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what type of book is the adventures of huckleberry finn | Adventures of Huckleberry Finn - wikipedia
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (or, in more recent editions, The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn) is a novel by Mark Twain, first published in the United Kingdom in December 1884 and in the United States in February 1885. Commonly named among the Great American Novels, the work is among the first in major American literature to be written throughout in vernacular English, characterized by local color regionalism. It is told in the first person by Huckleberry "Huck '' Finn, a friend of Tom Sawyer the narrator of two other Twain novels (Tom Sawyer Abroad and Tom Sawyer, Detective). It is a direct sequel to The Adventures of Tom Sawyer.
The book is noted for its colorful description of people and places along the Mississippi River. Set in a Southern antebellum society that had ceased to exist about 20 years before the work was published, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is an often scathing satire on entrenched attitudes, particularly racism.
Perennially popular with readers, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn has also been the continued object of study by literary critics since its publication. The book was widely criticized upon release because of its extensive use of coarse language. Throughout the 20th century, and despite arguments that the protagonist and the tenor of the book are anti-racist, criticism of the book continued due to both its perceived use of racial stereotypes and its frequent use of the racial slur "nigger ''.
In order of appearance:
The story begins in fictional St. Petersburg, Missouri (based on the actual town of Hannibal, Missouri), on the shore of the Mississippi River "forty to fifty years ago '' (the novel having been published in 1884). Huckleberry "Huck '' Finn (the protagonist and first - person narrator) and his friend, Thomas "Tom '' Sawyer, have each come into a considerable sum of money as a result of their earlier adventures (detailed in The Adventures of Tom Sawyer). Huck explains how he is placed under the guardianship of the Widow Douglas, who, together with her stringent sister, Miss Watson, are attempting to "sivilize '' him and teach him religion. Finding civilized life confining, his spirits are raised somewhat when Tom Sawyer helps him to escape one night past Miss Watson 's slave Jim, to meet up with Tom 's gang of self - proclaimed "robbers. '' Just as the gang 's activities begin to bore Huck, he is suddenly interrupted by the reappearance of his shiftless father, "Pap '', an abusive alcoholic. Knowing that Pap would only spend the money on alcohol, Huck is successful in preventing Pap from acquiring his fortune; however, Pap kidnaps Huck and leaves town with him.
Pap forcibly moves Huck to his isolated cabin in the woods along the Illinois shoreline. Because of Pap 's drunken violence and imprisonment of Huck inside the cabin, Huck, during one of his father 's absences, elaborately fakes his own death, escapes from the cabin, and sets off downriver. He settles comfortably, on Jackson 's Island. Here, Huck reunites with Jim, Miss Watson 's slave. Jim has also run away after he overheard Miss Watson planning to sell him "down the river '' to presumably more brutal owners. Jim plans to make his way to the town of Cairo in Illinois, a free state, so that he can later buy the rest of his enslaved family 's freedom. At first, Huck is conflicted about the sin and crime of supporting a runaway slave, but as the two talk in depth and bond over their mutually held superstitions, Huck emotionally connects with Jim, who increasingly becomes Huck 's close friend and guardian. After heavy flooding on the river, the two find a raft (which they keep) as well as an entire house floating on the river. Entering the house to seek loot, Jim finds the naked body of a dead man lying on the floor, shot in the back. He prevents Huck from viewing the corpse.
To find out the latest news in town, Huck dresses as a girl and enters the house of Judith Loftus, a woman new to the area. Huck learns from her about the news of his own supposed murder; Pap was initially blamed, but since Jim ran away he is also a suspect and a reward for Jim 's capture has initiated a manhunt. Mrs. Loftus becomes increasingly suspicious that Huck is a boy, finally proving it by a series of tests. Once he is exposed, she nevertheless allows him to leave her home without commotion, not realizing that he is the allegedly murdered boy they have just been discussing. Huck returns to Jim to tell him the news and that a search party is coming to Jackson 's Island that very night. The two hastily load up the raft and depart.
After a while, Huck and Jim come across a grounded steamship. Searching it, they stumble upon two thieves discussing murdering a third, but they flee before being noticed. They are later separated in a fog, making Jim intensely anxious, and when they reunite, Huck tricks Jim into thinking he dreamed the entire incident. Jim is not deceived for long, and is deeply hurt that his friend should have teased him so mercilessly. Huck becomes remorseful and apologizes to Jim, though his conscience troubles him about humbling himself to a black man.
Traveling onward, Huck and Jim 's raft is struck by a passing steamship, again separating the two. Huck is given shelter on the Kentucky side of the river by the Grangerfords, an "aristocratic '' family. He befriends Buck Grangerford, a boy about his age, and learns that the Grangerfords are engaged in a 30 - year blood feud against another family, the Shepherdsons. The Grangerfords and Shepherdsons go to the same church, which ironically preaches brotherly love. The vendetta finally comes to a head when Buck 's older sister elopes with a member of the Shepherdson clan. In the resulting conflict, all the Grangerford males from this branch of the family are shot and killed, including Buck, whose horrific murder Huck witnesses. He is immensely relieved to be reunited with Jim, who has since recovered and repaired the raft.
Near the Arkansas - Missouri - Tennessee border, Jim and Huck take two on - the - run grifters aboard the raft. The younger man, who is about thirty, introduces himself as the long - lost son of an English duke (the Duke of Bridgewater). The older one, about seventy, then trumps this outrageous claim by alleging that he himself is the Lost Dauphin, the son of Louis XVI and rightful King of France. The "duke '' and "king '' soon become permanent passengers on Jim and Huck 's raft, committing a series of confidence schemes upon unsuspecting locals all along their journey. To divert suspicions from the public away from Jim, they pose him as recaptured slave runaway, but later paint him up entirely blue and call him the "Sick Arab '' so that he can move about the raft without bindings.
On one occasion, the swindlers advertise a three - night engagement of a play called "The Royal Nonesuch ''. The play turns out to be only a couple of minutes ' worth of an absurd, bawdy sham. On the afternoon of the first performance, a drunk called Boggs is shot dead by a gentleman named Colonel Sherburn; a lynch mob forms to retaliate against Sherburn; and Sherburn, surrounded at his home, disperses the mob by making a defiant speech describing how true lynching should be done. By the third night of "The Royal Nonesuch '', the townspeople prepare for their revenge on the duke and king for their money - making scam, but the two cleverly skip town together with Huck and Jim just before the performance begins.
In the next town, the two swindlers then impersonate brothers of Peter Wilks, a recently deceased man of property. To match accounts of Wilks 's brothers, the king attempts an English accent and the duke pretends to be a deaf - mute while starting to collect Wilks 's inheritance. Huck decides that Wilks 's three orphaned nieces, who treat Huck with kindness, do not deserve to be cheated thus and so he tries to retrieve for them the stolen inheritance. In a desperate moment, Huck is forced to hide the money in Wilks 's coffin, which is abruptly buried the next morning. The arrival of two new men who seem to be the real brothers throws everything into confusion, so that the townspeople decide to dig up the coffin in order to determine which are the true brothers, but, with everyone else distracted, Huck leaves for the raft, hoping to never see the duke and king again. Suddenly, though, the two villains return, much to Huck 's despair. When Huck is finally able to get away a second time, he finds to his horror that the swindlers have sold Jim away to a family that intends to return him to his proper owner for the reward. Defying his conscience and accepting the negative religious consequences he expects for his actions -- "All right, then, I 'll go to hell! '' -- Huck resolves to free Jim once and for all.
Huck learns that Jim is being held at the plantation of Silas and Sally Phelps. The family 's nephew, Tom, is expected for a visit at the same time as Huck 's arrival, so Huck is mistaken for Tom and welcomed into their home. He plays along, hoping to find Jim 's location and free him; in a surprising plot twist, it is revealed that the expected nephew is, in fact, Tom Sawyer. When Huck intercepts the real Tom Sawyer on the road and tells him everything, Tom decides to join Huck 's scheme, pretending to be his own younger half - brother, Sid, while Huck continues pretending to be Tom. In the meantime, Jim has told the family about the two grifters and the new plan for "The Royal Nonesuch '', and so the townspeople capture the duke and king, who are then tarred and feathered and ridden out of town on a rail.
Rather than simply sneaking Jim out of the shed where he is being held, Tom develops an elaborate plan to free him, involving secret messages, a hidden tunnel, snakes in a shed, a rope ladder sent in Jim 's food, and other elements from adventure books he has read, including an anonymous note to the Phelps warning them of the whole scheme. During the actual escape and resulting pursuit, Tom is shot in the leg, while Jim remains by his side, risking recapture rather than completing his escape alone. Although a local doctor admires Jim 's decency, he has Jim arrested in his sleep and returned to the Phelps. After this, events quickly resolve themselves. Tom 's Aunt Polly arrives and reveals Huck and Tom 's true identities to the Phelps family. Jim is revealed to be a free man: Miss Watson died two months earlier and freed Jim in her will, but Tom (who already knew this) chose not to reveal this information to Huck so that he could come up with an artful rescue plan for Jim. Jim tells Huck that Huck 's father (Pap Finn) has been dead for some time (he was the dead man they found earlier in the floating house), and so Huck may now return safely to St. Petersburg. Huck is rewarded six hundred dollars for saving the aunts from the con men. Huck gives most of it to Jim for his family. Huck declares that he is quite glad to be done writing his story, and despite Sally 's plans to adopt and civilize him, he intends to flee west to Indian Territory.
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn explores themes of race and identity. A complexity exists concerning Jim 's character. While some scholars point out that Jim is good - hearted, moral, and he is not unintelligent (in contrast to several of the more negatively depicted white characters), others have criticized the novel as racist, citing the use of the word "nigger '' and emphasizing the stereotypically "comic '' treatment of Jim 's lack of education, superstition and ignorance.
Throughout the story, Huck is in moral conflict with the received values of the society in which he lives, and while he is unable to consciously refute those values even in his thoughts, he makes a moral choice based on his own valuation of Jim 's friendship and Jim 's human worth, a decision in direct opposition to the things he has been taught. Mark Twain, in his lecture notes, proposes that "a sound heart is a surer guide than an ill - trained conscience '' and goes on to describe the novel as "... a book of mine where a sound heart and a deformed conscience come into collision and conscience suffers defeat ''.
To highlight the hypocrisy required to condone slavery within an ostensibly moral system, Twain has Huck 's father enslave his son, isolate him, and beat him. When Huck escapes -- which anyone would agree was the right thing to do -- he then immediately encounters Jim "illegally '' doing the same thing. The treatment both of them receive are radically different especially with an encounter with Mrs. Judith Loftus who takes pity on who she presumes to be a runaway apprentice, Huck, yet boasts about her husband sending the hounds after a runaway slave, Jim.
Some scholars discuss Huck 's own character, and the novel itself, in the context of its relation to African - American culture as a whole. John Alberti quotes Shelley Fisher Fishkin, who writes in her 1990s book Was Huck Black?: Mark Twain and African - American Voices, "by limiting their field of inquiry to the periphery, '' white scholars "have missed the ways in which African - American voices shaped Twain 's creative imagination at its core. '' It is suggested that the character of Huckleberry Finn illustrates the correlation, and even interrelatedness, between white and black culture in the United States.
The original illustrations were done by E.W. Kemble, at the time a young artist working for Life magazine. Kemble was hand - picked by Twain, who admired his work. Hearn suggests that Twain and Kemble had a similar skill, writing that:
Whatever he may have lacked in technical grace... Kemble shared with the greatest illustrators the ability to give even the minor individual in a text his own distinct visual personality; just as Twain so deftly defined a full - rounded character in a few phrases, so too did Kemble depict with a few strokes of his pen that same entire personage.
As Kemble could afford only one model, most of his illustrations produced for the book were done by guesswork. When the novel was published, the illustrations were praised even as the novel was harshly criticized. E.W. Kemble produced another set of illustrations for Harper 's and the American Publishing Company in 1898 and 1899 after Twain lost the copyright.
Twain initially conceived of the work as a sequel to The Adventures of Tom Sawyer that would follow Huckleberry Finn through adulthood. Beginning with a few pages he had removed from the earlier novel, Twain began work on a manuscript he originally titled Huckleberry Finn 's Autobiography. Twain worked on the manuscript off and on for the next several years, ultimately abandoning his original plan of following Huck 's development into adulthood. He appeared to have lost interest in the manuscript while it was in progress, and set it aside for several years. After making a trip down the Hudson River, Twain returned to his work on the novel. Upon completion, the novel 's title closely paralleled its predecessor 's: Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (Tom Sawyer 's Comrade).
Mark Twain composed the story in pen on notepaper between 1876 and 1883. Paul Needham, who supervised the authentication of the manuscript for Sotheby 's books and manuscripts department in New York in 1991, stated, "What you see is (Clemens ') attempt to move away from pure literary writing to dialect writing ''. For example, Twain revised the opening line of Huck Finn three times. He initially wrote, "You will not know about me '', which he changed to, "You do not know about me '', before settling on the final version, "You do n't know about me, without you have read a book by the name of ' The Adventures of Tom Sawyer '; but that ai n't no matter. '' The revisions also show how Twain reworked his material to strengthen the characters of Huck and Jim, as well as his sensitivity to the then - current debate over literacy and voting.
A later version was the first typewritten manuscript delivered to a printer.
Demand for the book spread outside of the United States. Adventures of Huckleberry Finn was eventually published on December 10, 1884, in Canada and the United Kingdom, and on February 18, 1885, in the United States. The illustration on page 283 became a point of issue after an engraver, whose identity was never discovered, made a last - minute addition to the printing plate of Kemble 's picture of old Silas Phelps, which drew attention to Phelps ' groin. Thirty thousand copies of the book had been printed before the obscenity was discovered. A new plate was made to correct the illustration and repair the existing copies.
In 1885, the Buffalo Public Library 's curator, James Fraser Gluck, approached Twain to donate the manuscript to the library. Twain did so. Later it was believed that half of the pages had been misplaced by the printer. In 1991, the missing first half turned up in a steamer trunk owned by descendants of Gluck 's. The library successfully claimed possession and, in 1994, opened the Mark Twain Room to showcase the treasure.
