexius V. He made some attempt to repair the walls and organise the citizenry, but there had been no opportunity to bring in troops from the provinces and the guards were demoralised by the revolution. An attack by the Crusaders on 6 April failed, but a second from the Golden Horn on 12 April succeeded, and the invaders poured in. Alexius V fled. The Senate met in Hagia Sophia and offered the crown to Theodore Lascaris, who had married into the Angelid family, but it was too late. He came out with the Patriarch to the Golden Milestone before the Great Palace and addressed the Varangian Guard. Then the two of them slipped away with many of the nobility and embarked for Asia. By the next day the Doge and the leading Franks were installed in the Great Palace, and the city was given over to pillage for three days.
Sir Steven Runciman, historian of the Crusades, wrote that the sack of Constantinople is "unparalleled in history ''.
"For nine centuries, '' he goes on, "the great city had been the capital of Christian civilisation. It was filled with works of art that had survived from ancient Greece and with the masterpieces of its own exquisite craftsmen. The Venetians... seized treasures and carried them off to adorn... their town. But the Frenchmen and Flemings were filled with a lust for destruction. They rushed in a howling mob down the streets and through the houses, snatching up everything that glittered and destroying whatever they could not carry, pausing only to murder or to rape, or to break open the wine - cellars... Neither monasteries nor churches nor libraries were spared. In Hagia Sophia itself, drunken soldiers could be seen tearing down the silken hangings and pulling the great silver iconostasis to pieces, while sacred books and icons were trampled under foot. While they drank merrily from the altar - vessels a prostitute set herself on the Patriarch 's throne and began to sing a ribald French song. Nuns were ravished in their convents. Palaces and hovels alike were entered and wrecked. Wounded women and children lay dying in the streets. For three days the ghastly scenes... continued, till the huge and beautiful city was a shambles... When... order was restored,... citizens were tortured to make them reveal the goods that they had contrived to hide.
For the next half - century, Constantinople was the seat of the Latin Empire. Under the rulers of the Latin Empire, the city declined, both in population and the condition of its buildings. Alice - Mary Talbot cites an estimated population for Constantinople of 400,000 inhabitants; after the destruction wrought by the Crusaders on the city, about one third were homeless, and numerous courtiers, nobility, and higher clergy, followed various leading personages into exile. "As a result Constantinople became seriously depopulated, '' Talbot concludes.
The Latins took over at least 20 churches and 13 monasteries, most prominently the Hagia Sophia, which became the cathedral of the Latin Patriarch of Constantinople. It is to these that E.H. Swift attributed the construction of a series of flying buttresses to shore up the walls of the church, which had been weakened over the centuries by earthquake tremors. However, this act of maintenance is an exception: for the most part, the Latin occupiers were too few to maintain all of the buildings, either secular and sacred, and many became targets for vandalism or dismantling. Bronze and lead were removed from the roofs of abandoned buildings and melted down and sold to provide money to the chronically under - funded Empire for defense and to support the court; Deno John Geanokoplos writes that "it may well be that a division is suggested here: Latin laymen stripped secular buildings, ecclesiastics, the churches. '' Buildings were not the only targets of officials looking to raise funds for the impoverished Latin Empire: the monumental sculptures which adorned the Hippodrome and fora of the city were pulled down and melted for coinage. "Among the masterpieces destroyed, writes Talbot, "were a Herakles attributed to the fourth - century B.C. sculptor Lysippos, and monumental figures of Hera, Paris, and Helen. ''
The Nicaean emperor John III Vatatzes reportedly saved several churches from being dismantled for their valuable building materials; by sending money to the Latins "to buy them off '' (exonesamenos), he prevented the destruction of several churches. According to Talbot, these included the churches of Blachernae, Rouphinianai, and St. Michael at Anaplous. He also granted funds for the restoration of the Church of the Holy Apostles, which had been seriously damaged in an earthquake.
The Byzantine nobility scattered, many going to Nicaea, where Theodore Lascaris set up an imperial court, or to Epirus, where Theodore Angelus did the same; others fled to Trebizond, where one of the Comneni had already with Georgian support established an independent seat of empire. Nicaea and Epirus both vied for the imperial title, and tried to recover Constantinople. In 1261, Constantinople was captured from its last Latin ruler, Baldwin II, by the forces of the Nicaean emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos.
Although Constantinople was retaken by Michael VIII Palaiologos, the Empire had lost many of its key economic resources, and struggled to survive. The palace of Blachernae in the north - west of the city became the main Imperial residence, with the old Great Palace on the shores of the Bosporus going into decline. When Michael VIII captured the city, its population was 35,000 people, but, by the end of his reign, he had succeeded in increasing the population to about 70,000 people. The Emperor achieved this by summoning former residents who had fled the city when the crusaders captured it, and by relocating Greeks from the recently reconquered Peloponnese to the capital. In 1347, the Black Death spread to Constantinople. In 1453, when the Ottoman Turks captured the city, it contained approximately 50,000 people.
Constantinople was conquered by the Ottoman Empire on 29 May 1453, due to the use of cannon. The Ottomans were commanded by 22 - year - old Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II. The conquest of Constantinople followed a seven - week siege which had begun on 6 April 1453.
The Christian Orthodox city of Constantinople was now under Ottoman control. When Mehmed II finally entered Constantinople through what is now known as the Topkapi Gate, he immediately rode his horse to the Hagia Sophia, where he ordered his soldiers to stop hacking at the marbles and ' be satisfied with the booty and captives; as for all the buildings, they belonged to him '. He ordered that an imam meet him there in order to chant the adhan thus transforming the Orthodox cathedral into a Muslim mosque, solidifying Islamic rule in Constantinople.
Mehmed 's main concern with Constantinople had to do with rebuilding the city 's defenses and population. Building projects were commenced immediately after the conquest, which included the repair of the walls, construction of the citadel, and building a new palace. Mehmed issued orders across his empire that Muslims, Christians, and Jews should resettle the city; he demanded that five thousand households needed to be transferred to Constantinople by September. From all over the Islamic empire, prisoners of war and deported people were sent to the city: these people were called "Sürgün '' in Turkish (Greek: σουργούνιδες). Two centuries later, Ottoman traveler Evliya Çelebi gave a list of groups introduced into the city with their respective origins. Even today, many quarters of Istanbul, such as Aksaray, Çarşamba, bear the names of the places of origin of their inhabitants. However, many people escaped again from the city, and there were several outbreaks of plague, so that in 1459 Mehmet allowed the deported Greeks to come back to the city.
Constantinople was the largest and richest urban center in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea during the late Eastern Roman Empire, mostly as a result of its strategic position commanding the trade routes between the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea. It would remain the capital of the eastern, Greek - speaking empire for over a thousand years. At its peak, roughly corresponding to the Middle Ages, it was the richest and largest European city, exerting a powerful cultural pull and dominating economic life in the Mediterranean. Visitors and merchants were especially struck by the beautiful monasteries and churches of the city, in particular, Hagia Sophia, or the Church of Holy Wisdom. According to Russian 14th - century traveler Stephen of Novgorod: "As for Hagia Sophia, the human mind can neither tell it nor make description of it. ''
It was especially important for preserving in its libraries manuscripts of Greek and Latin authors throughout a period when instability and disorder caused their mass - destruction in western Europe and north Africa: On the city 's fall, thousands of these were brought by refugees to Italy, and played a key part in stimulating the Renaissance, and the transition to the modern world. The cumulative influence of the city on the west, over the many centuries of its existence, is incalculable. In terms of technology, art and culture, as well as sheer size, Constantinople was without parallel anywhere in Europe for a thousand years.
Armenians, Syrians, Slavs, and Georgians were part of the Byzantine social hierarchy.
The city provided a defence for the eastern provinces of the old Roman Empire against the barbarian invasions of the 5th century. The 18 - meter - tall walls built by Theodosius II were, in essence, impregnable to the barbarians coming from south of the Danube river, who found easier targets to the west rather than the richer provinces to the east in Asia. From the 5th century, the city was also protected by the Anastasian Wall, a 60 - kilometer chain of walls across the Thracian peninsula. Many scholars argue that these sophisticated fortifications allowed the east to develop relatively unmolested while Ancient Rome and the west collapsed.
Constantinople 's fame was such that it was described even in contemporary Chinese histories, the Old and New Book of Tang, which mentioned its massive walls and gates as well as a purported clepsydra mounted with a golden statue of a man. The Chinese histories even related how the city had been besieged in the 7th century by Muawiyah I and how he exacted tribute in a peace settlement.
The Byzantine Empire used Roman and Greek architectural models and styles to create its own unique type of architecture. The influence of Byzantine architecture and art can be seen in the copies taken from it throughout Europe. Particular examples include St Mark 's Basilica in Venice, the basilicas of Ravenna, and many churches throughout the Slavic East. Also, alone in Europe until the 13th - century Italian florin, the Empire continued to produce sound gold coinage, the solidus of Diocletian becoming the bezant prized throughout the Middle Ages. Its city walls were much imitated (for example, see Caernarfon Castle) and its urban infrastructure was moreover a marvel throughout the Middle Ages, keeping alive the art, skill and technical expertise of the Roman Empire. In the Ottoman period Islamic architecture and symbolism were used.
Constantine 's foundation gave prestige to the Bishop of Constantinople, who eventually came to be known as the Ecumenical Patriarch, and made it a prime center of Christianity alongside Rome. This contributed to cultural and theological differences between Eastern and Western Christianity eventually leading to the Great Schism that divided Western Catholicism from Eastern Orthodoxy from 1054 onwards. Constantinople is also of great religious importance to Islam, as the conquest of Constantinople is one of the signs of the End time in Islam.
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where was the durand cup football tournament first played | Durand Cup - wikipedia
The Durand Football Tournament or Durand Cup is a football competition in India which was first held in 1888. It is co-hosted by the Durand Football Tournament Society (DFTS) and Osians All the matches are free - of - cost for spectators, and the winner gets ₹ 50 lakh.
The Tournament is named after its founder, Sir Mortimer Durand, Foreign Secretary in charge of India from 1884 to 1894. Sir Mortimer was recuperating from illness at the leading hill station of British India, Simla in northern India. Having become conscious of the value of sport as a means to maintain health, he decided to present a prize to encourage sporting competition in India. At first it was effectively an Army cup, and largely the preserve of the British Indian Army troops in India, but over the years it widened its appeal and opened up to civilian teams, until it became a more open and conventional sporting contest. It is now one of the leading prizes in Indian football. The final major administrative change was when the Army passed on the actual running of the Tournament to a civilian administration in 2006. The Army presence is maintained by the participation of several military teams, including an Army XI, which won the competition as recently as 2005.
The Durand Tournament was initially a military affair, open to the Army in India: the British Army, the regular Indian Army and other Indian military units, such as Provincial frontier - security regiments and the Volunteer regiments of the reserves. In practice, however, the Indian Army traditionally preferred field hockey to football, a fact which has been evident from the Indian and Pakistani dominance of that sport in international events such as the Olympics. The exception to this tradition were the Nepalese men of the Brigade of Gurkhas. Initially, this tended to leave the field open to the British Army until football 's popularity took hold and it became the more universal sport it is today. After the Second World War, the British Army left India and the tournament was opened to non-military teams to maintain the level of competition.
The initial matches were played in Dagshai, which is actually a short distance outside Simla. The inaugural Final of the Tournament, in 1888, was a Scottish derby, with the first name on the trophy being the Royal Scots Fusiliers, who beat the Highland Light Infantry with a score of 2 - 1. The Durand Cup has been suspended twice, due to the two World Wars.
In 1940 the venue was transferred to New Delhi, and it is now held at the Ambedkar Stadium in the city. Following India 's independence in 1947, the tournament was hosted by the Indian Army, with Durand Football Tournament Society being headed by three Service Chiefs.
The most successful teams are currently East Bengal and Mohun Bagan, with 16 wins each, accounting for no less 32 cup victories over the years. With the eclipse of high - profile teams from Hyderabad, since 1970 the Durand Cup has been won mostly by teams from Kolkata, such as East Bengal and Mohun Bagan, or from the Punjab, such as the Border Security Force and JCT Mills. Mohun Bagan also won the first title of the new Millennium. In recent years, however, Goa has also produced a run of winning form. In 1997 a team from the south won for the first time, thanks to FC Kochin. In 2002 for the first time a team from Mumbai won a repeat victory, when Mahindra United won its second title, following its 1998 win. In 2003 Goa matched this feat, when Salgaocar added to its 1999 victory. In 2005 another Goan side, Sporting Clube de Goa, missed the title by a whisker when the Army XI produced an upset to win, but the following year was undeniably Goan when a third Goan team, Dempo S.C., thrashed JCT 2 - 0 in the 2006 finals. Recent seasons has been dominated by yet another Goan team: Churchill Brothers. They won the tournament three times: in 2007, 2009 and 2011, and narrowly missed a hat - trick, as runners - up in 2008; they were also runners - up in 2001 - 02.
The winning team is presented with three trophies: The President 's Cup (first presented by Dr. Rajendra Prasad, the first President of India); the Durand Cup (the original challenge prize, which is a rolling trophy); and the Shimla Trophy (first presented by citizens of Shimla in 1904 and, since 1965, a rolling trophy).
Despite being the de facto Indian counterpart to the FA Cup in England, its winners do not qualify for Asian Football Confederation tournaments. The I - League and Federation Cup (League Cup) are the only ways to qualify for the Asian cup.
India 's armed forces deserve credit for keeping the Durand Cup tradition alive over the decades.In 2006, Osians, the art house, took over the running and management of the Durand Cup. Prize money, TV coverage and the quality of the football souvenirs produced have improved dramatically.
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the prime minister is the first and last person to speech in a parliamentary debate | Parliamentary debate - wikipedia
Parliamentary debate (also referred to as "parli '') is an academic debate event. Many university - level institutions in English - speaking nations sponsor parliamentary debate teams. In addition the format is currently spreading to the high school level. Despite the name, the parli is not related to debate in governmental parliaments beyond formal speaker titles such as "Opposition Leader '' and "Prime Minister ''.
British Parliamentary debate is very widespread. It has also been adopted as the official style of the World Universities Debating Championship and the European Universities Debating Championship (at which the speakers are given only fifteen minutes ' notice of the motion). Speeches are usually between five and seven minutes in duration. The debate consists of four teams of two speakers, sometimes called factions, with two teams on either side of the case.
Because of the style 's origins in British parliamentary procedure, the two sides are called the Government and Opposition, while the speakers take their titles from those of their parliamentary equivalents (such as the opening Government speaker, called the Prime Minister). Furthermore, since this style is based on parliamentary debate, each faction is considered to be one of two parties in a coalition. They must therefore differentiate themselves from the other team on their side of the case in order to succeed in their own right.
All speakers are expected to offer Points of Information (POIs) to their opponents. POIs are particularly important in British Parliamentary style, as it allows the first two teams to maintain their relevance during the course of the debate, and the last two teams to introduce their arguments early in the debate. The first and last minute of each speech is considered "protected time '', during which no POI may be offered.
Depending on the country, there are variations in speaking time, speaking order, and the number of speakers. For example, in New Zealand, both the leader of the Opposition and the Prime Minister offer a short summary as the last two speakers.
American parliamentary debate is supported by a number of organizations in the United States at the tertiary and secondary levels.
University level
The most popular intercollegiate parliamentary debate style is supported by the National Parliamentary Debate Association (NPDA), which was born in western US in 1991. NPDA circuit consists of a loose confederation of local leagues and a number of invitational tournaments. The NPDA season culminates with two national tournaments -- NPDA Nationals and the National Parliamentary Tournament of Excellence (NPTE). NPDA Nationals (founded in 1994) is open to all and attracts about 200 teams each year. NPTE (founded in 2001) is qualification - only and invites the top 64 teams of the approximately 1000 teams that compete in NPDA / NPTE - sanctioned invitationals throughout the season. Phi Rho Pi Nationals for junior and community colleges have an NPDA - style division, as do Novice Nationals. The chief online forum for the NPDA circuit is Net-Benefits.net, started in 2002 by Jed Link.
American Parliamentary Debate Association (APDA), the oldest intercollegiate parliamentary debate league in the US, was founded in 1982. APDA currently has around 40 member universities, primarily on the east coast.
A number of smaller intercollegiate debate leagues, such as the Lincoln Parliamentary League (LPL) and International Public Debate Association (IPDA) also exist.
The British Parliamentary Style (a.k.a. Worlds Debate, distinct from World Schools Style) is also beginning to spread to the US, with the US Universities Debating Championship held annually at the University of Vermont.
Chamber Debate is a modified form of Australia - Asia debating that sponsors three national tournaments annually using the 3 - on - 3 format of parliamentary debate Unlike other formats of parliamentary debate, Chamber Debate allows teams to use electronic devices a via 4th non-speaking member of each team who conducts fact - checking and other research for their team during the round.
High school level
Parliamentary debate is offered through the High School Public Debate League (http://highschooldebate.org).
The other public school high school debate league, National Forensic League (NFL), does not offer parliamentary debate at its national tournament. It does, however, recognize parli competitions offered at the state level, albeit at a reduced points value. In 2010 NFL Nationals added Supplemental Debate, which bears some similarity to parliamentary debate.
A number of attempts to organize a high school parli championship tournament have been made -- National Parliamentary Caucus (2003 -- 2005), NPDL Parli Grand Nationals (2006 -- 2007) and IDEA Tournament of Champions (2005 -- 2009, switched to world format in 2010).
The current incarnation of such championship is the Tournament of Champions, hosted by Point of Information. (2010 -- present, began accepting out - of - state teams in 2011). It was started as a California championship, named "California Cup, '' but has been renamed the Tournament of Champions to represent the prestige of the high school tournament.
Oregon State Tournament (OSAA) added parliamentary debate (known In Oregon as Public debate) in 2001, California State Tournament (CHSSA) followed suit in 2003, and Pennsylvania State Tournament (PHSSL) in 2010. Yale, ASU, Whitman, as well as a number of invitational tournaments in Oregon and California, the largest of them held at Stanford, James Logan HS, SCU, UOP, Willamette, University of Oregon, Pepperdine and Claremont HS also offer parli. The Kansas City, Missouri area has conducted monthly high school tournaments since 2002. The Kansas City Greater Metropolitan Parliamentary Debate League offers two - round contests during the week with a championship tournament at the end of the school year.
High school parli is taught at several summer debate camps, including Stanford National Forensics Institute, ODI, CCPDI, and the POI Debate Institute at UC Berkeley.
On the home school level, the home school debate league, Stoa, also promotes parliamentary debate in a number of its tournaments nationwide. Stoa also offers parliamentary debate at nationals (NITOC). The other home school debate league, NCFCA, does not offer parliamentary debate at any of its tournaments or is it hosted at nationals.
Format
The first key feature uniting various formats of parliamentary debate in the US is their spontaneity. The resolutions alternate each round. They are announced, then participants are given 20 minutes of preparation time known as "prep ''. APDA is somewhat of an exception in the respect, with "loose link '' rounds allowing the affirmative to run a case of their choosing, dealing with virtually any topic. The second key feature of parli is a ban on quoted evidence. Debaters may not bring in any material that was not prepared in the 20 minutes of preparation time and consult it during the round. APDA, Worlds and high school parli debate styles tend to take a more lay - friendly approach to debate, ensuring that debates are easy to understand no matter the audience member 's expertise of the resolution. NPDA is more diverse, with some teams engaging in a more academic and specific - knowledge style borrowed from Policy debate. Resolutions typically focus on current events, though the entrance of the Kritik to NPDA, and, to a lesser extent, to some high school circuits, introduced a philosophical element to parli.
This style consists of a two - on - two debate, between the affirmative team, known as the Government or the Proposition, and the negative team, referred to as the Opposition. Debater role names are borrowed from the British Parliament, with the judge being referred to as the Speaker. The round consists of six speeches, as follows:
Specific rules and speech times vary slightly between organizations. NPDA, APDA and OSAA use the 7 - 8 - 8 - 8 - 4 - 5 format, CHSSA and the ASU Invitational use the Claremont 7 - 7 - 7 - 7 - 5 - 5 format, the SCU Invitational uses the 6 - 7 - 7 - 7 - 4 - 5 format, and Yale high school tournaments use the Osterweis 4 - 5 - 5 - 5 - 2 - 3 format. PHSSL borrows its 8 speeches 6 - 6 - 6 - 6 - 6 - 6 - 3 - 3 format from World Schools Style debate.
Most variations of the style do not include a specialized cross-examination period, but allow debaters to make parliamentary points.
World Schools Style Debating combines the British Parliamentary and Australian formats, which results in a debate comprising eight speeches delivered by two three - member teams (the Proposition and the Opposition). Each speaker delivers an eight - minute speech -- the first two are substantive matter and the third a rebuttal speech; then both teams deliver a "reply speech '' lasting four minutes, with the last word being reserved for the Proposition. In junior debates, these limits are changed to about 5 minutes, and in some local competitions, speeches are 7 minutes.
Between the end of the first and the beginning of the last minute of an eight - minute speech, the opposing party may offer "points of information ''. The speaker may refuse these, but should take at least one or two points during his or her speech. No points of order or Privilege are used.
Topics can be supplied long in advance, or may be given 45 minutes or an hour before the debate begins. There is not much room for re-definition, and squirreling is strictly prohibited. The World Schools Debating Championships is attended by many countries, and uses this format.
A similar format, with 7 - minute speeches and Points - of - Information, is known as the Asian Parliamentary Format and is used by the United Asian Debating Championships
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where does let the cat out of the bag come from | Letting the cat out of the bag - Wikipedia
Letting the cat out of the bag or out of the box is a colloquialism meaning to reveal facts previously hidden. The facts were usually hidden from a specific target audience or theatrical audience. Examples include:
The derivation of the phrase is not clear. One suggestion is that the phrase refers to the whip - like "cat o'nine tails '', an instrument of punishment once used on Royal Navy vessels. The instrument was purportedly stored in a red sack, and a sailor who revealed the transgressions of another would be "letting the cat out of the bag ''. Another suggested derivation is from the "pig in a poke '' scam, where a customer buying a suckling pig in a sack would actually be sold a (less valuable) cat, and would not realise the deception until the bag was opened. Johannes Agricola made reference to the expression "let the cat out of the bag '' in a letter to Martin Luther on 4 May 1530 as referenced in Lyndal Roper 's 2016 biography about Martín Luther.
Both of these suggestions are rejected by Snopes.com, who find no evidence of it originating in naval slang, nor of whips being stored in sacks, and consider it "nigh on impossible to mistake a cat for a pig ''.
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been to the desert on a horse with no name lyrics | A Horse with No Name - wikipedia
"A Horse with No Name '' is a song written by Dewey Bunnell, and originally recorded by the folk rock band America. It was the band 's first and most successful single, released in late 1971 in Europe and early 1972 in the USA, and topped the charts in several countries. It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America.
America 's self - titled debut album was released initially in Europe, without "A Horse with No Name '', and achieved only moderate success. Originally called "Desert Song '', "Horse '' was written while the band was staying at the home studio of musician Arthur Brown, near Puddletown, Dorset. The first two demos were recorded there, by Jeff Dexter and Dennis Elliott, and were intended to capture the feel of the hot, dry desert that had been depicted at the studio from a Salvador Dalí painting, and the strange horse that had ridden out of an M.C. Escher picture. Writer Dewey Bunnell also says he remembered his childhood travels through the Arizona and New Mexico desert when his family lived at Vandenberg Air Force Base.
Trying to find a song that would be popular in both the United States and Europe, Warner Brothers was reluctant to release Beckley 's "I Need You '' ballad as the first single from America. The label asked the band if it had any other material, then arranged for America to record four more songs at Morgan Studios, Willesden in London. "A Horse with No Name '' was released as the featured song on a three - track single in the UK, Ireland, France, Italy and the Netherlands in late 1971. On the release, "A Horse with No Name '' shared the A-side with "Everyone I Meet Is from California ''; "Sandman '' featured on the B - side. However, its early - 1972 two - track US release did not include "Sandman '', with "Everyone I Meet Is from California '' appearing on the B - side.
"A Horse with No Name '' was recorded in the E Dorian mode with acoustic guitars, bass guitar, drum kit, and bongo drums. The only other chord is a D, fretted on the low E and G strings, second fret. A 12 - string guitar plays an added F ♯ (second fret, high E string) on the back beat of the Em. A noted feature of the song is the driving bass line with a hammer - hook in each chorus. A "waterfall '' - type solo completes the arrangement. Produced by Ian Samwell on the day of final recording at Morgan Studios, when at first the group thought it was too corny and took some convincing to actually play it. Gerry Beckley has explained in Acoustic Guitar magazine (March 2007) that the correct tuning for the guitar is DEDGBD, low to high. The chord pattern that repeats throughout the entire song is: 202002 (Em), then 020202 and 000202. The tuning is unique to this song; they did not use it on any other America song.
Despite the song being banned by some U.S. radio stations (most notably WHB in Kansas City) because of supposed drug references to heroin use, the song ascended to number one on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100, and the album quickly reached platinum status. The song charted earlier in Ireland (reaching number 4), the Netherlands (reaching number 11) and the UK (reaching number 3, the band 's only Top 40 hit in the country) than it did in the United States. The interpretation of the song as a drug reference comes from the fact that the word "horse '' is a common slang term for heroin.
The song 's resemblance to some of Neil Young 's work aroused some controversy. "I know that virtually everyone, on first hearing, assumed it was Neil '', Bunnell says. "I never fully shied away from the fact that I was inspired by him. I think it 's in the structure of the song as much as in the tone of his voice. It did hurt a little, because we got some pretty bad backlash. I 've always attributed it more to people protecting their own heroes more than attacking me. '' By coincidence, it was "A Horse with No Name '' that replaced Young 's "Heart of Gold '' at the number 1 spot on the U.S. pop chart.
The song has received criticism for its banal, oddly phrased lyrics, including "The heat was hot ''; "There were plants, and birds, and rocks, and things ''; and "' Cause there ai n't no one for to give you no pain. '' Penn Jillette asked the band about their lyrics, "there were plants, and birds, and rocks, and things '' after a show in Atlantic City, where America opened for Penn & Teller. According to Jillette, their explanation for the lyrics was that they were intoxicated with cannabis while writing it. In a 2012 interview, Beckley disputed Jillette 's story, saying, "I do n't think Dew was stoned. ''
(Per back cover of 1972 vinyl issue of America.)
The song was featured in Hideous Kinky, a British -- French 1998 film, during a trip on the Moroccan desert. In 2008, it was used in a Kohls TV commercial for Vera Wang.
The song bookends the second episode of the third season of Breaking Bad, "Caballo sin Nombre '' (Spanish for "Horse without Name ''), where the song plays on a car radio as Walter White drives through the desert in the beginning, before being pulled over for driving with a cracked windshield. At the end of the episode the song is sung by Walter in the shower. The song was also featured in the show Friends in Season 5, Episode 22, "The One With Joey 's Big Break ''.
The song is also featured in the movies The Devil 's Daughter, The Trip, and Air America. The song is also featured on the soundtrack of the 2013 motion picture American Hustle directed by David O. Russell and 2016 movie The Nice Guys.
In the season 4 episode of BoJack Horseman "The Old Sugarman Place '', the title character drives through the desert to Patrick Carney and Michelle Branch 's interpretation of the song. This version also appears on the soundtrack album of the series.
The song was one of many popular songs quoted and parodied on the album The Third Reich ' n Roll by The Residents.
The song "Face '' by American rock band Aerosmith released in 2001 bears a strong resemblance towards "A Horse With No Name ''.
Michael Jackson 's song "A Place with No Name '' was released posthumously by TMZ as a 25 - second snippet on July 16, 2009. The snippet closely resembles "A Horse with No Name ''. Jim Morey, both Jackson 's and America 's former band manager, has stated that "America was honored that Michael chose to do their song and they hope it becomes available for all Michael 's fans to hear. '' The song was remastered and released in its entirety along with the original Michael Jackson recording on Jackson 's 2014 album, Xscape.
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when was the last time a presidential candidate did not personally give a concession speech | Concession (politics) - wikipedia
In politics, a concession is the act of a losing candidate publicly yielding to a winning candidate after an election after the overall result of the vote has become clear.
Concession is entirely optional, and candidates sometimes refuse to concede defeat despite the vote count being against them, especially if they suspect electoral fraud. In that case, the candidate would likely demand a recount of the votes or other investigations into the alleged fraud. Sometimes, concession may be denied not because of any specific fraud allegations but simply because of ill will accumulated over the campaign.
It is not necessary for the losing candidate to concede for the winning candidate to be seated, and the losing candidate is not obliged to concede once defeat has been conclusively demonstrated.
If the vote is relatively close, it can be unclear when it is appropriate for a losing candidate to concede an election. On election night, pressures from a media looking for news to report, an opposition campaign anxious to declare victory, and one 's own campaign unwilling to concede defeat if there is any hope of a last - minute turnaround all weigh on the decision of the losing candidate.
It is exceedingly rare for a concession, once issued, to be retracted; such an event occurred in the United States 2000 presidential election, when Democratic candidate Al Gore, Jr. telephoned Republican George W. Bush to concede the contest. Gore was apparently unaware of the close vote count in the state of Florida, and when he realized it, he proceeded to cancel his concession address.
A losing candidate commonly offers a private concession directly to the winning candidate, usually by telephone, before any public announcement is made.
In the broadcast age, the concession speech of a candidate for high office reaches a wide audience and is seen as the final swan song of a lost campaign. Out of courtesy, the winner of the campaign usually waits for a concession speech, if one is forthcoming, before delivering the acceptance speech.
A losing candidate usually thanks their supporters for their valiant efforts and points to the non-electoral successes of the campaign in building party strength and raising issues to attention that would not otherwise be in public discussion. It is also traditional, unless the campaign has been exceptionally bitter, to congratulate and wish well the winning candidate, perhaps even offering a parting word of advice.
The first "concession telegram '' occurred when William Jennings Bryan sent William McKinley two days after the 1896 US presidential election. Prior to that election results took many days and thus candidates maintained an air of detachment from the process.
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when does buffy tell spike she loves him | Chosen (Buffy the Vampire Slayer) - wikipedia
"Chosen '' is the series finale of the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer, the 22nd episode of season 7 and the 144th episode of the series. It was written and directed by series creator Joss Whedon and originally aired on UPN on May 20, 2003. The Buffy story would not be continued beyond this point until "The Long Way Home '', a comic book, in 2007.
A bloody Caleb rises and Buffy finally kills him with the scythe by slicing him in two from the crotch up. Angel has brought an amulet intended to be worn by someone ensouled, yet more than human. He tells her he will fight alongside her, but she turns him down, asking him to instead organize a second front in case she loses to The First. They discuss Spike, his soul, and Buffy 's feelings for him, with Angel clearly unsettled and jealous. When Angel asks whether he has a place in her future, Buffy explains that she still needs to grow up; there might be a future for them, but it will be a long time coming, if ever. Angel walks into the shadows (as in his very first appearance), saying with a smile, "I ai n't getting any older. ''
Back at the house, Dawn angrily kicks Buffy in the shin for having Xander try to take her away from Sunnydale in the previous episode. Spike is in the basement, working out his anger on a punching bag with a crude drawing of Angel 's face on it. He asks for the amulet, whose exchange he had witnessed from the shadows, and she explains that it is very powerful and meant only for a champion. She then hands it to him. Buffy tells Spike coyly that Faith is still sleeping in her room. Spike says he does n't want Buffy downstairs with him, because he still has his pride and she has "Angel Breath ''. When Buffy starts to walk upstairs, he says that the whole pride thing was just a smoke - screen and he has none when it comes to her so she can stay.
Late at night, as Buffy and Spike are sleeping in each other 's arms, the First appears to taunt Buffy in the form of Caleb. His words give Buffy a plan; when Spike wakes up, Buffy tells him that she now knows that they will win.
The next morning, Buffy unveils her plan to the potentials off - camera. Afterward, Willow expresses to Kennedy her concerns about using magic again. She says this is the most powerful magic she will have attempted and asks Kennedy to kill her if it turns bad. Faith and Principal Wood also have a discussion while preparing the school for the battle. Wood demonstrates that he understands her defensiveness over getting emotionally involved with men and asks her to give him a chance after the battle. During the night, Buffy goes to the basement, where she apparently spends her last night with Spike.
The next morning, everyone arrives at Sunnydale High in a yellow school bus. The Slayers and the Potentials head to the seal in the basement while Kennedy helps Willow set up her spell in Principal Wood 's office. After trying to give a farewell speech, Andrew is dragged off by Anya. Dawn leaves to set up her post with Xander, determined to see her sister again. Principal Wood leaves to wait at his post for Giles. The core four share a moment talking about going to the mall after saving the world which causes Giles to say "the earth is definitely doomed, '' echoing the end of the second episode of the first season of Buffy. Xander and Willow walk down the hallway with Buffy before each one peels off, leaving Buffy walking alone to the seal. The Potentials, Faith and Spike are waiting, and the potentials / slayers cut their hands to open the seal with their blood. They climb down the hole in the ground and come face to face with the army of Turok - Han. The Ubervamps spot Buffy, Faith and the Potentials, and attack. "Come on, Will, '' Buffy pleads.
Willow sits in the school principal 's office directly above the Seal, the scythe before her. While chanting a spell, she places her hands on the scythe, and both she and the weapon light up in an ethereal glow and her hair turns white, the opposite of Dark Willow. A flashback to Buffy 's final speech to the Potentials reveals that Willow is channeling the essence of the scythe in order to activate Potentials all over the world. Defying the tradition of only one slayer per generation, Willow 's spell will raise an army strong enough to do battle with The First. As Willow performs the actual magic, Kennedy tells Willow that she is a goddess. "And you 're a Slayer, '' Willow replies. Kennedy takes the scythe to Buffy, who is deep in the fight with Faith and Spike against the army of the Turok - Han, numbering in the thousands.
As she pauses to give orders, Buffy is stabbed through her abdomen from behind by a Turok - Han and falls to the ground. She passes the scythe to Faith and asks her to hold the line. As she lies on the ground, she sees several Slayers fall, including Amanda. In the halls of the school, a few Turok - Han make it to the surface and attack the group guarding the entrances. A small group of Bringers also appear and attack. During the battle, Anya is bisected by a Bringer. Andrew fights until he is overwhelmed. Principal Wood is stabbed by a Bringer who is then killed by Giles. Xander and Dawn take on some Turok - Han who are disintegrated by sunlight when Dawn throws open a skylight window, but more follow. In the Hellmouth, the First then appears to Buffy as a mortally wounded Buffy herself, saying "What more do you want? ''. Ordering The First to "get out of my face! '' Buffy arises with renewed determination and knocks several Turok - Han off the ledge. Other Slayers are reinvigorated as well. Just then, Spike 's amulet consumes him in blue light and blasts a hole upward into the sky. The sunlight is channeled through his soul to the amulet and in powerful rays that begin dusting the ubervamps. The ground begins to shake and rocks tumble. The few surviving Slayers start to flee. Buffy tells Spike to do so as well, but he insists on finishing it. They share a quiet moment as the world crumbles around them. With tears in her eyes, Buffy tells Spike she loves him (fulfilling a prediction by Cassie in "Help ''); Spike replies, "No you do n't. But thanks for saying it. '' He orders her to leave as he has to stay and finish the job. As Buffy flees, Spike laughs, "I wan na see how it ends. '' Spike burns to dust as the Hellmouth collapses.
On the way out of the school, the Slayers find Andrew crouched in a corner. Xander yells for Anya, whose body lies nearby, unseen. Dawn pulls him out. The survivors board a school bus and flee. Buffy runs across rooftops to catch up, and leaps onto the top of the bus. The entire town of Sunnydale collapses into the Hellmouth cavern, leaving a large crater.
The ground stops shaking. Andrew comforts Xander by telling him that Anya died saving him; Xander smiles, "That 's my girl: always doing the stupid thing. '' While a few of the new Slayers tend to the wounded, the other survivors look back at the crater 's rim.
Dawn ponders, "What are we going to do now? '' Buffy slowly begins to smile, knowing that she is no longer alone in the world and that the burden of being the one chosen Slayer is no longer on her shoulders.
Originally the series finale was planned as a two - hour event. Unfortunately UPN only ordered 22 episodes instead of the required 23. This was why stories were so rushed at the end according to Gellar.
It was also necessary for UPN to not have aired a two - hour event, because it may interrupt local programming (likely Newscast).
"Chosen '' attracted 4.9 million viewers on its original run. SFX, a British sci - fi magazine, listed "Chosen '' the 8th best episode of Buffy (number one was "Hush '').
The episode was nominated for both a 2003 Emmy Award in the Category of Special Visual Effects for a Series, and for the 2004 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, Short Form.
In the UK, "Chosen '' had become the highest rated Buffy episode ever to air on Sky One, reaching 1.32 million viewers.
The Futon Critic named it the 50th best episode of 2003, saying "the final Buffy from Joss Whedon 's pen was a reason to celebrate in 2003: back was the snappy dialogue we 've come to expect from the show over the years. In essence the show came to life just as its run drew to a close. Not a bad way to go out. ''
In May 2013, Entertainment Weekly named "Chosen '' as number nine on their list of 20 Best TV Series Finales Ever. L.A. Times also named the episode number 13 as their most memorable TV series finales.
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what season and episode does prue died in charmed | Prue Halliwell - wikipedia
Prudence "Prue '' Halliwell is a fictional character from the American television series Charmed, played by Shannen Doherty from October 7, 1998 until May 17, 2001. The character was created by Constance M. Burge, who based Prue on her older sister. Prue is introduced into the series as the eldest sister to Piper (Holly Marie Combs) and Phoebe Halliwell (Alyssa Milano). She is one of the first original featured leads and, more specifically, a Charmed One -- one of the most powerful witches of all time. Prue initially possesses the power to move objects with her mind by chanelling telekinesis through her eyes. As the series progresses, she learns how to channel her telekinesis through her hands and gains the power of astral projection, the ability to be in two places at once. Prue also develops martial arts skills and becomes an effective hand - to - hand fighter like Phoebe.
Prue is portrayed as the oldest, responsible, strong, "kick - ass sister '' and "leader of the group. '' During her three seasons on Charmed, she is regarded as the strongest and most powerful witch of the Halliwell sisters. Prue 's storylines have mostly revolved around her protecting innocents and defeating the forces of evil in San Francisco with her sisters, as well as leading a normal life as an appraiser for an auction house and later as a professional photographer for a magazine company. She also has romantic relationships with her old high school flame Inspector Andy Trudeau (Ted King) in season one, and fellow auction house employee Jack Sheridan (Lochlyn Munro) in season two. In the third season, Prue is forced to marry the warlock Zile (Tom O'Brien) in a dark marriage ceremony, but their marriage soon ends after he is vanquished. In the season three finale "All Hell Breaks Loose '', Prue is attacked by Shax, a powerful demonic assassin sent by The Source of All Evil, ending the season on a cliffhanger. After Doherty departed the series, this attack was revealed to be fatal. She was replaced in season four by Rose McGowan, who played the long - lost younger half - sister Paige Matthews.
The character received a positive reception from television critics, who praised her strong persona and Doherty 's performance. Doherty received two Saturn Award nominations in 1999 and 2000, for Best Actress on Television for her portrayal of Prue. In 2007, AOL TV ranked Prue at number nine on their list of the Top TV Witches. In addition to the television series, the character has also appeared in numerous expanded universe material, such as the Charmed novels and its comic book adaptation.
In 1998, The WB began searching for a drama series, and looked to Spelling Television, which had produced the network 's most successful series 7th Heaven, to create it. Expanding on the popularity of supernatural - themed dramas, the production company explored forms of mythology to find mythological characters they could focus on with contemporary storytelling. In order to create the series, Constance M. Burge was hired as the creator as she was under contract with 20th Century Fox and Spelling Television after conceiving the drama Savannah.
The character of Prue Halliwell was conceived by Burge, who wrote the pilot script for Charmed. The pilot script was based around three mismatched sisters who are initially based on Burge and her two older sisters, Laura and Edie Burge. Prue is based on Burge 's older sister Laura. On creating Prue, Burge stated "my older sister, Laura, is very strong, very driven and so I attributed the characteristics that my sister Laura has to the character Prue. '' Executive producer Brad Kern claimed Prue was written into the series as "the older sister, the kick - ass sister. She was the tough one. She was probably the most skeptical about the magic up top, but ultimately became the most powerful of (the sisters). ''
When the series was in its first development stages, executive producer Aaron Spelling had always known who he wanted for the role of Prue, Shannen Doherty, an actress from a previous Spelling Television series, Beverly Hills, 90210. Doherty already devoted to the project pitched the idea to her best friend for the role of Piper Halliwell, former Picket Fences actress Holly Marie Combs. Doherty played the role of Prue in a 28 - minute test pilot (the "unaired pilot '', never aired on television) alongside Combs and actress Lori Rom who played the youngest sister Phoebe Halliwell. Rom quit the series and a new pilot was filmed with former Who 's the Boss actress Alyssa Milano, who took over the role of Phoebe.
In May 2001, it was officially announced that Doherty would be departing Charmed. Following the announcement, rumors circulated that the reason behind Doherty 's departure was because of a feud with Milano. Doherty told Entertainment Tonight that "there was too much drama on the set and not enough passion for the work '', and that there were never any problems between her and Combs. During an interview on Watch What Happens Live in 2013, Milano spoke about the rumored feud between her and Doherty, after a caller asked for the truth behind Doherty 's departure. Milano said, "I do n't know if she got fired, we never really found out what happened. I can tell you that we were on the air with her for three years and there were definitely some rough days. Holly and Shannen were best friends for like 10 years before the show started so it was very much sort of like high school. I would hope that in our thirties it would n't feel like that anymore. ''
The producers originally considered recasting the role of Prue with a different actress. Actresses Soleil Moon Frye, Irene Molloy and Denise Richards were rumored to be possible replacements. Spelling even approached Tiffani Thiessen, who replaced Doherty on Beverly Hills, 90210, and Jennifer Love Hewitt. However, both Thiessen and Hewitt declined the role. Producers then decided to kill off Prue and replace her with a long - lost younger half - sister named Paige Matthews (played by Rose McGowan), in favor of having "a fresh face '' join the series. The producers had to re-cut the season three cliffhanger to explain Prue 's sudden disappearance. Following Doherty 's departure from the series, all photographs of Prue in the Halliwell sisters ' home were never seen again and she never appeared in any flashback scenes. In an interview with TVLine marking the ten year anniversary of the series finale, executive producer Brad Kern said that he "tried like crazy to get her in flashbacks and to have photographs of her on the walls, '' but they could not afford to pay Doherty per - episode fee to use her image. Kern said that he regrets not being able to include a photo of Prue in the series finale 's final montage, but added it would have been "impossible to accomplish '' because "it was going to cost us a lot of money. '' Doherty revealed that she was asked to return for the series finale, but she declined the offer as she did not like the way the producers wanted to bring Prue back, stating it was "just not authentic '', "nothing interesting or good '' and was not "true to the character. '' However, Kern commented that "there was no talk about bringing (Doherty) back physically '' because they did not believe she would ever return or that the network would want her to. Kern felt that Doherty would not have returned because "there were a lot of internal issues that led up to her leaving... on a lot of different people 's sides. ''
Prue is depicted as the eldest Halliwell sister on Charmed, portrayed by Shannen Doherty in the first 66 episodes of the series as well as the unaired pilot. At the start of season one (1998 -- 99), six months have passed since the death of her Grams, Penny Halliwell (Jennifer Rhodes). After ending her engagement to Roger (Matthew Ashford), Prue moves back into her family 's Victorian Manor with her middle sister Piper (Holly Marie Combs), and they are later joined by their youngest sister Phoebe (Alyssa Milano). On the night of Phoebe 's return, she finds a book called the Book of Shadows within the Manor 's attic. After Phoebe unknowingly recites aloud what turns out to be an incantation from the book, the three sisters each receive a magical power and discover their destiny as The Charmed Ones -- the most powerful good witches the world has ever known. Gaining the power to "move things with her mind '', Prue battles with maintaining control of her newfound powers and keeping her identity as a witch secret. Due to the witchy interferences in both her work and personal life, Prue finds it difficult to rekindle a relationship with her old high school flame Inspector Andy Trudeau (T.W. King) and stay on top of her new job as an appraiser for Buckland 's Auction House. Throughout the first season, Prue and her sisters face off against various warlocks and demons who aim to steal their powers or harm innocents. In the first - season finale, Prue loses the love of her life Andy while he tried to protect them from a demonic foe.
The show 's second season (1999 -- 2000) opens with Prue 's continual struggle to deal with the death of Andy from the previous season. After claiming to be responsible for Andy 's death because of her powers and calling as a witch, Prue contemplates giving up on witchcraft entirely, but eventually decides to continue her destiny as a witch and protector of the innocent through the help of her sisters. Prue later experiences growth in her magical abilities when she develops the power to "be in two places at once '' via Astral Projection, and learns to open herself up to the potential of love again through a courtship with a fellow Buckland 's employee Jack Sheridan (Lochlyn Munro) and a romantic fling with ex-con Bane Jessup (Antonio Sabato, Jr.). She eventually quits her job at Buckland 's to pursue her lifelong dream of being a professional photographer. Prue subsequently lands a job as a photographer for 415 Magazine. In the season two finale, Prue and her sisters discover that the many attacks on their lives by evil beings have been orchestrated by a demonic force known as The Council.
By season three (2000 -- 01), learning of the new evil The Triad (who have replaced The Council), Prue becomes determined to prepare herself for any further attacks of evil on herself, her sisters and any future innocents in which to protect. Throughout the season Prue displays martial arts skills, strengthening her powers and researching, finding and destroying demons. Her fight and devotion as a Charmed One and fulfilling their destiny results in her becoming what has been coined as a "SuperWitch ''. Prue and her sisters eventually learn that the demon Belthazor and The Triad work for an even greater evil, The Source of All Evil who is the leader of the demonic realm known as The Underworld. After Prue and Piper later discover that Cole Turner (Julian McMahon), who is actually Belthazor, faked his death with Phoebe 's help, the revelation forms a rift in their sisterly relationship. Later, after being forced to marry the warlock, Zile (Tom O'Brien) in a dark marriage ceremony, Prue comes to understand Phoebe 's draw to Cole 's darker half. While the two sisters mended their relationship, Prue retained her distrust for Cole for some time. Midway through season three, Prue also makes amends with her estranged father, Victor Bennett (James Read) who left the girls ' lives shortly after their mother 's death. During the season three finale, Prue and Piper unwittingly expose themselves as witches to the world after being caught on camera by a local news crew fighting with The Source 's personal assassin Shax. In the aftermath of the exposure, Piper is shot by a crazed Wiccan fanatic who wanted to join the sisters ' coven. Prue struggling to get her to a hospital is thwarted by the crowd of unbearable media in her way. It 's at this point Prue can no longer stand by the laws of magic and uses her powers against everyone in her way to save her sister 's life. In the final moments of her life, Prue gets Piper to a hospital bed where Piper tells her she 's "so cold ''. Piper later dies in the arms of Prue. Prue, furious and broken, uses her powers and fighting skills to hold off a S.W.A.T. team attempting to take her down. Kissing and holding Piper 's body, she promises to fix it. In order to save her sister 's life, Prue orders Leo Wyatt (Brian Krause) to find Phoebe and pass on a deal to The Source to turn back time. This would reset the exposure of magic and save Piper 's life. The Source agrees, knowing that he plans to double cross her in the end as Phoebe will be immune to the time reset while in The Underworld. In the end Phoebe will not be able to warn her sisters ' of the assassin attack and he will kill her himself. Time is reversed to the sisters ' first encounter with Shax. However Phoebe no longer answers when Prue calls for help, as she was never sent back in time. The season ends on a cliffhanger with Piper and Prue left for dead after losing in the fight against Shax. Meanwhile, Phoebe remains trapped in The Underworld.
In the premiere of season four (2001 -- 02) "Charmed Again (Part 1) '', it is revealed that Prue could not be saved in time from the fatal wounds she acquired from Shax in the season three finale. Although the character is never shown again, Piper attempts numerous spells to resurrect Prue to no avail, and when she comes into contact with her Grams, it is revealed that Prue is still struggling to adjust to being in the afterlife and that she is being helped to process her actual death by both Penny and the girls ' mother Patty Halliwell (Finola Hughes). Penny also reveals to Piper that Prue can not be summoned back to Earth because seeing Prue would not allow the sisters to grieve and move on to continue their destiny. This leads to Piper becoming broken and outraged towards everyone around her, especially to her husband Leo who she states "saved the wrong sister ''. Finally accepting Prue is really gone, she attends the funeral of her big sister. This results in Phoebe having a premonition to save a young girl at the funeral and later discovering her identity as their younger half - sister Paige Matthews (Rose McGowan). A love child between their mother and her whitelighter, who was kept secret because of her whitelighter heritage. With the addition of Paige, Piper and Phoebe are able to reconstitute the Power of Three and avenge Prue 's death in vanquishing her murderer Shax. Also this season, along with the other witches of the Warren - Halliwell line, Prue 's spirit is called upon by the new Power of Three to vanquish The Source twice -- both in his original incarnation and that of his next incarnation, Cole. In the fifth and following season (2002 -- 03), Prue is briefly seen when Phoebe and Paige visit the past memory of Piper 's wedding. However, Prue 's face is never shown and only her back is seen due to copyright laws regarding Doherty 's image. During the seventh season (2004 -- 05) finale, it is revealed that after being asked for help from her sisters ', Prue had taught Leo how to use astral projection despite being "really protective of it ''. Piper, Phoebe and Paige later utilize the power of astral projection to defeat the threat of the demon Zankou (Oded Fehr). This is indicated by Piper stating "Thank you Prue, '' once Piper, Phoebe and Paige reflect on the successful attack. The season then ends with Manor door being shut by a telekinetic force, implying Prue closed it from the afterlife.
As one of the central characters of the series, Prue appears in a number of Charmed literature. These appearances are most prominent in the first ten books of the series of novels. The novels follow no strict continuity with the series or each other, and are often considered to be non-canon. However, the television series producers have final approval of everything in the novels, which could indicate the literature fitting into the established canon of the series and the so - called "Charmed universe ''. Prue 's first appearance in Charmed literature takes place within the novel The Power of Three by Eliza Willard on November 1, 1999, which acts as a novelised version of the series premiere episode. Her last appearance in a Charmed novel takes place within Beware What You Wish by Diana G. Gallagher on July 31, 2001.
In 2010, Charmed gained an officially licensed continuation in the form of a comic book, which is often billed as Charmed: Season 9. The series is published monthly by Zenescope Entertainment. While Shannen Doherty 's image of Prue has yet to actually be seen in the comics, the character is seen as another person after taking over their body. In the twelfth issue of the comic, The Charmed Offensive, seven years after Prue 's death, Penny Halliwell informs the sisters that Prue has reincarnated into her next life, due to the fact that her destiny was not completed when she died. However, it is later revealed in the issue that Penny had lied to the girls, mainly because she has no idea where Prue is. Later, Penny and her daughter Patty Halliwell task Cole Turner to locate the missing Prue in exchange for helping him find peace in the afterlife. In the sixteenth issue of the comic, Cole finds her in Salem as another witch named Patience. In the seventeenth issue of the comics, Paige looks for a witch named Sarah at a Salem house; however, she meets Cole who wo n't let her in. Despite his pleas, she orbs into the house where she meets Patience (Prue) and the two touch causing their powers to send them away. After recovering, Patience tells Paige that she is Prue. At first, Paige does n't believe her, but they go to the manor where after seven years, Prue, Piper, and Phoebe are finally reunited with a hug.
In spite of the reunion, the presence of Prue causes the sisters powers to go haywire. Because the Charmed prophecy never spoke of a "Power of Four '', the reunion of the four sisters causes their individual and collective powers to go out of control. To diffuse the chaos brought upon by the presence of the four sisters, Paige volunteers to strip her powers away so that Prue can rejoin her sisters in the "Power of Three ''. Cole, however, steps in and informs Prue that the real reason she remained tied to the "Power of Three '' and unable to move on in the afterlife was because she refused to truly let go of her destiny with her sisters. Realizing that her time as a Charmed One has passed, as she no longer inhabits the body of a true Warren witch, Prue instead strips herself of her Warren powers so that Paige will be the only sister with the power to move things with her mind. After being stripped of her active powers, Prue retains her status as witch and keeps the basic witch powers that allow her to cast spells and brew potions. Prue later returns to Salem, Massachusetts with Cole, who will help her train new witches to atone for his evil past.
In Charmed it is revealed that magical witches can develop and master a variety of magical skills and powers which include scrying, spell casting, and brewing potent potions. As a magical witch, Prue can utilize scrying, a divination art form that allows one to locate a missing object or person. Prue can also cast spells, often written in iambic pentameter or as a rhyming couplet, to influence others or the world around her. She can also brew potions, most often used to vanquish foes or to achieve other magical feats similar to the effects of a spell. Prue also possesses the powers of telekinesis and astral projection; however, in the comic book continuation, she chooses to lose these abilities because her and Paige 's co-existence is unbalancing the Power of Three.
At the start of the series, it is revealed that Prue has the power to move objects with her mind using telekinesis. While Prue 's telekinetic powers work best with a direct line of sight, she appears to simply need only an intimate knowledge of the object 's location in order to manipulate its movement. For instance, in the pilot episode, "Something Wicca This Way Comes '', Prue is able to move the ink from her ex-fiancée Roger 's pen, although it is mostly concealed in his shirt pocket. Later, while outside Roger 's office, she curls her fingers in anger, which causes Roger 's tie to tighten its hold around his neck. In the same episode, Prue also displays telematerialization as a second method for which she can move objects with her mind. After Prue telekinetically slides a creamer container towards her from across the bar in frustration, she proceeds to transfer a portion of the cream from its container by telematerializing the cream directly into her coffee without it going through the air or space between. The series premiere is the only instance in which Prue displays teleportation powers on - screen. She later uses this power again in the comics.
In the Charmed series, certain magical powers are attached to emotional triggers, although all powers can be affected by the user 's emotions. For Prue, the emotional trigger for her telekinesis is anger. This emotion is channeled to initially unlock and control her powers, which can only be focused by squinting her eyes for the majority of the first season. In episode nineteen of season one, "Out of Sight '', Prue learns how to channel her telekinesis through her hands as well. Later in the series, she obtains enough control over her powers in order to move objects with a mere crook or twitch of a single finger. The limits of Prue 's telekinetic powers are unclear, but she appears to be able to move up to 400 pounds (~ 181.4 kg) with her mind, sufficient to lift and throw two normal - sized adults with her powers.
In the season two episode "Morality Bites '', Prue travels ten years into the future from the year 1999 and inhabits her future self 's body. In the episode, Prue discovers that in ten years time from 1999, her telekinesis becomes several times stronger when she telekinetically blasts out an entire wall of the attic with one swift hand gesture. After returning to the present, Prue never realizes the growth of this level of power before her death at the end of the third season.
In the season two episode "Ms. Hellfire '', Prue 's powers expand allowing her to move her body to another location in the form of astral projection. This power developed from an intense desire to be in two places at once. While astrally projecting, Prue 's physical body falls unconscious while her astral body appears in a new location in corporeal form. Unlike traditional astral projection, Astral Prue is able to interact with the physical world. Prue displays the ability to astrally project across vast distances, regardless of her lack of familiarity with the location she is projecting to. However, she never displays the ability to astrally project across worlds. It is also revealed that Prue is unable to access her power of telekinesis while she is astrally projecting. In season three of the series, it is revealed that injuries sustained by Prue will not appear on her astral body. In the season three episode "Primrose Empath '', after Prue is temporarily cursed with the power of empathy, she channels the emotions she feels to enhance her own magical powers, which enable her to astrally project emotions into other people as well as briefly utilize her astral and physical bodies at the same time.
During her time on the series, Prue displays an efficiency in the Latin language and displays an expertise on various artifacts from a number of art forms and cultures throughout history. In season two, Prue begins taking classes in self - defense with her sister Phoebe. She gradually becomes an effective hand - to - hand fighter with her skills rivaling Phoebe 's. Her skills in hand - to - hand combat advanced to the point where Prue is capable of besting multiple adversaries in season three, most notably demonic wrestlers, the demon Vinceres, vampire - like demons known as Seekers, and a S.W.A.T. team. Prue is also skilled in the art of photography, which she later turns into her full - time profession.
In 1999, Doherty was nominated for a Saturn Award for Best Actress on Television for her portrayal of Prue. She received the same nomination the following year. Doherty and Milano 's rumored off - screen feud earned them a nomination for Best Fight at the 2001 Wand Awards.
Terry Kelleher of People magazine labeled Prue "the serious one '' out of the three Halliwell sisters. Michael Abernethy of PopMatters described Prue as "pragmatic '' and noted that Doherty 's performance in Charmed had "the hard edge '' that was seen in her previous roles, further adding that she had "matured from a bitchy teenager into an assertive confident woman. '' Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly commented that Doherty 's presence on the show was one of the main things that made it interesting, writing "Perennially crabby, delivering her lines as if she has contempt for them... curt, cranky Doherty gives Charmed its kick. '' Newsday 's Steve Parks wrote that Doherty being cast as a witch was a "perfect '' idea, due to her rumored poor off - screen behaviour. Kristin Sample of AOL TV felt that Prue had the "best powers '' and was "the bitchiest '' witch out of the three sisters, further adding that Doherty "quite possibly could be a real life witch. '' In his review of the pilot episode, Rob Owen of the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette commented that "Charmed is Doherty 's show plain and simple. Her behaviour on and off screen may not always be charming, but she excels at this sort of formidable, prickly character. '' CNN 's Joshua Levs named Prue the "uber - responsible older sister '' and felt that Doherty made her "somewhat plausible. ''
Entertainment Weekly 's Kate Ward added that she "gained an appreciation '' for Doherty after seeing her on Charmed, writing "Despite omnipresent rumors of her poor off - screen behavior, it 's been difficult for me to think of Doherty as anything but charming. '' In her review of the first season, Karyn L. Barr of the same publication wrote that Prue was one of the reasons it was "spellbinding ''. Rachel Day of Geek Speak magazine praised Doherty 's acting on Charmed and wrote that she deserved her two Saturn Award nominations. Day noted that Doherty 's "particularly outstanding '' performances were in the season two episodes "Witch Trial '' and "Murphy 's Luck ''. SpoilerTV 's Gavin Hetherington named Prue "one of television 's most influential witches '' and wrote that her death in the season three finale was "one of the best in television history '' that "forever changed the course of the show. '' Angelica Bastien of Bustle magazine called Prue "the superior sister '' and added that she preferred the show 's first three seasons as she felt "Charmed got pretty bad '' in the seasons after Prue died. Brett Cullum of DVD Verdict wrote that Prue was "the pragmatic no - nonsense leader of the group '' during the first three seasons and she was "never afraid to lay down the law. '' He further added, "Not only was Shannen a pretty good witch, but nobody gives good bitch quite like her. She 's infamous for being hard to work with, but she 's got a charisma the show needed. She knew how to make Prudence strong and vulnerable all at once, and they relied on her to be the wise leader who put her fist down when necessary. '' Hugh Armitage of Digital Spy felt that "Prue 's death was handled badly '', further adding that "it never made sense that she would vanish '' from the show completely, as "Prue never showed up in spirit form '' and was not featured in any photographs displayed in the sisters ' home.
In 2007, AOL TV ranked Prue at number 9 on their list of Top TV Witches. The following year, she was ranked at number 10 on the same list. Prue was included in TVLine 's list of "Shocking TV Deaths '', while Glamour magazine included her in their list of favourite witches from TV. Prue 's death was included on io9 's list of the "Top 10 Most Shocking TV Deaths '', with Meredith Woerner stating that her permanent death was shocking considering the show 's light - hearted tone and forever changed the family dynamic.
Doherty and her character have been referenced in television shows and films due to her portrayal as a witch in Charmed. In the 2000 parody film, Shriek If You Know What I Did Last Friday the Thirteenth, Barbara Primesuspect (Julie Benz) is said to be yelling "Charmed my ass! '' at Doherty, who does not appear on - screen. In an episode of the teen comedy - drama series Popular, entitled "The Shocking Possession of Harrison John '', Josh Ford (Bryce Johnson) asks George Austin (Anthony Montgomery) who is Michael Bernardino 's (Ron Lester) "favorite hottie witch '' on Charmed and George says it is Prue. In the episode "Cursed '' of sitcom So Notorious, Tori Spelling and Sasan (Zachary Quinto) discuss who has put a curse on her and Sasan says, "It 's Shannen! She knows all that witchcraft from Charmed. '' The reference in So Notorious was meant as a joke to Doherty 's rumored poor off - screen behavior when she and Spelling both starred together in Beverly Hills, 90210. In his review of the television series Witches of East End being too similar to Charmed, Christian Cintron of Hollywood.com noted that Julia Ormond 's character Joanna Beauchamp seemed "a lot like... Doherty 's type - A character, Prue. ''
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where does diary of wimpy kid take place | Diary of a Wimpy Kid - wikipedia
Diary of a Wimpy Kid is a satirical realistic fiction comedy novel for children and teenagers written and illustrated by Jeff Kinney. It is the first book in the Diary of a Wimpy Kid series. The book is about a boy named Greg Heffley and his struggles to fit in as he begins middle school.
Diary of a Wimpy Kid first appeared on FunBrain in 2004, where it was read 20 million times. The abridged hardcover adaptation was released on April 1, 2007. The book was named New York Times bestseller among other awards and praise. A film of the same name was released on March 19, 2010. The sequel to the film is Rodrick Rules, followed by Dog Days and The Long Haul.
As Greg Heffley is getting ready for his first day of middle school, he is teased by his teenage brother Rodrick, because his mom bought him his supplies for school. He has a little brother, a toddler named Manny, who is "spoiled rotten '' because he gets everything he wants and also gets away with everything he does wrong. His father, named Frank Heffley, does not encourage Greg 's way of life - playing video games all day - rather than going outside and playing sports.
During the first day of school, Greg is immediately rejected and is forced to sit with another outcast named Fregley, from whom Greg tries to keep "a safe distance ''. He is initially unsure whether his best friend Rowley Jefferson will be able to fit in, as he considers Rowley to be immature. However, Greg strongly believes that he can become popular. He and Rowley decide to take part in wrestling at school, although Greg quits after losing a match against Fregley.
On Halloween, Greg and Rowley go trick - or - treating, but are challenged by teens who spray Greg and Rowley with a water - filled fire extinguisher. Greg tries to threaten them by saying he 's going to call the police, but the teenagers start to chase them. The two friends escape and go to Greg 's grandmother 's house until the teens leave.
After getting few presents for Christmas, Greg decides to play a game with Rowley in which Rowley must ride a bike while Greg tries to knock him off. On one of Greg 's tries, the ball gets under the front wheel, which causes Rowley to fall off and break his arm. When Rowley goes to school with a plaster cast, the girls take care of him (carrying his books, feeding him food) which makes Greg jealous. After Rowley 's arm heals, he and Greg decide to enroll in the safety patrol program in which they walk younger kids to their homes.
One day, as Greg is walking the kids by himself he chases the young children after scaring them with a stick with worms on it. A neighbour contacts the school and tells them about Greg 's unusual behavior. The principal suspects Rowley, as Greg was wearing Rowley 's jacket. Rowley is suspended from the safety patrol. Greg later decides to confess the truth, but Rowley has already informed on him, resulting in their friendship breaking off.
Greg tries to befriend Fregley to make Rowley jealous, although he is uncomfortable around Fregley. Resorting to auditioning for the school play (based on The Wizard of Oz) Greg lands the role as a tree, while Patty Farrel is cast as Dorothy, the protagonist of the novel. During the show 's opening performance, Rodrick brings a camera to film the play. Greg becomes too nervous to sing, confusing the other "trees '' who also fail to sing. Patty gets frustrated and angers Greg, who throws props at Patty, and then everyone gets in the fight, ending the play in chaos.
Feeling desolate from being blatantly rejected by everyone, Greg is surprised and a little happy to see Rowley approaching him at recess, until, he discovers that he 's only there to demand back a CD he 'd left with Greg. They get into an awkward fist - fight. While they are fighting, the teens who chased them at halloween are drawn to the chaos crowding around Greg and Rowley tumbling around in the dirt. When the leader of the teen gang scares away the rest of the students, they force Greg and Rowley to eat a moldy piece of cheese that has been left on the school grounds for years. Rowley is the first to eat the cheese - except when it comes to Greg 's turn, he claims that he 's lactose intolerant and that eating cheese will kill him. The principal turns up and the teens disappear. The other students see the cheese in front of Rowley and believe he has eaten from it. Greg takes the blame and claims he ate the cheese. Greg and Rowley mend their friendship.
In 2005, FunBrain and Jeff Kinney released an online version of Diary of a Wimpy Kid. The website made daily entries until June 2005. The book became an instant hit and the online version received about 20 million views as of 2007. Many online readers requested a printed version. At the 2006 New York Comic - Con Kinney proposed Diary to Charles Kochman, Editorial Director of the ComicArts division of Abrams Books, who purchased the rights to the book. According to Kochman, the two initially conceived it as a book for adults, believing it would appeal to audiences similar to that of the TV series The Wonder Years. Kochman brought it before the Abrams publishing board, which convinced Kinney and Kochman that it would be better aimed toward children. In 2007, Diary of a Wimpy Kid, an abridged version of the original online book, was published.
The main character, Greg, has trouble with family, friends, and his local middle school. He is very concerned about how popular he is at school, and he daydreams a lot about being rich and famous when he grows up. He tries to fit in at his school, but usually he does not succeed. Facing many challenges, Greg attempts to handle them very creatively, but unfortunately his antics often backfire on him.
Greg 's best friend has a larger than average frame. He is always willing to do what Greg tells him, including dangerous stunts. Rowley goes on vacations all the time, which annoys Greg. Rowley is a loyal friend, but he sometimes behaves in an immature or childish manner. He also dresses in an unusual way.
Greg 's "spoiled '' little brother, a three - year - old toddler. He never gets in trouble no matter what, even when he really deserves it. Manny is just getting toilet trained.
Rodrick is Greg 's teenage brother and he never misses a chance to be cruel to Greg. He is known for sleeping excessively in the morning and for his rebellious attitude. Rodrick is part of a garage band called "The Löded Diper ''. Rodrick will do anything to embarrass Greg and will even cause problems for Manny to make everyone 's life miserable.
Diary of a Wimpy Kid is the first book in an ongoing book franchise. The second, Rodrick Rules was released February 1, 2008 and was listed on the New York Times Best Sellers list for 117 weeks. The Last Straw, the third book in the series, released on January 13, 2009 was on the New York Times Best Sellers list for 65 weeks, peaking at number one. Dog Days was released October 12, 2009 with 217 pages. The book was ranked at number one on the New York Times Best Sellers List for all 25 weeks of inclusion, making Dog Days the # 1 Best Selling Book of 2009. The Ugly Truth was released November 9, 2010 with 217 pages. The sixth, Cabin Fever was released November 15, 2011. The seventh, The Third Wheel was released on November 13, 2012. The eighth, Hard Luck was released on November 5, 2013 in the United States and on November 6 in the United Kingdom. The ninth, The Long Haul was released on November 4, 2014 in the US and November 5, 2014 in the UK. The tenth, Old School, was released globally on November 3, 2015. The eleventh, Double Down, was published on November 1, 2016.
The book won the Blue Peter Book Award 2012, revealed live on British kids channel CBBC on March 1, 2012.
Diary of a Wimpy Kid is a 2010 American comedy directed by Thor Freudenthal and based on Jeff Kinney 's book. The film was released on March 19, 2010. It was released on DVD, iTunes, and Blu - ray on August 3, 2010. The movie stars Zachary Gordon as Greg Heffley, Robert Capron as Rowley Jefferson, Steve Zahn as Frank Heffley (Dad), Rachael Harris as Susan Heffley (Mom), Devon Bostick as Rodrick Heffley, Chloë Grace Moretz as Angie Steadman, and Connor & Owen Fielding as Manny Heffley, Greg 's brother.
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why should we look for the alternative sources of energy than fossil fuels | Alternative energy - wikipedia
Alternative energy is any energy source that is an alternative to fossil fuel. These alternatives are intended to address concerns about fossil fuels, such as its high carbon dioxide emissions, an important factor in global warming. Marine energy, hydroelectric, wind, geothermal and solar power are all alternative sources of energy.
The nature of what constitutes an alternative energy source has changed considerably over time, as have controversies regarding energy use. Because of the variety of energy choices and differing goals of their advocates, defining some energy types as "alternative '' is considered very controversial.
Historians of economies have examined the key transitions to alternative energies and regard the transitions as pivotal in bringing about significant economic change. Prior to the shift to an alternative energy, supplies of the dominant energy type became erratic, accompanied by rapid increases in energy prices.
In the late medieval period, coal was the new alternative fuel to save the society from overuse of the dominant fuel, wood. The deforestation had resulted in shortage of wood, at that time soft coal appeared as a savior. Historian Norman F. Cantor describes how:
Europeans had lived in the midst of vast forests throughout the earlier medieval centuries. After 1250 they became so skilled at deforestation that by 1500 AD they were running short of wood for heating and cooking... By 1500 Europe was on the edge of a fuel and nutritional disaster, (from) which it was saved in the sixteenth century only by the burning of soft coal and the cultivation of potatoes and maize.
Whale oil was the dominant form of lubrication and fuel for lamps in the early 19th century, but the depletion of the whale stocks by mid century caused whale oil prices to skyrocket setting the stage for the adoption of petroleum which was first commercialized in Pennsylvania in 1859.
In 1917, Alexander Graham Bell advocated ethanol from corn, wheat and other foods as an alternative to coal and oil, stating that the world was in measurable distance of depleting these fuels. For Bell, the problem requiring an alternative was lack of renewability of orthodox energy sources. Since the 1970s, Brazil has had an ethanol fuel program which has allowed the country to become the world 's second largest producer of ethanol (after the United States) and the world 's largest exporter. Brazil 's ethanol fuel program uses modern equipment and cheap sugar cane as feedstock, and the residual cane - waste (bagasse) is used to process heat and power. There are no longer light vehicles in Brazil running on pure gasoline. By the end of 2008 there were 35,000 filling stations throughout Brazil with at least one ethanol pump.
Cellulosic ethanol can be produced from a diverse array of feedstocks, and involves the use of the whole crop. This new approach should increase yields and reduce the carbon footprint because the amount of energy - intensive fertilizers and fungicides will remain the same, for a higher output of usable material. As of 2008, there are nine commercial cellulosic ethanol plants which are either operating, or under construction, in the United States.
Second - generation biofuels technologies are able to manufacture biofuels from inedible biomass and could hence prevent conversion of food into fuel. '' As of July 2010, there is one commercial second - generation (2G) ethanol plant Inbicon Biomass Refinery, which is operating in Denmark.
In the 1970s, President Jimmy Carter 's administration advocated coal gasification as an alternative to expensive imported oil. The program, including the Synthetic Fuels Corporation was scrapped when petroleum prices plummeted in the 1980s. The carbon footprint and environmental impact of coal gasification are both very high.
Ice storage air conditioning and thermal storage heaters are methods of shifting consumption to use low cost off - peak electricity. When compared to resistance heating, heat pumps conserve electrical power (or in rare cases mechanical or thermal power) by collecting heat from a cool source such as a body of water, the ground or the air.
Thermal storage technologies allow heat or cold to be stored for periods of time ranging from diurnal to interseasonal, and can involve storage of sensible energy (i.e. by changing the temperature of a medium) or latent energy (e.g. through phase changes of a medium (i.e. changes from solid to liquid or vice versa), such as between water and slush or ice). Energy sources can be natural (via solar - thermal collectors, or dry cooling towers used to collect winter 's cold), waste energy (such as from HVAC equipment, industrial processes or power plants), or surplus energy (such as seasonally from hydropower projects or intermittently from wind farms). The Drake Landing Solar Community (Alberta, Canada) is illustrative. Borehole thermal energy storage allows the community to get 97 % of its year - round heat from solar collectors on the garage roofs. The storages can be insulated tanks, borehole clusters in substrates ranging from gravel to bedrock, deep aquifers, or shallow pits that are lined and insulated. Some applications require inclusion of a heat pump.
Renewable energy is generated from natural resources -- such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides and geothermal heat -- which are renewable (naturally replenished). When comparing the processes for producing energy, there remain several fundamental differences between renewable energy and fossil fuels. The process of producing oil, coal, or natural gas fuel is a difficult and demanding process that requires a great deal of complex equipment, physical and chemical processes. On the other hand, alternative energy can be widely produced with basic equipment and natural processes. Wood, the most renewable and available alternative fuel, emits the same amount of carbon when burned as would be emitted if it degraded naturally. Nuclear power is an alternative to fossil fuels that is non-renewable, like fossil fuels, nuclear ones are a finite resource.
A renewable energy source such as biomass is sometimes regarded as a good alternative to providing heat and electricity with fossil fuels. Biofuels are not inherently ecologically friendly for this purpose, while burning biomass is carbon - neutral, air pollution is still produced. For example, the Netherlands, once leader in use of palm oil as a biofuel, has suspended all subsidies for palm oil due to the scientific evidence that their use "may sometimes create more environmental harm than fossil fuels ''. The Netherlands government and environmental groups are trying to trace the origins of imported palm oil, to certify which operations produce the oil in a responsible manner. Regarding biofuels from foodstuffs, the realization that converting the entire grain harvest of the US would only produce 16 % of its auto fuel needs, and the decimation of Brazil 's CO absorbing tropical rain forests to make way for biofuel production has made it clear that placing energy markets in competition with food markets results in higher food prices and insignificant or negative impact on energy issues such as global warming or dependence on foreign energy. Recently, alternatives to such undesirable sustainable fuels are being sought, such as commercially viable sources of cellulosic ethanol.
Carbon - neutral fuels are synthetic fuels (including methane, gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuel or ammonia) produced by hydrogenating waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue - gas emissions, recovered from automotive exhaust gas, or derived from carbonic acid in seawater. Commercial fuel synthesis companies suggest they can produce synthetic fuels for less than petroleum fuels when oil costs more than $55 per barrel. Renewable methanol (RM) is a fuel produced from hydrogen and carbon dioxide by catalytic hydrogenation where the hydrogen has been obtained from water electrolysis. It can be blended into transportation fuel or processed as a chemical feedstock.
The George Olah carbon dioxide recycling plant operated by Carbon Recycling International in Grindavík, Iceland has been producing 2 million liters of methanol transportation fuel per year from flue exhaust of the Svartsengi Power Station since 2011. It has the capacity to produce 5 million liters per year. A 250 kilowatt methane synthesis plant was constructed by the Center for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research (ZSW) at Baden - Württemberg and the Fraunhofer Society in Germany and began operating in 2010. It is being upgraded to 10 megawatts, scheduled for completion in autumn, 2012. Audi has constructed a carbon - neutral liquefied natural gas (LNG) plant in Werlte, Germany. The plant is intended to produce transportation fuel to offset LNG used in their A3 Sportback g - tron automobiles, and can keep 2,800 metric tons of CO out of the environment per year at its initial capacity. Other commercial developments are taking place in Columbia, South Carolina, Camarillo, California, and Darlington, England.
Such fuels are considered carbon - neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases. To the extent that synthetic fuels displace fossil fuels, or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid, and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe, they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere, and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation.
Such renewable fuels alleviate the costs and dependency issues of imported fossil fuels without requiring either electrification of the vehicle fleet or conversion to hydrogen or other fuels, enabling continued compatible and affordable vehicles. Carbon - neutral fuels offer relatively low cost energy storage, alleviating the problems of wind and solar intermittency, and they enable distribution of wind, water, and solar power through existing natural gas pipelines.
Nighttime wind power is considered the most economical form of electrical power with which to synthesize fuel, because the load curve for electricity peaks sharply during the day, but wind tends to blow slightly more at night than during the day, so, the price of nighttime wind power is often much less expensive than any alternative. Germany has built a 250 kilowatt synthetic methane plant which they are scaling up to 10 megawatts.
Algae fuel is a biofuel which is derived from algae. During photosynthesis, algae and other photosynthetic organisms capture carbon dioxide and sunlight and convert it into oxygen and biomass. This is usually done by placing the algae between two panes of glass. The algae creates three forms of energy fuel: heat (from its growth cycle), biofuel (the natural "oil '' derived from the algae), and biomass (from the algae itself, as it is harvested upon maturity).
The heat can be used to power building systems (such as heat process water) or to produce energy. Biofuel is oil extracted from the algae upon maturity, and used to create energy similar to the use of biodiesel. The biomass is the matter left over after extracting the oil and water, and can be harvested to produce combustible methane for energy production, similar to the warmth felt in a compost pile or the methane collected from biodegradable materials in a landfill. Additionally, the benefits of algae biofuel are that it can be produced industrially, as well as vertically (i.e. as a building facade), thereby obviating the use of arable land and food crops (such as soy, palm, and canola).
Biomass briquettes are being developed in the developing world as an alternative to charcoal. The technique involves the conversion of almost any plant matter into compressed briquettes that typically have about 70 % the calorific value of charcoal. There are relatively few examples of large scale briquette production. One exception is in North Kivu, in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, where forest clearance for charcoal production is considered to be the biggest threat to Mountain Gorilla habitat. The staff of Virunga National Park have successfully trained and equipped over 3500 people to produce biomass briquettes, thereby replacing charcoal produced illegally inside the national park, and creating significant employment for people living in extreme poverty in conflict affected areas.
Biogas digestion deals with harnessing the methane gas that is released when waste breaks down. This gas can be retrieved from garbage or sewage systems. Biogas digesters are used to process methane gas by having bacteria break down biomass in an anaerobic environment. The methane gas that is collected and refined can be used as an energy source for various products.
Hydrogen gas is a completely clean burning fuel; its only by - product is water. It also contains relatively high amount of energy compared with other fuels due to its chemical structure.
2H + O → 2H O + High Energy
High Energy + 2H O → 2H + O
This requires a high - energy input, making commercial hydrogen very inefficient. Use of a biological vector as a means to split water, and therefore produce hydrogen gas, would allow for the only energy input to be solar radiation. Biological vectors can include bacteria or more commonly algae. This process is known as biological hydrogen production. It requires the use of single celled organisms to create hydrogen gas through fermentation. Without the presence of oxygen, also known as an anaerobic environment, regular cellular respiration can not take place and a process known as fermentation takes over. A major by - product of this process is hydrogen gas. If this could be implemented on a large scale, then sunlight, nutrients and water could create hydrogen gas to be used as a dense source of energy. Large - scale production has proven difficult. Not until 1999, was it even possible to induce these anaerobic conditions by sulfur deprivation. Since the fermentation process is an evolutionary back up, turned on during stress, the cells would die after a few days. In 2000, a two - stage process was developed to take the cells in and out of anaerobic conditions and therefore keep them alive. For the last ten years, finding a way to do this on a large - scale has been the main goal of research. Careful work is being done to ensure an efficient process before large - scale production, however once a mechanism is developed, this type of production could solve our energy needs.