In relation to the literary climate at the time of the book 's publication in 1885, Henry Nash Smith describes the importance of Mark Twain 's already established reputation as a "professional humorist '', having already published over a dozen other works. Smith suggests that while the "dismantling of the decadent Romanticism of the later nineteenth century was a necessary operation, '' Adventures of Huckleberry Finn illustrated "previously inaccessible resources of imaginative power, but also made vernacular language, with its new sources of pleasure and new energy, available for American prose and poetry in the twentieth century. ''
While it was clear that the publication of Adventures of Huckleberry Finn was controversial from the outset, Norman Mailer, writing in The New York Times in 1984, concluded that Twain 's novel was not initially "too unpleasantly regarded. '' In fact, Mailer writes: "the critical climate could hardly anticipate T.S. Eliot and Ernest Hemingway 's encomiums 50 years later, '' reviews that would remain longstanding in the American consciousness.
Alberti suggests that the academic establishment responded to the book 's challenges both dismissively and with confusion. During Twain 's time, and today, defenders of Adventures of Huckleberry Finn "lump all nonacademic critics of the book together as extremists and ' censors ' thus equating the complaints about the book 's ' coarseness ' from the genteel bourgeois trustees of the Concord Public Library in the 1880s with more recent objections based on race and civil rights. ''
Upon issue of the American edition in 1885 several libraries banned it from their shelves. The early criticism focused on what was perceived as the book 's crudeness. One incident was recounted in the newspaper the Boston Transcript:
The Concord (Mass.) Public Library committee has decided to exclude Mark Twain 's latest book from the library. One member of the committee says that, while he does not wish to call it immoral, he thinks it contains but little humor, and that of a very coarse type. He regards it as the veriest trash. The library and the other members of the committee entertain similar views, characterizing it as rough, coarse, and inelegant, dealing with a series of experiences not elevating, the whole book being more suited to the slums than to intelligent, respectable people.
Writer Louisa May Alcott criticized the book 's publication as well, saying that if Twain "(could not) think of something better to tell our pure - minded lads and lasses he had best stop writing for them ''.
Twain later remarked to his editor, "Apparently, the Concord library has condemned Huck as ' trash and only suitable for the slums. ' This will sell us another twenty - five thousand copies for sure! ''
In 1905, New York 's Brooklyn Public Library also banned the book due to "bad word choice '' and Huck 's having "not only itched but scratched '' within the novel, which was considered obscene. When asked by a Brooklyn librarian about the situation, Twain sardonically replied:
I am greatly troubled by what you say. I wrote ' Tom Sawyer ' & ' Huck Finn ' for adults exclusively, & it always distressed me when I find that boys and girls have been allowed access to them. The mind that becomes soiled in youth can never again be washed clean. I know this by my own experience, & to this day I cherish an unappeased bitterness against the unfaithful guardians of my young life, who not only permitted but compelled me to read an unexpurgated Bible through before I was 15 years old. None can do that and ever draw a clean sweet breath again on this side of the grave.
Many subsequent critics, Ernest Hemingway among them, have deprecated the final chapters, claiming the book "devolves into little more than minstrel - show satire and broad comedy '' after Jim is detained. Although Hemingway declared, "All modern American literature comes from '' Huck Finn, and hailed it as "the best book we 've had '', he cautioned, "If you must read it you must stop where the Nigger Jim is stolen from the boys (sic). That is the real end. The rest is just cheating. '' Pulitzer Prize winner Ron Powers states in his Twain biography (Mark Twain: A Life) that "Huckleberry Finn endures as a consensus masterpiece despite these final chapters '', in which Tom Sawyer leads Huck through elaborate machinations to rescue Jim.
In his introduction to The Annotated Huckleberry Finn, Michael Patrick Hearn writes that Twain "could be uninhibitedly vulgar '', and quotes critic William Dean Howells, a Twain contemporary, who wrote that the author 's "humor was not for most women ''. However, Hearn continues by explaining that "the reticent Howells found nothing in the proofs of Huckleberry Finn so offensive that it needed to be struck out ''.
Much of modern scholarship of Huckleberry Finn has focused on its treatment of race. Many Twain scholars have argued that the book, by humanizing Jim and exposing the fallacies of the racist assumptions of slavery, is an attack on racism. Others have argued that the book falls short on this score, especially in its depiction of Jim. According to Professor Stephen Railton of the University of Virginia, Twain was unable to fully rise above the stereotypes of black people that white readers of his era expected and enjoyed, and, therefore, resorted to minstrel show - style comedy to provide humor at Jim 's expense, and ended up confirming rather than challenging late - 19th century racist stereotypes.
In one instance, the controversy caused a drastically altered interpretation of the text: in 1955, CBS tried to avoid controversial material in a televised version of the book, by deleting all mention of slavery and omitting the character of Jim entirely.
Because of this controversy over whether Huckleberry Finn is racist or anti-racist, and because the word "nigger '' is frequently used in the novel (a commonly used word in Twain 's time which has since become vulgar and taboo), many have questioned the appropriateness of teaching the book in the U.S. public school system -- this questioning of the word "nigger '' is illustrated by a school administrator of Virginia in 1982 calling the novel the "most grotesque example of racism I 've ever seen in my life ''. According to the American Library Association, Huckleberry Finn was the fifth most frequently challenged book in the United States during the 1990s.
There have been several more recent cases involving protests for the banning of the novel. In 2003, high school student Calista Phair and her grandmother, Beatrice Clark, in Renton, Washington, proposed banning the book from classroom learning in the Renton School District, though not from any public libraries, because of the word "nigger ''. Clark filed a request with the school district in response to the required reading of the book, asking for the novel to be removed from the English curriculum. The two curriculum committees that considered her request eventually decided to keep the novel on the 11th grade curriculum, though they suspended it until a panel had time to review the novel and set a specific teaching procedure for the novel 's controversial topics.
In 2009, a Washington state high school teacher called for the removal of the novel from a school curriculum. The teacher, John Foley, called for replacing Adventures of Huckleberry Finn with a more modern novel. In an opinion column that Foley wrote in the Seattle Post Intelligencer, he states that all "novels that use the ' N - word ' repeatedly need to go. '' He states that teaching the novel is not only unnecessary, but difficult due to the offensive language within the novel with many students becoming uncomfortable at "just hear (ing) the N - word. '' He views this change as "common sense, '' with Obama 's election into office as a sign that Americans "are ready for a change, '' and that by removing these books from the reading lists, they would be following this change.
Publishers of the book have made their own attempts at easing the controversy by way of less - coarse publications. A 2011 edition of the book, published by NewSouth Books, replaced the word "nigger '' with "slave '' (although being incorrectly addressed to a freed man) and did not use the term "Injun. '' Mark Twain scholar Alan Gribben said he hoped the edition would be more friendly for use in classrooms, rather than have the work banned outright from classroom reading lists due to its language.
According to publisher Suzanne La Rosa "At NewSouth, we saw the value in an edition that would help the works find new readers. If the publication sparks good debate about how language impacts learning or about the nature of censorship or the way in which racial slurs exercise their baneful influence, then our mission in publishing this new edition of Twain 's works will be more emphatically fulfilled. '' Another scholar, Thomas Wortham, criticized the changes, saying the new edition "does n't challenge children to ask, ' Why would a child like Huck use such reprehensible language? ' ''
In 2016, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn was removed from a public school district in Virginia, along with the novel To Kill a Mockingbird, due to their use of racial slurs.
Responses to this include the publishing of The Hipster Huckleberry Finn which is an edition with the word "nigger '' replaced with the word "hipster ''. The book 's description includes this statement "Thanks to editor Richard Grayson, the adventures of Huckleberry Finn are now neither offensive nor uncool. ''
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what control process is used to destroy something of no value | Sterilization (microbiology) - wikipedia
Sterilization (or sterilisation) refers to any process that eliminates, removes, kills, or deactivates all forms of life and other biological agents (such as fungi, bacteria, viruses, spore forms, prions, unicellular eukaryotic organisms such as Plasmodium, etc.) present in a specified region, such as a surface, a volume of fluid, medication, or in a compound such as biological culture media. Sterilization can be achieved through various means, including: heat, chemicals, irradiation, high pressure, and filtration. Sterilization is distinct from disinfection, sanitization, and pasteurization, in that sterilization kills, deactivates, or eliminates all forms of life and other biological agents which are present.
One of the first steps toward sterilization was made by Nicolas Appert who discovered that thorough application of heat over a suitable period slowed the decay of foods and various liquids, preserving them for safe consumption for a longer time than was typical. Canning of foods is an extension of the same principle and has helped to reduce food borne illness ("food poisoning ''). Other methods of sterilizing foods include food irradiation and high pressure (pascalization).
In general, surgical instruments and medications that enter an already aseptic part of the body (such as the bloodstream, or penetrating the skin) must be sterile. Examples of such instruments include scalpels, hypodermic needles, and artificial pacemakers. This is also essential in the manufacture of parenteral pharmaceuticals.
Preparation of injectable medications and intravenous solutions for fluid replacement therapy requires not only sterility but also well - designed containers to prevent entry of adventitious agents after initial product sterilization.
Most medical and surgical devices used in healthcare facilities are made of materials that are able to go under steam sterilization. However, since 1950, there has been an increase in medical devices and instruments made of materials (e.g., plastics) that require low - temperature sterilization. Ethylene oxide gas has been used since the 1950s for heat - and moisture - sensitive medical devices. Within the past 15 years, a number of new, low - temperature sterilization systems (e.g., hydrogen peroxide gas plasma, peracetic acid immersion, ozone) have been developed and are being used to sterilize medical devices. Steam sterilization is the most widely used and the most dependable. Steam sterilization is nontoxic, inexpensive, rapidly microbicidal, sporicidal, and rapidly heats and penetrates fabrics.
There are strict international rules to protect the contamination of Solar System bodies from biological material from Earth. Standards vary depending on both the type of mission and its destination; the more likely a planet is considered to be habitable, the stricter the requirements are.
Many components of instruments used on spacecraft can not withstand very high temperatures, so techniques not requiring excessive temperatures are used as tolerated, including heating to at least 120 ° C, chemical sterilization, oxidization, ultraviolet, and irradiation.
The aim of sterilization is the reduction of initially present microorganisms or other potential pathogens. The degree of sterilization is commonly expressed by multiples of the decimal reduction time, or D - value, denoting the time needed to reduce the initial number N 0 (\ displaystyle N_ (0)) to one tenth (10 − 1 (\ displaystyle 10 ^ (- 1))) of its original value. Then the number of microorganisms N (\ displaystyle N) after sterilization time t (\ displaystyle t) is given by:
The D - value is a function of sterilization conditions and varies with the type of microorganism, temperature, water activity, pH etc... For steam sterilization (see below) typically the temperature (in ° Celsius) is given as index.
Theoretically, the likelihood of survival of an individual microorganism is never zero. To compensate for this, the overkill method is often used. Using the overkill method, sterilization is performed by sterilizing for longer than is required to kill the bioburden present on or in the item being sterilized. This provides a sterility assurance level (SAL) equal to the probability of a non-sterile unit.
For high - risk applications such as medical devices and injections, a sterility assurance level of at least 10 is required by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA).
A widely used method for heat sterilization is the autoclave, sometimes called a converter or steam sterilizer. Autoclaves use steam heated to 121 - 134 ° C under pressure. To achieve sterility, the article is placed in a chamber and heated by injected steam until the article reaches a time and temperature setpoint. Almost all the air is removed from the chamber, because air is undesired in the moist heat sterilization process (this is one trait that differ from a typical pressure cooker used for food cooking). The article is held at the temperature setpoint for a period of time which varies depending on what bioburden is present on the article being sterilized and its resistance (D - value) to steam sterilization. A general cycle would be anywhere between 3 and 15 minutes, (depending on the generated heat) at 121 ° C at 100 kPa, which is sufficient to provide a sterility assurance level of 10 for a product with a bioburden of 10 and a D - value of 2.0 minutes. Following sterilization, liquids in a pressurized autoclave must be cooled slowly to avoid boiling over when the pressure is released. This may be achieved by gradually depressurizing the sterilization chamber and allowing liquids to evaporate under a negative pressure, while cooling the contents.
Proper autoclave treatment will inactivate all resistant bacterial spores in addition to fungi, bacteria, and viruses, but is not expected to eliminate all prions, which vary in their resistance. For prion elimination, various recommendations state 121 - 132 ° C for 60 minutes or 134 ° C for at least 18 minutes. The 263K scrapie prion is inactivated relatively quickly by such sterilization procedures; however, other strains of scrapie, and strains of CJD and BSE are more resistant. Using mice as test animals, one experiment showed that heating BSE positive brain tissue at 134 - 138 ° C for 18 minutes resulted in only a 2.5 log decrease in prion infectivity.
Most autoclaves have meters and charts that record or display information, particularly temperature and pressure as a function of time. The information is checked to ensure that the conditions required for sterilization have been met. Indicator tape is often placed on packages of products prior to autoclaving, and some packaging incorporates indicators. The indicator changes color when exposed to steam, providing a visual confirmation.
Bioindicators can also be used to independently confirm autoclave performance. Simple bioindicator devices are commercially available based on microbial spores. Most contain spores of the heat resistant microbe Geobacillus stearothermophilus (formerly Bacillus stearothermophilus), which is extremely resistant to steam sterilization. Biological indicators may take the form of glass vials of spores and liquid media, or as spores on strips of paper inside glassine envelopes. These indicators are placed in locations where it is difficult for steam to reach to verify that steam is penetrating there.
For autoclaving, cleaning is critical. Extraneous biological matter or grime may shield organisms from steam penetration. Proper cleaning can be achieved through physical scrubbing, sonication, ultrasound, or pulsed air. Pressure cooking and canning is analogous to autoclaving, and when performed correctly renders food sterile.
Moist heat causes the destruction of microorganisms by denaturation of macromolecules, primarily proteins. This method is a faster process than dry heat sterilization.
Dry heat was the first method of sterilization and is a longer process than moist heat sterilization. The destruction of microorganisms through the use of dry heat is a gradual phenomenon. With longer exposure to lethal temperatures, the number of killed microorganisms increases. Forced ventilation of hot air can be used to increase the rate at which heat is transferred to an organism and reduce the temperature and amount of time needed to achieve sterility. At higher temperatures, shorter exposure times are required to kill organisms. This can reduce heat - induced damage to food products.
The standard setting for a hot air oven is at least two hours at 160 ° C. A rapid method heats air to 190 ° C for 6 minutes for unwrapped objects and 12 minutes for wrapped objects. Dry heat has the advantage that it can be used on powders and other heat - stable items that are adversely affected by steam (e.g. it does not cause rusting of steel objects).
Flaming is done to loops and straight - wires in microbiology labs. Leaving the loop in the flame of a Bunsen burner or alcohol lamp until it glows red ensures that any infectious agent is inactivated. This is commonly used for small metal or glass objects, but not for large objects (see Incineration below). However, during the initial heating infectious material may be sprayed from the wire surface before it is killed, contaminating nearby surfaces and objects. Therefore, special heaters have been developed that surround the inoculating loop with a heated cage, ensuring that such sprayed material does not further contaminate the area. Another problem is that gas flames may leave carbon or other residues on the object if the object is not heated enough. A variation on flaming is to dip the object in 70 % or higher ethanol, then briefly touch the object to a Bunsen burner flame. The ethanol will ignite and burn off rapidly, leaving less residue than a gas flame.
Incineration is a waste treatment process that involves the combustion of organic substances contained in waste materials. This method also burns any organism to ash. It is used to sterilize medical and other biohazardous waste before it is discarded with non-hazardous waste. Bacteria incinerators are mini furnaces that incinerate and kill off any microorganisms that may be on an inoculating loop or wire.
Named after John Tyndall, Tyndallization is an obsolete and lengthy process designed to reduce the level of activity of sporulating bacteria that are left by a simple boiling water method. The process involves boiling for a period (typically 20 minutes) at atmospheric pressure, cooling, incubating for a day, and then repeating the process a total of three to four times. The incubation periods are to allow heat - resistant spores surviving the previous boiling period to germinate to form the heat - sensitive vegetative (growing) stage, which can be killed by the next boiling step. This is effective because many spores are stimulated to grow by the heat shock. The procedure only works for media that can support bacterial growth, and will not sterilize non-nutritive substrates like water. Tyndallization is also ineffective against prions.
Glass bead sterilizers work by heating glass beads to 250 ° C. Instruments are then quickly doused in these glass beads, which heat the object while physically scraping contaminants off their surface. Glass bead sterilizers were once a common sterilization method employed in dental offices as well as biological laboratories, but are not approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) to be used as a sterilizers since 1997. They are still popular in European and Israeli dental practices although there are no current evidence - based guidelines for using this sterilizer.
Chemicals are also used for sterilization. Heating provides a reliable way to rid objects of all transmissible agents, but it is not always appropriate if it will damage heat - sensitive materials such as biological materials, fiber optics, electronics, and many plastics. In these situations chemicals, either as gases or in liquid form, can be used as sterilants. While the use of gas and liquid chemical sterilants avoids the problem of heat damage, users must ensure that article to be sterilized is chemically compatible with the sterilant being used. In addition, the use of chemical sterilants poses new challenges for workplace safety, as the properties that make chemicals effective sterilants usually make them harmful to humans.
Ethylene oxide (EO, EtO) gas treatment is one of the common methods used to sterilize, pasteurize, or disinfect items because of its wide range of material compatibility. It is also used to process items that are sensitive to processing with other methods, such as radiation (gamma, electron beam, X-ray), heat (moist or dry), or other chemicals. Ethylene oxide treatment is the most common sterilization method, used for approximately 70 % of total sterilizations, and for over 50 % of all disposable medical devices.
Ethylene oxide treatment is generally carried out between 30 ° C and 60 ° C with relative humidity above 30 % and a gas concentration between 200 and 800 mg / l. Typically, the process lasts for several hours. Ethylene oxide is highly effective, as it penetrates all porous materials, and it can penetrate through some plastic materials and films. Ethylene oxide kills all known microorganisms such as bacteria (including spores), viruses, and fungi (including yeasts and moulds), and is compatible with almost all materials even when repeatedly applied. It is flammable, toxic, and carcinogenic; however, with a reported potential for some adverse health effects when not used in compliance with published requirements. Ethylene oxide sterilizers and processes require biological validation after sterilizer installation, significant repairs or process changes.
The traditional process consists of a preconditioning phase (in a separate room or cell), a processing phase (more commonly in a vacuum vessel and sometimes in a pressure rated vessel), and an aeration phase (in a separate room or cell) to remove ethylene oxide residues and lower by - products such as ethylene chlorohydrin (EC or ECH) and, of lesser importance, ethylene glycol (EG). An alternative process, known as all - in - one processing, also exists for some products whereby all three phases are performed in the vacuum or pressure rated vessel. This latter option can facilitate faster overall processing time and residue dissipation.
The most common ethylene oxide processing method is the gas chamber method. To benefit from economies of scale, ethylene oxide has traditionally been delivered by filling a large chamber with a combination of gaseous ethylene oxide either as pure ethylene oxide, or with other gases used as diluents (chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), or carbon dioxide).
Ethylene oxide is still widely used by medical device manufacturers. Since ethylene oxide is explosive at concentrations above 3 %, ethylene oxide was traditionally supplied with an inert carrier gas such as a CFC or HCFC. The use of CFCs or HCFCs as the carrier gas was banned because of concerns of ozone depletion. These halogenated hydrocarbons are being replaced by systems using 100 % ethylene oxide because of regulations and the high cost of the blends. In hospitals, most ethylene oxide sterilizers use single use cartridges because of the convenience and ease of use compared to the former plumbed gas cylinders of ethylene oxide blends.
It is important to adhere to patient and healthcare personnel government specified limits of ethylene oxide residues in and / or on processed products, operator exposure after processing, during storage and handling of ethylene oxide gas cylinders, and environmental emissions produced when using ethylene oxide.
The U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the permissible exposure limit (PEL) at 1 ppm calculated as an eight - hour time weighted average (TWA) (29 CFR 1910.1047) and 5 ppm as a 15 - minute excursion limit (EL). The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) immediately dangerous to life and health limit (IDLH) for ethylene oxide is 800 ppm. The odor threshold is around 500 ppm, so ethylene oxide is imperceptible until concentrations well above the OSHA PEL. Therefore, OSHA recommends that continuous gas monitoring systems be used to protect workers using ethylene oxide for processing. Employees ' health records must be maintained during employment and after termination of employment for 30 years.
Nitrogen dioxide (NO) gas is a rapid and effective sterilant for use against a wide range of microorganisms, including common bacteria, viruses, and spores. The unique physical properties of NO gas allow for sterilant dispersion in an enclosed environment at room temperature and ambient pressure. The mechanism for lethality is the degradation of DNA in the spore core through nitration of the phosphate backbone, which kills the exposed organism as it absorbs NO. This degradation occurs at even very low concentrations of the gas. NO has a boiling point of 21 ° C at sea level, which results in a relatively high saturated vapour pressure at ambient temperature. Because of this, liquid NO may be used as a convenient source for the sterilant gas. Liquid NO is often referred to by the name of its dimer, dinitrogen tetroxide (N O). Additionally, the low levels of concentration required, coupled with the high vapour pressure, assures that no condensation occurs on the devices being sterilized. This means that no aeration of the devices is required immediately following the sterilization cycle. NO is also less corrosive than other sterilant gases, and is compatible with most medical materials and adhesives.
The most - resistant organism (MRO) to sterilization with NO gas is the spore of Geobacillus stearothermophilus, which is the same MRO for both steam and hydrogen peroxide sterilization processes. The spore form of G. stearothermophilus has been well characterized over the years as a biological indicator in sterilization applications. Microbial inactivation of G. stearothermophilus with NO gas proceeds rapidly in a log - linear fashion, as is typical of other sterilization processes. Noxilizer, Inc. has commercialized this technology to offer contract sterilization services for medical devices at its Baltimore, Maryland (U.S.) facility. This has been demonstrated in Noxilizer 's lab in multiple studies and is supported by published reports from other labs. These same properties also allow for quicker removal of the sterilant and residuals through aeration of the enclosed environment. The combination of rapid lethality and easy removal of the gas allows for shorter overall cycle times during the sterilization (or decontamination) process and a lower level of sterilant residuals than are found with other sterilization methods.
Ozone is used in industrial settings to sterilize water and air, as well as a disinfectant for surfaces. It has the benefit of being able to oxidize most organic matter. On the other hand, it is a toxic and unstable gas that must be produced on - site, so it is not practical to use in many settings.
Ozone offers many advantages as a sterilant gas; ozone is a very efficient sterilant because of its strong oxidizing properties (E = 2.076 vs SHE) capable of destroying a wide range of pathogens, including prions without the need for handling hazardous chemicals since the ozone is generated within the sterilizer from medical grade oxygen. The high reactivity of ozone means that waste ozone can be destroyed by passing over a simple catalyst that reverts it to oxygen and ensures that the cycle time is relatively short. The disadvantage of using ozone is that the gas is very reactive and very hazardous. The NIOSH immediately dangerous to life and health limit for ozone is 5 ppm, 160 times smaller than the 800 ppm IDLH for ethylene oxide. Documentation for Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health Concentrations (IDLH): NIOSH Chemical Listing and Documentation of Revised IDLH Values (as of 3 / 1 / 95) and OSHA has set the PEL for ozone at 0.1 ppm calculated as an 8 hour time weighted average (29 CFR 1910.1000, Table Z - 1). The Canadian Center for Occupation Health and Safety provides an excellent summary of the health effects of exposure to ozone. The sterilant gas manufacturers include many safety features in their products but prudent practice is to provide continuous monitoring to below the OSHA PEL to provide a rapid warning in the event of a leak. Monitors for determining workplace exposure to ozone are commercially available.
Glutaraldehyde and formaldehyde solutions (also used as fixatives) are accepted liquid sterilizing agents, provided that the immersion time is sufficiently long. To kill all spores in a clear liquid can take up to 22 hours with glutaraldehyde and even longer with formaldehyde. The presence of solid particles may lengthen the required period or render the treatment ineffective. Sterilization of blocks of tissue can take much longer, due to the time required for the fixative to penetrate. Glutaraldehyde and formaldehyde are volatile, and toxic by both skin contact and inhalation. Glutaraldehyde has a short shelf life (< 2 weeks), and is expensive. Formaldehyde is less expensive and has a much longer shelf life if some methanol is added to inhibit polymerization to paraformaldehyde, but is much more volatile. Formaldehyde is also used as a gaseous sterilizing agent; in this case, it is prepared on - site by depolymerization of solid paraformaldehyde. Many vaccines, such as the original Salk polio vaccine, are sterilized with formaldehyde.
Hydrogen peroxide, in both liquid and as vaporized hydrogen peroxide (VHP), is another chemical sterilizing agent. Hydrogen peroxide is strong oxidant, which allows it to destroy a wide range of pathogens. Hydrogen peroxide is used to sterilize heat or temperature sensitive articles such as rigid endoscopes. In medical sterilization hydrogen peroxide is used at higher concentrations, ranging from around 35 % up to 90 %. The biggest advantage of hydrogen peroxide as a sterilant is the short cycle time. Whereas the cycle time for ethylene oxide may be 10 to 15 hours, some modern hydrogen peroxide sterilizers have a cycle time as short as 28 minutes.
Drawbacks of hydrogen peroxide include material compatibility, a lower capability for penetration and operator health risks. Products containing cellulose, such as paper, can not be sterilized using VHP and products containing nylon may become brittle. The penetrating ability of hydrogen peroxide is not as good as ethylene oxide and so there are limitations on the length and diameter of lumens that can be effectively sterilized and guidance is available from the sterilizer manufacturers. Hydrogen peroxide is primary irritant and the contact of the liquid solution with skin will cause bleaching or ulceration depending on the concentration and contact time. It is relatively non-toxic when diluted to low concentrations, but is a dangerous oxidizer at high concentrations (> 10 % w / w). The vapour is also hazardous, primarily affecting the eyes and respiratory system. Even short term exposures can be hazardous and NIOSH has set the Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health Level (IDLH) at 75 ppm, less than one tenth the IDLH for ethylene oxide (800 ppm). Prolonged exposure to lower concentrations can cause permanent lung damage and consequently, OSHA has set the permissible exposure limit to 1.0 ppm, calculated as an 8 - hour time weighted average. Sterilizer manufacturers go to great lengths to make their products safe through careful design and incorporation of many safety features, though there are still workplace exposures of hydrogen peroxide from gas sterilizers are documented in the FDA MAUDE database. When using any type of gas sterilizer, prudent work practices will include good ventilation, a continuous gas monitor for hydrogen peroxide and good work practices and training.
Vaporized hydrogen peroxide (VHP) is used to sterilize large enclosed and sealed areas such as entire rooms and aircraft interiors.
Although toxic, VHP breaks down in a short time from H2O2 to water H2O + O2.
Peracetic acid (0.2 %) is a recognized sterilant by the FDA for use in sterilizing medical devices such as endoscopes.
Prions are highly resistant to chemical sterilization. Treatment with aldehydes such as formaldehyde have actually been shown to increase prion resistance. Hydrogen peroxide (3 %) for one hour was shown to be ineffective, providing less than 3 logs (10) reduction in contamination. Iodine, formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde, and peracetic acid also fail this test (one hour treatment). Only chlorine, phenolic compounds, guanidinium thiocyanate, and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) reduce prion levels by more than 4 logs; chlorine (too corrosive to use on certain objects) and NaOH are the most consistent. Many studies have shown the effectiveness of sodium hydroxide.
Sterilization can be achieved using electromagnetic radiation such as electron beams, X-rays, gamma rays, or irradiation by subatomic particles. Electromagnetic or particulate radiation can be energetic enough to ionize atoms or molecules (ionizing radiation), or less energetic (non-ionizing radiation).
Ultraviolet light irradiation (UV, from a germicidal lamp) is useful for sterilization of surfaces and some transparent objects. Many objects that are transparent to visible light absorb UV. UV irradiation is routinely used to sterilize the interiors of biological safety cabinets between uses, but is ineffective in shaded areas, including areas under dirt (which may become polymerized after prolonged irradiation, so that it is very difficult to remove). It also damages some plastics, such as polystyrene foam if exposed for prolonged periods of time.