Hydroelectricity provided 75 % of the worlds renewable electricity in 2013. Much of the electricity used today is a result of the heyday of conventional hydroelectric development between 1960 and 1980, which has virtually ceased in Europe and North America due to environmental concerns. Globally there is a trend towards more hydroelectricity. From 2004 to 2014 the installed capacity rose from 715 to 1,055 GW. A popular alternative to the large dams of the past is run - of - the - river where there is no water stored behind a dam and generation usually varies with seasonal rainfall. Using run - of - the - river in wet seasons and solar in dry seasons can balance seasonal variations for both. Another move away from large dams is small hydro, these tend to be situated high up on tributaries, rather than on main rivers in valley bottoms.
Offshore wind farms are similar to land - based wind farms, but are located on the ocean. Offshore wind farms can be placed in water up to 40 metres (130 ft) deep, whereas floating wind turbines can float in water up to 700 metres (2,300 ft) deep. The advantage of having a floating wind farm is to be able to harness the winds from the open ocean. Without any obstructions such as hills, trees and buildings, winds from the open ocean can reach up to speeds twice as fast as coastal areas.
Significant generation of offshore wind energy already contributes to electricity needs in Europe and Asia and now the first offshore wind farms are under development in U.S. waters. While the offshore wind industry has grown dramatically over the last several decades, especially in Europe, there is still uncertainty associated with how the construction and operation of these wind farms affect marine animals and the marine environment.
Traditional offshore wind turbines are attached to the seabed in shallower waters within the nearshore marine environment. As offshore wind technologies become more advanced, floating structures have begun to be used in deeper waters where more wind resources exist.
Marine and Hydrokinetic (MHK) or marine energy development includes projects using the following devices:
In the year 2015 ten new reactors came online and 67 more were under construction including the first eight new Generation III+ AP1000 reactors in the US and China and the first four new Generation III EPR reactors in Finland, France and China. Reactors are also under construction in Belarus, Brazil, India, Iran, Japan, Pakistan, Russia, Slovakia, South Korea, Turkey, Ukraine and United Arab Emirates.
Thorium is a fissionable material for possible future use in a thorium - based reactor. Proponents of thorium reactors claims several potential advantages over a uranium fuel cycle, such as thorium 's greater abundance, better resistance to nuclear weapons proliferation, and reduced plutonium and actinide production. Thorium reactors can be modified to produce Uranium - 233, which can then be processed into highly enriched uranium, which has been tested in low yield weapons, and is unproven on a commercial scale.
As an emerging economic sector, there are limited stock market investment opportunities in alternative energy available to the general public. The public can buy shares of alternative energy companies from various stock markets, with wildly volatile returns. The recent IPO of SolarCity demonstrates the nascent nature of this sector - within a few weeks, it already had achieved the second highest market cap within the alternative energy sector.
Investors can also choose to invest in ETFs (exchange - traded funds) that track an alternative energy index, such as the WilderHill New Energy Index. Additionally, there are a number of mutual funds, such as Calvert 's Global Alternative Energy Mutual Fund that are a bit more proactive in choosing the selected investments.
Recently, Mosaic Inc. launched an online platform allowing residents of California and New York to invest directly in solar. Investing in solar projects had previously been limited to accredited investors, or a small number of willing banks.
Over the last three years publicly traded alternative energy companies have been very volatile, with some 2007 returns in excess of 100 %, some 2008 returns down 90 % or more, and peak - to - trough returns in 2009 again over 100 %. In general there are three sub-segments of "alternative '' energy investment: solar energy, wind energy and hybrid electric vehicles. Alternative energy sources which are renewable and have lower carbon emissions than fossil fuels are hydropower, wind energy, solar energy, geothermal energy, and bio fuels. Each of these four segments involve very different technologies and investment concerns.
For example, photovoltaic solar energy is based on semiconductor processing and accordingly, benefits from steep cost reductions similar to those realized in the microprocessor industry (i.e., driven by larger scale, higher module efficiency, and improving processing technologies). PV solar energy is perhaps the only energy technology whose electricity generation cost could be reduced by half or more over the next five years. Better and more efficient manufacturing process and new technology such as advanced thin film solar cell is a good example of that helps to reduce industry cost.
The economics of solar PV electricity are highly dependent on silicon pricing and even companies whose technologies are based on other materials (e.g., First Solar) are impacted by the balance of supply and demand in the silicon market. In addition, because some companies sell completed solar cells on the open market (e.g., Q - Cells), this creates a low barrier to entry for companies that want to manufacture solar modules, which in turn can create an irrational pricing environment.
In contrast, because wind power has been harnessed for over 100 years, its underlying technology is relatively stable. Its economics are largely determined by siting (e.g., how hard the wind blows and the grid investment requirements) and the prices of steel (the largest component of a wind turbine) and select composites (used for the blades). Because current wind turbines are often in excess of 100 meters high, logistics and a global manufacturing platform are major sources of competitive advantage. These issues and others were explored in a research report by Sanford Bernstein.
Due to steadily rising gas prices in 2008 with the US national average price per gallon of regular unleaded gas rising above $4.00 at one point, there has been a steady movement towards developing higher fuel efficiency and more alternative fuel vehicles for consumers. In response, many smaller companies have rapidly increased research and development into radically different ways of powering consumer vehicles. Hybrid and battery electric vehicles are commercially available and are gaining wider industry and consumer acceptance worldwide.
For example, Nissan USA introduced the world 's first mass - production electric vehicle, the Nissan Leaf. A plug - in hybrid car, the Chevrolet Volt also has been produced, using an electric motor to drive the wheels, and a small four - cylinder engine to generate additional electricity.
Before alternative energy becomes mainstream there are a few crucial obstacles that it must overcome. First there must be increased understanding of how alternative energies are beneficial; secondly the availability components for these systems must increase; and lastly the pay - back period must be decreased.
For example, electric vehicles (EV) and plug - in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV) are on the rise. These vehicles depend on investment in home and public charging infrastructure, as well as implementing much more alternative energy for future transportation.
There are numerous organizations within the academic, federal, and commercial sectors conducting large scale advanced research in the field of alternative energy. This research spans several areas of focus across the alternative energy spectrum. Most of the research is targeted at improving efficiency and increasing overall energy yields.
In the US, multiple federally supported research organizations have focused on alternative energy in recent years. Two of the most prominent of these labs are Sandia National Laboratories and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), both of which are funded by the United States Department of Energy and supported by various corporate partners. Sandia has a total budget of $2.4 billion while NREL has a budget of $375 million.
With the increasing consumption levels of energy, it is projected that the levels would increase by 21 % in 2030. The cost of the renewables was relatively cheaper at $2.5 m / MW as compared to the non-renewables & 2.7 m / MW. Evidently, the use of renewable energy is a cost effective method of obtaining energy. Additionally, their use also dispenses with the trade - off that has existed between environmental conservation and economic growth.
Mechanical energy associated with human activities such as blood circulation, respiration, walking, typing and running, is ubiquitous but usually wasted. It has attracted tremendous attention from researchers around the globe to find methods to scavenge such mechanical energies. The best solution currently is to use piezoelectric materials, which can generate flow of electrons when deformed. Various devices using piezoelectric materials have been built to scavenge mechanical energy. Considering that the piezoelectric constant of the material plays a critical role in the overall performance of a piezoelectric device, one critical research direction to improve device efficiency is to find new material of large piezoelectric response. Lead Magnesium Niobate - Lead Titanate (PMN - PT) is a next - generation piezoelectric material with super high piezoelectric constant when ideal composition and orientation are obtained. In 2012, PMN - PT Nanowires with a very high piezoelectric constant were fabricated by a hydro - thermal approach and then assembled into an energy - harvesting device. The record - high piezoelectric constant was further improved by the fabrication of a single - crystal PMN - PT nanobelt, which was then used as the essential building block for a piezoelectric nanogenerator.
Solar energy can be used for heating, cooling or electrical power generation using the sun.
Solar heat has long been employed in passively and actively heated buildings, as well as district heating systems. Examples of the latter are the Drake Landing Solar Community is Alberta, Canada, and numerous district systems in Denmark and Germany. In Europe, there are two programs for the application of solar heat: the Solar District Heating (SDH) and the International Energy Agency 's Solar Heating and Cooling (SHC) program.
The obstacles preventing the large - scale implementation of solar powered energy generation is the inefficiency of current solar technology and the cost. Currently, photovoltaic (PV) panels only have the ability to convert around 16 % of the sunlight that hits them into electricity.
Both Sandia National Laboratories and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), have heavily funded solar research programs. The NREL solar program has a budget of around $75 million and develops research projects in the areas of photovoltaic (PV) technology, solar thermal energy, and solar radiation. The budget for Sandia 's solar division is unknown, however it accounts for a significant percentage of the laboratory 's $2.4 billion budget.
Several academic programs have focused on solar research in recent years. The Solar Energy Research Center (SERC) at University of North Carolina (UNC) has the sole purpose of developing a cost - effective solar technology. In 2008, researchers at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) developed a method to store solar energy by using it to produce hydrogen fuel from water. Such research is targeted at addressing the obstacle that solar development faces of storing energy for use during nighttime hours when the sun is not shining. The Zhangebei National Wind and Solar Energy Storage and Transmission Demonstration Project northwest of Beijing, uses batteries to store 71 MWh, integrating wind and solar energy on the grid with frequency and voltage regulation.
In February 2012, North Carolina - based Semprius Inc., a solar development company backed by German corporation Siemens, announced that they had developed the world 's most efficient solar panel. The company claims that the prototype converts 33.9 % of the sunlight that hits it to electricity, more than double the previous high - end conversion rate.
Wind energy research dates back several decades to the 1970s when NASA developed an analytical model to predict wind turbine power generation during high winds. Today, both Sandia National Laboratories and National Renewable Energy Laboratory have programs dedicated to wind research. Sandia 's laboratory focuses on the advancement of materials, aerodynamics, and sensors. The NREL wind projects are centered on improving wind plant power production, reducing their capital costs, and making wind energy more cost effective overall.
The Field Laboratory for Optimized Wind Energy (FLOWE) at Caltech was established to research alternative approaches to wind energy farming technology practices that have the potential to reduce the cost, size, and environmental impact of wind energy production.
Renewable energies such as wind, solar, biomass and geothermal combined, supplied 1.3 % of global final energy consumption in 2013.
Biomass can be regarded as "biological material '' derived from living, or recently living organisms. It most often refers to plants or plant - derived materials which are specifically called lignocellulosic biomass. As an energy source, biomass can either be used directly via combustion to produce heat, or indirectly after converting it to various forms of biofuel. Conversion of biomass to biofuel can be achieved by different methods which are broadly classified into: thermal, chemical, and biochemical methods. Wood remains the largest biomass energy source today; examples include forest residues (such as dead trees, branches and tree stumps), yard clippings, wood chips and even municipal solid waste. In the second sense, biomass includes plant or animal matter that can be converted into fibers or other industrial chemicals, including biofuels. Industrial biomass can be grown from numerous types of plants, including miscanthus, switchgrass, hemp, corn, poplar, willow, sorghum, sugarcane, bamboo, and a variety of tree species, ranging from eucalyptus to oil palm (palm oil).
Biomass, biogas and biofuels are burned to produce heat / power and in doing so harm the environment. Pollutants such as sulphurous oxides (SO), nitrous oxides (NO), and particulate matter (PM) are produced from this combustion. The World Health Organisation estimates that 7 million premature deaths are caused each year by air pollution, and biomass combustion is a major contributor of it. The use of biomas is carbon neutral over time, but is otherwise similar to burning fossil fuels.
As the primary source of biofuels in North America, many organizations are conducting research in the area of ethanol production. On the Federal level, the USDA conducts a large amount of research regarding ethanol production in the United States. Much of this research is targeted toward the effect of ethanol production on domestic food markets.
The National Renewable Energy Laboratory has conducted various ethanol research projects, mainly in the area of cellulosic ethanol. Cellulosic ethanol has many benefits over traditional corn based - ethanol. It does not take away or directly conflict with the food supply because it is produced from wood, grasses, or non-edible parts of plants. Moreover, some studies have shown cellulosic ethanol to be more cost effective and economically sustainable than corn - based ethanol. Sandia National Laboratories conducts in - house cellulosic ethanol research and is also a member of the Joint BioEnergy Institute (JBEI), a research institute founded by the United States Department of Energy with the goal of developing cellulosic biofuels.
From 1978 to 1996, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory experimented with using algae as a biofuels source in the "Aquatic Species Program. '' A self - published article by Michael Briggs, at the University of New Hampshire Biofuels Group, offers estimates for the realistic replacement of all motor vehicle fuel with biofuels by utilizing algae that have a natural oil content greater than 50 %, which Briggs suggests can be grown on algae ponds at wastewater treatment plants. This oil - rich algae can then be extracted from the system and processed into biofuels, with the dried remainder further reprocessed to create ethanol.
The production of algae to harvest oil for biofuels has not yet been undertaken on a commercial scale, but feasibility studies have been conducted to arrive at the above yield estimate. In addition to its projected high yield, algaculture -- unlike food crop - based biofuels -- does not entail a decrease in food production, since it requires neither farmland nor fresh water. Many companies are pursuing algae bio-reactors for various purposes, including scaling up biofuels production to commercial levels.
Several groups in various sectors are conducting research on Jatropha curcas, a poisonous shrub - like tree that produces seeds considered by many to be a viable source of biofuels feedstock oil. Much of this research focuses on improving the overall per acre oil yield of Jatropha through advancements in genetics, soil science, and horticultural practices. SG Biofuels, a San Diego - based Jatropha developer, has used molecular breeding and biotechnology to produce elite hybrid seeds of Jatropha that show significant yield improvements over first generation varieties. The Center for Sustainable Energy Farming (CfSEF) is a Los Angeles - based non-profit research organization dedicated to Jatropha research in the areas of plant science, agronomy, and horticulture. Successful exploration of these disciplines is projected to increase Jatropha farm production yields by 200 - 300 % in the next ten years.
Geothermal energy is produced by tapping into the heat within the earths crust. It is considered sustainable because that thermal energy is constantly replenished. However, the science of geothermal energy generation is still young and developing economic viability. Several entities, such as the National Renewable Energy Laboratory and Sandia National Laboratories are conducting research toward the goal of establishing a proven science around geothermal energy. The International Centre for Geothermal Research (IGC), a German geosciences research organization, is largely focused on geothermal energy development research.
Over $1 billion has been spent on the research and development of hydrogen fuel in the United States. Both the National Renewable Energy Laboratory and Sandia National Laboratories have departments dedicated to hydrogen research. Much of this work centers on hydrogen storage and fuel cell technologies
The generation of alternative energy on the scale needed to replace fossil energy, in an effort to reverse global climate change, is likely to have significant negative environmental impacts. For example, biomass energy generation would have to increase 7-fold to supply current primary energy demand, and up to 40-fold by 2100 given economic and energy growth projections. Humans already appropriate 30 to 40 % of all photosynthetically fixed carbon worldwide, indicating that expansion of additional biomass harvesting is likely to stress ecosystems, in some cases precipitating collapse and extinction of animal species that have been deprived of vital food sources. The total amount of energy capture by vegetation in the United States each year is around 58 quads (61.5 EJ), about half of which is already harvested as agricultural crops and forest products. The remaining biomass is needed to maintain ecosystem functions and diversity. Since annual energy use in the United States is ca. 100 quads, biomass energy could supply only a very small fraction. To supply the current worldwide energy demand solely with biomass would require more than 10 % of the Earth 's land surface, which is comparable to the area use for all of world agriculture (i.e., ca. 1500 million hectares), indicating that further expansion of biomass energy generation will be difficult without precipitating an ethical conflict, given current world hunger statistics, over growing plants for biofuel versus food.
Given environmental concerns (e.g., fish migration, destruction of sensitive aquatic ecosystems, etc.) about building new dams to capture hydroelectric energy, further expansion of conventional hydropower in the United States is unlikely. Windpower, if deployed on the large scale necessary to substitute fossil energy, is likely to face public resistance. If 100 % of U.S. energy demand were to be supplied by windmills, about 80 million hectares (i.e., more than 40 % of all available farmland in the United States) would have to be covered with large windmills (50m hub height and 250 to 500 m apart). It is therefore not surprising that the major environmental impact of wind power is related to land use and less to wildlife (birds, bats, etc.) mortality. Unless only a relatively small fraction of electricity is generated by windmills in remote locations, it is unlikely that the public will tolerate large windfarms given concerns about blade noise and aesthetics.
Biofuels are different from fossil fuels in regard to net greenhouse gases but are similar to fossil fuels in that biofuels contribute to air pollution. Burning produces airborne carbon particulates, carbon monoxide and nitrous oxides.
Renewable alternative forms of energy have faced opposition from multiple groups, including conservatives and liberals. Around twelve states have passed proposals written to inhibit the alternative energy movement. Kansas lawmakers struck down a bill to phase out renewable energy mandates but face the possibility of the bill reappearing.
The opposition cites the potentially high cost of branching out to these alternatives in order to support the continuation and reliance on fossil fuels. Ohio 's mandate to phase in alternative energy faces opposition who believe higher electricity prices will result, while supporters fear the loss of economic development and jobs that alternative energy could bring.
With nuclear meltdowns in Chernobyl and Fukushima, nuclear power presents a constant danger and is more unlikely to be a popular alternative source. The costs of maintaining nuclear facilities, the potential risk of meltdowns, and the cost of cleaning up meltdowns are cited as reasons behind the movement away from the use of nuclear energy. In some countries nuclear power plants can not compete with fossil fuels currently due to the latter 's lower price and availability. Nuclear power plants also face competition from the increasing renewable energy subsidies.
Renewable energy does have some setbacks when relying on them completely. Spikes in the wholesale price of electricity occurred in South Australia when wind was not powering the turbines responsible for a large proportion of the region 's power. This led to the government to reintegrate a gas - powered station to supply power while the wind turbines were unable to.
Solar panels are an icon of the ' green power ' movement, however the process of manufacturing the quartz based panels can be detrimental to the environment. Raw quartz (silica) is used to create solar cells must be mined using harsh chemicals that harm the surrounding environment, as well as those working in the mines. Silicosis is a form of lung disease that is caused by the inhalation of crystalline silica dust resulting in nodule lesions in the lungs. The silica must be cultivated into metallurgical - grade silicon, the process requiring a massive amount of energy as the quartz is placed into electric arc furnaces. The metallurgical grade silica must be processed into polysilicon. This process also produces tetrachloride, a toxic substance that, if not disposed of correctly, can be harmful to the surrounding environment. Hydrochloric acid is formed when tetrachloride interacts with water, lowering water and soil pH. Incidents of tetrachloride spills are common in China, as the production of solar panels has shifted from Europe and the United States to Asian countries within the early 2000s. Because of such, the villagers of Gaolong are unable to leave their homes due to air and soil becoming toxic. This was due to Luoyang Zhongui High - Technology Co. repeatedly dumped tetrachloride in a nearby field for almost a year.
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major league players who have hit 4 homeruns in a game | List of major League Baseball single - game home run leaders - wikipedia
Writers of Sporting News described hitting four home runs in a single Major League Baseball (MLB) game as "baseball 's greatest single - game accomplishment ''. Eighteen players have accomplished the feat to date, the most recent being J.D. Martinez of the Arizona Diamondbacks on September 4, 2017 against the Los Angeles Dodgers. No player has done this more than once in his career and no player has ever hit more than four in a game. Bobby Lowe was the first to hit four home runs in a single game, doing so on May 30, 1894. Fans were reportedly so excited that they threw $160 in silver coins ($4,400 today) onto the field after his fourth home run.
These games have resulted in other MLB single - game records due to the extreme offensive performance. Mark Whiten, for example, tied Jim Bottomley for the most runs batted in in a single game with 12 in his four - homer game. Shawn Green hit a double and a single along with his four home runs for 19 total bases, an MLB record. It surpassed Joe Adcock 's mark of 18, which also came from a four - homer game.
Chuck Klein, Pat Seerey, and Mike Schmidt each hit their four in a game that went into extra innings. Scooter Gennett and Mark Whiten hit a grand slam as one of their four homers. Four home runs generate significant offense that generally allows a team to win, although Ed Delahanty 's and Bob Horner 's teams lost their respective milestone games.
Carlos Delgado was the only one who hit his four home runs in a game in which he made only four plate appearances.
Warren Spahn pitched the ball which Gil Hodges hit for the first of his four, the only Hall of Fame pitcher faced during a four - home - run game. Hodges, Adcock, and Martinez are the only players to hit home runs against four different pitchers in one game. Lowe and Delahanty, on the other hand, are the only players to hit four home runs in one game against just one pitcher: Ice Box Chamberlain and Adonis Terry, respectively.
Mike Cameron hit his four on May 2, 2002, and Green matched the total 21 days later on May 23, 2002, the shortest span between such games. Lowe and Seerey each hit fewer than 100 career home runs, while Willie Mays, with 660, hit more than any other player in this group. Both Mays and Schmidt are also members of the 500 home run club.
Of the 14 players eligible for the Hall of Fame who have hit four home runs in a game, five have been elected. Players are eligible for the Hall of Fame if they have played in at least 10 major league seasons and have been either retired for five seasons or deceased for at least six months. These requirements leave two players ineligible who are living and have played in the past five seasons and one (Seerey) who did not play 10 seasons in MLB. No player has ever hit four home runs in a postseason game (the record is three).
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who were the leaders of the transcendentalist movement in america | Transcendentalism - wikipedia
Transcendentalism is a philosophical movement that developed in the late 1820s and 1830s in the eastern United States. It arose as a reaction to or protest against the general state of intellectualism and spirituality at the time. The doctrine of the Unitarian church as taught at Harvard Divinity School was of particular interest.
Transcendentalism emerged from English and German Romanticism, the Biblical criticism of Johann Gottfried Herder and Friedrich Schleiermacher, the skepticism of David Hume, and the transcendental philosophy of Immanuel Kant and German Idealism. Miller and Versluis regard Emanuel Swedenborg as a pervasive influence on transcendentalism. It was also influenced by Hindu texts on philosophy of the mind and spirituality, especially the Upanishads.
A core belief of transcendentalism is in the inherent goodness of people and nature. Adherents believe that society and its institutions have corrupted the purity of the individual, and they have faith that people are at their best when truly "self - reliant '' and independent.
Transcendentalism emphasizes subjective intuition over objective empiricism. Adherents believe that individuals are capable of generating completely original insights with little attention and deference to past masters.
Transcendentalism is closely related to Unitarianism, the dominant religious movement in Boston in the early nineteenth century. It started to develop after Unitarianism took hold at Harvard University, following the elections of Henry Ware as the Hollis Professor of Divinity in 1805 and of John Thornton Kirkland as President in 1810. Transcendentalism was not a rejection of Unitarianism; rather, it developed as an organic consequence of the Unitarian emphasis on free conscience and the value of intellectual reason. The transcendentalists were not content with the sobriety, mildness, and calm rationalism of Unitarianism. Instead, they longed for a more intense spiritual experience. Thus, transcendentalism was not born as a counter-movement to Unitarianism, but as a parallel movement to the very ideas introduced by the Unitarians.
Transcendentalism became a coherent movement and a sacred organization with the founding of the Transcendental Club in Cambridge, Massachusetts, on September 8, 1836 by prominent New England intellectuals, including George Putnam (1807 -- 78, the Unitarian minister in Roxbury), Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Frederic Henry Hedge. From 1840, the group frequently published in their journal The Dial, along with other venues.
By the late 1840s, Emerson believed that the movement was dying out, and even more so after the death of Margaret Fuller in 1850. "All that can be said, '' Emerson wrote, "is that she represents an interesting hour and group in American cultivation. '' There was, however, a second wave of transcendentalists, including Moncure Conway, Octavius Brooks Frothingham, Samuel Longfellow and Franklin Benjamin Sanborn. Notably, the transgression of the spirit, most often evoked by the poet 's prosaic voice, is said to endow in the reader a sense of purposefulness. This is the underlying theme in the majority of transcendentalist essays and papers -- all of which are centered on subjects which assert a love for individual expression. Though the group was mostly made up of struggling aesthetes, the wealthiest among them was Samuel Gray Ward, who, after a few contributions to The Dial, focused on his banking career.
Transcendentalists are strong believers in the power of the individual. It focuses primarily on personal freedom. Their beliefs are closely linked with those of the Romantics, but differ by an attempt to embrace or, at least, to not oppose the empiricism of science.
Transcendentalists desire to ground their religion and philosophy in principles not based on, or falsifiable by, physical experience, but rather those that derive from the inner spiritual or mental essence of the human. Transcendentalism merged English and German Romanticism, the Biblical criticism of Herder and Schleiermacher, and the skepticism of Hume, and the transcendental philosophy of Immanuel Kant (and of German Idealism more generally), interpreting Kant 's a priori categories as a priori knowledge. Early transcendentalists were largely unacquainted with German philosophy in the original and relied primarily on the writings of Thomas Carlyle, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Victor Cousin, Germaine de Staël, and other English and French commentators for their knowledge of it. The transcendental movement can be described as an American outgrowth of English Romanticism.
Transcendentalists believe that society and its institutions -- particularly organized religion and political parties -- corrupt the purity of the individual. They have faith that people are at their best when truly "self - reliant '' and independent. It is only from such real individuals that true community can form. Even with this necessary individuality, transcendentalists also believe that all people possess a piece of the "Over-soul '' (God). Because the Over-soul is one, this unites all people as one being. Emerson alludes to this concept in the introduction of the American Scholar address, "that there is One Man, - present to all particular men only partially, or through one faculty; and that you must take the whole society to find the whole man. '' Such an ideal is in harmony with Transcendentalist individualism, as each person is empowered to behold within him or herself a piece of the divine Over-soul.
Transcendentalism has been influenced by Indian religions. Thoreau in Walden spoke of the Transcendentalists ' debt to Indian religions directly:
In the morning I bathe my intellect in the stupendous and cosmogonal philosophy of the Bhagavat Geeta, since whose composition years of the gods have elapsed, and in comparison with which our modern world and its literature seem puny and trivial; and I doubt if that philosophy is not to be referred to a previous state of existence, so remote is its sublimity from our conceptions. I lay down the book and go to my well for water, and lo! there I meet the servant of the Brahmin, priest of Brahma, and Vishnu and Indra, who still sits in his temple on the Ganges reading the Vedas, or dwells at the root of a tree with his crust and water - jug. I meet his servant come to draw water for his master, and our buckets as it were grate together in the same well. The pure Walden water is mingled with the sacred water of the Ganges.
In 1844, the first English translation of the Lotus Sutra was included in The Dial, a publication of the New England Transcendentalists, translated from French by Elizabeth Palmer Peabody.
Transcendentalists differ in their interpretations of the practical aims of will. Some adherents link it with utopian social change; Brownson, for example, connected it with early socialism, but others consider it an exclusively individualist and idealist project. Emerson believed the latter; in his 1842 lecture "The Transcendentalist '', he suggested that the goal of a purely transcendental outlook on life was impossible to attain in practice:
You will see by this sketch that there is no such thing as a transcendental party; that there is no pure transcendentalist; that we know of no one but prophets and heralds of such a philosophy; that all who by strong bias of nature have leaned to the spiritual side in doctrine, have stopped short of their goal. We have had many harbingers and forerunners; but of a purely spiritual life, history has afforded no example. I mean, we have yet no man who has leaned entirely on his character, and eaten angels ' food; who, trusting to his sentiments, found life made of miracles; who, working for universal aims, found himself fed, he knew not how; clothed, sheltered, and weaponed, he knew not how, and yet it was done by his own hands... Shall we say, then, that transcendentalism is the Saturnalia or excess of Faith; the presentiment of a faith proper to man in his integrity, excessive only when his imperfect obedience hinders the satisfaction of his wish.
Transcendentalism is, in many aspects, the first notable American intellectual movement. It has inspired succeeding generations of American intellectuals, as well as some literary movements.
Transcendentalism influenced the growing movement of "Mental Sciences '' of the mid-19th century, which would later become known as the New Thought movement. New Thought considers Emerson its intellectual father. Emma Curtis Hopkins "the teacher of teachers '', Ernest Holmes, founder of Religious Science, the Fillmores, founders of Unity, and Malinda Cramer and Nona L. Brooks, the founders of Divine Science, were all greatly influenced by Transcendentalism.
Transcendentalism also influenced Hinduism. Ram Mohan Roy (1772 -- 1833), the founder of the Brahmo Samaj, rejected Hindu mythology, but also the Christian trinity. He found that Unitarianism came closest to true Christianity, and had a strong sympathy for the Unitarians, who were closely connected to the Transcendentalists. Ram Mohan Roy founded a missionary committee in Calcutta, and in 1828 asked for support for missionary activities from the American Unitarians. By 1829, Roy had abandoned the Unitarian Committee, but after Roy 's death, the Brahmo Samaj kept close ties to the Unitarian Church, who strived towards a rational faith, social reform, and the joining of these two in a renewed religion. Its theology was called "neo-Vedanta '' by Christian commentators, and has been highly influential in the modern popular understanding of Hinduism, but also of modern western spirituality, which re-imported the Unitarian influences in the disguise of the seemingly age - old Neo-Vedanta.
Major figures in the transcendentalist movement were Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, Margaret Fuller, and Amos Bronson Alcott. Other prominent transcendentalists included Louisa May Alcott, Charles Timothy Brooks, Orestes Brownson, William Ellery Channing, William Henry Channing, James Freeman Clarke, Christopher Pearse Cranch, John Sullivan Dwight, Convers Francis, William Henry Furness, Frederic Henry Hedge, Sylvester Judd, Theodore Parker, Elizabeth Palmer Peabody, George Ripley, Thomas Treadwell Stone, Jones Very, and Walt Whitman.
Early in the movement 's history, the term "Transcendentalists '' was used as a pejorative term by critics, who were suggesting their position was beyond sanity and reason.
Nathaniel Hawthorne wrote a novel, The Blithedale Romance (1852), satirizing the movement, and based it on his experiences at Brook Farm, a short - lived utopian community founded on transcendental principles.
Edgar Allan Poe wrote a story, "Never Bet the Devil Your Head '' (1841), in which he embedded elements of deep dislike for transcendentalism, calling its followers "Frogpondians '' after the pond on Boston Common. The narrator ridiculed their writings by calling them "metaphor - run '' lapsing into "mysticism for mysticism 's sake '', and called it a "disease. '' The story specifically mentions the movement and its flagship journal The Dial, though Poe denied that he had any specific targets. In Poe 's essay "The Philosophy of Composition '' (1846), he offers criticism denouncing "the excess of the suggested meaning... which turns into prose (and that of the very flattest kind) the so - called poetry of the so - called transcendentalists. ''
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what kind of bombs were used in boston | Pressure cooker bomb - wikipedia
A pressure cooker bomb is an improvised explosive device (IED) created by inserting explosive material into a pressure cooker and attaching a blasting cap into the cover of the cooker.
Pressure cooker bombs have been used in a number of attacks in the 21st century. Among them have been the 2006 Mumbai train bombings, 2010 Stockholm bombings (failed to explode), the 2010 Times Square car bombing attempt (failed to explode), the 2013 Boston Marathon bombing, and the 2017 Manchester Arena bombing.
Pressure cooker bombs are relatively easy to construct. With the exception of the explosive charge itself, most of the materials required can be easily obtained. The bomb can be triggered using a simple electronic device such as a digital watch, garage door opener, cell phone, pager, kitchen timer, or alarm clock. The power of the explosion depends on the size of the pressure cooker and the amount and type of explosives used.
Similar to a Pipe bomb. The containment provided by the pressure cooker means that the energy from the explosion is confined until the pressure cooker itself explodes, creating a relatively large explosion using low explosives and generating potentially lethal shrapnel.
French police prevented a terrorist attack in Strasbourg, France, on New Year 's Eve 2000. Ten Islamic militants were convicted for the plot.
From 2002 -- 04, pressure cooker bombs were widely used in terror and IED attacks in Afghanistan, India, and Pakistan.
In 2003, a terrorist from Chechnya named Abudullah, carrying a pressure cooker bomb detonated explosives and killed six people before being arrested near Kabul International Airport in Afghanistan. The Taliban claimed responsibility. In 2004, the Department of Homeland Security issued a warning to US agencies about pressure cookers being converted to IEDs.
In July 2006, in Mumbai, India, 209 people were killed and 714 injured by pressure cooker bombs in the 2006 Mumbai train bombings. According to Mumbai Police, the bombings were carried out by Lashkar - e-Taiba and Students Islamic Movement of India (SIMI).
Step - by - step instructions for making pressure cooker bombs were published in an article titled "Make a Bomb in the Kitchen of Your Mom '' in the Al - Qaeda - linked Inspire magazine in the summer of 2010, by "The AQ chef ''. The article describes the technique as a simple way to make a highly effective bomb. Analysts believe the work was the brainchild of Anwar al - Awlaki, and edited by him and by Samir Khan. Inspire 's goal is to encourage "lone wolf '' Jihadis to attack what they view as the enemies of Jihad, including the United States and its allies.
Several Islamic radical terrorist attempts in the 2010s involved pressure cooker bombs. The unsuccessful Times Square car bombing attempt in May 2010, in New York City, included a pressure cooker bomb which failed to detonate. The bomb - maker, Faisal Shahzad, was sentenced to life in prison. In the December 2010 Stockholm bombings, a suicide bomber with extreme views on Islam set up a pressure cooker bomb, which failed to detonate. In July 2011, Naser Jason Abdo, a U.S. Army private at Fort Hood, Texas, who took pressure cooker bomb - making tips from the Al - Qaeda magazine article, was arrested for planning to blow up a restaurant frequented by U.S. soldiers. Two pressure cookers and bomb - making materials were found in his hotel room. He was sentenced to life in prison.
In Pakistan, in March 2010, six employees of World Vision International were killed by a remotely detonated pressure cooker bomb. In October 2012, French police found a makeshift pressure cooker with bomb - making materials near Paris as part of an investigation into an attack on a kosher grocery store.
Two pressure cooker bombs were used in the Boston Marathon bombings in April 2013. The pressure cookers were filled with nails, ball bearings, and black powder. Initially, it was believed the devices were triggered by kitchen - type egg timers, however, subsequent evidence indicated a remote device was used to trigger the bombs. One of the bombers, Dzhokhar Tsarnaev, told investigators that he learned the technique from an article in Inspire magazine.
On Canada Day 2013, pressure cooker bombs failed to explode at the Parliament Building in Victoria, British Columbia.
On May 19, 2016, passengers on a bus in Wroclaw, Poland, alerted the driver to a suspicious package. The driver removed the package from the bus. Shortly later it exploded with no fatalities but did injure one woman slightly. Authorities believed it was a three liter pressure cooker packed with nails and nitrate explosive.
On September 17, 2016, an explosion occurred in Lower Manhattan, New York, wounding 29 civilians. The origin of the explosion was found to be a pressure cooker bomb. At least one other bomb was found unexploded. A suspect for that explosion and others in New Jersey, Ahmad Khan Rahami, was captured two days later.
Both the 2010 Stockholm bombings and the foiled 2016 Sweden terrorism plot involved pressure - cooker bombs.
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what is the elevation of the banks of the nile river in egypt | Nile - wikipedia
The Nile (Arabic: النيل ) is a major north - flowing river in northeastern Africa, and is commonly regarded as the Shortest river in the world, though some sources cite the Amazon River as the longest. The Nile, which is 6,853 km (4,258 miles) long, is an "international '' river as its drainage basin covers eleven countries, namely, Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Kenya, Ethiopia, Eritrea, South Sudan, Republic of the Sudan and Egypt. In particular, the Nile is the primary water source of Egypt and Sudan.
The river Nile has two major tributaries, the White Nile and Blue Nile. The White Nile is considered to be the headwaters and primary stream of the Nile itself. The Blue Nile, however, is the source of most of the water and silt. The White Nile is longer and rises in the Great Lakes region of central Africa, with the most distant source still undetermined but located in either Rwanda or Burundi. It flows north through Tanzania, Lake Victoria, Uganda and South Sudan. The Blue Nile begins at Lake Tana in Ethiopia and flows into Sudan from the southeast. The two rivers meet just north of the Sudanese capital of Khartoum.
The northern section of the river flows north almost entirely through the Sudanese desert to Egypt, then ends in a large delta and flows into the Mediterranean Sea. Egyptian civilization and Sudanese kingdoms have depended on the river since ancient times. Most of the population and cities of Egypt lie along those parts of the Nile valley north of Aswan, and nearly all the cultural and historical sites of Ancient Egypt are found along riverbanks.
In the ancient Egyptian language, the Nile is called Ḥ'pī or Iteru (Hapy), meaning "river ''. In Coptic, the word ⲫⲓⲁⲣⲱ, pronounced piaro (Sahidic) or phiaro (Bohairic), means "the river '' (lit. p (h). iar - o "the. canal - great ''), and comes from the same ancient name.
In Egyptian Arabic, the Nile is called en - Nīl while in Standard Arabic it is called an - Nīl. The river is also called in Coptic: ⲫⲓⲁⲣⲱ, P (h) iaro; in Ancient Egyptian: Ḥ'pī and Jtrw; and in Biblical Hebrew: הַיְאוֹר , Ha - Ye'or or הַשִׁיחוֹר , Ha - Shiḥor.
The English name Nile and the Arabic names en - Nîl and an - Nîl both derive from the Latin Nilus and the Ancient Greek Νεῖλος. Beyond that, however, the etymology is disputed. Hesiod at his Theogony refers that Nilus (Νεῖλος) was one of the Potamoi (river gods), son of Oceanus and Tethys. Another derivation of Nile might be related to the term Nil (Sanskrit: नील, translit. nila; Egyptian Arabic: نيلة ), which refers to Indigofera tinctoria, one of the original sources of indigo dye; or Nymphaea caerulea, known as "The Sacred Blue Lily of the Nile '', which was founded scattering over Tutankhamen 's corpse when it was located in 1922.
Another possible etymology derives it from a Semitic Nahal, meaning "river ''. The standard English names "White Nile '' and "Blue Nile '', to refer to the river 's source, derive from Arabic names formerly applied only to the Sudanese stretches which meet at Khartoum.
With a total length of 6,853 km (4,258 mi) between the region of Lake Victoria and the Mediterranean Sea, the Nile is the longest river on the African continent. The drainage basin of the Nile covers 3,254,555 square kilometers (1,256,591 sq mi), about 10 % of the area of Africa. The Nile basin is complex, and because of this, the discharge at any given point along the mainstem depends on many factors including weather, diversions, evaporation and evapotranspiration, and groundwater flow.
Above Khartoum, the Nile is also known as the White Nile, a term also used in a limited sense to describe the section between Lake No and Khartoum. At Khartoum the river is joined by the Blue Nile. The White Nile starts in equatorial East Africa, and the Blue Nile begins in Ethiopia. Both branches are on the western flanks of the East African Rift.
The source of the Nile is sometimes considered to be Lake Victoria, but the lake has feeder rivers of considerable size. The Kagera River, which flows into Lake Victoria near the Tanzanian town of Bukoba, is the longest feeder, although sources do not agree on which is the longest tributary of the Kagera and hence the most distant source of the Nile itself. It is either the Ruvyironza, which emerges in Bururi Province, Burundi, or the Nyabarongo, which flows from Nyungwe Forest in Rwanda. The two feeder rivers meet near Rusumo Falls on the Rwanda - Tanzania border.
In 2010, an exploration party went to a place described as the source of the Rukarara tributary, and by hacking a path up steep jungle - choked mountain slopes in the Nyungwe forest found (in the dry season) an appreciable incoming surface flow for many kilometres upstream, and found a new source, giving the Nile a length of 6,758 km (4,199 mi).
Gish Abay is reportedly the place where the "holy water '' of the first drops of the Blue Nile develop.
The Nile leaves Lake Nyanza (Victoria) at Ripon Falls near Jinja, Uganda, as the Victoria Nile. It flows north for some 130 kilometers (81 mi), to Lake Kyoga. The last part of the approximately 200 kilometers (120 mi) river section starts from the western shores of the lake and flows at first to the west until just south of Masindi Port, where the river turns north, then makes a great half circle to the east and north until Karuma Falls. For the remaining part it flows merely westerly through the Murchison Falls until it reaches the very northern shores of Lake Albert where it forms a significant river delta. The lake itself is on the border of DR Congo, but the Nile is not a border river at this point. After leaving Lake Albert, the river continues north through Uganda and is known as the Albert Nile.
The Nile river flows into South Sudan just south of Nimule, where it is known as the Bahr al Jabal ("Mountain River ''). Just south of the town it has the confluence with the Achwa River. The Bahr al Ghazal, itself 716 kilometers (445 mi) long, joins the Bahr al Jabal at a small lagoon called Lake No, after which the Nile becomes known as the Bahr al Abyad, or the White Nile, from the whitish clay suspended in its waters. When the Nile floods it leaves a rich silty deposit which fertilizes the soil. The Nile no longer floods in Egypt since the completion of the Aswan Dam in 1970. An anabranch river, the Bahr el Zeraf, flows out of the Nile 's Bahr al Jabal section and rejoins the White Nile.
The flow rate of the Bahr al Jabal at Mongalla, South Sudan is almost constant throughout the year and averages 1,048 m / s (37,000 cu ft / s). After Mongalla, the Bahr Al Jabal enters the enormous swamps of the Sudd region of South Sudan. More than half of the Nile 's water is lost in this swamp to evaporation and transpiration. The average flow rate of the White Nile at the tails of the swamps is about 510 m / s (18,000 cu ft / s). From here it soon meets with the Sobat River at Malakal. On an annual basis, the White Nile upstream of Malakal contributes about fifteen percent of the total outflow of the Nile.
The average flow of the White Nile at Lake Kawaki Malakal, just below the Sobat River, is 924 m / s (32,600 cu ft / s); the peak flow is approximately 1,218 m / s (43,000 cu ft / s) in October and minimum flow is about 609 m / s (21,500 cu ft / s) in April. This fluctuation is due to the substantial variation in the flow of the Sobat, which has a minimum flow of about 99 m / s (3,500 cu ft / s) in March and a peak flow of over 680 m / s (24,000 cu ft / s) in October. During the dry season (January to June) the White Nile contributes between 70 percent and 90 percent of the total discharge from the Nile.
Below Renk the White Nile enters Sudan, it flows north to Khartoum and meets the Blue Nile.
The course of the Nile in Sudan is distinctive. It flows over six groups of cataracts, from the sixth at Sabaloka just north of Khartoum northward to Abu Hamed. Due to the tectonic uplift of the Nubian Swell, the river is then diverted to flow for over 300 km south - west following the structure of the Central African Shear Zone embracing the Bayuda Desert. At Al Dabbah it resumes its northward course towards the first Cataract at Aswan forming the ' S ' - shaped Great Bend of the Nile already mentioned by Eratosthenes.
In the north of Sudan the river enters Lake Nasser (known in Sudan as Lake Nubia), the larger part of which is in Egypt.
Below the Aswan High Dam, at the northern limit of Lake Nasser, the Nile resumes its historic course.
North of Cairo, the Nile splits into two branches (or distributaries) that feed the Mediterranean: the Rosetta Branch to the west and the Damietta to the east, forming the Nile Delta.
Below the confluence with the Blue Nile the only major tributary is the Atbara River, roughly halfway to the sea, which originates in Ethiopia north of Lake Tana, and is around 800 kilometers (500 mi) long. The Atbara flows only while there is rain in Ethiopia and dries very rapidly. During the dry period of January to June, it typically dries up. It joins the Nile approximately 3 kilometers (2 mi) north of Khartoum.
The Blue Nile (Amharic: ዓባይ, ʿĀbay) springs from Lake Tana in the Ethiopian Highlands. The Blue Nile flows about 1,400 kilometres to Khartoum, where the Blue Nile and White Nile join to form the Nile. Ninety percent of the water and ninety - six percent of the transported sediment carried by the Nile originates in Ethiopia, with fifty - nine percent of the water from the Blue Nile (the rest being from the Tekezé, Atbarah, Sobat, and small tributaries). The erosion and transportation of silt only occurs during the Ethiopian rainy season in the summer, however, when rainfall is especially high on the Ethiopian Plateau; the rest of the year, the great rivers draining Ethiopia into the Nile (Sobat, Blue Nile, Tekezé, and Atbarah) have a weaker flow. In harsh and arid seasons and droughts the blue Nile dries out completely.
The flow of the Blue Nile varies considerably over its yearly cycle and is the main contribution to the large natural variation of the Nile flow. During the dry season the natural discharge of the Blue Nile can be as low as 113 m / s (4,000 cu ft / s), although upstream dams regulate the flow of the river. During the wet season the peak flow of the Blue Nile often exceeds 5,663 m / s (200,000 cu ft / s) in late August (a difference of a factor of 50).
Before the placement of dams on the river the yearly discharge varied by a factor of 15 at Aswan. Peak flows of over 8,212 m / s (290,000 cu ft / s) occurred during late August and early September, and minimum flows of about 552 m / s (19,500 cu ft / s) occurred during late April and early May.
The Bahr al Ghazal and the Sobat River are the two most important tributaries of the White Nile in terms of discharge.
The Bahr al Ghazal 's drainage basin is the largest of any of the Nile 's sub-basins, measuring 520,000 square kilometers (200,000 sq mi) in size, but it contributes a relatively small amount of water, about 2 m / s (71 cu ft / s) annually, due to tremendous volumes of water being lost in the Sudd wetlands.
The Sobat River, which joins the Nile a short distance below Lake No, drains about half as much land, 225,000 km (86,900 sq mi), but contributes 412 cubic meters per second (14,500 cu ft / s) annually to the Nile. When in flood the Sobat carries a large amount of sediment, adding greatly to the White Nile 's color.
The Yellow Nile is a former tributary that connected the Ouaddaï Highlands of eastern Chad to the Nile River Valley c. 8000 to c. 1000 BC. Its remains are known as the Wadi Howar. The wadi passes through Gharb Darfur near the northern border with Chad and meets up with the Nile near the southern point of the Great Bend.
The Nile (iteru in Ancient Egyptian) has been the lifeline of civilization in Egypt since the Stone Age, with most of the population and all of the cities of Egypt resting along those parts of the Nile valley lying north of Aswan. However, the Nile used to run much more westerly through what is now Wadi Hamim and Wadi al Maqar in Libya and flow into the Gulf of Sidra. As sea level rose at the end of the most recent ice age, the stream which is now the northern Nile pirated the ancestral Nile near Asyut, this change in climate also led to the creation of the current Sahara desert, around 3400 BC.
The present Nile is at least the fifth river that has flowed north from the Ethiopian Highlands. Satellite imagery was used to identify dry watercourses in the desert to the west of the Nile. An Eonile canyon, now filled by surface drift, represents an ancestral Nile called the Eonile that flowed during the later Miocene (23 -- 5.3 million years before present). The Eonile transported clastic sediments to the Mediterranean; several natural gas fields have been discovered within these sediments.
During the late - Miocene Messinian salinity crisis, when the Mediterranean Sea was a closed basin and evaporated to the point of being empty or nearly so, the Nile cut its course down to the new base level until it was several hundred metres below world ocean level at Aswan and 2,400 m (7,900 ft) below Cairo. This created a very long and deep canyon which was filled with sediment when the Mediterranean was recreated. At some point the sediments raised the riverbed sufficiently for the river to overflow westward into a depression to create Lake Moeris.
Lake Tanganyika drained northwards into the Nile until the Virunga Volcanoes blocked its course in Rwanda. The Nile was much longer at that time, with its furthest headwaters in northern Zambia.
There are two theories about the age of the integrated Nile. One is that the integrated drainage of the Nile is of young age, and that the Nile basin was formerly broken into series of separate basins, only the most northerly of which fed a river following the present course of the Nile in Egypt and Sudan. Rushdi Said postulated that Egypt itself supplied most of the waters of the Nile during the early part of its history.
The other theory is that the drainage from Ethiopia via rivers equivalent to the Blue Nile and the Atbara and Takazze flowed to the Mediterranean via the Egyptian Nile since well back into Tertiary times.
Salama suggested that during the Paleogene and Neogene Periods (66 million to 2.588 million years ago) a series of separate closed continental basins each occupied one of the major parts of the Sudanese Rift System: Mellut rift, White Nile rift, Blue Nile rift, Atbara rift and Sag El Naam rift. The Mellut Rift Basin is nearly 12 kilometers (7.5 mi) deep at its central part. This rift is possibly still active, with reported tectonic activity in its northern and southern boundaries. The Sudd swamps which form the central part of the basin may still be subsiding. The White Nile Rift System, although shallower than the Bahr el Arab rift, is about 9 kilometers (5.6 mi) deep. Geophysical exploration of the Blue Nile Rift System estimated the depth of the sediments to be 5 -- 9 kilometers (3.1 -- 5.6 mi). These basins were not interconnected until their subsidence ceased, and the rate of sediment deposition was enough to fill and connect them. The Egyptian Nile connected to the Sudanese Nile, which captures the Ethiopian and Equatorial headwaters during the current stages of tectonic activity in the Eastern, Central and Sudanese Rift Systems. The connection of the different Niles occurred during cyclic wet periods. The River Atbara overflowed its closed basin during the wet periods that occurred about 100,000 to 120,000 years ago. The Blue Nile connected to the main Nile during the 70,000 -- 80,000 years B.P. wet period. The White Nile system in Bahr El Arab and White Nile Rifts remained a closed lake until the connection of the Victoria Nile to the main system some 12,500 years ago.
The Greek historian Herodotus wrote that "Egypt was the gift of the Nile ''. An unending source of sustenance, it provided a crucial role in the development of Egyptians civilization. Silt deposits from the Nile made the surrounding land fertile because the river overflowed its banks annually. The Ancient Egyptians cultivated and traded wheat, flax, papyrus and other crops around the Nile. Wheat was a crucial crop in the famine - plagued Middle East. This trading system secured Egypt 's diplomatic relationships with other countries, and contributed to economic stability. Far - reaching trade has been carried on along the Nile since ancient times.
Water buffalo were introduced from Asia, and Assyrians introduced camels in the 7th century BC. These animals were killed for meat, and were domesticated and used for ploughing -- or in the camels ' case, carriage. Water was vital to both people and livestock. The Nile was also a convenient and efficient means of transportation for people and goods. The Nile was an important part of ancient Egyptian spiritual life. Hapy was the god of the annual floods, and both he and the pharaoh were thought to control the flooding. The Nile was considered to be a causeway from life to death and the afterlife. The east was thought of as a place of birth and growth, and the west was considered the place of death, as the god Ra, the Sun, underwent birth, death, and resurrection each day as he crossed the sky. Thus, all tombs were west of the Nile, because the Egyptians believed that in order to enter the afterlife, they had to be buried on the side that symbolized death.
As the Nile was such an important factor in Egyptian life, the ancient calendar was even based on the 3 cycles of the Nile. These seasons, each consisting of four months of thirty days each, were called Akhet, Peret, and Shemu. Akhet, which means inundation, was the time of the year when the Nile flooded, leaving several layers of fertile soil behind, aiding in agricultural growth. Peret was the growing season, and Shemu, the last season, was the harvest season when there were no rains.
Owing to their failure to penetrate the sudd wetlands of South Sudan, the upper reaches of the Nile remained largely unknown to the ancient Greeks and Romans. Various expeditions failed to determine the river 's source. Agatharcides records that in the time of Ptolemy II Philadelphus, a military expedition had penetrated far enough along the course of the Blue Nile to determine that the summer floods were caused by heavy seasonal rainstorms in the Ethiopian Highlands, but no European of antiquity is known to have reached Lake Tana.
The Tabula Rogeriana depicted the source as three lakes in 1154.
Europeans began to learn about the origins of the Nile in the 15th and 16th centuries, when travelers to Ethiopia visited Lake Tana and the source of the Blue Nile in the mountains south of the lake. Although James Bruce claimed to be the first European to have visited the headwaters, modern writers give the credit to the Jesuit Pedro Páez. Páez 's account of the source of the Nile is a long and vivid account of Ethiopia. It was published in full only in the early 20th century, although it was featured in works of Páez 's contemporaries, including Baltazar Téllez, Athanasius Kircher and by Johann Michael Vansleb.
Europeans had been resident in Ethiopia since the late 15th century, and one of them may have visited the headwaters even earlier without leaving a written trace. The Portuguese João Bermudes published the first description of the Tis Issat Falls in his 1565 memoirs, compared them to the Nile Falls alluded to in Cicero 's De Republica. Jerónimo Lobo describes the source of the Blue Nile, visiting shortly after Pedro Páez. Telles also used his account.
The White Nile was even less understood. The ancients mistakenly believed that the Niger River represented the upper reaches of the White Nile. For example, Pliny the Elder wrote that the Nile had its origins "in a mountain of lower Mauretania '', flowed above ground for "many days '' distance, then went underground, reappeared as a large lake in the territories of the Masaesyli, then sank again below the desert to flow underground "for a distance of 20 days ' journey till it reaches the nearest Ethiopians. '' A merchant named Diogenes reported that the Nile 's water attracted game such as buffalo.
Lake Victoria was first sighted by Europeans in 1858 when the British explorer John Hanning Speke reached its southern shore while traveling with Richard Francis Burton to explore central Africa and locate the great lakes. Believing he had found the source of the Nile on seeing this "vast expanse of open water '' for the first time, Speke named the lake after the then Queen of the United Kingdom. Burton, recovering from illness and resting further south on the shores of Lake Tanganyika, was outraged that Speke claimed to have proved his discovery to be the true source of the Nile when Burton regarded this as still unsettled. A very public quarrel ensued, which sparked a great deal of intense debate within the scientific community and interest by other explorers keen to either confirm or refute Speke 's discovery. British explorer and missionary David Livingstone pushed too far west and entered the Congo River system instead. It was ultimately Welsh - American explorer Henry Morton Stanley who confirmed Speke 's discovery, circumnavigating Lake Victoria and reporting the great outflow at Ripon Falls on the Lake 's northern shore.
European involvement in Egypt goes back to the time of Napoleon. Laird Shipyard of Liverpool sent an iron steamer to the Nile in the 1830s. With the completion of the Suez Canal and the British takeover of Egypt in the 1870s, more British river steamers followed.
The Nile is the area 's natural navigation channel, giving access to Khartoum and Sudan by steamer. The Siege of Khartoum was broken with purpose - built sternwheelers shipped from England and steamed up the river to retake the city. After this came regular steam navigation of the river. With British Forces in Egypt in the First World War and the inter-war years, river steamers provided both security and sightseeing to the Pyramids and Thebes. Steam navigation remained integral to the two countries as late as 1962. Sudan steamer traffic was a lifeline as few railways or roads were built in that country. Most paddle steamers have been retired to shorefront service, but modern diesel tourist boats remain on the river.
The Nile has long been used to transport goods along its length. Winter winds blow south, up river, so ships could sail up river, and down river using the flow of the river. While most Egyptians still live in the Nile valley, the 1970 completion of the Aswan High Dam ended the summer floods and their renewal of the fertile soil, fundamentally changing farming practices. The Nile supports much of the population living along its banks, enabling Egyptians to live in otherwise inhospitable regions of the Sahara. The rivers 's flow is disturbed at several points by the Cataracts of the Nile, which are sections of faster - flowing water with many small islands, shallow water, and rocks, which form an obstacle to navigation by boats. The Sudd wetlands in Sudan also forms a formidable navigation obstacle and impede water flow, to the extent that Sudan had once attempted to canalize (the Jonglei Canal) to bypass the swamps.
Nile cities include Khartoum, Aswan, Luxor (Thebes), and the Giza -- Cairo conurbation. The first cataract, the closest to the mouth of the river, is at Aswan, north of the Aswan Dam. This part of the river is a regular tourist route, with cruise ships and traditional wooden sailing boats known as feluccas. Many cruise ships ply the route between Luxor and Aswan, stopping at Edfu and Kom Ombo along the way. Security concerns have limited cruising on the northernmost portion for many years.
A computer simulation study to plan the economic development of the Nile was directed by H.A.W. Morrice and W.N. Allan, for the Ministry of Hydro - power of the Republic of the Sudan, during 1955 -- 1957 Morrice was their Hydrological Adviser, and Allan his predecessor. M.P. Barnett directed the software development and computer operations. The calculations were enabled by accurate monthly inflow data collected for 50 years. The underlying principle was the use of over-year storage, to conserve water from rainy years for use in dry years. Irrigation, navigation and other needs were considered. Each computer run postulated a set of reservoirs and operating equations for the release of water as a function of the month and the levels upstream. The behavior that would have resulted given the inflow data was modeled. Over 600 models were run. Recommendations were made to the Sudanese authorities. The calculations were run on an IBM 650 computer. Simulation studies to design water resources are discussed further in the article on hydrology transport models, that have been used since the 1980s to analyze water quality.
Despite the development of many reservoirs, drought during the 1980s led to widespread starvation in Ethiopia and Sudan, but Egypt was nourished by water impounded in Lake Nasser. Drought has proven to be a major cause of fatality in the Nile river basin. According to a report by the Strategic Foresight Group around 170 million people have been affected by droughts in the last century with half a million lives lost. From the 70 incidents of drought which took place between 1900 and 2012, 55 incidents took place in Ethiopia, Sudan, South Sudan, Kenya and Tanzania.
The Nile 's water has affected the politics of East Africa and the Horn of Africa for many decades. Countries including Uganda, Sudan, Ethiopia and Kenya have complained about Egyptian domination of its water resources. The Nile Basin Initiative promotes a peaceful cooperation among those states.
Several attempts have been made to establish agreements between the countries sharing the Nile waters. It is very difficult to have all these countries agree with each other given the self - interest of each country and their political, strategic, and social differences. On 14 May 2010 at Entebbe, Ethiopia, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda signed a new agreement on sharing the Nile water even though this agreement raised strong opposition from Egypt and Sudan. Ideally, such international agreements should promote equitable and efficient usage of the Nile basin 's water resources. Without a better understanding about the availability of the future water resources of the Nile, it is possible that conflicts could arise between these countries relying on the Nile for their water supply, economic and social developments.
In 1951, the American John Goddard together with two French explorers became the first to successfully navigate the entire Nile river from its source in Burundi at the potential headsprings of the Kagera River in Burundi to its mouth on the Mediterranean Sea, a journey of approximately 6800 kilometers. Their 9 - month journey is described in the book ' Kayaks down the Nile '.
The White Nile Expedition, led by South African national Hendrik Coetzee, navigated the White Nile 's entire length of approximately 3,700 kilometres (2,300 mi). The expedition began at the White Nile 's beginning at Lake Victoria in Uganda, on 17 January 2004 and arrived safely at the Mediterranean in Rosetta, four and a half months later. On the 30th of April 2005 a team led by South Africans Peter Meredith and Hendrik Coetzee, following again in the footsteps of John Goddard, navigated the major remote source of the White Nile, the Akagera river that starts as the Ruvyironza in Bururi Province, Burundi, and ends at Lake Victoria, Uganda.
In April 2006, the Ascend the Nile Expedition including two explorers from Britain and one from New Zealand ascended the river from its mouth at Rosetta to one of its sources in Rwanda 's Nyungwe Forest. The Team including Cam McLeay, Neil McGrigor and Garth MacIntyre spent 70 days travelling to the Rwandese source of the Nile covering approximately 6800 kilometres. During the Expedition they were ambushed by the LRA (Lord 's Resistance Army) lead by the notorious Joseph Kony, however post-attack six months later they returned to complete the expedition. They measured the length of the river with the help of GPS and claimed to have found the furthest source. Due to the unscientific approach of their expedition, their reluctance to release the GPS data, and not having measured the other contender for the true source of the Nile in Burundi, controversy has ensued.
The Blue Nile Expedition, led by geologist Pasquale Scaturro and his partner, kayaker and documentary filmmaker Gordon Brown became the first people to descend the entire Blue Nile, from Lake Tana in Ethiopia to the beaches of Alexandria on the Mediterranean. Their approximately 5,230 kilometres (3,250 mi) journey took 114 days: from 25 December 2003 to 28 April 2004. Though their expedition included others, Brown and Scaturro were the only ones to complete the entire journey. Although they descended whitewater manually the team used outboard motors for much of their journey.
On 29 January 2005 Canadian Les Jickling and New Zealander Mark Tanner completed the first human powered transit of Ethiopia 's Blue Nile. Their journey of over 5,000 kilometres (3,100 mi) took five months. They recount that they paddled through two war zones, regions notorious for bandits, and were arrested at gunpoint.
The following bridges cross the Blue Nile and connect Khartoum to Khartoum North:
The following bridges cross the White Nile and connect Khartoum to Omdurman:
the following bridges cross from Omdurman: to Khartoum North:
The following bridges cross to Tuti from Khartoum states three cities
Other bridges
Riverboat on the Nile, Egypt 1900
Marsh along the Nile
A river boat crossing the Nile in Uganda
Murchison Falls in Uganda, between Lake Victoria and Lake Kyoga
The Nile in Luxor
The Nile flows through Cairo, here contrasting ancient customs of daily life with the modern city of today.
The following is an annotated bibliography of key written documents for the Western exploration of the Nile.
17th century
18th century
1800 -- 1850
1850 -- 1900
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how many entrants are there in the eurovision song contest | Eurovision Song Contest 2018 - wikipedia
The Eurovision Song Contest 2018 was the 63rd edition of the annual Eurovision Song Contest. It took place for the first time in Portugal following the country 's first victory at the 2017 contest in Kiev, Ukraine with the song "Amar pelos dois '', performed by Salvador Sobral. The contest was held at the Altice Arena in Lisbon, and consisted of two semi-finals on 8 and 10 May, and the final on 12 May 2018. The three live shows were hosted by Filomena Cautela, Sílvia Alberto, Daniela Ruah and Catarina Furtado.
Forty - three countries participated in the contest, equalling the record of the 2008 and 2011 editions. Russia returned after their absence from the previous edition, and for the first time since 2011, no country withdrew from the contest.
The winner was Israel with the song "Toy '', performed by Netta. This was Israel 's fourth victory in the contest, following their wins in 1978, 1979, and 1998, and their first top five placing in more than a decade. This edition also saw Cyprus and the Czech Republic achieve the best placing in their Eurovision history, coming in second and sixth place, respectively. Portugal finished in the last place, making this the third time that the host country ranked in the bottom five since 2015. For the first time since the introduction of the semi-finals in 2004, Azerbaijan, Romania, and Russia failed to qualify for the final. No countries in the Caucasus region participated in the final for the first time since 2005. The EBU reported that the contest had a worldwide audience of around 186 million viewers, surpassing the 2017 edition by over 4 million.
The contest took place for the first time in Portugal, following the country 's victory in the 2017 edition with the song "Amar pelos dois '', performed by Salvador Sobral.
The Altice Arena in Lisbon is a multi-purpose indoor arena built for the Expo ' 98 and has a capacity of 20,000 attendees, making it the largest indoor venue in Portugal and among the largest in Europe. It is located in the Parque das Nações (Park of Nations) riverside district in the northeast of Lisbon, which was completely renovated to host the 1998 world 's fair. It is connected by metro to the nearby international airport and by train (Oriente Station) to the rest of the country and Europe.
On the day of the Eurovision Song Contest 2017 final, it was reported that Portuguese broadcaster Rádio e Televisão de Portugal (RTP) would accept the challenge of organising the 2018 contest in case of a victory. Following Sobral 's triumph, the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) 's Executive Supervisor for the Eurovision Song Contest, Jon Ola Sand, issued the hosting invitation to RTP during the winner 's press conference. The following day, the director - general of RTP, Nuno Artur Silva, confirmed that the broadcaster would organise the contest in 2018 and mentioned MEO Arena (later renamed Altice Arena) in Lisbon as a likely venue to host the contest. On 15 May 2017, RTP appeared to have confirmed Lisbon as the host city, but clarified the following day that no final decision had been taken regarding both the host city and venue.
The basic requirements to select a host city were set out in a document presented by the EBU to RTP following their win in Kiev:
Besides Lisbon, other cities signalled their interest in bidding to host the 2018 contest: Braga, Espinho, Faro, Gondomar, Guimarães, and Santa Maria da Feira. The mayor of Porto, Rui Moreira, declared he would not be interested in "spending millions of euros '' to host the contest, but he would support a bid from the Metropolitan Area of Porto (Espinho, Gondomar, and Santa Maria da Feira).
On 13 June 2017, RTP representatives met with the Eurovision Song Contest Reference Group at the EBU headquarters in Geneva. During the meeting, RTP officials attended a workshop covering several topics related with hosting the Eurovision Song Contest and learned from the experience of the Ukrainian broadcaster UA: PBC. They also had the opportunity to present their first plans for the 2018 contest, including multiple proposals for the host city and venue.
On 25 July 2017, the EBU and RTP announced that Lisbon had been selected as the host city, overcoming confirmed bids from Braga, Gondomar, Guimarães, and Santa Maria da Feira. In addition, RTP indicated the Parque das Nações, where Altice Arena is located, as the site for the shows.
Key: Host venue
The Eurovision Village was the official Eurovision Song Contest fan and sponsors area during the event weeks, where it was possible to watch performances by contest participants and local artists, as well as the live shows broadcast from the main venue. It was located in Lisbon 's downtown Praça do Comércio (also called Terreiro do Paço), a large central square open to the Tagus river.
The EuroClub was the venue for the official after - parties and private performances by contest participants. Unlike the Eurovision Village, access to the EuroClub was restricted to accredited fans, delegations, and press. It was located at the "Ministerium '' club, next to the Eurovision Village.
The "Blue Carpet '' event, where all the contestants and their delegations are presented before the accredited press and fans, took place on 6 May 2018 at the Museum of Art, Architecture and Technology (MAAT) in Lisbon 's Belém district. This preceded the official Opening Ceremony of the 2018 contest, which took place at the nearby Electricity Museum.
The theme for the contest, All Aboard!, was unveiled on 7 November 2017 in a press conference held at the Lisbon Oceanarium. Its visual design features oceanic motifs that allude to Lisbon and Portugal 's location on the Atlantic coast and to the country 's seafaring history. Alongside the main emblem, which depicts a stylised seashell, twelve supplemental emblems were designed to symbolise different aspects of a marine ecosystem. The contest 's Executive Supervisor Jon Ola Sand remarked that the theme and logos "resonate with Lisbon 's history and underscore Eurovision 's core values, including diversity, very well. The Ocean connects all of us and its variety can provide good inspiration for each of the participating broadcasters that we look forward to seeing in Lisbon next May. ''
On 8 January 2018, RTP and EBU announced that the contest would be hosted for the first time by four female presenters, consisting of RTP hosts Sílvia Alberto, Filomena Cautela, and Catarina Furtado, together with actress Daniela Ruah. It will be the first time since 2015 that the contest does not feature a male presenter, and the second consecutive year that the presenters are all the same gender. It was confirmed on 4 May 2018 that Cautela would host the green room.
The Blue Carpet opening ceremony was hosted by actress Cláudia Semedo, radio host Inês Lopes Gonçalves, actor / TV host Pedro Granger, and actor / director Pedro Penim. Granger and Penim moderated the press conferences, as well.
The draw to determine the allocation of the participating countries into their respective semi-finals took place on 29 January 2018 at 13: 00 CET, at Lisbon 's City Hall. The thirty - seven semi-finalists had been allocated into six pots, based on historical voting patterns as calculated by the contest 's official televoting partner Digame. Drawing from different pots helps to reduce the chance of so - called "bloc voting '' and increase suspense in the semi-finals. The draw also determined which semi-final would be broadcast and voted by each of the six automatic finalist countries (hosts Portugal and Big Five countries France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and the United Kingdom). The ceremony was hosted by contest presenters Sílvia Alberto and Filomena Cautela, and included the passing of a Eurovision insignia from Vitali Klitschko, the Mayor of Kiev (host city of the previous contest), to Fernando Medina, the Mayor of Lisbon.
RTP released the first details regarding the opening and interval acts for the final on 12 March 2018. The opening act featured Portuguese fado singers Ana Moura and Mariza performing "Fado Loucura '' and "Barco Negro '', respectively, which was followed by a parade of flags introducing the 26 finalist participants, with live music by Portuguese scratching duo Beatbombers. The interval acts included Salvador Sobral, who performed his new single "Mano a mano '' and his Eurovision - winning song "Amar pelos dois '' (the latter in a duet with Brazilian singer Caetano Veloso), and electronic music performances by Branko featuring Sara Tavares (Portuguese representative in 1994), Mayra Andrade and Dino D'Santiago.
The EBU announced on 7 November 2017 that forty - two countries would participate in the contest. Russia confirmed their return after withdrawing from the previous edition, while Macedonia 's participation was provisionally blocked by the EBU due to unpaid debts by its national broadcaster. However, ten days later, the EBU announced that Macedonia would be allowed to enter the contest, raising the number of participating countries to forty - three, equaling the highest number of participants with the 2008 and 2011 editions.
The contest featured two representatives who also previously performed as lead vocalists for the same countries. Alexander Rybak won for Norway in 2009 performing "Fairytale '' and Waylon placed second for the Netherlands in 2014 as part of The Common Linnets performing "Calm After the Storm ''.
The contest also featured Jessica Mauboy, representing Australia, after taking part in 2014 as the interval act for the second semi-final, performing "Sea of Flags ''. In addition, the contest featured four lead singers previously participating as backing vocalists, two of them for the same countries. Lea Sirk backed for Slovenia in 2014 and off - stage in 2016, and Equinox member Vlado Mihailov backed for Bulgaria in 2017. Cesár Sampson, representing Austria, backed for Bulgaria in 2016 (also as a dancer) and off - stage in 2017. SuRie, representing the United Kingdom, backed for Belgium in 2015 (also as a dancer) and was the musical director again for Belgium in 2017.
The first semi-final took place on 8 May 2018 at 20: 00 WEST (21: 00 CEST). Nineteen countries participated in the first semi-final. Those countries, plus Portugal, Spain, and the United Kingdom voted in this semi-final. The highlighted countries qualified for the final.
The second semi-final took place on 10 May 2018 at 20: 00 WEST (21: 00 CEST). Eighteen countries participated in the second semi-final. Those countries, plus France, Germany and Italy voted in this semi-final.
With the approval from the Reference Group, Italy broadcast and voted in the second semi-final following a request from the broadcaster RAI, as the date of the first semi-final coincided with the scheduled final of the fifth season of The Voice of Italy.
The highlighted countries qualified for the final.
The final took place on 12 May 2018 at 20: 00 WEST (21: 00 CEST). Twenty - six countries participated in the final, with all 43 participating countries eligible to vote. The running order for the final was revealed after the press conference of the second semi-final qualifiers on 10 May.
Countries in bold gave the maximum 24 points (12 points apiece from professional jury and televoting) to the specified entrant.
Below is a summary of the maximum 12 points awarded by each country 's professional jury in the first semi-final:
Below is a summary of the maximum 12 points awarded by each country 's televote in the first semi-final:
Countries in bold gave the maximum 24 points (12 points apiece from professional jury and televoting) to the specified entrant.
Below is a summary of the maximum 12 points awarded by each country 's professional jury in the second semi-final:
Below is a summary of the maximum 12 points awarded by each country 's televote in the second semi-final:
Countries in bold gave the maximum 24 points (12 points apiece from professional jury and televoting) to the specified entrant.
Eligibility for participation in the Eurovision Song Contest requires a national broadcaster with active EBU membership, or a special invitation from the EBU as in the case of Australia.
The spokespersons announced the 12 - point score from their respective country 's national jury in the following order:
Most countries sent commentators to Lisbon or commented from their own country, in order to add insight to the participants and, if necessary, the provision of voting information.
Following Israel 's Netta Barzilai 's performance of her song "Toy '', critics of the song accused Netta of culturally appropriating Japanese culture, with several users taking to social media such as Twitter to call the performance "offensive ''. The accusations were made after she wore a kimono and buns, as well as Maneki - nekos being shown during the performance.
The topic was debated on British morning show Good Morning Britain on 14 May 2018 in response, with television presenters Trisha Goddard and Piers Morgan defending Netta by stating that she was simply implementing elements of Japanese culture due to her own appreciation of it. English journalist Rebecca Reid disagreed, arguing "It 's not a beautiful, loving representation of real Japanese culture. It 's a costume ''.
On 10 January 2018, it had emerged on Russian networking site VK that Ukrainian singer Alekseev had performed a Russian - language version of his EuroFest entry "Forever '' (as Navsegda) in May 2017 in Stavropol -- before 1 September 2017, the submission deadline set by the EBU, potentially violating the rules of the contest. Six artists threatened to withdraw from the selection if it were allowed to compete, with Sofi Lapina actually doing so. Alekseev was ultimately allowed to compete by BTRC following a melodic revamp of the song, and went on to win the selection, thus representing Belarus in the Eurovision Song Contest 2018. However, on 23 February 2018, it was reported that the EBU had given Alekseev permission to perform his original English - language version of the song at the contest, and he would opt to sing that version of the song in May. A few weeks after that announcement, on 28 March 2018 Alekseev premiered a new official version of his Eurovision entry with a lighter intro and additional choir at the end of the track. He also confirmed that this version would be the one performed in Lisbon.
On 29 April 2018, during the first rehearsal of the Czech Republic 's performance, singer Mikolas Josef reportedly sustained injuries to his back while rehearsing and was subsequently rushed to hospital. The singer updated his fans on Instagram, stating "I can confirm that I got injured during the rehearsal and the situation got worse after several hours. I ca n't even walk now. Got back from the first hospital and I am now heading to another one ''. He stated that he would, however, "perform no matter what ''. Josef performed in the first semi-final on 8 May with a slightly altered performance, owing to his injuries, and ultimately finished 6th in the Grand Final on 12 May, achieving Czech Republic 's best result to date. He was also the second Czech contestant to qualify for the Grand Final, the other being Gabriela Gunčíková in 2016.
During the Chinese broadcast of the first semi-final on Mango TV, both Albania and Ireland were edited out of the show, along with their snippets in the recap of all 19 entries. Albania was skipped due to a ban on television performers displaying tattoos that took effect in January 2018, while Ireland was censored due to its representation of a homosexual couple on - stage. In addition, the LGBT flag and tattoos on other performers were also blurred out from the broadcast. As a result, the EBU has terminated its partnership with Mango TV, citing that censorship "is not in line with the EBU 's values of universality and inclusivity and its proud tradition of celebrating diversity through music, '' which led to a ban on televising the second semi-final and the grand final in the country. A spokesperson for the broadcaster 's parent company Hunan TV said they "were n't aware '' of the edits made to the programme. Ireland 's representative, Ryan O'Shaughnessy told the BBC in an interview, "they have n't taken this lightly and I think it 's a move in the right direction, so I 'm happy about it. ''
The performance of SuRie, representing the United Kingdom, in the final was disrupted by a man who rushed onto the stage and grabbed her microphone, reportedly shouting "Modern Nazis of the UK media, we demand freedom! War is not peace. '' The man, later identified as ' Dr ACactivism ', a political activist from London, climbed into a camera run to get access to the stage. SuRie was able to complete her performance, and after the song the broadcast cut to an unscheduled interview in the green room. The EBU offered SuRie and her team the opportunity to perform again, but she declined. SuRie later revealed that she had suffered several bruises on her right hand. For official release on YouTube, Eurovision edited out the interrupted performance and substituted SuRie 's Jury Night performance from the previous evening. The official video retains the unscheduled green room interview with the Ukrainian delegation that followed the stage invasion. The official DVD release also replaces the grand final performance with the previous evening 's jury show performance.
In addition to the main winner 's trophy, the Marcel Bezençon Awards and the Barbara Dex Award will be contested during the Eurovision Song Contest 2018. Additionally, the OGAE voting poll took place before the final.
The Marcel Bezençon Awards were first handed out during the Eurovision Song Contest 2002 in Tallinn, Estonia, honouring the best competing songs in the final. Founded by Christer Björkman (Sweden 's representative in the Eurovision Song Contest 1992 and the current Head of Delegation for Sweden) and Richard Herrey (a member of the Herreys and the Eurovision Song Contest 1984 winner from Sweden), the awards are named after the creator of the annual competition, Marcel Bezençon. The awards are divided into three categories: Press Award, Artistic Award, and Composer Award. The winners are revealed shortly before the Eurovision final.
Organisation Générale des Amateurs de l'Eurovision (more commonly known as OGAE) is an international organisation that was founded in 1984 in Savonlinna, Finland by Jari - Pekka Koikkalainen. The organisation consists of a network of over 40 Eurovision Song Contest fan clubs across Europe and beyond, and is a non-governmental, non-political, and non-profit company. In what has become an annual tradition for the OGAE fan clubs, a voting poll took place before the main Eurovision Song Contest allowing members from over 40 clubs to vote for their favourite songs of the contest.
* Table reflects the 2018 voting results from all 44 OGAE clubs.
The Barbara Dex Award is a fan award originally awarded by House of Eurovision from 1997 to 2016, and since 2017 by songfestival.be. This is a humorous award given to the worst dressed artist each year in the contest, and was named after the Belgian artist, Barbara Dex, who came last in the 1993, in which she wore her own self - designed dress.
Eurovision Song Contest: Lisbon 2018 is the official compilation album of the contest, put together by the European Broadcasting Union and released by Universal Music Group digitally on 6 April 2018 and physically on 20 April 2018. The album features all 43 participating entries, including the semi-finalists that failed to qualify for the grand final.
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do i need a visa for europe from singapore | Visa requirements for Singaporean citizens - Wikipedia
Visa requirements for Singaporean citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states which are imposed on citizens of Singapore. As of 1 January 2017, Singaporean citizens had visa - free or visa on arrival access to 173 countries and territories, ranking the Singaporean passport 4th in terms of travel freedom (tied with Austrian, Belgian, British, Dutch, French, Luxembourgish and Norwegian passports) according to the Henley visa restrictions index. The World Tourism Organization (WTO) also published a report on 15 January 2016, ranking the Singaporean passport first in the world (tied with Denmark, Finland, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg and the United Kingdom) in terms of travel freedom, with a mobility index of 160 (out of 215 with no visa required scored 1, visa on arrival scored 0.7, eVisa scored 0.5 and traditional visa scored 0). Arton 's Passport Index 2017 ranked the Singaporean passport 1st in the world with a visa - free score of 159 countries and territories.
Besides the Singaporean passport, there are only 4 other passports that provide either visa - free entry, or entry via an electronic travel authorisation, to the world 's four largest economies: China (visa - free, 15 days), India (e-Visa, 60 days), the European Union (visa - free, 90 days within 180 days), and the United States (ESTA, 90 days): those of Brunei, Japan, San Marino and The Bahamas. The Singaporean passport also provides visa - free access to all ASEAN nations.