The safety of irradiation facilities is regulated by the United Nations International Atomic Energy Agency and monitored by the different national Nuclear Regulatory Commissions. The incidents that have occurred in the past are documented by the agency and thoroughly analyzed to determine root cause and improvement potential. Such improvements are then mandated to retrofit existing facilities and future design.
Gamma radiation is very penetrating, and is commonly used for sterilization of disposable medical equipment, such as syringes, needles, cannulas and IV sets, and food. It is emitted by a radioisotope, usually cobalt - 60 (Co) or caesium - 137 (Cs), which have photon energies of up to 1.3 and 0.66 MeV respectively.
Use of a radioisotope requires shielding for the safety of the operators while in use and in storage. With most designs, the radioisotope is lowered into a water - filled source storage pool, which absorbs radiation and allows maintenance personnel to enter the radiation shield. One variant keeps the radioisotope under water at all times and lowers the product to be irradiated into the water towards the source in hermetic bells; no further shielding is required for such designs. Other uncommonly used designs use dry storage, providing movable shields that reduce radiation levels in areas of the irradiation chamber. An incident in Decatur Georgia, US, where water - soluble caesium - 137 leaked into the source storage pool, requiring NRC intervention has led to use of this radioisotope being almost entirely discontinued in favour of the more costly, non-water - soluble cobalt - 60. Cobalt - 60 gamma photons have about twice the energy, and hence greater penetrating range, of Caesium - 137 radiation.
Electron beam processing is also commonly used for sterilization. Electron beams use an on - off technology and provide a much higher dosing rate than gamma or x-rays. Due to the higher dose rate, less exposure time is needed and thereby any potential degradation to polymers is reduced. Because electrons carry a charge, electron beams are less penetrating than either gamma or x-rays. Facilities rely on substantial concrete shields to protect workers and the environment from radiation exposure.
X-rays: high - energy X-rays (produced by bremsstrahlung) allow irradiation of large packages and pallet loads of medical devices. They are sufficiently penetrating to treat multiple pallet loads of low - density packages with very good dose uniformity ratios. X-ray sterilization does not require chemical or radioactive material: high - energy X-rays are generated at high intensity by an X-ray generator that does not require shielding when not in use. X-rays are generated by bombarding a dense material (target) such as tantalum or tungsten with high - energy electrons in a process known as bremsstrahlung conversion. These systems are energy - inefficient, requiring much more electrical energy than other systems for the same result.
Irradiation with X-rays, gamma rays, or electrons does not make materials radioactive, because the energy used is too low. Generally an energy of at least 10 MeV is needed to induce radioactivity in a material. Neutrons and very high - energy particles can make materials radioactive, but have good penetration, whereas lower energy particles (other than neutrons) can not make materials radioactive, but have poorer penetration.
Sterilization by irradiation with gamma rays may however in some cases affect material properties.
Irradiation is used by the United States Postal Service to sterilize mail in the Washington, D.C. area. Some foods (e.g. spices, ground meats) are sterilized by irradiation.
Subatomic particles may be more or less penetrating and may be generated by a radioisotope or a device, depending upon the type of particle.
Fluids that would be damaged by heat, irradiation or chemical sterilization, such as drug products, can be sterilized by microfiltration using membrane filters. This method is commonly used for heat labile pharmaceuticals and protein solutions in medicinal drug processing. A microfilter with pore size 0.2 μm will usually effectively remove microorganisms. Some staphylococcal species have, however, been shown to be flexible enough to pass through 0.22 μm filters. In the processing of biologics, viruses must be removed or inactivated, requiring the use of nanofilters with a smaller pore size (20 - 50 nm) are used. Smaller pore sizes lower the flow rate, so in order to achieve higher total throughput or to avoid premature blockage, pre-filters might be used to protect small pore membrane filters. Tangential flow filtration (TFF) and alternating tangential flow (ATF) systems also reduce particulate accumulation and blockage.
Membrane filters used in production processes are commonly made from materials such as mixed cellulose ester or polyethersulfone (PES). The filtration equipment and the filters themselves may be purchased as pre-sterilized disposable units in sealed packaging or must be sterilized by the user, generally by autoclaving at a temperature that does not damage the fragile filter membranes. To ensure proper functioning of the filter, the membrane filters are integrity tested post-use and sometimes before use. The nondestructive integrity test assures the filter is undamaged and is a regulatory requirement. Typically, terminal pharmaceutical sterile filtration is performed inside of a cleanroom to prevent contamination.
Instruments that have undergone sterilization can be maintained in such condition by containment in sealed packaging until use.
Aseptic technique is the act of maintaining sterility during procedures.
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who has won all grand slams in one year | Grand Slam (Tennis) - wikipedia
The Grand Slam tournaments, also called majors, are the four most important annual tennis events. They offer the most ranking points, prize money, public and media attention, the greatest strength and size of field, and greater number of "best of '' sets for men. The Grand Slam itinerary consists of the Australian Open in mid January, the French Open in May and June, Wimbledon in July, and the US Open in August and September. Each tournament is played over a period of two weeks. The Australian and United States tournaments are played on hard courts, the French on clay, and Wimbledon on grass. Wimbledon is the oldest, founded in 1877, followed by the US in 1881, the French in 1891, and the Australian in 1905. However, of these four, only Wimbledon was a major before 1924 -- 25, when all four became designated Grand Slam tournaments. Skipping Grand Slam tournaments -- especially the Australian Open because of the remoteness, the inconvenient dates (around Christmas and New Year 's Day) and the low prize money -- was not unusual before 1982, which was the start of the norm of counting Grand Slam titles.
Grand Slam tournaments are not operated by the Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) or the Women 's Tennis Association (WTA), which were formally founded in 1972 and 1973 respectively, though the ATP and WTA do award ranking points based on a player 's performance at a major.
The term Grand Slam, without qualification, and also originally, refers to the achievement of winning all four major championships within a single calendar year within one of the five events: men 's and women 's singles; men 's, women 's, and mixed doubles. In doubles, one team may accomplish a Grand Slam playing together or one player may achieve it with different partners.
Winning the four majors in consecutive tournaments but not in the same year is known as a Non-Calendar Year Grand Slam, while winning all four majors at any point during the course of a career is known as a Career Grand Slam. Winning the gold medal at the Summer Olympic Games in addition to the four majors in one calendar year is known as a "Golden Grand Slam '' or more commonly the "Golden Slam ''. Also, winning the Year - End Championship (known as ATP Finals for men 's singles and doubles disciplines, and WTA Finals for both women 's disciplines) in the same period is known as a "Super Slam ''. Together, all four Majors in all three disciplines (singles, doubles, and mixed doubles) are called a "boxed set '' of Grand Slam titles. No male or female player has won all twelve events in one calendar year, although a "career boxed set '' has been achieved by three female players.
The term slam for winning all of the tricks in the whist family card games (see also whist terms) is attested from early in the 17th century. Grand slam for all of the tricks, in contrast to small slam or little slam for all but one, dates from early in the 19th century. This use was inherited by contract bridge, a modern development of whist defined in 1925 that became very popular in Britain and America by 1930.
Grand slam has been used in golf since 1930, when Bobby Jones won the four major championships, two British and two American tournaments. Although John F. Kieran of The New York Times is widely credited with first applying the term "grand slam '' to tennis to describe the winning of all four major tennis tournaments in a calendar year, sports columnist Alan Gould had used the term in that connection almost two months before Kieran.
The possibility of being the reigning champion of all the current four Majors did not exist until 1924 -- 25, when the International Lawn Tennis Federation designated the Australasian, French (before 1925 only open to members of French tennis clubs), British and American championship tournaments as the four Majors. Before that time only three events: Wimbledon, the World Hard Court Championships (held in Paris & once in Brussels) and the World Covered Court Championships (held in various locations) were considered the premier international tennis events by the ILTF. Tony Wilding of New Zealand won all three of those earlier majors in one year: 1913. It has been possible to complete a Grand Slam in most years and most disciplines since 1925. It was not possible from 1940 to 1945 because of interruptions at Wimbledon, the Australian and French opens due to the Second World War, the years from 1970 to 1985 when there was no Australian tournament in mixed doubles, and 1986 when there was no Australian Open at all.
Phil Dent has pointed out that skipping Grand Slam tournaments -- especially the Australian Open -- was not unusual then, before counting major titles became the norm. Thus, many players had never played the Austral (as) ian amateur or open championships: the Doherty brothers, William Larned, Maurice McLoughlin, Beals Wright, Bill Johnston, Bill Tilden, René Lacoste, Henri Cochet, Bobby Riggs, Jack Kramer, Ted Schroeder, Pancho Gonzales, Budge Patty, Manuel Santana, Jan Kodeš and others, while Brookes, Ellsworth Vines, Jaroslav Drobný, Manuel Orantes, Ilie Năstase (at 35 years old) and Björn Borg came just once. Beginning in 1969, when the first Australian Open was held on the Milton Courts at Brisbane, the tournament was open to all players, including professionals, who at that point were prohibited from playing the traditional circuit. Nevertheless, except for the 1969 and 1971 tournaments, many of the best players missed this championship until 1982, because of the remoteness, the inconvenient dates (around Christmas and New Year 's Day) and the low prize money. In 1970, George MacCall 's National Tennis League, which employed Rod Laver, Ken Rosewall, Andrés Gimeno, Pancho Gonzales, Roy Emerson and Fred Stolle, prevented its players from entering the tournament because the guarantees were insufficient. The tournament was won by Arthur Ashe.
In terms of the current four majors, the first to win all four in a single year was Don Budge, who completed the feat in 1938. To date, 17 players have completed a Grand Slam, though only six in the most prestigious singles titles. Of these players, three have won multiple Grand Slams: Rod Laver accomplished the feat twice in men 's singles; Margaret Court accomplished the feat three times, in two different disciplines -- once in women 's singles and twice in mixed doubles; and Esther Vergeer completed a grand slam twice in Women 's wheelchair doubles.
The four Junior disciplines, boys ' and girls ' singles and doubles, provide limited opportunities to achieve a Grand Slam. Players are only eligible from age 13 to 18, with 18 - year - olds likely to hold a physical advantage. Only Stefan Edberg has completed the Grand Slam in a Junior discipline.
In 1982, the International Tennis Federation (ITF) began offering a $1 million bonus to any singles player to win four consecutive major titles, no matter the time of completion. Although groups variously identified as the Men 's International Professional Tennis Council, "abetted primarily by some British tennis writers '', and "European tennis journalists '' had advocated for the ITF to change the definition of "Grand Slam '', ITF General Secretary David Gray made it clear that this was not going to happen. In a 1983 letter to tennis journalist Paul Fein, Gray clarified:
There seems to be some confusion. The ITF 's only initiative in this matter has been the organisation of the offer of a bonus of $1 m. to any player who holds all four Grand Slam titles simultaneously (...) In spite of all that we have read on this matter, it has never been my Committee of Management 's intention to alter the basis of the classic Grand Slam i.e., the capture of all four titles in a year.
The ITF 's plan was to offer the cash bonus for three years, apparently to encourage players to compete in all four major tournaments as much as to reward success at them.
Even before the ITF had announced their bonus, the Grand Slam controversy had taken on a life of its own. Writing in 1982, Neil Amdur claimed, "Now the sport spins nervously under the influence of big dollars and even bigger egos, and tradition has almost gone the way of white balls and long flannels (...) If the four major tournaments want to offer a $1 million incentive for any player in the future who can sweep their titles -- and such talks have been rumored -- that bonus would be a welcome addition. But changing what the Grand Slam is all about is like a baseball player believing that he ' hit for the cycle ' after slugging a single, double and triple in the first game of a doubleheader and a home run in his first time at bat in the second game. '' Despite seeming clarity from the ITF, some journalists suggested that the sport 's organizing body had turned its back on history and changed the "rules '' of tennis by redefining a Grand Slam. Such confusion continued for years. For instance, when Steffi Graf completed the Grand Slam in 1988, George Vecsey wrote, "Even the International Tennis Federation, which should have more respect for history, ruled in 1982 that winning any four straight majors constituted a Grand Slam -- and offered a $1 million bonus for it (...) But many tennis people, and most writers, and probably most fans, too, did not accept the new rules, and the I.T.F. has dropped the gimmick. '' Vecsey was only half right: the ITF dropped the "gimmick '' of the cash bonus, but it had never changed any rules.
However, the ambiguous way the ITF described the Grand Slam in their Constitution led to journalists continuing to make the same assumption as Vecsey over two decades later. For instance, when Rafael Nadal was on the verge of completing a non-calendar year Grand Slam at the 2011 Australian Open, one writer observed, "Most traditionalists insist that the ' Grand Slam ' should refer only to winning all four titles in a calendar year, although the constitution of the International Tennis Federation, the sports governing body, spells out that ' players who hold all four of these titles at the same time achieve the Grand Slam '. '' This was true until later in 2011, when the ITF edited the description to eliminate all confusion. As it now stands, "The Grand Slam titles are the championships of Australia, France, the United States of America and Wimbledon. Players who hold all four of these titles in one calendar year achieve the ' Grand Slam '. ''
When Martina Navratilova won the 1984 French Open and became the reigning champion of all four women 's singles events, she was the first player to receive the bonus prize in recognition of her achievement. Some media outlets did, indeed, say that she had won a Grand Slam. Others simply noted the ongoing controversy: "Whether the Slam was Grand or Bland or a commercial sham tainted with an asterisk the size of a tennis ball, Martina Navratilova finally did it. '' Although the ITF recognizes what is now unofficially known as the "non-calendar year Grand Slam '' on its Roll of Honour, no subsequent player to win four or more majors in a row -- Steffi Graf, Serena Williams, or Novak Djokovic -- has received bonus prize money.
Combining the Grand Slam and non-calendar year Grand Slam, the total number of times that players achieved the feat (of being the reigning champion in all four majors) expands to 18.
Three women have won four or more consecutive major titles since 1970, with Navratilova taking six in a row in 1983 -- 1984. On the men 's side, Novak Djokovic was the first singles player since Rod Laver to hold all four major titles at once, which he accomplished between Wimbledon 2015 and the 2016 French Open. Prior to the Open Era, Don Budge received the same accolades in winning the French Championships in 1938, but then completed the more prestigious Grand Slam at the 1938 US Championships, giving him six majors in a row, the only male to ever win more than four consecutive major tournaments.
The Bryan brothers (Bob and Mike) were the last to achieve a non-calendar year Grand Slam in men 's doubles. Several players and teams came up one title short. Todd Woodbridge and Mark Woodforde, known collectively as The Woodies, reached the final of the 1997 French Open while holding all the other three titles, but lost to Yevgeny Kafelnikov and Daniel Vacek. In singles, Pete Sampras lost the 1994 French Open quarterfinal to fellow countryman Jim Courier, having won the previous three majors. Roger Federer in 2006 and 2007 and Novak Djokovic in 2012 repeated this, both ultimately losing the French Open final to Rafael Nadal. Nadal himself was prevented from achieving this feat by his countryman David Ferrer, who defeated him in the quarterfinal of the 2011 Australian Open, which Nadal entered holding the other three major titles. In women 's singles, Monica Seles lost the 1992 Wimbledon final to Steffi Graf, having won the previous three majors. Martina Hingis in the 1998 French Open semifinal, losing to Seles. In women 's doubles, Virginia Ruano Pascual and Paola Suárez had won three Majors from US Open 2003 to the 2004 French Open, lost at the semifinals to Cara Black and Rennae Stubbs in the 2004 Wimbledon, and Sania Mirza in Wimbledon 2015 to the 2016 Australian Open together with Hingis, but lost in the third round of the 2016 French Open to Barbora Krejčíková and Kateřina Siniaková. In 2017, Bethanie Mattek - Sands and Lucie Šafářová had the chance to win four consecutive titles at Wimbledon, but withdrew from their scheduled second round match following an acute knee injury suffered by Mattek - Sands in the second round of the Ladies ' Singles competition.
This list is for those players who achieved a non-calendar Grand Slam, but who failed to win the Grand Slam during the same streak.
The career achievement of all four major championships in one format is termed a Career Grand Slam in that format. Dozens of players have accomplished that (column two) and 17 have doubled it: won a second championship in each of the four majors in one format (column three). Two or more career championships in all four majors is sometimes called a "Multiple Slam Set ''. Three players have Multiple Slam Sets in two formats, one in three formats, so 22 players are counted in the table (column three). Their achievements are tabulated below.
Eight men and ten women have won Career Grand Slams in singles play (rows one and two); among them two men and five women have at least two Career Grand Slams in singles (column three). Since the beginning of the open era, five men (Rod Laver, Andre Agassi, Roger Federer, Rafael Nadal, Novak Djokovic) and six women (Margaret Court, Chris Evert, Martina Navratilova, Steffi Graf, Serena Williams and Maria Sharapova) have achieved this.
Several singles players have won three major championships without achieving the Career Grand Slam, grouped by the missing Grand Slam tournament:
Several doubles players have won three major championships without achieving the Career Grand Slam:
Only six players have completed a Career Grand Slam in both singles and doubles: one male (Roy Emerson) and five female (Margaret Court, Doris Hart, Shirley Fry Irvin, Martina Navratilova, and Serena Williams). Court, Hart and Navratilova are the only three players to have completed a "Career Boxed Set '', winning all four titles in singles, doubles, and mixed doubles; this has never been done by a male player.
The remainder of this section is a complete list, by format, of all players who have won the Career Grand Slam. Players are ordered chronologically by their completion of the Slam.
Eight men have won all four grand slam tournaments. Two of the eight men achieved a double career Slam. Originally, the grand slams were held on grass (Australian, Wimbledon, and US Open) and clay (French) and the first four players achieved their grand slams on two surfaces. The US Open changed its surface from grass to clay in 1975 and then to hard court in 1978. The Australian Open changed from grass to hard court in 1988. The last four players (Agassi, Federer, Nadal, Djokovic) achieved their grand slam on three different surfaces: hard court, clay, and grass.
Each woman 's "first wins '' in the four Majors are listed chronologically and their ages upon completion of the Slam are given in brackets. Five of the ten women achieved at least two career Slams, two of the ten have achieved three careers slams and Steffi Graf is the only player to achieve four career Slams.
At Men 's Doubles, 21 players have won the career Slam, including fourteen who achieved the Slam with a unique partner. The latter are listed first, as seven teams, ignoring any major wins with other partners. Five of the 21 men achieved at least a double career Slam at Men 's Doubles, led by Roy Emerson and John Newcombe with triple Slams.
At Women 's Doubles, 21 players have won the career Slam, including ten who achieved the Slam with a unique partner. Nine of the 21 achieved at least a double career Slam at Women 's Doubles, led by Martina Navratilova with seven or more titles in each Major.
At Mixed Doubles, a total of 17 players have won the career Slam, including seven who won all four events with the same partner -- an odd number because Margaret Court accomplished a career Grand Slam separately with Ken Fletcher and Marty Riessen. The two other teams which won all four events are Doris Hart with Frank Sedgman, and Martina Hingis with Leander Paes. Four of the 17 players have accomplished multiple career Grand Slams in mixed doubles, led by Margaret Court 's quadruple Slam.
Team:
Player:
Team and Player:
Team:
Player:
Player:
Team:
Player:
Helen Wills Moody won all 16 of the Grand Slam singles tournaments she played beginning with the 1924 U.S. Championships and extending to the 1933 Wimbledon Championships (not counting her defaults in the 1926 French and Wimbledon Championships). During this period, she won 6 Wimbledons, 4 French Championships, and 6 U.S. Championships. She also won the 1924 Summer Olympics during this period. Moody never entered the Australian Championships.
Doris Hart won all 13 of the Grand Slam mixed doubles tournaments she played beginning with the 1951 French Championships and extending to the 1955 U.S. Championships. During this period, she won 5 Wimbledons, 3 French Championships, and 5 U.S. Championships.
Tennis was an Olympic sport from the inaugural 1896 Summer Olympics through the 1924 Games, then was dropped for the next 64 years (except as a demonstration sport in 1968 and 1984) before returning in 1988. As there were only three Major championships designated by the International Lawn Tennis Federation before 1925, none of the tennis players who participated in the Olympics between 1896 and 1924 had a chance to complete a Golden Grand Slam. However, there was a possibility to complete a Career Golden Grand Slam by winning the 1920 Olympics or 1924 Olympics plus each of the four grand slams, all of which were present from 1925 onwards. The term Golden Slam (initially "Golden Grand Slam '') was coined in 1988.
Only one player has completed the Golden Slam:
Winning four consecutive Grand Slam tournaments and Olympic event in the period of twelve months, although not in the same year, is called a "Non-calendar year Golden Slam ''. Only Bob and Mike Bryan have achieved this by winning the 2012 Olympics, 2012 US Open, 2013 Australian Open, 2013 French Open and 2013 Wimbledon Championships. After they won the final at Wimbledon, this was coined the "Golden Bryan Slam ''.
A player who wins all four Grand Slam tournaments and the Olympic gold medal during his or her career is said to have achieved a Career Golden Slam.
Soon after the Open Era began in 1968, the new professional tours each held a year - end championship (YEC), which are elite tournaments involving only the top performers of the given season. The subsequent return of tennis to the Olympics in 1988 gave rise to the notion of a Super Slam as a combination of Golden Slam and YEC title. Eligible YECs are currently called the ATP Finals for men, WTA Finals for women, and the Wheelchair Tennis Masters.
No player has ever completed the Super Slam in a single season.
Only one player has completed the Super Slam in a period of twelve months:
Players who have won three of the four Grand Slam tournaments in the same year. Jack Crawford, Lew Hoad, Martina Navratilova and Serena Williams won the first three events, but lost the last grand slam tournament. Crawford, an asthmatic, won two of the first three sets of the 1933 U.S. Championships final against Fred Perry, then tired in the heat and lost the last two sets and the match.
Note: From 1977 to 1985, the Australian Open was held in December as the last Major of the calendar year.
Players who have played all the four Grand Slam tournaments in the same year.
Winning singles, doubles and mixed doubles titles at one Grand Slam event is called a Triple Crown. It has become a rare accomplishment in tennis. This is partly because the final match in all three disciplines often takes place concurrently in the same day if not in consecutive days. Doris Hart for example attained her first Triple Crown after playing three Wimbledon final matches held in one single day.
Notes:
Another Grand Slam - related accomplishment is winning a "boxed set '' of Grand Slam titles -- which is at least one of every possible type of Major championship available to a player: the singles, doubles, and mixed doubles at all four Grand Slam events of the year. This has never been accomplished within a year or consecutively across two calendar years.
The Career Boxed Set refers to winning one of every possible grand slam title (singles, doubles, mixed) over the course of an entire career. No male player has completed this, although Frank Sedgman only missed out on the French Open singles title. Men who participate in top / elite level singles have played comparatively few doubles, and very few mixed doubles. So far, only three women have completed the boxed set during their careers:
Court is not only unique in having two boxed sets, but is also unique in the timing of her accomplishments. Her first boxed set was completed before the start of the open era, and she has a boxed set achieved solely within the open era.
Martina Hingis was the most recent player to be one title away from joining this elite group. She only needed the French Open singles, having reached the final in 1997 and 1999. Prior to Hingis, it was Billie Jean King who came close at completing a career boxed set. She only needed the Australian Open women 's doubles title, having reached the final in 1965 and 1969.
Of the many players who have managed to win a full set of four majors, there is a small number who have gone on to win all four majors a second or more times. The completion of "Multiple Career Grand Slams '' or sometimes called "multiple slam sets '' (MSS) has been achieved by only 22 unique players up to the end of the 2015 Wimbledon. MSS players can be found in each of the five tennis disciplines: men 's or women 's singles, men 's or women 's doubles, mixed doubles. It can also be found in women 's wheelchair doubles. Of these, five players have completed MSS in more than one discipline: Roy Emerson, Martina Navratilova, Frank Sedgman and Serena Williams have MSS in two disciplines, Margaret Court has MSS in three disciplines.
This table shows each multiple occurrence of a complete MSS for each of the players who have accomplished multiple slams in a particular tennis discipline. The year shown for each of the four majors is the year that particular major win was repeated as part of that player 's achievement of their second (all 22 players) and third (8 players) and fourth (4 players) and fifth through seventh (Martina Navratilova, in women 's doubles) complete slam set of Major wins.
For example, the fourth row shows that Margaret Court completed her third career slam set in Women 's Singles -- winning each of the four majors three times -- during the 1970 Wimbledon Championships (bold). More specific, she won: Australian open 11 times, the third in 1962; French Open five times, the third in 1969; Wimbledon three times (determines the maximum of sets), the third in 1970 and finally US Open five times, the third in 1969. Grey background shades lesser achievements by the same player in the same discipline (e.g., Court in the eighth row); yellow highlights the greatest achievement in the discipline (e.g., Graf in the third row).
By discipline (numbers of players and table entries)
Before the Open Era began in 1968, only amateur players were allowed to compete in the four majors. Many male top players "went pro '' in order to win prize money legally, competing on a professional world tour comprising completely different events. From 1927 through 1967, the three oldest pro events were considered "majors '' of the pro tour: the U.S. Pro Tennis Championships, French Pro Championship and Wembley Championships. A player who won all three in a calendar year was considered to achieve a "Professional Grand Slam '', or "Pro Slam ''. The feat was accomplished twice:
Three other players won those three major trophies during their pro careers: Ellsworth Vines, Hans Nüsslein and Don Budge. The pro slams did not have a women 's draw.
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michael jackson dance shout shake your body down to the ground | Shake Your Body (Down to the Ground) - wikipedia
"Shake Your Body (Down to the Ground) '' is a song recorded by The Jacksons for their 1978 album Destiny, and released as a single in 1979. It peaked at no. 7 in the Billboard Hot 100 in May 1979.
The most successful of the Jacksons ' recordings for Epic, "Shake Your Body '' (originally demoed as "Shake a Body '') was produced by the Jackson brothers, written by Randy and Michael, and featured Michael on lead vocals. The chorus "let 's dance / let 's shout (shout) / shake your body down to the ground '' was inspired by an ad - lib from Marvin Gaye 's "Got to Give It Up '': "Let 's dance / let 's shout (shout) / gettin ' funky 's what it 's all about '' and the rhythmic pattern from Teddy Pendergrass 's "Get Up, Get Down, Get Funky, Get Loose '' (from his album Life Is a Song Worth Singing, released a couple of months previously).
Released to radio in a single edit of three minutes and forty - five seconds (and played in its full eight - minute album version by clubs), the single reached no. 3 in Cash Box magazine and peaked at no. 7 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. It also peaked at no. 3 on the Billboard Hot Soul Singles chart. The ensuing 12 '' Disco Single Remix featured a more focused drum and rhythm track, as well as the new synthesizer - voiced three octave climbing glissando that was not heard on the album version. "Shake Your Body '' sold over two million copies, attaining double - platinum status from the Recording Industry Association of America.
The B - side on the 7 '' was "That 's What You Get (For Being Polite) ''.
The first performance of "Shake Your Body (Down to the Ground) '' was on the second leg of The Jacksons ' Destiny Tour in 1979. Later, it was performed on the Triumph Tour in 1981. In 1984 it was performed on the Victory Tour. In 1987, it was performed on the first leg of Jackson 's Bad Tour. It was also performed during the Michael Jackson 30th Anniversary concerts at the Madison Square Garden in New York City in September 2001; it would be the last song performed live by the Jacksons before the death of Michael Jackson in 2009. The song was going to be performed as an instrumental interlude (merged with Do n't Stop ' Til You Get Enough) during Jackson 's 2009 - 2010 This Is It concert series at London 's O2 Arena, which was cancelled due to his sudden death. The song was remixed and released on the deluxe edition of the Michael Jackson 's Immortal album.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
The song was sampled by reggae fusion artist Shaggy for his 2000 single "Dance & Shout ''. It was also sampled by rapper Rob Base and DJ E-Z Rock on their song "Get on the Dance Floor ''.
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who is the general manager of the new york yankees | Brian Cashman - wikipedia
Brian McGuire Cashman (born July 3, 1967) is an American baseball executive for the New York Yankees of Major League Baseball. He has served as the General Manager and Senior Vice President of the Yankees since 1998. During Cashman 's tenure as general manager, the Yankees have won six American League pennants and four World Series championships.