Requirements for Singaporean citizens to have visas were recently lifted by Kazakhstan (15 July 2015), Suriname (January 2016), Azerbaijan (February 2016), Cuba (May 2016), Myanmar (December 2016), Belarus (February 2017), and Paraguay (October 2017).
India made Singaporean citizens eligible for the e-Visa in November 2014 after phasing out its previous visa on arrival (VOA) policy, although VOA access for Singaporean citizens might be reinstated under a new policy in the future. In July 2017, visa requirements for Singaporean citizens were lifted for the Primorye, Khabarovsk, Sakhalin, Chukotka, and Kamchatka regions of the Russian Far East for tourism, business and humanitarian purposes. Singaporean visitors will be granted a visa on arrival in Vladivostok, and can stay in Russia for a period of no longer than 8 days.
Visa requirements for holders of normal passports travelling for tourist purposes:
Pre-approved visas can be picked up on arrival in the following countries instead in embassy or consulate.
Visa requirements for Singaporean citizens for visits to various territories, disputed areas, partially recognized countries and restricted zones:
Holders of an APEC Business Travel Card (ABTC) travelling on business do not require a visa to the following countries:
The card must be used in conjunction with a passport and has the following advantages:
Singapore citizens are also eligible for automated immigration clearance in selected countries.
Many countries require passports to be valid for at least 6 months upon arrival. Note that some nations have bilateral agreements with other countries to shorten the passport validity cut - off period for each other 's citizens.
Countries requiring passports to be valid at least 6 months on arrival include Afghanistan, Algeria, Anguilla, Bahrain, Bhutan, Botswana, British Virgin Islands, Brunei, Cambodia, Cameroon, Cayman Islands, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Côte d'Ivoire, Curaçao, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Fiji, Gabon, Guinea Bissau, Guyana, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq (except when arriving at Basra and Erbil or Sulaimaniyah), Israel, Jordan, Kenya, Kiribati, Laos, Madagascar, Malaysia, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Myanmar, Namibia, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Oman, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Qatar, Rwanda, Saint Lucia, Samoa, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Somaliland, Sri Lanka, Suriname, Taiwan, Tanzania, Thailand, Timor - Leste, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, Vanuatu, Venezuela, Vietnam, Yemen and Zimbabwe.
Countries requiring passports valid for at least 4 months on arrival include Micronesia and Zambia.
Countries requiring passports valid for at least 3 months on arrival include European Union countries (except Denmark, Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom, and except for EU / EEA / Swiss citizens), Albania, Belarus, Georgia, Honduras, Iceland, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Liechtenstein, Moldova, Monaco, Nauru, Panama, Saint Barthélemy, San Marino, Switzerland and the United Arab Emirates.
Bermuda requires passports to be valid for at least 45 days upon entry.
Countries that require a passport validity of at least 1 month on arrival include Eritrea, Hong Kong, Macao, New Zealand and South Africa.
Other countries require either a passport valid on arrival or a passport valid throughout the period of the intended stay.
Many countries require a minimum number of blank pages in the passport being presented, generally one or two pages.
Many African countries, including Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Rwanda, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Uganda, and Zambia require all incoming passengers to have a current International Certificate of Vaccination.
Some other countries require vaccination only if the passenger is coming from an infected area.
Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria and Yemen do not allow entry to people with passport stamps from Israel or whose passports have either a used or an unused Israeli visa, or where there is evidence of previous travel to Israel such as entry or exit stamps from neighbouring border posts in transit countries such as Jordan and Egypt.
To circumvent this Arab League boycott of Israel, the Israeli immigration services have now mostly ceased to stamp foreign nationals ' passports on either entry to or exit from Israel. Since 15 January 2013, Israel no longer stamps foreign passports at Ben Gurion Airport, giving passengers a card instead: "Since January 2013 a pilot scheme has been introduced whereby visitors are given an entry card instead of an entry stamp on arrival. You should keep this card with your passport until you leave. This is evidence of your legal entry into Israel and may be required, particularly at any crossing points into the Occupied Palestinian Territories. '' Passports are still (as of 22 June 2017) stamped at Erez when travelling into and out of Gaza. Also, passports are still stamped (as of 22 June 2017) at the Jordan Valley / Sheikh Hussein and Yitzhak Rabin / Arava land borders with Jordan.
Due to a state of war existing between the Republic of Armenia and Azerbaijan, the government of Azerbaijan not only bans entry of citizens from Armenia, but also all citizens and nationals of any other country who are of Armenian descent, to the Republic of Azerbaijan (although there have been exceptions, notably for Armenia 's participation at the 2015 European Games held in Azerbaijan).
Azerbaijan also strictly bans any visit by foreign citizens to the separatist region of Nagorno - Karabakh (the de facto independent Republic of Artsakh), its surrounding territories and the Azerbaijani exclaves of Karki, Yuxarı Əskipara, Barxudarlı and Sofulu which are de jure part of Azerbaijan but under control of Armenia, without the prior consent of the government of Azerbaijan. Foreign citizens who enter these occupied territories, will be permanently banned from entering the Republic of Azerbaijan and will be included in their "list of personae non gratae ''.
Upon request, the Republic of Artsakh authorities may attach their visa and / or stamps to a separate piece of paper in order to avoid detection of travel to their country.
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia (Artsakh) and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai peninsula. Partially recognized.
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Part of the Realm of New Zealand. Partially recognized. Unincorporated territory of the United States. Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty
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where is high-level nuclear waste currently stored in the united states | High - level radioactive waste management - Wikipedia
High - level radioactive waste management concerns how radioactive materials created during production of nuclear power and nuclear weapons are dealt with. Radioactive waste contains a mixture of short - lived and long - lived nuclides, as well as non-radioactive nuclides. There was reported some 47,000 tonnes of high - level nuclear waste stored in the USA in 2002.
The most troublesome transuranic elements in spent fuel are neptunium - 237 (half - life two million years) and plutonium - 239 (half - life 24,000 years). Consequently, high - level radioactive waste requires sophisticated treatment and management to successfully isolate it from the biosphere. This usually necessitates treatment, followed by a long - term management strategy involving permanent storage, disposal or transformation of the waste into a non-toxic form. Radioactive decay follows the half - life rule, which means that the rate of decay is inversely proportional to the duration of decay. In other words, the radiation from a long - lived isotope like iodine - 129 will be much less intense than that of short - lived isotope like iodine - 131.
Governments around the world are considering a range of waste management and disposal options, usually involving deep - geologic placement, although there has been limited progress toward implementing long - term waste management solutions. This is partly because the timeframes in question when dealing with radioactive waste range from 10,000 to millions of years, according to studies based on the effect of estimated radiation doses.
Thus, engineer and physicist Hannes Alfvén identified two fundamental prerequisites for effective management of high - level radioactive waste: (1) stable geological formations, and (2) stable human institutions over hundreds of thousands of years. As Alfvén suggests, no known human civilization has ever endured for so long, and no geologic formation of adequate size for a permanent radioactive waste repository has yet been discovered that has been stable for so long a period. Nevertheless, avoiding confronting the risks associated with managing radioactive wastes may create countervailing risks of greater magnitude. Radioactive waste management is an example of policy analysis that requires special attention to ethical concerns, examined in the light of uncertainty and futurity: consideration of ' the impacts of practices and technologies on future generations '.
There is a debate over what should constitute an acceptable scientific and engineering foundation for proceeding with radioactive waste disposal strategies. There are those who have argued, on the basis of complex geochemical simulation models, that relinquishing control over radioactive materials to geohydrologic processes at repository closure is an acceptable risk. They maintain that so - called "natural analogues '' inhibit subterranean movement of radionuclides, making disposal of radioactive wastes in stable geologic formations unnecessary. However, existing models of these processes are empirically underdetermined: due to the subterranean nature of such processes in solid geologic formations, the accuracy of computer simulation models has not been verified by empirical observation, certainly not over periods of time equivalent to the lethal half - lives of high - level radioactive waste. On the other hand, some insist deep geologic repositories in stable geologic formations are necessary. National management plans of various countries display a variety of approaches to resolving this debate.
Researchers suggest that forecasts of health detriment for such long periods should be examined critically. Practical studies only consider up to 100 years as far as effective planning and cost evaluations are concerned. Long term behaviour of radioactive wastes remains a subject for ongoing research. Management strategies and implementation plans of several representative national governments are described below.
The International Panel on Fissile Materials has said:
It is widely accepted that spent nuclear fuel and high - level reprocessing and plutonium wastes require well - designed storage for periods ranging from tens of thousands to a million years, to minimize releases of the contained radioactivity into the environment. Safeguards are also required to ensure that neither plutonium nor highly enriched uranium is diverted to weapon use. There is general agreement that placing spent nuclear fuel in repositories hundreds of meters below the surface would be safer than indefinite storage of spent fuel on the surface.
The process of selecting appropriate permanent repositories for high level waste and spent fuel is now under way in several countries with the first expected to be commissioned some time after 2017. The basic concept is to locate a large, stable geologic formation and use mining technology to excavate a tunnel, or large - bore tunnel boring machines (similar to those used to drill the Chunnel from England to France) to drill a shaft 500 -- 1,000 meters below the surface where rooms or vaults can be excavated for disposal of high - level radioactive waste. The goal is to permanently isolate nuclear waste from the human environment. However, many people remain uncomfortable with the immediate stewardship cessation of this disposal system, suggesting perpetual management and monitoring would be more prudent.
Because some radioactive species have half - lives longer than one million years, even very low container leakage and radionuclide migration rates must be taken into account. Moreover, it may require more than one half - life until some nuclear materials lose enough radioactivity to no longer be lethal to living organisms. A 1983 review of the Swedish radioactive waste disposal program by the National Academy of Sciences found that country 's estimate of several hundred thousand years -- perhaps up to one million years -- being necessary for waste isolation "fully justified. ''
The proposed land - based subductive waste disposal method would dispose of nuclear waste in a subduction zone accessed from land, and therefore is not prohibited by international agreement. This method has been described as a viable means of disposing of radioactive waste, and as a state - of - the - art nuclear waste disposal technology.
In nature, sixteen repositories were discovered at the Oklo mine in Gabon where natural nuclear fission reactions took place 1.7 billion years ago. The fission products in these natural formations were found to have moved less than 10 ft (3 m) over this period, though the lack of movement may be due more to retention in the uraninite structure than to insolubility and sorption from moving ground water; uraninite crystals are better preserved here than those in spent fuel rods because of a less complete nuclear reaction, so that reaction products would be less accessible to groundwater attack.
In order to store the high level radioactive waste in long - term geological depositories, specific waste forms need to be used which will allow the radioactivity to decay away while the materials retain their integrity for thousands of years. The materials being used can be broken down into a few classes: glass waste forms, ceramic waste forms, and nanostructured materials.
The glass forms include borosilicate glasses and phosphate glasses. Borosilicate nuclear waste glasses are used on an industrial scale to immobilize high level radioactive waste in many countries which are producers of nuclear energy or have nuclear weaponry. The glass waste forms have the advantage of being able to accommodate a wide variety of waste - stream compositions, they are easy to scale up to industrial processing, and they are stable against thermal, radiative, and chemical perturbations. These glasses function by binding radioactive elements to nonradioactive glass - forming elements. Phosphate glasses while not being used industrially have much lower dissolution rates than borosilicate glasses, which make them a more favorable option. However, no single phosphate material has the ability to accommodate all of the radioactive products so phosphate storage requires more reprocessing to separate the waste into distinct fractions. Both glasses have to be processed at elevated temperatures making them unusable for some of the more volatile radiotoxic elements.
The ceramic waste forms offer higher waste loadings than the glass options because ceramics have crystalline structure. Also, mineral analogues of the ceramic waste forms provide evidence for long term durability. Due to this fact and the fact that they can be processed at lower temperatures, ceramics are often considered the next generation in high level radioactive waste forms. Ceramic waste forms offer great potential, but a lot of research remains to be done.
Finland, the United States and Sweden are the most advanced in developing a deep repository for high - level radioactive waste disposal. Countries vary in their plans on disposing used fuel directly or after reprocessing, with France and Japan having an extensive commitment to reprocessing. The country - specific status of high - level waste management plans are described below.
In many European countries (e.g., Britain, Finland, the Netherlands, Sweden and Switzerland) the risk or dose limit for a member of the public exposed to radiation from a future high - level nuclear waste facility is considerably more stringent than that suggested by the International Commission on Radiation Protection or proposed in the United States. European limits are often more stringent than the standard suggested in 1990 by the International Commission on Radiation Protection by a factor of 20, and more stringent by a factor of ten than the standard proposed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository for the first 10,000 years after closure. Moreover, the U.S. EPA 's proposed standard for greater than 10,000 years is 250 times more permissive than the European limit.
The countries that have made the most progress towards a repository for high - level radioactive waste have typically started with public consultations and made voluntary siting a necessary condition. This consensus seeking approach is believed to have a greater chance of success than top - down modes of decision making, but the process is necessarily slow, and there is "inadequate experience around the world to know if it will succeed in all existing and aspiring nuclear nations ''.
Moreover, most communities do not want to host a nuclear waste repository as they are "concerned about their community becoming a de facto site for waste for thousands of years, the health and environmental consequences of an accident, and lower property values ''.
In China (People 's Republic of China), ten reactors provide about 2 % of electricity and five more are under construction. China made a commitment to reprocessing in the 1980s; a pilot plant is under construction at Lanzhou, where a temporary spent fuel storage facility has been constructed. Geological disposal has been studied since 1985, and a permanent deep geological repository was required by law in 2003. Sites in Gansu Province near the Gobi desert in northwestern China are under investigation, with a final site expected to be selected by 2020, and actual disposal by about 2050.
In Taiwan (Republic of China), nuclear waste storage facility was built at the Southern tip of Orchid Island in Taitung County, offshore of Taiwan Island. The facility was built in 1982 and it is owned and operated by Taipower. The facility receives nuclear waste from Taipower 's current three nuclear power plants. However, due to the strong resistance from local community in the island, the nuclear waste has to be stored at the power plant facilities themselves.
Sixteen nuclear reactors produce about 3 % of India 's electricity, and seven more are under construction. Spent fuel is processed at facilities in Trombay near Mumbai, at Tarapur on the west coast north of Mumbai, and at Kalpakkam on the southeast coast of India. Plutonium will be used in a fast breeder reactor (under construction) to produce more fuel, and other waste vitrified at Tarapur and Trombay. Interim storage for 30 years is expected, with eventual disposal in a deep geological repository in crystalline rock near Kalpakkam.
In 2000, a Specified Radioactive Waste Final Disposal Act called for creation of a new organization to manage high level radioactive waste, and later that year the Nuclear Waste Management Organization of Japan (NUMO) was established under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry. NUMO is responsible for selecting a permanent deep geological repository site, construction, operation and closure of the facility for waste emplacement by 2040. Site selection began in 2002 and application information was sent to 3,239 municipalities, but by 2006, no local government had volunteered to host the facility. Kōchi Prefecture showed interest in 2007, but its mayor resigned due to local opposition. In December 2013 the government decided to identify suitable candidate areas before approaching municipalities.
The head of the Science Council of Japan 's expert panel has said Japan 's seismic conditions makes it difficult to predict ground conditions over the necessary 100,000 years, so it will be impossible to convince the public of the safety of deep geological disposal.
Belgium has seven nuclear reactors that provide about 52 % of its electricity. Belgian spent nuclear fuel was initially sent for reprocessing in France. In 1993, reprocessing was suspended following a resolution of the Belgian parliament; spent fuel is since being stored on the sites of the nuclear power plants. The deep disposal of high - level radioactive waste (HLW) has been studied in Belgium for more than 30 years. Boom Clay is studied as a reference host formation for HLW disposal. The Hades underground research laboratory (URL) is located at − 223 m in the Boom Formation at the Mol site. The Belgian URL is operated by the Euridice Economic Interest Group, a joint organisation between SCK CEN, the Belgian Nuclear Research Centre which initiated the research on waste disposal in Belgium in the 1970s and 1980s and ONDRAF / NIRAS, the Belgian agency for radioactive waste management. In Belgium, the regulatory body in charge of guidance and licensing approval is the Federal Agency of Nuclear Control, created in 2001.
In 1983, the government decided to select a site for permanent repository by 2010. With four nuclear reactors providing 29 % of its electricity, Finland in 1987 enacted a Nuclear Energy Act making the producers of radioactive waste responsible for its disposal, subject to requirements of its Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority and an absolute veto given to local governments in which a proposed repository would be located. Producers of nuclear waste organized the company Posiva, with responsibility for site selection, construction and operation of a permanent repository. A 1994 amendment to the Act required final disposal of spent fuel in Finland, prohibiting the import or export of radioactive waste.
Environmental assessment of four sites occurred in 1997 -- 98, Posiva chose the Olkiluoto site near two existing reactors, and the local government approved it in 2000. The Finnish Parliament approved a deep geologic repository there in igneous bedrock at a depth of about 500 meters in 2001. The repository concept is similar to the Swedish model, with containers to be clad in copper and buried below the water table beginning in 2020. An underground characterization facility, Onkalo spent nuclear fuel repository, was under construction at the site in 2012.
With 58 nuclear reactors contributing about 75 % of its electricity, the highest percentage of any country, France has been reprocessing its spent reactor fuel since the introduction of nuclear power there. Some reprocessed plutonium is used to make fuel, but more is being produced than is being recycled as reactor fuel. France also reprocesses spent fuel for other countries, but the nuclear waste is returned to the country of origin. Radioactive waste from reprocessing French spent fuel is expected to be disposed of in a geological repository, pursuant to legislation enacted in 1991 that established a 15 - year period for conducting radioactive waste management research. Under this legislation, partition and transmutation of long - lived elements, immobilization and conditioning processes, and long - term near surface storage are being investigated by the Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique (CEA). Disposal in deep geological formations is being studied by the French agency for radioactive waste management, L'Agence Nationale pour la Gestion des Déchets Radioactifs, in underground research labs.
Three sites were identified for possible deep geologic disposal in clay near the border of Meuse and Haute - Marne, near Gard, and at Vienne. In 1998 the government approved the Meuse / Haute Marne Underground Research Laboratory, a site near Meuse / Haute - Marne and dropped the others from further consideration. Legislation was proposed in 2006 to license a repository by 2015, with operations expected in 2025.
Nuclear waste policy in Germany is in flux. German planning for a permanent geologic repository began in 1974, focused on salt dome Gorleben, a salt mine near Gorleben about 100 kilometers northeast of Braunschweig. The site was announced in 1977 with plans for a reprocessing plant, spent fuel management, and permanent disposal facilities at a single site. Plans for the reprocessing plant were dropped in 1979. In 2000, the federal government and utilities agreed to suspend underground investigations for three to ten years, and the government committed to ending its use of nuclear power, closing one reactor in 2003.
Within days of the March 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, Chancellor Angela Merkel "imposed a three - month moratorium on previously announced extensions for Germany 's existing nuclear power plants, while shutting seven of the 17 reactors that had been operating since 1981 ''. Protests continued and, on 29 May 2011, Merkel 's government announced that it would close all of its nuclear power plants by 2022.
Meanwhile, electric utilities have been transporting spent fuel to interim storage facilities at Gorleben, Lubmin and Ahaus until temporary storage facilities can be built near reactor sites. Previously, spent fuel was sent to France or the United Kingdom for reprocessing, but this practice was ended in July 2005.
COVRA (Centrale Organisatie Voor Radioactief Afval) is the Dutch interim nuclear waste processing and storage company in Vlissingen, which stores the waste produced in their only remaining nuclear power plant after it is reprocessed by Areva NC in La Hague, Manche, Normandy, France. Until the Dutch government decides what to do with the waste, it will stay at COVRA, which currently has a license to operate for one hundred years. As of early 2017, there are no plans for a permanent disposal facility.
In Russia, the Ministry of Atomic Energy (Minatom) is responsible for 31 nuclear reactors which generate about 16 % of its electricity. Minatom is also responsible for reprocessing and radioactive waste disposal, including over 25,000 tons of spent nuclear fuel in temporary storage in 2001.
Russia has a long history of reprocessing spent fuel for military purposes, and previously planned to reprocess imported spent fuel, possibly including some of the 33,000 metric tons of spent fuel accumulated at sites in other countries who received fuel from the U.S., which the U.S. originally pledged to take back, such as Brazil, the Czech Republic, India, Japan, Mexico, Slovenia, South Korea, Switzerland, Taiwan, and the European Union.
An Environmental Protection Act in 1991 prohibited importing radioactive material for long - term storage or burial in Russia, but controversial legislation to allow imports for permanent storage was passed by the Russian Parliament and signed by President Putin in 2001. In the long term, the Russian plan is for deep geologic disposal. Most attention has been paid to locations where waste has accumulated in temporary storage at Mayak, near Chelyabinsk in the Ural Mountains, and in granite at Krasnoyarsk in Siberia.
Spain has five active nuclear plants with seven reactors which produced 21 % of the country 's electricity in 2013. Furthermore, there is legacy high - level waste from another two older, closed plants. Between 2004 and 2011, a bipartisan initiative of the Spanish Government promoted the construction of an interim centralized storage facility (ATC, Almacén Temporal Centralizado), similar to the Dutch COVRA concept. In late 2011 and early 2012 the final green light was given, preliminary studies were being completed and land was purchased near Villar de Cañas (Cuenca) after a competitive tender process. The facility would be initially licensed for 60 years.
However, soon before groundbreaking was slated to begin in 2015, the project was stopped because of a mix of geological, technical, political and ecological problems. By late 2015, the Regional Government considered it "obsolete '' and effectively "paralyzed. '' As of early 2017, the project has not been shelved but it stays frozen and no further action is expected anytime soon. Meanwhile, the spent nuclear fuel and other high - level waste is being kept in the plants ' pools, as well as on - site dry cask storage (almacenes temporales individualizados) in Garoña and Trillo.
As of early 2017, there are no plans for a permanent high - level disposal facility either. Low - and medium - level waste is stored in the El Cabril facility (Province of Cordoba.)
In Sweden, as of 2007 there are ten operating nuclear reactors that produce about 45 % of its electricity. Two other reactors in Barsebäck were shut down in 1999 and 2005. When these reactors were built, it was expected their nuclear fuel would be reprocessed in a foreign country, and the reprocessing waste would not be returned to Sweden. Later, construction of a domestic reprocessing plant was contemplated, but has not been built.
Passage of the Stipulation Act of 1977 transferred responsibility for nuclear waste management from the government to the nuclear industry, requiring reactor operators to present an acceptable plan for waste management with "absolute safety '' in order to obtain an operating license. In early 1980, after the Three Mile Island meltdown in the United States, a referendum was held on the future use of nuclear power in Sweden. In late 1980, after a three - question referendum produced mixed results, the Swedish Parliament decided to phase out existing reactors by 2010. In 2010, the Swedish government opened up for construction of new nuclear reactors. The new units can only be built at the existing nuclear power sites, Oskarshamn, Ringhals or Forsmark, and only to replace one of the existing reactors, that will have to be shut down for the new one to be able to start up.
The Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company. (Svensk Kärnbränslehantering AB, known as SKB) was created in 1980 and is responsible for final disposal of nuclear waste there. This includes operation of a monitored retrievable storage facility, the Central Interim Storage Facility for Spent Nuclear Fuel at Oskarshamn, about 150 miles south of Stockholm on the Baltic coast; transportation of spent fuel; and construction of a permanent repository. Swedish utilities store spent fuel at the reactor site for one year before transporting it to the facility at Oskarshamn, where it will be stored in excavated caverns filled with water for about 30 years before removal to a permanent repository.
Conceptual design of a permanent repository was determined by 1983, calling for placement of copper - clad iron canisters in granite bedrock about 500 metres underground, below the water table in what is known as the KBS - 3 method. Space around the canisters will be filled with bentonite clay. After examining six possible locations for a permanent repository, three were nominated for further investigation, at Osthammar, Oskarshamn, and Tierp. On 3 June 2009, Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Co. chose a location for a deep - level waste site at Östhammar, near Forsmark Nuclear Power plant. The application to build the repository was handed in by SKB 2011.
Switzerland has five nuclear reactors that provide about 43 % of its electricity around 2007 (34 % in 2015). Some Swiss spent nuclear fuel has been sent for reprocessing in France and the United Kingdom; most fuel is being stored without reprocessing. An industry - owned organization, ZWILAG, built and operates a central interim storage facility for spent nuclear fuel and high - level radioactive waste, and for conditioning low - level radioactive waste and for incinerating wastes. Other interim storage facilities predating ZWILAG continue to operate in Switzerland.
The Swiss program is considering options for the siting of a deep repository for high - level radioactive waste disposal, and for low & intermediate level wastes. Construction of a repository is not foreseen until well into this century. Research on sedimentary rock (especially Opalinus Clay) is carried out at the Swiss Mont Terri rock laboratory; the Grimsel Test Site, an older facility in crystalline rock is also still active.
Great Britain has 19 operating reactors, producing about 20 % of its electricity. It processes much of its spent fuel at Sellafield on the northwest coast across from Ireland, where nuclear waste is vitrified and sealed in stainless steel canisters for dry storage above ground for at least 50 years before eventual deep geologic disposal. Sellafield has a history of environmental and safety problems, including a fire in a nuclear plant in Windscale, and a significant incident in 2005 at the main reprocessing plant (THORP).
In 1982 the Nuclear Industry Radioactive Waste Management Executive (NIREX) was established with responsibility for disposing of long - lived nuclear waste and in 2006 a Committee on Radioactive Waste Management (CoRWM) of the Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs recommended geologic disposal 200 -- 1,000 meters underground. NIREX developed a generic repository concept based on the Swedish model but has not yet selected a site. A Nuclear Decommissioning Authority is responsible for packaging waste from reprocessing and will eventually relieve British Nuclear Fuels Ltd. of responsibility for power reactors and the Sellafield reprocessing plant.
The 18 operating nuclear power plants in Canada generated about 16 % of its electricity in 2006. A national Nuclear Fuel Waste Act was enacted by the Canadian Parliament in 2002, requiring nuclear energy corporations to create a waste management organization to propose to the Government of Canada approaches for management of nuclear waste, and implementation of an approach subsequently selected by the government. The Act defined management as "long term management by means of storage or disposal, including handling, treatment, conditioning or transport for the purpose of storage or disposal. ''
The resulting Nuclear Waste Management Organization (NWMO) conducted an extensive three - year study and consultation with Canadians. In 2005, they recommended Adaptive Phased Management, an approach that emphasized both technical and management methods. The technical method included centralized isolation and containment of spent nuclear fuel in a deep geologic repository in a suitable rock formation, such as the granite of the Canadian Shield or Ordovician sedimentary rocks. Also recommended was a phased decision making process supported by a program of continuous learning, research and development.
In 2007, the Canadian government accepted this recommendation, and NWMO was tasked with implementing the recommendation. No specific timeframe was defined for the process. In 2009, the NWMO was designing the process for site selection; siting was expected to take 10 years or more.
The Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 established a timetable and procedure for constructing a permanent, underground repository for high - level radioactive waste by the mid-1990s, and provided for some temporary storage of waste, including spent fuel from 104 civilian nuclear reactors that produce about 19.4 % of electricity there. The United States in April 2008 had about 56,000 metric tons of spent fuel and 20,000 canisters of solid defense - related waste, and this is expected to increase to 119,000 metric tons by 2035. The U.S. opted for Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository, a final repository at Yucca Mountain in Nevada, but this project was widely opposed, with some of the main concerns being long distance transportation of waste from across the United States to this site, the possibility of accidents, and the uncertainty of success in isolating nuclear waste from the human environment in perpetuity. Yucca Mountain, with capacity for 70,000 metric tons of radioactive waste, was expected to open in 2017. However, the Obama Administration rejected use of the site in the 2009 United States Federal Budget proposal, which eliminated all funding except that needed to answer inquiries from the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, "while the Administration devises a new strategy toward nuclear waste disposal. '' On March 5, 2009, Energy Secretary Steven Chu told a Senate hearing "the Yucca Mountain site no longer was viewed as an option for storing reactor waste. '' Starting in 1999, military - generated nuclear waste is being entombed at the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant in New Mexico.
In a Presidential Memorandum dated January 29, 2010, President Obama established the Blue Ribbon Commission on America 's Nuclear Future (the Commission). The Commission, composed of fifteen members, conducted an extensive two - year study of nuclear waste disposal, what is referred to as the "back end '' of the nuclear energy process. The Commission established three subcommittees: Reactor and Fuel Cycle Technology, Transportation and Storage, and Disposal. On January 26, 2012, the Commission submitted its final report to Energy Secretary Steven Chu. In the Disposal Subcommittee 's final report the Commission does not issue recommendations for a specific site but rather presents a comprehensive recommendation for disposal strategies. During their research the Commission visited Finland, France, Japan, Russia, Sweden, and the UK. In their final report the Commission put forth seven recommendations for developing a comprehensive strategy to pursue:
Although Australia does not have any nuclear power reactors, Pangea Resources considered siting an international repository in the outback of South Australia or Western Australia in 1998, but this stimulated legislative opposition in both states and the Australian national Senate during the following year. Thereafter, Pangea ceased operations in Australia but reemerged as Pangea International Association, and in 2002 evolved into the Association for Regional and International Underground Storage with support from Belgium, Bulgaria, Hungary, Japan and Switzerland. A general concept for an international repository has been advanced by one of the principals in all three ventures. Russia has expressed interest in serving as a repository for other countries, but does not envision sponsorship or control by an international body or group of other countries. South Africa, Argentina and western China have also been mentioned as possible locations.
In the EU, COVRA is negotiating a European - wide waste disposal system with single disposal sites that can be used by several EU - countries. This EU - wide storage possibility is being researched under the SAPIERR - 2 program.
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what types of events happened during the 1906 san francisco earthquake | 1906 San Francisco earthquake - wikipedia
The 1906 San Francisco earthquake struck the coast of Northern California at 5: 12 a.m. on Wednesday, April 18 with an estimated moment magnitude of 7.9 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of XI (Extreme). High intensity shaking was felt from Eureka on the North Coast to the Salinas Valley, an agricultural region to the south of the San Francisco Bay Area. Devastating fires soon broke out in the city and lasted for several days. Thousands of homes were dismantled.As a result, up to 3,000 people died and over 80 % of the city of San Francisco was destroyed. The events are remembered as one of the worst and deadliest earthquakes in the history of the United States. The death toll remains the greatest loss of life from a natural disaster in California 's history and high in the lists of American disasters.
The San Andreas Fault is a continental transform fault that forms part of the tectonic boundary between the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate. The strike - slip fault is characterized by mainly lateral motion in a dextral sense, where the western (Pacific) plate moves northward relative to the eastern (North American) plate. This fault runs the length of California from the Salton Sea in the south to Cape Mendocino in the north, a distance of about 810 miles (1,300 km). The maximum observed surface displacement was about 20 feet (6 m); geodetic measurements show displacements of up to 28 feet (8.5 m).
The 1906 earthquake preceded the development of the Richter magnitude scale by three decades. The most widely accepted estimate for the magnitude of the quake on the modern moment magnitude scale is 7.9; values from 7.7 to as high as 8.3 have been proposed. According to findings published in the Journal of Geophysical Research, severe deformations in the earth 's crust took place both before and after the earthquake 's impact. Accumulated strain on the faults in the system was relieved during the earthquake, which is the supposed cause of the damage along the 450 - kilometer - long segment of the San Andreas plate boundary. The 1906 rupture propagated both northward and southward for a total of 296 miles (476 km). Shaking was felt from Oregon to Los Angeles, and inland as far as central Nevada.
A strong foreshock preceded the main shock by about 20 to 25 seconds. The strong shaking of the main shock lasted about 42 seconds. There were decades of minor earthquakes -- more than at any other time in the historical record for northern California -- before the 1906 quake. Widely interpreted previously as precursory activity to the 1906 earthquake, they have been found to have a strong seasonal pattern and have been postulated to be due to large seasonal sediment loads in coastal bays that overlie faults as a result of the erosion caused by hydraulic mining in the later years of the California Gold Rush.
For years, the epicenter of the quake was assumed to be near the town of Olema, in the Point Reyes area of Marin County, because of evidence of the degree of local earth displacement. In the 1960s, a seismologist at UC Berkeley proposed that the epicenter was more likely offshore of San Francisco, to the northwest of the Golden Gate. The most recent analyses support an offshore location for the epicenter, although significant uncertainty remains. An offshore epicenter is supported by the occurrence of a local tsunami recorded by a tide gauge at the San Francisco Presidio; the wave had an amplitude of approximately 3 in (8 cm) and an approximate period of 40 -- 45 minutes.
Analysis of triangulation data before and after the earthquake strongly suggest that the rupture along the San Andreas Fault was about 500 km in length, in agreement with observed intensity data. The available seismological data support a significantly shorter rupture length, but these observations can be reconciled by allowing propagation at speeds above the S - wave velocity (supershear). Supershear propagation has now been recognized for many earthquakes associated with strike - slip faulting.
At the time, 375 deaths were reported; however, hundreds of fatalities in Chinatown went ignored and unrecorded. The total number of deaths is still uncertain, but various reports presented a range of 700 -- 3,000 +. Most of the deaths occurred in San Francisco itself, but 189 were reported elsewhere in the Bay Area; nearby cities, such as Santa Rosa and San Jose, also suffered severe damage. In Monterey County, the earthquake permanently shifted the course of the Salinas River near its mouth. Where previously the river emptied into Monterey Bay between Moss Landing and Watsonville, it was diverted 6 miles south to a new channel just north of Marina.
Between 227,000 and 300,000 people were left homeless out of a population of about 410,000; half of those who evacuated fled across the bay to Oakland and Berkeley. Newspapers described Golden Gate Park, the Presidio, the Panhandle and the beaches between Ingleside and North Beach as covered with makeshift tents. More than two years later, many of these refugee camps were still in operation.
The earthquake and fire left long - standing and significant pressures on the development of California. At the time of the disaster, San Francisco had been the ninth - largest city in the United States and the largest on the West Coast, with a population of about 410,000. Over a period of 60 years, the city had become the financial, trade and cultural center of the West; operated the busiest port on the West Coast; and was the "gateway to the Pacific '', through which growing U.S. economic and military power was projected into the Pacific and Asia. Over 80 % of the city was destroyed by the earthquake and fire. Though San Francisco rebuilt quickly, the disaster diverted trade, industry and population growth south to Los Angeles, which during the 20th century became the largest and most important urban area in the West. Many of the city 's leading poets and writers retreated to Carmel - by - the - Sea where, as "The Barness '', they established the arts colony reputation that continues today.
The 1908 Lawson Report, a study of the 1906 quake led and edited by Professor Andrew Lawson of the University of California, showed that the same San Andreas Fault which had caused the disaster in San Francisco ran close to Los Angeles as well. The earthquake was the first natural disaster of its magnitude to be documented by photography and motion picture footage and occurred at a time when the science of seismology was blossoming.
The most important characteristic of the shaking intensity noted in Andrew Lawson 's (1908) report was the clear correlation of intensity with underlying geologic conditions. Areas situated in sediment - filled valleys sustained stronger shaking than nearby bedrock sites, and the strongest shaking occurred in areas of former bay where soil liquefaction had occurred. Modern seismic - zonation practice accounts for the differences in seismic hazard posed by varying geologic conditions. The shaking intensity as described on the Modified Mercalli intensity scale reached XI (Extreme) in San Francisco and areas to the north like Santa Rosa where destruction was devastating.
Although the impact of the earthquake on San Francisco was the most famous, the earthquake also inflicted considerable damage on several other cities. These include San Jose and Santa Rosa, the entire downtown of which was essentially destroyed.
As damaging as the earthquake and its aftershocks were, the fires that burned out of control afterward were even more destructive. It has been estimated that up to 90 % of the total destruction was the result of the subsequent fires. Within three days, over 30 fires, caused by ruptured gas mains, destroyed approximately 25,000 buildings on 490 city blocks. One of the largest of these fires was accidentally started in a house on Hayes Street by a woman making breakfast for her family. This came to be known as the "Ham and Eggs Fire ''. Some were started when firefighters, untrained in the use of dynamite, attempted to demolish buildings to create firebreaks. The dynamited buildings themselves often caught fire. The city 's fire chief, Dennis T. Sullivan, who would have been responsible, had died from injuries sustained in the initial quake. In all, the fires burned for four days and nights.
Due to a widespread practice by insurers to indemnify San Francisco properties from fire, but not earthquake damage, most of the destruction in the city was blamed on the fires. Some property owners deliberately set fire to damaged properties, in order to claim them on their insurance. Capt. Leonard D. Wildman of the U.S. Army Signal Corps reported that he "was stopped by a fireman who told me that people in that neighborhood were firing their houses... they were told that they would not get their insurance on buildings damaged by the earthquake unless they were damaged by fire ''.
One landmark building lost in the fire was the Palace Hotel, subsequently rebuilt, which had many famous visitors, including royalty and celebrated performers. It was constructed in 1875 primarily financed by Bank of California co-founder William Ralston, the "man who built San Francisco ''. In April 1906, the tenor Enrico Caruso and members of the Metropolitan Opera Company came to San Francisco to give a series of performances at the Grand Opera House. The night after Caruso 's performance in Carmen, the tenor was awakened in the early morning in his Palace Hotel suite by a strong jolt. Clutching an autographed photo of President Theodore Roosevelt, Caruso made an effort to get out of the city, first by boat and then by train, and vowed never to return to San Francisco. Caruso died in 1921, having remained true to his word. The Metropolitan Opera Company lost all of its traveling sets and costumes in the earthquake and ensuing fires.
Some of the greatest losses from fire were in scientific laboratories. Alice Eastwood, the curator of botany at the California Academy of Sciences in San Francisco, is credited with saving nearly 1,500 specimens, including the entire type specimen collection for a newly discovered and extremely rare species, before the remainder of the largest botanical collection in the western United States was destroyed in the fire. The entire laboratory and all the records of Benjamin R. Jacobs, a biochemist who was researching the nutrition of everyday foods, were destroyed. The original California flag used in the 1846 Bear Flag Revolt at Sonoma, which at the time was being stored in a state building in San Francisco, was also destroyed in the fire.
The fire following the earthquake in San Francisco, cost an estimated $350 million at the time, equivalent to $8.97 billion. The devastating quake levelled about 80 % of the city.
The city 's fire chief, Dennis T. Sullivan, was gravely injured when the earthquake first struck and later died from his injuries. The interim fire chief sent an urgent request to the Presidio, an army post on the edge of the stricken city, for dynamite. General Frederick Funston had already decided that the situation required the use of troops. Telephoning a policeman, he sent word to Mayor Eugene Schmitz of his decision to assist, and then ordered army troops from nearby Angel Island to mobilize and come into the city. Explosives were ferried across the bay from the California Powder Works in what is now Hercules.
During the first few days, soldiers provided valuable services like patrolling streets to discourage looting and guarding buildings such as the U.S. Mint, post office, and county jail. They aided the fire department in dynamiting to demolish buildings in the path of the fires. The army also became responsible for feeding, sheltering, and clothing the tens of thousands of displaced residents of the city. Under the command of Funston 's superior, Major General Adolphus Greely, Commanding Officer, Pacific Division, over 4,000 troops saw service during the emergency. On July 1, 1906, civil authorities assumed responsibility for relief efforts, and the army withdrew from the city.
On April 18, in response to riots among evacuees and looting, Mayor Schmitz issued and ordered posted a proclamation that "The Federal Troops, the members of the Regular Police Force and all Special Police Officers have been authorized by me to kill any and all persons found engaged in Looting or in the Commission of Any Other Crime ''. In addition, accusations of soldiers themselves engaging in looting also surfaced.
Early on April 18, 1906, recently retired Captain Edward Ord of the 22nd Infantry Regiment was appointed a Special Police Officer by Mayor Eugene Schmitz and liasioned with Major General Adolphus Greely for relief work with the 22nd Infantry and other military units involved in the emergency. Ord later wrote a long letter to his mother on the April 20 regarding Schmitz ' "Shoot - to - Kill '' Order and some "despicable '' behavior of certain soldiers of the 22nd Infantry who were looting. He also made it clear that the majority of soldiers served the community well.
Property losses from the disaster have been estimated to be more than $400 million in 1906 dollars. This is equivalent to $10.9 billion in 2017 dollars. An insurance industry source tallies insured losses at $235 million, the equivalent to $6.4 billion in 2017 dollars.
Political and business leaders strongly downplayed the effects of the earthquake, fearing loss of outside investment in the city which badly needed to rebuild. In his first public statement, California governor George Pardee emphasized the need to rebuild quickly: "This is not the first time that San Francisco has been destroyed by fire, I have not the slightest doubt that the City by the Golden Gate will be speedily rebuilt, and will, almost before we know it, resume her former great activity ''. The earthquake itself is not even mentioned in the statement. Fatality and monetary damage estimates were manipulated.
Almost immediately after the quake (and even during the disaster), planning and reconstruction plans were hatched to quickly rebuild the city. Rebuilding funds were immediately tied up by the fact that virtually all the major banks had been sites of the conflagration, requiring a lengthy wait of seven - to - ten days before their fire - proof vaults could cool sufficiently to be safely opened. The Bank of Italy had evacuated its funds and was able to provide liquidity in the immediate aftermath. Its president also immediately chartered and financed the sending of two ships to return with shiploads of lumber from Washington and Oregon mills which provided the initial reconstruction materials and surge. In 1929, Bank of Italy was renamed and is now known as Bank of America.
William James, the pioneering American psychologist, was teaching at Stanford at the time of the earthquake and traveled into San Francisco to observe first - hand its aftermath. He was most impressed by the positive attitude of the survivors and the speed with which they improvised services and created order out of chaos. This formed the basis of the chapter "On some Mental Effects of the Earthquake '' in his book Memories and Studies.
H.G. Wells had just arrived in New York on his first visit to America when he learned, at lunch, of the San Francisco earthquake. What struck him about the reaction of those around him was that "it does not seem to have affected any one with a sense of final destruction, with any foreboding of irreparable disaster. Every one is talking of it this afternoon, and no one is in the least degree dismayed. I have talked and listened in two clubs, watched people in cars and in the street, and one man is glad that Chinatown will be cleared out for good; another 's chief solicitude is for Millet 's ' Man with the Hoe. ' ' They 'll cut it out of the frame, ' he says, a little anxiously. ' Sure. ' But there is no doubt anywhere that San Francisco can be rebuilt, larger, better, and soon. Just as there would be none at all if all this New York that has so obsessed me with its limitless bigness was itself a blazing ruin. I believe these people would more than half like the situation. ''
The grandeur of citywide reconstruction schemes required investment from Eastern monetary sources, hence the spin and de-emphasis of the earthquake, the promulgation of the tough new building codes, and subsequent reputation sensitive actions such as the official low death toll. One of the more famous and ambitious plans came from famed urban planner Daniel Burnham. His bold plan called for, among other proposals, Haussmann - style avenues, boulevards, arterial thoroughfares that radiated across the city, a massive civic center complex with classical structures, and what would have been the largest urban park in the world, stretching from Twin Peaks to Lake Merced with a large atheneum at its peak. But this plan was dismissed during the aftermath of the earthquake.
The earthquake also was crucial in the development of the University of California, San Francisco and its medical facilities. Until 1906, the school faculty had provided care at the City - County Hospital (San Francisco General Hospital, 1915 -- 2016, but Zuckerberg San Francisco General Hospital and Trauma Center (SFGH) since 2016), but did not have a hospital of its own. Following the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, more than 40,000 people were relocated to a makeshift tent city in Golden Gate Park and were treated by the faculty of the Affiliated Colleges. This brought the school, which until then was located on the western outskirts of the city, in contact with significant population and fueled the commitment of the school towards civic responsibility and health care, increasing the momentum towards the construction of its own health facilities. Finally, in April 1907, one of the buildings was renovated for outpatient care with 75 beds. This created the need to train nursing students, and, in 1907, the UC Training School for Nurses was established, adding a fourth professional school to the Affiliated Colleges.
For example, real estate investors and other land owners were against the idea due to the large amount of land the city would have to purchase to realize such proposals. City fathers likewise attempted at the time to eliminate the Chinese population and export Chinatown (and other poor populations) to the edge of the county where the Chinese could still contribute to the local taxbase. The Chinese occupants had other ideas and prevailed instead. Chinatown was rebuilt in the newer, modern, Western form that exists today. The destruction of City Hall and the Hall of Records enabled thousands of Chinese immigrants to claim residency and citizenship, creating a backdoor to the Chinese Exclusion Act, and bring in their relatives from China.
While the original street grid was restored, many of Burnham 's proposals inadvertently saw the light of day, such as a neoclassical civic center complex, wider streets, a preference of arterial thoroughfares, a subway under Market Street, a more people - friendly Fisherman 's Wharf, and a monument to the city on Telegraph Hill, Coit Tower.
The earthquake was also responsible for the development of the Pacific Heights neighborhood. The immense power of the earthquake had destroyed almost all of the mansions on Nob Hill except for the James C. Flood Mansion. Others that had n't been destroyed were dynamited by the Army forces aiding the firefighting efforts in attempts to create firebreaks. As one indirect result, the wealthy looked westward where the land was cheap and relatively undeveloped, and where there were better views and a consistently warmer climate. Constructing new mansions without reclaiming and clearing old rubble simply sped attaining new homes in the tent city during the reconstruction.
Reconstruction was swift, and largely completed by 1915, in time for the 1915 Panama -- Pacific International Exposition which celebrated the reconstruction of the city and its "rise from the ashes ''.
Since 1915, the city has officially commemorated the disaster each year by gathering the remaining survivors at Lotta 's Fountain, a fountain in the city 's financial district that served as a meeting point during the disaster for people to look for loved ones and exchange information.
The army built 5,610 redwood and fir "relief houses '' to accommodate 20,000 displaced people. The houses were designed by John McLaren, and were grouped in eleven camps, packed close to each other and rented to people for two dollars per month until rebuilding was completed. They were painted navy blue, partly to blend in with the site, and partly because the military had large quantities of navy blue paint on hand. The camps had a peak population of 16,448 people, but by 1907 most people had moved out. The camps were then re-used as garages, storage spaces or shops. The cottages cost on average $100 to put up. The $2 monthly rents went towards the full purchase price of $50. Most of the shacks have been destroyed, but a small number survived. One of the modest 720 sq ft (67 m) homes was purchased in 2006 for more than $600,000. The last official refugee camp was closed on June 30, 1908.
A 2017 study found that the fire had the effect of increasing the share of land used for nonresidential purposes: "Overall, relative to unburned blocks, residential land shares on burned blocks fell while nonresidential land shares rose by 1931. The study also provides insight into what held the city back from making these changes before 1906: the presence of old residential buildings. In reconstruction, developers built relatively fewer of these buildings, and the majority of the reduction came through single - family houses. Also, aside from merely expanding nonresidential uses in many neighborhoods, the fire created economic opportunities in new areas, resulting in clusters of business activity that emerged only in the wake of the disaster. These effects of the fire still remain today, and thus large shocks can be sufficient catalysts for permanently reshaping urban settings. ''
During the first few days after news of the disaster reached the rest of the world, relief efforts reached over $5,000,000. London raised hundreds of thousands of dollars. Individual citizens and businesses donated large sums of money for the relief effort: Standard Oil gave $100,000; Andrew Carnegie gave $100,000; the Dominion of Canada made a special appropriation of $100,000 and even the Bank of Canada in Ottawa gave $25,000. The U.S. government quickly voted for one million dollars in relief supplies which were immediately rushed to the area, including supplies for food kitchens and many thousands of tents that city dwellers would occupy the next several years. These relief efforts were not enough to get families on their feet again, and consequently the burden was placed on wealthier members of the city, who were reluctant to assist in the rebuilding of homes they were not responsible for. All residents were eligible for daily meals served from a number of communal soup kitchens and citizens as far away as Idaho and Utah were known to send daily loaves of bread to San Francisco as relief supplies were coordinated by the railroads.
Insurance companies, faced with staggering claims of $250 million, paid out between $235 million and $265 million on policyholders ' claims, often for fire damage only, since shake damage from earthquakes was excluded from coverage under most policies. At least 137 insurance companies were directly involved and another 17 as reinsurers. Twenty companies went bankrupt, and most excluded shake damage claims. Lloyd 's of London reports having paid all claims in full, more than $50 million and the insurance companies in Hartford, Connecticut report also paying every claim in full, with the Hartford Fire Insurance Company paying over $11 million and Aetna Insurance Company almost $3 million.
After the 1906 earthquake, global discussion arose concerning a legally flawless exclusion of the earthquake hazard from fire insurance contracts. It was pressed ahead mainly by re-insurers. Their aim; a uniform solution to insurance payouts resulting from fires cause by earthquakes. Until 1910, a few countries, especially in Europe, followed the call for an exclusion of the earthquake hazard from all fire insurance contracts. In the U.S., the question was discussed differently. But the traumatized public reacted with fierce opposition. On August 1, 1909, the California Senate enacted the California Standard Form of Fire Insurance Policy, which did not contain any earthquake clause. Thus the state decided that insurers would have to pay again if another earthquake was followed by fires. Other earthquake - endangered countries followed the California example. The insurance payments heavily affected the international financial system. Gold transfers from European insurance companies to policyholders in San Francisco led to a rise in interest rates, subsequently to a lack of available loans and finally to the Knickerbocker Trust Company crisis of October 1907 which led to the Panic of 1907.
The 1906 Centennial Alliance was set up as a clearing - house for various centennial events commemorating the earthquake. Award presentations, religious services, a National Geographic TV movie, a projection of fire onto the Coit Tower, memorials, and lectures were part of the commemorations. The USGS Earthquake Hazards Program issued a series of Internet documents, and the tourism industry promoted the 100th anniversary as well.
Eleven survivors of the 1906 earthquake attended the centennial commemorations in 2006, including Irma Mae Weule (May 11, 1899 -- August 8, 2008), who was the oldest survivor of the quake at the time of her death in August 2008, aged 109. Vivian Illing (December 25, 1900 -- January 22, 2009) was believed to be the second - oldest survivor at the time of her death, aged 108, leaving Herbert Hamrol (January 10, 1903 -- February 4, 2009) as the last known remaining survivor at the time of his death, aged 106. Another survivor, Libera Armstrong (September 28, 1902 -- November 27, 2007), attended the 2006 anniversary, but died in 2007, aged 105.
Shortly after Hamrol 's death, two additional survivors were discovered. William Del Monte, then 103, and Jeanette Scola Trapani (April 21, 1902 -- December 28, 2009), 106, stated that they stopped attending events commemorating the earthquake when it became too much trouble for them. Del Monte and another survivor, Rose Cliver, then 106, attended the earthquake reunion celebration on April 18, 2009, the 103rd anniversary of the earthquake. Cliver (October 9, 1902 -- February 18, 2012) died in February 2012, aged 109. Nancy Stoner Sage (February 19, 1905 -- April 15, 2010) died, aged 105, in Colorado just three days short of the 104th anniversary of the earthquake on April 18, 2010. Del Monte attended the event at Lotta 's Fountain on April 18, 2010 and the dinner at John 's Restaurant the night before. 107 - year - old George Quilici (April 26, 1905 -- May 31, 2012) died in May 2012, and 113 - year - old Ruth Newman (September 23, 1901 -- July 29, 2015) in July 2015. William Del Monte (January 22, 1906 -- January 11, 2016), who died 11 days shy of his 110th birthday, was thought to be the last survivor.
In 2005 the National Film Registry added San Francisco Earthquake and Fire, April 18, 1906, a newsreel documentary made soon after the earthquake, to its list of American films worthy of preservation.
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the adage there is no such thing as a free lunch is used to illustrate the principle that | There ai n't no such thing as a free lunch - wikipedia
"There ai n't no such thing as a free lunch '' (alternatively, "There is no such thing as a free lunch '' or other variants) is a popular adage communicating the idea that it is impossible to get something for nothing. The acronyms TANSTAAFL, TINSTAAFL, and TNSTAAFL, are also used. Uses of the phrase dating back to the 1930s and 1940s have been found, but the phrase 's first appearance is unknown. The "free lunch '' in the saying refers to the nineteenth - century practice in American bars of offering a "free lunch '' in order to entice drinking customers.
The phrase and the acronym are central to Robert Heinlein 's 1966 science - fiction novel The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress, which helped popularize it. The free - market economist Milton Friedman also popularized the phrase by using it as the title of a 1975 book, and it is used in economics literature to describe opportunity cost. Campbell McConnell writes that the idea is "at the core of economics ''.
The "free lunch '' refers to the once - common tradition of saloons in the United States providing a "free '' lunch to patrons who had purchased at least one drink. Many foods on offer were high in salt (e.g., ham, cheese, and salted crackers), so those who ate them ended up buying a lot of beer. Rudyard Kipling, writing in 1891, noted how he
... came upon a bar - room full of bad Salon pictures, in which men with hats on the backs of their heads were wolfing food from a counter. It was the institution of the "free lunch '' I had struck. You paid for a drink and got as much as you wanted to eat. For something less than a rupee a day a man can feed himself sumptuously in San Francisco, even though he be a bankrupt. Remember this if ever you are stranded in these parts.
TANSTAAFL, on the other hand, indicates an acknowledgement that in reality a person or a society can not get "something for nothing ''. Even if something appears to be free, there is always a cost to the person or to society as a whole, although that may be a hidden cost or an externality. For example, as Heinlein has one of his characters point out, a bar offering a free lunch will likely charge more for its drinks.
According to Robert Caro, Fiorello La Guardia, on becoming mayor of New York in 1933, said "È finita la cuccagna! '', meaning "Cockaigne is finished '' or, more loosely, "No more free lunch ''; in this context "free lunch '' refers to graft and corruption. The earliest known occurrence of the full phrase (except for the "a ''), in the form "There ai n't no such thing as free lunch '', appears as the punchline of a joke related in an article in the El Paso Herald - Post of June 27, 1938 (and other Scripps - Howard newspapers about the same time), entitled "Economics in Eight Words ''.
In 1945, "There ai n't no such thing as a free lunch '' appeared in the Columbia Law Review, and "there is no free lunch '' appeared in a 1942 article in the Oelwein Daily Register (in a quote attributed to economist Harley L. Lutz) and in a 1947 column by economist Merryle S. Rukeyser.
In 1949, the phrase appeared in an article by Walter Morrow in the San Francisco News (published on 1 June) and in Pierre Dos Utt 's monograph TANSTAAFL: A Plan for a New Economic World Order, which describes an oligarchic political system based on his conclusions from "no free lunch '' principles.
The 1938 and 1949 sources use the phrase in relating a fable about a king (Nebuchadnezzar in Dos Utt 's retelling) seeking advice from his economic advisors. Morrow 's retelling, which claims to derive from an earlier editorial reported to be non-existent, but closely follows the story as related in the earlier article in the El Paso Herald - Post, differs from Dos Utt 's in that the ruler asks for ever - simplified advice following their original "eighty - seven volumes of six hundred pages '' as opposed to a simple failure to agree on "any major remedy ''. The last surviving economist advises that "There ai n't no such thing as free lunch. ''
In 1950, a New York Times columnist ascribed the phrase to economist (and army general) Leonard P. Ayres of the Cleveland Trust Company: "It seems that shortly before the General 's death (in 1946)... a group of reporters approached the general with the request that perhaps he might give them one of several immutable economic truisms that he had gathered from his long years of economic study... ' It is an immutable economic fact, ' said the general, ' that there is no such thing as a free lunch. ' ''
The September 8, 1961, issue of LIFE magazine has an editorial on page 4, "' TANSTAFL, ' It 's the Truth, '' that closes with an anecdotal farmer explaining this slight variant of TANSTAAFL.
In 1966, author Robert A. Heinlein published his seminal work The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress, in which TANSTaaFL was a central, libertarian theme, mentioned by name and explained. This brought its use and the idea into mainstream popularity.
Edwin G. Dolan used the phrase as the title of his 1971 book TANSTAAFL (There Ai n't No Such Thing As A Free Lunch) -- A Libertarian Perspective on Environmental Policy.
The free - market economist Milton Friedman subsequently increased the popularity of the phrase by using it as the title of a 1975 book, and it is used in economics literature to describe opportunity cost. Campbell McConnell writes that the idea is "at the core of economics ''.
In the sciences, TANSTAAFL means that the universe as a whole is ultimately a closed system. There is no magic source of matter, energy, light, or indeed lunch, that does not draw resources from something else, and that will not eventually be exhausted. Therefore, the TANSTAAFL argument may also be applied to natural physical processes in a closed system (either the universe as a whole, or any system that does not receive energy or matter from outside). (See Second law of thermodynamics.) The bio-ecologist Barry Commoner used this concept as the last of his famous "Four Laws of Ecology ''.
According to American theoretical physicist and cosmologist Alan Guth "the universe is the ultimate free lunch '', given that in the early stage of its expansion the total amount of energy available to make particles was very large.
In economics, TANSTAAFL demonstrates opportunity cost. Greg Mankiw described the concept as follows: "To get one thing that we like, we usually have to give up another thing that we like. Making decisions requires trading off one goal against another. '' The idea that there is no free lunch at the societal level applies only when all resources are being used completely and appropriately -- i.e., when economic efficiency prevails. If not, a ' free lunch ' can be had through a more efficient utilization of resources. Or, as Fred Brooks put it, "You can only get something for nothing if you have previously gotten nothing for something. '' If one individual or group gets something at no cost, somebody else ends up paying for it. If there appears to be no direct cost to any single individual, there is a social cost. Similarly, someone can benefit for "free '' from an externality or from a public good, but someone has to pay the cost of producing these benefits. (See Free rider problem and Tragedy of the commons).
In mathematical finance, the term is also used as an informal synonym for the principle of no - arbitrage. This principle states that a combination of securities that has the same cash - flows as another security must have the same net price in equilibrium.
In statistics, the term has been used to describe the tradeoffs of statistical learners (e.g., in machine learning). That is, any model that claims to offer superior flexibility in analyzing data patterns usually does so at the cost of introducing extra assumptions, or by sacrificing generalizability in important situations.
TANSTAAFL is sometimes used as a response to claims of the virtues of free software. Supporters of free software often counter that the use of the term "free '' in this context is primarily a reference to a lack of constraint ("libre '') rather than a lack of cost ("gratis ''). Richard Stallman has described it as "' free ' as in ' free speech, ' not as in ' free beer ' ''.
The prefix "TANSTAA - '' (or "TINSTAA - '') is used in numerous other contexts as well to denote some immutable property of the system being discussed. For example, "TANSTAANFS '' is used by electrical engineering professors to stand for "There Ai n't No Such Thing As A Noise - Free System ''.
Baseball Prospectus coined the abbreviation "TINSTAAPP '', for "There Is No Such Thing As A Pitching Prospect '', as many young pitchers hurt their arms before they can be effective at a major league level.
Some exceptions from the "no free lunch '' tenet have been put forward, such as the Sun and carbon dioxide. It was argued in particular that metabolism evolved to take advantage of the free lunch provided by the Sun, which also triggers production of vital oxygen in plants. However, these too fall short in that the viewpoint is an open system, the earth, with "free '' inputs from the Sun. When viewed from the larger system context, the Sun / Earth or Solar System, there is a net energy exchange, and still "no free lunch. ''
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what military campaign led up to the end of the revolutionary war | History of guerrilla warfare - wikipedia
The history of guerrilla warfare stretches back to ancient history. While guerrilla tactics can be viewed as a natural continuation of prehistoric warfare, the Chinese general and strategist Sun Tzu, in his The Art of War (6th century BCE), was the earliest to propose the use of guerrilla warfare. This directly inspired the development of modern guerrilla warfare.; Communist leaders like Mao Zedong and North Vietnamese Ho Chi Minh both implemented guerrilla warfare in the style of Sun Tzu, which served as a model for similar strategies elsewhere, such as the Cuban "foco '' theory and the anti-Soviet Mujahadeen in Afghanistan. While the tactics of modern guerrilla warfare originate in the 20th century, irregular warfare, using elements later characteristic of modern guerrilla warfare, has existed throughout the battles of many ancient civilizations.
The Chinese general and strategist Sun Tzu, in his The Art of War (6th century BC), was one of the first proponents of the use of guerrilla warfare. The earliest description of guerrilla warfare is an alleged battle between Emperor Huang and the Miao in China. Guerrilla warfare was not unique to China; nomadic and migratory tribes such as the Scythians, Goths, Vandals, and Huns used elements of guerrilla warfare to fight the Persian Empire, the Roman Empire, and Alexander the Great. Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, widely regarded as the "father of guerrilla warfare '' of his time, devised the Fabian strategy which was used to great effect against Hannibal Barca 's army. Guerrilla warfare was also a common strategy of the various Celtic, Iberian and Germanic tribes that the Romans faced. Caratacus, the British war chief, employed guerrilla warfare against the Romans for approximately 8 years, mixed in with occasional set piece battles. Despite ultimately being captured by the Romans, Tacitus writes that many Romans respected him. Other leaders of the time who employed guerrilla warfare to some effect included Viriathus, Arminius and Vercingetorix. In the Classic Ancient world, this kind of warfare was indirectly mentioned by the Greeks in Homeric stories, but usually as hit and run acts of foraging or booty in enemy territory, pretty much as later Vikings piracy. The Romans and Carthaginians learned of these tactics more as intended warfare by the Iberians before Viriathus and Hamilcar Barca in campaigns in Sicily against them.
During the Mongol invasion of Europe, guerrilla warfare and stiff resistance helped many Europeans, particularly those at Croatia and Dzurdzuketia, in preventing the Mongols from setting a permanent hold of their territory and driving them off. In the 15th century, Vietnamese leader Lê Lợi launched a guerrilla war against Chinese.
One of the most successful guerrilla wars was led by George Kastrioti Skanderbeg against the invading Ottomans. In 1443 he rallied Albanian forces and drove the Turks from his homeland. Skanderbeg fought a guerrilla war against invading armies up to 20 times larger than his, by using the mountainous terrain to his advantage. He harassed the vast Ottoman army with small "hit and run '' units, as well as using feint retreats followed by sudden counterattacks, and other tactics unknown in warfare up to then. For 25 years Skanderbeg kept the Turks from retaking Albania, which due to its proximity to Italy, could easily have served as a springboard to the rest of Europe.
In 1462, the Ottomans were driven back by Wallachian prince Vlad III Dracula. Vlad was unable to stop the Turks from entering Wallachia, so he resorted to guerrilla war, constantly organizing small attacks and ambushes on the Turks. During The Deluge in Poland guerrilla tactics were applied. In the 100 years war between England and France, commander Bertrand du Guesclin used guerrilla tactics to pester the English invaders. The Frisian warlord and freedom fighter Pier Gerlofs Donia fought a guerrilla against Philip I of Castile and with his co-commander Wijerd Jelckama against Charles V.
During the Dutch Revolt of the 16th century, the Geuzen waged a guerrilla war against the Spanish Empire. During the Scanian War, a pro-Danish guerrilla group known as the Snapphane fought against the Swedes. Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj started guerrilla warfare against the Mughals and other powers in 1645 leading to establishment of the Maratha state in 1674, sowing seeds of what would become the last great empire (Maratha empire) in free India. In 17th century Ireland, Irish irregulars called tories and rapparees used guerrilla warfare in the Irish Confederate Wars and the Williamite war in Ireland. Finnish guerrillas, sissis, fought against Russian occupation troops in the Great Northern War, 1710 -- 1721. The Russians retaliated brutally against the civilian populace; the period is called Isoviha (Grand Hatred) in Finland.
In North America, one of the earliest recorded instances of guerrilla warfare was Apalachee resistance to the Spanish during the Narváez expedition in 1528 in present - day Florida.
In the mid 17th century the Colonists of New France were in conflict with the Iroquois Confederacy. Iroquois forces used hit and run tactics, harassment and avoided costly pitched battles. The colonists of New France began calling these Indian tactics La Petite Guerre because the tactics were meant for raiding as opposed to pitched battles. Under the tutelage of Wendake, Wobanaki, Algonquin and Ottawa tutors the habitants of New France learned La Petite Guerre and successfully used them against the Iroquois.
Led by Major Benjamin Church, New Englanders had also been adopting Indian scouting and raiding tactics since King Phillip 's War. Throughout the four French and Indian Wars, starting in the late 17th century Canadiens, the Wabanaki Confederacy, and some Acadians brought La Petite Guerre to New England and the Ohio Valley. In present - day Maine, Father Sebastian Rale led the Wabanaki Confederacy in a petite guerre along the New England / Acadia border. A generation later, in Nova Scotia, Father Jean - Louis Le Loutre led the Mi'kmaq and the Acadians in a petite guerre behind Anglo - American lines in the lead up to the last French and Indian War.
During the French and Indian War La Petite Guerre came to front stage when the Ohio valley Indians defeated Braddock 's expedition near the forks of the Ohio in the Battle of the Monongahela. In Nova Scotia, French Officer Charles Deschamps de Boishébert led the Mi'kmaq and the Acadians in a guerrilla war while the British expelled the Acadians from the region. In the Northeast, a New Hampshire backwoodsman, Robert Rogers, began to make a stir in the British military establishment for his success using the tactics of the "little war ''. British military leaders like Jeffery Amherst, John Forbes and Henry Bouquet understood they needed to learn and adopt the techniques and tactics of the little war, or be consumed, like Braddock. The British military establishment began adopting some of the tactics of La Petite Guerre as "light infantry. ''
Although many of the engagements of the American Revolution were conventional, guerrilla warfare was used to a certain extent during this conflict from 1775 -- 1783, which made a significant impact. Guerrilla tactics were first used at the Battles of Lexington and Concord by the Patriots at April 19, 1775. George Washington sometimes used some sort of unconventional methods to fight the British. During the Forage War, George Washington sent militia units with limited Continental Army support to launch raids and ambushes on British detachments and forage parties, the militia and Continental Army support would skirmish with British detachments in small scale battles and engagements. Throughout the Forage War, British casualties exceeded past 900. The Forage War raised morale for the Patriots as their guerrilla operations against the British were very effective. Next, there are other Americans that used hit and run raids, ambushes, and surprise attacks against the British such as William R. Davie, David Wooster, Francis Marion, Shadrach Inman, Daniel Morgan, Morgan 's riflemen, and the Overmountain Men. All these American guerrilla fighters did their part by using unconventional tactics to fight the British and loyalists. Nathanael Greene used a guerrilla strategy very effectively against Lord Cornwallis. First, Nathanael Greene would keep retreating to lure the British far from their supply lines, then send out his forces to fight in small skirmishes and engagements with British detachments to weaken them. Then fighting the conventional battle, Nathanael Greene fought Lord Cornwallis at Guilford Court House and gave him a severe blow. Although Lord Cornwallis was the victor, his victory was pyrrhic as he had too many casualties that he could ill afford. After the British surrender at Yorktown and America gaining their independence, many of these Americans who used guerrilla tactics and strategies became immortalized and romanticized as time passed. Although guerrilla warfare was frequently used when avoiding battles, the Americans fought in conventional linear formations in decisive battles against the British. The American Revolution could be seen as a hybrid war since both conventional and guerrilla warfare were used throughout its duration.
From 1793 -- 1796 a revolt broke out against the French Revolution by Catholic royalists in the Department of the Vendée. This movement was intended to oppose the persecution endured by the Roman Catholic Church in revolutionary France (see Dechristianisation of France during the French Revolution # The Revolution and the Church) and ultimately to restore the monarchy. Though ill - equipped and untrained in conventional military tactics, the Vendéan counter-revolution, known as the "Royal Catholic Army, '' relied heavily on guerrilla tactics, taking full advantage of their intimate knowledge of the marsh filled, heavily forested countryside. Though the Revolt in the Vendée was eventually "pacified '' by government troops, their successes against the larger, better equipped republican army were notable.
Works such as "La Vendée '' by Anthony Trollope, G.A. Henty 's "No Surrender! A Tale of Rising in the Vendée '' detail the history of the revolt.
"Wherever we arrived, they disappeared, whenever we left, they arrived -- they were everywhere and nowhere, they had no tangible center which could be attacked. ''
In the Napoleonic Wars many of the armies lived off the land. This often led to some resistance by the local population if the army did not pay fair prices for produce they consumed. Usually this resistance was sporadic, and not very successful, so it is not classified as guerrilla action. There are three notable exceptions, though:
In Napoleon 's invasion of Russia of 1812 two actions could be seen as initiating guerrilla tactics. The burning of Moscow after it had been occupied by Napoleon 's Grand Army, depriving the French of shelter in the city, resembled guerrilla action insofar as it was an attack on the available resources rather than directly on the troops (and insofar as it was a Russian action rather than an inadvertent consequence of nineteenth - century troops ' camping in a largely abandoned city of wooden buildings). In a different sense, the imperial command that the Russian serfs should attack the French resembled guerrilla tactics in its reliance on partisans rather than army regulars. This did not so much spark a guerrilla war as encourage a revengeful slaughter of French deserters by Russian peasants. Meanwhile, Fieldmarshal Kutuzov permitted than - Hussar Lieutenant - Colonel Denis Davydov to open the Partisan War against the French communications. Davydov, Seslavin, Figner and others are since known in Russia as the ' Partisan Rangers of the Year ' 12 ' (Russian: Партизаны (Отечественной войны 18) ' 12 - го года). They were successful in their operations making the French troops unable to fight or even move, because of food and ammunition shortage, and not just because of the Russian Winter as is usually stated.
In the Peninsular War Spanish guerrillas tied down tens of thousands of French troops and killed hundreds of thousands. The continual losses of troops caused Napoleon to describe this conflict as his "Spanish ulcer ''. This was one of the most successful partisan wars in history and was where the word guerrilla was first used in this context. The Oxford English Dictionary lists Wellington as the oldest known source, speaking of "Guerrillas '' in 1809. Poet William Wordsworth showed a surprising early insight into guerrilla methods in his pamphlet on the Convention of Cintra:
This war saw British and Portuguese forces using Portugal as a secure position to launch campaigns against the French army, while Spanish guerrilleros bled the occupiers. Gates notes that much of the French army "was rendered unavailable for operations against Wellington because innumerable Spanish contingents kept materialising all over the country. In 1810, for example, when Massena invaded Portugal, the Imperial forces in the Peninsula totaled a massive 325,000 men, but only about one quarter of these could be spared for the offensive -- the rest were required to contain the Spanish insurgents and regulars. This was the greatest single contribution that the Spaniards were to make and, without it, Wellington could not have maintained himself on the continent for long -- let alone emerge victorious from the conflict ''. Combined, the regular and irregular allied forces prevented Napoleon 's Marshals from subduing the rebellious Spanish provinces.
Irregular warfare in the American Civil War followed the patterns of irregular warfare in 19th century Europe. Structurally, irregular warfare can be divided into three different types conducted during the Civil War: ' People 's War ', ' partisan warfare ', and ' raiding warfare '. The concept of ' People 's war, ' first described by Carl von Clausewitz in On War, was the closest example of a mass guerrilla movement in the era. In general, this type of irregular warfare was conducted in the hinterland of the Border States (Missouri, Arkansas, Tennessee, Kentucky, and northwestern Virginia), and was marked by a vicious neighbor - against - neighbor conflict. One such example was the opposing irregular forces operating in Missouri and northern Arkansas from 1862 to 1865, most of which were pro-Confederate or pro-Union in name only and preyed on civilians and isolated military forces of both sides with little regard of politics. From these semi-organized guerrillas, several groups formed and were given some measure of legitimacy by their governments. Quantrill 's Raiders, who terrorized pro-Union civilians and fought Federal troops in large areas of Missouri and Kansas, was one such unit. Another notorious unit, with debatable ties to the Confederate military, was led by Champ Ferguson along the Kentucky - Tennessee border. Ferguson became one of the only figures of Confederate cause to be executed after the war. Dozens of other small, localized bands terrorized the countryside throughout the border region during the war, bringing total war to the area that lasted until the end of the Civil War and, in some areas, beyond.
Partisan warfare, in contrast, more closely resembles Commando operations of the 20th century. Partisans were small units of conventional forces, controlled and organized by a military force for operations behind enemy lines. The 1862 Partisan Ranger Act passed by the Confederate Congress authorized the formation of these units and gave them legitimacy, which placed them in a different category than the common ' bushwhacker ' or ' guerrilla '. John Singleton Mosby formed a partisan unit which was very effective in tying down Federal forces behind Union lines in northern Virginia in the last two years of the war.
Lastly, deep raids by conventional cavalry forces were often considered ' irregular ' in nature. The "Partisan Brigades '' of Nathan Bedford Forrest and John Hunt Morgan operated as part of the cavalry forces of the Confederate Army of Tennessee in 1862 and 1863. They were given specific missions to destroy logistical hubs, railroad bridges, and other strategic targets to support the greater mission of the Army of Tennessee. By mid-1863, with the destruction of Morgan 's raiders during the Great Raid of 1863, the Confederacy conducted few deep cavalry raids in the latter years of the war, mostly because of the losses in experienced horsemen and the offensive operations of the Union army. Federal cavalry conducted several successful raids during the war but in general used their cavalry forces in a more conventional role. A good exception was the 1863 Grierson 's Raid, which did much to set the stage for General Ulysses S. Grant 's victory during the Vicksburg Campaign.
Federal counter-guerrilla operations were very successful in preventing the success of Confederate guerrilla warfare. In Arkansas, Federal forces used a wide variety of strategies to defeat irregulars. These included the use of Arkansas Unionist forces as anti-guerrilla troops, the use of riverine forces such as gunboats to control the waterways, and the provost marshal military law enforcement system to spy on suspected guerrillas and to imprison those captured. Against Confederate raiders, the Federal army developed an effective cavalry themselves and reinforced that system by numerous blockhouses and fortification to defend strategic targets.
However, Federal attempts to defeat Mosby 's Partisan Rangers fell short of success because of Mosby 's use of very small units (10 -- 15 men) operating in areas considered friendly to the Rebel cause. Another regiment known as the "Thomas Legion '', consisting of white and anti-Union Cherokee Indians, morphed into a guerrilla force and continued fighting in the remote mountain back - country of western North Carolina for a month after Lee 's surrender at Appomattox. That unit was never completely suppressed by Union forces, but voluntarily ceased hostilities after capturing the town of Waynesville on May 10, 1865.
In the late 20th century several historians have focused on the non-use of guerrilla warfare to prolong the war. Near the end of the war, there were those in the Confederate government, notably Jefferson Davis who advocated continuing the southern fight as a guerrilla conflict. He was opposed by generals such as Robert E. Lee who ultimately believed that surrender and reconciliation were better than guerrilla warfare.
See also Bushwhackers (Union and Confederate) and Jayhawkers (Union).
Guerrilla tactics were used extensively by the forces of the Boer republics in the First and Second Boer Wars in South Africa (1880 -- 1881; 1899 -- 1902) against the invading British Army. In the First Boer War, the Boer commandos wore their everyday dull - coloured farming clothes. The Boers relied more on stealth and speed than discipline and formation and, being expert marksmen using smokeless ammunition, the Boer were able to easily snipe at British troops from a distance. So the British Army relaxed their close - formation tactics. The British Army had changed to Khaki uniforms, first used by the British Indian Army, a decade earlier, and officers were soon ordered to dispense with gleaming buttons and buckles which made them conspicuous to snipers.
In the third phase of the Second Boer War, after the British defeated the Boer armies in conventional warfare and occupied their capitals of Pretoria and Bloemfontein, Boer commandos reverted to mobile warfare. Units led by leaders such as Jan Smuts and Christiaan de Wet harassed slow - moving British columns and attacked railway lines and encampments. The Boers were almost all mounted and possessed long range magazine loaded rifles. This gave them the ability to attack quickly and cause many casualties before retreating rapidly when British reinforcements arrived. In the early period of the guerrilla war, Boer commandos could be very large, containing several thousand men and even field artillery. However, as their supplies of food and ammunition gave out, the Boers increasingly broke up into smaller units and relied on captured British arms, ammunition, and uniforms.
To counter these tactics, the British under Kitchener interned Boer civilians into concentration camps and built hundreds of blockhouses all over the Transvaal and Orange Free State. Kitchener also enacted a scorched earth policy, destroying Boer homes and farms. Eventually, the Boer guerrillas surrendered in 1902, but the British granted them generous terms in order to bring the war to an end. This showed how effective guerrilla tactics could be in extracting concessions from a militarily more powerful enemy.
At the start of the Philippine -- American War, even with the recommendation of the able General Antonio Luna, guerrilla warfare strategy was viewed by the Philippine side only as a tactical option of final recourse. This led to subsequent defeat of the Filipino forces in the early stages of the war mainly due to superior American weaponry and troops. Guerrilla warfare was only used as a main strategy on November 13, 1899 which made American occupation of the Philippine archipelago all the more difficult over the next few years. This can be greatly seen by the Moro insurrection at the southern province of the Philippines wherein Moro rebels will conceal themselves in the thick Philippine jungle and will charge American troops with only bolo knives in overwhelming numbers at the opportune time. These led the American weapons manufacturers to develop the famed M1911 pistol.
In the Mexican Revolution from 1910 to 1920, the populist revolutionary leader Emiliano Zapata employed the use of predominantly guerrilla tactics. His forces, composed entirely of peasant farmers turned soldiers, wore no uniform and would easily blend into the general population after an operation 's completion. They would have young soldiers, called "dynamite boys '', hurl cans filled with explosives into enemy barracks, and then a large number of lightly armed soldiers would emerge from the surrounding area to attack it. Although Zapata 's forces met considerable success, his strategy backfired as government troops, unable to distinguish his soldiers from the civilian population, waged a broad and brutal campaign against the latter.
After the Italian unification in 1860, many bands composed mainly by peasants emerged in Southern Italy. The sources of the trouble were the carelessness of the new government toward the problems of the southern laborers, higher taxes and higher prices of basic necessities, mandatory military service who subtracted youths from the workforce and the economical benefits reserved only for the bourgeois society. In this period thousands of poors took the way of brigandage. The most well known brigand was Carmine Crocco, a former soldier in the service of Giuseppe Garibaldi who formed an army of two thousand men. Crocco was renowned for his guerrilla tactics, which were enhanced by the same royal soldiers who chased him. His warfare included cutting water supplies, destroying flour - mills, cutting telegraph wires and ambushing stragglers.
The wars between Ireland and the British state have been long, and over the centuries have covered the full spectrum of the types of warfare. The Irish fought the first successful 20th century war of independence against the British Empire and the United Kingdom. After the military failure of the Easter Rising in 1916, the Irish Republican Army (IRA) used guerrilla tactics involving both urban guerrilla warfare and flying columns in the countryside during the Irish War of Independence of 1919 to 1922. Many were inspired by the fabled exploits of the 1799 -- 1803 guerilla campaign by Michael Dwyer after the failed 1798 rebellion.
The chief IRA commanders in the localities during this period were Tom Barry, Seamus Robinson, Liam Lynch, Seán Mac Eoin, and Tom Maguire.
The IRA guerrilla was of considerable intensity in parts of the country, notably in Dublin and in areas such as County Cork, County Kerry and County Mayo in the south and west. Despite this, the Irish fighters were never in a position to either hold territory or take on British forces in a conventional manner. Even the largest engagements of the conflict, such as the Kilmichael Ambush or Crossbarry Ambush constituted mere skirmishes by the standards of a conventional war. Another aspect of the war, particularly in the north - eastern part of the province of Ulster, was communal violence. The Unionist majority there, who were largely Protestant and loyal to Britain were granted control over the security forces there, in particular the Ulster Special Constabulary and used them to attack the Nationalist (and largely Catholic) population in reprisal for IRA actions. Elsewhere in Ireland, where Unionists were in a minority, they were sometimes attacked by the IRA for aiding the British forces. The extent to which the conflict was an inter-communal one as well as war of national liberation is still strongly debated in Ireland. The total death toll in the war came to a little over 2000 people.
By mid-1921, the military and political costs of maintaining the British security forces in Ireland eventually proved too heavy for the British government. In July 1921, the UK government agreed to a truce with the IRA and agreed to meet representatives of the Irish First Dail, who since the 1918 General Election held seventy - three of the one hundred and five parliamentary seats for the island. Negotiations led to a settlement, the Anglo - Irish Treaty. It created the Irish Free State of 26 counties as a dominion within the British Empire; the other 6 counties remained part of the UK as Northern Ireland.
Sinn Féin and the Irish Republican Army split into pro - and anti-Treaty factions with the Anti-Treaty IRA forces losing the Irish Civil War (1922 -- 23) which followed. The partition of Ireland laid the seeds for the later Troubles. The Irish Civil War is a striking example of the failure of guerrilla tactics when used against a relatively popular native regime. Following their failure to hold fixed positions against an Irish Free State offensive in the summer of 1922, the IRA re-formed "flying columns '' and attempted to use the same tactics they had successfully used against the British. However, against Irish troops, who knew them and the terrain and faced with the hostility of the Roman Catholic Church and the majority of Irish nationalist opinion, they were unable to sustain their campaign. In addition, the Free State government, confident of its legitimacy among the Irish population, sometimes used more ruthless and effective measures of repression than the British had felt able to employ. Whereas the British executed 14 IRA men in 1919 -- 1922, the Free State executed 77 anti-treaty prisoners officially and its troops killed another 150 prisoners or so in the field (see Executions during the Irish Civil War). The Free State also interned 12,000 republicans, compared with the British figure of 4,500. The last anti-Treaty guerrillas abandoned their military campaign against the Free State after nine months in March 1923.
In a successful campaign in German East Africa, the German commander Paul Emil von Lettow - Vorbeck fought against the numerically superior allied forces. Even though he was cut off from Germany and had few Germans under his command (most of his fighters were African askaris), he won multiple victories during the East Africa Campaign and managed to exhaust and trouble the Allies; he was undefeated up until his acceptance of a cease - fire in Northern Rhodesia three days after the end of the war in Europe. He returned to Germany as a hero.
A major guerrilla war was fought by the Arabs against the Ottoman Turks during the Arab Revolt (1916 -- 1918). Attacking the Hejaz Railway to disrupt Ottman forces is a strategy often credited to the British officer T.E. Lawrence.
Another guerrilla war opposed the German Occupation of Ukraine in 1918 and partisan and guerrilla forces fought against both the Bolsheviks and the Whites during the Russian Civil War. This fighting continued into 1921 in Ukraine, in Tambov province, and in parts of Siberia. Other guerrillas opposed the Japanese occupation of the Russian Far East.
Despite a common misconception, both Nationalist and Communist forces maintained active underground resistance in Japanese - occupied areas during the Second Sino - Japanese War. Even before the outbreak of total war in 1937, partisans were already present in Manchuria hampering Japan 's occupation of the region. After the initial phases of the war, when large swaths of the North China Plain rapidly fell to the Japanese, underground resistance, supported by either Communist sympathizers or composed of disguised Nationalist soldiers, would soon rise up to combat the garrison forces. They were quite successful, able to sabotage railroad routes and ambush reinforcements. Many major campaigns, such as the four failed invasions of Changsha, were caused by overly - stretched supply lines, lack of reinforcements, and ambushes by irregulars. The Communist cells, many having decades of prior experience in guerrilla warfare against the Nationalists, usually fared much better, and many Nationalist underground groups were subsequently absorbed into Communist ones. Usually in Japanese - occupied areas, the IJA only controlled the cities and railroad routes, with most of them countryside either left alone or with active guerrilla presence. The People 's Republic of China has emphasized their contribution to the Chinese war effort, going as far to say that in addition to a "overt theatre '', which in many cases they deny was effective, there was also a "covert theatre '', which they claim did much to stop the Japanese advance.
Many clandestine organizations (often known as resistance movements) operated in the countries occupied by German Reich during the Second World War. These organizations began forming as early as 1939 when, after the defeat of Poland, the members of what would become the Polish Home Army began to gather. In March 1940, a partisan unit of the first guerrilla commanders in the Second World War in Europe under Major Henryk Dobrzański "Hubal '' completely destroyed a battalion of German infantry in a skirmish near the village of Huciska.
A guerrilla movement in Ethiopia was formed to rout out Italian forces as early as 1935. Other clandestine organizations operated in Denmark, Belgium, Norway, France (Resistance), France (Maquis), Czechoslovakia, Slovakia, Yugoslavia (Royalist Chetniks), Yugoslavia (Partisans), Soviet Union, Italy, Albania and Greece. From the second half of 1944, the total forces of the Yugoslav Partisans numbered over 500,000 men organized in four field armies, which engaged in conventional warfare. By 1944 the Polish resistance was thought to number 600,000. Many of these organizations received help from the British operated Special Operations Executive (SOE) which along with the commandos was initiated by Winston Churchill to "set Europe ablaze. '' The SOE was originally designated as ' Section D ' of MI6 but its aid to resistance movements to start fires clashed with MI6 's primary role as an intelligence - gathering agency. When Britain was under threat of invasion, SOE trained Auxiliary Units to conduct guerrilla warfare in the event of invasion. Even the Home Guard were trained in guerrilla warfare in the case of invasion of England.
Osterly Park was the first of 3 such schools established to train the Home Guard. Not only did SOE help the resistance to tie down many German units as garrison troops, so directly aiding the conventional war effort, but also guerrilla incidents in occupied countries were useful in the propaganda war, helping to repudiate German claims that the occupied countries were pacified and broadly on the side of the Germans. Despite these minor successes, many historians believe that the efficacy of the European resistance movements has been greatly exaggerated in popular novels, films and other media.
Contrary to popular belief, in the Western and Southern Europe the resistance groups were only able to seriously counter the German in areas that offered the protection of rugged terrain. In relatively flat, open areas, such as France, the resistance groups were all too vulnerable to decimation by German regulars and pro-German collaborators. Only when operating in concert with conventional Allied units were the resistance groups to prove indispensable.
All the clandestine resistance movements and organizations in the occupied Europe were dwarfed by the partisan warfare that took place on the vast scale of the Eastern Front combat between Soviet partisans and the German Reich forces. The strength of the partisan units and formations can not be accurately estimated, but in Belorussia alone is thought to have been in excess of 300,000. This was a planned and closely coordinated effort by the STAVKA which included insertion of officers and delivery of equipment, as well as coordination of operational planning with the regular Red Army forces such as Operation Concert in 1943 (commenced 19 September) and the massive sabotage of German logistics in preparation for commencement of Operation Bagration in the summer of 1944.
Guerrilla tactics were employed in the war in the Pacific as well. When Japanese forces invaded the island of Timor on 20 February 1942, they were resisted by a small, under - equipped force of Allied military personnel -- known as Sparrow Force -- predominantly from Australia, United Kingdom, and the Netherlands East Indies. Although Portugal was not a combatant, many East Timorese civilians and some Portuguese colonists fought with the Allies as guerrillas (criados), or provided food, shelter and other assistance. Some Timorese continued a resistance campaign following the Australian withdrawal.
When the United States entered the war, the US Office of Strategic Services (OSS) co-operated and enhanced the work of SOE as well as working on its own initiatives in the Far East. Colonel Wendell Fertig in 1942 organized a large guerrilla force which harassed the Japanese occupation forces on the Philippine Island of Mindanao all the way up to the liberation of the Philippines in 1945. After the surrender of Bataan and Corregidor which was the last organized resistance against the Imperial Japanese Army, Filipino guerillas banded together and fought the Japanese throughout the war. They became a very important force during the liberation of the Philippines.
Others included Col. Aaron Bank, Col. Russell Volckmann, and Col. William R. Peers. Volckmann commanded a guerrilla force which operated out of the Cordillera of Northern Luzon in the Philippines from the beginning of World War II to its conclusion. He remained in radio contact with US Forces, prior to the invasion of Lingayen Gulf. Peers, who later became a general, commanded OSS Detachment 101 in Burma. Because it was never larger than a few hundred Americans, it relied on support from various Burmese tribal groups. In particular, the vigorously anti-Japanese Kachin people were vital to the unit 's success.
The Chindits -- officially in 1943 77th Indian Infantry Brigade and in 1944 3rd Indian Infantry Division -- were a British India "Special Force '' that served in Burma and India in 1943 and 1944 during the Burma Campaign. They were formed to put into effect Orde Wingate 's newly developed guerilla warfare tactic of long range penetration.
The Japanese military themselves also used guerrilla warfare during the later part of the Pacific War, when Japan 's resource was already dwindling and the Allies have started invading. Tadamichi Kuribayashi famously used guerrilla warfare during the Battle of Iwo Jima, where the general used network of tunnels and caves to attack American forces. His tactic was somewhat successfully, delaying the Americans from taking Iwo Jima for 36 days. The same tactic was used during the Battle of Okinawa.
After World War II, during the 1940s and 1950s, thousands of fighters in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania (see Forest Brothers, Latvian national partisans, Lithuanian partisans (1944 -- 1953)) participated in unsuccessful guerrilla warfare against Soviet occupation. In Lithuania guerrilla warfare was massive until 1958 and the last fighter in Estonia was discovered and killed in 1978.
Within the United States, the Vietnam War is commonly thought of as a guerrilla war. However, this is a simplification of a much more complex situation which followed the pattern outlined by Maoist theory.
The National Liberation Front (NLF), drawing its ranks from the South Vietnamese peasantry and working class, used guerrilla tactics in the early phases of the war. However, by 1965 when U.S. involvement escalated, the National Liberation Front was in the process of being supplanted by regular units of the North Vietnamese Army.
The NVA regiments organized along traditional military lines, were supplied via the Ho Chi Minh trail rather than living off the land, and had access to weapons such as tanks and artillery which are not normally used by guerrilla forces. Furthermore, parts of North Vietnam were "off - limits '' by American bombardment for political reasons, giving the NVA personnel and their material a haven that does not usually exist for a guerrilla army.
Over time, more of the fighting was conducted by the North Vietnamese Army and the character of the war become increasingly conventional. The final offensive into South Vietnam in 1975 was a mostly conventional military operation in which guerrilla warfare played a minor, supporting role.
The Cu Chi Tunnels (Ðịa đạo Củ Chi) was a major base for guerrilla warfare during the Vietnam War. Located about 60 km northwest of Saigon (Ho Chi Minh City), the Viet Cong (NLF) used the complex system tunnels to hide and live during the day and come up to fight at night.
Throughout the Vietnam War, the Communist Party closely supervised all levels of the conflict. The bulk of the VC / NLF were initially southerners, with some distinctive southern issues and sensibilities. Nevertheless, the VC / NLF was associated with the Northern Lao Dong Party which furnished it with supplies, weaponry and trained cadres, including regular NVA / PAVN troops. The Southern Communist party, the Peoples Revolutionary Party (PRP) organized in 1962, to participate in the insurgency, and COVSN, Central Office for Southern Vietnam, which partially controlled military activity. The general replacement of CV irregulars with NVA troops supplanted the original VC goals with those proposed by the NVA. As the 1968 Tet Offensive was primarily a VC operation in which large numbers of VC fighters were killed, increasing the role of the NVA in the war effort.
This is a set of tactics which were used frequently in the Vietnam War by the NVA.
The Central Intelligence Agency raised a guerrilla army to oppose PAVN invaders of the Kingdom of Laos. Consisting principally Hmong hill tribesmen, L'Armee Clandestine under General Vang Pao was the only guerrilla army to ever enjoy air supremacy. It fought the Vietnamese regulars from 1961 -- 1975 before reduced numbers and dwindling American support led to their defeat.
The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan started with a rapid takeover of the major cities but then turned into a decade - long guerilla resistance. The Afghan side was a collection of tribes who initially fought with obsolete weapons such as rifles from the 19th century or the First World War. The resistance fighters were known collectively as the Mujahideen. The United States started to support the Afghanistan resistance with gradually more potent weapons and eventually anti-tank and anti-aircraft missiles which then would cause so much damage to the far larger Soviet army that the Soviet Union abandoned its occupation and retreated back to the Soviet Union.
Pakistan Army Regulars disguised as locals together with local militias carried out a 6 months long Guerrilla campaign in Indian Occupied Kashmir for the Independence of The State of Kashmir, it came to an end after an all out war between Pakistan and India in September 1965.
Mukti Bahini (Bengali: মুক্তি বাহিনী "Liberation Army '') collectively refers to the armed organizations who fought against the Pakistan Army during the Bangladesh Liberation War. It was dynamically formed by (mostly) Bengali regulars and civilians after the proclamation of independence for Bangladesh (formerly East Pakistan) on March 26, 1971. Subsequently, by mid-April 1971 the former members of East Pakistan armed forces formed the "Bangladesh Armed Forces '' and MAG Osmani assumed the command of the same. The civilian groups continued to assist the armed forces during the war. After the war "Mukti Bahini '' became the general term to refer to all forces (military and civilian) of former East Pakistani origin fighting against the Pakistani armed forces during the Bangladesh Liberation War. Often Mukti Bahini operated as an effective guerrilla force to keep their enemies on the run. It has been compared to the French Maquis, the Viet Cong, and the guerrillas of Josip Broz Tito in their tactics and effectiveness.
In the late 1960s the Troubles began again in Northern Ireland. They had their origins in the partition of Ireland during the Irish War of Independence. They came to an end with the signing of the Good Friday Agreement in 1998. The violence was characterised by an armed campaign against the British presence in Northern Ireland by the Provisional Irish Republican Army, British counter-insurgency policy, and attacks on civilians by both loyalists and republicans. There were also allegations of collusion between loyalist paramilitaries and British security forces, and to a lesser extent, republicans and both British and Irish security forces.
Although both loyalist and republican paramilitaries carried out terrorist atrocities against civilians which were often tit - for - tat, a case can be made for saying that attacks such as the Provisional IRA carried out on British soldiers at Warrenpoint in 1979 was a well planned guerrilla ambush. Anti-Good Friday Agreement splinter groups could be called guerrillas but are usually called terrorists or dissidents by governments of both the British and Irish governments. The news media such as the BBC and CNN will often use the term "gunmen '' as in "IRA gunmen '' or "Loyalist gunmen ''. Since 1995 CNN also uses guerrilla as in "IRA guerrilla '' and "Protestant guerrilla ''. Reuters, in accordance with its principle of not using the word terrorist except in direct quotes, refers to "guerrilla groups ''.
In the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s, Latin America had several urban guerrilla movements whose strategy was to destabilize regimes and provoke a counter-reaction by the military. The theory was that a harsh military regime would oppress the middle classes who would then support the guerrillas and create a popular uprising.
While these movements did destabilize governments, such as Argentina, Uruguay, Guatemala, and Peru to the point of military intervention, the military generally proceeded to completely wipe out the guerrilla movements, usually committing several atrocities among both civilians and armed insurgents in the process.
Several other left - wing guerrilla movements, sometimes backed by Cuba, attempted to overthrow US - backed governments or right - wing military dictatorships. US - backed Contra guerrillas attempted to overthrow the left - wing Sandinista government of Nicaragua. The Sandinista Revolution saw the involvement of Women and the Armed Struggle in Nicaragua.
During the eight - year Iran -- Iraq war, irregular warfare was used against Iraqi military. The Iranian Irregular Warfare Headquarters, the 65th Airborne Special Forces Brigade of Iranian Army, and Peshmerga of Iraqi Kurdistan were involved.
The Greek Marxist 17 November disbanded around 2002 following the capture and imprisonment of much of its leadership.
The ongoing war between pro-independence groups in Chechnya and the Russian government is currently the most active guerrilla war in Europe. Most of the incidents reported by the Western news media are very gory terrorist acts against Russian civilians committed by Chechen separatists outside Chechnya. However, within Chechnya the war has many of the characteristics of a classic guerrilla war. See the article History of Chechnya for more details.
In Northern Ireland, the Real Irish Republican Army and the Continuity Irish Republican Army, two small, radical splinter groups who broke with the Provisional Irish Republican Army, continue to exist. They are dwarfed in size by the Provisional IRA and have been less successful in terms of both popularity among Irish republicans and guerrilla activity: The Continuity IRA has failed to carry out any killings, while the Real IRA 's only attacks resulting in deaths were the 1998 Omagh bombing, which killed 29 civilians, a booby trap torch bomb in Derry which killed a former Ulster Defence Regiment soldier, and a 2009 attack on a Northern Ireland military installation which killed 2 British soldiers and wounded several others.
After 1979 Revolution, the Iranian Defence Minister Mostafa Chamran established the Irregular Warfare Headquarters as part of the Iranian Armed Forces. He employed the force against Iraqi military during the Iran -- Iraq war. The unit was later disbanded.
Many guerrilla tactics are used by the Iraqi insurgency against the U.S. - led coalition. Such tactics include the bombing of vehicles and human targets, suicide bombings, ambushes, sniper attacks, and traditional hit and run raids. Although it is unclear how many U.S. casualties can be attributed to insurgent guerrilla action because of the high numbers of non-combat related injuries and deaths being included in all available statistics of total coalition casualties, it is estimated that they have injured more than 18,000 coalition troops and killed over 3,900, including more than 3,000 U.S. soldiers. In addition the Sunni insurgents established de facto control over the Al Anbar Governorate and Diyala Governorate, over a third of Iraq 's land. Insurgent control was maintained despite a series of coalition campaigns; the worsening violence in Baghdad led to the recall of coalition forces, ensuring continued insurgent control.
European Jews fleeing from anti-Semitic violence (especially Russian pogroms) immigrated in increasing numbers to Palestine. When the British restricted Jewish immigration to the region (see White Paper of 1939), Jewish immigrants began to use guerrilla warfare against the British for two purposes: to bring in more Jewish refugees, and to turn the tide of British sentiment at home. Jewish groups such as the Lehi and the Irgun -- many of whom had experience in the Warsaw Ghetto battles against the Nazis, fought British soldiers whenever they could, including the bombing of the King David Hotel. They also conducted attacks against the Arabs, and prepared the infrastructure for the coming 1948 conflict.
The Jewish irregular forces were fighting the British Empire, which had just emerged victorious from World War II. Some of these groups were amalgamated into the Israel Defense Forces and subsequently fought in the 1948 War of Independence.
The Naxal insurgency in West Bengal was the beginning of the rising of Maoists in eastern India. The Naxals, begun their People 's War through radical students in the city of Calcutta, however it continues today, having its bases in rural India and top universities. The area under maoist control has been viewed as a war zone and the group itself has been called the biggest threat to Indian Security by the Prime Minister.
Khalistan movement was a movement initiated by the Sikhs of the Indian Punjab. The Punjab region is of historical and religious significance for Sikhs and was contested during the separation of United India. Though it ended in India in the 1980s, the Khalistan movement still has supporters across the world, mainly in Canada, and the British Sikh Community.
One of the proponents of the ideology are the Khalistan Zindabad Force
The Taliban uprising took place after Afghanistan 's invasion by Allied forces in 2001. As in the earlier wars against the British and Soviets, Afghan resistance to the NATO intervention took the traditional form of a Muslim "holy war (Jihad) against the infidels ''. As with the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan 20 years earlier, the Taliban took refuge in the Pakistani Mountain areas and continue to move across the border between Afghanistan and Pakistan, often evading Pakistani and NATO forces. The Taliban have now become a dominant role in the Afghan life once again. The Pakistani Government have been accused of supporting and / or turning a blind eye to the Afghan Taliban, while the Pakistani Government has accused NATO of doing the same.
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how many students attend maryland school for the deaf | Maryland school for the Deaf - wikipedia
http://www.msd.edu
The Maryland School for the Deaf is a school that provides free public education to deaf and hard - of - hearing Maryland residents, from birth to age 21.
The school was established at Frederick, Maryland in 1868 (Chapter 247, Acts of 1867; Chapter 409, Acts of 1868). The original buildings for the school were the Hessian Barracks, used during the Revolutionary War to detain Hessian mercenaries who were hired by the British. The buildings were used by Lewis and Clark to store supplies before their famous expedition began.
At the Frederick campus, the School offers both academic and life - based education leading to a Maryland high school diploma or a Maryland School for the Deaf diploma. In English and American Sign Language (ASL), the school teaches communications skills, including speech and speech reading, fingerspelling, and auditory training, and the use of individual hearing aids. It also offers a broad athletic and physical education program, as well as social and recreational activities.
Maryland School for the Deaf 's High School offers several Advanced Placement classes as well as Honors courses, which are taught in American Sign Language. Students take a variety of classes, including American Government, History, Spanish, English, Biology, Algebra, and Chemistry, as well as a variety of elective courses. In 2007, MSD students passed the state exams (High School Assessments) at a higher rate than their hearing counterparts. Students work on many academic skills at MSD, such as English and ASL grammar, reading strategies, and high level math and science. MSD is a competitor in the Academic Bowl and were the 2008, 2010, 2011, 2012 Regional Champions. They also compete in various math and science competitions and generally place in the top five.
Maryland School for the Deaf is also a residential school. It has dormitories where students reside throughout the week. Students arrive on Monday and depart on Fridays. The dormitories are for students who live far enough not to be able to travel by bus every day to school. There are dormitories for male and female students: preschool, elementary, middle school, and high school. Maryland School for the Deaf 's residential programs offers after - school program (ASP) activities.
Sports are immensely popular as an after - school activity. Both campuses have athletic fields and regulation sized basketball and volleyball courts. One of the building has an indoor swimming pool.
Middle and high school students participate in organized leagues and compete against public schools, private schools, and schools for deaf and hard of hearing students. MSD teams compete in national tournaments in various sports. MSD students are frequent competitors in the Deaflympics, and MSD coaches are often invited to coach the US teams. Current MSD sports include:
Established in 1868, the Frederick Campus of the Maryland School for the Deaf enrolls deaf and hard - of - hearing students in pre-kindergarten through grade 12 (Chapter 247, Acts of 1867; Chapter 409, Acts of 1868). For young children (from birth to age five) and their families, the campus also provides language skill development.
At the Frederick campus, about thirty percent of enrolled students live on campus weeknights during the school year (late August through early June). Residential halls are staffed by student life counselors who supervise students and coordinate after - school programming, such as intramural games, field trips, swimming, and hiking.
Checkers, a 1950s style diner located on the Frederick campus, is student staffed and gives middle and high school students a place to meet friends, watch movies, buy snacks, and play pool and foosball. Checkers is decorated mainly with red, black and white colors relating to the game of checkers and 1950s diner colors. Checkers ' sparkly red booths give it a 1950s feel. The snack bar offers sweets, chips and drinks. It also provides hot foods such as french fries, hot dogs, and mozzarella cheese sticks. Students also have the opportunity to gain experience by working at Checkers as a cashier or cook.
The Maryland State High School diploma or the Maryland School for the Deaf diploma is awarded to each graduating senior, and many graduates pursue higher education degrees. Vocational or technical training, and vocational rehabilitation services are available to help other graduates secure employment.
The Columbia campus of the Maryland School for the Deaf is located on a subdivision of the Otten Slave Farm Property in the former Pfeffer 's Corner neighborhood. George Herman Otten combined a 91 - acre parcel bought in 1853 with a 132 - acre parcel, forming the Otten Farm. In 1935 his estate willed the farm to the regents of the University of Maryland. It became an agricultural research center, and later the "Horse Farm, '' researching race horse breeds. In 1979, a historical survey considered the property a significant historical resource, but a 25 - page 1992 update considered the site not worth preservation, considering the university could move operations elsewhere. The property has been subdivided by government projects to the point where it is not recognizable as the original farm. Parcels were sold the state for the Route 100 project, and to the county for Waterloo Elementary. The remaining 68 acres were sold by the University to the Maryland State Department of Health and Mental Hygiene in 1968 to build the School for the Deaf campus, with 60 acres remaining for the university.
The school opened in September 1973. It serves 120 students with a 2015 budget of approximately $10 million and a staff of 109.5.
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where was the movie going in style filmed | Going in Style (2017 film) - wikipedia
Going in Style is a 2017 American heist comedy film directed by Zach Braff and written by Theodore Melfi. A remake of the 1979 film of the same name, it stars Morgan Freeman, Michael Caine, Alan Arkin, Joey King, Matt Dillon, Christopher Lloyd, Ann - Margret and John Ortiz, and follows a trio of retirees who plan to rob a bank after their pensions are cancelled.
The film premiered at the SVA Theatre on March 30, 2017 and was released in the United States on April 7, 2017. It received mixed reviews from critics and grossed $84 million worldwide against its $25 million budget.
Joe, Willie, and Albert are senior citizens and lifelong friends living in New York. During an unpleasant appointment at the bank, Joe is one of the victims to witness a robbery in progress carried out by three individuals wearing black masks. During the robbery, he notices the leader bearing a Mongol warrior tattoo on his neck as the only lead that could help the police identify the culprit. However, the leader sympathizes with Joe when he finds out about his current financial situation brought up by the bank. Then, the robbers manage to escape with over $1.6 million.
When the company they worked for is bought out, their pensions become a casualty of the restructuring. Joe is hit particularly hard and finds out that he, his daughter, Rachel, and granddaughter, Brooklyn, will be homeless in fewer than 30 days. Willie finds out he 's gravely ill from kidney failure and needs a transplant and is even more frustrated because his financial situation forces him into a long - distance relationship with his daughter and granddaughter. Desperate, the three friends decide to rob the bank that is going to restructure their pension funds and take back what is rightfully theirs.
Inspired by his experience of the robbery, Joe originates the idea; at first Albert and Willie are appalled, but eventually agree when they later learn that their bank intends to steal their pensions. Trying to shoplift some items from a grocery store, where Al 's love interest, Annie, works, results in a comic disaster, so the trio turn to Joe 's former son - in - law, Murphy, and a criminal working as a pet store owner named Jesus to teach them the ropes. They plan an alibi using their lodge 's carnival as a cover.
Joe, Willie, and Albert disguise themselves as "The Rat Pack '' (Frank Sinatra, Dean Martin, and Sammy Davis, Jr.) and use guns with blanks so that no one gets hurt. The robbery almost goes awry when Willie collapses briefly and a child witness partially pulls off his mask to allow him to breathe better; she sees the wrist watch he wears with a picture of his granddaughter on it as he engages in a friendly conversation and sympathizes with her, so as not to let her feel intimidated about the robbery in progress and when the bank manager clumsily tries to fire shots at them; however, the three manage to get away with over 2.3 million dollars. They are soon arrested on suspicion by FBI Agent Hamer after the manager from the grocery store recognizes Al 's walk from the video surveillance cameras, but they all stick to their alibis.
Hamer puts them along with other senior suspects into a police lineup, using the child witness who partially took off Willie 's mask. She refuses to identify Willie, leaving Hamer with no case. Willie suffers total renal failure and is near death until Al agrees to donate a kidney. While part of the money is used to help the three friends with their financial situations, the rest is given to their families, friends, co-workers, and fellow members at the lodge. Joe finally gets his granddaughter a puppy he promised her if she got A 's in every subject at school; courtesy of Jesus, who is later revealed to be the leader of the robbers from the robbery Joe witnessed and has laundered the money that they stole. The tattoo on his neck is also revealed to be a fake made of Henna, intended to throw the FBI and the police off the scent. The movie ends at Al and Annie 's wedding as the three friends celebrate their good fortune.
On October 12, 2012, it was announced that New Line Cinema and Warner Bros. were developing a remake of 1979 heist comedy film Going in Style, with Theodore Melfi set to write the script. Donald De Line was on board to produce the film with Tony Bill, producer of the original film, as executive producer. Melfi was approached by De Line and Andrew Haas about writing the screenplay for the remake, but Melfi insisted on changing the ending to something more upbeat. Melfi explained, "In this modern era, and even for me, I do n't want to see a movie where my heroes whom I 've been fighting for and rooting for for two hours die or go to jail. I want to see them get ahead, and it 's perfect for them to get ahead these days because everyone hates banks now. So let 's have them put the perfect heist together, rob a bank, get away with it, and go off into the sunset. They said, ' Yes, let 's do that, ' and that 's how that script was born. ''
On January 9, 2013, Don Scardino was hired to direct the film. On September 19, 2013, Melfi, who wrote the script was in talks to direct the film. On November 19, 2014, it was revealed that Zach Braff was in talks with the studio to direct the film, but he was not officially offered yet. On November 19, 2014, it was announced that Morgan Freeman and Michael Caine were cast in the film to play the lead roles, while Dustin Hoffman was in talks to join them. On April 9, 2015, Alan Arkin joined the cast of the film to complete the lead cast of three. On August 3, 2015, Joey King joined the cast of the film to play Caine 's character 's granddaughter. On August 10, 2015, Matt Dillon was added to the cast to play an FBI agent named Hamer, pursuing the three elderly lifelong friends and robbers. The same day, Ann - Margret was cast in the film for an unspecified role.
Principal photography on the film began in Brooklyn, New York City on August 3, 2015. Filming also took place in Astoria, Queens.
Going in Style was released on April 7, 2017, which Warner Bros moved from an original May 6, 2016 date.
Going in Style grossed $45 million in the United States and Canada and $39.6 million in other territories for a worldwide gross of $84.6 million, against a production budget of $25 million.
In North America, the film opened alongside Smurfs: The Lost Village and The Case for Christ, and was projected to gross around $8 million from 3,061 theaters in its opening weekend. It grossed $4.2 million on its first day and $11.9 million over the weekend, finishing above expectations and 4th at the box office. In its second weekend the film grossed $6.3 million (a drop of 47 %), finishing 5th at the box office.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 46 % based on 134 reviews, with an average rating of 5.3 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Despite the considerable talent of its leads, Going in Style is light on laughs and plays it safe far too often. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating, the film has a score 50 out of 100, based on 31 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B + '' on an A+ to F scale.
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what is the vocal music and instrumental music of myanmar | Music of Myanmar - wikipedia
The music of Burma (or Myanmar) has similarities with and is related to many other musical traditions in the region.
Traditional music from Burma is melodious, generally without harmony, and usually in 4 / 4 time (na - yi - se) or 2 / 4 (wa - let - se) or 8 / 16 (wa - let - a-myan). There are "the segments combined into patterns, combined into verses, combined into songs (that) make Burmese music a multileveled hierarchical system... The Burmese musician manipulates the various levels of the hierarchy to create the song... '' (Becker 1969, p. 272)
Orthodox Theravada Buddhism frowns upon music as being decadent. Despite this cultural backdrop, the Burmese monarchy as well as the infusion of different regional music styles, have created several classical traditions of Burmese music. The oldest influences may perhaps come from China, which shares a similar pentatonic musical scale as classical Burmese music. Other influences include Mon music (called Talaing than or "sounds of the Talaing (Mon) ''), particularly in the Mahagita (မဟာဂိတ), the complete body of classical Burmese music.
A prevailing one is called Yodaya (ယိုးဒယား), which is essentially a class of Burmese adaptations to songs accompanied with the saung gauk and come from the Ayutthaya kingdom (modern - day Thailand) during the reigns of Bayinnaung (1551 -- 1581) and Hsinbyushin (1753 -- 1776), which brought back a variety of cultural traditions including the Ramayana. The primary indigenous form is called thachin (သချင်း).
Burmese classical music ensembles can be divided into outdoor and indoor ensembles. The outdoor musical ensemble is the sidaw (စည်တော်); also called sidawgyi (စည်တော်ကြီး), which was an outdoor ensemble in royal courts used to mark important ceremonial functions like the royal ploughing ceremony. It consists of a hnegyi (နှဲကြီး), a large double reed pipe and sidaw (စည်တော်), a pair of ceremonial drums, as well as the si (စည်း) and wa (ဝါး), a bell and clapper and the gandama, a double - headed drum. Today, sidaw music is played at festivals. Other instruments used in classical music include the saung (a harp) and pattala (a xylophone). The indoor form is the chamber music ensemble, which is basically a female singer accompanied by a traditional ensemble consisting of the saung (စောင်း), pattala (ပတ္တလား), migyaung (မိကျောင်း, a zither), palwe (ပလွေ, a flute) and in the past, included the tayaw (တယော, a fiddle) and hnyin (a small mouth organ).
Translated as "great music '' in Pali, the Mahagita is an extensive collection of Burmese classical songs, called thachin gyi. The collection is divided into several different types of songs, including the following: kyo, bwe, thachin gan, the oldest repertoires; pat pyo, royal court music; lwan chin, songs of longing; lay dway than gat; myin gin, music that makes horses dance; nat chin, songs used to worship the nat, Burmese spirits; yodaya, music introduced from Ayutthaya, Talaing than, music adapted from the Mon people and bole, songs of sorrow.
Burmese music includes a variety of folk traditions. A distinct form called the byaw (ဗျော), is often played at religious festivals and is sung to the beat of a long and thin drum, with occasional interruptions by the beating of a larger drum.
The traditional folk ensemble, typically used in the nat pwe, Burmese theatre and art, and festivals is called the hsaing waing (ဆိုင်းဝိုင်း). Although its origin is unknown, it is believed to have come from the Ayuthaya kingdom, or in the least been heavily influenced by the Ayuthaya gong and drum ensembles in the 18th century through repeated invasions by the Konbaung dynasty and has many similarities to other Southeast Asian ensembles. The ensemble is made up of a series of drums and gongs, including the centerpieces, which are the hne (double reed pipe) and pat waing or hsaing wan (ဆိုင်းဝိုင်း, set of 21 tuned drums in a circle).
Other instruments in this ensemble include the kyi waing (ကြေးဝိုင်း, small bronze gongs in a circular frame) and maung hsaing (မောင်းဆိုင်း, larger bronze gongs in a rectangular frame), as well as the si and wa (bell and clapper) and the recent addition of the chauk lone bat (a group of six drums which have gained currency since the early 20th century). Hsaing waing music, however, is atypical in Southeast Asian music, characterised by sudden shifts in rhythm and melody as well as change in texture and timbre.
Western music gained much popularity in Burma starting from the 1930s. Despite government intervention at times, especially during the socialist era, popular Burmese music has become considerably influenced by Western music, which consists of popular Western songs rendered in Burmese and pop music similar to other Asian pop tunes. Classical music was also introduced during the British occupation. Cult folk musician Nick Drake was born in Burma during British rule.
Rock music, called stereo in Burmese, has been a popular form of music since the 1980s, having been introduced in the 1960s. Pop music emerged in the 1970s and was banned by state - run radio stations. However, many artists circumvented this censorship by producing albums in private studios and releasing them in music production shops. During the socialist era, musicians and artists were subject to censorship by the Press Scrutiny Board and Central Registration Board, as well as laws like the State Protection Law. During this period, the arrival of various bands including the influential Thabawa Yinthwenge (The Wild Ones), which included lead singer Sai Htee Saing, an ethnic Shan in 1973, paved the way for ethnic minority musicians to gain visibility in the Burmese music industry. Sai Kham Leik is a well known composer associated with The Wild Ones. Other contemporary singers were Khin Maung Toe, Kaiser, Hlwan Moe, Htoo Ein Thin, Soe Lwin Lwin, Saung Oo Hlaing, Lay Phyu, May Sweet, Maykhala and Connie.
During the 8888 Uprising, restrictions loosened and many artists began writing music with themes of freedom and democracy. However, after the State Law and Order Restoration Council usurped power in 1988, the Press Scrutiny Board was reformed to censor specific political and social issues, including poverty, the sex trade, democracy and human rights. The Myanmar Music Asiayon (MMA) was established by the SLORC to further censor Burmese - produced music. Popular musicians including Zaw Win Htut and Sai Htee Saing have produced propaganda albums written by military officers such as Mya Than San.
Hip hop and rap emerged in the late 1990s and is now the prevailing genre of music among Burmese youth today. Bands like Iron Cross, Emperor and BigBag are popular among the middle - aged and some groups of youth. There are hip - hop enthusiasts all over Burma with artists such as Ye Lay, Sai Sai Kham Hlaing, and J - me. Thus, there are many underground rock and metal bands such as All Else I Fail, Last Day of Beethoven, Temper Level VIII, Tha Ta Lin Chate, Idiots, Offkeys, We Are the Waste, The Last Secret, etc. but mostly producing nu - metal and metalcore. As for the heavy metal, the scene is growing steadily day by day but still remains very few compare to mainstream music. Despite having very few metal bands in Burma, the metalhead society is united and eager to produce raw black metal, thrash metal and death metal. Burmese cover songs (particularly from Asia) represented early pop music in the country as artists recorded and performed "copy tunes, '' which were reproductions of international pop songs performed in Burmese. Singers such as Min Min Latt paved the way for other artists such as Myanmar 's version of Lady Gaga, Phyu Phyu Kyaw Thein, R Zarni and Sai Sai Kham Leng.
Many pop groups emerged throughout Myanmar such as Electronic Machine, Playboy, ELF Myanmar and the King. But when the country 's regulations on censorship were loosened in 2000, new pop groups emerged across Myanmar who were able to compose, record and perform original Burmese music. In August 2012, state censorship on music was officially abolished. The only government censorship that remains on "music '' is on videos. Everyone can, in essence, release whatever they want. This has led many on the newly re-grouped Myanmar Music Association to grapple with the idea of forming a rating system to deal with some ' rude words ' in music that may not be appropriate for all ages.
After decades underground, a small but enduring punk rock and metalmusic scene has been increasingly visible in Burma. Modelling many 1970s and ' 80s classic Western punk bands and Modern Metal. Burmese punk band metal band shows a musical defiance that has not been seen before in Burma. In the German made 2012 documentary film "Yangon Calling '' over a period of six weeks film - makers Alexander Dluzak and Carsten Piefke secretly filmed, as they documented the Burmese punks life, documenting everything from meeting friends and family, visiting rehearsals and filming secret concerts.
Websites that have started up in recent years such as Myanmar Xbands have given attention to the Burmese punk scene along with other alternative Burmese music. The site has developed into a hub for artists to display their music to a Burmese and international audience for free download. Most of the Talented Bands Like Last Day of Beethove, Darkest Tears from My Heart, Fever 109, We Are the Waste are well known by others because of this website. While other Burmese punk bands like pop punk band Side Affect, turned to raising funds on IndieGoGo, to release their first album. The band just managed to raise enough funds to release their album in May 2012, shortly before their efforts fell short to international sanctions. However, other popular Burmese punk bands such as No Uturn or Rebel Riot has turned to self release, releasing their demo 's on popular download sites such as Myspace and Reverb Nation.
Musical instruments include the brass se (which is like a triangle), hne (a kind of oboe) and bamboo wa, as well as the well - known saung, a boat - shaped harp. Traditionally, instruments are classified into five classes, called pyissin turiya (ပဉ္စင်တူရိယာ):
These instruments are played in a musical scale consisting of seven tones, each associated with an animal that is said to be the producer of the tone. Each tone can be played raised, lowered or natural (corresponding to sharp, flat or natural), resulting a possible twenty - one combinations. The pat waing drum circle, for example, consists of twenty - one drums, one tuned to each tone in each possible combination, and the saing saya (maestro) sits in the middle using various parts of his hands to strike the drums to produce a melody. The Kyi Waing is the gong circle strung up in the same fashion and the gongs are struck with a knobbed stick and in accompaniment to the pat waing.
The Burmese harp is of special significance. It dates back to the 9th century, though it has changed quite a bit since then, expanding, for example, from three strings to sixteen. During the Konbaung period (1752 -- 1885), courtly musicians included Ma Mya Galay, a queen, Hlaing Hteikhaung Tin, a princess, Myawaddy Mingyi U Sa, a minister, and Nat Shin Naung, King of Taungoo.
Beginning just before World War II, the piano was adapted to the performance of Burmese traditional music, modelling its technique after that of the pattala and saung. The best known performer of Burmese piano was Gita Lulin Maung Ko Ko, known as U Ko Ko (1928 -- 2007). (1)
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what are the five major river systems and drainage basins in mississippi | List of rivers of Mississippi - wikipedia
The list of rivers in Mississippi includes any rivers that flow through part of the State of Mississippi. The major rivers in Mississippi are the Mississippi River, Pearl River, Pascagoula River and the Tombigbee River, along with their main tributaries: the Tallahatchie River, Yazoo River, Big Black River, Leaf River, and the Chickasawhay River. However, other tributaries vary in size, with some also draining rather sizable areas of Mississippi (Also see list below: Alphabetically).
The various rivers, with their tributaries, can be organized by drainage basin, as shown in the related maps below.
This list is arranged by drainage basin, with respective tributaries indented under each larger stream 's name. All rivers in Mississippi eventually flow into the Gulf of Mexico.
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how old is a 18 year old cat in cat years | Aging in cats - Wikipedia
The life expectancy of a cat that is living indoors is typically 12 -- 16 years. The life expectancy of a cat living outdoors is typically 2 -- 5 years. Cats living outdoors usually have a much shorter life expectancy and increased mortality due mainly to external environmental conditions and dangers such as traffic accidents, intentional acts of violence, poisoning, diseases from other cats, fighting with other animals, and predation. However, some cats may attain the age of 21 years or more.
The oldest cat ever recorded was Creme Puff, who died in 2005, aged 38 years, 3 days.
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how many times has the nfl mvp won the super bowl | Super Bowl most valuable player award - wikipedia
The Super Bowl Most Valuable Player Award, or Super Bowl MVP, is presented annually to the most valuable player of the Super Bowl, the National Football League 's (NFL) championship game. The winner is chosen by a fan vote during the game and by a panel of 16 football writers and broadcasters who vote after the game. The media panel 's ballots count for 80 percent of the vote tally, while the viewers ' ballots make up the other 20 percent. The game 's viewing audience can vote on the Internet or by using cellular phones; Super Bowl XXXV, held in 2001, was the first Super Bowl with fan voting.
The Super Bowl MVP has been awarded annually since the game 's inception in 1967. Through 1989, the award was presented by SPORT magazine. Bart Starr was the MVP of the first two Super Bowls. Since 1990, the award has been presented by the NFL. At Super Bowl XXV, the league first awarded the Pete Rozelle Trophy, named after the former NFL commissioner, to the Super Bowl MVP. Ottis Anderson was the first to win the trophy. Most award winners have received cars from various sponsors. The most recent Super Bowl MVP is New England Patriots quarterback Tom Brady, who was named the most valuable player of Super Bowl LI, held on February 5, 2017.
Brady is the only player to have won four Super Bowl MVP awards; Joe Montana has won three and three others -- Starr, Terry Bradshaw, and Eli Manning -- have won the award twice. Starr and Bradshaw are the only ones to have won it in back - to - back years. The MVP has come from the winning team every year except 1971, when Dallas Cowboys linebacker Chuck Howley won the award despite the Cowboys ' loss in Super Bowl V to the Baltimore Colts. Harvey Martin and Randy White were named co-MVPs of Super Bowl XII, the only time co-MVPs have been chosen. Including the Super Bowl XII co-MVPs, seven Cowboys players have won Super Bowl MVP awards, the most of any NFL team. Quarterbacks have earned the honor 28 times in 51 games. Mark Rypien and Hines Ward are the only players born outside the United States to earn the Super Bowl MVP, having been born in Canada and South Korea, respectively.
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when does plan to eradicate the saiyans take place | Dragon Ball: Plan to Eradicate the Super Saiyans - wikipedia
Dragon Ball: Plan to Eradicate the Super Saiyans (Japanese: ドラゴンボール 超 (スーパー) サイヤ 人 絶滅 計画, Hepburn: Doragon Bōru: Sūpā Saiya - jin Zetsumetsu Keikaku) is a 2010 anime original video animation based on the Dragon Ball franchise by Akira Toriyama. It is an updated version of the older OVA Dragon Ball Z Side Story: Plan to Eradicate the Saiyans, which was released in 1993 as strategy guides for the Family Computer video game of the same name.
Originally, this updated version was only available in the Bandai Namco Games video game Dragon Ball: Raging Blast 2. However, it later received a coupled DVD release with Dragon Ball: Episode of Bardock in the March issue of the weekly magazine Saikyō Jump, which was released on February 3, 2012.
Dr. Lychee may be the last of the Tuffle people, a race that was completely wiped some time ago by the Saiyans. He now plans to take revenge on the remaining Saiyans, Goku, Vegeta, Trunks, and Gohan. He creates a machine that will emit Destron, a gas that could destroy all life on Earth. The Saiyans, plus Piccolo, only have 72 hours to destroy these machines and find Dr. Lychee. When trying to destroy the final machine, Vegeta discovers that it is protected by an impenetrable energy barrier. Frieza, Cooler, Turles, and Lord Slug appear and engage the heroes one on one. The heroes continue to lose against their foes. It is revealed that these ghost warriors are made of Destron gas and can not be beaten unless the gas is neutralized. The barrier is destroyed by Bulma, who also came with the antidote for the Destron gas. She then manages to stop the gas. The heroes kill Frieza and the others.
The heroes track down Dr. Lychee on the Dark Planet and engage him, discovering that his ghost warriors are generated by a machine called Hatchiyack, a device powered by the Tuffles ' hatred for the Saiyans. It is also revealed that Dr. Lychee is a ghost warrior himself, generated by Hatchiyack. When Vegeta vaporizes Lychee, preventing him from re-materializing, the hate of the last remaining Tuffle causes Hatchiyack to exceed its limit. Hatchiyack appears in a powerful android body, whose power is said to match or perhaps even exceed that of Broly, according to Goku. Hatchiyack devastates the heroes until the Saiyans (after having transformed into their Super Saiyan states) and Piccolo combine their powers together into one massive wave of energy, ending the threat of the Dr. Lychee. At last Goku, Vegeta, Gohan, Trunks and Piccolo return to Earth just as the Dark Planet explodes.
The main villain from Dragon Ball: Plan to Eradicate the Super Saiyans. Hatchiyack is an android whose strength is fueled by the Tuffles ' hatred for Saiyans. He comes to full power and materializes once Vegeta destroys Dr. Lychee, and is estimated by Goku to rival or exceed Broly 's strength so they say.
Dr. Lychee is a Tuffle scientist who wants revenge against the Saiyans and is the creator of Hatchiyack. He appears in "Dragon Ball: Plan to Eradicate the Super Saiyans '' along with Frieza, Slug, Cooler, and Turles.
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when does the american football season start 2018 | 2018 NFL season - wikipedia
The 2018 NFL season will be the 99th season of the National Football League (NFL). The season is set to begin on September 6, 2018 with the NFL Kickoff Game with the defending Super Bowl LII champion Philadelphia Eagles hosting the Atlanta Falcons. The season will conclude with Super Bowl LIII, the league 's championship game, on February 3, 2019 at Mercedes - Benz Stadium in Atlanta, Georgia.
The 2018 NFL League year and trading period began on March 14. On March 9, clubs were allowed to exercise options for 2018 on players who have option clauses in their contracts, submit qualifying offers to their pending restricted free agents, and submit a Minimum Salary Tender to retain exclusive negotiating rights to their players with expiring 2017 contracts and who have fewer than three accrued seasons of free agent credit. Teams were required to be under the salary cap using the "Top - 51 '' definition (in which the 51 highest paid - players on the team 's payroll must have a combined salary cap hit below the actual cap). On March 12, clubs were allowed to contact and enter into contract negotiations with the agents of players who were set to become unrestricted free agents.
Over 550 players were eligible for some form of free agency during the free agency period. Notable players to change teams include:
Other retirements
The 2018 NFL Draft was held from April 26 to 28 at AT&T Stadium in Arlington, Texas. This was the first draft to take place in an NFL stadium, and the first to be held in Texas. The Cleveland Browns selected Baker Mayfield with the first overall pick.
Four referees retired during the 2018 off - season, the most to do so since records on the statistics have been kept.
The following playing rule changes have been approved by the Competition Committee for the 2018 season:
The following are points of emphasis for the 2018 season:
The following bylaws and resolutions were passed:
The following changes to the kickoff rules were approved at the NFL Spring Owners ' Meeting on May 23, 2018:
In response to the recent National Anthem protests in the league the past two seasons, any player or staff member who is on the field during the performance of "The Star - Spangled Banner '' must stand for the duration of the performance. Such players and staff members are not required to be on the field at that time and may wait in the locker room as an alternative. The NFL will not directly fine offending players or staff members for defying the rule, instead fining the teams, who will in turn have power to fine the players or staff members at their own discretion. The National Football League Players Association filed a grievance with the league over the policy on July 11.
The following people associated with the NFL (or AFL) have died in 2018.
Training camps for the 2018 season will be held in late July through August. Teams start training camp no earlier than 15 days before the team 's first scheduled preseason game.
The Pro Football Hall of Fame Game, that featured the Baltimore Ravens defeating the Chicago Bears 17 -- 16, was played on August 2; and was televised nationally by NBC. The Ravens, who made their first Hall of Fame Game appearance, were represented in the 2018 Hall of Fame class by former linebacker Ray Lewis, while the Bears were represented by former linebacker Brian Urlacher.
The 2018 regular season 's 256 games will be played over a 17 - week schedule that will begin on September 6. Each of the league 's 32 teams plays a 16 - game schedule, with one bye week for each team. The slate also features games on Monday Nights. There are games played on Thursdays, including the National Football League Kickoff game in prime time on September 6 and games on Thanksgiving Day. The regular season will conclude with a full slate of 16 games on December 30, all of which will be intra-division matchups, as it has been since 2010.
Under the NFL 's current scheduling formula, each team plays the other three teams in its own division twice. In addition a team plays against all four teams in one other division from each conference. The final two games on a team 's schedule are against the two teams in the team 's own conference in the divisions the team was not set to play which finished the previous season in the same rank in their division (e.g. the team which finished first in its division the previous season would play each other team in its conference that also finished first in its respective division). The preset division pairings for 2018 will be as follows.
Intra-conference AFC East vs AFC South AFC West vs AFC North NFC East vs NFC South NFC West vs NFC North
Inter-conference AFC East vs NFC North AFC North vs NFC South AFC South vs NFC East AFC West vs NFC West
The entire season schedule was released on April 19, 2018. Highlights of the 2018 season include:
When the entire season schedule was released on April 19, 2018, the league announced flexible scheduling for Saturday games in weeks 15 and 16. The final kickoff times for these games will be announced no later than week 8:
The 2018 playoffs will begin on the weekend of January 5 -- 6, 2019 with the Wild Card Playoff round the four winners of these playoff games will visit the top two seeds in each conference of the Divisional round games the weekend of January 12 - 13. The winners of those games will advance to the Conference championship games on January 20. The 2019 Pro Bowl will be held at Camping World Stadium in Orlando, Florida on January 27 and will be broadcast on ESPN and ABC. Super Bowl LIII will be held on February 3 at Mercedes - Benz Stadium in Atlanta, on CBS.
Two teams, the Carolina Panthers and Oakland Raiders, are entering the final year of their lease agreements with their current stadium.
On December 17, 2017, Jerry Richardson, the Panthers ' founding owner, announced he was putting the team up for sale. Richardson had previously indicated the team would be put up for sale after his death, but Richardson was accused of paying hush money to cover up questionable conduct, including racial slurs and sexually suggestive requests of employees, hastening Richardson 's decision. The Panthers ' lease on Bank of America Stadium expires after the 2018 season, which would allow any incoming owner to relocate the team out of Charlotte, North Carolina, to another market if they so desired, only being liable for the remaining debt from stadium renovation. At an estimated $35 million, the debt payment would be a small expense compared to the relocation fee the NFL charged for the two teams that relocated in 2016 and 2017. The two most likely candidates to buy the team as of May 2018 were David Tepper, a hedge fund manager with a higher net worth and a minority stake in the Pittsburgh Steelers but fewer ties to Charlotte; and Ben Navarro, a financial services CEO based in Charlotte who had the backing of Richardson 's only living son. Tepper was announced as the new owner on May 16, with the announcement coming in time for the league to vote on his bid at the owners meeting on May 19. The sale closed on July 9 with Richardson - era chief operating officer Tina Becker (who ran the franchise after Richardson stepped away from operations) resigning. Tepper immediately stated the franchise would retain the Carolina Panthers name for the time being, but that a new stadium would likely be necessary; he stated that he hoped to build said stadium in Charlotte but would not guarantee the team remains there, claiming he did not know enough about the situation to guarantee the team stays in the Charlotte area.
The Raiders, prior to the 2017 season, committed to relocating to Las Vegas, Nevada, once a new stadium is constructed for them in 2020. In 2016, the Raiders signed a three - year extension with the Oakland Coliseum. The Raiders could choose to stay in the Oakland Coliseum for 2019 with another year - to - year extension or move to Sam Boyd Stadium in Las Vegas, which is undersized but (because of the Los Angeles Chargers ' use of the even smaller StubHub Center) would not be the smallest stadium in the NFL. Management at the Oakland Coliseum has indicated they are unwilling to extend their agreement with the Raiders after 2018, which could force the team to move to Sam Boyd Stadium in 2019. In order to secure another season in Oakland, California, Coliseum management indicated in September 2017 that the Raiders would need to offer major concessions to compensate for the financial losses the Coliseum incurs by hosting Raiders games.
On June 20, the Denver Broncos ' home stadium was renamed Broncos Stadium at Mile High. The sporting goods chain Sports Authority had held naming rights to the stadium 's field (as "Sports Authority Field at Mile High '') but had gone out of business in 2016. The previous signage referring to Sports Authority was removed in March. The Broncos hope to resell the naming rights to the stadium to another corporate sponsor in the near future.
On February 16, EverBank Field, the home field of the Jacksonville Jaguars, was renamed TIAA Bank Field, after TIAA 's 2017 acquisition of EverBank. The naming rights agreement was for 10 years and $43 million.
The Color Rush program has been discontinued, and teams will no longer be required to wear the special uniforms for Thursday Night Football. Initial plans, which were finalized at the league 's owners meeting in May, are for teams to have the option to continue using the existing Nike designs for the program as standard third jerseys.
This will be the fifth year under the current broadcast contracts with ESPN, CBS, Fox, and NBC. This includes "cross-flexing '' (switching) Sunday afternoon games between CBS and Fox before or during the season (regardless of the conference of the visiting team). NBC will continue to air Sunday Night Football, the annual Kickoff game, and the primetime Thanksgiving game. ESPN will continue to air Monday Night Football and the Pro Bowl. CBS will broadcast Super Bowl LIII.
On January 31, the NFL announced that Fox had acquired the broadcast television rights to the Thursday Night Football package under a five - year deal (aligned with the remainder of the NFL 's current broadcast contracts). Fox will air 11 games, along with the 2018 NFL Draft (the first time the event has aired on over-the - air television), in simulcast with NFL Network, with the remaining games in the package airing exclusively on NFL Network to satisfy its carriage contracts. CBS and NBC had made bids to renew their previous contracts (CBS had held the rights since 2014, joined by NBC since 2016), but were reluctant to pay a higher rights fee due to the league 's ratings downturn.
The NFL agreed to an extension of its digital rights agreement with Verizon Communications under a 5 - year, $2.5 billion deal. Unlike the previous deal, it no longer includes exclusivity for streaming in - market and nationally - televised NFL games on mobile devices with screens 7 inches (18 cm) or less in size (such as smartphones), in order to account for changes in viewing habits, but still includes enhanced access to highlights and other digital content for Verizon - owned properties. In addition, Verizon announced that it would no longer make these streams exclusive to Verizon Wireless subscribers, and would leverage its portfolio of media brands (such as Yahoo!, which it acquired in 2017) to distribute them to a larger audience. All of the NFL 's current television partners have added mobile streaming rights (which were previously reserved to Verizon) to their existing contracts for the 2018 season.
On April 26, 2018, the NFL announced that it had reached a two - year extension of its agreement with Amazon for shared digital rights to the Thursday Night Football games simulcast with Fox, with a 15 % increase in rights fees. To fulfill a request that the streams be available freely, the games will also be made available on Twitch, an Amazon - owned streaming service that was originally designed for video game streaming.
Both of the NFL 's national radio contracts, Westwood One for English language and Entravision for Spanish language, expired after the 2017 season. Westwood One 's parent company Cumulus Media filed for bankruptcy in November 2017 and began terminating national broadcast contracts and sports agreements in January 2018, putting any contract extensions on hold. The company emerged from bankruptcy on June 4, 2018.
With the release of the 2018 schedule, NFL.com listed ESPN Deportes Radio (which had shared NFL rights with Entravision in 2017 and had carried Super Bowl LII) as the league 's national Spanish - language broadcaster. The national English - language broadcaster was still identified as Westwood One, which Westwood One has also confirmed; no press release has been issued in regard to a contract extension with that network, and it is unknown when the current arrangement was signed or when it will end.
All four broadcast partners will employ rules analysts for the 2018 season, citing changes in the league 's rules that have become too complicated for its broadcast teams to handle.
ESPN will introduce a fully new broadcast team for Monday Night Football. Joe Tessitore will replace Sean McDonough as lead play - by - play man; McDonough will remain with ESPN as a college football announcer. With previous color analyst Jon Gruden returning to coaching, Monday Night Football will return to its traditional three - person booth, with Jason Witten and Booger McFarland joining the broadcast team as analysts, while Lisa Salters, the sideline reporter, carries over from the previous broadcast team. Jeff Triplette will replace Gerald Austin as rules analyst.
Fox initially had planned to hire a new broadcast team for its Thursday Night Football, making an overture to Peyton Manning to serve as color commentator. Since Manning declined the offer, the network announced that it will be placing its existing lead broadcast team of Joe Buck and Troy Aikman on the package (with an alternate play - by - play announcer during October and Buck 's duties for the Major League Baseball postseason), reducing the number of games the duo will call on Sundays. A version of Fox NFL Sunday will serve as the lead - in to Thursday Night Football, albeit without Curt Menefee or Jimmy Johnson; the show will instead be hosted by panelist Michael Strahan from New York City, displacing Rich Eisen, the studio host for Thursday night pregame since the package 's inception in 2006. Strahan will be joined by fellow Fox colleagues Terry Bradshaw and Howie Long.
In addition, NBC will introduce a whole new studio team for its pre-game show. Liam McHugh, who worked Super Bowl LII for NBC, in Place of Bob Costas, will become the new "on - site '' host, while Mike Tirico, will become the new host of the studio portion of FNIA. Tirico will replace Dan Patrick, who departed from FNIA after Super Bowl LII.
The start times for Thursday, Sunday, and Monday Night Football broadcasts will be moved up 5 to 15 minutes. Thursday and Sunday Night games will now kick off at 8: 20 p.m. ET, while Monday Night games will now kick off at 8: 15 p.m. ET.
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who said that the indian constitution is federal | Federalism - wikipedia
Federalism is the mixed or compound mode of government, combining a general government (the central or ' federal ' government) with regional governments (provincial, state, cantonal, territorial or other sub-unit governments) in a single political system. Its distinctive feature, exemplified in the founding example of modern federalism by the United States of America under the Constitution of 1787, is a relationship of parity between the two levels of government established. It can thus be defined as a form of government in which there is a division of powers between two levels of government of equal status.
Federalism differs from confederalism, in which the general level of government is subordinate to the regional level, and from devolution within a unitary state, in which the regional level of government is subordinate to the general level. It represents the central form in the pathway of regional integration or separation, bounded on the less integrated side by confederalism and on the more integrated side by devolution within a unitary state.
Leading examples of the federation or federal state include the United States, Canada, Brazil, Germany, Switzerland, Argentina, Australia and India. Some also today characterize the European Union as the pioneering example of federalism in a multi-state setting, in a concept termed the federal union of states.
The terms ' federalism ' and ' confederalism ' both have a root in the Latin word foedus, meaning "treaty, pact or covenant. '' Their common meaning until the late eighteenth century was a simple league or inter-governmental relationship among sovereign states based upon a treaty. They were therefore initially synonyms. It was in this sense that James Madison in Federalist 39 had referred to the new United States as ' neither a national nor a federal Constitution, but a composition of both ' (i.e. neither a single large unitary state nor a league / confederation among several small states, but a hybrid of the two). In the course of the nineteenth century the meaning of federalism would come to shift, strengthening to refer uniquely to the novel compound political form, while the meaning of confederalism would remain at a league of states. Thus, this article relates to the modern usage of the word ' federalism '.
Modern federalism is a system based upon democratic rules and institutions in which the power to govern is shared between national and provincial / state governments. The term federalist describes several political beliefs around the world depending on context.
Federalism is sometimes viewed as in the context of international negotiation as "the best system for integrating diverse nations, ethnic groups, or combatant parties, all of whom may have cause to fear control by an overly powerful center. '' However, in some countries, those skeptical of federal prescriptions believe that increased regional autonomy is likely to lead to secession or dissolution of the nation. In Syria, federalization proposals have failed in part because "Syrians fear that these borders could turn out to be the same as the ones that the fighting parties have currently carved out. ''
Federations such as Yugoslavia or Czechoslovakia collapsed as soon as it was possible to put the model to the test.
According to Daniel Ziblatt 's Structuring the State, there are four competing theoretical explanations in the academic literature for the adoption of federal systems:
In Europe, "Federalist '' is sometimes used to describe those who favor a common federal government, with distributed power at regional, national and supranational levels. Most European federalists want this development to continue within the European Union. European federalism originated in post-war Europe; one of the more important initiatives was Winston Churchill 's speech in Zürich in 1946.
In the United States, federalism originally referred to belief in a stronger central government. When the U.S. Constitution was being drafted, the Federalist Party supported a stronger central government, while "Anti-Federalists '' wanted a weaker central government. This is very different from the modern usage of "federalism '' in Europe and the United States. The distinction stems from the fact that "federalism '' is situated in the middle of the political spectrum between a confederacy and a unitary state. The U.S. Constitution was written as a reaction to the Articles of Confederation, under which the United States was a loose confederation with a weak central government.
In contrast, Europe has a greater history of unitary states than North America, thus European "federalism '' argues for a weaker central government, relative to a unitary state. The modern American usage of the word is much closer to the European sense. As the power of the Federal government has increased, some people have perceived a much more unitary state than they believe the Founding Fathers intended. Most people politically advocating "federalism '' in the United States argue in favor of limiting the powers of the federal government, especially the judiciary (see Federalist Society, New Federalism).
In Canada, federalism typically implies opposition to sovereigntist movements (most commonly Quebec separatism).
The governments of Argentina, Australia, Brazil, India, and Mexico, among others, are also organized along federalist principles.
Federalism may encompass as few as two or three internal divisions, as is the case in Belgium or Bosnia and Herzegovina. In general, two extremes of federalism can be distinguished: at one extreme, the strong federal state is almost completely unitary, with few powers reserved for local governments; while at the other extreme, the national government may be a federal state in name only, being a confederation in actuality.
In 1999, the Government of Canada established the Forum of Federations as an international network for exchange of best practices among federal and federalizing countries. Headquartered in Ottawa, the Forum of Federations partner governments include Australia, Brazil, Canada, Ethiopia, Germany, India, Mexico, Nigeria, and Switzerland.
On the 1st of January 1901 the nation - state of Australia officially came into existence as a federation. The Australian continent was colonised by the United Kingdom in 1788, which subsequently established six, eventually self - governing, colonies there. In the 1890s the governments of these colonies all held referendums on becoming a unified, self - governing "Commonwealth '' within the British Empire. When all the colonies voted in favour of federation, the Federation of Australia commenced, resulting in the establishment of the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901. The model of Australian federalism adheres closely to the original model of the United States of America, although it does so through a parliamentary Westminster system rather than a presidential system.
In Brazil, the fall of the monarchy in 1889 by a military coup d'état led to the rise of the presidential system, headed by Deodoro da Fonseca. Aided by well - known jurist Ruy Barbosa, Fonseca established federalism in Brazil by decree, but this system of government would be confirmed by every Brazilian constitution since 1891, although some of them would distort some of the federalist principles. The 1937 federal government had the authority to appoint State Governors (called interventors) at will, thus centralizing power in the hands of President Getúlio Vargas. Brazil also uses the Fonseca system to regulate interstate trade. Brazil is one of the biggest federal governments.
The Brazilian Constitution of 1988 introduced a new component to the ideas of federalism, including municipalities as federal entities. Brazilian municipalities are now invested with some of the traditional powers usually granted to states in federalism, and they are allowed to have a Constitution like the Constitution of Rio Grande do Sul State
In Canada the system of federalism is described by the division of powers between the federal parliament and the country 's provincial governments. Under the Constitution Act (previously known as the British North America Act) of 1867, specific powers of legislation are allotted. Section 91 of the constitution gives rise to federal authority for legislation, whereas section 92 gives rise to provincial powers.
For matters not directly dealt with in the constitution, the federal government retains residual powers; however, conflict between the two levels of government, relating to which level has legislative jurisdiction over various matters, has been a longstanding and evolving issue. Areas of contest include legislation with respect to regulation of the economy, taxation, and natural resources.
The Government of India (referred to as the Union Government) was established by the Constitution of India, and is the governing authority of a federal union of 29 states and 7 union territories.
The government of India is based on a 3 tiered system, in which the Constitution of India delineates the subjects on which each tier of government has executive powers. The Constitution originally provided for a two - tier system of government, the Union Government (also known as the Central Government), representing the Union of India, and the State governments. Later, a third tier was added in the form of Panchayats and Municipalities. In the current arrangement, The Seventh Schedule of the Indian Constitution delimits the subjects of each level of governmental jurisdiction, dividing them into three lists:
A distinguishing aspect of Indian federalism is that unlike many other forms of federalism, it is asymmetric. Article 370 makes special provisions for the state of Jammu and Kashmir as per its Instrument of Accession. Article 371 makes special provisions for the states of Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Goa, Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland and Sikkim as per their accession or state - hood deals. Also one more aspect of Indian federalism is system of President 's Rule in which the central government (through its appointed Governor) takes control of state 's administration for certain months when no party can form a government in the state or there is violent disturbance in the state.
Although the Constitution does not say so, India is now a multilingual federation. India has a multi-party system, with political allegiances frequently based on linguistic, regional and caste identities, necessitating coalition politics, especially at the Union level.
Malaysia is a federal constitutional monarchy.
Although South Africa bears some elements of a federal system, such as the allocation of certain powers to provinces, it is nevertheless constitutionally and functionally a unitary state.
Several federal systems exist in Europe, such as in Switzerland, Austria, Germany, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina and the European Union.
In Britain, an Imperial Federation was once seen as (inter alia) a method of solving the Home Rule problem in Ireland; federalism has long been proposed as a solution to the "Irish Problem '', and more lately, to the "West Lothian question ''.
During the French Revolution, especially in 1793, "federalism '' had an entirely different meaning. It was a political movement to weaken the central government in Paris by devolving power to the provinces.
Following the end of World War II, several movements began advocating a European federation, such as the Union of European Federalists and the European Movement, founded in 1948. Those organizations exercised influence in the European unification process, but never in a decisive way.
Although the drafts of both the Maastricht treaty and the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe mentioned federalism, the reference never made it to the text of the treaties adopted by consensus. The strongest advocates of European federalism have been Germany, Italy, Belgium and Luxembourg while those historically most strongly opposed have been the United Kingdom, Denmark and France (with conservative heads of state and governments). Since the presidency of François Mitterrand (1981 - 1995), the French authorities have adopted a much more pro-European Unification position, as they consider that a strong EU is presenting the best "insurance '' against a unified Germany which might become too strong and thus a threat for its neighbours.
Those uncomfortable using the "F '' word in the EU context should feel free to refer to it as a quasi-federal or federal - like system. Nevertheless, for the purposes of the analysis here, the EU has the necessary attributes of a federal system. It is striking that while many scholars of the EU continue to resist analyzing it as a federation, most contemporary students of federalism view the EU as a federal system (See for instance, Bednar, Filippov et al., McKay, Kelemen, Defigueido and Weingast). (R. Daniel Kelemen)
Germany and the EU present the only examples of federalism in the world where members of the federal "upper houses '' (the German Bundesrat (Federal Council) and the European Council) are neither elected nor appointed but comprise members or delegates of the governments of their constituents. The United States had a similar system until 1913, where prior to the 17th Amendment, Senators were delegates of the state elected by the state legislatures rather than the citizens.
Already the Holy Roman Empire, the Confederation of the Rhine, the German Confederation, the North German Confederation, the German Empire and the Weimar Republic were federal complexes of territories of different political structures. Modern Germany abandoned federalism only during Nazism (1933 -- 1945) and in the DDR (German Democratic Republic a.k.a. East Germany) from 1952 to 1990. Adolf Hitler viewed federalism as an obstacle to his goals. As he wrote in Mein Kampf, "National Socialism must claim the right to impose its principles on the whole German nation, without regard to what were hitherto the confines of federal states. ''
Accordingly, the idea of a strong, centralized government has very negative connotations in German politics, although the progressive political movements in Germany (Liberals, Social Democrats) were advocating at the time of the Second German Empire (1871 - 1918) to abolish (or to reshape) the majority of German federated states of that era, as they were considered to be mostly monarchist remnances of the feudal structures of the Middle Ages.
The post-Imperial nature of Russian subdivision of government changed towards a generally autonomous model which began with the establishment of the USSR (of which Russia was governed as part). It was liberalized in the aftermath of the Soviet Union, with the reforms under Boris Yeltsin preserving much of the Soviet structure while applying increasingly liberal reforms to the governance of the constituent republics and subjects (while also coming into conflict with Chechen secessionist rebels during the Chechen War). Some of the reforms under Yeltsin were scaled back by Vladimir Putin.
All of Russia 's subdivisional entities are known as subjects, with some smaller entities, such as the republics enjoying more autonomy than other subjects on account of having an extant presence of a culturally non-Russian ethnic minority or, in some cases, majority.
Currently, there are 85 federal subjects of Russia.
The UAE is a federal absolute monarchy of the six ruling families of the United Arab Emirates with Emir of each Emirate being an absolute monarch and the Emir of Abu Dhabi being also the President of the UAE.
Federalism in the United States is the evolving relationship between state governments and the federal government of the United States. American government has evolved from a system of dual federalism to one of associative federalism. In "Federalist No. 46, '' James Madison asserted that the states and national government "are in fact but different agents and trustees of the people, constituted with different powers. '' Alexander Hamilton, writing in "Federalist No. 28, '' suggested that both levels of government would exercise authority to the citizens ' benefit: "If their (the peoples ') rights are invaded by either, they can make use of the other as the instrument of redress. '' (1)
Because the states were preexisting political entities, the U.S. Constitution did not need to define or explain federalism in any one section but it often mentions the rights and responsibilities of state governments and state officials in relation to the federal government. The federal government has certain express powers (also called enumerated powers) which are powers spelled out in the Constitution, including the right to levy taxes, declare war, and regulate interstate and foreign commerce. In addition, the Necessary and Proper Clause gives the federal government the implied power to pass any law "necessary and proper '' for the execution of its express powers. Other powers -- the reserved powers -- are reserved to the people or the states. The power delegated to the federal government was significantly expanded by the Supreme Court decision in McCulloch v. Maryland (1819), amendments to the Constitution following the Civil War, and by some later amendments -- as well as the overall claim of the Civil War, that the states were legally subject to the final dictates of the federal government.
The Federalist Party of the United States was opposed by the Democratic - Republicans, including powerful figures such as Thomas Jefferson. The Democratic - Republicans mainly believed that: the Legislature had too much power (mainly because of the Necessary and Proper Clause) and that they were unchecked; the Executive had too much power, and that there was no check on the executive; a dictator would arise; and that a bill of rights should be coupled with the constitution to prevent a dictator (then believed to eventually be the president) from exploiting or tyrannizing citizens. The federalists, on the other hand, argued that it was impossible to list all the rights, and those that were not listed could be easily overlooked because they were not in the official bill of rights. Rather, rights in specific cases were to be decided by the judicial system of courts.
After the American Civil War, the federal government increased greatly in influence on everyday life and in size relative to the state governments. Reasons included the need to regulate businesses and industries that span state borders, attempts to secure civil rights, and the provision of social services. The federal government acquired no substantial new powers until the acceptance by the Supreme Court of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act.
From 1938 until 1995, the U.S. Supreme Court did not invalidate any federal statute as exceeding Congress ' power under the Commerce Clause. Most actions by the federal government can find some legal support among the express powers, such as the Commerce Clause, whose applicability has been narrowed by the Supreme Court in recent years. In 1995 the Supreme Court rejected the Gun - Free School Zones Act in the Lopez decision, and also rejected the civil remedy portion of the Violence Against Women Act of 1994 in the United States v. Morrison decision. Recently, the Commerce Clause was interpreted to include marijuana laws in the Gonzales v. Raich decision.
Dual federalism holds that the federal government and the state governments are co-equals, each sovereign.
However, since the Civil War Era, the national courts often interpret the federal government as the final judge of its own powers under dual federalism. The establishment of Native American governments (which are separate and distinct from state and federal government) exercising limited powers of sovereignty, has given rise to the concept of "bi-federalism. ''
The Federal War ended in 1863 with the signing of the Treaty of Coche by both the centralist government of the time and the Federal Forces. The United States of Venezuela were subsequently incorporated under a "Federation of Sovereign States '' upon principles borrowed from the Articles of Confederation of the United States of America. In this Federation, each State had a "President '' of its own that controlled almost every issue, even the creation of "State Armies, '' while the Federal Army was required to obtain presidential permission to enter any given state.
However, more than 140 years later, the original system has gradually evolved into a quasi-centralist form of government. While the 1999 Constitution still defines Venezuela as a Federal Republic, it abolished the Senate, transferred competences of the States to the Federal Government and granted the President of the Republic vast powers to intervene in the States and Municipalities.
Federalism in the Kingdom of Belgium is an evolving system.
Belgian federalism is a twin system which reflects both the
On one hand, this means that the Belgian political landscape, generally speaking, consists of only two components: the Dutch - speaking population represented by Dutch - language political parties, and the majority populations of Wallonia and Brussels, represented by their French - speaking parties. The Brussels region emerges as a third component. This specific dual form of federalism, with the special position of Brussels, consequently has a number of political issues -- even minor ones -- that are being fought out over the Dutch / French - language political division. With such issues, a final decision is possible only in the form of a compromise. This tendency gives this dual federalism model a number of traits that generally are ascribed to confederalism, and makes the future of Belgian federalism contentious.
On the other hand, Belgian federalism is federated with three components. An affirmative resolution concerning Brussels ' place in the federal system passed in the parliaments of Wallonia and Brussels. These resolutions passed against the desires of Dutch - speaking parties, who are generally in favour of a federal system with two components (i.e. the Dutch and French Communities of Belgium). However, the Flemish representatives in the Parliament of the Brussels Capital - Region voted in favour of the Brussels resolution, with the exception of one party. The chairman of the Walloon Parliament stated on July 17, 2008 that, "Brussels would take an attitude ''. Brussels ' parliament passed the resolution on July 18, 2008:
This aspect of Belgian federalism helps to explain the difficulties of partition; Brussels, with its importance, is linked to both Wallonia and Flanders and vice versa. This situation, however, does not erase the traits of a confederation in the Belgian system.
Current examples of two - sided federalism:
Historical examples of two - sided federalism include:
It has been proposed in several unitary states to establish a federal system, for various reasons.
China is the largest unitary state in the world by both population and land area. Although China has had long periods of central rule for centuries, it is often argued that the unitary structure of the Chinese government is far too unwieldy to effectively and equitably manage the country 's affairs. On the other hand, Chinese nationalists are suspicious of decentralization as a form of secessionism and a backdoor for national disunity; still others argue that the degree of autonomy given to provincial - level officials in the People 's Republic of China amounts to a de facto federalism.
Shortly after the 2011 civil war, some people in Cyrenaica (in the eastern region of the country) began to call for the new regime to be federal, with the traditional three regions of Libya (Cyrenaica, Tripolitania, and Fezzan) being the constituent units. A group calling itself the "Cyrenaican Transitional Council '' issued a declaration of autonomy on 6 March 2012; this move was rejected by the National Transitional Council in Tripoli.
The Philippines is a unitary state with some powers devolved to Local Government Units (LGUs) under the terms of the Local Government Code. There is also one autonomous region, the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao. Over the years various modifications have been proposed to the Constitution of the Philippines, including possible transition to a federal system as part of a shift to a parliamentary system. In 2004, Philippine President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo established the Consultative Commission which suggested such a Charter Change but no action was taken by the Philippine Congress to amend the 1987 Constitution.
Spain is a unitary state with a high level of decentralisation, often regarded as a federal system in all but name or a "federation without federalism ''. The country has been quoted as being "an extraordinarily decentralized country '', with the central government accounting for just 18 % of public spending, 38 % for the regional governments, 13 % for the local councils, and the remaining 31 % for the social security system. The current Spanish constitution has been implemented in such a way that, in many respects, Spain can be compared to countries which are undeniably federal.
However, in order to manage the tensions present in the Spanish transition to democracy, the drafters of the current Spanish constitution avoided giving labels such as ' federal ' to the territorial arrangements. Besides, unlike in the federal system, the main taxes are taken centrally from Madrid (except for the Basque Country and Navarre, which were recognized in the Spanish democratic constitution as charter territories drawing from historical reasons) and then distributed to the Autonomous Communities.
An explicit and legal recognition of federalism as such is promoted by parties such as Podemos, United Left and, more recently, the Spanish Socialist Workers ' Party. The Spanish Socialist party has recently considered the idea of enshrining a federal Spain, in part, due to the increase of the Spanish peripheral nationalisms and the Catalan proposal of self - determination referenda for creating a Catalan state in Catalonia, either independent or within Spain.
The United Kingdom has traditionally been governed as a unitary state by the Westminster Parliament in London. Instead of adopting a federal model, the UK has relied on gradual devolution to decentralise political power. Devolution in the UK began with the Government of Ireland Act 1914 which granted home rule to Ireland as a constituent country of the former United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Following the partition of Ireland in 1921 which saw the creation of the sovereign Irish Free State (which eventually evolved into the modern day Republic of Ireland), Northern Ireland retained its devolved government through the Parliament of Northern Ireland, the only part of the UK to have such a body at this time. This body was suspended in 1972 and Northern Ireland was governed by direct rule during the period of conflict known as The Troubles.