Cashman began working with the Yankees organization in 1986 as an intern while still in college. He was named assistant general manager in 1992, helping to run the team while owner George Steinbrenner was suspended from baseball. He succeeded Bob Watson as the team 's general manager in 1998.
Cashman was born in Rockville Centre, New York, and raised in Washingtonville, New York. He was raised in an Irish Catholic family, as the middle of five children born to Nancy and John Cashman. He became a baseball fan at a young age, attending a summer camp hosted by Bucky Dent before starting high school. He grew up as a fan of the Los Angeles Dodgers. While visiting his grandmother in Florida, he served as a batboy for the Dodgers during spring training in 1982, with the help of former Dodger Ralph Branca, a family friend.
The Cashman family moved to Lexington, Kentucky, where his father managed Castleton Farm, raising standardbreds for harness racing. Cashman described moving out of Washingtonville before starting high school as "the best thing to happen to (him), to get out of there. ''
Cashman attended Lexington Catholic High School before moving to the Washington, D.C., metropolitan area. He attended Georgetown Preparatory School in North Bethesda, Maryland, graduating in 1985. Cashman played baseball and junior varsity basketball at both schools, and added football in his senior year. Brian was classmates with Supreme Court Justice Neil Gorsuch
The Catholic University of America offered Cashman the opportunity to play college baseball for the Catholic Cardinals, competing in the National Collegiate Athletic Association 's Division III, guaranteeing him playing time as a freshman. He was a four - year starter at second base and the team 's leadoff hitter. He set a school record for most hits in a season, which has since been broken. He earned a bachelor 's degree with a major in history in 1989.
George Steinbrenner, the owner of the New York Yankees, met John Cashman when he managed Pompano Park in Pompano Beach, Florida, and the two became friends. Through another family friend, John helped Brian obtain a position with the Yankees organization as an intern in 1986. He worked in the minor league scouting department in the day, and worked security at night. After Cashman graduated from Catholic, the Yankees offered him a position as a baseball operations assistant, which he accepted.
Steinbrenner was banned from baseball in July 1990 for hiring a gambler to investigate Dave Winfield. Gene Michael, then the Yankees ' General Manager, took over daily operations of the Yankees, and Cashman played a role in assisting him. He was promoted to assistant farm director that year, and to major league administrator in 1991. Michael named Cashman an Assistant General Manager in 1992. He remained in the role after Bob Watson succeeded Michael as general manager in 1995. The Yankees won the 1996 World Series.
In February 1998, Watson resigned from the Yankees, and Cashman was named Senior Vice-President and General Manager. He agreed to a one - year contract for $300,000, and became the second - youngest general manager in MLB history. The Yankees won 114 games during the 1998 season, and won the 1998 World Series. In 1999, Cashman traded fan favorite David Wells to the Toronto Blue Jays to acquire Roger Clemens. The next year, he acquired David Justice, who won the American League Championship Series (ALCS) Most Valuable Player Award for his play in the 2000 ALCS. The Yankees won the 2000 World Series, making Cashman the first General Manager to win World Series titles in his first three years. In 2004, Cashman arranged the trade of Alfonso Soriano for Alex Rodriguez.
Despite the team 's success, Cashman considered leaving the Yankees in 2005 due to conflicts with Steinbrenner and organizational disputes between team officials in New York City and Tampa, Florida. The Washington Nationals were rumored to be interested in hiring Cashman, which would have brought him back to the city where he attended school. Instead, Cashman agreed to a new contract with the Yankees following the conclusion of the 2005 season which gave him more authority in personnel decisions and paid him an average of $1.3 million more over the following three years.
With the increased authority, Cashman created a department of professional scouting, and tabbed Billy Eppler as its director. Later, Eppler would move on to become the General Manager of the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim. On September 30, 2008, Cashman signed a three - year contract to stay with the Yankees through the 2011 season. Following the 2008 season, when the Yankees failed to make the playoffs, Cashman signed CC Sabathia, A.J. Burnett, and Mark Teixeira to long - term free agent contracts and traded for Nick Swisher. These four players played a significant role in the 2009 Yankees season, culminating with a victory in the 2009 World Series.
The Yankees went on to make the playoffs again following the 2010 season, but lost to the Texas Rangers in the 2010 American League Championship Series. Following the 2010 season, Cashman held a hard line with Derek Jeter during contract negotiations, reportedly telling Jeter that he would prefer to have Troy Tulowitzki as the Yankees ' starting shortstop, though a deal was eventually made for three years and $45 million.
Yankees ownership agreed to sign Rafael Soriano in January 2011 without Cashman 's approval. Cashman stated at Soriano 's introductory press conference that he disagreed with the deal. The Yankees re-signed Cashman to a three - year contract in November 2011.
During 2013, Alex Rodriguez composed a tweet, saying that he had been cleared to play by his doctors after his hip surgery. Cashman was not pleased about the tweet, claiming that the doctors did not give such authority to clear Rodriguez to play after seeking a second opinion with them, causing his faith and relationship with Rodriguez to be alienated. Cashman also wanted to trade Robinson Canó during the 2013 season, reasoning that they would be unable to re-sign him in the next offseason. Ownership prevented Cashman from exploring a trade.
After the 2013 season, the Yankees signed Masahiro Tanaka, Jacoby Ellsbury, Brian McCann, and Carlos Beltrán to contracts that totaled $438 million. However, the Yankees missed the playoffs for the second consecutive year. On October 10, 2014, the Yankees signed Cashman to another three - year deal through the 2017 season. That offseason, Cashman prioritized restructuring the Yankees roster with younger players. He replaced the retired Jeter with Didi Gregorius and also acquired Nathan Eovaldi, both of whom improved during the season. In the 2016 season, he traded Carlos Beltrán to the Texas Rangers, Andrew Miller to the Cleveland Indians, and Aroldis Chapman to the eventual World Series Champion Chicago Cubs to bolster the Yankees farm system.
In 2017, the Yankees made the postseason with rookie outfielder Aaron Judge and second - year catcher Gary Sanchez. The Yankees defeated the Minnesota Twins in the 2017 American League Wild Card Game, and then went on to defeat the Cleveland Indians in the 2017 American League Division Series. Making their first appearance in the American League Championship Series since 2012, the Yankees lost to the Houston Astros in seven games, far outpacing the expectations of many analysts. Following the season, Cashman recommended to owner Hal Steinbrenner that a managerial change was needed. Baseball America named Cashman their Executive of the Year after the season.
On December 9, Cashman traded second baseman Starlin Castro and two prospects for Marlins outfielder Giancarlo Stanton.
On December 11, 2017, Cashman signed a 5 - year, $25 million contract with the Yankees to keep him as General Manager through 2022. If Cashman completes his new deal, he will become the longest tenured General Manager in Yankees history.
Cashman was named to Crain 's New York Business 40 under 40 list for 1999. The Boston chapter of the Baseball Writers ' Association of America selected Cashman as their MLB Executive of the Year for 2009. In 2010, Cashman was inducted into the Irish American Baseball Hall of Fame.
Cashman was selected as Baseball Executive of the Year in 2017.
Cashman was also involved in the developing of the video game MLB Front Office Manager.
Cashman lives in Darien, Connecticut. He and his wife, Mary, had two children, Grace and Theodore. Mary filed for divorce in February 2012; they had been reportedly separated for a year. The day prior, prosecutors charged a woman with stalking Cashman in an attempt to extort money regarding an extramarital affair. Cashman is a Kentucky Wildcats and New Jersey Devils fan.
Cashman has referred to himself as an "adrenaline junkie ''. In December 2010, Cashman rappelled from a 350 - foot (110 m) building in Stamford, Connecticut, as part of an annual Stamford Christmas celebration. He jumped from an airplane with members of the United States Army Parachute Team to raise awareness for the Wounded Warrior Project, and broke his right fibula and dislocated his right ankle in the process. In November 2014, Cashman slept on a New York City sidewalk to raise awareness on behalf of homeless youth.
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where does the alaska highway start and end | Alaska highway - wikipedia
The Alaska Highway (also known as the Alaskan Highway, Alaska - Canadian Highway, or ALCAN Highway) was constructed during World War II for the purpose of connecting the contiguous United States to Alaska across Canada. It begins at the junction with several Canadian highways in Dawson Creek, British Columbia, and runs to Delta Junction, Alaska, via Whitehorse, Yukon. Completed in 1942 at a length of approximately 1,700 miles (2,700 km), as of 2012 it is 1,387 mi (2,232 km) long. The difference in distance is due to constant reconstruction of the highway, which has rerouted and straightened out numerous sections. The highway was opened to the public in 1948. Legendary over many decades for being a rough, challenging drive, the highway is now paved over its entire length.
An informal system of historic mileposts developed over the years to denote major stopping points; Delta Junction, at the end of the highway, makes reference to its location at "Historic Milepost 1422. '' It is at this point that the Alaska Highway meets the Richardson Highway, which continues 96 mi (155 km) to the city of Fairbanks. This is often regarded, though unofficially, as the northern portion of the Alaska Highway, with Fairbanks at Historic Milepost 1520. Mileposts on this stretch of highway are measured from Valdez, rather than the Alaska Highway. The Alaska Highway is popularly (but unofficially) considered part of the Pan-American Highway, which extends south (despite its discontinuity in Panama) to Argentina.
Proposals for a highway to Alaska originated in the 1920s. Thomas MacDonald, director of the U.S. Bureau of Public Roads, dreamed of an international highway spanning the United States and Canada. In order to promote the highway, Slim Williams originally traveled the proposed route by dogsled. Since much of the route would pass through Canada, support from the Canadian government was crucial. However, the Canadian government perceived no value in putting up the required funds to build the road, since the only part of Canada that would benefit was not more than a few thousand people in Yukon.
However, some route consideration was given. The preferred route would pass through the Rocky Mountain Trench from Prince George, British Columbia to Dawson City before turning west to Fairbanks, Alaska.
In 1929 the British Columbia government proposed a highway to Alaska to encourage economic development and tourism. American President Herbert Hoover appointed a board with American and three Canadian members to evaluate the idea. Its 1931 report supported the idea for economic reasons, but both American and Canadian members recognized that a highway would benefit the American military in Alaska; the Great Depression and the Canadian government 's lack of support caused the project to not proceed. When the United States approached Canada again in February 1936, the Canadian government refused to commit to spending money on a road connecting the United States. The Canadians also worried about the military implications, fearing that in a war between Japan and North America, the United States would use the road to prevent Canadian neutrality. During a June 1936 visit to Canada, President Franklin D. Roosevelt told Prime Minister W.L.M. King that a highway to Alaska through Canada could be important in quickly reinforcing the American territory during a foreign crisis. Roosevelt became the first American to publicly discuss the military benefits of a highway in an August speech in Chautauqua, New York. He again mentioned the idea during King 's visit to Washington in March 1937, suggesting that a $30 million highway would be helpful as part of a larger defense against Japan that included, the Americans hoped, a larger Canadian military presence on the Pacific coast. Roosevelt remained a supporter of the highway, telling Cordell Hull in August 1937 that he wanted a road built as soon as possible.
The attack on Pearl Harbor and beginning of the Pacific Theater in World War II, coupled with Japanese threats to the west coast of North America and the Aleutian Islands, changed the priorities for both nations. On February 6, 1942 the construction of the Alaska Highway was approved by the United States Army and the project received the authorization from the U.S. Congress and Roosevelt to proceed five days later. Canada agreed to allow construction as long as the United States bore the full cost, and that the road and other facilities in Canada be turned over to Canadian authority after the war ended.
The official start of construction took place on March 8, 1942 after hundreds of pieces of construction equipment were moved on priority trains by the Northern Alberta Railways to the northeastern part of British Columbia near Mile 0 at Dawson Creek. Construction accelerated through the spring as the winter weather faded away and crews were able to work from both the northern and southern ends; they were spurred on after reports of the Japanese invasion of Kiska Island and Attu Island in the Aleutians. During construction the road was nicknamed the "oil can highway '' by the work crews due to the large number of discarded oil cans and fuel drums that marked the road 's progress. On September 24, 1942 crews from both directions met at Mile 588 at what became named Contact Creek, at the British Columbia - Yukon border at the 60th parallel; the entire route was completed October 28, 1942 with the northern linkup at Mile 1202, Beaver Creek, and the highway was dedicated on November 20, 1942 at Soldier 's Summit.
The needs of war dictated the final route, intended to link the airfields of the Northwest Staging Route that conveyed lend - lease aircraft from the United States to the Soviet Union. Thus the long, impractical route over difficult terrain was chosen.
The road was originally built mostly by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers as a supply route during World War II. In 1942, the Army Corps of Engineers assigned more than 10,000 men, about a third were black soldiers, members of three newly formed "Negro regiments ''. There were four main thrusts in building the route: southeast from Delta Junction, Alaska toward a linkup at Beaver Creek, Yukon; north then west from Dawson Creek (an advance group started from Fort Nelson, British Columbia after traveling on winter roads on frozen marshland from railway stations on the Northern Alberta Railways); both east and west from Whitehorse after being ferried in via the White Pass and Yukon Route railway. The Army commandeered equipment of all kinds, including local riverboats, railway locomotives, and housing originally meant for use in southern California.
Although it was completed on October 28, 1942 and its completion was celebrated at Soldier 's Summit on November 21 (and broadcast by radio, the exact outdoor temperature censored due to wartime concerns), the "highway '' was not usable by general vehicles until 1943. Even then there were many steep grades, a poor surface, switchbacks to gain and descend hills, and few guardrails. Bridges, which progressed during 1942 from pontoon bridges to temporary log bridges, were replaced with steel bridges where necessary. A replica log bridge, the Canyon Creek bridge, can be seen at the Aishihik River crossing; the bridge was rebuilt in 1987 and refurbished in 2005 by the Yukon government as it is a popular tourist attraction. The easing of the Japanese invasion threat resulted in no more contracts being given to private contractors for upgrading of specific sections.
Some 100 miles (160 km) of route between Burwash Landing and Koidern, Yukon, became nearly impassable in May and June 1943, as the permafrost thawed, no longer protected by a layer of delicate vegetation. A corduroy road was built to restore the route, and corduroy still underlays old sections of highway in the area. Modern construction methods do not allow the permafrost to thaw, either by building a gravel berm on top or replacing the vegetation and soil immediately with gravel. The Burwash - Koidern section, however, is still a problem as the new highway built there in the late 1990s continues to experience frost heave.