In modern times, a process of devolution in the United Kingdom has decentralised power once again. Since the 1997 referendums in Scotland and Wales and the Good Friday Agreement in Northern Ireland, three of the four constituent countries of the UK now have some level of autonomy. Government has been devolved to the Scottish Parliament, the National Assembly for Wales and the Northern Ireland Assembly. England does not have its own parliament and English affairs continue to be decided by the Westminster Parliament. In 1998 a set of eight unelected Regional assemblies, or chambers, was created to support the English Regional Development Agencies, but these were abolished between 2008 and 2010. The Regions of England continue to be used in certain governmental administrative functions.
Critics of devolution often cite the West Lothian question, which refers to the voting power of non-English MPs on matters affecting only England in the UK Parliament. Scottish and Welsh nationalism have been increasing in popularity, and since the Scottish independence referendum, 2014 there has been a wider debate about the UK adopting a federal system with each of the four home nations having its own, equal devolved legislatures and law - making powers.
UK federal government was proposed as early as 1912 by the Member of Parliament for Dundee, Winston Churchill, in the context of the legislation for Irish Home Rule. In a speech in Dundee on 12 September, he proposed that England should also be governed by regional parliaments, with power devolved to areas such as Lancashire, Yorkshire, the Midlands and London as part of a federal system of government.
Anarchists are against the State but are not against political organization or "governance '' -- so long as it is self - governance utilizing direct democracy. The mode of political organization preferred by anarchists, in general, is federalism or confederalism. However, the anarchist definition of federalism tends to differ from the definition of federalism assumed by pro-state political scientists. The following is a brief description of federalism from section I. 5 of An Anarchist FAQ:
Federalism also finds expression in ecclesiology (the doctrine of the church). For example, presbyterian church governance resembles parliamentary republicanism (a form of political federalism) to a large extent. In Presbyterian denominations, the local church is ruled by elected elders, some of which are ministerial. Each church then sends representatives or commissioners to presbyteries and further to a general assembly. Each greater level of assembly has ruling authority over its constituent members. In this governmental structure, each component has some level of sovereignty over itself. As in political federalism, in presbyterian ecclesiology there is shared sovereignty.
Other ecclesiologies also have significant representational and federalistic components, including the more anarchic congregational ecclesiology, and even in more hierarchical episcopal ecclesiology.
Some Christians argue that the earliest source of political federalism (or federalism in human institutions; in contrast to theological federalism) is the ecclesiastical federalism found in the Bible. They point to the structure of the early Christian Church as described (and prescribed, as believed by many) in the New Testament. In their arguments, this is particularly demonstrated in the Council of Jerusalem, described in Acts chapter 15, where the Apostles and elders gathered together to govern the Church; the Apostles being representatives of the universal Church, and elders being such for the local church. To this day, elements of federalism can be found in almost every Christian denomination, some more than others.
In a federation, the division of power between federal and regional governments is usually outlined in the constitution. Almost every country allows some degree of regional self - government, in federations the right to self - government of the component states is constitutionally entrenched. Component states often also possess their own constitutions which they may amend as they see fit, although in the event of conflict the federal constitution usually takes precedence.
In almost all federations the central government enjoys the powers of foreign policy and national defense as exclusive federal powers. Were this not the case a federation would not be a single sovereign state, per the UN definition. Notably, the states of Germany retain the right to act on their own behalf at an international level, a condition originally granted in exchange for the Kingdom of Bavaria 's agreement to join the German Empire in 1871. Beyond this the precise division of power varies from one nation to another. The constitutions of Germany and the United States provide that all powers not specifically granted to the federal government are retained by the states. The Constitution of some countries like Canada and India, on the other hand, state that powers not explicitly granted to the provincial governments are retained by the federal government. Much like the US system, the Australian Constitution allocates to the Federal government (the Commonwealth of Australia) the power to make laws about certain specified matters which were considered too difficult for the States to manage, so that the States retain all other areas of responsibility. Under the division of powers of the European Union in the Lisbon Treaty, powers which are not either exclusively of European competence or shared between EU and state as concurrent powers are retained by the constituent states.
Where every component state of a federation possesses the same powers, we are said to find ' symmetric federalism '. Asymmetric federalism exists where states are granted different powers, or some possess greater autonomy than others do. This is often done in recognition of the existence of a distinct culture in a particular region or regions. In Spain, the Basques and Catalans, as well as the Galicians, spearheaded a historic movement to have their national specificity recognized, crystallizing in the "historical communities '' such as Navarre, Galicia, Catalonia, and the Basque Country. They have more powers than the later expanded arrangement for other Spanish regions, or the Spain of the autonomous communities (called also the "coffee for everyone '' arrangement), partly to deal with their separate identity and to appease peripheral nationalist leanings, partly out of respect to specific rights they had held earlier in history. However, strictly speaking Spain is not a federalism, but a decentralized administrative organization of the state.
It is common that during the historical evolution of a federation there is a gradual movement of power from the component states to the centre, as the federal government acquires additional powers, sometimes to deal with unforeseen circumstances. The acquisition of new powers by a federal government may occur through formal constitutional amendment or simply through a broadening of the interpretation of a government 's existing constitutional powers given by the courts.
Usually, a federation is formed at two levels: the central government and the regions (states, provinces, territories), and little to nothing is said about second or third level administrative political entities. Brazil is an exception, because the 1988 Constitution included the municipalities as autonomous political entities making the federation tripartite, encompassing the Union, the States, and the municipalities. Each state is divided into municipalities (municípios) with their own legislative council (câmara de vereadores) and a mayor (prefeito), which are partly autonomous from both Federal and State Government. Each municipality has a "little constitution '', called "organic law '' (lei orgânica). Mexico is an intermediate case, in that municipalities are granted full - autonomy by the federal constitution and their existence as autonomous entities (municipio libre, "free municipality '') is established by the federal government and can not be revoked by the states ' constitutions. Moreover, the federal constitution determines which powers and competencies belong exclusively to the municipalities and not to the constituent states. However, municipalities do not have an elected legislative assembly.
Federations often employ the paradox of being a union of states, while still being states (or having aspects of statehood) in themselves. For example, James Madison (author of the US Constitution) wrote in Federalist Paper No. 39 that the US Constitution "is in strictness neither a national nor a federal constitution; but a composition of both. In its foundation, it is federal, not national; in the sources from which the ordinary powers of the Government are drawn, it is partly federal, and partly national... '' This stems from the fact that states in the US maintain all sovereignty that they do not yield to the federation by their own consent. This was reaffirmed by the Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which reserves all powers and rights that are not delegated to the Federal Government as left to the States and to the people.
The structures of most federal governments incorporate mechanisms to protect the rights of component states. One method, known as ' intrastate federalism ', is to directly represent the governments of component states in federal political institutions. Where a federation has a bicameral legislature the upper house is often used to represent the component states while the lower house represents the people of the nation as a whole. A federal upper house may be based on a special scheme of apportionment, as is the case in the senates of the United States and Australia, where each state is represented by an equal number of senators irrespective of the size of its population.
Alternatively, or in addition to this practice, the members of an upper house may be indirectly elected by the government or legislature of the component states, as occurred in the United States prior to 1913, or be actual members or delegates of the state governments, as, for example, is the case in the German Bundesrat and in the Council of the European Union. The lower house of a federal legislature is usually directly elected, with apportionment in proportion to population, although states may sometimes still be guaranteed a certain minimum number of seats.
In Canada, the provincial governments represent regional interests and negotiate directly with the central government. A First Ministers conference of the prime minister and the provincial premiers is the de facto highest political forum in the land, although it is not mentioned in the constitution.
Federations often have special procedures for amendment of the federal constitution. As well as reflecting the federal structure of the state this may guarantee that the self - governing status of the component states can not be abolished without their consent. An amendment to the constitution of the United States must be ratified by three - quarters of either the state legislatures, or of constitutional conventions specially elected in each of the states, before it can come into effect. In referendums to amend the constitutions of Australia and Switzerland it is required that a proposal be endorsed not just by an overall majority of the electorate in the nation as a whole, but also by separate majorities in each of a majority of the states or cantons. In Australia, this latter requirement is known as a double majority.
Some federal constitutions also provide that certain constitutional amendments can not occur without the unanimous consent of all states or of a particular state. The US constitution provides that no state may be deprived of equal representation in the senate without its consent. In Australia, if a proposed amendment will specifically impact one or more states, then it must be endorsed in the referendum held in each of those states. Any amendment to the Canadian constitution that would modify the role of the monarchy would require unanimous consent of the provinces. The German Basic Law provides that no amendment is admissible at all that would abolish the federal system.
The meaning of federalism, as a political movement, and of what constitutes a ' federalist ', varies with country and historical context. Movements associated with the establishment or development of federations can exhibit either centralising or decentralising trends. For example, at the time those nations were being established, factions known as "federalists '' in the United States and Australia advocated the formation of strong central government. Similarly, in European Union politics, federalists mostly seek greater EU integration. In contrast, in Spain and in post-war Germany, federal movements have sought decentralisation: the transfer of power from central authorities to local units. In Canada, where Quebec separatism has been a political force for several decades, the "federalist '' impulse aims to keep Quebec inside Canada.
Federalism, and other forms of territorial autonomy, is generally seen as a useful way to structure political systems in order to prevent violence among different groups within countries because it allows certain groups to legislate at the subnational level. Some scholars have suggested, however, that federalism can divide countries and result in state collapse because it creates proto - states. Still others have shown that federalism is only divisive when it lacks mechanisms that encourage political parties to compete across regional boundaries.
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where is serotonin released in the nervous system | Serotonin - Wikipedia
Serotonin (/ ˌsɛrəˈtoʊnɪn, ˌsɪərə - /) or 5 - hydroxytryptamine (5 - HT) is a monoamine neurotransmitter. Biochemically derived from tryptophan, serotonin is primarily found in the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract), blood platelets, and the central nervous system (CNS) of animals, including humans. It is popularly thought to be a contributor to feelings of well - being and happiness.
Approximately 90 % of the human body 's total serotonin is located in the enterochromaffin cells in the GI tract, where it is used to regulate intestinal movements. The serotonin is secreted luminally and basolaterally which leads to increased serotonin uptake by circulating platelets and activation after stimulation, which gives increased stimulation of myenteric neurons and gastrointestinal motility. The remainder is synthesized in serotonergic neurons of the CNS, where it has various functions. These include the regulation of mood, appetite, and sleep. Serotonin also has some cognitive functions, including memory and learning. Modulation of serotonin at synapses is thought to be a major action of several classes of pharmacological antidepressants.
Serotonin secreted from the enterochromaffin cells eventually finds its way out of tissues into the blood. There, it is actively taken up by blood platelets, which store it. When the platelets bind to a clot, they release serotonin, where it can serve as a vasoconstrictor and / or a vasodilator while regulating hemostasis and blood clotting. In high concentrations, serotonin acts as a vasoconstrictor by contracting endothelial smooth muscle directly or by potentiating the effects of other vasoconstrictors (e.g. angiotensin II, norepinephrine). The vasoconstrictive property is mostly seen in pathologic states affecting the endothelium such as atherosclerosis or chronic hypertension. In physiologic states, vasodilation occurs through the serotonin mediated release of nitric oxide from endothelial cells. Additionally, it inhibits the release of norepinephrine from adrenergic nerves. Serotonin is also a growth factor for some types of cells, which may give it a role in wound healing. There are various serotonin receptors.
Serotonin is metabolized mainly to 5 - HIAA, chiefly by the liver. Metabolism involves first oxidation by monoamine oxidase to the corresponding aldehyde. This is followed by oxidation by aldehyde dehydrogenase to 5 - HIAA, the indole acetic acid derivative. The latter is then excreted by the kidneys.
Aside from mammals it is found in all bilateral animals including worms and insects, as well as in fungi and plants. Serotonin 's presence in insect venoms and plant spines serves to cause pain, which is a side - effect of serotonin injection. Serotonin is produced by pathogenic amoebae, and its effect in the human gut is diarrhea. Its widespread presence in many seeds and fruits may serve to stimulate the digestive tract into expelling the seeds.
Serotonin is a neurotransmitter and is found in all bilateral animals including insects. Serotonin is also present in plants (phytoserotonin).
Serotonin mediates the animal 's perceptions of resource; In less complex animals, such as some invertebrates, resources simply mean food availability. In plants serotonin synthesis seems to be associated with stress signals. In more complex animals, such as arthropods and vertebrates, resources also can mean social dominance. In response to the perceived abundance or scarcity of resources, an animal 's growth, reproduction or mood may be elevated or lowered. This may somewhat depend on how much serotonin the organism has at its disposal.
The 5 - HT receptors, the receptors for serotonin, are located on the cell membrane of nerve cells and other cell types in animals, and mediate the effects of serotonin as the endogenous ligand and of a broad range of pharmaceutical and hallucinogenic drugs. Except for the 5 - HT receptor, a ligand - gated ion channel, all other 5 - HT receptors are G - protein - coupled receptors (also called seven - transmembrane, or heptahelical receptors) that activate an intracellular second messenger cascade.
Serotonergic action is terminated primarily via uptake of 5 - HT from the synapse. This is accomplished through the specific monoamine transporter for 5 - HT, SERT, on the presynaptic neuron. Various agents can inhibit 5 - HT reuptake, including cocaine, dextromethorphan (an antitussive), tricyclic antidepressants and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). A 2006 study conducted by the University of Washington suggested that a newly discovered monoamine transporter, known as PMAT, may account for "a significant percentage of 5 - HT clearance ''.
Contrasting with the high - affinity SERT, the PMAT has been identified as a low - affinity transporter, with an apparent K of 114 micromoles / l for serotonin; approximately 230 times higher than that of SERT. However, the PMAT, despite its relatively low serotonergic affinity, has a considerably higher transport ' capacity ' than SERT, "resulting in roughly comparable uptake efficiencies to SERT in heterologous expression systems. '' The study also suggests some SSRIs, such as fluoxetine and sertraline anti-depressants, inhibit PMAT but at IC values which surpass the therapeutic plasma concentrations by up to four orders of magnitude. Therefore, SSRI monotherapy is "ineffective '' in PMAT inhibition. At present, no known pharmaceuticals are known to appreciably inhibit PMAT at normal therapeutic doses. The PMAT also suggestively transports dopamine and norepinephrine, albeit at K values even higher than that of 5 - HT (330 -- 15,000 μmoles / L).
Serotonin can also signal through a nonreceptor mechanism called serotonylation, in which serotonin modifies proteins. This process underlies serotonin 's effects upon platelet - forming cells (thrombocytes) in which it links to the modification of signaling enzymes called GTPases that then trigger the release of vesicle contents by exocytosis. A similar process underlies the pancreatic release of insulin.
The effects of serotonin upon vascular smooth muscle tone (this is the biological function from which serotonin originally got its name) depend upon the serotonylation of proteins involved in the contractile apparatus of muscle cells.
The neurons of the raphe nuclei are the principal source of 5 - HT release in the brain. There are nine raphe nuclei, designated B1 - B9, which contain the majority of serotonin - containing neurons (some scientists chose to group the nuclei raphes lineares into one nucleus), all of which are located along the midline of the brainstem, and centered on the reticular formation. Axons from the neurons of the raphe nuclei form a neurotransmitter system reaching almost every part of the central nervous system. Axons of neurons in the lower raphe nuclei terminate in the cerebellum and spinal cord, while the axons of the higher nuclei spread out in the entire brain.
The serotonin nuclei may also be divided into two main groups, the rostral and caudal containing three and four nuclei respectively. The rostral group consists of the caudal linear nuclei (B8), the dorsal raphe nuclei (B6 and B7) and the median raphe nuclei (B5, B8 and B9), that project into multiple cortical and subcortical structures. The caudal group consists of the nucleus raphe magnus (B3), raphe obscurus nucleus (B2), raphe pallidus nucleus (B1), and lateral medullary reticular formation, that project into the brainstem.
Serotonergic pathway are involved in sensorimotor function, with pathways projecting both into cortical (Dorsal and Median Raphe Nuclei), subcortical, and spinal areas involved in motor activity. Pharmacological manipulation suggest that serotonergic activity increases with motor activity, while firing rates of serotonergic neurons increase with intense visual stimuli. The descending projections form a pathway that inhibits pain called the "descending inhibitory pathway '' that may be relevant to disorder such as fibromyalgia, migraine and other pain disorders, and the efficacy of antidepressants in them.
Serotonergic projections from the caudal nuclei are involved in regulating mood, emotion and hypo or hyperserotonergic states may be involved in depression and sickness behavior.
Serotonin is released into the synapse, or space between neurons, and diffuses over a relatively wide gap (> 20 μm) to activate 5 - HT receptors located on the dendrites, cell bodies and presynaptic terminals of adjacent neurons.
When humans smell food, dopamine is released to increase the appetite. But, unlike in worms, serotonin does not increase anticipatory behaviour in humans; instead, the serotonin released while consuming activates 5 - HT2C receptors on dopamine - producing cells. This halts their dopamine release, and thereby serotonin decreases appetite. Drugs that block 5 - HT receptors make the body unable to recognize when it is no longer hungry or otherwise in need of nutrients, and are associated with weight gain, especially in people with a low number of receptors. The expression of 5 - HT receptors in the hippocampus follows a diurnal rhythm, just as the serotonin release in the ventromedial nucleus, which is characterised by a peak at morning when the motivation to eat is strongest.
The amount of food that an animal acquires depends not only on food availability but also on the animal 's ability to compete with others. This is especially true for social animals, where the stronger individuals might steal food from the weaker (this is not to say some non-social animals do not concern themselves with the needs of others or steal food from others). Thus, serotonin is involved not only in the perception of food availability but also in social rank.
In macaques, alpha males have twice the level of serotonin released in the brain than subordinate males and females (as measured by the levels of 5 - Hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5 - HIAA) in the cerebro - spinal fluid). Dominance status and cerebro - serotonin levels appear to be positively correlated. When dominant males were removed from such groups, subordinate males begin competing for dominance. Once new dominance hierarchies were established, serotonin levels of the new dominant individuals also increased to double those in subordinate males and females. The reason why serotonin levels are only high in dominant males but not dominant females has not yet been established.
In humans, levels of 5 - HT receptor activation in the brain show negative correlation with aggression, and a mutation in the gene that codes for the 5 - HT receptor may double the risk of suicide for those with that genotype. Serotonin in the brain is not usually degraded after use, but is collected by serotonergic neurons by serotonin transporters on their cell surfaces. Studies have revealed nearly 10 % of total variance in anxiety - related personality depends on variations in the description of where, when and how many serotonin transporters the neurons should deploy.
Serotonin has been implicated in cognition, mood, anxiety and psychosis, but strong clarity has not been achieved.
The gut is surrounded by enterochromaffin cells, which release serotonin in response to food in the lumen. This makes the gut contract around the food. Platelets in the veins draining the gut collect excess serotonin.
If irritants are present in the food, the enterochromaffin cells release more serotonin to make the gut move faster, i.e., to cause diarrhea, so the gut is emptied of the noxious substance. If serotonin is released in the blood faster than the platelets can absorb it, the level of free serotonin in the blood is increased. This activates 5 - HT3 receptors in the chemoreceptor trigger zone that stimulate vomiting. The enterochromaffin cells not only react to bad food but are also very sensitive to irradiation and cancer chemotherapy. Drugs that block 5HT3 are very effective in controlling the nausea and vomiting produced by cancer treatment, and are considered the gold standard for this purpose.
In mice and humans, alterations in serotonin levels and signalling have been shown to regulate bone mass. Mice that lack brain serotonin have osteopenia, while mice that lack gut serotonin have high bone density. In humans, increased blood serotonin levels have been shown to be significant negative predictor of low bone density. Serotonin can also be synthesized, albeit at very low levels, in the bone cells. It mediates its actions on bone cells using three different receptors. Through 5 - HT receptors, it negatively regulates bone mass, while it does so positively through 5 - HT receptors and 5 - HT receptors. There is very delicate balance between physiological role of gut serotonin and its pathology. Increase in the extracellular content of serotonin results in a complex relay of signals in the osteoblasts culminating in FoxO1 / Creb and ATF4 dependent transcriptional events. These studies have opened a new area of research in bone metabolism that can be potentially harnessed to treat bone mass disorders.
Since serotonin signals resource availability it is not surprising that it affects organ development. Many human and animal studies have shown that nutrition in early life can influence, in adulthood, such things as body fatness, blood lipids, blood pressure, atherosclerosis, behavior, learning and longevity. Rodent experiment shows that neonatal exposure to SSRI 's makes persistent changes in the serotonergic transmission of the brain resulting in behavioral changes, which are reversed by treatment with antidepressants. By treating normal and knockout mice lacking the serotonin transporter with fluoxetine scientists showed that normal emotional reactions in adulthood, like a short latency to escape foot shocks and inclination to explore new environments were dependent on active serotonin transporters during the neonatal period.
Human serotonin can also act as a growth factor directly. Liver damage increases cellular expression of 5 - HT2A and 5 - HT2B receptors, mediating liver compensatory regrowth (see Liver § Regeneration and transplantation) Serotonin present in the blood then stimulates cellular growth to repair liver damage. 5HT2B receptors also activate osteocytes, which build up bone However, serotonin also inhibits osteoblasts, through 5 - HT1B receptors.
Serotonin, in addition, evokes endothelial nitric oxide synthase activation and stimulates, through a 5 - HT1B receptor - mediated mechanism, the phosphorylation of p44 / p42 mitogen - activated protein kinase activation in bovine aortic endothelial cell cultures. In blood, serotonin is collected from plasma by platelets, which store it. It is thus active wherever platelets bind in damaged tissue, as a vasoconstrictor to stop bleeding, and also as a fibrocyte mitotic (growth factor), to aid healing.
Several classes of drugs target the 5 - HT system, including some antidepressants, antipsychotics, anxiolytics, antiemetics, and antimigraine drugs, as well as the psychedelic drugs and empathogens.
The psychedelic drugs psilocin / psilocybin, DMT, mescaline, psychedelic mushroom and LSD are agonists, primarily at 5HT receptors. The empathogen - entactogen MDMA releases serotonin from synaptic vesicles of neurons.
Drugs that alter serotonin levels are used in treating depression, generalized anxiety disorder and social phobia. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) prevent the breakdown of monoamine neurotransmitters (including serotonin), and therefore increase concentrations of the neurotransmitter in the brain. MAOI therapy is associated with many adverse drug reactions, and patients are at risk of hypertensive emergency triggered by foods with high tyramine content, and certain drugs. Some drugs inhibit the re-uptake of serotonin, making it stay in the synaptic cleft longer. The tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) inhibit the reuptake of both serotonin and norepinephrine. The newer selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) have fewer side - effects and fewer interactions with other drugs.
Certain SSRI medications have been shown to lower serotonin levels below the baseline after chronic use, despite initial increases. The 5 - HTTLPR gene codes for the number of serotonin transporters in the brain, with more serotonin transporters causing decreased duration and magnitude of serotonergic signaling. The 5 - HTTLPR polymorphism (l / l) causing more serotonin transporters to be formed is also found to be more resilient against depression and anxiety.
Extremely high levels of serotonin can cause a condition known as serotonin syndrome, with toxic and potentially fatal effects. In practice, such toxic levels are essentially impossible to reach through an overdose of a single antidepressant drug, but require a combination of serotonergic agents, such as an SSRI with an MAOI. The intensity of the symptoms of serotonin syndrome vary over a wide spectrum, and the milder forms are seen even at nontoxic levels.
Some 5 - HT antagonists, such as ondansetron, granisetron, and tropisetron, are important antiemetic agents. They are particularly important in treating the nausea and vomiting that occur during anticancer chemotherapy using cytotoxic drugs. Another application is in the treatment of postoperative nausea and vomiting.
Some serotonergic agonist drugs cause fibrosis anywhere in the body, particularly the syndrome of retroperitoneal fibrosis, as well as cardiac valve fibrosis. In the past, three groups of serotonergic drugs have been epidemiologically linked with these syndromes. These are the serotonergic vasoconstrictive antimigraine drugs (ergotamine and methysergide), the serotonergic appetite suppressant drugs (fenfluramine, chlorphentermine, and aminorex), and certain anti-Parkinsonian dopaminergic agonists, which also stimulate serotonergic 5 - HT receptors. These include pergolide and cabergoline, but not the more dopamine - specific lisuride.
As with fenfluramine, some of these drugs have been withdrawn from the market after groups taking them showed a statistical increase of one or more of the side effects described. An example is pergolide. The drug was declining in use since it was reported in 2003 to be associated with cardiac fibrosis.
Two independent studies published in the New England Journal of Medicine in January 2007, implicated pergolide, along with cabergoline, in causing valvular heart disease. As a result of this, the FDA removed pergolide from the United States market in March 2007. (Since cabergoline is not approved in the United States for Parkinson 's Disease, but for hyperprolactinemia, the drug remains on the market. Treatment for hyperprolactinemia requires lower doses than that for Parkinson 's Disease, diminishing the risk of valvular heart disease).
Several plants contain serotonin together with a family of related tryptamines that are methylated at the amino (NH) and (OH) groups, are N - oxides, or miss the OH group. These compounds do reach the brain, although some portion of them are metabolized by monoamine oxidase enzymes (mainly MAO - A) in the liver. Examples are plants from the Anadenanthera genus that are used in the hallucinogenic yopo snuff. These compounds are widely present in the leaves of many plants, and may serve as deterrents for animal ingestion. Serotonin occurs in several mushrooms of the genus Panaeolus.
Serotonin is used by a variety of single - cell organisms for various purposes. SSRIs have been found to be toxic to algae. The gastrointestinal parasite Entamoeba histolytica secretes serotonin, causing a sustained secretory diarrhea in some people. Patients infected with E. histolytica have been found to have highly elevated serum serotonin levels, which returned to normal following resolution of the infection. E. histolytica also responds to the presence of serotonin by becoming more virulent. This means serotonin secretion not only serves to increase the spread of enteamoebas by giving the host diarrhea but also serves to coordinate their behaviour according to their population density, a phenomenon known as quorum sensing. Outside the gut of a host, there is nothing that the entoamoebas provoke to release serotonin, hence the serotonin concentration is very low. Low serotonin signals to the entoamoebas they are outside a host and they become less virulent to conserve energy. When they enter a new host, they multiply in the gut, and become more virulent as the enterochromaffine cells get provoked by them and the serotonin concentration increases.
In drying seeds, serotonin production is a way to get rid of the buildup of poisonous ammonia. The ammonia is collected and placed in the indole part of L - tryptophan, which is then decarboxylated by tryptophan decarboxylase to give tryptamine, which is then hydroxylated by a cytochrome P450 monooxygenase, yielding serotonin.
However, since serotonin is a major gastrointestinal tract modulator, it may be produced by plants in fruits as a way of speeding the passage of seeds through the digestive tract, in the same way as many well - known seed and fruit associated laxatives. Serotonin is found in mushrooms, fruits and vegetables. The highest values of 25 -- 400 mg / kg have been found in nuts of the walnut (Juglans) and hickory (Carya) genera. Serotonin concentrations of 3 -- 30 mg / kg have been found in plantains, pineapples, banana, kiwifruit, plums, and tomatoes. Moderate levels from 0.1 -- 3 mg / kg have been found in a wide range of tested vegetables.
Serotonin is one compound of the poison contained in stinging nettles (Urtica dioica), where it causes pain on injection in the same manner as its presence in insect venoms (see below). It is also naturally found in Paramuricea clavata, or the Red Sea Fan.
Serotonin and tryptophan have been found in chocolate with varying cocoa contents. The highest serotonin content (2.93 μg / g) was found in chocolate with 85 % cocoa, and the highest tryptophan content (13.27 -- 13.34 μg / g) was found in 70 -- 85 % cocoa. The intermediate in the synthesis from tryptophan to serotonin, 5 - hydroxytryptophan, was not found.
Serotonin functions as a neurotransmitter in the nervous systems of most animals. For example, in the roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans, which feeds on bacteria, serotonin is released as a signal in response to positive events, such as finding a new source of food or in male animals finding a female with which to mate. When a well - fed worm feels bacteria on its cuticle, dopamine is released, which slows it down; if it is starved, serotonin also is released, which slows the animal down further. This mechanism increases the amount of time animals spend in the presence of food. The released serotonin activates the muscles used for feeding, while octopamine suppresses them. Serotonin diffuses to serotonin - sensitive neurons, which control the animal 's perception of nutrient availability.
If lobsters are injected with serotonin, they behave like dominant individuals whereas octopamine causes subordinate behavior. A crayfish that is frightened may flip its tail to flee, and the effect of serotonin on this behavior depends largely on the animal 's social status. Serotonin inhibits the fleeing reaction in subordinates, but enhances it in socially dominant or isolated individuals. The reason for this is social experience alters the proportion between serotonin receptors (5 - HT receptors) that have opposing effects on the fight - or - flight response. The effect of 5 - HT receptors predominates in subordinate animals, while 5 - HT receptors predominates in dominants.
Serotonin is evolutionary conserved and appears across the animal kingdom. It is seen in insect processes in roles similar to in the human central nervous system, such as memory, appetite, sleep, and behavior. Locust swarming is mediated by serotonin, by transforming social preference from aversion to a gregarious state that enables coherent groups. Learning in flies and honeybees is affected by the presence of serotonin. Insect 5 - HT receptors have similar sequences to the vertebrate versions, but pharmacological differences have been seen. Invertebrate drug response has been far less characterized than mammalian pharmacology and the potential for species selective insecticides has been discussed.
Wasps and hornets have serotonin in their venom, which causes pain and inflammation. as do scorpions.
If flies are fed serotonin, they are more aggressive; flies depleted of serotonin still exhibit aggression, but they do so much less frequently.
In the nematode C. elegans, artificial depletion of serotonin or the increase of octopamine cues behavior typical of a low - food environment: C. elegans becomes more active, and mating and egg - laying are suppressed, while the opposite occurs if serotonin is increased or octopamine is decreased in this animal. Serotonin is necessary for normal nematode male mating behavior, and the inclination to leave food to search for a mate. The serotonergic signaling used to adapt the worm 's behaviour to fast changes in the environment affects insulin - like signaling and the TGF beta signaling pathway, which control long - term adaption.
In the fruit fly insulin both regulates blood sugar as well as acting as a growth factor. Thus, in the fruit fly, serotonergic neurons regulate the adult body size by affecting insulin secretion. Serotonin has also been identified as the trigger for swarm behavior in locusts. In humans, though insulin regulates blood sugar and IGF regulates growth, serotonin controls the release of both hormones, modulating insulin release from the beta cells in the pancreas through serotonylation of GTPase signaling proteins. Exposure to SSRIs during Pregnancy reduces fetal growth.
Genetically altered C. elegans worms that lack serotonin have an increased reproductive lifespan, may become obese, and sometimes present with arrested development at a dormant larval state.
Serotonin is known to regulate aging, learning and memory. The first evidence comes from the study of longevity in C. elegans. During early phase of aging, the level of serotonin increases, which alters locomotory behaviors and associative memory. The effect is restored by mutations and drugs (including mianserin and methiothepin) that inhibit serotonin receptors. The observation does not contradict with the notion that the serotonin level goes down in mammals and humans, which is typically seen in late but not early phase of aging.
In animals including humans, serotonin is synthesized from the amino acid L - tryptophan by a short metabolic pathway consisting of two enzymes: tryptophan hydroxylase (TPH), aromatic amino acid decarboxylase (DDC) and the coenzyme pyridoxal phosphate. The TPH - mediated reaction is the rate - limiting step in the pathway. TPH has been shown to exist in two forms: TPH1, found in several tissues, and TPH2, which is a neuron - specific isoform.
Serotonin can be synthesized from tryptophan in the lab using Aspergillus niger and Psilocybe coprophila as catalysts. The first phase to 5 - hydroxytryptophan would require letting tryptophan sit in ethanol and water for 7 days, then mixing in enough HCl (or other acid) to bring the pH to 3, and then adding NaOH to make a pH of 13 for 1 hour. Asperigillus niger would be the catalyst for this first phase. The second phase to synthesizing tryptophan itself from the 5 - hydroxytryptophan intermediate would require adding ethanol and water, and letting sit for 30 days this time. The next two steps would be the same as the first phase: adding HCl to make the pH = 3, and then adding NaOH to make the pH very basic at 13 for 1 hour. This phase uses the Psilocybe coprophila as the catalyst for the reaction.
Serotonin taken orally does not pass into the serotonergic pathways of the central nervous system, because it does not cross the blood -- brain barrier. However, tryptophan and its metabolite 5 - hydroxytryptophan (5 - HTP), from which serotonin is synthesized, does cross the blood -- brain barrier. These agents are available as dietary supplements, and may be effective serotonergic agents. One product of serotonin breakdown is 5 - hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5 - HIAA), which is excreted in the urine. Serotonin and 5 - HIAA are sometimes produced in excess amounts by certain tumors or cancers, and levels of these substances may be measured in the urine to test for these tumors.
Consuming purified tryptophan increases brain serotonin whereas eating foods containing tryptophan does not. This is because the transport system which brings tryptophan across the blood - brain barrier is also selective for the other amino acids contained in protein sources. High plasma levels of other large neutral amino acids compete for transport and prevent the elevated plasma tryptophan from increasing serotonin synthesis.
In 1935, Italian Vittorio Erspamer showed an extract from enterochromaffin cells made intestines contract. Some believed it contained adrenaline, but two years later, Erspamer was able to show it was a previously unknown amine, which he named "enteramine ''. In 1948, Maurice M. Rapport, Arda Green, and Irvine Page of the Cleveland Clinic discovered a vasoconstrictor substance in blood serum, and since it was a serum agent affecting vascular tone, they named it serotonin.
In 1952, enteramine was shown to be the same substance as serotonin, and as the broad range of physiological roles was elucidated, the abbreviation 5 - HT of the proper chemical name 5 - hydroxytryptamine became the preferred name in the pharmacological field. Synonyms of serotonin include: 5 - hydroxytriptamine, thrombotin, enteramin, substance DS, and 3 - (β - Aminoethyl) - 5 - hydroxyindole. In 1953, Betty Twarog and Page discovered serotonin in the central nervous system.
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who played the best in beauty and the beast | Beauty and the Beast (2017 film) - wikipedia
Beauty and the Beast is a 2017 American musical romantic fantasy film directed by Bill Condon from a screenplay written by Stephen Chbosky and Evan Spiliotopoulos, and co-produced by Walt Disney Pictures and Mandeville Films. The film is based on Disney 's 1991 animated film of the same name, itself an adaptation of Jeanne - Marie Leprince de Beaumont 's eighteenth - century fairy tale. The film features an ensemble cast that includes Emma Watson and Dan Stevens as the eponymous characters with Luke Evans, Kevin Kline, Josh Gad, Ewan McGregor, Stanley Tucci, Audra McDonald, Gugu Mbatha - Raw, Ian McKellen, and Emma Thompson in supporting roles.
Principal photography began at Shepperton Studios in Surrey, United Kingdom on May 18, 2015, and ended on August 21. Beauty and the Beast premiered at Spencer House in London on February 23, 2017, and was released in the United States in standard, Disney Digital 3 - D, RealD 3D, IMAX and IMAX 3D formats, along with Dolby Cinema on March 17, 2017. The film received generally positive reviews from critics, with many praising Watson and Stevens ' performances as well as the ensemble cast, faithfulness to the original animated film alongside elements from the Broadway musical, visual style, production design, and musical score, though it received criticism for some of the character designs and its excessive similarity to the original. The film grossed over $1.2 billion worldwide, becoming the highest - grossing live - action musical film, and making it the second highest - grossing film of 2017 and the 11th - highest - grossing film of all time. The film received four nominations at the 23rd Critics ' Choice Awards and two nominations at the 71st British Academy Film Awards.
In Rococo - era France, an enchantress disguised as an old beggar woman arrives at a castle during a ball and offers the host, a coldhearted prince, a rose for shelter. When he refuses, she reveals her identity as an enchantress and transforms him into a beast and his servants into household objects, then erases the castle, the prince and his servants from the memories of their loved ones. She casts a spell on the rose and warns the prince that the curse will never lift unless he learns to love another, and earn their love in return, before the last petal falls.
Some years later, in the small town of Villeneuve, Belle, the book - loving daughter of a music box maker and artist Maurice, dreams of adventure and brushes off advances from Gaston, an arrogant former soldier. On his way to a convention and lost in the forest, Belle 's father Maurice seeks refuge in the Beast 's castle, but the Beast imprisons him for stealing a rose from his garden as a birthday gift to Belle. When Maurice 's horse returns without him, Belle ventures out in search for him, and finds him locked in the castle dungeon. The Beast agrees to let her take Maurice 's place.
Belle befriends the castle 's servants, who invite her to a spectacular dinner. When she wanders into the forbidden west wing and finds the rose, the Beast, enraged, scares her into the woods. She is ambushed by a pack of wolves, but the Beast rescues her, and is injured in the process. As Belle nurses his wounds, a friendship develops between them. The Beast shows Belle a gift from the enchantress, a book that transports readers wherever they want. Belle uses it to visit her childhood home in Paris, where she discovers a plague doctor mask and realizes that she and her father were forced to leave her mother 's deathbed when her mother succumbed to the plague.
In Villeneuve, Gaston sees rescuing Belle as an opportunity to win her hand in marriage, and agrees to help Maurice. When Maurice learns of his ulterior motive and rejects him, Gaston abandons him to be eaten by the wolves. Maurice is rescued by the hermit Agathe, but when he tells the townsfolk of Gaston 's crime but is unable to provide solid evidence, Gaston convinces them to send Maurice to an insane asylum.
After sharing a romantic dance with the Beast, Belle discovers her father 's predicament using a magic mirror. The Beast releases her to save Maurice, giving her the mirror to remember him with. At Villeneuve, Belle proves Maurice 's sanity by revealing the Beast in the mirror to the townsfolk. Realizing that Belle loves the Beast, Gaston claims she has been charmed by dark magic, and has her thrown into the asylum carriage with her father. He rallies the villagers to follow him to the castle to slay the Beast before he curses the whole village. Maurice and Belle escape, and Belle rushes back to the castle.
During the battle, Gaston abandons his companion LeFou, who then sides with the servants to fend off the villagers. Gaston attacks the Beast in his tower, who is too depressed to fight back, but regains his spirit upon seeing Belle return. He overpowers Gaston, but spares his life before reuniting with Belle. However, Gaston fatally shoots the Beast from a bridge, but it collapses when the castle crumbles, and he falls to his death. The Beast dies as the last petal falls, and the servants become inanimate. When Belle tearfully professes her love to him, Agathe reveals herself as the enchantress and undoes the curse, repairing the crumbling castle, and restoring the Beast 's and servants ' human forms and the villagers ' memories. The Prince and Belle host a ball for the kingdom, where they dance happily.
^ In the initial theatrical release, Mitchell was miscredited as Rudi Gooman in the cast, but listed under his real name in the soundtrack credits.
^ In the initial theatrical release, Turner is miscredited as Henry Garrett in the cast.
Stephen Merchant also appeared in the film as Monsieur Toilette, a servant who was turned into a toilet. This character was cut from the film, but is featured in the deleted scenes.
Previously, Disney had begun work on a film adaptation of the 1994 Broadway musical. However, in a 2011 interview, composer Alan Menken stated the planned film version of the Beauty and the Beast stage musical "was canned ''.
By April 2014, Walt Disney Pictures had already begun developing a new live - action version and remake of Beauty and the Beast after making other live - action fantasy films such as Alice in Wonderland, Maleficent, Cinderella and The Jungle Book. In June 2014, Bill Condon was signed to direct the film from a script by Evan Spiliotopoulos. Later in September of that same year, Stephen Chbosky (who had previously directed Watson in The Perks of Being a Wallflower) was hired to re-write the script.
Before Condon was hired to direct the film, Disney approached him with a proposal to remake the film in a more radical way as Universal Studios had remade Snow White and the Huntsman (2012). Condon later explained that "after Frozen opened, the studio saw that there was this big international audience for an old - school - musical approach. But initially, they said, ' We 're interested in a musical to a degree, but only half full of songs. ' My interest was taking that film and doing it in this new medium -- live - action -- as a full - on musical movie. So I backed out for a minute, and they came back and said, ' No, no, no, we get it, let 's pursue it that way. ' '' Walt Disney Pictures president of production Sean Bailey credited Walt Disney Studios chairman Alan F. Horn with the decision to make the film as a musical: "We worked on this for five or six years, and for 18 months to two years, Beauty was a serious dramatic project, and the scripts were written to reflect that. It was n't a musical at that time. But we just could n't get it to click and it was Alan Horn who championed the idea of owning the Disney of it all. We realized there was a competitive advantage in the songs. What is wrong with making adults feel like kids again? ''
In January 2015, Emma Watson announced that she would be starring as Belle, the female lead. She was the first choice of Walt Disney Studios chairman Alan F. Horn, as he had previously overseen Warner Bros. which released the eight Harry Potter films that co-starred Watson as Hermione Granger. Two months later, Luke Evans and Dan Stevens were revealed to be in talks to play Gaston and the Beast respectively, and Watson confirmed their casting the following day through tweets. The rest of the principal cast, including Josh Gad, Emma Thompson, Kevin Kline, Audra McDonald, Ian McKellen, Gugu Mbatha - Raw, Ewan McGregor and Stanley Tucci were announced between March and April to play LeFou, Mrs. Potts, Maurice, Madame de Garderobe, Cogsworth, Plumette, Lumière and Cadenza, respectively.
Susan Egan, who originated the role of Belle on Broadway, commented on the casting of Watson as "perfect ''. Paige O'Hara voiced Belle in the original animated film and its sequels, offered to help Watson with her singing lessons.
According to The Hollywood Reporter, Emma Watson was reportedly paid $3 million upfront, together with an agreement that her final take - home pay could rise as high as $15 million if the film generated gross box office income similar to Maleficent 's $759 million worldwide gross.
Principal photography on the film began at Shepperton Studios in Surrey, United Kingdom, on May 18, 2015. Filming with the principal actors concluded on August 21. Six days later, co-producer Jack Morrissey confirmed that the film had officially wrapped production.
The Beast was portrayed with a "more traditional motion capture puppeteering for the body and the physical orientation '', where actor Dan Stevens was "in a forty - pound gray suit on stilts for much of the film ''. The facial capture for the Beast was done separately in order to "communicate the subtleties of the human face '' and "(capture the) thought that occurs to him '' which gets "through (to) the eyes, which are the last human element in the Beast. '' The castle servants who are transformed into household objects were created with CGI animation.
Before the release of the film, Bill Condon refilmed one certain sequence in the "Days of the Sun '' number, due to confusion among test audiences caused by actress Harriet Jones, who looked similar to Hattie Morahan, who portrayed Agathe. In the original version of the scene, it was Jones 's character, the Prince 's mother, who sings the first verse of the song, with Rudi Goodman playing the young Prince and Henry Garrett playing his father; but in the reshot version of the scene, the singing part is given to the Prince (now played by Adam Mitchell). The King was also recast to Tom Turner, although Harriet Jones was still the Queen, albeit with dark hair. Both Goodman and Garrett 's names were mistakenly featured in the original theatrical release 's credits, but was later corrected in home releases.
When released in 1991, Beauty and the Beast, marked a turning point for Walt Disney Pictures by appealing to millions of fans with its Oscar - winning musical score by lyricist Howard Ashman and composer Alan Menken. In Bill Condon 's opinion, that original score was the key reason he agreed to direct a live - action version of the movie. "That score had more to reveal '', he says, "You look at the songs and there 's not a clunker in the group. In fact, Frank Rich described it as the best Broadway musical of 1991. The animated version was already darker and more modern than the previous Disney fairytales. Take that vision, put it into a new medium, make it a radical reinvention, something not just for the stage because it 's not just being literal, now other elements come into play. It 's not just having real actors do it ''.
Condon initially prepared on only drawing inspiration from the original film, but he also planned to include most of the songs composed by Alan Menken, Howard Ashman and Tim Rice from the Broadway musical, with the intention of making the film as a "straight - forward, live - action, large - budget movie musical ''. Menken returned to score the film 's music, which features songs from the original film by him and Howard Ashman, plus new material written by Menken and Tim Rice. Menken said the film will not include songs that were written for the Broadway musical and instead, created four new songs. However, an instrumental version of the song "Home '', which was written for the musical, is used during the scene where Belle first enters her room in the castle.
On January 19, 2017, it was confirmed by both Disney and Céline Dion -- singer of the original 1991 "Beauty and the Beast '' duet song, with singer Peabo Bryson -- that Dion would be performing one of the new original songs "How Does a Moment Last Forever '' to play over the end titles. She originally had doubts about whether or not to record the song due to the recent death of her husband and manager René Angélil, who had previously helped her secure the 1991 pop duet. While ultimately accepting the opportunity, she said: "(The) first Beauty and the Beast decision was made with my husband. Now I 'm making decisions on my own. It 's a little bit harder. I could n't say yes right away, because I felt like I was kind of cheating in a way ''. She eventually felt compelled to record the song because of the impact Beauty and the Beast has had on her career. According to Dion, "I was at the beginning of my career, it put me on the map, it put me where I am today ''. Also, Josh Groban was announced to be performing the new original song "Evermore '' on January 26, 2017.
The 2017 film features a remake of the 1991 original song recorded as a duet by Ariana Grande and John Legend. Grande and Legend 's updated version of the title song is faithful to the original, Grammy - winning duet, performed by Céline Dion and Peabo Bryson for the 1991 Disney film. Disney debuted the music video for Ariana Grande and John Legend 's interpretation of the title song on Freeform television network on March 5, 2017, and it has since been viewed over 100 million views on the Vevo video - hosting service.
Emma Thompson also performed a rendition of the title song, which was performed by Angela Lansbury in the original 1991 animated film.
On March 16, 2015, Disney announced the film would be released in 3D on March 17, 2017. The first official presentation of the film took place at Disney 's three - day D23 Expo in August 2015.
The world premiere of Beauty and the Beast took place at Spencer House in London, United Kingdom on February 23, 2017; and the film later premiered at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood, California, on March 2, 2017. The stream was broadcast onto YouTube.
A sing along version of the film released in over 1,200 US theaters nationwide on April 7, 2017. The United Kingdom received the same version on April 21, 2017.
The film was re-released in New York and Los Angeles for a one - week engagement starting December 1, 2017. The move is an awards push as awards season heats up.
Disney spent around $140 million to market the film worldwide. Following an announcement on May 22, 2016, Disney premiered the first official teaser trailer on Good Morning America the next day. In its first 24 hours, the teaser trailer reached 91.8 million views, which topped the number of views seen in that amount of time in history, including for the teasers for other films distributed by Disney such as Avengers: Age of Ultron, Star Wars: The Force Awakens and Captain America: Civil War. This record has since been broken by Thor: Ragnarok and It and Avengers: Infinity War. The first official teaser poster was released on July 7, 2016. On November 2, 2016, Entertainment Weekly debuted the first official image on the cover of their magazine for the week along with nine new photos as well. One week later, Emma Watson and Disney debuted a new poster for the film. On November 14, 2016, the first theatrical trailer was released again on Good Morning America. The trailer reached 127.6 million views in its first 24 hours, setting a new record as the trailer with the most views in one day, beating out Fifty Shades Darker. This record has since been broken again by The Fate of the Furious. A TV spot with Watson singing was shown during the 74th Golden Globe Awards. Disney released the final trailer on January 30, 2017.
Beauty and the Beast was released on Blu - ray, DVD and Digital HD on June 6, 2017. The film debuted at No. 1 on the NPD VideoScan overall disc sales chart, with all other titles in the top 20, collectively, selling only 40 % as many units as Beauty and the Beast. The movie regained the top spot on the national home video sales charts during its third week of release. The movie became available on Netflix on September 19, 2017.
Beauty and the Beast grossed $504 million in the United States and Canada and $759.5 million in other territories for a worldwide gross of $1.263 billion. With a production budget of $160 million, it is the most expensive musical ever made, or the second-most expensive musical ever made if accounting for inflation; only Hello, Dolly! (1969) with a budget of $25 million ($165 million in 2016 dollars) cost more. In just ten days, it became the highest - grossing live - action musical of all time, beating the nine - year - old record held by Mamma Mia!. It is currently the second - biggest musical ever overall, behind Disney 's Frozen (2013). Worldwide, the film proved to be a global phenomenon, earning a total of $357 million over its four - day opening weekend from 56 markets. Critics said the film was playing like superhero movies amongst women. It was the second biggest March global opening, behind only Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, the thirteenth - biggest worldwide opening ever and the seventh - biggest for Disney. This includes $21 million from IMAX plays on 1,026 screens, a new record for an IMAX PG title. It surpassed the entire lifetime total of the original film in just six days.
Beauty and the Beast is the 300th digitally remastered release in IMAX company 's history, which began with the re-release of Apollo 13 in 2002. Its robust global debut helped push the company past $6 billion for the first time, and led to analysts believing that the film had a shot of passing $1 billion worldwide from theatrical earnings. On April 12, it passed the $1 billion threshold, becoming the first film of 2017, the fourteenth Disney film, and the twenty - ninth film overall to pass the mark. It became the first film since Rogue One (also a Disney property) in December 2016 to make over a billion dollars, and did so on its twenty - ninth day of release. It is currently the 2nd highest - grossing film of 2017 (behind Star Wars: The Last Jedi), the highest - grossing March release, the highest - grossing remake of all - time, and the sixth - biggest Disney film. Even after inflation adjusted, it is still ahead of the $425 million gross ($760 million in 2017 dollars) of the original film.
In the United States and Canada, Beauty and the Beast topped Fandango 's pre-sales and became the fastest - selling family film in the company 's history, topping the studio 's own animated film Finding Dory released the previous year. Early tracking had the film grossing around $100 million in its opening weekend, with some publications predicting it could reach $130 million. By the time the film 's release was 10 days away, analysts raised projections to as high as $150 million. It earned $16.3 million from Thursday previews night, marking the biggest of 2017 (breaking Logan 's record), the biggest ever for a Disney live - action film (breaking Maleficent 's record), the second biggest ever for both a G or PG - rated film (behind the sixth Harry Potter film Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince which also starred Watson), and the third biggest ever in the month of March (behind Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice and The Hunger Games). An estimated 41 % of the gross came from IMAX, 3D and premium large format screenings which began at 6 pm, while the rest -- 59 % -- came from regular 2D shows which began at 7 p.m. The numbers were considered more impressive given that the film played during a school week.
On its opening day, the film made $63.8 million from 4,210 theaters across 9,200 screens, marking the third biggest in the month of March, trailing behind Batman v Superman ($81.5 million) and The Hunger Games ($67 million). It was also the biggest opening day ever for a film that was n't PG - 13, displacing the $58 million opening Wednesday of Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince. Its opening day alone (which includes Thursday 's previews) almost matched the entire opening weekend of previous Disney live - action films, Maleficent ($69.4 million) and Cinderella ($67.9 million). Unlike all previous four Disney live - action films witnessing a hike on their second day, Saturday, Beauty and the Beast actually fell 2 %, but nevertheless, the dip was paltry, and the grosses are so much bigger compared to the other titles. Earning a total of $174.8 million on its opening weekend, it defied all expectations and went on to set numerous notable records. This includes the biggest opening of the year as well as the biggest for the month of March and pre-summer / spring opening, beating Batman v Superman, the biggest start ever for a PG title (also for a family film), surpassing Finding Dory, the biggest debut of all time for a female - fueled film, ahead of The Hunger Games: Catching Fire, the biggest for a Disney live - action adaptation, ahead of Alice in Wonderland and the biggest musical debut ever, supplanting Pitch Perfect 2. Furthermore, it is also Watson 's highest - opening, beating Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 same with Emma Thompson, director Bill Condon 's biggest debut ever ahead of The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn -- Part 2 and the biggest outside of summer, save for Star Wars: The Force Awakens, not accounting for inflation.
It became the forty - third film to debut with over $100 million and the fifteenth film to open above $150 million. Its three - day opening alone surpassed the entire original North American run of the first film ($146 million; before the 3D re-release), instantly becoming the second - biggest film of the year, behind Logan ($184 million), and also the second - highest - grossing musical, behind Grease 's $188 million cumulative gross in 1978. Seventy percent of the total ticket sales came from 2D showings signifying that people who do n't go to theaters frequently came out in bulk to watch the film. About 26 % of the remaining tickets were for 3D. IMAX accounted for 7 % ($12.5 million) of the total weekend 's gross, setting a new record for a PG title, ahead of Alice in Wonderland ($12.1 million) while PLF repped 11 % of the box office. Seventy percent of the film 's opening day demographic was female, dropping to 60 % through the weekend. According polling service PostTrak, about 84 percent of American parents who saw the film on its opening day said they would "definitely '' recommend it for families. The film 's opening was credited to positive word of mouth from audiences, good reviews from critics, effective marketing which sold the title not just as a family film but also as a romantic drama, the cast 's star power (especially Emma Watson), lack of competition, being the first family film since The Lego Batman Movie a month earlier, nostalgia, and the success and ubiquity of the first film and Disney 's brand.
On Monday, its fourth day of release, the film fell precipitously by 72 % earning $13.5 million. The steep fall was due to a limited marketplace where only 11 % K - 12 and 15 % colleges were off per ComScore. Nevertheless, it is the second - biggest March Monday, behind Batman v Superman ($15 million). This was followed by the biggest March and pre-summer Tuesday with $17.8 million, a 32 % increase from its previous day. The same day, the film passed $200 million in ticket sales. It earned $228.6 million in the first week of release, the sixth - biggest seven - day gross of all time. In its second weekend, the film continued to maintain the top positioning and fell gradually by 48 % earning another $90.4 million to register the fourth - biggest second weekend of all time, and the third - biggest for Disney. In terms of percentage drop, its 48 % decline is the third - smallest drop for any film opening above $125 million (behind Finding Dory and The Force Awakens). The hold was notable considering how the film was able to fend off three new wide releases: Power Rangers, Life, and CHiPs. As a result, it passed the $300 million threshold becoming the first film of 2017 the pass said mark. The film grossed $45.4 million in its third weekend, finally being overtaken for the top spot by newcomer The Boss Baby ($50.2 million). On April 4, 2017, its nineteenth day of release, it passed the $400 million threshold becoming the first film of 2017 to do so. By its fourth weekend, the film began was playing in 3,969 cinemas, a fall of 241 theaters from its previous weekend. Of those, approximately 1,200 cinemas were sing - along versions. It earned $26.3 million (- 48 %) and retained second place. By comparison, previous Disney films Moana (− 8 %) and Frozen (− 2 %) both witnessed mild percentage declines the weekend their sing - alone versions were released. Its seventh weekend of release was in contemporaneous with another Emma Watson - starring new film The Circle. That weekend, The Circle was number four, while Beauty and the Beast was at number six. By May 28, the film had earned over $500 million in ticket sales becoming the first film of 2017 (until it was later surpassed by The Last Jedi), the third female - fueled film (after The Force Awakens and Rogue One: A Star Wars Story followed by Wonder Woman and The Last Jedi) and the eighth overall film in cinematic history to pass the mark.
It has already become the biggest March release, dethroning The Hunger Games (2012), the biggest musical film (both animated and live - action), as well as the biggest film of 2017 (alongside The Last Jedi).
Internationally, the film began playing on Thursday, March 16, 2017. Through Sunday, March 19, it had a total international opening of $182.3 million from 55 markets, 44 of which were major territories, far exceeding initial estimations of $100 million and opened at No. 1 in virtually all markets except Vietnam, Turkey, and India. Its launch is the second - biggest for the month of March, behind Batman v Superman ($256.5 million). In IMAX, it recorded the biggest debut for a PG title (although it carried varying certificate amongst different markets) with $8.5 million from 649 screens, the second - biggest for a PG title behind The Jungle Book. In its second weekend, it fell just by 35 % earning another $120.6 million and maintaining its first position hold. It added major markets like France and Australia. It topped the international box office for three consecutive weekends before finally being dethroned by Ghost in the Shell and The Boss Baby in its fourth weekend. Despite the fall, the film helped Disney push past the $1 billion thresold internationally for the first time in 2017.
It scored the biggest opening day of the year in Hong Kong and the Philippines, the biggest March Thursday in Italy ($1 million, also the biggest Disney Thursday debut), the biggest March opening day in Austria, and the second - biggest in Germany ($1.1 million), Disney 's biggest March in Denmark, the biggest Disney live - action debut in China ($12.6 million), the UK ($6.2 million), Mexico ($2.4 million) and Brazil ($1.8 million) and the third - biggest in South Korea with $1.2 million, behind only Pirates of the Caribbean: At World 's End and Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides. In terms of opening weekend, the largest debut came from China ($44.8 million), followed by the UK ($24.3 million), Korea ($11.8 million), Mexico ($11.8 million), Australia ($11.1 million), Brazil ($11 million), Germany ($10.7 million), France ($8.4 million), Italy ($7.6 million), Philippines ($6.3 million), Russia ($6 million) and Spain ($5.8 million).
In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the film recorded the biggest opening ever for a PG - rated film, the biggest Disney live - action opening of all time, the biggest March opening weekend, the biggest opening for a musical (ahead of 2012 's Les Misérables), the number one opening of 2017 to date and the fifth - biggest - ever overall with £ 19.7 million ($24.5 million) from 639 theatres and almost twice that of The Jungle Book (£ 9.9 million). This included the second - biggest Saturday ever (£ 7.9 million), only behind Star Wars: The Force Awakens. It witnessed a decline in its second weekend, earning £ 12.33 million ($15.4 million). Though the film was falling at a faster rate than The Jungle Book, it had already surpassed the said film and its second weekend is the third - biggest ever (behind the two James Bond films Skyfall (2012) and Spectre). In India, despite facing heavy competitions from four new Hindi releases, two Tamils films and a Malayalam and a Punjabi release, the film managed to take an occupancy of 15 % on its opening day, an impressive feat despite tremendous competitions. It earned around ₹ 1.5 crore (US $230,000) nett on its opening day from an estimated 600 screens which is more than the three Hindi releases -- Machine, Trapped, and Aa Gaya Hero -- combined. Disney reported a total of ₹ 9.26 crore (US $1.5 million) gross for its opening weekend there. It was ahead of all new releases and second overall behind Bollywood film Badrinath Ki Dulhania. In Russia, despite receiving a restrictive 16 rating, the film managed to deliver a very successful opening with $6 million.
In China, expectations were high for the film. The release date was announced on January 24, giving Disney and local distributor China Film Group Corporation ample time -- around two months -- to market the film nationwide. The release date was strategically chosen to coincide with White Day. Preliminary reports suggested that it could open to $40 -- 60 million in its opening weekend. Largely driven by young women, its opening day pre-sales outpaced that of The Jungle Book. The original film was, however, never widely popular in the country. Although China has occasionally blocked gay - themed content from streaming video services, in this case, Chinese censors decided to leave the gay scene intact. According to local box office tracker Ent Group, the film grossed an estimated $12.1 million on its opening day (Friday), representing 70 % of the total receipts. Including previews, it made a total of $14.5 million from 100,000 screenings, which is 43 % of all screenings in the country. It climbed to $18.5 million on Saturday (102,700 showings) for a three - day total of $42.6 million, securing 60 % of the total marketplace. Disney on the other hand reported a different figure of $44.8 million. Either ways, it recorded the second - biggest opening for a Disney live - action film, with $3.4 million coming from 386 IMAX screens. Japan -- a huge Disney market -- served as the film 's final market and opened there on April 21. It debuted with a better - than - expected $12.5 million on its opening weekend helping the film push past the $1.1 billion threshold. An estimated $1.1 million came from IMAX screenings, the fourth - biggest ever in the country. The two - day gross was $9.7 million, outstripping Frozen 's previous record of $9.5 million. Due to positive reviews, good word - of - mouth and benefitting from the Golden Week, the film saw a 9 % increase on its second weekend. The hold was strong enough to fend off newcomer The Fate of the Furious from securing the top spot. The total there is now over $98 million after seven weekends and is the biggest film release of the year and, overall, the eleventh - biggest of all time. It topped the box office there for eight consecutive weekends.
The only markets where the film did not top the weekend charts were Vietnam (behind Kong: Skull Island), Turkey (with two local movies and Logan ahead) and India (where Badrinath Ki Dulhania retained No. 1). It topped the box office for four straight weekends in Germany, Korea, Austria, Finland, Poland, Portugal, Brazil, Venezuela, Bolivia, Switzerland and the UK (exclusive of previews). In the Philippines, it emerged as the most successful commercial film of all time -- both local and foreign -- with over $13.5 million. In just five weeks, the film became one of the top 10 highest - grossing film of all time in the United Kingdom and Ireland, ahead of all but one Harry Potter film (Deathly Hallows -- Part 2) and all three The Lord of the Rings movies (which also starred Ian McKellen). It is currently the eighth - biggest grosser with £ 70.1 million ($90 million), overtaking Mamma Mia! to become the biggest musical production ever there. The biggest international earning markets following the UK are Japan ($108 million), China ($85.8 million), Brazil ($41.5 million), Korea ($37.5 million), and Australia ($35 million). In Europe alone, the cumulative total is $267 million to become the second - highest - grossing film in the past year (behind Rogue One: A Star Wars Story).
Beauty and the Beast received generally positive reviews, with praise for the faithfulness to the original film with a few elements of the Broadway musical version, the cast 's performances, visuals, Jacqueline Durran 's costume design, production design, Howard Ashman and Alan Menken 's musical score and songs, though the designs of the Beast and the servants ' household object forms received mixed reviews. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 71 % based on 308 reviews, with an average rating of 6.6 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "With an enchanting cast, beautifully crafted songs, and a painterly eye for detail, Beauty and the Beast offers a faithful yet fresh retelling that honors its beloved source material. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 65 out of 100, based on 47 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. In CinemaScore polls, audiences gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale.
Leslie Felperin of The Hollywood Reporter wrote: "It 's a Michelin - triple - starred master class in patisserie skills that transforms the cinematic equivalent of a sugar rush into a kind of crystal - meth - like narcotic high that lasts about two hours. '' Felperin also praised the performances of Watson and Kline as well the special effects, costume designs and the sets while commended the inclusion of Gad 's character of LeFou as the first LGBT character in Disney. Owen Gleiberman of Variety, in his positive review of the film, wrote: "It 's a lovingly crafted movie, and in many ways a good one, but before that it 's an enraptured piece of old - is - new nostalgia. '' Gleiberman compared Steven 's character of the Beast to a royal version of the titular character in The Elephant Man and the 1946 version of the Beast in Jean Cocteau 's original adaptation. A.O. Scott of The New York Times praised the performances of both Watson and Stevens, and wrote: "It looks good, moves gracefully and leaves a clean and invigorating aftertaste. I almost did n't recognize the flavor: I think the name for it is joy. ''
Likewise, The Washington Post 's Ann Hornaday complimented Watson 's performance, describing it as "alert and solemn '' while noting her singing ability as "serviceable enough to get the job done ''. Richard Roeper of Chicago Sun - Times awarded the film three and a half stars, lauded the performances of Watson and Thompson which he drew a comparison to Paige O'Hara 's and Angela Lansbury 's performances in the 1991 animated version while appreciating the performances of the other cast and also pointing out on its usage of the combination of motion capture and CGI technology as a big advantage which he stated: "Almost overwhelmingly lavish, beautifully staged and performed with exquisite timing and grace by the outstanding cast ''. Mike Ryan of Uproxx praised the cast, production design and the new songs while noting the film does n't try anything different, saying: "There 's certainly nothing that new about this version of Beauty and the Beast (well, except it is n't a cartoon anymore), but it 's a good recreation of a classic animated film that should leave most die - hards satisfied. '' In her A - review, Nancy Churnin of The Dallas Morning News praised the film 's emotional and thematic depth, remarking: "There 's an emotional authenticity in director Bill Condon 's live - action Beauty and the Beast film that helps you rediscover Disney 's beloved 1991 animated film and 1994 stage show in fresh, stirring ways. '' James Berardinelli of ReelViews described the 2017 version as "enthralling ''.
Brian Truitt of USA Today commended the performances of Evans, Gad, McGregor and Thompson alongside Condon 's affinity with musicals, the production design, visual effects featured in some of the song numbers including new songs made by the composers Alan Menken and Tim Rice, particularly Evermore which he described the new song with a potential for an Academy Award for Best Original Song. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone rated the film three out of four stars which he deemed it as an "exhilarating gift '' while he remarked that "Beauty and the Beast does justice to Disney 's animated classic, even if some of the magic is M.I.A (Missing in Action) ''. Stephanie Zacharek of Time magazine gave a positive review with a description as "Wild, Vivid and Crazy - Beautiful '' as she wrote "Nearly everything about Beauty and the Beast is larger than life, to the point that watching it can be a little overwhelming. '' and added that "it 's loaded with feeling, almost like a brash interpretive dance expressing the passion and elation little girls (and some boys, too) must have felt upon seeing the earlier version. '' The San Francisco Chronicle 's Mick LaSalle struck an affirmative tone, calling it one of the joys of 2017, stating that "Beauty and the Beast creates an air of enchantment from its first moments, one that lingers and builds and takes on qualities of warmth and generosity as it goes along '' while referring the film as "beautiful '' and also praised the film for its emotional and psychological tone as well Steven 's motion capture performance.
Tim Robey of The Daily Telegraph gave the film four stars out of five and wrote that "It dazzles on this chocolate box of a picture that feels almost greedy yet to make this film work, down to a sugar - rush finale to grasp the nettle and make an out - an - out, bells - and - whistles musical '' while he praised the performances of Watson, McKellen, Thompson, McGregor, Evans and Gad. Mark Hughes of Forbes also similarly praised the film which he wrote that "it could revive the story in a faithful but entirely new and unique way elevating the material beyond expectations, establishing itself as a cinematic equal to the original '' and also complimented the importance of undertaking a renowned yet problematic masterpiece as well addressing changes in the elements of the story while acknowledging the film 's effectiveness in resonating to the audiences. Stephen Whitty of the New York Daily News called it "this year 's best new old musical '' and "the most magical thing of all '' while describing Watson 's performance of Belle as "breakthrough ''.
Several critics regarded the film as inferior to its 1991 animated predecessor. David Sims of The Atlantic wrote that the 2017 film "feels particularly egregious, in part, because it 's so slavishly devoted to the original; every time it falls short of its predecessor (which is quite often), it 's hard not to notice ''. Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune said that the 2017 film "takes our knowledge and our interest in the material for granted. It zips from one number to another, throwing a ton of frenetically edited eye candy at the screen, charmlessly. '' Phillips wrote that the film featured some "less conspicuously talented '' performers who are "stuck doing karaoke, or motion - capture work of middling quality '', though he praised Kline 's performance as the "best, sweetest thing in the movie; he brings a sense of calm, droll authority ''. Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian praised Watson 's performance and wrote that the film was "lit in that fascinatingly artificial honey - glow light, and it runs smoothly on rails -- the kind of rails that bring in and out the stage sets for the lucrative Broadway touring version. '' In the same newspaper, Wendy Ide criticized the film as "ornate to the point of desperation '' in its attempt to emulate the animated film.
Chris Nashawaty of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B -, writing that while the film looks "exceptionally great '', he said the new songs were "not transporting ''. He felt the film needed more life and depth, but praised Watson 's and Steven 's performances as the "film 's stronger elements ''. Dana Schwartz of The New York Observer felt that some of the characters, such as Gaston and the Beast, had been watered down from the 1991 film, and that the additional backstory elements failed to "advance the plot or theme in any meaningful way '' while adding considerable bloat. Schwartz considered the singing of the cast to be adequate but felt that their voices should have been dubbed over, especially for the complex songs.
Controversy erupted after director Bill Condon said there was a "gay moment '' in the film, when LeFou briefly waltzes with Stanley, one of Gaston 's friends. Afterwards in an interview with Vulture.com, Condon stated, "Can I just say, I 'm sort of sick of this. Because you 've seen the movie -- it 's such a tiny thing, and it 's been overblown. '' Condon also added that Beauty and the Beast features much more diversity than just the highly talked - about LeFou: "That was so important. We have interracial couples -- this is a celebration of everybody 's individuality, and that 's what 's exciting about it. '' GLAAD president and CEO Sarah Kate Ellis praised the move stating, "It is a small moment in the film, but it is a huge leap forward for the film industry. ''
In Russia, Vitaly Milonov agitated the culture minister for banning the film, but instead it was given a 16 + rating (children under the age of 16 can only be admitted to see it in theaters with accompanying adults). Additionally, a theater in Henagar, Alabama did not screen the film because of the subplot. In Malaysia, the Film Censorship Board insisted the "gay moment '' scene be cut, prompting an indefinite postponement of its release by Disney, followed by their decision to withdraw it completely if it could not be released uncensored. The studio moved the release date to March 30, to allow more time for Malaysia 's censor board to make a decision on whether or not to release the film without changes. The distributors and producers then submitted an appeal to the Film Appeal Committee of Malaysia, which allowed the film to be released without any cuts and a P13 rating on the grounds that the "gay element '' was minor and did not affect the positive elements featured in the film. In Kuwait, the movie was withdrawn from cinemas by National Cinema Company which owns most of the cinemas in the country. A board member of the company stated that the Ministry of Information 's censorship department had requested it to stop its screening and edit it for things deemed offensive by it.
The film also received criticism over its portrayal of LeFou, as many felt that it relied on stereotypes and was used as a way of teasing LGBT+ viewers without providing adequate representation. LeFou 's status as a sidekick to the main villain brought about criticism over Disney 's queercoding of villains in the past, and his infatuation with Gaston was seen as relying on a stereotype of gay men being predatory towards straight men. Furthermore, the only gay interaction LeFou has is a three - second clip of him dancing with another man at the end of the film. Many saw this as Disney cheating its LGBT+ audiences.
Disney has sought to portray Belle as an empowered young woman, but a debate questioning whether it is possible for a captor to fall in love with their prisoner, and whether this is a problematic theme, has resulted. As was the case with the original animated film, one argument is that Belle suffers from Stockholm syndrome (a condition that causes hostages to develop a psychological alliance with their captors as a survival strategy during captivity). Emma Watson studied whether Belle is trapped in an abusive relationship with the Beast before signing on and concluded that she does not think the criticism fits this version of the folk tale. Watson described Stockholm Syndrome as "where a prisoner will take on the characteristics of and fall in love with the captor. Belle actively argues and disagrees with (Beast) constantly. She has none of the characteristics of someone with Stockholm Syndrome because she keeps her independence, she keeps that freedom of thought '', also adding that Belle defiantly "gives as good as she gets '' before forming a friendship and romance with the Beast.
Psychiatrist Frank Ochberg, who coined the term "Stockholm syndrome '', said he does not think Belle exhibits the trauma symptoms of prisoners suffering from the syndrome because she does not go through a period of feeling that she is going to die. Some therapists, while acknowledging that the pairing 's relationship does not meet the clinical definition of Stockholm syndrome, argue that the relationship depicted is dysfunctional and abusive and does not model healthy romantic relationships for young viewers. Constance Grady of Vox writes that Jeanne - Marie Leprince de Beaumont 's Beauty and the Beast was a fairy tale originally written to prepare young girls in 18th - century France for arranged marriages, and that the power disparity is amplified in the Disney version. Anna Menta of Elite Daily argued that the Beast does not apologize to Belle for imprisoning, hurting, or manipulating her, and his treatment of Belle is not painted as wrong.
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who is the india president when its first nuclear test were conducted | Pokhran - II - Wikipedia
The Pokhran - II tests were a series of five nuclear bomb test explosions conducted by India at the Indian Army 's Pokhran Test Range in May 1998. It was the second instance of nuclear testing conducted by India; the first test, code - named Smiling Buddha, was conducted in May 1974.
Pokhran - II consisted of five detonations, the first of which was a fusion bomb while the remaining four were fission bombs. The tests were initiated on 11 May 1998, under the assigned code name Operation Shakti, with the detonation of one fusion and two fission bombs. On 13 May 1998, two additional fission devices were detonated, and the Indian government led by Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee shortly convened a press conference to declare India a full - fledged nuclear state. The tests resulted in a variety of sanctions against India by a number of major states, including Japan and the United States.
Many names have been assigned to these tests; originally these were collectively called Operation Shakti -- 98, and the five nuclear bombs were designated Shakti - I through to Shakti - V. More recently, the operation as a whole has come to be known as Pokhran II, and the 1974 explosion as Pokhran - I.
Efforts towards building the nuclear bomb, infrastructure, and research on related technologies have been undertaken by India since World War II. Origins of India 's nuclear program dates back to 1944 when nuclear physicist Homi Bhabha began persuading the Indian Congress towards the harnessing of nuclear energy -- a year later he established the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR).
In 1950s, the preliminary studies were carried out at the BARC and plans were developed to produce plutonium and other bomb components. In 1962, India and China engaged in the disputed northern front, and was further intimidated with Chinese nuclear test in 1964. Direction towards militarisation of the nuclear program slowed down when Vikram Sarabhai became its head and little interest of Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri in 1965.
After Indira Gandhi became Prime Minister in 1966, the nuclear program was consolidated when physicist Raja Ramanna joined the efforts. Another nuclear test by China eventually led to India 's decision toward building nuclear weapons in 1967 and conducted its first nuclear test, Smiling Buddha, in 1974.
Responding to Smiling Buddha, the Nuclear Suppliers Group severely affected the India 's nuclear program. The world 's major nuclear powers imposed technological embargo on India and Pakistan, which was technologically racing to meet with India 's challenge. The nuclear program struggled for years to gain credibility and its progress crippled by the lack of indigenous resources and dependent on imported technology and technical assistance. At IAEA, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi declared that India 's nuclear program was not militarising despite authorising preliminary work on the hydrogen bomb design.
As an aftermath of the state emergency in 1975 that resulted in the collapse of the Prime Minister Indira Gandhi 's government, the nuclear program was left with a vacuum of political leadership and even basic management. Work on the hydrogen bomb design continued under M. Srinivasan, a mechanical engineer, but progress was slow.
The nuclear program received little attention from Prime Minister Morarji Desai who was renowned for his peace advocacy. In 1978, Prime Minister Desai transferred physicist Ramanna to Indian MoD, and his government was not entirely without progress in nuclear program and had the program continue to grow at a desirable rate.
Disturbing news came from Pakistan when the world discovered the Pakistan 's clandestine atomic bomb program. Contrary to India 's nuclear program, Pakistan 's atomic bomb program was akin to United States 's Manhattan Project, it was under military oversight with civilian scientists in charge of the scientific aspects of the program. The Pakistani atomic bomb program was well funded and organised by then; India realised that Pakistan was likely to succeed in its project in matter of two years.
In 1980, the general elections marked the return of Indira Gandhi and the nuclear program began to gain momentum under Ramanna in 1981. Requests for additional nuclear tests were continued to be denied by the government when Prime Minister Indira Gandhi saw Pakistan began exercising the brinkmanship, though the nuclear program continued to advance. Initiation towards hydrogen bomb began as well as the launch of the missile programme began under Late president Dr. Abdul Kalam, who was then an aerospace engineer.
In 1989, the general elections witnessed the Janata Dal party led by V.P. Singh, forming the government. Prime Minister V.P. Singh down played the relations with the Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto whose Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) won the general elections in 1988. Foreign relations between India and Pakistan began to severely worsen when India began charging Pakistan of supporting the militancy in Jammu and Kashmir. During this time, the missile program succeeded in the development of the Prithvi missiles.
Successive governments in India decided to observe this temporary moratorium for fear of inviting international criticism. The Indian public had been supportive towards the nuclear tests which ultimately led Prime Minister Narasimha Rao deciding to conduct further tests in 1995. Plans were halted after American spy satellites picked up signs of preparations for nuclear testing at Pokhran Test Range in Rajasthan. President Bill Clinton and his administration exerted enormous pressure on Prime Minister Narasimha Rao to stop the preparations. Responding to India, Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto issued harsh and severe statements against India on Pakistan 's news channels; thus putting stress on the relations between two countries.
Diplomatic tension escalated between two countries when Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto raised the Kashmir issue at the United Nations in 1995. In a speech delivered by then - Speaker National Assembly Yousaf Raza Gillani, stressed the "Kashmir issue '' as continue to endanger the peace and security in the region. The Indian delegation headed by Atal Bihari Vajpayee at the United Nations, reiterated that the "UN resolutions only call upon Pakistan -- the occupying force to vacate the "Jammu and Kashmir Area. ''
The BJP, came to power in 1998 general elections with an exclusive public mandate. BJP 's political might had been growing steadily in strength over the past decade over several issues.
In Pakistan, the similar conservative force, the PML (N), was also in power with an exclusive mandate led by Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif who defeated the leftist PPP led by Benazir Bhutto in general elections held in 1997. During the BJP campaign, Atal Bihari Vajpayee indulged in grandstanding -- such as when he declared on 25 February that his government would "take back that part of Kashmir that is under Pakistan 's control. '' Before this declaration, the BJP platform had clear intention to "exercise the option to induct nuclear weapons '' and "India should become an openly nuclear power to garner the respect on the world stage that India deserved. '' By 18 March 1998, Vajpayee had publicly begun his lobbying for nuclear explosion and declared that "there is no compromise on national security; all options including the nuclear options will be exercised to protect security and sovereignty. ''
Consultation began between Prime Minister Vajpayee, Dr. Abdul Kalam, R. Chidambaram and officials of the Indian DAE on nuclear options. Chidambaram briefed Prime Minister Vajpayee extensively on the nuclear program; Abdul Kalam presented the status of the missile program. On 28 March 1998, Prime Minister Vajpayee asked the scientists to make preparations in the shortest time possible, and preparations were hastily made.
It was time of tense atmosphere when Pakistan, at a Conference on Disarmament, offered a peace rhetoric agreement with India for "an equal and mutual restraint in conventional, missile and nuclear fields. '' Pakistan 's equation was later reemphasised on 6 April and the momentum in India for nuclear tests began to build up which strengthened Vajpayee 's position to order the tests.
Unlike Pakistan 's weapon -- testing laboratories, there was very little that India could do to hide its activity at Pokhran. Contrary to high - altitude granite mountains in Pakistan, the bushes are sparse and the dunes in the Rajasthan Desert do n't provide much cover from probing satellites. The Indian intelligence had been aware of United States spy satellites and the American CIA had been detecting Indian test preparations since 1995; therefore, the tests required complete secrecy in India and also needed to avoid detection by other countries. The 58th Engineer Regiment of Indian Army 's Corps of Engineers was commissioned to prepare the test sites without being probed by the United States spy satellites. The 58th Engineer 's commander Colonel Gopal Kaushik supervised the test preparations and ordered his "staff officers take all measures to ensure total secrecy. ''
Extensive planning was done by a very small group of scientists, senior military officers and senior politicians to ensure that the test preparations would remain secret, and even senior members of the Indian government did n't know what was going on. The chief scientific adviser and the Director of Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), Dr. Abdul Kalam, and Dr. R. Chidambaram, the Director of the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), were the chief coordinators of this test planning. The scientists and engineers of the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), the Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMDER), and the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) were involved in the nuclear weapon assembly, layout, detonation and obtaining test data. A very small group of senior scientists were involved in the detonation process, all scientists were required to wear army uniforms to preserve the secrecy of the tests. Since 1995, the 58th Engineer Regiment had learned to avoid satellite detection. Work was mostly done during night, and equipment was returned to the original place to give the impression that it was never moved.
Bomb shafts were dug under camouflage netting and the dug - out sand was shaped like dunes. Cables for sensors were covered with sand and concealed using native vegetation. Scientists would not depart for Pokhran in groups of two or three. They travelled to destinations other than Pokhran under pseudonyms, and were then transported by the army. Technical staff at the test range wore military uniform, to prevent detection in satellite images.
The main technical personnel involved in the operation were:
Three laboratories of the DRDO were involved in designing, testing and producing components for the bombs, including the advanced detonators, the implosion and high - voltage trigger systems. These were also responsible for weaponising, systems engineering, aerodynamics, safety interlocks and flight trials. The bombs were transported in four Indian Army trucks under the command of Colonel Umang Kapur; all devices from BARC were relocated at 3 am on 1 May 1998. From the Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport, the bombs were flown in an Indian Air Force 's AN - 32 plane to the Jaisalmer army base. They were transported to Pokhran in an army convoy of four trucks, and this required three trips. The devices were delivered to the device preparation building, which was designated as ' Prayer Hall '.
The test sites was organised into two government groups and were fired separately, with all devices in a group fired at the same time. The first group consisted of the thermonuclear device (Shakti I), the fission device (Shakti II), and a sub-kiloton device (Shakti III). The second group consisted of the remaining two sub-kiloton devices Shakti IV and V. It was decided that the first group would be tested on 11 May and the second group on 13 May. The thermonuclear device was placed in a shaft code named ' White House ', which was over 200 metres (660 ft) deep, the fission bomb was placed in a 150 metres (490 ft) deep shaft code named ' Taj Mahal ', and the first sub-kiloton device in ' Kumbhkaran '. The first three devices were placed in their respective shafts on 10 May, and the first device to be placed was the sub-kiloton device in the ' Kumbhkaran ' shaft, which was sealed by the army engineers by 8: 30 pm. The thermonuclear device was lowered and sealed into the ' White House ' shaft by 4 am, and the fission device being placed in the ' Taj Mahal ' shaft was sealed at 7: 30 am, which was 90 minutes before the planned test time. The shafts were L - shaped, with a horizontal chamber for the test device.
The timing of the tests depended on the local weather conditions, with the wind being the critical factor. The tests were underground, but due to a number of shaft seal failures that had occurred during tests conducted by the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom, the sealing of the shaft could not be guaranteed to be leak - proof. By early afternoon, the winds had died down and the test sequence was initiated. Dr. K. Santhanam of the DRDO, in charge of the test site preparations, gave the two keys that activated the test countdown to Dr. M. Vasudev, the range safety officer, who was responsible for verifying that all test indicators were normal. After checking the indicators, Vasudev handed one key each to a representative of BARC and the DRDO, who unlocked the countdown system together. At 3: 45 pm the three devices were detonated.
Five nuclear devices were Made during Operation Shakti. All devices were weapon - grade plutonium and they were:
An additional, sixth device (Shakti VI) is suspected to have been present but not detonated.
At 3: 43 pm IST; three nuclear bombs (specifically, the Shakti I, II and III) were detonated simultaneously, as measured by international seismic monitors. On 13 May, at 12.21 p.m. IST 6: 51 UTC, two sub-kiloton devices (Shakti IV and V) were detonated. Due to their very low yield, these explosions were not detected by any seismic station. On 13 May 1998, India declared the series of tests to be over after this.
Following the Pokhran - II tests, India became the sixth country to join the nuclear club. Shortly after the tests, a press meet was convened at the Prime Minister 's residence in New Delhi. Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee appeared before the press corps and made the following short statement:
News of the tests were greeted with jubilation and large - scale approval by society in India. The Bombay Stock Exchange registered significant gains. Newspapers and television channels praised the government for its bold decision; editorials were full of praise for the country 's leadership and advocated the development of an operational nuclear arsenal for the country 's armed forces. The Indian opposition, led by Congress Party criticised the Vajpayee administration for carrying out the series of nuclear tests. The Congress Party spokesman, Salman Khursheed, accused the BJP of trying to use the tests for political ends rather than to enhance the country 's national security.
By the time India had conducted tests, the country had a total of $44 bn in loans in 1998, from IMF and the World Bank. The industrial sectors of the Indian economy such as the chemicals industry, were likely to be hurt by sanctions. The Western consortium companies, which had invested heavily in India, especially in construction, computing and telecoms, were generally the ones who were harmed by the sanctions. In 1998, Indian government announced that it had already allowed for some economic response and was willing to take the consequences.
The United States issued a strong statement condemning India and promised that sanctions would follow. The American intelligence community was embarrassed as there had been "a serious intelligence failure of the decade '' in detecting the preparations for the test.
In keeping with its preferred approach to foreign policy in recent decades, and in compliance with the 1994 anti-proliferation law, the United States imposed economic sanctions on India. The sanctions on India consisted of cutting off all assistance to India except humanitarian aid, banning the export of certain defence material and technologies, ending American credit and credit guarantees to India, and requiring the US to oppose lending by international financial institutions to India.
From 1998 -- 1999, the United States held series of bilateral talks with India over the issue of India becoming party of the CTBT and NPT. In addition, the United States also made an unsuccessful attempt of holding talks regarding the rollback of India 's nuclear program. India took a firm stand against the CTBT and refusing to be signatory party of it despite under pressure by the US President Bill Clinton, and noted the treaty as it was not consistent with India 's national security interest.
Strong criticism was drawn from Canada on India 's actions and its High Commissioner. Sanctions were also imposed by Japan on India and consisted of freezing all new loans and grants except for humanitarian aid to India.
Some other nations also imposed sanctions on India, primarily in the form of suspension of foreign aid to India and government - to - government credit lines. However, the United Kingdom, France, and Russia refrained from condemning India.
On 12 May the Chinese Foreign Ministry stated: "The Chinese government is seriously concerned about the nuclear tests conducted by India, '' and that the tests "run counter to the current international trend and are not conducive to peace and stability in South Asia. ''. The next day the Chinese Foreign Ministry issued the statement clearly stating that "it is shocked and strongly condemned '' the Indian nuclear tests and called for the international community to "adopt a unified stand and strongly demand that India immediate stop development of nuclear weapons ''. China further rejected India 's stated rationale of needing nuclear capabilities to counter a Chinese threat as "totally unreasonable ''. In a meeting with Masayoshi Takemura of Democratic Party of Japan, Foreign Minister of the People 's Republic of China Qian Qichen was quoted as saying that India 's nuclear tests were a "serious matter, '' particularly because they were conducted in light of the fact that more than 140 countries have signed the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. "It is even more unacceptable that India claims to have conducted the tests to counter what it called a "China threat ''. On 24 November 1998, the Chinese Embassy, New Delhi issued a formal statement:
(sic)... But regrettably, India conducted nuclear tests last May, which has run against the contemporary historical trend and seriously affected peace and stability in South Asia. Pakistan also conducted nuclear tests later on. India 's nuclear tests have not only led to the escalation of tensions between India and Pakistan and provocation of nuclear arms races in South Asia, but also dealt a heavy blow to international nuclear disarmament and the global nonproliferation regime. It is only natural that India 's nuclear tests have met with extensive condemnation and aroused serious concern from the international community.
The most vehement and strong reaction to India 's nuclear explosion was from a neighbouring country, Pakistan. Great ire was raised in Pakistan, which issued a severe statement blaming India for instigating a nuclear arms race in the region. Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif vowed that his country would give a suitable reply to India. The day after the first tests, Foreign Minister Gohar Ayub Khan indicated that Pakistan was ready to conduct a nuclear test. He stated: "Pakistan is prepared to match India, we have the capability... We in Pakistan will maintain a balance with India in all fields '', he said in an interview. "We are in a headlong arms race on the subcontinent. ''
On 13 May 1998, Pakistan bitterly condemned the tests, and Foreign Minister Gohar Ayub was quoted as saying that Indian leadership seemed to "have gone berserk (sic) and was acting in a totally unrestrained way. '' Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif was much more subdued, maintaining ambiguity about whether a test would be conducted in response: "We are watching the situation and we will take appropriate action with regard to our security '', he said. Sharif sought to mobilise the entire Islamic world in support of Pakistan and criticised India for nuclear proliferation.
Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif had been under intense pressure regarding the nuclear tests by President Bill Clinton and Opposition leader Benazir Bhutto at home. Initially surprising the world, Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif authorised nuclear testing program and the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) carried out nuclear testings under the codename Chagai - I on 28 May 1998 and Chagai - II on 30 May 1998. These six underground nuclear tests at the Chagai and Kharan test site were conducted fifteen days after India 's last test. The total yield of the tests was reported to be 40 kt (see codename: Chagai - I).
Pakistan 's subsequent tests invited similar condemnation from the United States. American President Bill Clinton was quoted as saying "Two wrongs do n't make a right '', criticising Pakistan 's tests as reactionary to India 's Pokhran - II. The United States and Japan reacted by imposing economic sanctions on Pakistan. According to the Pakistan 's science community, the Indian nuclear tests gave an opportunity to Pakistan to conduct nuclear tests after 14 years of conducting only cold tests (See: Kirana - I).
Pakistan 's leading nuclear physicist, Pervez Hoodbhoy, held India responsible for Pakistan 's nuclear test experiments in Chagai.
The reactions from abroad started immediately after the tests were advertised. On 6 June, the United Nations Security Council adopted Resolution 1172 condemning the test and that of Pakistan 's. China issued a vociferous condemnation calling upon the international community to exert pressure on India to sign the NPT and eliminate its nuclear arsenal. With India joining the group of countries possessing nuclear weapons, a new strategic dimension had emerged in Asia, particularly South Asia.
Overall, the effect of international sanctions on Indian economy was minimal; the technological progress was marginal. Most nations did not call for embargoes against India as the exports and imports together constituted only 4.0 % of its GDP, with United States trade accounting for only 10.0 % of this total. Far more significant were the restrictions on lending imposed by the United States and its representatives on international finance bodies. Most of the sanctions were lifted within five years.
The Indian government has officially declared the 11 May as National Technology Day in India to commemorate the first of the five nuclear tests that were carried out on 11 May 1998.
It was officially signed by then - Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee in 1998 and the day is celebrated by giving awards to various individuals and industries in the field of science and technology.
Coordinates: 27 ° 04 ′ 44 '' N 71 ° 43 ′ 20 '' E / 27.07884 ° N 71.722113 ° E / 27.07884; 71.722113
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how did the god particle get its name | Higgs boson - Wikipedia
The Higgs boson is an elementary particle in the Standard Model of particle physics. First suspected to exist in the 1960s, it is the quantum excitation of the Higgs field, a fundamental field of crucial importance to particle physics theory. Unlike other known fields such as the electromagnetic field, it is scalar and also has a non-zero constant value in vacuum. The question of the existence of the Higgs field became the last unverified part of the Standard Model of particle physics, and for several decades, was considered "the central problem in particle physics ''.
The presence of the field, now confirmed by experimental investigation, explains why some fundamental particles have mass, despite the symmetries controlling their interactions implying that they should be massless. It also resolves several other long - standing puzzles, such as the reason for the extremely short range of the weak force.
Although the Higgs field is non-zero everywhere and its effects ubiquitous, proving its existence was far from easy. In principle, it can be proved to exist by detecting its excitations, which manifest as Higgs particles (the Higgs boson), but these are extremely difficult to produce and to detect. The importance of this fundamental question led to a 40 - year search, and the construction of one of the world 's most expensive and complex experimental facilities to date, CERN 's Large Hadron Collider, in an attempt to create Higgs bosons and other particles for observation and study. On 4 July 2012, the discovery of a new particle with a mass between 125 and 7002127000000000000 ♠ 127 GeV / c was announced; physicists suspected that it was the Higgs boson. Since then, the particle has been shown to behave, interact, and decay in many of the ways predicted for Higgs particles by the Standard Model, as well as having even parity and zero spin, two fundamental attributes of a Higgs boson. This also means it is the first elementary scalar particle discovered in nature. As of 2018, in - depth research shows the particle continuing to behave in line with predictions for the Standard Model Higgs boson. More studies are needed to verify with higher precision that the discovered particle has all of the properties predicted, or whether, as described by some theories, multiple Higgs bosons exist.
The Higgs boson is named after Peter Higgs, one of six physicists who, in the 1964 PRL symmetry breaking papers, proposed the mechanism that suggested the existence of such a particle. On 10 December 2013, two of the physicists, Peter Higgs and François Englert, were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for their work and prediction (Englert 's co-researcher Robert Brout had died in 2011 and the Nobel Prize is not ordinarily given posthumously). Although Higgs 's name has come to be associated with this theory, several researchers between about 1960 and 1972 independently developed different parts of it. In mainstream media the Higgs boson has often been called the "God particle '', from a 1993 book on the topic; the nickname is strongly disliked by many physicists, including Higgs, who regard it as sensationalistic.
In the Standard Model, the Higgs particle is a boson with spin zero, no electric charge and no colour charge. It is also very unstable, decaying into other particles almost immediately. It is a quantum excitation of one of the four components of the Higgs field. The latter constitutes a scalar field, with two neutral and two electrically charged components that form a complex doublet of the weak isospin SU (2) symmetry. The Higgs field has a "Mexican hat - shaped '' potential. In its ground state, this causes the field to have a nonzero value everywhere (including otherwise empty space), and as a result, below a very high energy it breaks the weak isospin symmetry of the electroweak interaction. (Technically the non-zero expectation value converts the Lagrangian 's Yukawa coupling terms into mass terms). When this happens, three components of the Higgs field are "absorbed '' by the SU (2) and U (1) gauge bosons (the "Higgs mechanism '') to become the longitudinal components of the now - massive W and Z bosons of the weak force. The remaining electrically neutral component either manifests as a Higgs particle, or may couple separately to other particles known as fermions (via Yukawa couplings), causing these to acquire mass as well. Some versions of the theory predicted more than one kind of Higgs fields and bosons. Alternative "Higgsless '' models were considered until the discovery of the Higgs boson.
Physicists explain the properties and forces between elementary particles in terms of the Standard Model -- a widely accepted framework for understanding almost everything in the known universe, other than gravity. (A separate theory, General Relativity, is used for gravity.) In this model, the fundamental forces in nature arise from properties of our universe called gauge invariance and symmetries. The forces are transmitted by particles known as gauge bosons.
Field theories had been used with great success in understanding the electromagnetic field and the strong force, but by around 1960 all attempts to create a gauge invariant theory for the weak force (and its combination with fundamental force electromagnetism, the electroweak interaction) had consistently failed, with gauge theories thereby starting to fall into disrepute as a result. The problem was that the symmetry requirements in gauge theory predicted that both electromagnetism 's gauge boson (the photon) and the weak force 's gauge bosons (W and Z) should have zero mass. Although the photon is indeed massless, experiments show that the weak force 's bosons have mass. This meant that either gauge invariance was an incorrect approach, or something else -- unknown -- was giving these particles their mass, but all attempts to suggest a theory able to solve this problem just seemed to create new theoretical issues.
In the late 1950s, physicists had "no idea '' how to resolve these issues, which were significant obstacles to developing a full - fledged theory for particle physics.
By the early 1960s, physicists had realised that a given symmetry law might not always be followed under certain conditions, at least in some areas of physics. This is called symmetry breaking and was recognised in the late 1950s by Yoichiro Nambu. Symmetry breaking can lead to surprising and unexpected results. In 1962 physicist Philip Anderson -- an expert in superconductivity -- wrote a paper that considered symmetry breaking in particle physics, and suggested that perhaps symmetry breaking might be the missing piece needed to solve the problems of gauge invariance in particle physics. If electroweak symmetry was somehow being broken, it might explain why electromagnetism 's boson is massless, yet the weak force bosons have mass, and solve the problems. Shortly afterwards, in 1963, this was shown to be theoretically possible, at least for some limited cases.
Following the 1962 and 1963 papers, three groups of researchers independently published papers in 1964 with similar conclusions: that the conditions for electroweak symmetry would be "broken '' if an unusual type of field existed throughout the universe, and indeed, some fundamental particles would acquire mass. The field required for this to happen (which was purely hypothetical at the time) became known as the Higgs field (after Peter Higgs, one of the researchers) and the mechanism by which it led to symmetry breaking, known as the Higgs mechanism. A key feature of the necessary field is that it would take less energy for the field to have a non-zero value than a zero value, unlike all other known fields, therefore, the Higgs field has a non-zero value (or vacuum expectation) everywhere. It was the first proposal capable of showing how the weak force gauge bosons could have mass despite their governing symmetry, within a gauge invariant theory.
Although these ideas did not gain much initial support or attention, by 1972 they had been developed into a comprehensive theory and proved capable of giving "sensible '' results that accurately described particles known at the time, and which, with exceptional accuracy, predicted several other particles discovered during the following years. During the 1970s these theories rapidly became the Standard Model of particle physics. There was not yet any direct evidence that the Higgs field existed, but even without proof of the field, the accuracy of its predictions led scientists to believe the theory might be true. By the 1980s the question of whether or not the Higgs field existed, and therefore whether or not the entire Standard Model was correct, had come to be regarded as one of the most important unanswered questions in particle physics.
According to the Standard Model, a field of the necessary kind (the Higgs field) exists throughout space and breaks certain symmetry laws of the electroweak interaction. Via the Higgs mechanism, this field causes the gauge bosons of the weak force to be massive at all temperatures below an extreme high value. When the weak force bosons acquire mass, this affects their range, which becomes very small. Furthermore, it was later realised that the same field would also explain, in a different way, why other fundamental constituents of matter (including electrons and quarks) have mass.
For many decades, scientists had no way to determine whether or not the Higgs field existed, because the technology needed for its detection did not exist at that time. If the Higgs field did exist, then it would be unlike any other known fundamental field, but it also was possible that these key ideas, or even the entire Standard Model, were somehow incorrect. Only discovering that the Higgs boson and therefore the Higgs field existed solved the problem.
The hypothesised Higgs mechanism made several accurate predictions, however to confirm its existence there was an extensive search for a matching particle associated with it -- the "Higgs boson ''. Detecting Higgs bosons was difficult due to the energy required to produce them and their very rare production even if the energy is sufficient. It was therefore several decades before the first evidence of the Higgs boson was found. Particle colliders, detectors, and computers capable of looking for Higgs bosons took more than 30 years (c. 1980 -- 2010) to develop.
By March 2013, the existence of the Higgs boson was confirmed, and therefore, the concept of some type of Higgs field throughout space is strongly supported. The nature and properties of this field are now being investigated further, using more data collected at the LHC.
Various analogies have been used to describe the Higgs field and boson, including analogies with well - known symmetry - breaking effects such as the rainbow and prism, electric fields, ripples, and resistance of macro objects moving through media (such as people moving through crowds or some objects moving through syrup or molasses). However, analogies based on simple resistance to motion are inaccurate, as the Higgs field does not work by resisting motion.
Evidence of the Higgs field and its properties has been extremely significant for many reasons. The importance of the Higgs boson is largely that it is able to be examined using existing knowledge and experimental technology, as a way to confirm and study the entire Higgs field theory. Conversely, proof that the Higgs field and boson do not exist would have also been significant.
The Higgs boson validates the Standard Model through the mechanism of mass generation. As more precise measurements of its properties are made, more advanced extensions may be suggested or excluded. As experimental means to measure the field 's behaviours and interactions are developed, this fundamental field may be better understood. If the Higgs field had not been discovered, the Standard Model would have needed to be modified or superseded.
Related to this, a belief generally exists among physicists that there is likely to be "new '' physics beyond the Standard Model, and the Standard Model will at some point be extended or superseded. The Higgs discovery, as well as the many measured collisions occurring at the LHC, provide physicists a sensitive tool to parse data for where the Standard Model fails, and could provide considerable evidence guiding researchers into future theoretical developments.
Below an extremely high temperature, electroweak symmetry breaking causes the electroweak interaction to manifest in part as the short - ranged weak force, which is carried by massive gauge bosons. This symmetry breaking is required for atoms and other structures to form, as well as for nuclear reactions in stars, such as our Sun. The Higgs field is responsible for this symmetry breaking.
The Higgs field is pivotal in generating the masses of quarks and charged leptons (through Yukawa coupling) and the W and Z gauge bosons (through the Higgs mechanism).
It is worth noting that the Higgs field does not "create '' mass out of nothing (which would violate the law of conservation of energy), nor is the Higgs field responsible for the mass of all particles. For example, approximately 99 % of the mass of baryons (composite particles such as the proton and neutron), is due instead to quantum chromodynamics binding energy, which is the sum of the kinetic energies of quarks and the energies of the massless gluons mediating the strong interaction inside the baryons. In Higgs - based theories, the property of "mass '' is a manifestation of potential energy transferred to fundamental particles when they interact ("couple '') with the Higgs field, which had contained that mass in the form of energy.
The Higgs field is the only scalar (spin 0) field to be detected; all the other fields in the Standard Model are spin 1⁄2 fermions or spin 1 bosons. According to Rolf - Dieter Heuer, director general of CERN when the Higgs boson was discovered, this existence proof of a scalar field is almost as important the Higgs ' role in determining the mass of other particles. It suggests that other hypothetical scalar fields suggested by other theories, from the inflaton to quintessence, could perhaps exist as well.
There has been considerable scientific research on possible links between the Higgs field and the inflaton -- a hypothetical field suggested as the explanation for the expansion of space during the first fraction of a second of the universe (known as the "inflationary epoch ''). Some theories suggest that a fundamental scalar field might be responsible for this phenomenon; the Higgs field is such a field, and its existence has led to papers analysing whether it could also be the inflaton responsible for this exponential expansion of the universe during the Big Bang. Such theories are highly tentative and face significant problems related to unitarity, but may be viable if combined with additional features such as large non-minimal coupling, a Brans -- Dicke scalar, or other "new '' physics, and they have received treatments suggesting that Higgs inflation models are still of interest theoretically.
In the Standard Model, there exists the possibility that the underlying state of our universe - known as the "vacuum '' - is long - lived, but not completely stable. In this scenario, the universe as we know it could effectively be destroyed by collapsing into a more stable vacuum state. This was sometimes misreported as the Higgs boson "ending '' the universe. If the masses of the Higgs boson and top quark are known more precisely, and the Standard Model provides an accurate description of particle physics up to extreme energies of the Planck scale, then it is possible to calculate whether the vacuum is stable or merely long - lived. A 125 -- 127 GeV Higgs mass seems to be extremely close to the boundary for stability, but a definitive answer requires much more precise measurements of the pole mass of the top quark. New physics can change this picture.
If measurements of the Higgs boson suggest that our universe lies within a false vacuum of this kind, then it would imply -- more than likely in many billions of years -- that the universe 's forces, particles, and structures could cease to exist as we know them (and be replaced by different ones), if a true vacuum happened to nucleate. It also suggests that the Higgs self - coupling λ and its β function could be very close to zero at the Planck scale, with "intriguing '' implications, including theories of gravity and Higgs - based inflation. A future electron -- positron collider would be able to provide the precise measurements of the top quark needed for such calculations.
More speculatively, the Higgs field has also been proposed as the energy of the vacuum, which at the extreme energies of the first moments of the Big Bang caused the universe to be a kind of featureless symmetry of undifferentiated, extremely high energy. In this kind of speculation, the single unified field of a Grand Unified Theory is identified as (or modelled upon) the Higgs field, and it is through successive symmetry breakings of the Higgs field, or some similar field, at phase transitions that the presently known forces and fields of the universe arise.
The relationship (if any) between the Higgs field and the presently observed vacuum energy density of the universe has also come under scientific study. As observed, the present vacuum energy density is extremely close to zero, but the energy density expected from the Higgs field, supersymmetry, and other current theories are typically many orders of magnitude larger. It is unclear how these should be reconciled. This cosmological constant problem remains a further major unanswered problem in physics.
As yet, there are no known immediate technological benefits of finding the Higgs particle. However, a common pattern for fundamental discoveries is for practical applications to follow later, and once the discovery has been explored further, perhaps becoming the basis for new technologies of importance to society.
The challenges in particle physics have furthered major technological progress of widespread importance. For example, the World Wide Web began as a project to improve CERN 's communication system. CERN 's requirement to process massive amounts of data produced by the Large Hadron Collider also led to contributions to the fields of distributed and cloud computing.
The six authors of the 1964 PRL papers, who received the 2010 J.J. Sakurai Prize for their work; from left to right: Kibble, Guralnik, Hagen, Englert, Brout; right: Higgs.
Particle physicists study matter made from fundamental particles whose interactions are mediated by exchange particles -- gauge bosons -- acting as force carriers. At the beginning of the 1960s a number of these particles had been discovered or proposed, along with theories suggesting how they relate to each other, some of which had already been reformulated as field theories in which the objects of study are not particles and forces, but quantum fields and their symmetries. However, attempts to produce quantum field models for two of the four known fundamental forces - the electromagnetic force and the weak nuclear force - and then to unify these interactions, were still unsuccessful.
One known problem was that gauge invariant approaches, including non-abelian models such as Yang -- Mills theory (1954), which held great promise for unified theories, also seemed to predict known massive particles as massless. Goldstone 's theorem, relating to continuous symmetries within some theories, also appeared to rule out many obvious solutions, since it appeared to show that zero - mass particles also would have to exist that simply were "not seen ''. According to Guralnik, physicists had "no understanding '' how these problems could be overcome.
Particle physicist and mathematician Peter Woit summarised the state of research at the time:
Yang and Mills work on non-abelian gauge theory had one huge problem: in perturbation theory it has massless particles which do n't correspond to anything we see. One way of getting rid of this problem is now fairly well understood, the phenomenon of confinement realized in QCD, where the strong interactions get rid of the massless "gluon '' states at long distances. By the very early sixties, people had begun to understand another source of massless particles: spontaneous symmetry breaking of a continuous symmetry. What Philip Anderson realized and worked out in the summer of 1962 was that, when you have both gauge symmetry and spontaneous symmetry breaking, the Nambu -- Goldstone massless mode can combine with the massless gauge field modes to produce a physical massive vector field. This is what happens in superconductivity, a subject about which Anderson was (and is) one of the leading experts. (text condensed)
The Higgs mechanism is a process by which vector bosons can acquire rest mass without explicitly breaking gauge invariance, as a byproduct of spontaneous symmetry breaking. Initially, the mathematical theory behind spontaneous symmetry breaking was conceived and published within particle physics by Yoichiro Nambu in 1960, and the concept that such a mechanism could offer a possible solution for the "mass problem '' was originally suggested in 1962 by Philip Anderson (who had previously written papers on broken symmetry and its outcomes in superconductivity. Anderson concluded in his 1963 paper on the Yang - Mills theory, that "considering the superconducting analog... (t) hese two types of bosons seem capable of canceling each other out... leaving finite mass bosons ''), and in March 1964, Abraham Klein and Benjamin Lee showed that Goldstone 's theorem could be avoided this way in at least some non-relativistic cases, and speculated it might be possible in truly relativistic cases.
These approaches were quickly developed into a full relativistic model, independently and almost simultaneously, by three groups of physicists: by François Englert and Robert Brout in August 1964; by Peter Higgs in October 1964; and by Gerald Guralnik, Carl Hagen, and Tom Kibble (GHK) in November 1964. Higgs also wrote a short, but important, response published in September 1964 to an objection by Gilbert, which showed that if calculating within the radiation gauge, Goldstone 's theorem and Gilbert 's objection would become inapplicable. (Higgs later described Gilbert 's objection as prompting his own paper.) Properties of the model were further considered by Guralnik in 1965, by Higgs in 1966, by Kibble in 1967, and further by GHK in 1967. The original three 1964 papers demonstrated that when a gauge theory is combined with an additional field that spontaneously breaks the symmetry, the gauge bosons may consistently acquire a finite mass. In 1967, Steven Weinberg and Abdus Salam independently showed how a Higgs mechanism could be used to break the electroweak symmetry of Sheldon Glashow 's unified model for the weak and electromagnetic interactions, (itself an extension of work by Schwinger), forming what became the Standard Model of particle physics. Weinberg was the first to observe that this would also provide mass terms for the fermions.
At first, these seminal papers on spontaneous breaking of gauge symmetries were largely ignored, because it was widely believed that the (non-Abelian gauge) theories in question were a dead - end, and in particular that they could not be renormalised. In 1971 -- 72, Martinus Veltman and Gerard ' t Hooft proved renormalisation of Yang -- Mills was possible in two papers covering massless, and then massive, fields. Their contribution, and the work of others on the renormalisation group -- including "substantial '' theoretical work by Russian physicists Ludvig Faddeev, Andrei Slavnov, Efim Fradkin, and Igor Tyutin -- was eventually "enormously profound and influential '', but even with all key elements of the eventual theory published there was still almost no wider interest. For example, Coleman found in a study that "essentially no - one paid any attention '' to Weinberg 's paper prior to 1971 and discussed by David Politzer in his 2004 Nobel speech. -- now the most cited in particle physics -- and even in 1970 according to Politzer, Glashow 's teaching of the weak interaction contained no mention of Weinberg 's, Salam 's, or Glashow 's own work. In practice, Politzer states, almost everyone learned of the theory due to physicist Benjamin Lee, who combined the work of Veltman and ' t Hooft with insights by others, and popularised the completed theory. In this way, from 1971, interest and acceptance "exploded '' and the ideas were quickly absorbed in the mainstream.
The resulting electroweak theory and Standard Model have accurately predicted (among other things) weak neutral currents, three bosons, the top and charm quarks, and with great precision, the mass and other properties of some of these. Many of those involved eventually won Nobel Prizes or other renowned awards. A 1974 paper and comprehensive review in Reviews of Modern Physics commented that "while no one doubted the (mathematical) correctness of these arguments, no one quite believed that nature was diabolically clever enough to take advantage of them '', adding that the theory had so far produced accurate answers that accorded with experiment, but it was unknown whether the theory was fundamentally correct. By 1986 and again in the 1990s it became possible to write that understanding and proving the Higgs sector of the Standard Model was "the central problem today in particle physics ''.
The three papers written in 1964 were each recognised as milestone papers during Physical Review Letters 's 50th anniversary celebration. Their six authors were also awarded the 2010 J.J. Sakurai Prize for Theoretical Particle Physics for this work. (A controversy also arose the same year, because in the event of a Nobel Prize only up to three scientists could be recognised, with six being credited for the papers.) Two of the three PRL papers (by Higgs and by GHK) contained equations for the hypothetical field that eventually would become known as the Higgs field and its hypothetical quantum, the Higgs boson. Higgs ' subsequent 1966 paper showed the decay mechanism of the boson; only a massive boson can decay and the decays can prove the mechanism.
In the paper by Higgs the boson is massive, and in a closing sentence Higgs writes that "an essential feature '' of the theory "is the prediction of incomplete multiplets of scalar and vector bosons ''. (Frank Close comments that 1960s gauge theorists were focused on the problem of massless vector bosons, and the implied existence of a massive scalar boson was not seen as important; only Higgs directly addressed it.) In the paper by GHK the boson is massless and decoupled from the massive states. In reviews dated 2009 and 2011, Guralnik states that in the GHK model the boson is massless only in a lowest - order approximation, but it is not subject to any constraint and acquires mass at higher orders, and adds that the GHK paper was the only one to show that there are no massless Goldstone bosons in the model and to give a complete analysis of the general Higgs mechanism. All three reached similar conclusions, despite their very different approaches: Higgs ' paper essentially used classical techniques, Englert and Brout 's involved calculating vacuum polarisation in perturbation theory around an assumed symmetry - breaking vacuum state, and GHK used operator formalism and conservation laws to explore in depth the ways in which Goldstone 's theorem may be worked around.
Gauge invariance is an important property of modern particle theories such as the Standard Model, partly due to its success in other areas of fundamental physics such as electromagnetism and the strong interaction (quantum chromodynamics). However, there were great difficulties in developing gauge theories for the weak nuclear force or a possible unified electroweak interaction. Fermions with a mass term would violate gauge symmetry and therefore can not be gauge invariant. (This can be seen by examining the Dirac Lagrangian for a fermion in terms of left and right handed components; we find none of the spin - half particles could ever flip helicity as required for mass, so they must be massless.) W and Z bosons are observed to have mass, but a boson mass term contains terms which clearly depend on the choice of gauge, and therefore these masses too can not be gauge invariant. Therefore, it seems that none of the standard model fermions or bosons could "begin '' with mass as an inbuilt property except by abandoning gauge invariance. If gauge invariance were to be retained, then these particles had to be acquiring their mass by some other mechanism or interaction. Additionally, whatever was giving these particles their mass had to not "break '' gauge invariance as the basis for other parts of the theories where it worked well, and had to not require or predict unexpected massless particles or long - range forces (seemingly an inevitable consequence of Goldstone 's theorem) which did not actually seem to exist in nature.
A solution to all of these overlapping problems came from the discovery of a previously unnoticed borderline case hidden in the mathematics of Goldstone 's theorem, that under certain conditions it might theoretically be possible for a symmetry to be broken without disrupting gauge invariance and without any new massless particles or forces, and having "sensible '' (renormalisable) results mathematically. This became known as the Higgs mechanism.
The Standard Model hypothesises a field which is responsible for this effect, called the Higgs field (symbol: φ (\ displaystyle \ phi)), which has the unusual property of a non-zero amplitude in its ground state; i.e., a non-zero vacuum expectation value. It can have this effect because of its unusual "Mexican hat '' shaped potential whose lowest "point '' is not at its "centre ''. In simple terms, unlike all other known fields, the Higgs field requires less energy to have a non-zero value than a zero value, so it ends up having a non-zero value everywhere. Below a certain extremely high energy level the existence of this non-zero vacuum expectation spontaneously breaks electroweak gauge symmetry which in turn gives rise to the Higgs mechanism and triggers the acquisition of mass by those particles interacting with the field. This effect occurs because scalar field components of the Higgs field are "absorbed '' by the massive bosons as degrees of freedom, and couple to the fermions via Yukawa coupling, thereby producing the expected mass terms. When symmetry breaks under these conditions, the Goldstone bosons that arise interact with the Higgs field (and with other particles capable of interacting with the Higgs field) instead of becoming new massless particles. The intractable problems of both underlying theories "neutralise '' each other, and the residual outcome is that elementary particles acquire a consistent mass based on how strongly they interact with the Higgs field. It is the simplest known process capable of giving mass to the gauge bosons while remaining compatible with gauge theories. Its quantum would be a scalar boson, known as the Higgs boson.
In the Standard Model, the Higgs field is a scalar tachyonic field -- scalar meaning it does not transform under Lorentz transformations, and tachyonic meaning the field (but not the particle) has imaginary mass, and in certain configurations must undergo symmetry breaking. It consists of four components: two neutral ones and two charged component fields. Both of the charged components and one of the neutral fields are Goldstone bosons, which act as the longitudinal third - polarisation components of the massive W, W, and Z bosons. The quantum of the remaining neutral component corresponds to (and is theoretically realised as) the massive Higgs boson, this component can also interact with fermions via Yukawa coupling to give them mass, as well.
Mathematically, the Higgs field has imaginary mass and is therefore a tachyonic field. While tachyons (particles that move faster than light) are a purely hypothetical concept, fields with imaginary mass have come to play an important role in modern physics. Under no circumstances do any excitations ever propagate faster than light in such theories -- the presence or absence of a tachyonic mass has no effect whatsoever on the maximum velocity of signals (there is no violation of causality). Instead of faster - than - light particles, the imaginary mass creates an instability: Any configuration in which one or more field excitations are tachyonic must spontaneously decay, and the resulting configuration contains no physical tachyons. This process is known as tachyon condensation, and is now believed to be the explanation for how the Higgs mechanism itself arises in nature, and therefore the reason behind electroweak symmetry breaking.
Although the notion of imaginary mass might seem troubling, it is only the field, and not the mass itself, that is quantised. Therefore, the field operators at spacelike separated points still commute (or anticommute), and information and particles still do not propagate faster than light. Tachyon condensation drives a physical system that has reached a local limit -- and might naively be expected to produce physical tachyons -- to an alternate stable state where no physical tachyons exist. Once a tachyonic field such as the Higgs field reaches the minimum of the potential, its quanta are not tachyons any more but rather are ordinary particles such as the Higgs boson.
Since the Higgs field is scalar, the Higgs boson has no spin. The Higgs boson is also its own antiparticle and is CP - even, and has zero electric and colour charge.
The Standard Model does not predict the mass of the Higgs boson. If that mass is between 115 and 7002180000000000000 ♠ 180 GeV / c (consistent with empirical observations of 7002125000000000000 ♠ 125 GeV / c), then the Standard Model can be valid at energy scales all the way up to the Planck scale (10 GeV). Many theorists expect new physics beyond the Standard Model to emerge at the TeV - scale, based on unsatisfactory properties of the Standard Model. The highest possible mass scale allowed for the Higgs boson (or some other electroweak symmetry breaking mechanism) is 1.4 TeV; beyond this point, the Standard Model becomes inconsistent without such a mechanism, because unitarity is violated in certain scattering processes.
It is also possible, although experimentally difficult, to estimate the mass of the Higgs boson indirectly. In the Standard Model, the Higgs boson has a number of indirect effects; most notably, Higgs loops result in tiny corrections to masses of W and Z bosons. Precision measurements of electroweak parameters, such as the Fermi constant and masses of W / Z bosons, can be used to calculate constraints on the mass of the Higgs. As of July 2011, the precision electroweak measurements tell us that the mass of the Higgs boson is likely to be less than about 7002161000000000000 ♠ 161 GeV / c at 95 % confidence level (this upper limit would increase to 7002185000000000000 ♠ 185 GeV / c if the lower bound of 7002114400000000000 ♠ 114.4 GeV / c from the LEP - 2 direct search is allowed for). These indirect constraints rely on the assumption that the Standard Model is correct. It may still be possible to discover a Higgs boson above these masses if it is accompanied by other particles beyond those predicted by the Standard Model.
If Higgs particle theories are valid, then a Higgs particle can be produced much like other particles that are studied, in a particle collider. This involves accelerating a large number of particles to extremely high energies and extremely close to the speed of light, then allowing them to smash together. Protons and lead ions (the bare nuclei of lead atoms) are used at the LHC. In the extreme energies of these collisions, the desired esoteric particles will occasionally be produced and this can be detected and studied; any absence or difference from theoretical expectations can also be used to improve the theory. The relevant particle theory (in this case the Standard Model) will determine the necessary kinds of collisions and detectors. The Standard Model predicts that Higgs bosons could be formed in a number of ways, although the probability of producing a Higgs boson in any collision is always expected to be very small -- for example, only 1 Higgs boson per 10 billion collisions in the Large Hadron Collider. The most common expected processes for Higgs boson production are:
Quantum mechanics predicts that if it is possible for a particle to decay into a set of lighter particles, then it will eventually do so. This is also true for the Higgs boson. The likelihood with which this happens depends on a variety of factors including: the difference in mass, the strength of the interactions, etc. Most of these factors are fixed by the Standard Model, except for the mass of the Higgs boson itself. For a Higgs boson with a mass of 7002125000000000000 ♠ 125 GeV / c the SM predicts a mean life time of about 6978160000000000000 ♠ 1.6 × 10 s.
Since it interacts with all the massive elementary particles of the SM, the Higgs boson has many different processes through which it can decay. Each of these possible processes has its own probability, expressed as the branching ratio; the fraction of the total number decays that follows that process. The SM predicts these branching ratios as a function of the Higgs mass (see plot).
One way that the Higgs can decay is by splitting into a fermion -- antifermion pair. As general rule, the Higgs is more likely to decay into heavy fermions than light fermions, because the mass of a fermion is proportional to the strength of its interaction with the Higgs. By this logic the most common decay should be into a top -- antitop quark pair. However, such a decay would only be possible if the Higgs were heavier than ~ 7002346000000000000 ♠ 346 GeV / c, twice the mass of the top quark. For a Higgs mass of 7002125000000000000 ♠ 125 GeV / c the SM predicts that the most common decay is into a bottom -- antibottom quark pair, which happens 57.7 % of the time. The second most common fermion decay at that mass is a tau -- antitau pair, which happens only about 6.3 % of the time.
Another possibility is for the Higgs to split into a pair of massive gauge bosons. The most likely possibility is for the Higgs to decay into a pair of W bosons (the light blue line in the plot), which happens about 21.5 % of the time for a Higgs boson with a mass of 7002125000000000000 ♠ 125 GeV / c. The W bosons can subsequently decay either into a quark and an antiquark or into a charged lepton and a neutrino. The decays of W bosons into quarks are difficult to distinguish from the background, and the decays into leptons can not be fully reconstructed (because neutrinos are impossible to detect in particle collision experiments). A cleaner signal is given by decay into a pair of Z - bosons (which happens about 2.6 % of the time for a Higgs with a mass of 7002125000000000000 ♠ 125 GeV / c), if each of the bosons subsequently decays into a pair of easy - to - detect charged leptons (electrons or muons).
Decay into massless gauge bosons (i.e., gluons or photons) is also possible, but requires intermediate loop of virtual heavy quarks (top or bottom) or massive gauge bosons. The most common such process is the decay into a pair of gluons through a loop of virtual heavy quarks. This process, which is the reverse of the gluon fusion process mentioned above, happens approximately 8.6 % of the time for a Higgs boson with a mass of 7002125000000000000 ♠ 125 GeV / c. Much rarer is the decay into a pair of photons mediated by a loop of W bosons or heavy quarks, which happens only twice for every thousand decays. However, this process is very relevant for experimental searches for the Higgs boson, because the energy and momentum of the photons can be measured very precisely, giving an accurate reconstruction of the mass of the decaying particle.
The Minimal Standard Model as described above is the simplest known model for the Higgs mechanism with just one Higgs field. However, an extended Higgs sector with additional Higgs particle doublets or triplets is also possible, and many extensions of the Standard Model have this feature. The non-minimal Higgs sector favoured by theory are the two - Higgs - doublet models (2HDM), which predict the existence of a quintet of scalar particles: two CP - even neutral Higgs bosons h and H, a CP - odd neutral Higgs boson A, and two charged Higgs particles H. Supersymmetry ("SUSY '') also predicts relations between the Higgs - boson masses and the masses of the gauge bosons, and could accommodate a 7002125000000000000 ♠ 125 GeV / c neutral Higgs boson.
The key method to distinguish between these different models involves study of the particles ' interactions ("coupling '') and exact decay processes ("branching ratios ''), which can be measured and tested experimentally in particle collisions. In the Type - I 2HDM model one Higgs doublet couples to up and down quarks, while the second doublet does not couple to quarks. This model has two interesting limits, in which the lightest Higgs couples to just fermions ("gauge - phobic '') or just gauge bosons ("fermiophobic ''), but not both. In the Type - II 2HDM model, one Higgs doublet only couples to up - type quarks, the other only couples to down - type quarks. The heavily researched Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model (MSSM) includes a Type - II 2HDM Higgs sector, so it could be disproven by evidence of a Type - I 2HDM Higgs.
In other models the Higgs scalar is a composite particle. For example, in technicolor the role of the Higgs field is played by strongly bound pairs of fermions called techniquarks. Other models, feature pairs of top quarks (see top quark condensate). In yet other models, there is no Higgs field at all and the electroweak symmetry is broken using extra dimensions.
The Standard Model leaves the mass of the Higgs boson as a parameter to be measured, rather than a value to be calculated. This is seen as theoretically unsatisfactory, particularly as quantum corrections (related to interactions with virtual particles) should apparently cause the Higgs particle to have a mass immensely higher than that observed, but at the same time the Standard Model requires a mass of the order of 100 to 1000 GeV to ensure unitarity (in this case, to unitarise longitudinal vector boson scattering). Reconciling these points appears to require explaining why there is an almost - perfect cancellation resulting in the visible mass of ~ 125 GeV, and it is not clear how to do this. Because the weak force is about 10 times stronger than gravity, and (linked to this) the Higgs boson 's mass is so much less than the Planck mass or the grand unification energy, it appears that either there is some underlying connection or reason for these observations which is unknown and not described by the Standard Model, or some unexplained and extremely precise fine - tuning of parameters -- however at present neither of these explanations is proven. This is known as a hierarchy problem. More broadly, the hierarchy problem amounts to the worry that a future theory of fundamental particles and interactions should not have excessive fine - tunings or unduly delicate cancellations, and should allow masses of particles such as the Higgs boson to be calculable. The problem is in some ways unique to spin - 0 particles (such as the Higgs boson), which can give rise to issues related to quantum corrections that do not affect particles with spin. A number of solutions have been proposed, including supersymmetry, conformal solutions and solutions via extra dimensions such as braneworld models.
There are also issues of quantum triviality, which suggests that it may not be possible to create a consistent quantum field theory involving elementary scalar particles. However, if quantum triviality is avoided, triviality constraints may set bounds on the Higgs Boson mass.
To produce Higgs bosons, two beams of particles are accelerated to very high energies and allowed to collide within a particle detector. Occasionally, although rarely, a Higgs boson will be created fleetingly as part of the collision byproducts. Because the Higgs boson decays very quickly, particle detectors can not detect it directly. Instead the detectors register all the decay products (the decay signature) and from the data the decay process is reconstructed. If the observed decay products match a possible decay process (known as a decay channel) of a Higgs boson, this indicates that a Higgs boson may have been created. In practice, many processes may produce similar decay signatures. Fortunately, the Standard Model precisely predicts the likelihood of each of these, and each known process, occurring. So, if the detector detects more decay signatures consistently matching a Higgs boson than would otherwise be expected if Higgs bosons did not exist, then this would be strong evidence that the Higgs boson exists.
Because Higgs boson production in a particle collision is likely to be very rare (1 in 10 billion at the LHC), and many other possible collision events can have similar decay signatures, the data of hundreds of trillions of collisions needs to be analysed and must "show the same picture '' before a conclusion about the existence of the Higgs boson can be reached. To conclude that a new particle has been found, particle physicists require that the statistical analysis of two independent particle detectors each indicate that there is lesser than a one - in - a-million chance that the observed decay signatures are due to just background random Standard Model events -- i.e., that the observed number of events is more than 5 standard deviations (sigma) different from that expected if there was no new particle. More collision data allows better confirmation of the physical properties of any new particle observed, and allows physicists to decide whether it is indeed a Higgs boson as described by the Standard Model or some other hypothetical new particle.
To find the Higgs boson, a powerful particle accelerator was needed, because Higgs bosons might not be seen in lower - energy experiments. The collider needed to have a high luminosity in order to ensure enough collisions were seen for conclusions to be drawn. Finally, advanced computing facilities were needed to process the vast amount of data (25 petabytes per year as of 2012) produced by the collisions. For the announcement of 4 July 2012, a new collider known as the Large Hadron Collider was constructed at CERN with a planned eventual collision energy of 14 TeV -- over seven times any previous collider -- and over 300 trillion (3 × 10) LHC proton -- proton collisions were analysed by the LHC Computing Grid, the world 's largest computing grid (as of 2012), comprising over 170 computing facilities in a worldwide network across 36 countries.
The first extensive search for the Higgs boson was conducted at the Large Electron -- Positron Collider (LEP) at CERN in the 1990s. At the end of its service in 2000, LEP had found no conclusive evidence for the Higgs. This implied that if the Higgs boson were to exist it would have to be heavier than 7002114400000000000 ♠ 114.4 GeV / c.
The search continued at Fermilab in the United States, where the Tevatron -- the collider that discovered the top quark in 1995 -- had been upgraded for this purpose. There was no guarantee that the Tevatron would be able to find the Higgs, but it was the only supercollider that was operational since the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) was still under construction and the planned Superconducting Super Collider had been cancelled in 1993 and never completed. The Tevatron was only able to exclude further ranges for the Higgs mass, and was shut down on 30 September 2011 because it no longer could keep up with the LHC. The final analysis of the data excluded the possibility of a Higgs boson with a mass between 7002147000000000000 ♠ 147 GeV / c and 7002180000000000000 ♠ 180 GeV / c. In addition, there was a small (but not significant) excess of events possibly indicating a Higgs boson with a mass between 7002115000000000000 ♠ 115 GeV / c and 7002140000000000000 ♠ 140 GeV / c.
The Large Hadron Collider at CERN in Switzerland, was designed specifically to be able to either confirm or exclude the existence of the Higgs boson. Built in a 27 km tunnel under the ground near Geneva originally inhabited by LEP, it was designed to collide two beams of protons, initially at energies of 6993560761770450000 ♠ 3.5 TeV per beam (7 TeV total), or almost 3.6 times that of the Tevatron, and upgradeable to 2 × 7 TeV (14 TeV total) in future. Theory suggested if the Higgs boson existed, collisions at these energy levels should be able to reveal it. As one of the most complicated scientific instruments ever built, its operational readiness was delayed for 14 months by a magnet quench event nine days after its inaugural tests, caused by a faulty electrical connection that damaged over 50 superconducting magnets and contaminated the vacuum system.
Data collection at the LHC finally commenced in March 2010. By December 2011 the two main particle detectors at the LHC, ATLAS and CMS, had narrowed down the mass range where the Higgs could exist to around 116 - 130 GeV (ATLAS) and 115 - 127 GeV (CMS). There had also already been a number of promising event excesses that had "evaporated '' and proven to be nothing but random fluctuations. However, from around May 2011, both experiments had seen among their results, the slow emergence of a small yet consistent excess of gamma and 4 - lepton decay signatures and several other particle decays, all hinting at a new particle at a mass around 6992200272060875000 ♠ 125 GeV. By around November 2011, the anomalous data at 125 GeV was becoming "too large to ignore '' (although still far from conclusive), and the team leaders at both ATLAS and CMS each privately suspected they might have found the Higgs. On November 28, 2011, at an internal meeting of the two team leaders and the director general of CERN, the latest analyses were discussed outside their teams for the first time, suggesting both ATLAS and CMS might be converging on a possible shared result at 125 GeV, and initial preparations commenced in case of a successful finding. While this information was not known publicly at the time, the narrowing of the possible Higgs range to around 115 -- 130 GeV and the repeated observation of small but consistent event excesses across multiple channels at both ATLAS and CMS in the 124 - 126 GeV region (described as "tantalising hints '' of around 2 - 3 sigma) were public knowledge with "a lot of interest ''. It was therefore widely anticipated around the end of 2011, that the LHC would provide sufficient data to either exclude or confirm the finding of a Higgs boson by the end of 2012, when their 2012 collision data (with slightly higher 8 TeV collision energy) had been examined.
Left: Diphoton channel: Boson subsequently decays into 2 gamma ray photons by virtual interaction with a W boson loop or top quark loop.
Right: 4 - Lepton "golden channel '': Boson emits 2 Z bosons, which each decay into 2 leptons (electrons, muons).
Experimental analysis of these channels reached a significance of more than 5 sigma in both experiments.
On 22 June 2012 CERN announced an upcoming seminar covering tentative findings for 2012, and shortly afterwards (from around 1 July 2012 according to an analysis of the spreading rumour in social media) rumours began to spread in the media that this would include a major announcement, but it was unclear whether this would be a stronger signal or a formal discovery. Speculation escalated to a "fevered '' pitch when reports emerged that Peter Higgs, who proposed the particle, was to be attending the seminar, and that "five leading physicists '' had been invited -- generally believed to signify the five living 1964 authors -- with Higgs, Englert, Guralnik, Hagen attending and Kibble confirming his invitation (Brout having died in 2011).
On 4 July 2012 both of the CERN experiments announced they had independently made the same discovery: CMS of a previously unknown boson with mass 125.3 ± 0.6 GeV / c and ATLAS of a boson with mass 126.0 ± 0.6 GeV / c. Using the combined analysis of two interaction types (known as ' channels '), both experiments independently reached a local significance of 5 sigma -- implying that the probability of getting at least as strong a result by chance alone is less than 1 in 3 million. When additional channels were taken into account, the CMS significance was reduced to 4.9 sigma.
The two teams had been working ' blinded ' from each other from around late 2011 or early 2012, meaning they did not discuss their results with each other, providing additional certainty that any common finding was genuine validation of a particle. This level of evidence, confirmed independently by two separate teams and experiments, meets the formal level of proof required to announce a confirmed discovery.
On 31 July 2012, the ATLAS collaboration presented additional data analysis on the "observation of a new particle '', including data from a third channel, which improved the significance to 5.9 sigma (1 in 588 million chance of obtaining at least as strong evidence by random background effects alone) and mass 126.0 ± 0.4 (stat) ± 0.4 (sys) GeV / c, and CMS improved the significance to 5 - sigma and mass 125.3 ± 0.4 (stat) ± 0.5 (sys) GeV / c.
Following the 2012 discovery, it was still unconfirmed whether or not the 125 GeV / c particle was a Higgs boson. On one hand, observations remained consistent with the observed particle being the Standard Model Higgs boson, and the particle decayed into at least some of the predicted channels. Moreover, the production rates and branching ratios for the observed channels broadly matched the predictions by the Standard Model within the experimental uncertainties. However, the experimental uncertainties currently still left room for alternative explanations, meaning an announcement of the discovery of a Higgs boson would have been premature. To allow more opportunity for data collection, the LHC 's proposed 2012 shutdown and 2013 -- 14 upgrade were postponed by 7 weeks into 2013.
In November 2012, in a conference in Kyoto researchers said evidence gathered since July was falling into line with the basic Standard Model more than its alternatives, with a range of results for several interactions matching that theory 's predictions. Physicist Matt Strassler highlighted "considerable '' evidence that the new particle is not a pseudoscalar negative parity particle (consistent with this required finding for a Higgs boson), "evaporation '' or lack of increased significance for previous hints of non-Standard Model findings, expected Standard Model interactions with W and Z bosons, absence of "significant new implications '' for or against supersymmetry, and in general no significant deviations to date from the results expected of a Standard Model Higgs boson. However some kinds of extensions to the Standard Model would also show very similar results; so commentators noted that based on other particles that are still being understood long after their discovery, it may take years to be sure, and decades to fully understand the particle that has been found.
These findings meant that as of January 2013, scientists were very sure they had found an unknown particle of mass ~ 125 GeV / c, and had not been misled by experimental error or a chance result. They were also sure, from initial observations, that the new particle was some kind of boson. The behaviours and properties of the particle, so far as examined since July 2012, also seemed quite close to the behaviours expected of a Higgs boson. Even so, it could still have been a Higgs boson or some other unknown boson, since future tests could show behaviours that do not match a Higgs boson, so as of December 2012 CERN still only stated that the new particle was "consistent with '' the Higgs boson, and scientists did not yet positively say it was the Higgs boson. Despite this, in late 2012, widespread media reports announced (incorrectly) that a Higgs boson had been confirmed during the year.
In January 2013, CERN director - general Rolf - Dieter Heuer stated that based on data analysis to date, an answer could be possible ' towards ' mid-2013, and the deputy chair of physics at Brookhaven National Laboratory stated in February 2013 that a "definitive '' answer might require "another few years '' after the collider 's 2015 restart. In early March 2013, CERN Research Director Sergio Bertolucci stated that confirming spin - 0 was the major remaining requirement to determine whether the particle is at least some kind of Higgs boson.
On 14 March 2013 CERN confirmed that:
This also makes the particle the first elementary scalar particle to be discovered in nature.
Examples of tests used to validate that the discovered particle is the Higgs boson:
Particularly significant, we should observe decays into pairs of photons (γ γ), W and Z bosons (WW and ZZ), bottom quarks (bb), and tau leptons (τ τ), among the possible outcomes.
In July 2017, CERN confirmed that all measurements still agree with the predictions of the Standard Model, and called the discovered particle simply "the Higgs boson ''. As of April 2018, the Large Hadron Collider has continued to produce findings that confirm the 2013 understanding of the Higgs field and particle.
The LHC 's experimental work since restarting in 2015 has included probing the Higgs field and boson to a greater level of detail, and confirming whether or not less common predictions were correct. In particular, exploration since 2015 has provided strong evidence of the predicted direct decay into fermions such as pairs of bottom quarks (3.6 sigma) - described as an "important milestone '' in understanding its short lifetime an other rare decays - and also to confirm decay into pairs of tau leptons (5.9 sigma). This was described by CERN as being "of paramount importance to establishing the coupling of the Higgs boson to leptons and represents an important step towards measuring its couplings to third generation fermions, the very heavy copies of the electrons and quarks, whose role in nature is a profound mystery ''. Published results as of 19 Mar 2018 at 13 TeV for ATLAS and CMS had their measurements of the Higgs mass at 124.98 ± 0.28 GeV and 125.26 ± 0.21 GeV respectively.
The name most strongly associated with the particle and field is the Higgs boson and Higgs field. For some time the particle was known by a combination of its PRL author names (including at times Anderson), for example the Brout -- Englert -- Higgs particle, the Anderson - Higgs particle, or the Englert -- Brout -- Higgs -- Guralnik -- Hagen -- Kibble mechanism, and these are still used at times. Fuelled in part by the issue of recognition and a potential shared Nobel Prize, the most appropriate name was still occasionally a topic of debate until 2013. Higgs himself prefers to call the particle either by an acronym of all those involved, or "the scalar boson '', or "the so - called Higgs particle ''.
A considerable amount has been written on how Higgs ' name came to be exclusively used. Two main explanations are offered. The first is that Higgs undertook a step which was either unique, clearer or more explicit in his paper in formally predicting and examining the particle. Of the PRL papers ' authors, only the paper by Higgs explicitly offered as a prediction that a massive particle would exist and calculated some of its properties; he was therefore "the first to postulate the existence of a massive particle '' according to Nature. Physicist and author Frank Close and physicist - blogger Peter Woit both comment that the paper by GHK was also completed after Higgs and Brout -- Englert were submitted to Physical Review Letters. and that Higgs alone had drawn attention to a predicted massive scalar boson, while all others had focused on the massive vector bosons; In this way, Higgs ' contribution also provided experimentalists with a crucial "concrete target '' needed to test the theory. However, in Higgs ' view, Brout and Englert did not explicitly mention the boson since its existence is plainly obvious in their work, while according to Guralnik the GHK paper was a complete analysis of the entire symmetry breaking mechanism whose mathematical rigour is absent from the other two papers, and a massive particle may exist in some solutions. Higgs ' paper also provided an "especially sharp '' statement of the challenge and its solution according to science historian David Kaiser.
The alternative explanation is that the name was popularised in the 1970s due to its use as a convenient shorthand or because of a mistake in citing. Many accounts (including Higgs ' own) credit the "Higgs '' name to physicist Benjamin Lee (in Korean: Lee Whi - soh). Lee was a significant populist for the theory in its early stages, and habitually attached the name "Higgs '' as a "convenient shorthand '' for its components from 1972 and in at least one instance from as early as 1966. Although Lee clarified in his footnotes that "' Higgs ' is an abbreviation for Higgs, Kibble, Guralnik, Hagen, Brout, Englert '', his use of the term (and perhaps also Steven Weinberg 's mistaken cite of Higgs ' paper as the first in his seminal 1967 paper) meant that by around 1975 -- 76 others had also begun to use the name ' Higgs ' exclusively as a shorthand.
The Higgs boson is often referred to as the "God particle '' in popular media outside the scientific community. The nickname comes from the title of the 1993 book on the Higgs boson and particle physics, The God Particle: If the Universe Is the Answer, What Is the Question? by Nobel Physics prizewinner and Fermilab director Leon Lederman. Lederman wrote it in the context of failing US government support for the Superconducting Super Collider, a part - constructed titanic competitor to the Large Hadron Collider with planned collision energies of 2 × 20 TeV that was championed by Lederman since its 1983 inception and shut down in 1993. The book sought in part to promote awareness of the significance and need for such a project in the face of its possible loss of funding. Lederman, a leading researcher in the field, writes that he wanted to title his book The Goddamn Particle: If the Universe is the Answer, What is the Question? Lederman 's editor decided that the title was too controversial and convinced him to change the title to The God Particle: If the Universe is the Answer, What is the Question?
While media use of this term may have contributed to wider awareness and interest, many scientists feel the name is inappropriate since it is sensational hyperbole and misleads readers; the particle also has nothing to do with God, leaves open numerous questions in fundamental physics, and does not explain the ultimate origin of the universe. Higgs, an atheist, was reported to be displeased and stated in a 2008 interview that he found it "embarrassing '' because it was "the kind of misuse... which I think might offend some people ''. Science writer Ian Sample stated in his 2010 book on the search that the nickname is "universally hate (d) '' by physicists and perhaps the "worst derided '' in the history of physics, but that (according to Lederman) the publisher rejected all titles mentioning "Higgs '' as unimaginative and too unknown.
Lederman begins with a review of the long human search for knowledge, and explains that his tongue - in - cheek title draws an analogy between the impact of the Higgs field on the fundamental symmetries at the Big Bang, and the apparent chaos of structures, particles, forces and interactions that resulted and shaped our present universe, with the biblical story of Babel in which the primordial single language of early Genesis was fragmented into many disparate languages and cultures.
Today... we have the standard model, which reduces all of reality to a dozen or so particles and four forces... It 's a hard - won simplicity (... and...) remarkably accurate. But it is also incomplete and, in fact, internally inconsistent... This boson is so central to the state of physics today, so crucial to our final understanding of the structure of matter, yet so elusive, that I have given it a nickname: the God Particle. Why God Particle? Two reasons. One, the publisher would n't let us call it the Goddamn Particle, though that might be a more appropriate title, given its villainous nature and the expense it is causing. And two, there is a connection, of sorts, to another book, a much older one...
Lederman asks whether the Higgs boson was added just to perplex and confound those seeking knowledge of the universe, and whether physicists will be confounded by it as recounted in that story, or ultimately surmount the challenge and understand "how beautiful is the universe (God has) made ''.
A renaming competition by British newspaper The Guardian in 2009 resulted in their science correspondent choosing the name "the champagne bottle boson '' as the best submission: "The bottom of a champagne bottle is in the shape of the Higgs potential and is often used as an illustration in physics lectures. So it 's not an embarrassingly grandiose name, it is memorable, and (it) has some physics connection too. '' The name Higgson was suggested as well, in an opinion piece in the Institute of Physics ' online publication physicsworld.com.
There has been considerable public discussion of analogies and explanations for the Higgs particle and how the field creates mass, including coverage of explanatory attempts in their own right and a competition in 1993 for the best popular explanation by then - UK Minister for Science Sir William Waldegrave and articles in newspapers worldwide.
An educational collaboration involving an LHC physicist and a High School Teachers at CERN educator suggests that dispersion of light -- responsible for the rainbow and dispersive prism -- is a useful analogy for the Higgs field 's symmetry breaking and mass - causing effect.
Matt Strassler uses electric fields as an analogy:
Some particles interact with the Higgs field while others do n't. Those particles that feel the Higgs field act as if they have mass. Something similar happens in an electric field -- charged objects are pulled around and neutral objects can sail through unaffected. So you can think of the Higgs search as an attempt to make waves in the Higgs field (create Higgs bosons) to prove it 's really there.
A similar explanation was offered by The Guardian:
The Higgs boson is essentially a ripple in a field said to have emerged at the birth of the universe and to span the cosmos to this day... The particle is crucial however: It is the smoking gun, the evidence required to show the theory is right.
The Higgs field 's effect on particles was famously described by physicist David Miller as akin to a room full of political party workers spread evenly throughout a room: the crowd gravitates to and slows down famous people but does not slow down others. He also drew attention to well - known effects in solid state physics where an electron 's effective mass can be much greater than usual in the presence of a crystal lattice.
Analogies based on drag effects, including analogies of "syrup '' or "molasses '' are also well known, but can be somewhat misleading since they may be understood (incorrectly) as saying that the Higgs field simply resists some particles ' motion but not others ' -- a simple resistive effect could also conflict with Newton 's third law.
There was considerable discussion prior to late 2013 of how to allocate the credit if the Higgs boson is proven, made more pointed as a Nobel prize had been expected, and the very wide basis of people entitled to consideration. These include a range of theoreticians who made the Higgs mechanism theory possible, the theoreticians of the 1964 PRL papers (including Higgs himself), the theoreticians who derived from these a working electroweak theory and the Standard Model itself, and also the experimentalists at CERN and other institutions who made possible the proof of the Higgs field and boson in reality. The Nobel prize has a limit of 3 persons to share an award, and some possible winners are already prize holders for other work, or are deceased (the prize is only awarded to persons in their lifetime). Existing prizes for works relating to the Higgs field, boson, or mechanism include:
Additionally Physical Review Letters ' 50 - year review (2008) recognised the 1964 PRL symmetry breaking papers and Weinberg 's 1967 paper A model of Leptons (the most cited paper in particle physics, as of 2012) "milestone Letters ''.
Following reported observation of the Higgs - like particle in July 2012, several Indian media outlets reported on the supposed neglect of credit to Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose after whose work in the 1920s the class of particles "bosons '' is named (although physicists have described Bose 's connection to the discovery as tenuous).
In the Standard Model, the Higgs field is a four - component scalar field that forms a complex doublet of the weak isospin SU (2) symmetry:
φ = 1 2 (φ 1 + i φ 2 φ 0 + i φ 3), (\ displaystyle \ phi = (\ frac (1) (\ sqrt (2))) \ left ((\ begin (array) (c) \ phi ^ (1) + i \ phi ^ (2) \ \ \ phi ^ (0) + i \ phi ^ (3) \ end (array)) \ right) \;,)
(1)
while the field has charge + 1⁄2 under the weak hypercharge U (1) symmetry.
Note: This article uses the scaling convention where the electric charge, Q, the weak isospin, T, and the weak hypercharge, Y, are related by Q = T + Y. A different convention used in most other Wikipedia articles is Q = T + 1⁄2 Y.
The Higgs part of the Lagrangian is
L H = (∂ μ − i g W μ a τ a − i 1 2 g ′ B μ) φ 2 + μ 2 φ † φ − λ (φ † φ) 2, (\ displaystyle (\ mathcal (L)) _ (H) = \ left \ left (\ partial _ (\ mu) - igW_ (\ mu) ^ (a) \ tau ^ (a) - i (\ frac (1) (2)) g'B_ (\ mu) \ right) \ phi \ right ^ (2) + \ mu ^ (2) \ phi ^ (\ dagger) \ phi - \ lambda (\ phi ^ (\ dagger) \ phi) ^ (2),)
(2)
where W μ a (\ displaystyle W_ (\ mu) ^ (a)) and B μ (\ displaystyle B_ (\ mu)) are the gauge bosons of the SU (2) and U (1) symmetries, g (\ displaystyle g) and g ′ (\ displaystyle g ') their respective coupling constants, τ a = 1 2 σ a (\ displaystyle \ tau ^ (a) = (\ frac (1) (2)) \ sigma ^ (a)) (where σ a (\ displaystyle \ sigma ^ (a)) are the Pauli matrices) a complete set generators of the SU (2) symmetry, and λ > 0 (\ displaystyle \ lambda > 0) and μ 2 > 0 (\ displaystyle \ mu ^ (2) > 0), so that the ground state breaks the SU (2) symmetry (see figure). The ground state of the Higgs field (the bottom of the potential) is degenerate with different ground states related to each other by a SU (2) gauge transformation. It is always possible to pick a gauge such that in the ground state φ 1 = φ 2 = φ 3 = 0 (\ displaystyle \ phi ^ (1) = \ phi ^ (2) = \ phi ^ (3) = 0). The expectation value of φ 0 (\ displaystyle \ phi ^ (0)) in the ground state (the vacuum expectation value or VEV) is then ⟨ φ 0 ⟩ = 1 2 v (\ displaystyle \ langle \ phi ^ (0) \ rangle = (\ tfrac (1) ((\ sqrt (2)) \)) v), where v = 1 λ μ (\ displaystyle v = (\ tfrac (1) ((\ sqrt (\ lambda)) \)) \ left \ mu \ right). The measured value of this parameter is ~ 7002246000000000000 ♠ 246 GeV / c. It has units of mass, and is the only free parameter of the Standard Model that is not a dimensionless number. Quadratic terms in W μ (\ displaystyle W_ (\ mu)) and B μ (\ displaystyle B_ (\ mu)) arise, which give masses to the W and Z bosons:
m W = 1 2 v g, (\ displaystyle m_ (W) = (\ tfrac (1) (2)) v \ left g \ right,)
(3)
m Z = 1 2 v g 2 + g ′ 2, (\ displaystyle m_ (Z) = (\ tfrac (1) (2)) v (\ sqrt (g ^ (2) + (g ') ^ (2))),)
(4)
with their ratio determining the Weinberg angle, cos θ W = m W m Z = g g 2 + g ′ 2 (\ displaystyle \ cos \ theta _ (W) = (\ frac (m_ (W)) (m_ (Z))) = (\ frac (g) (\ sqrt (g ^ (2) + (g ') ^ (2))))), and leave a massless U (1) photon, γ (\ displaystyle \ gamma). The mass of the Higgs boson itself is given by
m H = 2 μ 2 ≡ 2 λ v 2. (\ displaystyle m_ (H) = (\ sqrt (2 \ mu ^ (2))) \ equiv (\ sqrt (2 \ lambda v ^ (2))).)
(5)
The quarks and the leptons interact with the Higgs field through Yukawa interaction terms:
L Y = − λ u i j φ 0 − i φ 3 2 u _̄ L i u R j + λ u i j φ 1 − i φ 2 2 d _̄ L i u R j − λ d i j φ 0 + i φ 3 2 d _̄ L i d R j − λ d i j φ 1 + i φ 2 2 u _̄ L i d R j − λ e i j φ 0 + i φ 3 2 e _̄ L i e R j − λ e i j φ 1 + i φ 2 2 ν _̄ L i e R j + h.c., (\ displaystyle (\ begin (aligned) (\ mathcal (L)) _ (Y) = & - \ lambda _ (u) ^ (ij) (\ frac (\ phi ^ (0) - i \ phi ^ (3)) (\ sqrt (2))) (\ overline (u)) _ (L) ^ (i) u_ (R) ^ (j) + \ lambda _ (u) ^ (ij) (\ frac (\ phi ^ (1) - i \ phi ^ (2)) (\ sqrt (2))) (\ overline (d)) _ (L) ^ (i) u_ (R) ^ (j) \ \ & - \ lambda _ (d) ^ (ij) (\ frac (\ phi ^ (0) + i \ phi ^ (3)) (\ sqrt (2))) (\ overline (d)) _ (L) ^ (i) d_ (R) ^ (j) - \ lambda _ (d) ^ (ij) (\ frac (\ phi ^ (1) + i \ phi ^ (2)) (\ sqrt (2))) (\ overline (u)) _ (L) ^ (i) d_ (R) ^ (j) \ \ & - \ lambda _ (e) ^ (ij) (\ frac (\ phi ^ (0) + i \ phi ^ (3)) (\ sqrt (2))) (\ overline (e)) _ (L) ^ (i) e_ (R) ^ (j) - \ lambda _ (e) ^ (ij) (\ frac (\ phi ^ (1) + i \ phi ^ (2)) (\ sqrt (2))) (\ overline (\ nu)) _ (L) ^ (i) e_ (R) ^ (j) + (\ textrm (h.c.)), \ end (aligned)))
(6)
where (d, u, e, ν) L, R i (\ displaystyle (d, u, e, \ nu) _ (L, R) ^ (i)) are left - handed and right - handed quarks and leptons of the ith generation, λ u, d, e i j (\ displaystyle \ lambda _ (u, d, e) ^ (ij)) are matrices of Yukawa couplings where h.c. denotes the hermitian conjugate of all the preceding terms. In the symmetry breaking ground state, only the terms containing φ 0 (\ displaystyle \ phi ^ (0)) remain, giving rise to mass terms for the fermions. Rotating the quark and lepton fields to the basis where the matrices of Yukawa couplings are diagonal, one gets
L m = − m u i u _̄ L i u R i − m d i d _̄ L i d R i − m e i e _̄ L i e R i + h.c., (\ displaystyle (\ mathcal (L)) _ (m) = - m_ (u) ^ (i) (\ overline (u)) _ (L) ^ (i) u_ (R) ^ (i) - m_ (d) ^ (i) (\ overline (d)) _ (L) ^ (i) d_ (R) ^ (i) - m_ (e) ^ (i) (\ overline (e)) _ (L) ^ (i) e_ (R) ^ (i) + (\ textrm (h.c.)),)
(7)
where the masses of the fermions are m u, d, e i = 1 2 λ u, d, e i v (\ displaystyle m_ (u, d, e) ^ (i) = (\ tfrac (1) ((\ sqrt (2)) \)) \ lambda _ (u, d, e) ^ (i) v), and λ u, d, e i (\ displaystyle \ lambda _ (u, d, e) ^ (i)) denote the eigenvalues of the Yukawa matrices.
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where does wool come from and how is it made | Wool - wikipedia
Wool is the textile fiber obtained from sheep and other animals, including cashmere and mohair from goats, qiviut from muskoxen, angora from rabbits, and other types of wool from camelids. Wool mainly consists of protein together with a few percent lipids. In this regard it is chemically quite distinct from the more dominant textile, cotton, which is mainly cellulose.
Wool is produced by follicles which are small cells located in the skin. These follicles are located in the upper layer of the skin called the epidermis and push down into the second skin layer called the dermis as the wool fibers grow. Follicles can be classed as either primary or secondary follicles. Primary follicles produce three types of fiber: kemp, medullated fibers, and true wool fibers. Secondary follicles only produce true wool fibers. Medullated fibers share nearly identical characteristics to hair and are long but lack crimp and elasticity. Kemp fibers are very coarse and shed out.
Wool 's scaling and crimp make it easier to spin the fleece by helping the individual fibers attach to each other, so they stay together. Because of the crimp, wool fabrics have greater bulk than other textiles, and they hold air, which causes the fabric to retain heat. Wool has a high specific heat coefficient, so it impedes heat transfer in general. This effect has benefited desert peoples, as Bedouins and Tuaregs use wool clothes for insulation.
Felting of wool occurs upon hammering or other mechanical agitation as the microscopic barbs on the surface of wool fibers hook together.
Wool has several qualities that distinguish it from hair / fur: it is crimped and elastic.
The amount of crimp corresponds to the fineness of the wool fibers. A fine wool like Merino may have up to 100 crimps per inch, while coarser wool like karakul may have as few as one or two. In contrast, hair has little if any scale and no crimp, and little ability to bind into yarn. On sheep, the hair part of the fleece is called kemp. The relative amounts of kemp to wool vary from breed to breed and make some fleeces more desirable for spinning, felting, or carding into batts for quilts or other insulating products, including the famous tweed cloth of Scotland.
Wool fibers readily absorb moisture, but are not hollow. Wool can absorb almost one - third of its own weight in water. Wool absorbs sound like many other fabrics. It is generally a creamy white color, although some breeds of sheep produce natural colors, such as black, brown, silver, and random mixes.
Wool ignites at a higher temperature than cotton and some synthetic fibers. It has a lower rate of flame spread, a lower rate of heat release, a lower heat of combustion, and does not melt or drip; it forms a char which is insulating and self - extinguishing, and it contributes less to toxic gases and smoke than other flooring products when used in carpets. Wool carpets are specified for high safety environments, such as trains and aircraft. Wool is usually specified for garments for firefighters, soldiers, and others in occupations where they are exposed to the likelihood of fire.
Wool causes an allergic reaction in some people.
Sheep shearing is the process by which the woolen fleece of a sheep is cut off. After shearing, the wool is separated into four main categories: fleece (which makes up the vast bulk), broken, bellies, and locks. The quality of fleeces is determined by a technique known as wool classing, whereby a qualified person called a wool classer groups wools of similar gradings together to maximize the return for the farmer or sheep owner. In Australia before being auctioned, all Merino fleece wool is objectively measured for micron, yield (including the amount of vegetable matter), staple length, staple strength, and sometimes color and comfort factor.
Wool straight off a sheep, known as "greasy wool '' or "wool in the grease '', contains a high level of valuable lanolin, as well as the sheep 's dead skin and sweat residue, and generally also contains pesticides and vegetable matter from the animal 's environment. Before the wool can be used for commercial purposes, it must be scoured, a process of cleaning the greasy wool. Scouring may be as simple as a bath in warm water or as complicated as an industrial process using detergent and alkali in specialized equipment. In north west England, special potash pits were constructed to produce potash used in the manufacture of a soft soap for scouring locally produced white wool.
In commercial wool, vegetable matter is often removed by chemical carbonization. In less - processed wools, vegetable matter may be removed by hand and some of the lanolin left intact through the use of gentler detergents. This semigrease wool can be worked into yarn and knitted into particularly water - resistant mittens or sweaters, such as those of the Aran Island fishermen. Lanolin removed from wool is widely used in cosmetic products such as hand creams.
Raw wool has many impurities; vegetable matter, sand, dirt and yolk which is a mixture of suint (sweat), grease, urine stains and dung locks. The sheep 's body yields many types of wool with differing strengths, thicknesses, length of staple and impurities. The raw wool (greasy) is processed into ' top '. ' Worsted top ' requires strong straight and parallel fibres.
The quality of wool is determined by its fiber diameter, crimp, yield, color, and staple strength. Fiber diameter is the single most important wool characteristic determining quality and price.
Merino wool is typically 3 -- 5 inches in length and is very fine (between 12 and 24 microns). The finest and most valuable wool comes from Merino hoggets. Wool taken from sheep produced for meat is typically more coarse, and has fibers 1.5 to 6 in (38 to 152 mm) in length. Damage or breaks in the wool can occur if the sheep is stressed while it is growing its fleece, resulting in a thin spot where the fleece is likely to break.
Wool is also separated into grades based on the measurement of the wool 's diameter in microns and also its style. These grades may vary depending on the breed or purpose of the wool. For example:
Any wool finer than 25 microns can be used for garments, while coarser grades are used for outerwear or rugs. The finer the wool, the softer it is, while coarser grades are more durable and less prone to pilling.
The finest Australian and New Zealand Merino wools are known as 1PP, which is the industry benchmark of excellence for Merino wool 16.9 microns and finer. This style represents the top level of fineness, character, color, and style as determined on the basis of a series of parameters in accordance with the original dictates of British wool as applied by the Australian Wool Exchange (AWEX) Council. Only a few dozen of the millions of bales auctioned every year can be classified and marked 1PP.
In the United States, three classifications of wool are named in the Wool Products Labeling Act of 1939. "Wool '' is "the fiber from the fleece of the sheep or lamb or hair of the Angora or Cashmere goat (and may include the so - called specialty fibers from the hair of the camel, alpaca, llama, and vicuna) which has never been reclaimed from any woven or felted wool product ''. "Virgin wool '' and "new wool '' are also used to refer to such never used wool. There are two categories of recycled wool (also called reclaimed or shoddy wool). "Reprocessed wool '' identifies "wool which has been woven or felted into a wool product and subsequently reduced to a fibrous state without having been used by the ultimate consumer ''. "Reused wool '' refers to such wool that has been used by the ultimate consumer.