Pincers on Japan and Look to the North both 1944 productions were National Film Board of Canada documentaries that depicted the construction of the Alaska Highway.
The original agreement between Canada and the United States regarding construction of the highway stipulated that its Canadian portion be turned over to Canada six months after the end of the war. This took place on April 1, 1946 when the U.S. Army transferred control of the road through Yukon and British Columbia to the Canadian Army, Northwest Highway System. The Alaskan section was completely paved during the 1960s; largely gravel even in 1981, the Canadian portion of the Alaska Highway is now completely paved, mostly with bituminous surface treatment.
The Milepost, an extensive guide book to the Alaska Highway and other highways in Alaska and Northwest Canada, was first published in 1949 and continues to be published annually as the foremost guide to traveling the highway.
The British Columbia government owns the first 82.6 miles (132.9 km) of the highway, the only portion paved during the late 1960s and 1970s. Public Works Canada manages the highway from Mile 82.6 (km 133) to Historic Mile 630. The Yukon government owns the highway from Historic Mile 630 to Historic Mile 1016 (from near Watson Lake to Haines Junction), and manages the remainder to the U.S. border at Historic Mile 1221. The State of Alaska owns the highway within that state (Mile 1221 to Mile 1422).
The Alaska Highway was built for military purposes and its route was not ideal for postwar development of northern Canada. Rerouting in Canada has shortened the highway by approximately 35 miles (56 km) since 1947, mostly by eliminating winding sections and sometimes by bypassing residential areas. The historic milepost markings are therefore no longer accurate but are still important as local location references. Some old sections of the highway are still in use as local roads, while others are left to deteriorate and still others are plowed up. Four sections form local residential streets in Whitehorse and Fort Nelson, and others form country residential roadways outside of Whitehorse. Although Champagne, Yukon was bypassed in 2002, the old highway is still completely in service for that community until a new direct access road is built.
Rerouting continues, expected to continue in the Yukon through 2009, with the Haines Junction - Beaver Creek section covered by the Canada - U.S. Shakwak Agreement. The new Donjek River bridge was opened 26 September 2007, replacing a 1952 bridge. Under Shakwak, U.S. federal highway money is spent for work done by Canadian contractors who win tenders issued by the Yukon government. The Shakwak Project completed the Haines Highway upgrades in the 1980s between Haines Junction and the Alaska Panhandle, then funding was stalled by Congress for several years.
The Milepost shows the Canadian section of the highway now to be approximately 1,187 miles (1,910 km), but the first milepost inside Alaska is 1222. The actual length of the highway inside Alaska is no longer clear because rerouting, as in Canada, has shortened the route, but unlike Canada, mileposts in Alaska are not recalibrated. The BC and Yukon governments and Public Works Canada have recalibrated kilometre posts. The latest BC recalibration was carried out in 1990; using its end - point at the border at Historic Mile 630, the Yukon government has recalibrated in three stages: in 2002, from Mile 630 to the west end of the Champagne revision; in fall 2005, to a point just at the southeast shore of Kluane Lake, and in fall 2008, to the border with Alaska.
There are historical mileposts along the B.C. and Yukon sections of the highway, installed in 1992, that note specific locations, although the posts no longer represent accurate driving distance. There are 80 mileposts in B.C., 70 in Yukon and 16 in Alaska with a simple number marker of the original mile distance. There are 31 "historic signs '' in B.C., 22 in Yukon and 5 in Alaska, identifying the significance of the location. There are 18 interpretive panels in B.C., 14 in Yukon and 5 in Alaska which give detailed text information at a turn - off parking area.
The portion of the Alaska Highway in Alaska is designated Alaska Route 2. In Yukon, it is Highway 1 and in British Columbia, Highway 97. The portion of the Alaska Highway in Alaska was planned to become part of the United States Numbered Highway System, and to be signed as part of U.S. Route 97. The portion of the Alaska Highway in Alaska is also unsigned Interstate A-1 and unsigned Interstate A-2.
The Canadian section of the road was delineated with mileposts, based on the road as it was in 1947, until 1978, and over the years, reconstruction steadily shortened the distance between some of those mileposts. That year, metric signs were placed on the highway, and the mileposts were replaced with kilometre posts at the approximate locations of a historic mileage of equal value, e.g. km post 1000 was posted approximately where historical Mile 621 would have been posted.
Reconstruction continues to shorten the highway, but the kilometre posts, at 2 - kilometre (1.2 mi) intervals, were recalibrated along the B.C. section of road in 1990 to reflect then - current driving distance. The section of highway covered by the 1990 recalibration has since been rendered shorter by further realignments, such as near Summit Pass and between Muncho Lake and Iron Creek.
Based on where those values left off, new Yukon kilometre posts were erected in fall 2002 between the B.C. border and the west end of the new bypass around Champagne, Yukon; in 2005, additional recalibrated posts continued from there to the east shore of Kluane Lake near Silver City; and in fall 2008, from Silver City to the boundary with Alaska. Old kilometre posts, based on the historic miles, remained on the highway, after the first two recalibrations, from those points around Kluane Lake to the Alaska border. The B.C. and Yukon sections also have a small number of historic mileposts, printed on oval - shaped signs, at locations of historic significance; these special signs were erected in 1992 on the occasion of the highway 's 50th anniversary.
The Alaska portion of the highway is still marked by mileposts at 1 - mile (1.6 km) intervals, although they no longer represent accurate driving distance, due to reconstruction.
The historic mileposts are still used by residents and businesses along the highway to refer to their location, and in some cases are also used as postal addresses.
Residents and travelers, and the government of the Yukon, do not use "east '' and "west '' to refer to direction of travel on the Yukon section, even though this is the predominant bearing of the Yukon portion of the highway; "north '' and "south '' are used, referring to the south (Dawson Creek) and north (Delta Junction) termini of the highway. This is an important consideration for travelers who may otherwise be confused, particularly when a westbound travel routes southwestward or even due south to circumvent a natural obstacle such as Kluane Lake.
Some B.C. sections west of Fort Nelson also route more east - to - west, with southwest bearings in some section; again, "north '' is used in preference to "west ''.
Since 1949 The Milepost, an exhaustive guide to the Alaska Highway and all other routes through the region, has been published each year.
The community Wonowon, British Columbia is named by its location at mile 101, spoken "one - oh - one ''.
The pioneer road completed in 1942 was approximately 1,680 miles (2,700 km) from Dawson Creek to Delta Junction. The Army then turned the road over to the Public Roads Administration, which then began putting out section contracts to private road contractors to upgrade selected sections of the road. These sections were upgraded, with removal of excess bends and steep grades; often, a traveler could identify upgraded sections by seeing the telephone line along the PRA - approved route alignment. When the Japanese invasion threat eased, the PRA stopped putting out new contracts. Upon hand - off to Canada in 1946, the route was 1,422 miles (2,288 km) from Dawson Creek to Delta Junction.
The route follows a northwest then northward course from Dawson Creek to Fort Nelson. On October 16, 1957, a suspension bridge crossing the Peace River just south of Fort St. John collapsed. A new bridge was built a few years later. At Fort Nelson, the road turns west and crosses the Rocky Mountains, before resuming a westward course at Coal River. The highway crossed the Yukon - BC border nine times from Mile 590 to Mile 773, six of those crossings were from Mile 590 to Mile 596. After passing the south end of Kluane Lake, the highway follows a north - northwest course to the Alaska border, then northwest to the terminus at Delta Junction.
Postwar rebuilding has not shifted the highway more than 10 miles (16 km) from the original alignment, and in most cases, by less than 3 miles (4.8 km). It is not clear if it still crosses the Yukon - BC border six times from Mile 590 to Mile 596.
Other former segments have deteriorated and are no longer usable. More recent construction projects have deliberately plowed up roadway to close it.
Route map: Google
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find an example of rift valley in india | Rift valley - wikipedia
A rift valley is a linear - shaped lowland between several highlands or mountain ranges created by the action of a geologic rift or fault. A rift valley is formed on a divergent plate boundary, a crustal extension, a spreading apart of the surface, which is subsequently further deepened by the forces of erosion. When the tensional forces were strong enough to cause the plate to split apart, a center block dropped between the two blocks at its flanks, forming a graben. The drop of the center creates the nearly parallel steeply dipping walls of a rift valley when it is new. That feature is the beginning of the rift valley, but as the process continues, the valley widens, until it becomes a large basin that fills with sediment from the rift walls and the surrounding area. One of the best known examples of this process is the East African Rift. On Earth, rifts can occur at all elevations, from the sea floor to plateaus and mountain ranges in continental crust or in oceanic crust. They are often associated with a number of adjoining subsidiary or co-extensive valleys, which are typically considered part of the principal rift valley geologically.
The most extensive rift valley is located along the crest of the mid-ocean ridge system and is the result of sea floor spreading. Examples of this type of rift include the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the East Pacific Rise.
Many existing continental rift valleys are the result of a failed arm (aulacogen) of a triple junction, although there are two, the East African Rift and the Baikal Rift Zone, which are currently active, as well as a third which may be, the West Antarctic Rift. In these instances, not only the crust, but also entire tectonic plates, are in the process of breaking apart to create new plates. If they continue, continental rifts will eventually become oceanic rifts.
Other rift valleys are the result of bends or discontinuities in horizontally - moving (strike - slip) faults. When these bends or discontinuities are in the same direction as the relative motions along the fault, extension occurs. For example, for a right lateral - moving fault, a bend to the right will result in stretching and consequent subsidence in the area of the irregularity. In the view of many geologists today, the Dead Sea lies in a rift which results from a leftward discontinuity in the left lateral - moving Dead Sea Transform fault. Where a fault breaks into two strands, or two faults run close to each other, crustal extension may also occur between them, as a result of differences in their motions. Both types of fault - caused extension commonly occur on a small scale, producing such features as sag ponds or landslides.
Many of the world 's largest lakes are located in rift valleys. Lake Baikal in Siberia, a World Heritage Site, lies in an active rift valley. Baikal is both the deepest lake in the world and, with 20 % of all of the liquid freshwater on earth, has the greatest volume. Lake Tanganyika, second by both measures, is in the Albertine Rift, the westernmost arm of the active East African Rift. Lake Superior in North America, the largest freshwater lake by area, lies in the ancient and dormant Midcontinent Rift. The largest subglacial lake, Lake Vostok, may also lie in an ancient rift valley. Lake Nipissing and Lake Timiskaming in Ontario and Quebec, Canada lie inside a rift valley called the Ottawa - Bonnechere Graben. Þingvallavatn, Iceland 's largest natural lake, is also an example of a rift lake.
Extraterrestrial rift valleys are also known to occur on other terrestrial planets and natural satellites. The 4,000 km long Valles Marineris on Mars is believed by planetary geologists to be a large rift system. Some features of Venus, most notably, the 4000 km Devana Chasma and a part of the western Eistla, and possibly also Alta and Bell Regio have been interpreted by some planetary geologists as a rift valleys. Some natural satellites also have prominent rift valleys. The 2,000 km long Ithaca Chasma on Tethys in the Saturn system is a prominent example. Charon 's Nostromo Chasma is the first confirmed in the Pluto system, however large chasms up to 950 km wide observed on the Charon have also been tentatively interpreted by some as giant rifts and similar formations have also been noted on Pluto. A recent study suggests a complex system of ancient lunar rift valleys including Vallis Rheita and Vallis Alpes. The Uranus system also has prominent examples, with large ' chasma ' believed to be giant rift valley systems, most notably the 1492 km long Messina Chasma on Titania, 622 km Kachina Chasmata on Ariel, Verona Rupes on Miranda, and Mommur Chasma on Oberon.
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whats the meaning of the song young dumb and broke | Khalid (singer) - wikipedia
Khalid Legend Robinson (born February 11, 1998), known mononymously as Khalid, is an American singer and songwriter. He is signed to Right Hand Music Group and RCA Records. He is best known for his debut single, "Location '', which peaked at number 16 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and was certified platinum.
Khalid Robinson was born on February 11, 1998, in Fort Stewart, Georgia. He spent his childhood in various locations including Fort Campbell in Kentucky, Fort Drum in Watertown, New York, and six years in Heidelberg, Germany because of his mother Linda Wolfe 's career in the military. Wolfe worked as a supply technician for over 10 years and eventually earned an opportunity to sing in the US Army Band. His mother sacrificed opportunities to pursue her own artistic dreams in order to raise him. In high school he studied singing and musical theater. During his senior year of high school, the family moved to El Paso, Texas, and Khalid graduated from Americas High School in 2016.
Khalid reached number 2 on the Billboard Twitter Emerging Artists chart in July 2016. His single "Location '' began charting, while Khalid began appearing on many publications ' "Artists you need to know '' lists, including Billboard, Yahoo, Buzzfeed, and Rolling Stone. With production from Syk Sense, Tunji Ige, and Smash David, "Location '' finished the year 2016 at No. 20 on the Billboard 's Mainstream R&B / Hip - Hop Airplay chart and reached the Top 10 on the Billboard Hot R&B Songs chart on January 21, 2017. After premiering on The Fader, the video netted over six million views in its first four months on YouTube, while the song was streamed 35 million times on Spotify. "Location '' has since received over 17 million plays on Soundcloud since it 's initial release.
In January 2017, Alina Baraz 's single "Electric '' featuring Khalid was released. His collaboration with Brasstracks, "Whirlwind, '' was part of the Yours Truly & Adidas Originals Songs from Scratch series, and received over 700,000 Soundcloud plays. In the first week of February 2017, Apple Music named Khalid its New Artist of the Week.
Khalid sold out every venue on his 21 - city January -- February 2017 US "Location Tour '', including the 1,500 - capacity Tricky Falls in El Paso, and the tour continued in Europe. His debut studio album American Teen was released on March 3, 2017.
Khalid has said his mother is his biggest musical inspiration, and has also cited Kendrick Lamar, A $ AP Rocky, Father John Misty, Frank Ocean, Grizzly Bear, Chance the Rapper, Lorde, India. Arie, and James Blake as influences. Khalid contributed uncredited vocals to Kendrick Lamar 's song The Heart Part 4, released on March 24, 2017.