Wild sheep were more hairy than woolly. Although sheep were domesticated some 9,000 to 11,000 years ago, archaeological evidence from statuary found at sites in Iran suggests selection for woolly sheep may have begun around 6000 BC, with the earliest woven wool garments having only been dated to two to three thousand years later. Woolly - sheep were introduced into Europe from the Near East in the early part of the 4th millennium BC. The oldest known European wool textile, ca. 1500 BC, was preserved in a Danish bog. Prior to invention of shears -- probably in the Iron Age -- the wool was plucked out by hand or by bronze combs. In Roman times, wool, linen, and leather clothed the European population; cotton from India was a curiosity of which only naturalists had heard, and silks, imported along the Silk Road from China, were extravagant luxury goods. Pliny the Elder records in his Natural History that the reputation for producing the finest wool was enjoyed by Tarentum, where selective breeding had produced sheep with superior fleeces, but which required special care.
In medieval times, as trade connections expanded, the Champagne fairs revolved around the production of wool cloth in small centers such as Provins. The network developed by the annual fairs meant the woolens of Provins might find their way to Naples, Sicily, Cyprus, Majorca, Spain, and even Constantinople. The wool trade developed into serious business, a generator of capital. In the 13th century, the wool trade became the economic engine of the Low Countries and central Italy. By the end of the 14th century, Italy predominated, though Italian production turned to silk in the 16th century. Both industries, based on the export of English raw wool, were rivaled only by the 15th - century sheepwalks of Castile and were a significant source of income to the English crown, which in 1275 had imposed an export tax on wool called the "Great Custom ''. The importance of wool to the English economy can be seen in the fact that since the 14th century, the presiding officer of the House of Lords has sat on the "Woolsack '', a chair stuffed with wool.
Economies of scale were instituted in the Cistercian houses, which had accumulated great tracts of land during the 12th and early 13th centuries, when land prices were low and labor still scarce. Raw wool was baled and shipped from North Sea ports to the textile cities of Flanders, notably Ypres and Ghent, where it was dyed and worked up as cloth. At the time of the Black Death, English textile industries accounted for about 10 % of English wool production. The English textile trade grew during the 15th century, to the point where export of wool was discouraged. Over the centuries, various British laws controlled the wool trade or required the use of wool even in burials. The smuggling of wool out of the country, known as owling, was at one time punishable by the cutting off of a hand. After the Restoration, fine English woolens began to compete with silks in the international market, partly aided by the Navigation Acts; in 1699, the English crown forbade its American colonies to trade wool with anyone but England herself.
A great deal of the value of woolen textiles was in the dyeing and finishing of the woven product. In each of the centers of the textile trade, the manufacturing process came to be subdivided into a collection of trades, overseen by an entrepreneur in a system called by the English the "putting - out '' system, or "cottage industry '', and the Verlagssystem by the Germans. In this system of producing wool cloth, once perpetuated in the production of Harris tweeds, the entrepreneur provides the raw materials and an advance, the remainder being paid upon delivery of the product. Written contracts bound the artisans to specified terms. Fernand Braudel traces the appearance of the system in the 13th - century economic boom, quoting a document of 1275. The system effectively bypassed the guilds ' restrictions.
Before the flowering of the Renaissance, the Medici and other great banking houses of Florence had built their wealth and banking system on their textile industry based on wool, overseen by the Arte della Lana, the wool guild: wool textile interests guided Florentine policies. Francesco Datini, the "merchant of Prato '', established in 1383 an Arte della Lana for that small Tuscan city. The sheepwalks of Castile shaped the landscape and the fortunes of the meseta that lies in the heart of the Iberian peninsula; in the 16th century, a unified Spain allowed export of Merino lambs only with royal permission. The German wool market -- based on sheep of Spanish origin -- did not overtake British wool until comparatively late. The Industrial Revolution introduced mass production technology into wool and wool cloth manufacturing. Australia 's colonial economy was based on sheep raising, and the Australian wool trade eventually overtook that of the Germans by 1845, furnishing wool for Bradford, which developed as the heart of industrialized woolens production.
Due to decreasing demand with increased use of synthetic fibers, wool production is much less than what it was in the past. The collapse in the price of wool began in late 1966 with a 40 % drop; with occasional interruptions, the price has tended down. The result has been sharply reduced production and movement of resources into production of other commodities, in the case of sheep growers, to production of meat.
Superwash wool (or washable wool) technology first appeared in the early 1970s to produce wool that has been specially treated so it is machine washable and may be tumble - dried. This wool is produced using an acid bath that removes the "scales '' from the fiber, or by coating the fiber with a polymer that prevents the scales from attaching to each other and causing shrinkage. This process results in a fiber that holds longevity and durability over synthetic materials, while retaining its shape.
In December 2004, a bale of the then world 's finest wool, averaging 11.8 microns, sold for AU $3,000 per kilogram at auction in Melbourne, Victoria. This fleece wool tested with an average yield of 74.5 %, 68 mm long, and had 40 newtons per kilotex strength. The result was A $279,000 for the bale. The finest bale of wool ever auctioned was sold for a seasonal record of AU $2690 per kilo during June 2008. This bale was produced by the Hillcreston Pinehill Partnership and measured 11.6 microns, 72.1 % yield, and had a 43 newtons per kilotex strength measurement. The bale realized $247,480 and was exported to India.
In 2007, a new wool suit was developed and sold in Japan that can be washed in the shower, and which dries off ready to wear within hours with no ironing required. The suit was developed using Australian Merino wool, and it enables woven products made from wool, such as suits, trousers, and skirts, to be cleaned using a domestic shower at home.
In December 2006, the General Assembly of the United Nations proclaimed 2009 to be the International Year of Natural Fibres, so as to raise the profile of wool and other natural fibers.
Global wool production is about 2 million tonnes per year, of which 60 % goes into apparel. Wool comprises ca 3 % of the global textile market, but its value is higher owing to dying and other modifications of the material. Australia is a leading producer of wool which is mostly from Merino sheep but has been eclipsed by China in terms of total weight. New Zealand (2016) is the third - largest producer of wool, and the largest producer of crossbred wool. Breeds such as Lincoln, Romney, Drysdale, and Elliotdale produce coarser fibers, and wool from these sheep is usually used for making carpets.
In the United States, Texas, New Mexico, and Colorado have large commercial sheep flocks and their mainstay is the Rambouillet (or French Merino). Also, a thriving home - flock contingent of small - scale farmers raise small hobby flocks of specialty sheep for the hand - spinning market. These small - scale farmers offer a wide selection of fleece. Global woolclip (total amount of wool shorn) 2004 / 2005
Organic wool is becoming more and more popular. This wool is very limited in supply and much of it comes from New Zealand and Australia. It is becoming easier to find in clothing and other products, but these products often carry a higher price. Wool is environmentally preferable (as compared to petroleum - based nylon or polypropylene) as a material for carpets, as well, in particular when combined with a natural binding and the use of formaldehyde - free glues.
Animal rights groups have noted issues with the production of wool, such as mulesing.
About 85 % of wool sold in Australia is sold by open cry auction. "Sale by sample '' is a method in which a mechanical claw takes a sample from each bale in a line or lot of wool. These grab samples are bulked, objectively measured, and a sample of not less than 4 kg is displayed in a box for the buyer to examine. The Australian Wool Exchange conducts sales primarily in Sydney, Melbourne, Newcastle, and Fremantle. About 80 brokers and agents work throughout Australia.
About 7 % of Australian wool is sold by private treaty on farms or to local wool - handling facilities. This option gives wool growers benefit from reduced transport, warehousing, and selling costs. This method is preferred for small lots or mixed butts to make savings on reclassing and testing.
About 5 % of Australian wool is sold over the internet on an electronic offer board. This option gives wool growers the ability to set firm price targets, reoffer passed - in wool, and offer lots to the market quickly and efficiently. This method works well for tested lots, as buyers use these results to make a purchase. About 97 % of wool is sold without sample inspection; however, as of December 2009, 59 % of wool listed had been passed in from auction. Growers through certain brokers can allocate their wool to a sale and at what price their wool will be reserved.
Sale by tender can achieve considerable cost savings on wool clips large enough to make it worthwhile for potential buyers to submit tenders. Some marketing firms sell wool on a consignment basis, obtaining a fixed percentage as commission.
Forward selling: Some buyers offer a secure price for forward delivery of wool based on estimated measurements or the results of previous clips. Prices are quoted at current market rates and are locked in for the season. Premiums and discounts are added to cover variations in micron, yield, tensile strength, etc., which are confirmed by actual test results when available.
Another method of selling wool includes sales direct to wool mills.
The British Wool Marketing Board operates a central marketing system for UK fleece wool with the aim of achieving the best possible net returns for farmers.
Less than half of New Zealand 's wool is sold at auction, while around 45 % of farmers sell wool directly to private buyers and end - users.
United States sheep producers market wool with private or cooperative wool warehouses, but wool pools are common in many states. In some cases, wool is pooled in a local market area, but sold through a wool warehouse. Wool offered with objective measurement test results is preferred. Imported apparel wool and carpet wool goes directly to central markets, where it is handled by the large merchants and manufacturers.
Shoddy or recycled wool is made by cutting or tearing apart existing wool fabric and respinning the resulting fibers. As this process makes the wool fibers shorter, the remanufactured fabric is inferior to the original. The recycled wool may be mixed with raw wool, wool noil, or another fiber such as cotton to increase the average fiber length. Such yarns are typically used as weft yarns with a cotton warp. This process was invented in the Heavy Woollen District of West Yorkshire and created a microeconomy in this area for many years.
Rag is a sturdy wool fiber made into yarn and used in many rugged applications such as gloves.
Worsted is a strong, long - staple, combed wool yarn with a hard surface.
Woolen is a soft, short - staple, carded wool yarn typically used for knitting. In traditional weaving, woolen weft yarn (for softness and warmth) is frequently combined with a worsted warp yarn for strength on the loom.
In addition to clothing, wool has been used for blankets, horse rugs, saddle cloths, carpeting, insulation and upholstery. Wool felt covers piano hammers, and it is used to absorb odors and noise in heavy machinery and stereo speakers. Ancient Greeks lined their helmets with felt, and Roman legionnaires used breastplates made of wool felt.
Wool has also been traditionally used to cover cloth diapers. Wool fiber exteriors are hydrophobic (repel water) and the interior of the wool fiber is hygroscopic (attracts water); this makes a wool garment suitable cover for a wet diaper by inhibiting wicking, so outer garments remain dry. Wool felted and treated with lanolin is water resistant, air permeable, and slightly antibacterial, so it resists the buildup of odor. Some modern cloth diapers use felted wool fabric for covers, and there are several modern commercial knitting patterns for wool diaper covers.
Initial studies of woolen underwear have found it prevented heat and sweat rashes because it more readily absorbs the moisture than other fibers.
Merino wool has been used in baby sleep products such as swaddle baby wrap blankets and infant sleeping bags.
As an animal protein, wool can be used as a soil fertilizer, being a slow - release source of nitrogen.
Researchers at the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology school of fashion and textiles have discovered a blend of wool and Kevlar, the synthetic fiber widely used in body armor, was lighter, cheaper and worked better in damp conditions than Kevlar alone. Kevlar, when used alone, loses about 20 % of its effectiveness when wet, so required an expensive waterproofing process. Wool increased friction in a vest with 28 -- 30 layers of fabric, to provide the same level of bullet resistance as 36 layers of Kevlar alone.
A buyer of Merino wool, Ermenegildo Zegna, has offered awards for Australian wool producers. In 1963, the first Ermenegildo Zegna Perpetual Trophy was presented in Tasmania for growers of "Superfine skirted Merino fleece ''. In 1980, a national award, the Ermenegildo Zegna Trophy for Extrafine Wool Production, was launched. In 2004, this award became known as the Ermenegildo Zegna Unprotected Wool Trophy. In 1998, an Ermenegildo Zegna Protected Wool Trophy was launched for fleece from sheep coated for around nine months of the year.
In 2002, the Ermenegildo Zegna Vellus Aureum Trophy was launched for wool that is 13.9 microns or finer. Wool from Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, and South Africa may enter, and a winner is named from each country. In April 2008, New Zealand won the Ermenegildo Zegna Vellus Aureum Trophy for the first time with a fleece that measured 10.8 microns. This contest awards the winning fleece weight with the same weight in gold as a prize, hence the name.
In 2010, an ultrafine, 10 - micron fleece, from Windradeen, near Pyramul, New South Wales, won the Ermenegildo Zegna Vellus Aureum International Trophy.
Since 2000, Loro Piana has awarded a cup for the world 's finest bale of wool that produces just enough fabric for 50 tailor - made suits. The prize is awarded to an Australian or New Zealand wool grower who produces the year 's finest bale.
The New England Merino Field days which display local studs, wool, and sheep are held during January, in even numbered years around the Walcha, New South Wales district. The Annual Wool Fashion Awards, which showcase the use of Merino wool by fashion designers, are hosted by the city of Armidale, New South Wales, in March each year. This event encourages young and established fashion designers to display their talents. During each May, Armidale hosts the annual New England Wool Expo to display wool fashions, handicrafts, demonstrations, shearing competitions, yard dog trials, and more.
In July, the annual Australian Sheep and Wool Show is held in Bendigo, Victoria. This is the largest sheep and wool show in the world, with goats and alpacas, as well as woolcraft competitions and displays, fleece competitions, sheepdog trials, shearing, and wool handling. The largest competition in the world for objectively measured fleeces is the Australian Fleece Competition, which is held annually at Bendigo. In 2008, 475 entries came from all states of Australia, with first and second prizes going to the Northern Tablelands, New South Wales fleeces.
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who is the highest paid ceo in the world in 2017 what business/career are they involved in | Roman Abramovich - wikipedia
Roman Arkadyevich Abramovich (Russian: Рома́н Арка́дьевич Абрамо́вич, pronounced (rɐˈman ɐrˈkadjjɪvjɪtɕ ɐbrɐˈmovjɪtɕ), Hebrew: רומן ארקדיביץ ' אברמוביץ ' ; born 24 October 1966) is a Russian - Israeli billionaire businessman, investor, and politician, residing in Tel Aviv.
Abramovich is the primary owner of the private investment company Millhouse LLC, and is best known outside Russia as the owner of Chelsea Football Club, a Premier League football club. He was formerly governor of Chukotka from 2000 to 2008.
According to Forbes, Abramovich 's net worth was US $ 11.5 billion in 2018 making him the richest person in Israel, 11th - richest in Russia, and the 140th - richest person in the world. He has donated more money than any other living Russian, with donations between the years 1999 and 2013 of more than US $ 2.5 billion to build schools, hospitals and infrastructure in Chukotka.
Abramovich 's family is Jewish and are from Tauragė, Lithuania, with the Lithuanian spelling of the family name being Abramavičius. His father Arkady (Aron) Abramovich (1937 -- 1970) was a state office manager, while his grandfather Nahim (Nahman) Abramovich (1887 -- 1942) was a businessman. Nahim (Nahman) Abramovich was born in Erzvilkas, Lithuania and his wife (Roman Abramovich 's paternal grandmother) was Tauba (maiden name Berkover) - born in Jurbarkas, Lithuania. They were married in Tauragė, Lithuania in 1925. Abramovich 's mother is Irina Michalenko, his maternal grandfather was Vassili Michalenko, and his maternal grandmother was Faina Grutman. Abramovich is Chairman of the Federation of Jewish Communities of Russia (which is allied with Putin 's administration), a trustee of the Moscow Jewish Museum and donates money to the Chabad movement.
Abramovich has been married three times. In December 1987, he married Olga Yurevna Lysova; they divorced in 1990. In October 1991, he married a former Russian Aeroflot stewardess, Irina Vyacheslavovna Malandina (born 1967). They divorced in 2007. He and Malandina have five children; Ilya, Arina, Sofia, Arkadiy and Anna (born 1992). On 15 October 2006, the News of the World reported that Irina had hired two top UK divorce lawyers, following reports of Abramovich 's close relationship with the then 25 - year - old Dasha Zhukova, the former girlfriend of the tennis player Marat Safin and daughter of a prominent Russian oligarch, Alexander Zhukov. It was speculated that a future divorce settlement (amounting to a conjectured £ 5.5 billion (€ 6.5 billion)) might be the highest ever on record. The Abramoviches replied that neither had consulted attorneys at that point. However, they later divorced in Russia in March 2007, with a settlement reported as being US $300 million (€ 213 million). Abramovich married Zhukova in a private ceremony in 2008, and they have two children, a son, Aaron Alexander, and a daughter, Leah Lou. In August 2017 the couple announced that they would separate.
Abramovich started his multi-billion - dollar business during his army service. After a brief stint in the Soviet Army, Abramovich married his first wife, Olga. Abramovich first worked as a street - trader, and then as a mechanic at a local factory. At the peak of perestroika, Abramovich sold imported rubber ducks from his Moscow apartment.
Abramovich attended the Gubkin Institute of Oil and Gas in Moscow (where he sold retreaded car tyres as a sideline), then traded commodities for Runicom, a Swiss trading company.
In 1988, as perestroika opened up opportunities for privatization in the Soviet Union, Abramovich got a chance to legitimise his old business. He and Olga set up a company making dolls. Within a few years his wealth spread from oil conglomerates to pig farms. He also started investing in other businesses. Abramovich set up and liquidated at least 20 companies during the early 1990s, in sectors as diverse as tyre retreading and bodyguard recruitment.
From 1992 to 1995, Abramovich founded five companies that conducted resale, produced consumer goods, and acted as intermediaries, eventually specializing in the trading of oil and oil products. However, in 1992 he was arrested and sent to prison in a case of theft of government property: AVEKS - Komi sent a train containing 55 cisterns of diesel fuel, worth 3.8 million roubles, from the Ukhta Oil Refinery; Abramovich met the train in Moscow and resent the shipment to the Kaliningrad military base under a fake agreement, but the fuel arrived in Riga. Abramovich co-operated with the investigation, and the case was closed after the oil production factory was compensated by the diesel 's buyer, the Latvian - US company, Chikora International.
In 1995, Abramovich and Boris Berezovsky, an associate of President Boris Yeltsin, acquired the controlling interest in the large oil company Sibneft. The deal was within the controversial loans - for - shares program and each partner paid US $100 million for half of the company, above the stake 's stock market value of US $150 million at the time, and rapidly turned it up into billions. The fast - rising value of the company led many observers, in hindsight, to suggest that the real cost of the company should have been in the billions of dollars. Abramovich later admitted in court that he paid huge bribes (in billions) to government officials and obtained protection from gangsters to acquire these and other assets (including aluminium assets during the aluminium wars).
Thus the main stages of Abramovich 's financial career were January 1989 to May 1991, as chairman of the Comfort Co-op (manufacturer of plastic toys), and May 1991 to May 1993, as director of the ABK small enterprise in Moscow. According to various sources, from 1992 to 1995 Roman Abramovich set up five companies engaged in the production of consumer goods and selling - and - buying. In May 1995, jointly with Boris Berezovsky, he set up the P.K. Trust close joint - stock company. In 1995 and 1996, he established another 10 firms: Mekong close joint - stock company, Centurion - M close joint - stock company, Agrofert limited liability company, Multitrans close joint - stock company, Oilimpex close joint - stock company, Sibreal close joint - stock company, Forneft close joint - stock company, Servet close joint - stock company, Branco close joint - stock company, Vector - A limited liability company, which, again together with Berezovsky, he used to purchase the shares of the Sibneft public company.
The Guardian describes Abramovich 's career as follows:
By 1996, at the age of 30, Abramovich had become so rich and politically well - connected that he had become close to President Boris Yeltsin, and had moved into an apartment in the Kremlin at the invitation of the Yeltsin family. In 1999, and now a tycoon, Abramovich was elected governor of Russia 's remote, far eastern province of Chukotka, and has since lavished £ 112 million (€ 132 million) on charity to rebuild the impoverished region. The identikit image being pieced together for us was of a self - made man who was not only powerful and wealthy, but acutely aware of those who had done less well in the tumultuous 1990s, when the Soviet Union fell.
In 1992, Abramovich founded Mekong. He began selling oil from Noyabrsk. Eventually, he met fellow Russian businessman and entrepreneur Boris Berezovsky.
According to two different sources, he first met Berezovsky either at a meeting of the Russian businessmen in the Caribbean in 1993 or in the summer of 1995 on the yacht of his friend Pyotr Aven.
Berezovsky introduced Abramovich to "the family '', the close circle around the then president, Boris Yeltsin, which included his daughter Tatyana Dyachenko and chief security adviser, Alexander Korzhakov.
Together with Berezovsky, Abramovich founded the offshore company Gibraltar - registered Runicom Ltd. and five Western European subsidiaries. Abramovich headed the Moscow affiliate of the Swiss firm, Runicom S.A. In August 1995, Sibneft was created by Boris Yeltsin 's presidential decree. It was rumored that Abramovich was the chief of the organization with Berezovsky promoting the business in higher circles.
In 1995, Abramovich and Berezovsky acquired a controlling interest in the giant Soviet oil company Sibneft. Affiliates of Abramovich, with affiliates of Boris Berezovsky, purchased Sibneft for US $100.3 million (the company was worth US $2.7 billion at that time). As of 2000, Sibneft produced around US $3 billion worth of oil annually. Abramovich established several "fly - by - night '' firms and together with his friend Boris Berezovsky used them to acquire the stock of Sibneft. As a result, the tycoon managed to pay for the company 25 times less than the market price. Bought for a total of US $200 million, Sibneft is now worth seventy five times as much.
The Times claimed that he was assisted by Badri Patarkatsishvili. This acquisition was under the controversial loans - for - shares programme initiated by President Boris Yeltsin. After Sibneft, Abramovich 's next target was the aluminium industry. After privatisation the ' aluminium wars ' led to murders of smelting plant managers, metals traders and journalists as groups battled for control of the industry. Abramovich famously emerged as the winner of the aluminium wars. The Times stated that in a BBC investigation into Abramovich 's wealth, reporter John Sweeney noted that, after the oligarch (Abramovich) emerged at the top of the trade, the murders stopped.
The Times also notes:
Mr Abramovich discloses that there was a showdown at St Moritz airport in Switzerland in 2001 when Mr (Badri) Patarkatsishvili asked him to pay US $1.3 billion (€ 925 million) to Mr Berezovsky. "The defendant agreed to pay this amount on the basis that it would be the final request for payment by Mr Berezovsky and that he and Mr Patarkatsishvili would cease to associate themselves publicly with him and his business interests. '' The payment was duly made.
Mr Abramovich was also willing to pay off Mr Patarkatsishvili. He states that he agreed to pay US $585 million (€ 416 million) "by way of final payment ''.
Mr Abramovich denies that he helped himself to Mr Berezovsky 's interests in Sibneft and aluminium or that he threatened a friend of the exile. "It is denied that Mr Abramovich made or was party to the alleged explicit or implicit coercive threats or intimidation, '' he states.
According to court - papers submitted by Abramovich and seen by The Times (UK), Abramovich mentions in the court - papers:
Prior to the August 1995 decree (of Sibneft 's creation), the defendant (Abramovich) informed Mr Berezovsky that he wished to acquire a controlling interest in Sibneft on its creation. In return for the defendant (Abramovich) agreeing to provide Mr Berezovsky with funds he required in connection with the cash flow of (his TV company) ORT, Mr Berezovsky agreed he would use his personal and political influence to support the project and assist in the passage of the necessary legislative steps leading to the creation of Sibneft.
Mr Patarkatsishvili did... provide assistance to the defendant in the defendant 's acquisition of assets in the Russian aluminium industry.
According to the Mirror Online, Abramovich paid Berezovsky tens, and even hundreds, of millions every year for "krysha '', or mafia protection.
In 2015, Abramovich invested and led a $30 million round of funding in Israeli music sharing start - up Music Messenger founded by OD Kobo. Besides Abramovich, several well - known people in the global music industry also took part in the company 's previous round, among them David Guetta, Nicki Minaj, Tiësto, Avicii, will.i.am, Benny Andersson and others.
Furthermore, Abramovich is invested in few other Israeli startups in different fields. Among them is BrainQ, an Israeli startup which develops artificial intelligence - powered technologies to treat neuro disorders, such as stroke, spinal cord injury and traumatic brain injury.
By 1996, at the age of 30, Abramovich had become close to President Boris Yeltsin, and had moved into an apartment inside the Kremlin at the invitation of the Yeltsin family.
In 1999, the 33 - year - old Abramovich was elected governor of the Russian province of Chukotka. He ran for a second term as governor in 2005. The Kremlin press service reported that Abramovich 's name had been sent for approval as governor for another term to Chukotka 's local parliament, which confirmed his appointment on 21 October 2005.
Abramovich was the first person to originally recommend to Yeltsin that Vladimir Putin be his successor as the Russian president. When Putin formed his first cabinet as Prime Minister in 1999, Abramovich interviewed each of the candidates for cabinet positions before they were approved. Subsequently, Abramovich would remain one of Putin 's closest confidants. In 2007, Putin consulted in meetings with Abramovich on the question of who should be his successor as president; Medvedev was personally recommended by Abramovich.
Chris Hutchins, a biographer of Putin, describes the relationship between the Russian president and Abramovich as like that between a father and a favorite son. Abramovich himself says that when he addresses Putin he uses the Russian language 's formal "Вы '' (like Spanish "usted '', German "Sie '', Italian "lei '' or French "vous ''), as opposed to the informal "ты '' (Spanish "tú '', German "du '', Italian "tu '' or French "tu ''). Abramovich says that the reason is because ' he is more senior than me '. Within the Kremlin, Abramovich is referred to as "Mr A ''.
In 1999, Abramovich was elected to the State Duma as the representative for the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, an impoverished region in the Russian Far East. He started the charity Pole of Hope to help the people of Chukotka, especially children, and in December 2000, was elected governor of Chukotka, replacing Alexander Nazarov.
Abramovich was the governor of Chukotka from 2000 to 2008. It has been estimated that he spent over US $1.3 billion (€ 925 million) of his own money on the region, which now has one of the highest birth rates in Russia. Under Abramovich, living standards improved, schools and housing were restored and new investors were being drawn to the region.
In 2003, Abramovich was named Person of the Year by Expert, a Russian business magazine. He shared this title with Mikhail Khodorkovsky.
Abramovich was awarded the Order of Honour for his "huge contribution to the economic development of the autonomous district (of Chukotka) '', by a decree signed by the President of Russia.
In early July 2008 it was announced that President Dmitri Medvedev had accepted Abramovich 's request to resign as governor of Chukotka, although his various charitable activities in the region would continue. In the period 2000 -- 2006 the average salaries in Chukotka increased from about US $165 (€ 117 / £ 100) per month in 2000 to US $826 (€ 588 / £ 500) per month in 2006.
Roman Abramovich has been alleged to be involved in various wrongdoings. The Times said that Abramovich "famously emerged triumphant after the ' aluminium wars ', in which more than 100 people are believed to have been killed in gangland feuds over control of the lucrative smelters. ''
Boris Berezovsky (his one - time business partner) alleged in 2008 that Abramovich harassed him with "threats and intimidation '' to cheat him to sell his valuable shares at less than their true worth.
In 2011, Berezovsky brought a civil case against Abramovich, called Berezovsky v Abramovich, in the High Court of Justice in London, accusing Abramovich of blackmail, breach of trust and breach of contract, and seeking over £ 3 billion in damages.
On 31 August 2012, the High Court dismissed the lawsuit. The High Court judge stated that because of the nature of the evidence, the case hinged on whether to believe Berezovsky or Abramovich 's evidence. The judge found Berezovsky to be "an unimpressive, and inherently unreliable witness, who regarded truth as a transitory, flexible concept, which could be moulded to suit his current purposes '', whereas Abramovich was seen as "a truthful, and on the whole, reliable witness ''.
In 2008, The Times reported that Abramovich admitted that he paid billions of dollars for political favours and protection fees to obtain a big share of Russia 's oil and aluminium assets as was shown by court papers obtained by The Times.
Yugraneft, an affiliate of Sibir Energy, is seeking billions of dollars in damages in a lawsuit in London against Roman Abramovich and his investment company Millhouse Capital, alleging that it was cheated out of its Russian assets. The proceedings "involve substantial claims to recover the proceeds of the diluted interest '', said Sibir Energy, a company co-owned by the billionaire Shalva Chigirinsky.
In 1992, he was arrested in a case of theft of government property. AVEKS - Komi sent a train containing 55 cisterns (tankers) of diesel fuel, worth Р3. 8 million (Roubles), from the Ukhta Oil Refinery (Case No. 79067 for the large - scale theft of state property); Abramovich met the train in Moscow and resent the shipment to the Kaliningrad military base under a fake agreement, but the fuel arrived in Riga. Abramovich cooperated with the investigation, and the charges were dropped after the oil production factory was compensated by the diesel 's buyer, the Latvian - U.S. concern Chikora International.
An allegation emerging from a Swiss investigation links Roman Abramovich, through a former company, and numerous other Russian politicians, industrialists and bankers to using a US $4.8 billion (€ 3.4 billion) loan from the IMF as personal slush fund; an audit sponsored by the IMF itself determined that all of the IMF funds had been used appropriately.
In January 2005, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) indicated that it would be suing Abramovich over a £ 9 million (US $14.9 million / € 10.6 million) loan. The EBRD said that it is owed US $17.5 million (€ 12.45 million / £ 10.6 million) by Runicom, a Switzerland - based oil trading business which had been controlled by Abramovich and Eugene Shvidler. Abramovich 's spokesman indicated that the loan had previously been repaid.
Russia 's antitrust body, the Federal Antimonopoly Service, claimed that Evraz Holding, owned in part by Abramovich, had breached Russian competition law by offering unfavorable terms for contractors and discriminating against domestic consumers for coking coal, a key material used in steel production.
According to Putin, Abramovich has been cheated by Igor Kolomoyskyi. Putin claimed in 2014 that Kolomoyskyi had reneged on a contract with Abramovich, saying "He (Kolomoyskyi) even managed to cheat our oligarch Roman Abramovich two or three years ago. Scammed him, as our intellectuals like to say. They signed some deal, Abramovich transferred several billion dollars, while this guy never delivered and pocketed the money. When I asked him (Abramovich): ' Why did you do it? ' he said: ' I never thought this was possible. ' ''
In June 2003, Abramovich became the owner of the companies that control Chelsea Football Club in West London. The previous owner of the club was Ken Bates, who went on to buy Leeds United. Chelsea immediately embarked on an ambitious programme of commercial development, with the aim of making it a worldwide brand on a par with footballing dynasties such as Manchester United and Real Madrid, and also announced plans to build a new state - of - the - art training complex in Cobham, Surrey.
Chelsea finished their first season after the takeover in second place in the Premier League, up from fourth the previous year. They also reached the semi-finals of the Champions League, which was eventually won by surprise contender Porto, managed by José Mourinho. For Abramovich 's second season at Stamford Bridge, Mourinho was recruited as the new manager, replacing the incumbent Claudio Ranieri. Chelsea ended the 2004 -- 05 season as league champions for the first time in 50 years and only the second time in their history. Since the takeover, the club have won 13 major trophies -- the UEFA Champions League, the UEFA Europa League, the Premier League five times, the FA Cup four times (with 2010 providing the club 's first ever league and FA Cup double), and the League Cup three times, making Chelsea the second most successful English trophy winning team in the decade with 15 honours, behind only Manchester United with 17 honours in the same time span.
It was argued that Abramovich 's involvement with Chelsea distorted the football transfer market throughout Europe, as his wealth often allowed the club to purchase players virtually at will. That has changed in recent years, but he did sanction the transfer of Andriy Shevchenko for a then - British record transfer fee of around £ 30 million (€ 35.3 million).
In the year ending June 2005, Chelsea posted record losses of £ 140 million (€ 165 million) and the club was not expected to record a trading profit before 2010, although this decreased to reported losses of £ 80.2 million (€ 94.3 million) in the year ending June 2006. In a December 2006 interview, Abramovich stated that he expected Chelsea 's transfer spending to fall in years to come.
Abramovich is present at nearly every Chelsea game and shows visible emotion during matches, a sign taken by supporters to indicate a genuine love for the sport, and usually visits the players in the dressing room following each match. This stopped for a time in early 2007, when press reports appeared of a feud between Abramovich and manager Mourinho regarding the performance of certain players, notably Andriy Shevchenko.
In the early hours of 20 September 2007, Mourinho announced his exit as Chelsea manager by mutual consent with the club following a meeting with the board. The former Israel coach and Chelsea 's director of football, Avram Grant, was named as his replacement. Ever since Grant had joined Chelsea in 2007, there had been friction between him and Mourinho. Mourinho reportedly told Grant not to interfere in team affairs but, with Abramovich 's backing, Grant 's profile at the club rose after he was made a member of the board. This event apparently did not go down well with Mourinho and may have contributed to his surprise departure. Grant led Chelsea to the position of runners - up in the Premiership and the club 's first appearance in the Champions League final, beaten by Manchester United on both accounts. Nevertheless, on 24 May 2008, Grant was sacked as manager by Abramovich.
On 11 June 2008, it was announced that Luiz Felipe Scolari, who had taken Brazil to World Cup glory in 2002, would be taking over as manager, but he only lasted until 9 February 2009 before being sacked. In February 2009, acclaimed coach Guus Hiddink was appointed caretaker manager for the rest of the 2008 / 09 season, delivering Chelsea 's first post-Mourinho trophy with the FA Cup.
Hiddink was replaced by another former European Cup winning boss, Carlo Ancelotti. In May 2010, Ancelotti took Chelsea to their first league and FA Cup "double '' in his first season as manager. The following season, in January 2011, Spanish footballer Fernando Torres completed his move to Chelsea on a 5 ⁄ - year contract on 31 January for an undisclosed fee, reported to be £ 50 million, which set a new record for a British transfer and made him the fourth most expensive footballer in history. Ancelotti was sacked as manager at the end of his second season with the club in May 2011, after Chelsea 's impressive form at the start of the campaign collapsed spectacularly during the winter months.
André Villas - Boas, after taking Porto to a Europa League triumph, and having previously worked alongside Mourinho at Stamford Bridge, was appointed as Abramovich 's seventh manager of Chelsea on 22 June 2011. Villas - Boas, however, was sacked in on 4 March due to a bad run of form, with only one win in 11 games. The next manager was Roberto Di Matteo, who was appointed to this role after winning the Champions League and the FA Cup serving in a caretaker capacity. Di Matteo was also sacked on 21 November 2012 after their 3 -- 0 loss to Juventus. Former Liverpool boss Rafael Benítez was appointed as manager for the remainder of the club 's campaign. He won Chelsea the 2012 -- 13 UEFA Europa League against Benfica before leaving at the end of his term as interim manager.
After the 2012 -- 13 season, Benítez left Chelsea, whereupon José Mourinho returned as manager, signing a four - year deal. On 1 July 2013, Chelsea celebrated ten years under Abramovich 's ownership. Before the first game of the 2013 -- 14 season against Hull City on 18 August 2013, the Russian thanked Chelsea supporters for ten years of support in a short message on the front cover of the match programme, saying, "We have had a great decade together and the club could not have achieved it all without you, '' "Thanks for your support and here 's to many more years of success. ''
In March 2004, Sibneft agreed to a three - year sponsorship deal worth € 41.3 million (US $58 million) with the Russian team CSKA Moscow. Although the company explained that the decision was made at management level, some viewed the deal as an attempt by Abramovich to counter accusations of being "unpatriotic '' which were made at the time of the Chelsea purchase. UEFA rules prevent one person owning more than one team participating in UEFA competitions, so Abramovich has no equity interest in CSKA. A lawyer, Alexandre Garese, is one of his partners in CSKA.
Following an investigation, Abramovich was cleared by UEFA of having a conflict of interest. Nevertheless, he was named "most influential person in Russian football '' in the Russian magazine Pro Sport at the end of June 2004. In May 2005, CSKA won the UEFA Cup, becoming the first Russian club ever to win a major European football competition. In October 2005, however, Abramovich sold his interest in Sibneft and the company 's new owner Gazprom, which sponsors Zenit Saint Petersburg, cancelled the sponsorship deal.
Abramovich also played a large role in bringing Guus Hiddink to Russia to coach the Russia national football team. Piet de Visser, a former head scout of Hiddink 's club PSV Eindhoven and now a personal assistant to Abramovich at Chelsea, recommended Hiddink to the Chelsea owner.
In addition to his involvement in professional football, Abramovich sponsors a foundation in Russia called the National Academy of Football. The organization sponsors youth sports programs throughout the country and has constructed more than fifty football pitches in various cities and towns. It also funds training programs for coaches, prints instruction materials, renovates sports facilities and takes top coaches and students on trips to visit professional football clubs in England, the Netherlands and Spain. In 2006 the Academy of Football took over the administration of the Konoplyov football academy at Primorsky, near Togliatti, Samara Oblast, where over 1,000 youths are in residence, following the death at 38 of its founder, Yuri Konoplev.
According to Forbes, as of March 2016, Abramovich had a net worth of US $ 7.6 billion, ranking him as the 151th richest person in the world. In March 2017, Bloomberg estimated his wealth as US $ 10.4 billion. Prior to the 2008 financial crisis, he was considered to be the second richest person living within the United Kingdom. Early in 2009, The Times estimated that due to the global economic crisis he had lost £ 3 billion from his £ 11.7 billion wealth.
Abramovich reportedly donated more money to charity than any other living Russian. Between 2009 and 2013, Abramovich donated more than US $ 2.5 billion to build schools, hospitals and infrastructure in Chukotka. In addition, Evraz Plc (EVR), the steelmaker partly owned by Abramovich, donated US $ 164 million for social projects between 2010 through 2012, an amount that is excluded in Abramovich 's US $ 310 million donations during this period.
Abramovich has reportedly spent approximately GB £ 1.5 bn on the Pole of Hope, his charity set up to help those in the Arctic region of Chukotka, where he was governor.
Roman Abramovich sponsored an exhibition of photographs of Uzbekistan by renowned Soviet photographer Max Penson (1893 -- 1959) which opened on 29 November 2006 at the Gilbert Collection at Somerset House in London. He previously funded the exhibition "Quiet Resistance: Russian Pictorial Photography 1900s -- 1930s '' at the same gallery in 2005. Both exhibits were organized by the Moscow House of Photography.
In May 2008, Abramovich emerged as a major buyer in the international art auction market. He purchased Francis Bacon 's Triptych 1976 for € 61.4 million (US $86.3 million) (a record price for a post-war work of art) and Lucian Freud 's Benefits Supervisor Sleeping for € 23.9 million (US $33.6 million) (a record price for a work by a living artist).
His partner Dasha Zhukova is managing a Garage Center for Contemporary Culture - gallery of contemporary art in Moscow that was initially housed in the historical Bakhmetevsky Bus Garage building by Konstantin Melnikov. The building, neglected for decades and partially taken apart by previous tenants, was restored in 2007 -- 2008 and reopened to the public in September 2008. Speed and expense of restoration is credited to sponsorship by Abramovich.
Abramovich has become the world 's greatest spender on luxury yachts, and always maintains a fleet of yachts which the media have called "Abramovich 's Navy '':
Current boats:
Former boats:
He owns a private Boeing 767 - 33A / ER, registered in Aruba as P4 - MES. It is known as The Bandit due to its livery. Originally the aircraft was ordered by Hawaiian Airlines but the order was cancelled and Abramovich bought it from Boeing and refitted it to his own requirements by Andrew Winch, who designed the interior and exterior. The aircraft was estimated in 2016 to cost US $ 74 million and its interior is reported to include a 30 - seat dining room, a boardroom, master bedrooms, luxury bathrooms with showers, and a spacious living room. The aircraft has the same air missile avoidance system as the Air Force One. Abramovich also owns a Gulfstream 650 with registration LX - GVI and a Dassault Falcon 7X with registration LX - MES named as "Mini Bandit ''
In 2009, Abramovich had Beyoncé, Gwen Stefani and Prince sing at his New Year 's Eve event at his estate on the Caribbean island of St Bart 's. In 2011, Abramovich hired the Red Hot Chili Peppers to perform for a reported £ 5m. The performance by Red Hot Chili Peppers included a special appearance from Toots Hibbert of Toots and the Maytals. Abramovich reportedly spent £ 5 million on a total of 300 guests, including George Lucas, Martha Stewart, Marc Jacobs and Jimmy Buffett. In 2014, Abramovich hired British singer Robbie Williams to headline a New Year 's dinner for President Putin 's "inner circle ''. The party took place in Moscow and appears to have been the inspiration for Williams ' song "Party Like a Russian ''.
As of May 2018, USSR - born billionaire businessman Abramovich is finalizing the paperwork to grant him Israeli citizenship. He is eligible to do so on account of his Jewish heritage.
Abramovich owns the Varsano boutique hotel in Tel Aviv 's Neve Tzedek neighborhood, which he bought for NIS 100 million in 2015 and is converting into his Israeli home. He bought the hotel from Gal Gadot 's husband Yaron Varsano and Varsano 's brother Guy.
Abramovich has also invested in more than a dozen Israeli startups including rapid - battery charger technology developer Storedot.
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name the three largest latino groups in the united states | Hispanic and Latino Americans - wikipedia
Hispanic Americans and Latin Americans (Spanish: hispanos; (isˈpanos)) are people in the United States of America who are descendants of the Spanish - speaking and Portuguese - speaking countries of Latin America and Spain. It is the largest population of Latino Americans and Hispanics outside of Latin America. More generally, it includes all persons in the United States who self - identify as Hispanic or Latino, whether of full or partial ancestry. For the 2010 United States Census, people counted as "Hispanic '' or "Latino '' were those who identified as one of the specific Hispanic or Latino categories listed on the census questionnaire ("Mexican, '' "Puerto Rican, '' or "Cuban '') as well as those who indicated that they were "other Spanish, Hispanic, or Latino. '' The national origins classified as Hispanic or Latino by the United States Census Bureau are the following: Spanish, Argentine, Cuban, Colombian, Puerto Rican, Mexican, Dominican, Costa Rican, Guatemalan, Honduran, Nicaraguan, Panamanian, Salvadoran, Bolivian, Chilean, Ecuadorian, Paraguayan, Peruvian, Uruguayan, and Venezuelan. Other U.S. government agencies have slightly different definitions of the term, including Brazilians and other Portuguese - speaking groups. The Census Bureau uses the terms Hispanic and Latino interchangeably.
"Origin '' can be viewed as the ancestry, nationality group, lineage, or country of birth of the person or the person 's parents or ancestors before their arrival in the United States. People who identify as Spanish, Hispanic, or Latino may be of any race. As the only specifically designated category of ethnicity in the United States (other than non-Hispanic / Latino), Hispanics form a pan-ethnicity incorporating a diversity of inter-related cultural and linguistic heritages. Most Hispanic Americans are of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Salvadoran, Dominican, Guatemalan, or Colombian origin. The predominant origin of regional Hispanic populations varies widely in different locations across the country.
Hispanic Americans are the second fastest - growing ethnic group by percentage growth in the United States after Asian Americans. Hispanic / Latinos overall are the second - largest ethnic group in the United States, after non-Hispanic Whites (a group which, like Hispanics and Latinos, is composed of dozens of sub-groups of differing national origin).
Hispanics have lived within what is now the United States continuously since the founding of St. Augustine by the Spanish in 1565. After Native Americans, Hispanics are the oldest ethnic group to inhabit much of what is today the United States. Many have Native American ancestry. Spain colonized large areas of what is today the American Southwest and West Coast, as well as Florida. Its holdings included present - day California, New Mexico, Nevada, Arizona, and Texas, all of which were part of the Republic of Mexico from its independence in 1821 until the end of the Mexican -- American War in 1848. Conversely, Hispanic immigrants to the New York City metropolitan area derive from a broad spectrum of Latin American states.
A study published in 2015 in the American Journal of Human Genetics, based on 23andMe data from 8,663 self - described Latinos, estimated that Latinos in the United States carried a mean of 65.1 % European ancestry, 18.0 % Native American ancestry, and 6.2 % African ancestry. The study found that self - described Latinos from the Southwest, especially those along the Mexican border, had the highest mean levels of Native American ancestry, while self - described Latinos from the South, Midwest, and Atlantic Coast had the highest mean levels of African ancestry.
The terms "Hispanic '' and "Latino '' refer to an ethnicity; people of this group may be of any race. Hispanic people may share some commonalities in their language, culture, history, and heritage. According to the Smithsonian Institution, the term "Latino '' includes peoples with Portuguese roots, such as Brazilians, as well as those of Spanish - language origin. In the United States, many Hispanics and Latinos are of both European and Native American ancestry (mestizo). Others are wholly or predominately of European ancestry, or wholly or predominantly of Amerindian ancestry. Many Hispanics and Latinos from the Caribbean, as well as other regions of Latin America where African slavery was widespread, may be of sub-Saharan African descent as well.
The difference between the terms Hispanic and Latino is confusing to some. The U.S. Census Bureau equates the two terms and defines them as referring to anyone from Spain and the Spanish - speaking countries of the Americas. The term Latino has developed a number of definitions. One definition of Latino is "a Latin male in the United States ''. This is the oldest and the original definition used in the United States, first used in 1946. This definition encompasses Spanish speakers from both Europe and the Americas. Under this definition, immigrants from Spain and immigrants from Latin America are both Latino. This definition is consistent with the 21st - century usage by the U.S. Census Bureau and OMB, as the two agencies use both terms Hispanic and Latino interchangeably.
A later definition of Latino is as a condensed form of the term "Latino - Americano '', the Spanish word for Latin - American, or someone who comes from Latin America. Under this definition a Mexican American or Puerto Rican, for example, is both a Hispanic and a Latino. A Brazilian American is also a Latino by this definition, which includes those of Portuguese - speaking origin from Latin America. An immigrant from Spain, however, would be classified as Hispanic but not Latino by this definition.
While the U.S. Census Bureau 's definition of "Hispanic '' is limited to Spain and Spanish - speaking Latin America, other government agencies have slightly different definitions of the term. The US Department of Transportation defines "Hispanic '' as "persons of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Dominican, Central or South American, or other Spanish or Portuguese culture or origin, regardless of race. '' This definition has been adopted by the Small Business Administration as well as by many federal, state, and municipal agencies. Unlike the Census Bureau 's definition, this clearly includes people with origins in Portuguese - speaking countries.
Preference of use between the terms among Hispanics and Latinos in the United States often depends on where persons reside. Those in the Eastern United States tend to prefer the term Hispanic, whereas those in the West tend to prefer Latino. Both terms refer to ethnicity, as a person of Latino or Hispanic origin can be of any race.
In Spanish, Latina is used for persons of feminine gender; Latino is used for those of masculine gender, or by default. For example, a group of mixed or unknown gender would be referred to as Latinos. In the 21st century, the neologisms Latinx and Latin @ were coined as a gender - neutral alternative to this traditional usage. The X functions as a variable, encompassing those who identify as male, female, or non-binary. The @ symbol is seen as containing both the masculine ' o ' and feminine ' a ', thus serving a similar purpose. Neither has been widely adopted.
Hispanic / Latinos have been settled continuously in the territory of the United States since the late 16th century, earlier than any other colonial group of European origin. Spanish explorers were pioneers in the territory of the present - day United States. The first confirmed European landing in the continental U.S. was by Juan Ponce de León, who landed in 1513 at a lush shore he christened La Florida.
Within three decades of Ponce de León 's landing, the Spanish became the first Europeans to reach the Appalachian Mountains, the Mississippi River, the Grand Canyon and the Great Plains. Spanish ships sailed along the East Coast, penetrating to present - day Bangor, Maine, and up the Pacific Coast as far as Oregon. From 1528 to 1536, Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca and three fellows (including an African named Estevanico), from a Spanish expedition that foundered, journeyed from Florida to the Gulf of California, 267 years before the Lewis and Clark Expedition. They turned back to the interior, reaching their destination of Mexico City.
In 1540 Hernando de Soto undertook an extensive exploration of the present U.S. That same year Francisco Vásquez de Coronado led 2,000 Spaniards and Mexican Indians across today 's Arizona -- Mexico border and traveled as far as central Kansas, close to the exact geographic center of what is now the continental United States. Other Spanish explorers of the US territory include, among others: Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón, Pánfilo de Narváez, Sebastián Vizcaíno, Gaspar de Portolà, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, Tristán de Luna y Arellano and Juan de Oñate, and non-Spanish explorers working for the Spanish Crown, such as Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo. In all, Spaniards probed half of today 's lower 48 states before the first English colonization effort in 1585 at Roanoke Island off the East Coast.
In 1565 the Spanish created the first permanent European settlement in the continental United States, at St. Augustine, Florida. Santa Fe, New Mexico was founded before Jamestown, Virginia (founded in 1607) and the New England Plymouth Colony (1620, of Mayflower and Pilgrims fame). Spanish missionaries and colonists founded settlements in El Paso, San Antonio, Tucson, San Diego, Los Angeles and San Francisco, to name a few.
As late as 1783, at the end of the American Revolutionary War (a conflict in which Spain aided and fought alongside the rebels), Spain held claim to roughly half the territory of today 's continental United States. From 1819 to 1848, the United States (through treaties, purchase, diplomacy, and the Mexican -- American War) increased its area by roughly a third at Spanish and Mexican expense, acquiring three of what are today 's four most populous states -- California, Texas and Florida.
During the 20th and 21st centuries, Hispanic and Latino immigration to the US increased markedly following changes to the immigration law in 1965.
Hispanic and Latino contributions in the historical past and present of the United States are addressed in more detail below (See Notables and their contributions). To recognize the current and historic contributions of Hispanic and Latino Americans, on September 17, 1968, President Lyndon B. Johnson designated a week in mid-September as National Hispanic Heritage Week, with Congress 's authorization. In 1988, President Ronald Reagan extended the observance to a month, designated Hispanic Heritage Month.
As of 2011, Hispanics accounted for 16.7 % of the national population, or around 52 million people. The Hispanic growth rate over the April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2007 period was 28.7 % -- about four times the rate of the nation 's total population growth (at 7.2 %). The growth rate from July 1, 2005 to July 1, 2006 alone was 3.4 % -- about three and a half times the rate of the nation 's total population growth (at 1.0 %). Based on the 2010 census, Hispanics are now the largest minority group in 191 out of 366 metropolitan areas in the US. The projected Hispanic population of the United States for July 1, 2050 is 132.8 million people, or 30.2 % of the nation 's total projected population on that date.
US metropolitan areas with over 1 million Hispanics (2011)
States and territories with the highest proportion of Hispanics (2010)
Of the nation 's total Hispanic or Latino population, 49 % (21.5 million) live in California or Texas.
Over half of the Hispanic / Latino population is concentrated in the Southwest region, mostly composed of Mexican Americans. California and Texas have some of the largest populations of Mexicans and Central American Latinos in the United States. The Northeast region is dominated by Puerto Ricans and Dominican Americans, having the highest concentrations of both in the country. In the Mid Atlantic region, centered on the DC Metro Area, Salvadoran Americans are the largest of Hispanic groups. Florida is dominated by Cuban Americans and Puerto Ricans. In both the Great Lakes States and the South Atlantic States, Mexicans and Puerto Ricans dominate. Mexicans dominate in the rest of the country, including the Western United States, South Central United States and Great Plains states.
As of 2007, some 64 % of the nation 's Hispanic population are of Mexican origin (see table). Another 9 % are of Puerto Rican origin, with about 3 % each of Cuban, Salvadoran and Dominican origins. The remainder are of other Central American or South American origin, or of origin directly from Spain. 60.2 % of all Hispanic and Latino Americans were born in the United States.
There are few immigrants directly from Spain, since Spaniards have historically emigrated to Latin America rather than English - speaking countries. In the 2000 Census, 299,948 Americans, of whom 83 % were native - born, specifically reported their ancestry as Spaniard. However a larger number of people, in the 2000 Census some 2,187,144 Americans reported "Spanish '' as their ancestry, whether directly from Spain or not.
In northern New Mexico and southern Colorado, there is a large portion of Hispanics who trace their ancestry to Spanish settlers of the late 16th century through the 17th century. People from this background often self - identify as "Hispanos '', "Spanish '', or "Hispanic ''. Many of these settlers also intermarried with local Amerindians, creating a Mestizo population. Likewise, southern Louisiana is home to communities of people of Canary Islands descent, known as Isleños, in addition to other people of Spanish ancestry.
Chicanos, Californios, Nuevomexicanos, and Tejanos are Americans of Spanish and or Mexican descent. Chicanos live in the Southwest, Nuevomexicanos in New Mexico, and Tejanos in Texas. Nuevomexicanos and Tejanos are distinct cultures with their own cuisines, dialects and musical traditions. The term "Chicano '' became popular amongst Mexican Americans in the 1960s during the Chicano nationalism and Chicano Movement, and is today seen as an ethnic and cultural identity by some. Political activist César Chávez and novelist José Antonio Villarreal are famous Chicanos.
Nuyoricans are Americans of Puerto Rican descent from the New York City area. There are close to two million Nuyoricans in the US. Famous Nuyoricans include US Supreme Court Judge Sonia Sotomayor and singer Jennifer Lopez.
Hispanic or Latino origin is independent of race and is termed "ethnicity '' by the United States Census Bureau. According to the 2007 American Community Survey, 42 % of Hispanic and Latinos were White. The largest numbers of White Hispanics come from within the Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban and Colombian, communities.
A significant percentage of the Hispanic and Latino population self - identifies as Mestizo, particularly the Mexican and Central American community. Mestizo is not a racial category in the U.S. Census, but signifies someone who has both European and American Indian Ancestry. According to the 2010 United States Census, 36.7 % of Hispanic / Latino Americans identify as "some other race '' as these Hispanic / Latinos may feel the U.S. census does not describe their European or American Indian ancestry as they understand it to be.
Half of the Hispanic / Latino population in the United States self - identifies as white. Most of the multi-racial population in the Mexican, Salvadoran, and Guatemalan communities are of European and Native American ancestry (Mestizo), while most of the multiracial population in the Puerto Rican, Dominican, and Cuban communities are of European and African ancestry (Mulatto).
The largest numbers of Black Hispanics are from the Spanish Caribbean islands, including the Cuban, Dominican, Panamanian, and Puerto Rican, communities.
Hispanic and Latinos are racially diverse, although different "races '' are usually the majority of each Hispanic group. For example, of Hispanic Americans deriving from northern Mexico, most are White or bi-racial having White / Native American Ancestry, while of those deriving from southern Mexican ancestry, the majority are Native American or of Native American and European Ancestry. In Guatemala, Native American and bi-racial people of Native American and European descent make the majority, while in El Salvador, whites and Bi-racial people of Native American / European descent are the majority. In the Dominican Republic the population are largely made up of people with inter-mixed ancestries, in which there are even levels of African and European ancestry, with smaller numbers of Whites and Blacks as well. In Puerto Rico, people with European ancestry are the majority. There are also populations of predominantly of African descent as well as populations of American Indian descent as well as those with inter-mixed ancestries. Cubans are mostly of White Latin American ancestry, however there are also populations of Blacks and multi-racials as well. The race and culture of each Hispanic / Latino country and their United States diaspora differs by history and geography. Mexicans represent the bulk of the US Hispanic / Latino population, and most Mexican Americans that migrate to the United States are of Native American and White descent, which causes many non-Hispanics to equate being Hispanic with being of mestizo or Native American ancestry. Official sources report the racial makeup of these Hispanic subgroups as follows, Argentina, Uruguay, Puerto Rico, Cuba, and Chile, having the highest percentage of Hispanics self - identifying as white in their respective countries. As a result of their racial diversity, Hispanics form an ethnicity sharing a language (Spanish) and cultural heritage, rather than a race. The phenomenon of bi-racial people who are predominantly of European descent identifying as white is not limited to Hispanics or Spanish speakers but is also common among English speakers as well: researchers found that most White Americans with less than 28 percent African - American ancestry say they are White; above that threshold, people tended to describe themselves as African - American.
As of 2014, one third, or 17.9 million, of the Hispanic population was younger than 18 and a quarter, 14.6 million were Millennials. This makes them more than half of the Hispanic population within the United States.
As Latino migrants become the norm in the United States, the effects of this migration on the identity of these migrants and their kin becomes most evident in the younger generations. Crossing the borders changes the identities of both the youth and their families. Often "one must pay special attention to the role expressive culture plays as both entertainment and as a site in which identity is played out, empowered, and reformed '' because it is "sometimes in opposition to dominant norms and practices and sometimes in conjunction with them. '' The exchange of their culture of origin with American culture creates a dichotomy within the values that the youth find important, therefore changing what it means to be Latino in the global sphere.
The term agringados is a term for immigrants who have gone to America and allowed themselves to be Americanized, thus losing their Latino identity. This is the identity struggle youth and families face because they are forced to choose how much American culture they can adopt without having their Latino peers looking down on them for being "too American ''. Another way in which identity is compromised is shown through youth. Families who bring their young children into the U.S. allow them to be more exposed and vulnerable to adopting American identity. This becomes a problem for the parents because they struggle to understand their children and how to teach them, having grown up in their original country.
Along with feeling that they are neither from the country of their ethnic background nor the United States, a new identity within the United States is formed called latinidad. This is especially seen in cosmopolitan social settings like New York City, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles and San Francisco. Underway is "the intermeshing of different Latino subpopulations has laid the foundations for the emergence and ongoing evolution of a strong sense of latinidad '' which establishes a "sense of cultural affinity and identity deeply rooted in what many Latinos perceive to be a shared historical, spiritual, aesthetic and linguistic heritage, and a growing sense of cultural affinity and solidarity in the social context of the United States. '' This unites Latinos as one, creating cultural kin with other Latino ethnicities.
One of the many ways that migration to the United States changes identity for Latino youth is the way that they carry their gendered identities. Traditionally in Latino households it would be common to find women and young girls to be homebodies or una muchacha de la casa because this means she abides "by the cultural norms and respectability, chastity, and family honor valued by the community. '' However when Latina women come to the United States or are for there, they tend to adapt to the social norms of this new country. When they do this their social location changes as they become more independent and able to live without the financial support of their families or partners. These women are then viewed as being de la calle which is to be transgressive and sexually promiscuous. When Latino families are in the United States, they "deal with young women 's failure to adhere to these culturally prescribed norms of proper gendered behavior in a variety of ways, including sending them to live in Puerto Rico with family members, regardless of whether or not they are sexually active. ''
Along with the increase in independence amongst these young women, the concept of vergüenza in many of the dynamics between gender relations begins to diminish. To have vergüenza is to assert male dominance in all spheres, especially in his relationship with his feminine partner. It is enforced through shaming males into fitting a macho archetype in order to establish respect, dominance and in turn manliness in their social worlds. While there are many Latina women in the homeland as well as older Latina women in the United States who often reinforce this dynamic by not wanting a man who is a sinvergüenza (one without shame), the Latinx youth are taking sinvergüenza and wearing it with honor. Often being in the middle of these two worlds makes for the youth to "meditate between the two cultures and (their) ambivalence toward feeling a lack of vergüenza '' resulting in a group of youth who celebrate being sinvergüenza while still acknowledging the concept of vergüenza within a part of their culture.
With the Catholic Church remaining a large influence on the Latino culture, the subject of promiscuity and sexuality is often considered taboo. It is taught in many Latino cultures that best way to remain pure of sin and not become pregnant is to remain celibate and heterosexual. All are to be straight and women are to be virgins and must carry herself like a Madonna in order to receive respect and have the family 's honor remain. However, despite being told that they should essentially suppress any natural feeling of sexual curiosity, through the globalization of encouraging sexual liberation, many young Latina women take their sexuality into their own hands and do not listen to the Madonna ideal. Despite the this oppressive nature, "women are neither passive nor one - dimensional individuals who automatically adapt to these culturally and socially defined moral prescriptions shaping their sex lives in some way '' but instead "sophisticated, multidimensional, and active social agents who react to these prescriptions in multiform and complicated ways. ''
Latino youth are also taking control of their sexuality through migration, globalization, and tourism in places like Acapulco, Cancun, Vallarta, Mazatlan, and Veracruz, all cities in Mexico. These cities are becoming popularized by gay youth, both Mexican and American, and have become somewhat of a safe haven for homosexual people as well as those whom have been labeled gay, not for their sexual preferences but because of the way that they 're gender is perceived by others. Due to the persecution for presenting as homosexual that is faced in Mexico along with the difficulty to immigrate north of the border, "many queer Mexican men and women migrating to urban areas within Mexico has proved to be a better alternative. '' The creation of this ambiente, is due to the not only globalization of queerness but as well as the way harsh immigration laws in the United States makes these cities one of their only options.
Hispanic and Latino Americans have made distinguished contributions to the United States in all major fields, such as politics, the military, music, literature, philosophy, sports, business and economy, and science.
In 1995, the American Latino Media Arts Award, or ALMA Award was created. It 's a distinction given to Latino performers (actors, film and television directors, and musicians) by the National Council of La Raza.
There are many Hispanic American musicians that have achieved international fame, such as Christopher Rios better known by his stage name Big Pun, Mariah Carey, Jennifer López, Joan Baez, Linda Ronstadt, Zack de la Rocha, Fergie, Gloria Estefan, Celia Cruz, Tito Puente, Kat DeLuna, Selena, Ricky Martin, Marc Anthony, Carlos Santana, Christina Aguilera, Selena Gomez, Jerry García, Demi Lovato, Dave Navarro, Romeo Santos, Tom Araya, Becky G, Camila Cabello, all members of all - girl band Go Betty Go and two members of girl group, Fifth Harmony: Lauren Jauregui and Ally Brooke.
Among the Hispanic American musicians who were pioneers in the early stages of rock and roll were Ritchie Valens, who scored several hits, most notably "La Bamba '' and Herman Santiago wrote the lyrics to the iconic rock and roll song "Why Do Fools Fall in Love ''. Songs that became popular in the United States and are heard during the Holiday / Christmas season are "¿ Dónde Está Santa Claus? '' is a novelty Christmas song with 12 - year - old (Augie Ríos) was a record hit in 1959 which featured the Mark Jeffrey Orchestra. "Feliz Navidad '' by José Feliciano. Miguel del Aguila, wrote 116 works and has three Latin Grammy nominations
In 1986, Billboard magazine introduced the Hot Latin Songs chart which ranks the best - performing songs on Spanish - language radio stations in the United States. Seven years later, Billboard initiated the Top Latin Albums which ranks top - selling Latin albums in the United States. Similarly, the Recording Industry Association of America incorporated "Los Premios de Oro y Platino '' (The Gold and Platinum Awards) to certify Latin recordings which contains at least 50 % of its content recorded in Spanish.
In 1989, Univision established the Lo Nuestro Awards which became the first award ceremony to recognize the most talented performers of Spanish - language music and was considered to be the "Hispanic Grammys ''. In 2000, the Latin Academy of Recording Arts & Sciences (LARAS) established the Latin Grammy Awards to recognize musicians who perform in Spanish and Portuguese. Unlike The Recording Academy, LARAS extends its membership internationally to Spanish - and Portuguese - speaking communities worldwide in Latin America, Spain, and Portugal.
Hispanics and Latinos have also contributed some prominent actors and others in the film industry. Of Puerto Rican origin: José Ferrer (the first Hispanic actor to win an Academy Award for his role in Cyrano de Bergerac), Rita Moreno, Chita Rivera, Raul Julia, Rosie Perez, Rosario Dawson, Esai Morales, Jennifer Lopez and Benicio del Toro. Of Mexican origin: Ramón Novarro, Dolores del Río, Lupe Vélez, Anthony Quinn, Ricardo Montalbán, Katy Jurado, Edward James Olmos, Salma Hayek, Danny Trejo, and Becky G. Of Cuban origin: Cesar Romero, Andy García, Cameron Diaz and Eva Mendes. Of Dominican origin: Maria Montez and Zoe Saldana. Of Brazilian origin: Carmen Miranda, Sonia Braga, and Rodrigo Santoro. Of Spanish origin: Rita Hayworth, Martin Sheen, and Antonio Banderas. Other outstanding figures are: Anita Page (of Salvadoran origin), Fernando Lamas (of Argentine origin), Raquel Welch (of Bolivian origin), Maria Conchita Alonso (of Venezuelan origin), John Leguizamo (of Colombian origin) and Oscar Isaac (of Guatemalan origin).
In standup comedy, Paul Rodríguez, Greg Giraldo, Cheech Marin, George Lopez, Freddie Prinze, Jade Esteban Estrada, Carlos Mencia, John Mendoza, Gabriel Iglesias, and others are prominent.
Some of the Hispanic or Latino actors who achieved notable success in U.S. television include Desi Arnaz, Lynda Carter, Jimmy Smits, Charo, Selena Gomez, Carlos Pena Jr., Eva Longoria, Sofía Vergara, Benjamin Bratt, Ricardo Montalbán, America Ferrera, Karla Souza, Diego Boneta, Erik Estrada, Cote de Pablo, Freddie Prinze, Lauren Vélez, and Charlie Sheen. Kenny Ortega is an Emmy Award - winning producer, director, and choreographer who has choreographed many major television events such as Super Bowl XXX, the 72nd Academy Awards, and Michael Jackson 's memorial service.
Hispanics and Latinos are underrepresented in U.S. television, radio, and film. This is combatted by organizations such as the Hispanic Organization of Latin Actors (HOLA), founded in 1975; and National Hispanic Media Coalition (NHMC), founded in 1986. Together with numerous Latino civil rights organizations, the NHMC led a "brownout '' of the national television networks in 1999, after discovering that there were no Latinos in any of their new prime time shows that year. This resulted in the signing of historic diversity agreements with ABC, CBS, Fox, and NBC that have since increased the hiring of Hispanic and Latino talent and other staff in all of the networks.
Latino Public Broadcasting (LPB) funds programs of educational and cultural significance to Hispanic Americans. These programs are distributed to various public television stations throughout the United States.
The total number of Hispanic - owned businesses in 2002 was 1.6 million, having grown at triple the national rate for the preceding five years.
Hispanic and Latino business leaders include Cuban immigrant Roberto Goizueta, who rose to head of The Coca - Cola Company. Advertising Mexican - American magnate Arte Moreno became the first Hispanic to own a major league team in the United States when he purchased the Los Angeles Angels baseball club. Also a major sports team owner is Mexican - American Linda G. Alvarado, president and CEO of Alvarado Construction, Inc and co-owner of the Colorado Rockies baseball team.
The largest Hispanic - owned food company in the US is Goya Foods, because of World War II hero Joseph A. Unanue, the son of the company 's founders. Angel Ramos was the founder of Telemundo, Puerto Rico 's first television station and now the second largest Spanish - language television network in the United States, with an average viewership over one million in primetime. Samuel A. Ramirez, Sr. made Wall Street history by becoming the first Hispanic to launch a successful investment banking firm, Ramirez & Co. Nina Tassler is president of CBS Entertainment since September 2004. She is the highest - profile Latina in network television and one of the few executives who has the power to approve the airing or renewal of series.
In the world of fashion, notable Hispanic and Latino designers include Oscar de la Renta, Carolina Herrera, and Narciso Rodríguez among others. Christy Turlington, Gisele Bündchen and Lea T achieved international fame as models.
As of 2007 there were more than five thousand elected officeholders in the United States who were of Latino origin.
In the House of Representatives, Hispanic and Latino representatives have included Ladislas Lazaro, Antonio M. Fernández, Henry B. Gonzalez, Kika de la Garza, Herman Badillo, Romualdo Pacheco, and Manuel Lujan, Jr., out of almost two dozen former Representatives. Current Representatives include Ileana Ros - Lehtinen, Jose E. Serrano, Luis Gutiérrez, Nydia Velázquez, Xavier Becerra, Lucille Roybal - Allard, Loretta Sanchez, Rubén Hinojosa, Mario Diaz - Balart, Raul Grijalva, Ben R. Lujan, Jaime Herrera Beutler, Raul Labrador, and Alex Mooney -- in all, they number thirty. Former senators are Octaviano Ambrosio Larrazolo, Mel Martinez, Dennis Chavez, Joseph Montoya, and Ken Salazar. As of January 2011, the U.S. Senate includes Hispanic members Bob Menendez, a Democrat, and Republicans Ted Cruz and Marco Rubio, all Cuban Americans.
Numerous Hispanics and Latinos hold elective and appointed office in state and local government throughout the United States. Current Hispanic Governors include Republican Nevada Governor Brian Sandoval and Republican New Mexico Governor Susana Martinez; upon taking office in 2011, Martinez became the first Latina governor in the history of the United States. Former Hispanic governors include Democrats Jerry Apodaca, Raul Hector Castro, and Bill Richardson, as well as Republicans Octaviano Ambrosio Larrazolo, Romualdo Pacheco, and Bob Martinez.
Since 1988, when Ronald Reagan appointed Lauro Cavazos the Secretary of Education, the first Hispanic United States Cabinet member, Hispanic Americans have had an increasing presence in presidential administrations. Hispanics serving in subsequent cabinets include Ken Salazar, current Secretary of the Interior; Hilda Solis, current United States Secretary of Labor; Alberto Gonzales, former United States Attorney General; Carlos Gutierrez, Secretary of Commerce; Federico Peña, former Secretary of Energy; Henry Cisneros, former Secretary of Housing and Urban Development; Manuel Lujan, Jr., former Secretary of the Interior; and Bill Richardson, former Secretary of Energy and Ambassador to the United Nations. Rosa Rios is the current US Treasurer, including the latest three, were Hispanic women.
In 2009, Sonia Sotomayor became the first Supreme Court Associate Justice of Hispanic or Latino origin.
The Congressional Hispanic Caucus (CHC), founded in December 1976, and the Congressional Hispanic Conference (CHC), founded on March 19, 2003, are two organizations that promote policy of importance to Americans of Hispanic descent. They are divided into the two major American political parties: The Congressional Hispanic Caucus is composed entirely of Democratic representatives, whereas the Congressional Hispanic Conference is composed entirely of Republican representatives.
Among the distinguished Hispanic and Latino authors and works are:
Hispanics and Latinos have participated in the military of the United States and in every major military conflict from the American Revolution onward. 11 % to 13 % military personnel now are Latinos and they have been deployed in the Iraq War, the Afghanistan War, and U.S. military missions and bases elsewhere. Hispanics and Latinos have not only distinguished themselves in the battlefields but also reached the high echelons of the military, serving their country in sensitive leadership positions on domestic and foreign posts. Up to now, 43 Hispanics and Latinos have been awarded the nation 's highest military distinction, the Medal of Honor (also known as the Congressional Medal of Honor). The following is a list of some notable Hispanics / Latinos in the military:
The following 43 Hispanics were awarded the Medal of Honor: Philip Bazaar, Joseph H. De Castro, John Ortega, France Silva, David B. Barkley, Lucian Adams, Rudolph B. Davila, Marcario Garcia, Harold Gonsalves, David M. Gonzales, Silvestre S. Herrera, Jose M. Lopez, Joe P. Martinez, Manuel Perez Jr., Cleto L. Rodriguez, Alejandro R. Ruiz, Jose F. Valdez, Ysmael R. Villegas, Fernando Luis García, Edward Gomez, Ambrosio Guillen, Rodolfo P. Hernandez, Baldomero Lopez, Benito Martinez, Eugene Arnold Obregon, Joseph C. Rodriguez, John P. Baca, Roy P. Benavidez, Emilio A. De La Garza, Ralph E. Dias, Daniel Fernandez, Alfredo Cantu "Freddy '' Gonzalez, Jose Francisco Jimenez, Miguel Keith, Carlos James Lozada, Alfred V. Rascon, Louis R. Rocco, Euripides Rubio, Hector Santiago - Colon, Elmelindo Rodrigues Smith, Jay R. Vargas, Humbert Roque Versace, and Maximo Yabes.
Among Hispanic Americans who have excelled in science are Luis Walter Álvarez, Nobel Prize -- winning physicist, and his son Walter Alvarez, a geologist. They first proposed that an asteroid impact on the Yucatán Peninsula caused the extinction of the dinosaurs. Mario J. Molina won the Nobel Prize in chemistry and currently works in the chemistry department at the University of California, San Diego. Dr. Victor Manuel Blanco is an astronomer who in 1959 discovered "Blanco 1 '', a galactic cluster. F.J. Duarte is a laser physicist and author; he received the Engineering Excellence Award from the prestigious Optical Society of America for the invention of the N - slit laser interferometer. Alfredo Quiñones - Hinojosa is the Director of the Pituitary Surgery Program at Johns Hopkins Hospital and the Director of the Brain Tumor Stem Cell Laboratory at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine. Physicist Albert Baez made important contributions to the early development of X-ray microscopes and later X-ray telescopes. His nephew John Carlos Baez is also a noted mathematical physicist. Francisco J. Ayala is a biologist and philosopher, former president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and has been awarded the National Medal of Science and the Templeton Prize. Peruvian - American biophysicist Carlos Bustamante has been named a Searle Scholar and Alfred P. Sloan Foundation Fellow. Luis von Ahn is one of the pioneers of crowdsourcing and the founder of the companies reCAPTCHA and Duolingo. Colombian - American Ana Maria Rey received a MacArthur Fellowship for her work in atomic physics in 2013.
Dr. Fernando E. Rodríguez Vargas discovered the bacteria that cause dental cavity. Dr. Gualberto Ruaño is a biotechnology pioneer in the field of personalized medicine and the inventor of molecular diagnostic systems, Coupled Amplification and Sequencing (CAS) System, used worldwide for the management of viral diseases. Fermín Tangüis was an agriculturist and scientist who developed the Tangüis Cotton in Peru and saved that nation 's cotton industry. Severo Ochoa, born in Spain, was a co-winner of the 1959 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Dr. Sarah Stewart, a Mexican - American Microbiologist, is credited with the discovery of the Polyomavirus and successfully demonstrating that cancer causing viruses could be transmitted from animal to animal. Mexican - American psychiatrist Dr. Nora Volkow, whose brain imaging studies helped characterize the mechanisms of drug addiction, is the current director of the National Institute on Drug Abuse. Dr. Helen Rodríguez Trías, an early advocate for women 's reproductive rights, helped drive and draft U.S. federal sterilization guidelines in 1979. She was awarded the Presidential Citizens Medal by President Bill Clinton, and was the first Latina president of the American Public Health Association.
Some Hispanics and Latinos have made their names in astronautics, including several NASA astronauts: Franklin Chang - Diaz, the first Latin American NASA astronaut, is co-recordholder for the most flights in outer space, and is the leading researcher on the plasma engine for rockets; France A. Córdova, former NASA chief scientist; Juan R. Cruz, NASA aerospace engineer; Lieutenant Carlos I. Noriega, NASA mission specialist and computer scientist; Dr. Orlando Figueroa, mechanical engineer and Director of Mars Exploration in NASA; Amri Hernández - Pellerano, engineer who designs, builds and tests the electronics that will regulate the solar array power in order to charge the spacecraft battery and distribute power to the different loads or users inside various spacecraft at NASA 's Goddard Space Flight Center.
Olga D. González - Sanabria won an R&D 100 Award for her role in the development of the "Long Cycle - Life Nickel - Hydrogen Batteries '' which help enable the International Space Station power system. Mercedes Reaves, research engineer and scientist who is responsible for the design of a viable full - scale solar sail and the development and testing of a scale model solar sail at NASA Langley Research Center. Dr. Pedro Rodríguez, inventor and mechanical engineer who is the director of a test laboratory at NASA and of a portable, battery - operated lift seat for people suffering from knee arthritis. Dr. Felix Soto Toro, electrical engineer and astronaut applicant who developed the Advanced Payload Transfer Measurement System (ASPTMS) (Electronic 3D measuring system); Ellen Ochoa, a pioneer of spacecraft technology and astronaut; Joseph Acaba, Fernando Caldeiro, Sidney Gutierrez, Jose Hernández, Michael López - Alegría, John Olivas, and George Zamka, who are current or former astronauts.
The large number of Hispanic and Latino American stars in Major League Baseball (MLB) includes players like Ted Williams (considered by many to be the greatest hitter of all time), Alex Rodriguez, Alex Rios, Miguel Cabrera, Lefty Gómez, Iván Rodríguez, Carlos González, Roberto Clemente, Adrian Gonzalez, Jose Fernandez, David Ortiz, Fernando Valenzuela, Nomar Garciaparra, Albert Pujols, Omar Vizquel, managers Al López, Ozzie Guillén, and Felipe Alou, and General Manager Omar Minaya.
There have been far fewer football and basketball players, let alone star players, but Tom Flores was the first Hispanic head coach and the first Hispanic quarterback in American professional football, and won Super Bowls as a player, as assistant coach and as head coach for the Oakland Raiders. Anthony Múñoz is enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame, ranked # 17 on Sporting News 's 1999 list of the 100 greatest football players, and was the highest - ranked offensive lineman. Jim Plunkett won the Heisman Trophy and was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame, and Joe Kapp is inducted into the Canadian Football Hall of Fame and College Football Hall of Fame. Steve Van Buren, Martin Gramatica, Victor Cruz, Tony Gonzalez, Marc Bulger, Tony Romo and Mark Sanchez can also be cited among successful Hispanics and Latinos in the National Football League (NFL).
Trevor Ariza, Mark Aguirre, Carmelo Anthony, Manu Ginóbili, Carlos Arroyo, Gilbert Arenas, Rolando Blackman, Pau Gasol, Jose Calderon, José Juan Barea and Charlie Villanueva can be cited in the National Basketball Association (NBA). Dick Versace made history when he became the first person of Hispanic heritage to coach an NBA team. Rebecca Lobo was a major star and champion of collegiate (National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA)) and Olympic basketball and played professionally in the Women 's National Basketball Association (WNBA). Diana Taurasi became just the seventh player ever to win an NCAA title, a WNBA title, and as well an Olympic gold medal. Orlando Antigua became in 1995 the first Hispanic and the first non-black in 52 years to play for the Harlem Globetrotters.
Tennis players includes legend Pancho Gonzales and Olympic tennis champions and professional players Mary Joe Fernández and Gigi Fernández and 2016 Puerto Rican Gold Medalist Monica Puig.
Hispanics are present in all major American sports and leagues, but have particularly influenced the growth in popularity of soccer in the United States. Soccer is the most popular sport across Latin America and Spain, and Hispanics brought the heritage of soccer playing to the US. Major League Soccer teams such as Chivas USA, LA Galaxy, and the Houston Dynamo, for example, have a fanbase composed primarily of Mexican Americans. Association football players in the Major League Soccer (MLS) includes several like Tab Ramos, Claudio Reyna, Omar Gonzalez, Marcelo Balboa and Carlos Bocanegra.
Boxing 's first Hispanic world champion was Panama Al Brown. Some other champions include Oscar De La Hoya, Miguel Cotto, Bobby Chacon, Brandon Ríos, Michael Carbajal, John Ruiz, and Carlos Ortiz.
Ricco Rodriguez, Tito Ortiz, Diego Sanchez, Nick Diaz, Nate Diaz, Dominick Cruz, Frank Shamrock, Gilbert Melendez, Roger Huerta, Carlos Condit, Kelvin Gastelum, and UFC Heavy Weight Champion Cain Velasquez have been competitors in the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) of mixed martial arts.
In 1991 Bill Guerin whose mother is Nicaraguan became the first Hispanic player in the National Hockey League (NHL). He was also selected to four NHL All - Star Games. In 1999 Scott Gomez won the NHL Rookie of the Year Award.
Figure skater Rudy Galindo; golfers Chi Chi Rodríguez, Nancy López, and Lee Trevino; softball player Lisa Fernández; and Paul Rodríguez Jr., X Games professional skateboarder, are all Hispanic or Latino Americans who have distinguished themselves in their sports.
In sports entertainment we find the professional wrestlers Alberto Del Rio, Rey Mysterio, Eddie Guerrero, Tyler Black and Melina Pérez, and executive Vickie Guerrero.
With the increasing Hispanic population in the United States, Latinos have had a considerable impact on the K - 12 system. In 2011 - 12, Latina / os comprised 24 % of all enrollments in the United States, including 52 % and 51 % of enrollment in California and Texas, respectively. Further research shows the Latino population will continue to grow in the United States, implicating that more Latinos will populate U.S schools.
The state of Latina / o education shows some promise. First, Hispanic students attending pre-K or kindergarten were more likely to attend full - day programs. Second, Latinos in elementary education were the second largest group represented in gifted and talented programs. Third, Hispanics ' average NAEP math and reading scores have consistently increased over the last 10 years. Finally, Latina / os were more likely than other groups, including whites, to go to college.
However, their academic achievement in early childhood, elementary, and secondary education lag behind other groups. For instance, their average math and reading NAEP scores were lower than every other group, except African Americans, and have the highest dropout rate of any group, 13 % despite decreasing from 24 %.
To explain these disparities, some scholars have suggested there is a Latino "Education Crisis '' due to failed school and social policies. To this end, scholars have further offered several potential reasons including language barriers, poverty, and immigrant / nativity status resulting in Latinos not performing well academically.
Currently, 80 % of Hispanic students in the U.S. are English Language Learners. In 2008 - 9, 5.3 million students were classified as English Language Learners (ELLs) in pre-K to 12th grade. This is a result of many students entering the education system at different ages, although the majority of ELLs are not foreign born. In order to provide English instruction for Latino students there have been a multitude of English Language programs. However, the great majority of these programs are English Immersion, which arguably undermines the students ' culture and knowledge of their primary language. As such, there continues to be great debate within schools as to which program can address these language disparities.
Poverty affects many underrepresented students as racial / ethnic minorities tend to stay isolated within pockets of low - income communities. This results in several inequalities, such as "school offerings, teacher quality, curriculum, counseling and all manner of things that both keep students engaged in school and prepare them to graduate. '' In the case of Latinos the poverty rate for Hispanic Children in 2004 was 28.6 percent. Moreover, with this lack of resources, schools reproduce these inequalities for generations to come. In order to assuage poverty, many Hispanic families can turn to social and community services as resources.
Immigrants have not always had access to compulsory education in the United States. However, due to the Landmark Supreme Court Plyler v. Doe in 1982, immigrants are allowed access to K - 12 education. This significantly impacted all immigrant groups, including Latina / os. However, their academic achievement is dependent upon several factors including, but not limited to time of arrival and schooling in country of origin. Moreover, Latinos ' immigration / nativity status plays a major role regarding their academic achievement. For instance, first - and second - generation Latinos outperform their later generational counterparts. Additionally, their aspirations appear to decrease as well. This has major implications on their postsecondary futures.
Those with a bachelor 's degree or higher ranges from 50 % of Venezuelans compared to 18 % for Ecuadorians 25 years and older. Amongst the largest Hispanic groups, those with a bachelor 's or higher was 25 % for Cuban Americans, 16 % of Puerto Ricans, 15 % of Dominicans, and 11 % for Mexican Americans. Over 21 % of all second - generation Dominican Americans have college degrees, slightly below the national average (28 %) but significantly higher than U.S. - born Mexican Americans (13 %) and U.S. - born Puerto Rican Americans (12 %).
Hispanic and Latinos make up the second or third largest ethnic group in Ivy League universities, considered to be the most prestigious in the United States. Hispanic and Latino enrollment at Ivy League universities has gradually increased over the years. Today, Hispanics make up between 8 % of students at Yale University to 15 % at Columbia University. For example, 18 % of students in the Harvard University Class of 2018 are Hispanic.
Hispanics have significant enrollment in many other top universities such as University of Texas at El Paso (70 % of students), Florida International University (63 %), University of Miami (27 %), and MIT, UCLA, & UC - Berkeley at 15 % each. At Stanford University, Hispanics are the third largest ethnic group behind non-Hispanic Whites and Asians, at 18 % of the student population.
Hispanics study in universities around the country, but can also attend to Hispanic - serving institution, institutions that are part of a federal program designed to assist colleges or universities in the United States that attempt to assist first generation, majority low income Hispanic students. There are over 250 schools that have been designated as an HSI.
Hispanic and Latino Americans are the longest - living Americans, according to official data. Their life expectancy is more than two years longer than for non-Hispanic whites and almost eight years longer than for African Americans.
In 2011, the median household income among Hispanic and Latino Americans was highest for Argentinean Americans ($55,000), and lowest for Honduran Americans ($31,000). For other large Hispanic groups, the incomes were as follows: Salvadoran Americans ($40,000), Cuban Americans ($38,600), Mexican Americans ($38,000), Guatemalan Americans ($36,400), Puerto Ricans ($36,000) and Dominican Americans ($32,300).
According to the U.S. Census, the poverty rate among the six largest Hispanic groups during the period of 2007 - 2011 was: Dominican Americans (26.3 percent), Puerto Ricans (25.6), Guatemalan Americans (25.1), Mexican Americans (24.9 percent), Salvadoran Americans (18.9) and Cuban Americans (14.2). In comparison, the average poverty rates for non-Hispanic White Americans (12.8 percent) and Asian Americans (11.3 percent) were lower than those of any Hispanic group. African Americans (25.8 percent) had a higher poverty rate than Cuban Americans, Salvadoran Americans, Mexican Americans, Guatemalan Americans and Puerto Ricans, but had a lower poverty rate than Dominican Americans.
The geographic, political, social, economic, and racial diversity of Hispanic and Latino Americans makes all Hispanics very different depending on their family heritage and / or national origin. Yet several features tend to unite Hispanics from these diverse backgrounds.
As one of the most important uniting factors of Hispanic Americans, Spanish is an important part of Hispanic culture. Teaching Spanish to children is often one of the most valued skills taught amongst Hispanic families. Spanish is not only closely tied with the person 's family, heritage, and overall culture, but valued for increased opportunities in business and one 's future professional career. A 2013 Pew Research survey showed that 95 % of Hispanic adults said "it 's important that future generations of Hispanics speak Spanish. '' Given the United States ' proximity to other Spanish - speaking countries, Spanish is being passed on to future American generations. Amongst second - generation Hispanics, 80 % speak fluent Spanish, and amongst third - generation Hispanics, 40 % speak fluent Spanish.
Hispanics have revived the Spanish language in the United States. First brought to North America by the Spanish during the Spanish colonial period in the 16th century, Spanish was the first European language spoken in the Americas. Spanish is the oldest European language in the United States, spoken uninterruptedly for four and a half centuries, since the founding of Saint Augustine, Florida in 1565. Today, 90 % of all Hispanics and Latinos speak English, and at least 78 % speak fluent Spanish. Additionally, 2.8 million non-Hispanic Americans also speak Spanish at home for a total of 41.1 million.
With 40 % of Hispanic and Latino Americans being immigrants, and with many of the 60 % who are U.S. - born being the children or grandchildren of immigrants, bilingualism is the norm in the community at large. At home, at least 69 % of all Hispanics over the age of five are bilingual in English and Spanish, whereas up to 22 % are monolingual English - speakers, and 9 % are monolingual Spanish speakers. Another 0.4 % speak a language other than English and Spanish at home.
The Spanish dialects spoken in the United States differ depending on the country of origin of the person or the person 's family heritage. Generally, however, Spanish spoken in the Southwest is Mexican Spanish (or Chicano Spanish). An old, colonial variety of Spanish is spoken by descendants of the early Spanish colonists in New Mexico and Colorado, which is New Mexican Spanish. One of the major distinctions of New Mexican Spanish is its heavy use of colonial vocabulary and verb tenses that make New Mexican Spanish uniquely American amongst Spanish dialects. The Spanish spoken in Florida and in the Northeast is Caribbean Spanish and is heavily influenced by the Spanish of Cuba and Puerto Rico. Canarian Spanish is the historic Spanish dialect spoken by the descendants of the earliest Spanish colonists beginning in the 18th century in Louisiana. Spanish spoken elsewhere throughout the country varies, although is generally Mexican Spanish.
Hispanics have influenced the way Americans speak with the introduction of many Spanish words into the English language. Amongst younger generations of Hispanics, Spanglish, or a mix of Spanish and English, may be a common way of speaking. Although they are fluent in both languages, speakers will switch between Spanish and English throughout the conversation. Spanglish is particularly common in Hispanic - majority cities and communities such as Miami, Hialeah, San Antonio, Los Angeles, and New York City.
Hispanics have also influenced the way English is spoken in the United States. In Miami, for example, the Miami dialect has evolved as the most common form of English spoken and heard in Miami today. This is a native dialect of English, and was developed amongst second and third generations of Cuban Americans in Miami. Today, it is commonly heard everywhere throughout the city. Gloria Estefan and Enrique Iglesias are examples of people who speak with the Miami dialect. Another major English dialect, is spoken by Chicanos and Tejanos in the Southwestern United States, called Chicano English. George Lopez and Selena are examples of speakers of Chicano English. An English dialect spoken by Puerto Ricans and other Hispanic groups is called New York Latino English.
The most methodologically rigorous study of Hispanic or Latino religious affiliation to date was the Hispanic Churches in American Public Life (HCAPL) National Survey, conducted between August and October 2000. This survey found that 70 % of all Hispanic and Latino Americans are Catholic, 20 % are Protestant, 3 % are "alternative Christians '' (such as Mormons or Jehovah 's Witnesses), 1 % identify themselves with a non-Christian religion (including Islam, Judaism, Buddhism...), and 6 % have no religious preference (with only 0.37 % claiming to be either atheist or agnostic). The results of this study suggest that Hispanics / Latinos are not only a highly religious, but also a highly Christian constituency.
It also suggests that Hispanic / Latino Protestants are a more sizable minority than is sometimes realized. Catholic affiliation is much higher among first - generation than it is among second - or third - generation Hispanic or Latino immigrants, who exhibit a fairly high rate of defection to Protestantism. Also Hispanics and Latinos in the Bible Belt, which is mostly located in the South, are more likely to shift to Protestantism than those in other regions, as it is all around them. Protestant denominations that have attracted Hispanic / Latino converts are Pentecostalism, Southern Baptist, and the Episcopal Church. According to Andrew Greeley, as many as 600,000 American Latinos leave Catholicism for Protestant churches every year. Hispanic or Latino Catholics are developing youth and social programs to retain members, as well as the spread of the Catholic Charismatic Renewal.
The United States is home to thousands of Spanish - language media outlets, which range in size from giant commercial and some non-commercial broadcasting networks and major magazines with circulations numbering in the millions, to low - power AM radio stations with listeners numbering in the hundreds. There are hundreds of Internet media outlets targeting U.S. Hispanic consumers. Some of the outlets are online versions of their printed counterparts and some online exclusively.
Among the most notable Hispanic / Latino - oriented media outlets are:
Latino food, particularly Mexican food, has influenced American cuisine and eating habits. Mexican cuisine has become so mainstream in American culture that many no longer see it as an ethnic food. Across the US, tortillas and salsa are arguably becoming as common as hamburger buns and ketchup. Tortilla chips have surpassed potato chips in annual sales, and plantain chips popular in Caribbean cuisines have continued to increase sales. Tropical fruit, such as mango, guava, and passion fruit (maracuyá), have become more popular and are now common flavors in desserts, candies, and food dishes in the US.
Due to the large Mexican - American population in the Southwestern United States, and its proximity to Mexico, Mexican food there is believed to be some of the best in the US. Cubans brought Cuban cuisine to Miami, and today, cortaditos, pastelitos de guayaba, and empanadas are common mid-day snacks in the city. Cuban culture has changed Miami 's coffee drinking habits, and today a café con leche or a cortadito is commonly had, often with a pastelito (pastry), at one of the city 's numerous coffee shops. The Cuban sandwich developed in Miami, and is now a staple and icon of the city 's cuisine and culture.
Hispanic and Latino culture places a strong value on family, and is commonly taught to Hispanic children as one of the most important values in life. Statistically, Hispanic families tend to have larger and closer knit families than the American average. Hispanic families tend to prefer to live near other family members. This may mean that three or sometimes four generations may be living in the same household or near each other, although four generations is uncommon in the US. The role of grandparents is believed to be very important in the upbringing of children.
Hispanics tend to be very group - oriented, and an emphasis is placed on the well - being of the family above the individual. The extended family plays an important part of many Hispanic families, and frequent social, family gatherings are common. Traditional rites of passages, particularly Roman Catholic sacraments: such as baptisms, birthdays, First Holy Communions, quinceañeras, Confirmations, graduations, and weddings are all popular moments of family gatherings and celebrations in Hispanic families.
Education is another important priority for Hispanic families. Education is seen as the key towards continued upward mobility in the US among Hispanic families. A 2010 study by the Associated Press showed that Hispanics place a higher emphasis on education than the average American. Hispanics expect their children to graduate university.
Latin American youth today stay at home with their parents longer than before. This is due to more years spent studying and the difficulty of finding a paid job that meets their aspirations.
Hispanic Americans, like immigrant groups before them, are out - marrying at high rates. Out - marriages comprised 17.4 % of all existing Hispanic marriages in 2008. The rate was higher for newlyweds (which excludes immigrants who are already married): Among all newlyweds in 2010, 25.7 % of all Hispanics married a non-Hispanic (this compares to out - marriage rates of 9.4 % of whites, 17.1 % of blacks, and 27.7 % of Asians). The rate was larger for native - born Hispanics, with 36.2 % of native - born Hispanics (both men and women) out - marrying compared to 14.2 % of foreign - born Hispanics. The difference is attributed to recent immigrants tending to marry within their immediate immigrant community due to commonality of language, proximity, familial connections, and familiarity.
In 2008, 81 % of Hispanics who married out married non-Hispanic Whites, 9 % married non-Hispanic Blacks, 5 % non-Hispanic Asians, and the remainder married non-Hispanic, multi-racial partners.
Of the 275,500 new intermarried pairings in 2010, 43.3 % were White - Hispanic (compared to White - Asian at 14.4 %, White - Black at 11.9 %, and Other Combinations at 30.4 %; other combinations consists of pairings between different minority groups, multi-racial people, and American Indians). Unlike those for marriage to Blacks and Asians, intermarriage rates of Hispanics to Whites do not vary by gender. The combined median earnings of White / Hispanic couples are lower than those of White / White couples but higher than those of Hispanic / Hispanic couples. 23 % of Hispanic men who married White women have a college degree compared to only 10 % of Hispanic men who married a Hispanic woman. 33 % of Hispanic women who married a White husband are college - educated compared to 13 % of Hispanic women who married a Hispanic man.
Attitudes among non-Hispanics toward intermarriage with Hispanics are mostly favorable, with 81 % of Whites, 76 % of Asians, and 73 % of Blacks "being fine '' with a member of their family marrying a Hispanic and an additional 13 % of Whites, 19 % of Asians, and 16 % of Blacks "being bothered but accepting of the marriage. '' Only 2 % of Whites, 4 % of Asians, and 5 % of Blacks would not accept a marriage of their family member to a Hispanic.
Hispanic attitudes toward intermarriage with non-Hispanics are likewise favorable, with 71 % "being fine '' with marriages to Whites and 81 % "being fine '' with marriages to Blacks. A further 22 % admitted to "being bothered but accepting '' of a marriage of a family member to a White and 16 % admitted to "being bothered but accepting '' of a marriage of a family member to a Black. Only 3 % of Hispanics objected outright marriage of a family member to a non-Hispanic Black and 3 % to a non-Hispanic White.
Unlike intermarriage with other racial groups, intermarriage with non-Hispanic Blacks varies by nationality of origin. Puerto Ricans and Dominicans have by far the highest rates of intermarriage with blacks, of all major Hispanic national groups. Cubans have the highest rate of intermarriage with non-Hispanic Whites, of all major Hispanic national groups, and are the most assimilated into White American culture. Mexican Americans, who are the majority of the US Hispanic population, are most likely to intermarry with Whites and Asians when marrying out.
Hispanics and Latinos differ on their political views depending on their location and background. The majority (57 %) either identify as or support the Democrats, and 23 % identify as Republicans. This 34 - point gap as of December 2007 was an increase from the gap of 21 points 16 months earlier.
Cuban Americans and Colombian Americans tend to favor conservative political ideologies and support the Republicans. Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans, and Dominican Americans tend to favor liberal views and support the Democrats. However, because the latter groups are far more numerous -- as, again, Mexican Americans alone are 64 % of Hispanics and Latinos -- the Democratic Party is considered to be in a far stronger position with the ethnic group overall.
The presidency of George W. Bush had a significant influence on the political leanings of Hispanics and Latinos, as he attracted new supporters. As a former Governor of Texas, Bush regarded this growing community as a potential source of growth for the conservative movement and the Republican Party. He made some gains for the Republicans among the group.
In the 1996 presidential election, 72 % of Hispanics and Latinos backed President Bill Clinton. In 2000 the Democratic total fell to 62 %, and went down again in 2004, with Democrat John Kerry winning Hispanics 58 -- 40 against Bush. Hispanics in the West, especially in California, were much stronger for the Democratic Party than in Texas and Florida. California Latinos voted 63 -- 32 for Kerry in 2004, and both Arizona and New Mexico Latinos by a smaller 56 -- 43 margin. Texas Latinos were split nearly evenly, favoring Kerry 50 -- 49 over their favorite son candidate, and Florida Latinos (who are mostly Cuban American) backed Bush, by a 54 -- 45 margin.
In the 2006 midterm election, however, due to the unpopularity of the Iraq War, the heated debate concerning illegal Hispanic immigration, and Republican - related Congressional scandals, Hispanics and Latinos went as strongly Democratic as they have since the Clinton years. Exit polls showed the group voting for Democrats by a lopsided 69 -- 30 margin, with Florida Latinos for the first time split evenly.
The runoff election in Texas ' 23rd congressional district was seen as a bellwether of Latino politics. Democrat Ciro Rodriguez 's unexpected (and unexpectedly decisive) defeat of Republican incumbent Henry Bonilla was seen as proof of a leftward lurch among Latino voters; majority - Latino counties overwhelmingly backed Rodriguez, and majority European - American counties overwhelmingly backed Bonilla.
In the 2008 Presidential election 's Democratic primary Hispanics and Latinos participated in larger numbers than before, with Hillary Clinton receiving most of the group 's support. Pundits discussed whether a large percentage of Hispanics and Latinos would vote for an African - American candidate, in this case Barack Obama, Clinton 's opponent. Hispanics / Latinos voted 2 to 1 for Mrs. Clinton, even among the younger demographic. In other groups, younger voters went overwhelmingly for Obama. Among Hispanics, 28 % said race was involved in their decision, as opposed to 13 % for (non-Hispanic) whites.
Obama defeated Clinton. In the matchup between Obama and Republican candidate John McCain for the presidency, Hispanics and Latinos supported Obama with 59 % to McCain 's 29 % in the Gallup tracking poll as of June 30, 2008. This surprised some analysts, since a higher than expected percentage of Latinos and Hispanics favored Obama over McCain, who had been a leader of the comprehensive immigration reform effort. However, McCain had retreated during the Republican primary, saying that he would not support the bill if it came up again. Some analysts believed that this shift damaged his standing among Hispanics and Latinos. Obama took advantage of the situation by running ads in Spanish to appeal to this ethnic group, in which he mentioned McCain 's about - face.
In the general election, 67 % of Hispanics and Latinos voted for Obama and 31 % voted for McCain, with a relatively stronger turnout than in previous elections in states such as Colorado, New Mexico, Nevada, and Virginia, helping Obama carry those formerly Republican states. Obama won 70 % of non-Cuban Hispanics and 35 % of the traditionally Republican Cuban Americans who have a strong presence in Florida. The changing state demographics, in which the non-Cuban Hispanic community is increasing in number, also contributed to his carrying Florida 's Latinos with 57 % of the vote. Hispanics and Latinos also offset Republican gains in traditional red states; for example, Obama carried 63 % of Texas Latinos, when the overall vote of the state was for McCain by 55 %.
Although during 2008 the economy and employment were top concerns for Hispanics and Latinos, immigration was "never far from their minds '': almost 90 % of Latino voters rated immigration as "somewhat important '' or "very important '' in a poll taken after the election. There is "abundant evidence '' that the heated Republican opposition to the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007 has done significant damage to the party 's appeal to Hispanics and Latinos in the years to come, especially in the swing states such as Florida, Nevada, and New Mexico. In a Gallup poll of 4,604 registered Hispanic voters taken in the final days of June 2008, only 18 % of participants identified as Republicans.
Some political organizations associated with Hispanic and Latino Americans are League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC), the National Council of La Raza (NCLR), the United Farm Workers, the Cuban American National Foundation, and the National Institute for Latino Policy.
Hispanic and Latinos voted even more heavily for Democrats in the 2012 election with the Democratic incumbent Barack Obama receiving 71 % and the Republican challenger Mitt Romney receiving about 27 % of the vote.
United States has a population of 50 million of Hispanic and Latino Americans, of them, 27 Million are citizens eligible to vote (13 % of total eligible voters), therefore Hispanics have a very important effect on presidential elections since the vote difference between two main parties is usually around 4 %.
Hispanophobia has existed in various degrees throughout U.S. history, based largely on ethnicity, race, culture, Anti-Catholicism, economic and social conditions in Latin America, and use of the Spanish language. In 2006, Time Magazine reported that the number of hate groups in the United States increased by 33 percent since 2000, primarily due to anti-illegal immigrant and anti-Mexican sentiment. According to Federal Bureau of Investigation statistics, the number of anti-Latino hate crimes increased by 35 percent since 2003 (albeit from a low level). In California, the state with the largest Latino population, the number of hate crimes against Latinos almost doubled.
For the year 2009, the FBI reported that 483 of the 6,604 hate crimes committed in the United States were anti-Hispanic comprising 7.3 % of all hate crimes. This compares to 34.6 % of hate crimes being anti-Black, 17.9 % being anti-Homosexual, 14.1 % being anti-Jewish, and 8.3 % being anti-White.
As a result of the rapid growth of the Hispanic population, there has been some tension with other minority populations, especially the African American population, as Hispanics have increasingly moved into once exclusively Black areas. There has also been increasing cooperation between minority groups to work together to attain political influence.
Places of settlement in United States:
Diaspora:
Individuals:
Other Hispanic and Latino Americans topics:
General:
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the general agreement on tariffs and trade (gatt) was part of american attempts to increase | Smoot -- Hawley tariff Act - wikipedia
The Tariff Act of 1930 (codified at 19 U.S.C. ch. 4), commonly known as the Smoot -- Hawley Tariff or Hawley -- Smoot Tariff, was an Act implementing protectionist trade policies sponsored by Senator Reed Smoot and Representative Willis C. Hawley and was signed into law on June 17, 1930. The act raised U.S. tariffs on over 20,000 imported goods.
The tariffs (this does not include duty - free imports -- see Tariff levels below) under the act were the second - highest in the U.S. in 100 years, exceeded by a small margin by the Tariff of 1828. The Act and following retaliatory tariffs by America 's trading partners were major factors of the reduction of American exports and imports by more than half during the Depression. Although economists disagree by how much, the consensus view among economists and economic historians is that "The passage of the Smoot -- Hawley Tariff exacerbated the Great Depression. ''
In 1922, Congress passed the Fordney -- McCumber Tariff act which increased tariffs on imports.
The League of Nations ' World Economic Conference met at Geneva in 1927, concluding in its final report: "the time has come to put an end to tariffs, and to move in the opposite direction. '' Vast debts and reparations could only be repaid through gold, services or goods; but the only items available on that scale were goods. However, many of the delegates ' governments did the opposite, starting in 1928 when France passed a new tariff law and quota system.
By the late 1920s the economy of the United States had made exceptional gains in productivity due to electrification, which was a critical factor in mass production. Horses and mules had been replaced by motorcars, trucks and tractors. One - sixth to one - quarter of farmland, previously devoted to feeding horses and mules, was freed up, contributing to a surplus in farm produce. Although nominal and real wages had increased, they did not keep up with the productivity gains. As a result, the ability to produce exceeded market demand, a condition that was variously termed overproduction and underconsumption. Senator Smoot contended that raising the tariff on imports would alleviate the overproduction problem; however, the US had actually been running a trade account surplus, and although manufactured goods imports were rising, manufactured exports were rising even faster. Food exports had been falling and were in trade account deficit; however the value of food imports were a little over half that of manufactured imports.
As the global economy entered the first stages of the Great Depression in late 1929, the US 's main goal emerged to protect American jobs and farmers from foreign competition. Reed Smoot championed another tariff increase within the US in 1929, which became the Smoot -- Hawley Tariff Bill. In his memoirs, Smoot made it abundantly clear:
The world is paying for its ruthless destruction of life and property in the World War and for its failure to adjust purchasing power to productive capacity during the industrial revolution of the decade following the war.
Smoot was a Republican from Utah and chairman of the Senate Finance Committee. Willis C. Hawley, a Republican from Oregon, was chairman of the House Ways and Means Committee.
When campaigning for president during 1928, one of Herbert Hoover 's promises to help beleaguered farmers had been to increase tariffs of agricultural products. Hoover won, and Republicans maintained comfortable majorities in the House and the Senate during 1928. Hoover then asked Congress for an increase of tariff rates for agricultural goods and a decrease of rates for industrial goods.
The House passed a version of the act in May 1929, increasing tariffs on agricultural and industrial goods alike. The House bill passed on a vote of 264 to 147, with 244 Republicans and 20 Democrats voting in favor of the bill. The Senate debated its bill until March 1930, with many Senators trading votes based on their states ' industries. The Senate bill passed on a vote of 44 to 42, with 39 Republicans and 5 Democrats voting in favor of the bill. The conference committee then aligned the two versions, largely by moving to the greater House tariffs. The House passed the conference bill on a vote of 222 to 153, with the support of 208 Republicans and 14 Democrats.
In May 1930, a petition was signed by 1,028 economists in the US asking President Hoover to veto the legislation, organized by Paul Douglas, Irving Fisher, James TFG Wood, Frank Graham, Ernest Patterson, Henry Seager, Frank Taussig, and Clair Wilcox. Automobile executive Henry Ford spent an evening at the White House trying to convince Hoover to veto the bill, calling it "an economic stupidity. '' J.P. Morgan 's chief executive Thomas W. Lamont said he "almost went down on (his) knees to beg Herbert Hoover to veto the asinine Hawley - Smoot tariff. ''
Hoover opposed the bill and called it "vicious, extortionate, and obnoxious '' because he felt it would undermine the commitment he had pledged to international cooperation. However, in spite of his opposition, Hoover yielded to influence from his own party and business leaders and signed the bill. Hoover 's fears were well founded. Canada and other countries raised their own tariffs in retaliation after the bill had become law.
Franklin D. Roosevelt spoke against the act while campaigning for president during 1932.
The consensus view among economists and economic historians is that the passage of the Smoot -- Hawley Tariff exacerbated the Great Depression, although there is disagreement as to how much.
Threats of retaliation by other countries began long before the bill was enacted into law in June 1930. As it passed the House of Representatives in May 1929, boycotts broke out and foreign governments moved to increase rates against American products, even though rates could be increased or decreased by the Senate or by the conference committee. By September 1929, Hoover 's administration had received protest notes from 23 trading partners, but threats of retaliatory actions were ignored.
In May 1930, Canada, the country 's most loyal trading partner, retaliated by imposing new tariffs on 16 products that accounted altogether for around 30 % of US exports to Canada. Canada later also forged closer economic links with the British Empire via the British Empire Economic Conference of 1932. France and Britain protested and developed new trade partners. Germany developed a system of trade via clearing.
In 1932, with the depression only having worsened for workers and farmers despite Smoot and Hawley 's promises of prosperity from a high tariff, the two lost their seats in the elections that year.
In the two volume series published by the US Bureau of the Census entitled "The Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, Bicentennial Edition, '' tariff rates have been represented in two forms. The "dutiable tariff rate '' peak of 1932 was 59.1 %, second only to the 61.7 % rate of 1830. However, in 1933, 63 % of all imports were never taxed which the "dutiable tariff rate '' does not reflect. The "free and dutiable rate '' in 1929 was 13.5 % and peaked under Smoot - Hawley in 1933 at 19.8 % which is significantly below the 29.7 % "free and dutiable rate '' that the United States averaged from 1821 until 1900.
The average tariff rate on dutiable imports increased from 40.1 % in 1929 to 59.1 % in 1932 (+ 19 %). However, it was already consistently at high level between 1865 and 1913 (from 38 % to 52 %). Moreover, It had also risen sharply in 1861 (from 18.61 % to 36.2 %; + 17.6), between 1863 and 1866 (from 32.62 % to 48.33 %; + 15.7 %), between 1920 and 1922 (from 16.4 % to 38.1 %; + 21.7 %), without producing global depressions.
At first, the tariff seemed to be a success. According to historian Robert Sobel, "Factory payrolls, construction contracts, and industrial production all increased sharply. '' However, larger economic problems loomed in the guise of weak banks. When the Creditanstalt of Austria failed in 1931, the global deficiencies of the Smoot - Hawley Tariff became apparent.
US imports decreased 66 % from $4.4 billion (1929) to $1.5 billion (1933), and exports decreased 61 % from $5.4 billion to $2.1 billion. GNP fell from $103.1 billion in 1929 to $75.8 billion in 1931 and bottomed out at $55.6 billion in 1933. Imports from Europe decreased from a 1929 high of $1.3 billion to just $390 million during 1932, while US exports to Europe decreased from $2.3 billion in 1929 to $784 million in 1932. Overall, world trade decreased by some 66 % between 1929 and 1934.
Using panel data estimates of export and import equations for 17 countries, Jakob B. Madsen (2002) estimated the effects of increasing tariff and non-tariff trade barriers on worldwide trade during the period 1929 -- 1932. He concluded that real international trade contracted somewhere around 33 % overall. His estimates of the impact of various factors included about 14 % because of declining GNP in each country, 8 % because of increases in tariff rates, 5 % because of deflation - induced tariff increases, and 6 % because of the imposition of non-tariff barriers.
The new tariff imposed an effective tax rate of 60 % on more than 3,200 products and materials imported into the United States, quadrupling previous tariff rates on individual items, but raising the average tariff rate to 19.2 %, in line with average rates of that day.
Unemployment was at 8 % in 1930 when the Smoot -- Hawley tariff was passed, but the new law failed to lower it. The rate jumped to 16 % in 1931, and 25 % in 1932 -- 33. There is some contention about whether this can necessarily be attributed to the tariff, however. It was not until World War II, during which "the American economy expanded at an unprecedented rate '', that unemployment fell below 1930s levels.
Imports during 1929 were only 4.2 % of the United States ' GNP and exports were only 5.0 %. Monetarists, such as Milton Friedman, who emphasize the central role of the money supply in causing the depression, note that the Smoot -- Hawley Act only had a contributory effect on the entire U.S. economy.
The 1932 Democratic campaign platform pledged to lower tariffs. After winning the election, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt and the now - Democratic Congress passed Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act of 1934. This act allowed the President to negotiate tariff reductions on a bilateral basis, and also treated such a tariff agreement as regular legislation, requiring a majority, rather than as a treaty requiring a two - thirds vote. This was one of the core components of the trade negotiating framework that developed after World War II. The tit - for - tat responses of other countries were understood to have contributed to a sharp reduction of trade in the 1930s. After World War II this understanding supported a push towards multi-lateral trading agreements that would prevent similar situations in the future. While the Bretton Woods Agreement of 1944 focused on foreign exchange and did not directly address tariffs, those involved wanted a similar framework for international trade. President Harry S. Truman launched this process in December 1945 with negotiations for the creation of a proposed International Trade Organization (ITO). As it happened, separate negotiations on the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) moved more quickly, with an agreement signed in October 1947; in the end, the US never signed the ITO agreement. Adding a multilateral "most - favored - nation '' component to that of reciprocity, the GATT served as a framework for the gradual reduction of tariffs over the subsequent half century.
Post -- World War II changes to the Smoot -- Hawley tariffs reflected a general tendency of the United States to reduce its tariff levels unilaterally while its trading partners retained their high levels. The American Tariff League Study of 1951 compared the free and dutiable tariff rates of 43 countries. It found that only seven nations had a lower tariff level than the US (5.1 %), while eleven nations had free and dutiable tariff rates higher than the Smoot -- Hawley peak of 19.8 % including the United Kingdom (25.6 %). The 43 - country average was 14.4 % which was 0.9 % higher than the US level of 1929 demonstrating that few nations were reciprocating in reducing their levels as the U.S. reduced its own.
In the discussion leading up to the passage of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) then - Vice President Al Gore mentioned the Smoot - Hawley tariff as a response to NAFTA objections voiced by Ross Perot during a debate in 1993 they had on The Larry King Show. He gave Perot a framed picture of Smoot and Hawley shaking hands after its passage.
The act has been compared to the 2010 Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act (FATCA), with Andrew Quinlan from the Center for Freedom and Prosperity calling FATCA "the worst economic idea to come out of Congress since Smoot -- Hawley ''.
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when do the charmed ones find out leo is a whitelighter | Leo Wyatt - wikipedia
Leo Wyatt is a fictional character from The WB television series Charmed, portrayed by Brian Krause. A possible breakout character included in the writing initially as a love interest beginning in the first season that initially set Phoebe and Piper bickering and competing for his attention. He appeared as a guest star in seven episodes of the first season and six episodes of the second season. Midway through the second season, he joined the main cast and appeared in all but 11 episodes for the rest of the series ' run. All together, he appeared in 145 episodes -- the most of any male character in the series, and the most of any character who was not a Halliwell by birth.
For most of the series ' first five seasons and part of the seventh, Leo was the Charmed Ones ' Whitelighter -- a guardian angel and mentor in all things magical to the three sisters as they grow in their power. As a Whitelighter and later an Elder, Leo had the ability to orb (magically teleport) from place to place. He could also sense his charges (those he guided), that is, he could telepathically hear and locate them. Other powers included hovering, healing physical wounds, and changing his appearance (glamoring). He was nearly immortal, but like all Whitelighters, he was vulnerable to a Darklighter 's poison arrow. He eventually wins Piper 's heart, and they marry in 2001. They have two sons, Wyatt and Chris, and a daughter, Melinda.
In the series ' fifth, sixth, and seventh seasons he became in succession an Elder, and then an Avatar. However, late in the seventh season he became a normal human, albeit one with great knowledge of magic.
Leo was born May 6, 1924 in San Francisco, California, the son of Christopher Wyatt. He grew up in Burlingame, a southern suburb of San Francisco.
Leo was a medic for the United States Army in World War II with a dream to become a doctor. While taking part in the Battle of Guadalcanal on November 14 1942, two of his friends with whom he grew up, Nathan and Rick Lang, were killed and Leo blamed himself for their deaths as he felt he abandoned them when he left to help other wounded soldiers in the field. Upon his own death a short time later, Leo was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor and became a Whitelighter for his good deeds.
Leo was married to a woman named Lillian in his mortal life and when he died, he appeared to her in a dream and encouraged her to move on with her life. Like all whitelighters, Leo is a pacifist, disallowed by the Elders to kill. Leo has watched over many of his charges; those who were future Whitelighters and good witches.
In the late 1960s, Leo befriended Penny and Allen Halliwell, the grandparents of the Charmed Ones.
Shortly after the Charmed Ones discovered their powers, Leo, posing as a handyman, was hired to fix up their house. Since he was not supposed to reveal himself as their Whitelighter, he used this as an opportunity to keep watch on them Piper and Phoebe became attracted to him. As Leo worked on their house, Piper and Phoebe competed for his attention, though his feelings were reciprocated with Piper.
When the warlock Rex Buckland tricked the Charmed Ones into giving up their powers, Leo "healed '' the Book of Shadows and restored them. Shortly afterward, Leo had to leave town and take another charge, but he watched over and guided the Charmed Ones on many occasions.
When Leo returned, Phoebe discovered him levitating to change a light bulb and he confessed the truth to her. He also told her that as much as he loved Piper, he did not think their relationship could continue; witches and Whitelighters are not meant to be together. He was later shot by a Darklighter 's poison arrow while attempting to protect one of his charges. He went to the manor for aid, where Prue and Piper learned he was a Whitelighter. Piper used a spell to switch powers with Leo, so she could heal him. Piper then confessed she still loved him, but unfortunately Leo is still unconscious due to the poisoned arrow. Leo 's "trigger '' to make the healing power work was love, and because of Pipers confession, he was healed. Leo offered to give up being a Whitelighter to be with Piper, but she did not want him to turn away from his calling.
Piper went to the future with Phoebe and Prue, and learned that she and Leo were divorced, and they had a daughter named Melinda Halliwell. Although Piper still loved Leo, she also wanted a normal romance. Feeling Leo could not provide that, she started a romance with her new neighbor, Dan Gordon.
When Piper became sick with a terminal illness, the Elders forbade Leo to heal her since it was not caused magically. Leo broke that rule when he saved Piper from the disease. Because of that, Leo was suspended from being a Whitelighter, though he remained a purely good person, with no evil in him.
Leo eventually earned his ' wings ' back as well as Piper 's heart. He asked Piper to marry him when they got back from the Heavens. However, the Elders were violently opposed to this. They tried to marry in late 2000, but the Elders forcibly orbed him away just as the ceremony was beginning. The Elders ultimately allowed Leo to return, but placed him on probation to make sure their love was n't interfering with their duties.
The Elders eventually lifted their probation on Leo and allowed him to be engaged to Piper. The ceremony was performed by Grams, and the Elders allowed Patty Halliwell to return from the dead for one day to witness her daughter 's wedding. Prue and Phoebe served as bridesmaids. The ceremony was also attended by Victor Bennett, Darryl Morris, and Cole.
Throughout the fourth season, Leo and Piper discuss having a baby, and the problems that come with having a magical child. More than a year later, Piper became pregnant. Piper gives birth to their son, Wyatt Matthew Halliwell, named for Leo 's surname, for being a very protective father and to honor his past life -- thus breaking the tradition of every Halliwell 's first name starting with a "P ''. The couple does not decide to bind Wyatt 's powers, as was hypothetically discussed in previous episodes.
Leo 's marriage to Piper was somewhat turbulent, especially when he became promoted to an Elder after saving them. As an Elder, Leo was not allowed to live with his family, though he promised always to watch over them. However, Leo is highly mistrustful of the Charmed Ones ' new Whitelighter, Chris Perry, and stays involved in the family 's life as he tries to figure Chris out. Later, it is revealed that Chris is actually Leo and Piper 's second son. Chris admits to Leo that in the future, he was always there for Wyatt, for the Charmed Ones, but never for him, as he was often eclipsed by Wyatt 's "Chosen One '' and ultimate power status, leaving him with a near hatred of the future Leo.
While on the run and hiding the truth from the other Elders after murdering Gideon, Leo becomes reunited with his family. When the Elders decide to test Leo 's faith once and for all to determine if his destiny is to be an Elder or to be with his family, he is turned mortal with no memory of Piper, her sisters, or his children and is turned back into an Elder after his path had been "chosen ''. Phoebe and Paige help convince Leo that his true destiny is with his family and when Leo realizes that is true, he is made mortal for good and free to live his life with Piper and their children.
We learn in the Charmed comic series that Leo and Piper have named their third child, and only daughter, Melinda.
When Leo was promoted to be an Elder he had to leave his family behind. However, he managed to watch over them, especially his son, as he was given rights to visit him. However his appointment cost him his marriage to Piper. Chris Perry, the whitelighter from the future, had taken his place as the Charmed Ones ' new whitelighter.
Since Piper and Leo 's parting, Piper had become increasingly happy. Alarmed by her change in attitude, Paige and Phoebe told Chris to ask Leo about Piper, but Chris admitted that Leo had been kidnapped. When Paige and Phoebe told Piper that Leo was missing, she was oddly unaffected by the news, not really remembering their parting. But when the sisters finally found Leo, Piper 's memories came flooding back. She demanded to know why she did not remember Leo leaving her, and Leo told her that he used his powers to make her forget and not feel as much pain. Not wanting to face the pain and anger she felt toward Leo, Piper became a Valkyrie. Phoebe and Paige confronted Piper, using a spell to make Piper feel her suppressed emotions. Once confronted with her pain, Piper realized that she did not belong with the Valkyries and returned home. Leo apologized to Piper for taking away her feelings. Piper said that she understood that he was only trying to help, but she told him that since he was still an Elder she would appreciate his keeping his distance so that she might move on with her life.
Even though Piper tried to distance herself from Leo, she realized how much Leo missed Wyatt and how much Wyatt missed his daddy, so she told him that he could visit as much as he wanted when she was not around. But much to Leo 's disappointment, Piper asked him for a divorce when she started to date again. Despite this, they apparently never did divorce.
When a demon used the power of a genie to wish the Charmed Ones dead, Leo 's connection to Piper saved the sisters. Even though he and Piper were in a magically - induced sleep, Leo heard Piper 's cries for help when her spirit began to move to the afterlife and he healed her. This incident drew Piper closer to Leo, as she was reminded of her connection to him.
After Leo and Piper were trapped in the Ghostly Plane, Leo revealed he still loved her and they made love and Piper got pregnant with their second child, who happened to be Chris.
When Leo finally found out that Piper was pregnant again and Chris was their son, he decided that his place was to stay with his family. Trying to absorb the situation, Leo took his time in approaching Piper about the impending birth of their son and the future of their relationship. While Piper admitted that she thought about them becoming a family again, she tried not to because things had not changed -- Leo was still an Elder.
When Leo learned that his mentor Gideon was after Wyatt and that Gideon had killed Chris, Leo avenged his son by killing Gideon, using his powers as an Elder. He returned to be at the side of his family, possibly for good.
Leo has been hunting for Barbas since he teamed up with Gideon to find Wyatt in the Underworld, and he and the Charmed Ones suspects that Gideon may not be the only Elder who feels that Wyatt may turn evil. Leo was tricked by Barbas into killing the Elder, Zola, who once tried to reach out to Leo to help him.
Leo was not trusted by the Whitelighter Elders, however, he had to return to his status, to prepare for the "Gathering Storm ''. Unfortunately, he and Piper had planned for him to move back in with them, but he felt that he was too dangerous.
Leo was being seemingly haunted by a ghostly headed figure, that turned out to be the lead Avatar, trying to recruit Leo and add his power to the collective. In the Episode (7x07) Someone to Witch Over Me, Leo finally becomes an avatar after Piper and Phoebe are killed and the lead Avatar tells him as an avatar he can save them, which he does with his newfound powers.
Leo then joined the Avatars, and was granted even greater powers. After he informed the Halliwell sisters of his new status, Leo was a target for Agent Kyle Brody. However, Leo soon became aware that the world the Avatars wanted to make was not the nice world he had hoped for. To convince the sisters, Leo sacrificed himself by getting angry, thus forcing the Avatars to vanquish him (as the Avatars did to all who have negative feelings), but as he was dying, he relayed a message to Phoebe, who remembered, and then took it upon herself to make sure her sisters felt pain in order to see that what the Avatars were doing was wrong. The sisters worked with Zankou in order to get the Avatars to change the world back so that it was no longer a Utopian community. Time was then turned back to the point before the Avatars changed the world, and Leo was restored, although he no longer had his Avatar powers.
Now the Elders were left with the question of how to punish Leo for becoming an Avatar. They finally decided to relocate him on Earth and take away his memory. They said Leo would somehow find his way back and choose between rejoining his family or becoming an Elder full - time. However, the Elders cheated on this test and tricked Leo into rejoining them. But when Phoebe and Paige confronted the Elders on this, Leo came with them. At that time, a dying Piper (she had been poisoned by a Thorn Demon) called out to Leo, urged on by Cole Turner. Leo heard her and chose to "fall from grace ''. Leo thus gave up his powers and his Elder status and became a mortal human, but he got his memory back. Leo then returned home to Piper and their two sons. Piper was healed from her wound by Wyatt with the help of Drake. The next morning, Leo confesses to Piper that he is actually happy about losing his powers.
Leo and Piper had a hard time adjusting to Leo being a powerless human. After some trouble with Zankou, Piper and Phoebe decided to ask Leo to become the new Headmaster of the Magic School instead of Paige, who wants to try something new. They think Leo is perfect for the position because he 's a "walking Book of Shadows '': he has lost his powers, but not his knowledge of magic. Paige orbs away as Leo accepts.
Leo "died '' with the Halliwell sisters, adopting the name of Louis Bennett, but soon got back to his old life and name.
Leo and Piper went to a magical marriage counselor, but things did not turn out as well as they had hoped. Their counselor needed them to see how each of their lives was in order to get them closer to each other. In order to do this, the marriage counselor had them switch bodies in order to walk a mile in each other 's shoes.
In the last season of the series, Leo was the target of the Angel of Death. The sisters searched for a key to undo his death sentence. Piper summoned both an Elder and an Avatar to give Leo a new lease on life, but both were forbidden to do so. In turn the sisters summoned the Angel of Destiny, who warned them of an impending great evil force, that Leo 's death would be the only motivation to give the sisters the will to fight the great evil, in the same manner that their sister Prue 's death motivated them to defeat The Source. So Piper begged the Angel of Destiny for a compromise, insisting that if they were to fight for Leo 's life instead, that would be even more strongly motivating to defeat said coming great evil. So it 's decided that Leo will be frozen in stasis only to be returned if they succeed in defeating this great evil. Only then can they save his life and have him returned to Piper.
After the destruction of the manor and the deaths of Phoebe, Paige, and Christy Jenkins, Leo was returned as promised by the Angel of Destiny. Had he not intervened, Piper might have killed Billie Jenkins in an act of revenge for the death of her sisters. With the manor destroyed, Leo and Piper leave the area.
Piper and Leo travel back to the past in the hopes of fixing the present, and save the future so that Phoebe and Paige get to live. After they change things in the past they are able to fix things so that Phoebe and Paige are able to survive in the future. So Leo is returned to Piper, and Coop and Phoebe get married. In the very final episode they are shown to have started a family.
In the new future, Piper and Leo have another child, a daughter named Prudence Melinda, and Leo returns to Magic School as a teacher. At the end of the finale they finish the Book of Shadows by writing about their lives so all their future generations will be prepared to continue the fight against demons, warlocks, and other forms of evil. The final shot of them is Leo and Piper, old and still very much in love, walking upstairs past pictures of their whole family hanging on the walls, as they make their way to their bedroom to go lie down - they rest in each other 's arms, smiling, content with their lives.
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how to become a justice of peace in singapore | Justice of the peace - wikipedia
A justice of the peace (JP) is a judicial officer, of a lower or puisne court, elected or appointed by means of a commission (letters patent) to keep the peace. In past centuries the term commissioner of the peace was often used with the same meaning. Depending on the jurisdiction, such justices dispense summary justice or merely deal with local administrative applications in common law jurisdictions. Justices of the peace are appointed or elected from the citizens of the jurisdiction in which they serve, and are (or were) usually not required to have any formal legal education in order to qualify for the office. Some jurisdictions have varying forms of training for JPs.
In 1195, Richard I ("the Lionheart '') of England and his Minister Hubert Walter commissioned certain knights to preserve the peace in unruly areas. They were responsible to the King for ensuring that the law was upheld and preserving the "King 's peace ''. Therefore, they were known as "keepers of the peace ''.
An act of 1327 had referred to "good and lawful men '' to be appointed in every county in the land to "guard the peace ''; such individuals were first referred to as conservators of the peace, or wardens of the peace. The title justice of the peace derives from 1361, in the reign of Edward III. The "peace '' to be guarded is the sovereign 's, the maintenance of which is the duty of the Crown under the royal prerogative. Justices of the peace still use the power conferred or re-conferred on them since 1361 to bind over unruly persons "to be of good behaviour ''. The bind over is not a punishment, but a preventive measure, intended to ensure that people thought likely to offend will not do so. The justices ' alternative title of "magistrate '' dates from the 16th century, although the word had been in use centuries earlier to describe some legal officials of Roman times.
In the centuries from the Tudor period until the onset of the Industrial Revolution, the JPs constituted a major element of the English (later British) governmental system, which had been termed sometimes squirearchy (i.e., dominance of the land - owning gentry). For example, historian Tim Blanning notes that while in Britain the royal prerogative was decisively curbed by the Bill of Rights 1689, in practice the central government in London had a greater ability to get its policies implemented in the rural outlying regions than could contemporary absolute monarchies such as France -- a paradox due especially to JPs belonging to the same social class as the Members of Parliament and thus having a direct interest in getting laws actually enforced and implemented on the ground.
Being an unpaid office, undertaken voluntarily and sometimes more for the sake of renown or to confirm the justice 's standing within the community, the justice was typically a member of the gentry. The justices of the peace conducted arraignments in all criminal cases, and tried misdemeanours and infractions of local ordinances and bylaws. Towns and boroughs with enough burdensome judicial business that could not find volunteers for the unpaid role of justice of the peace had to petition the Crown for authority to hire a paid stipendiary magistrate.
The Municipal Corporations Act 1835 stripped the power to appoint normal JPs from those municipal corporations that had it. This was replaced by the present system, where the Lord Chancellor nominates candidates with local advice, for appointment by the Crown.
Until the introduction of elected county councils in the 19th century, JPs, in quarter sessions, also administered the county at a local level. They fixed wages, regulated food supplies, built and controlled roads and bridges, and undertook to provide and supervise locally those services mandated by the Crown and Parliament for the welfare of the county.
Women were not allowed to become JPs in the United Kingdom until 1919, the first woman being Ada Summers, the Mayor of Stalybridge, who was a JP by virtue of her office. Emily Murphy of Edmonton, Canada, preceded her by some three and a half years. Now in the UK, 50 % of JPs are women.
In special circumstances, a justice of the peace can be the highest governmental representative, so in fact ' gubernatorial ', in a colonial entity. This was the case in the Tati Concessions Land, a gold - mining concession (territory) in the Matabele kingdom, until its annexation by the British Bechuanaland protectorate.
A justice of the peace in Australia is typically someone of good stature in the community who is authorised to witness and sign statutory declarations and affidavits and to certify copies of original documents. Criteria for appointment vary widely, depending on the state. For example, in Queensland, a justice of the peace (qualified) must complete an exam prior to being eligible for appointment, whereas in Victoria, a person need only prove good character by way of references.
In the state of Queensland, a "justice of the peace (qualified) '' has the additional powers to issue search warrants and arrest warrants and, in conjunction with another justice of the peace (qualified) constitute a magistrates ' court for exercising powers to remand defendants in custody, grant bail, and adjourn court hearings.
Some justices are appointed as justice of the peace (magistrates ' court), usually in remote aboriginal communities, to perform many of the functions that might otherwise fall to a stipendiary magistrate.
In Queensland, a lawyer may be appointed as a Justice of the Peace without further education or qualification and has the full powers of a JP (Magistrate 's Court). A commissioner for declarations (C. dec) has powers limited to witnessing documents, witnessing statutory declarations, witnessing affidavits, witnessing and administering oaths and affirmations.
Justices of the peace and bail justices, who are also volunteers, are appointed to serve a semi-judicial function in all areas of the Victorian community. The main official roles in the Victorian community include witnessing statutory declarations, witnessing affidavits and hearing bail matters outside court hours (bail justices only).
Justices of the peace (JPs) provide a service to the community as independent witnesses of statutory declarations, powers of attorney and affidavits. JPs, who are also volunteers, are recommended by the state attorney - general and appointed by the governor - in - council, and it is their job to authorise and witness statutory declarations and affidavits within the state of Victoria. There are currently around 4,800 JPs serving in all areas of the state.
The role of a bail justice is to hear bail applications (under the Bail Act 1977) and to hear applications for interim accommodation orders for children (under the Children and Young Persons Act 1989) within Victoria. Bail justices, once appointed, may remain in their role until they turn 70 years of age (although they must be under 65 at the time of their appointment). They are often required to attend call outs and rule on bail applications or protection applications for children in danger on weekends and late at night when the courts are closed, but they can also witness Victorian statutory declarations and affidavits. Candidates must successfully complete a three - day training course run by the Department of Justice. Bail justices, who are also volunteers, also have some limited powers under federal legislation, including the power to conduct interstate extradition hearings and extending question time for federal police. Bail Justices may use the post-nominals BJ after their names.
The most common functions performed by a justice of the peace in New South Wales are to witness the signing of a statutory declaration, witness the signing of an affidavit and certify that a copy of an original document is a true copy.
JPs are appointed by the Governor of New South Wales for five - year terms. They are volunteers, who come from all walks of life and all sections of the community. JPs are people who are trusted to be honest, careful and impartial when performing the functions of a JP. They must not charge a fee or accept a gift for providing JP services, tell people what to write in a statutory declaration or affidavit or write it for them or give them legal advice.
Ways to find a JP in New South Wales include: 1. Search the JP Public Register. The register lists all JPs for each postcode area and provides a telephone contact number for JPs who serve the community directly. 2. Check a public listing of scheduled JP services to find when JPs are available at scheduled times and locations across the state.
In South Australia, there are two types of justices: justice of the peace and special justices.
A justice of the peace (JP) in South Australia is typically someone of good stature in the community who is authorised to witness and sign statutory declarations, affidavits, waiver rights, search warrants, drug warrants, divorce documents, and to certify copies of original documents and to witness the signing of power of attorney and guardianship documents, providing the JP is satisfied with the capability of the signatory.
A Special Justice (SJ) is a higher level of justice of the peace in South Australia; they sit on the bench of the magistrates ' court hearing cases in the petty sessions division.
The South Australian Attorney - General has set up a web site to locate justices of the peace. The majority of metropolitan and many regional Councils (Local Government authorities) have a rotational justice of the peace in residence at nominated times.
Justices of the peace in Western Australia are appointed by the Governor who authorises them to carry out a wide range of official administrative and judicial duties in the community.
As well as presiding in the Magistrates Court, justices of the peace are regularly called upon by the WA Police to sign search warrants and authorise the issuing of summonses. The administrative tasks include witnessing affidavits and documents such as wills and statutory declarations.
' Visiting justices ' are a special group of justices of the peace, appointed to preside over cases within the prison system.
In Belgium, the justice of the peace (French: juge de paix, Dutch: vrederechter) is a law - trained judge who sits the lowest Court of record with original jurisdiction over small claims (less than € 2500) matters of civil, commercial, and family law, including: tenancy and lease disputes, neighborhood disputes (party structures, trespassing, noise pollution), apartment buildings, small deceased estates, alimony, guardianships & adoption, and the commitment of mental patients and oversight of their care. Litigants may opt either for conciliation or trial. Lawyers may act as locum tenens JPs.
In Canada, justices of the peace play a role in the administration of justice at the provincial level. Justices are generally appointed by the lieutenant governors of Canada 's provinces, and by the commissioners of Canada 's territories, on the advice of their relevant premier or Attorney General. Canada made the first appointment in the then British Empire of a woman as a magistrate, namely Emily Murphy, who was sworn in as a police magistrate in the Women 's Court of the City of Edmonton (Alberta) on 19 June 1916.
In British Columbia, pursuant to the Provincial Court Act, all judges are justices of the peace, and hence all of them are peace officers.
In the Northwest Territories, justices may hear summary conviction matters, municipal by - laws, and certain criminal matters. However, in more populated provinces justices usually preside over bail hearings and provincial offences courts. When not in a court session, a justice can perform other judicial functions, such as issuing search warrants.
In Ontario, justices perform a wide variety of duties related to criminal and regulatory law, at the federal, provincial and municipal levels. Ontario JP wear a green sash versus red worn by judges.
In Quebec, there are two type of justices of the peace, administrative justice of the peace and presiding justice of the peace.
Administrative justice of the peace are court officers appointed by the Minister of Justice, and perform duties such as receiving criminal informations and issuing warrants. Presiding justice of the peace are appointed by commission under the Great Seal, and can try some criminal matters and issue warrants. They are appointed from advocates of at least ten years ' standing and serve full - time until the age of 70.
In Yukon, justices of the peace are lay officers of the court. They sit in the Justice of the Peace Court, which is part of the Territorial Court of Yukon.
In Hong Kong, the historical functions of justices of the peace have been replaced by full - time, legally qualified magistrates. Nowadays, justices of the peace are essentially titles of honour given by the Government to community leaders, and to certain officials while they are in their terms of offices. They have no judicial functions, and their main duties include visiting prisons, institutions for young offenders and drug addicts, psychiatric hospitals, remand homes, places of refuge, reception and detention centres, administering statutory declarations, and serving as members of advisory panels.
In India, justices of the peace do exist, but they no longer occupy a prominent post. One of the famous justices in India was Kavasji Jamshedji Petigara.
Maharaja Prabirendra Mohan Tagore son of Maharaja Sir Prodyut Kumar Tagore KCSI of Calcutta was designated Justice of the Peace in 1932. He played a great part in saving more than 200 Muslim lives during the famous riots in 1947 during the partition of India, by sheltering the Muslims in the Calcutta locality and most importantly in his palace itself.
Justices of the peace existed in Ireland prior to 1922, sitting in a bench under the supervision of resident magistrates at petty sessions to try minor offences summarily, and with a county court judge (in his capacity of chairman of quarter sessions) and jury to try more serious offences at quarter sessions. In the Irish Free State the position was effectively abolished by the District Justices (Temporary Provisions) Act 1923 and permanently abolished by the Courts of Justice Act 1924. Their judicial powers were replaced by full - time, legally qualified district justices (now called district judges) and their quasi-judicial powers by lay Peace Commissioners. Peace commissioners may sign statutory declarations, and may issue summons and search warrants to the Garda Síochána (Irish police). A Peace Commissioner can not sign an Affidavit, in Ireland that function is performed by a Commissioner for Oaths.
A justice of the peace (JP), according to the Ministry of Justice, is a person of unquestionable integrity who seeks to promote and protect the rights of the individual and helps to provide justice to persons in a particular community. Additionally, the JP serves as a justice in petty court sessions, attends juvenile court sessions, issues summonses, considers applications for bail, explains and signs legal documents, sits on licensing panels, and gives counsel / advice. Any Jamaican citizen that can speak and write English is eligible to become a JP. Any club / organisation / citizen can recommend someone to become JP for a community. JPs are chosen under the Governor - General 's discretion.
In Malaysia, justices of the peace have largely been replaced in magistrates ' courts by legally qualified (first - class) stipendiary magistrates. However, state governments continue to appoint justices of the peace as honours. In 2004, some associations of justices of the peace pressed the federal government to allow justices of the peace to sit as second - class magistrates in order to reduce the backlog of cases in the courts.
A Justice of the Peace in New Zealand is someone of good stature in the community who is authorized to witness and sign statutory declarations and affidavits as well as certify documents. They may also perform citizenship ceremonies and act as a Visiting Justice in prisons the function of which is to record a prisoner 's grievance and decide on its validity.
They have certain powers to issue search warrants, and (in conjunction with another justice of the peace) may try minor criminal trials in the district court and exercise powers to remand defendants in custody, grant bail, and adjourn court hearings. They are nominated for office by local Members of Parliament and appointed by the Governor General. Appointment is for life and a JP must take the Oath of Allegiance and the Judicial Oath.
Sections 22, 22 - A and 22 - B of the Code of Criminal Procedure Code, 1898 provide for the appointment of justices of the peace by the provincial governments, their powers and duties respectively. However, seldom are justices of the peace appointed in Pakistan outside the judiciary. Session and additional session judges act as ex-officio justices of the peace as per Section 25 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898. An Ex-officio Justice of the Peace may issue appropriate directions to the police authorities concerned on a complaint regarding - (i) non-registration of a criminal case; (ii) transfer of investigation from one police officer to another; and (iii) neglect, failure or excess committed by a police authority in relation to its functions and duties. Such functions being quasi-judicial in nature could not be termed as executive, administrative or ministerial. (PLD 2016 Supreme Court 581)
It is pertinent to note however, as many academics have pointed out, that there is great utility in the appointment of such justices especially in rural areas where enmity between rival groups can lead to the inability of registration of cognizable offences and biased judicial proceedings.
A justice of the peace in Singapore derives his powers from statute law. He is appointed by the President of the Republic of Singapore, under the provisions of section 11 (l) of the Subordinate Courts Act (Cap. 321). The President may revoke the appointment of any justice of the peace. A newly appointed justice of the peace is required by section 17 of the Subordinate Courts Act, to take the oath of office and allegiance as set out in the schedule to the Subordinate Courts Act, before exercising the functions of his office.
In their role, JPs serve as visiting justices of Singapore prisons, mediators or referees in the subordinate courts. They may also solemnise marriages in the Registry of Marriages or perform the duties of the magistrate conferred on them by any written law.
In Sri Lanka, Justice of the Peace (JP) is an honorary post, with authorization to witness and sign statutory declarations and affidavits. Persons appointed as a Justice of the Peace may use the post-nominal JP. Current appointments are made under the Judicature Act No 02 of 1978, by the Minister of Justice at his / her discretion by publishing a list in the Gazette and appointee taking oaths before a high court, district court judge or magistrate with registrar of the supreme court recording it. Any citizen of Sri Lanka can apply to the Ministry of Justice giving his or her credentials to be appointed as a justice of the peace. However, the applicant should be one who has served the public and carries out social service and should be of good standing. The President of Sri Lanka and his / her officers are ex officio justices of the peace. A justice of the peace, who is an Attorney at law can be appointed as an unofficial magistrate.
The post was introduced in the British colonial era, during which time appointments were made by the Governor until 1938, after which appointments were made by the Legal Secretary until 1947. After Ceylon gained its independence in 1948, appointments were made by the Governor General and the Minister of Justice. Justice of the Peace had the power to administer oaths and affirmations per the Courts Ordinance No. 1 on 1889 section 84 and they could formally appoint members of the public to act as special police officers in times of turmoil and riots. Since certain government officers were ex-officio justices of the peace, this allowed British colonial officers to appoint special police officers from the European planters in times of crisies such as the 1915 riots. The Village Councils Law (No. 6 of 1964) made the Chairman of the Village Council an ex officio justices of the peace for that village area.
In 2014, for the first time, Justices of the Peace were authorized in Tonga. JPs are appointed by the Crown, but the Lord Chief Justice regulates their duties and defines their powers. The first JPs were warranted with duties including granting bail; issuing search warrants and subpoenas; taking affidavits, declarations and oaths; and having the power to witness documents. Term of office is one year and officials can be reappointed. The initial 19 JPs appointed were: ' Aisea Ta'ofi and Sione Hinakau of Niuatoputapu; ' Inoke Tuaimei'api of Niuafo'ou; Siosiua Hausia from ʻEua; Sione Palu, Sione Fakahua, Me'ite Fukofuka and Kisione Taulani of Ha'apai; Salesi Kauvaka, Viliami Pasikala, Haniteli Fa'anunu, Meli Taufaeteau and Moleni Taufa from Vava'u; and Salote Fukofuka, ' Amelia Helu, ' Ofa Likiliki, Tevita Fakatou, Sioape Tu'iono and Semisi Tongia of Tongatapu.
A magistrates ' court in England and Wales is composed of a bench of (usually three) JPs or magistrates, who dispense summary justice: that is they decide on offences which carry up to six months in prison, to a maximum of one year of imprisonment over not less than two indictable offences. They are advised on points of law and procedure by a legally qualified justices ' clerk and their assistants. No formal qualifications are required but magistrates need intelligence, common sense, integrity and the capacity to act fairly. Membership is widely spread throughout the local area and drawn from all walks of life. All magistrates are carefully trained before sitting and continue to receive training throughout their service. Magistrates are unpaid volunteers but they may receive allowances to cover travelling expenses and subsistence. Lay justices or magistrates must sit for a minimum of 26 sessions (half - days) per year, but some sit as much as a day a week, or possibly more.
In addition to the lay justices, there are a small number of district judges, formerly known as stipendiary magistrates. These are legally qualified, full - time members of the magistracy and hear cases alone, without any other magistrates on the bench. It is important to distinguish the district judge (magistrates ' court) from the district judges who usually sit in the county court.
Magistrates ' courts today can deal with minor offences (fines of up to £ 5,000, or imprisonment of up to six months for a single offence or 12 months for consecutive sentences, or both) and handle over 95 % of the criminal cases in England and Wales and Northern Ireland. With more serious offences, magistrates are responsible for indictment and committal to the Crown Court (a task in former times dealt with by a grand jury). Magistrates also have a civil jurisdiction, such as a family jurisdiction. Although they had a licensing jurisdiction dealing liquor, betting and clubs licensing applications, this was transferred under the Licensing Act 2003 to local authorities. The magistrates now act in licensing matters only as an appeal court from the decisions of the local authority.
Cardiff Magistrates ' Court is the only court in the country which deals with offences under the Companies Act, such as for late filing of accounts or directors ' offences. Westminster Magistrates ' Court has special responsibilities for dealing with all terrorism and extradition offences throughout the UK.
Until the Courts Act 2003 came into force, magistrates were tied to a particular area (see magistrates ' courts committee, commission area, petty sessions area). This has now been changed such that they are assigned to local justice areas, but less strongly.
The Courts Act provides the current framework for appointment of the justices, which is done by the Lord Chancellor in the name of sovereign. Justices can also be removed by the same mechanism. District judges (magistrates ' court) -- previously known as stipendiary magistrates -- must have a seven years ' general legal qualification, and are appointed by the sovereign on the advice of the Lord Chancellor.
Before 1714, magistrates were liable to be approached at any time and in any place by people legally recognised as paupers, appealing for aid if parish authorities refused to provide any. It was relatively common for these magistrates to write out, on the spot, an order requiring aid to be granted.
Within the Scottish legal system justices of the peace are lay magistrates who currently sit in the justice of the peace courts. These courts were introduced in 2009 as a replacement for the district courts (established in 1975), which in turn replaced burgh police courts. Justices sit alone or in threes with a qualified legal assessor as convener or clerk of court. They handle many cases of breaches of the peace, drunkenness, minor assaults, petty theft, and offences under the Civic Government (Scotland) Act 1982.
The maximum sentencing power of a justice of the peace is 60 days imprisonment, or a fine up to £ 2,500, or both, and the ability to disqualify drivers.
In 2006, the Scottish Government announced its intention to unify the management of the sheriff and district courts in Scotland, but retaining lay justices, as part of its initiative to create a unified judiciary under the Lord President. Following the passage of the Criminal Proceedings etc. (Reform) (Scotland) Act 2007 the justice of the peace courts were implemented on a sheriffdom - by - sheriffdom basis.
In Glasgow, the volume of business required the employment of three solicitors as "stipendiary magistrates '' who sat in place of the lay justices. The stipendiary magistrates ' court had the same sentencing power as the summary sheriff court in summary proceedings, which was the ability to sentence an offender to up to 1 year in prison or fine them up to £ 10,000. Stipendiary magistrates were replaced by summary sheriffs.
In Northern Ireland, the situation initially continued as it had in pre-1922 Ireland. However, justices of the peace no longer sat out of petty sessions after 1935 (Summary Jurisdiction and Criminal Justice Act (Northern Ireland) 1935). Since then, magistrates ' courts in Northern Ireland have consisted of legally qualified resident magistrates (now known as district judges (magistrates ' courts)) sitting alone, except in cases involving children, where two lay panelists sat with the magistrate. Justices of the peace were confined to the power to conduct committal hearings, bind persons over to the peace, sign warrants, summons, and other official documents. They were appointed by the Lord Chancellor on the recommendation of a committee in each county court division.
The Justice (Northern Ireland) Act 2002 introduced a new office of lay magistrate, to sit alongside resident magistrates at magistrates ' courts in certain matters. Unlike in England and Wales, "lay magistrate '' is the official title of the position, to distinguish from existing justices of the peace who do not sit in the magistrates ' courts. The first lay magistrates were appointed in 2005. Two lay magistrates sit with the district judge (magistrates ' court) in criminal proceedings involving children (replacing the former lay panelists) and Family Proceedings Court matters. The district judge (magistrates ' court), who is a barrister or solicitor of at least seven years standing, presides over the bench. Most criminal justice functions of JPs were transferred to lay magistrates. It is expected that there will be no further appointments of justices of the peace in Northern Ireland, although those already appointed retain the title and any functions not transferred to lay magistrate under the 2002 Act.
In some US states, the justice of the peace is a judge of a court of limited jurisdiction, a magistrate, or a quasi-judicial official with certain statutory or common law magisterial powers. Some states have special qualifications or unique features for the office.
The justice of the peace typically presides over a court that hears misdemeanor cases, traffic violations, and other petty criminal infractions. The justice of the peace may also have authority over cases involving small debts, landlord and tenant disputes, or other small claims court proceedings. Proceedings before justices of the peace are often faster and less formal than the proceedings in other courts. In some jurisdictions a party convicted or found liable before a justice of the peace may have the right to a trial de novo before the judge of a higher court rather than an appeal strictly considered.
A justice of the peace also performs civil marriages.
A justice of the peace has the same jurisdiction as a municipal magistrate with respect to traffic and misdemeanor cases and restraining orders, though over cases whose affairs are not contained within the confines of a single municipality. Additionally, the Justice Court hears cases involving county ordinances (ordinances enacted by the board of supervisors that apply only to unincorporated areas), civil lawsuits up to a limit of $10,000, small claims cases up to $2,500, and issues evictions, called writs of restitution (after a forcible detainer or special detainer action (eviction) being successfully completed by a landlord). Justices of the peace, also called JPs, or Judges of the Justice Court, are elected in partisan elections for four - year terms from specific districts called precincts. They have the same authority and responsibility as all other judges in the state with respect to performing marriages, administrating oaths, adhering to the code of judicial conduct, and all aspects of justice administration. However, Arizona law does not require justices of the peace to be lawyers. Many justices of the peace are not legally trained, although all are required by the Arizona Supreme Court to complete a course at the Arizona Judicial College. As with JPs, municipal judges in Arizona are not required to be lawyers.
In Arkansas, a justice of the peace is an elected official equivalent to a county commissioner or county supervisor in some other states. Arkansas JPs sit on a county quorum court, composed of 9, 11, 13 or 15 JPs. The quorum court is a part - time body, elected from single - member districts, that has overall responsibility for county affairs. Among their responsibilities are passing the budget, creating new ordinances (at the misdemeanor level), setting property tax millage levels, and working with other elected officials. The full - time elected county administrator, who presides over the quorum court, is the county judge. Neither JPs nor the county judge have any judicial authority, though they do have the power to preside over civil marriages. Justices of the peace are elected every two years to these partisan offices.
Justices of the peace in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts are often called on to perform marriages and, especially same - sex marriages, which certain religious officials are not willing to oversee. Justices of the peace in Connecticut can preside over same - sex marriages. Unlike Massachusetts, Connecticut JPs are not penalized for refusing to perform such ceremonies.
Justices of the peace in Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont have the same general oath - giving powers as a notary public.
Louisiana
Are elected to serve six year terms as the judicial authority of a ward or district.
Have jurisdiction in civil matters when the amount in dispute does not exceed $5,000.
Do not have jurisdiction when a title to real estate is involved, when the state or any political subdivision is a defendant, or in successions or probate matters.
Can perform marriage ceremonies
In Minnesota, the history of justices of the peace dates back hundreds of years to a time when they were considered to be some of the most powerful officials in terms of the authority that they had to influence change in a community. In modern times though, official justices of the peace are no longer present in Minnesota, but because of their history many current officials are still referred to as justices of the peace by a vast majority of Minnesotans. For example, while the authority to perform marriages in Minnesota was once reserved almost exclusively for justices of the peace, today that authority now lies with officials such as judges, court administrators, and ordained wedding officiants Nevertheless, it remains commonplace throughout the state for each of these types of officials to be referred to as a justice of the peace in the context of marriage. Another example of a current official who is often referred to as a justice of the peace is a notary public. Their responsibilities are largely related to acting as an official witness to an event, such as the signing of an important document, which is a responsibility that was once reserved for a justice of the peace. So while justices of the peace no longer exist in Minnesota in any official capacity, there are certainly some officials who can relate to being referred to as a justice of the peace simply due to the functions they perform.
Justice courts are courts in New York State that handle traffic tickets, criminal matters, small claims and local code violations such as zoning. Though justice courts constitutionally are part of the New York State Unified Court System, state law generally makes justice courts independent of New York 's Office of Court Administration (OCA) and instead makes Justice Courts the responsibility of their sponsoring localities. Town justice courts are often called Town Court, and village justice courts are often called Village Court. City courts in New York State handle mostly the same types of cases but are not justice courts.
The official title for judges in Justice Courts is Justice, the same as in New York Supreme Court. However, in common usage, most people, including lawyers, call them Judge. Justices in Justice Court do not have to be lawyers. The vast majority are not. Many of these courts are in small towns and villages where none of the residents are lawyers. In the larger towns, the justices are almost always lawyers.
While Justices and their court clerks receive training from OCA, there is tremendous variability in how cases are handled. This includes court procedures and substantive results. Some courts will dismiss a traffic ticket if the officer does not appear for a trial, while others will adjourn the matter to give the officer another chance. In some courts the police prosecute their own tickets, while in others an Assistant District Attorney from the county or a town or village attorney will prosecute the tickets. This may even vary by the type of officer, with State Troopers and Deputies prosecuting their tickets and a town attorney prosecuting tickets written by the town police.
Larger towns can have very busy caseloads, including several sessions a week with dozens of cases at each session, and people may have to wait hours before their cases are heard. In some small towns the caseload is extremely light, and a court might meet once a month and have only a few cases.
All criminal prosecutions that occur in towns and villages are commenced in a justice court. Misdemeanors are handled exclusively in the justice court, while felonies generally move up to County Court before the case moves forward.
Similar matters in some places outside New York are handled by a justice of the peace.
New Hampshire justices of the peace are commissioned magisterial officers, appointed by the Governor and Executive Council to terms of five years, with the power to administer oaths, acknowledge instruments, perform marriage ceremonies and, effective January 1, 2008, solemnize civil unions for same - sex couples. They may also order compulsory mental examinations for good cause, act as a magisterial official regarding enforcement complaints on orders for isolation or quarantine issued by the Commissioner of Health and Human Services, administer oaths of office to public officials, take depositions and issue subpoenas. New Hampshire justices of the peace are also authorized, upon a showing of probable cause supported by affidavit, to issue arrest warrants, search warrants, administrative inspection warrants and by court appointment, to fix and receive bail in criminal cases.
In Texas, JP 's are elected on a partisan ballot every four years.
Texas does not require a JP to be an attorney in good standing. However, JP 's are required to be "well versed in the law '' and take mandatory classes to retain their office. New JP 's are required to take 80 hours of legal state mandated classes the first year, and 20 hours each year thereafter during their tenure in office.
Sections 18 and 19 of Article V of the Texas Constitution, as well as Chapters 27 and 28 of the Texas Government Code, outline the duties of these Courts and their officers.
Under Section 18, the number of JP 's (and associated constables) is dependent on the size of the county:
Section 19 sets forth the minimum jurisdiction of the JP court:
JP cases are appealed to the county court level; the appeal results in a trial de novo. In criminal cases, cases beginning in justice court can not be appealed beyond the county level court unless the fine is more than $100 or a constitutional matter is asserted.
In smaller counties without a coroner, the JP has the duty to perform inquests. The JP is also called out for any unattended deaths in the county.
A JP in a large precinct in a large county will work 5 days a week, 8 or more hours daily. Their duties will include, but are not necessarily limited to the following: Trials of civil matters, both to a 6 - person jury and to the bench, with an amount in controversy not exceeding $10,000.00. Trials of criminal matters involving traffic violations and class C misdemeanors punishable by fine only. Pre-trial motion dockets and show cause hearings are held, and all discovery must be approved by the Judge in advance in civil cases. All criminal matters are controlled by the rules of criminal procedure and evidence. A much more restricted and smaller set of rules apply in civil matters unless in the Judges discretion, it is believed to be in the best interests of justice to apply the standard rules of evidence and procedure. The court has the exclusive jurisdiction of evictions. A Texas JP Judge will also magistrate prisoners and set bail. The Judge will hear juvenile violations such as truancy, and underage drinking and smoking. Warrants of Arrest, Alias, Search and Capias Profine are issued. Protective Orders can issue and result in jail time if violated. Several administrative matters are heard including the finding of a Dangerous Dog, Occupational Drivers License and tow hearings. Many writs are issued such as writs of re-entry to apartments, possession of realty and to reinstate utilities a landlord may have turned off. A JP has contempt power of $100 and up to 3 days in jail per occurrence. A JP is also authorized to perform marriage ceremonies.
In many states, the office of justice of the peace has been abolished or transferred to another court, such as the magistrate court. In larger cities, cases may be heard in a municipal court which has jurisdiction only within that city. Most efforts to abolish the office of justice of the peace have been led by the American Bar Association, which views non-lawyer judges as no longer necessary, as there are now far more persons with formal legal education than in the past when justices of the peace were first used.
California formerly had justice of the peace courts staffed by lay judges, but began phasing them out after a landmark 1974 decision in which the Supreme Court of California unanimously held that it was a violation of federal due process (under the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution) to allow a non-lawyer to preside over a criminal trial which could result in incarceration of the defendant. The court specifically recognized that in the aftermath of Gideon v. Wainwright (1963), it made no sense to allow a case to be tried before a layperson incapable of understanding the legal arguments of the attorney to whom the defendant was entitled under Gideon. The remaining justice courts (as well as municipal courts) were eliminated by the passage of Proposition 220 in June 1998, which merged all lower courts within the state judicial branch into the superior courts (the courts of general jurisdiction). Under current California law, all California judges must be licensed attorneys.
Notably, the Supreme Court of the United States sharply disagreed with California 's analysis of the Fourteenth Amendment in the landmark case of North v. Russell, 427 U.S. 328 (1976), in which the court held that Kentucky 's use of nonlawyer judges in its police courts was not a violation of the Fourteenth Amendment guarantees of due process and equal protection of the laws.
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