Khalid made his television debut performing "Location '' on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon March 15, 2017 backed by The Roots. He performed at the annual Roots Picnic in Philadelphia on June 3, 2017.
His song, "Angels '' was featured on the ABC drama series Grey 's Anatomy in the episode entitled "Do n't Stop Me Now '', which aired April 27, 2017.
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when did the first final fantasy game come out | Final Fantasy (video game) - wikipedia
Final Fantasy is a fantasy role - playing video game developed and published by Square in 1987. It is the first game in Square 's Final Fantasy series, created by Hironobu Sakaguchi. Originally released for the NES, Final Fantasy was remade for several video game consoles and is frequently packaged with Final Fantasy II in video game collections. The story follows four youths called the Light Warriors, who each carry one of their world 's four elemental orbs which have been darkened by the four Elemental Fiends. Together, they quest to defeat these evil forces, restore light to the orbs, and save their world.
Final Fantasy was originally conceived under the working title Fighting Fantasy, but trademark issues and dire circumstances surrounding Square as well as Sakaguchi himself prompted the name to be changed. The game was a great commercial success, received generally positive reviews, and spawned many successful sequels and supplementary titles in the form of the Final Fantasy series. The original is now regarded as one of the most influential and successful role - playing games on the Nintendo Entertainment System, playing a major role in popularizing the genre. Critical praise focused on the game 's graphics, while criticism targeted the time spent wandering in search of random battle encounters to raise the player 's experience level. By March 2003, all versions of the original Final Fantasy had sold a combined total of two million copies worldwide.
Final Fantasy has four basic game modes: an overworld map, town and dungeon maps, a battle screen, and a menu screen. The overworld map is a scaled - down version of the game 's fictional world, which the player uses to direct characters to various locations. The primary means of travel across the overworld is by foot; a canoe, a ship, and an airship become available as the player progresses. With the exception of some battles in preset locations or with bosses, enemies are randomly encountered on field maps and on the overworld map when traveling by foot, canoe, or ship, and must either be fought or fled from.
The game 's plot develops as the player progresses through towns and dungeons. Some town citizens offer helpful information, while others own shops that sell items or equipment. Dungeons appear in areas that include forests, caves, mountains, swamps, underwater caverns, and buildings. Dungeons often have treasure chests containing rare items that are not available in most stores. The game 's menu screen allows the player to keep track of their experience points and levels, to choose which equipment their characters wield, and to use items and magic. A character 's most basic attribute is their level, which can range from one to fifty, and is determined by the character 's amount of experience. Gaining a level increases the character 's attributes, such as their maximum hit points (HP), which represents a character 's remaining health; a character dies when they reach zero HP. Characters gain experience points by winning battles.
Combat in Final Fantasy is menu - based: the player selects an action from a list of options such as Attack, Magic, and Item. Battles are turn - based and continue until either side flees or is defeated. If the player 's party wins, each character will gain experience and Gil; if it flees, it will be returned to the map screen; and if every character in the party dies, the game will be over and all unsaved progress will be lost. Final Fantasy was the first game to show the player 's characters on the right side of the screen and the enemies on the left side of the screen, as opposed to a first - person view.
The player begins the game by choosing four characters to form a party and is locked into that choice for the duration of the game. Each character has an "occupation '', or character class, with different attributes and abilities that are either innate or can be acquired. There are six classes: Fighter, Thief, Black Belt, Red Mage, White Mage, and Black Mage. Later in the game, the player has the option to have each character undergo a "class upgrade ''; whereby their sprite portraits mature, and some classes gain the ability to use weapons and magic that they previously could not use. The game contains a variety of weapons, armor, and items that can be bought or found to make the characters more powerful in combat. Each character has eight inventory slots, with four to hold weapons and four to hold armor. Each character class has restrictions on what weapons and armor it may use. Some weapons and armor are magical; if used during combat, they will cast spells. Other magical artifacts provide protection, such as from certain spells. At shops, the characters can buy items to help themselves recover while they are traveling. Items available include potions, which heal the characters or remove ailments like poison or petrification; Tents and Cabins, which can be used on the world map to heal the player and optionally save the game; and Houses, which also recovers the party 's magic after saving. Special items may be gained by doing quests.
Magic is a common ability in the game, and several character classes use it. Spells are divided into two groups: White, which is defensive and healing, and Black, which is debilitating and destructive. Magic can be bought from White and Black magic shops and assigned to characters whose occupation allows them to use it. Spells are classified by a level between one and eight, with four White and four Black spells per level. Each character may learn only three spells per level. White and Black Mages can potentially learn any of their respective spells, while Red Mages, the Ninja, and the Knight can not use most high - level magic.
Final Fantasy takes place in a fantasy world with three large continents. The elemental powers of this world are determined by the state of four orbs, each governing one of the four classical elements: earth, fire, water, and wind. The world of Final Fantasy is inhabited by numerous races, including Humans, Elves, Dwarves, Mermaids, Dragons, and Robots. Most non-Human races have only one "town '' in the game, although individuals are sometimes found in Human towns or other areas as well. Four hundred years prior to the start of the game, the Lefeinish people, who used the Power of Wind to craft airships and a giant space station (called the Floating Castle in the game), watched their country decline as the Wind Orb went dark. Two hundred years later, violent storms sank a massive shrine that served as the center of an ocean - based civilization, and the Water Orb went dark. The Earth Orb and the Fire Orb followed, plaguing the earth with raging wildfires, and devastating the agricultural town of Melmond as the plains and vegetation decayed. Some time later, the sage Lukahn tells of a prophecy that four Light Warriors will come to save the world in a time of darkness.
The game begins with the appearance of the four youthful Light Warriors, the heroes of the story, who each carry one of the darkened Orbs. Initially, the Light Warriors have access to the Kingdom of Coneria and the ruined Temple of Fiends. After the Warriors rescue Princess Sara from the evil knight Garland, the King of Coneria builds a bridge that enables the Light Warriors ' passage east to the town of Pravoka. There the Light Warriors liberate the town from Bikke and his band of pirates and acquire the pirates ' ship for their own use. The Warriors now embark on a chain of delivery quests on the shores of the Aldi Sea. First, they retrieve a stolen crown from the Marsh Cave for a king in a ruined castle, who turns out to be the dark elf Astos. Defeating him gains them the Crystal Eye, which they return to the blind witch Matoya in exchange for a herb needed to awaken the Elf Prince cursed by Astos. The Elf Prince gives the Light Warriors the Mystic Key, which is capable of unlocking any door. The key unlocks a storage room in Coneria Castle which holds TNT. Nerrick, one of the Dwarves of the Cave of Dwarf / Dwarf Village, destroys a small isthmus using the TNT, connecting the Aldi Sea to the outside world.
After visiting the near - ruined town of Melmond, the Light Warriors go to the Earth Cave to defeat a vampire and retrieve the Star Ruby, which gains passage to Sage Sadda 's cave. With Sadda 's Rod, the Warriors venture deeper into the Earth Cave and destroy the Earth Fiend, Lich. The Light Warriors then obtain a canoe and enter Gurgu Volcano and defeat the Fire Fiend, Kary. The Levistone from the nearby Ice Cave allows them to raise an airship to reach the northern continents. After they prove their courage by retrieving the Rat 's Tail from the Castle of Ordeal, the King of the Dragons, Bahamut, promotes each Light Warrior. A kind gesture is repaid by a fairy, receiving special liquid that produces oxygen, and the Warriors use it to help defeat the Water Fiend, Kraken, in the Sunken Shrine. They also recover a Slab, which allows a linguist named Dr. Unne to teach them the Lefeinish language. The Lefeinish give the Light Warriors access to the Floating Castle that Tiamat, the Wind Fiend, has taken over. With the Four Fiends defeated and the Orbs restored, a portal opens in the Temple of Fiends which takes them 2000 years into the past. There the Warriors discover that the Four Fiends sent Garland (now the archdemon Chaos) back in time and he sent the Fiends to the future to do so, creating a time loop by which he could live forever. The Light Warriors defeat Chaos, thus ending the paradox, and return home. By ending the paradox, however, the Light Warriors have changed the future to one where their heroic deeds remain unknown outside of legend.
Hironobu Sakaguchi had intended to make a role - playing game (RPG) for a long time, but his employer Square refused to give him permission as it expected low sales of such a product. However, when the RPG Dragon Quest was released and proved to be a hit in Japan, the company reconsidered its stance on the genre and approved Sakaguchi 's vision of an RPG inspired by Ultima and Wizardry. Only three of his colleagues volunteered to join this project headed by him because he was thought of as a "rough boss '' in spite of his unsuccessful creations. Eventually, Final Fantasy was developed by a team of seven core staff members within Square referred to as the "A-Team ''. Sakaguchi convinced fellow game designers Koichi Ishii and Akitoshi Kawazu to join the project. Kawazu was mainly responsible for the battle system and sequences, which he based heavily on the tabletop game Dungeons & Dragons and the RPG Wizardry. For example, enemies ' weaknesses to elements such as fire and ice had not been included in Japanese RPGs up until that point. Kawazu had grown fond of such aspects of Western RPGs and decided to incorporate them into Final Fantasy. He also advocated the player 's option to freely choose their own party member classes at the beginning of the game as he feels "the fun in an RPG begins when you create a character ''.
The scenario was written by freelance writer Kenji Terada, based on a story by Sakaguchi. Ishii heavily influenced the game 's setting with his idea of the crystals. He also suggested illustrator Yoshitaka Amano as character designer, but Sakaguchi declined at first as he had never heard the artist 's name before. When Sakaguchi showed Ishii some drawings on magazine clippings and told him that this was the art style he was looking for, Ishii revealed to him that these were actually created by Amano, hence leading to his involvement in the game. The music for Final Fantasy was composed by Nobuo Uematsu and marked his 16th video game music composition. Iranian - American programmer Nasir Gebelli was hired to code the game. He initially tried to understand all aspects of the gameplay but was soon advised by Sakaguchi to just program the design concepts so he did not have to explain everything to Gebelli in detail. Among the other developers were graphic designer Kazuko Shibuya, programmers Kiyoshi Yoshii and Ken Narita, as well as debugger Hiroyuki Ito. When the project started to show promise, designer Hiromichi Tanaka and his "B - Team '' joined to aid development. The lack of faith in Sakaguchi 's team, as well as its unpopularity within the company, motivated the staff members to give their best.
Sakaguchi took an in - development ROM of the game to Japanese magazine Famicom Tsushin, but it would not review it. However, Famitsu gave the game extensive coverage. Only 200,000 copies were to be shipped, but Sakaguchi pleaded with the company to make 400,000 to help spawn a sequel, and the management agreed. Following the successful North American localization of Dragon Quest, Nintendo of America translated Final Fantasy into English and published it in North America in 1990. The North American version of Final Fantasy met with modest success, partly due to Nintendo 's then - aggressive marketing tactics. No version of the game was marketed in the PAL region until Final Fantasy Origins in 2003.
Over the years, several theories emerged as to why the game was called Final Fantasy. In 2015, Sakaguchi stated that, from the beginning, the team had wished for a name that could be shortened to FF (エフエフ, efu efu); that way, the game 's title could be abbreviated in the Latin script and pronounced in four syllables in the Japanese language. The original working title for Sakaguchi 's RPG concept was Fighting Fantasy, but it was changed to avoid issues with a tabletop game of the same name that had already been released. The reason for choosing the word "final '' to form the eventual title of Final Fantasy was explained as twofold by Uematsu: for one thing, it stemmed from Sakaguchi 's personal situation, as he would have quit the game industry and gone back to university had the game not sold well, and for another, Square was under the threat of bankruptcy at the time, which meant the game could have been the company 's last. Although Sakaguchi confirmed some of the theories, he later downplayed the rationale for choosing the word "final '', saying that "it was definitely a back - to - the - wall type situation back then, but any word that starts with an ' F ' would have been fine ''.
Final Fantasy has been remade several times for different platforms and has frequently been packaged with Final Fantasy II in various collections. While all of these remakes retain the same basic story and battle mechanics, various changes have been made in different areas, including graphics, sound, and specific game elements.
Final Fantasy was first re-released for the MSX 2 system and was published by Microcabin in Japan in June 1989. It had access to almost three times as much storage space as the Famicom version but suffered from problems not present in Nintendo 's cartridge media, including noticeable loading times. There were also minor graphical upgrades, much - improved music tracks, and sound effects.
In 1994, Final Fantasy I ・ II, a compilation of Final Fantasy and Final Fantasy II, was launched for the Famicom. This version was only released in Japan and had very few graphical updates.
The WonderSwan Color remake was released in Japan on December 9, 2000, and featured many new graphical changes. The 8 - bit graphics of the original Famicom game were updated, battle scenes incorporated full background images, and character and enemy sprites were redrawn to look more like the ones from the Super Famicom Final Fantasy games.
In Japan, Final Fantasy and Final Fantasy II were re-released both separately and as a combined game for the PlayStation. The collection was released in Japan in 2002 as Final Fantasy I & II Premium Package and in Europe and North America in 2003 as Final Fantasy Origins. This version was similar to the WonderSwan Color remake and featured several changes such as more detailed graphics, a remixed soundtrack, added full motion video sequences, art galleries of Yoshitaka Amano 's illustrations, and a memo save function. On December 18, 2012, the port was re-released as part of the Final Fantasy 25th Anniversary Ultimate Box release.
Final Fantasy I & II: Dawn of Souls is, like Final Fantasy Origins, a port of the first two games in the series and was released for the Game Boy Advance in 2004. The Dawn of Souls version incorporates various new elements, including four additional dungeons, an updated bestiary, and a few minor changes.
Square Enix released a version of Final Fantasy for two Japanese mobile phone networks in 2004; a version for NTT DoCoMo FOMA 900i series was launched in March under the title Final Fantasy i and a subsequent release for CDMA 1X WIN - compatible phones was launched in August. Another titular version was released for SoftBank Yahoo! Keitai phones on July 3, 2006. The games have more refined graphics compared to the original 8 - bit game, but not as advanced as many of the later console and handheld ports.
Square Enix planned to release this version for North American mobile phones in 2006, but it was delayed to 2010 and released in collaboration with Namco. It retains the game difficulty and MP System from the original Famicom version. Other elements such as updated graphics, spell names, monster names, bosses, items, and areas are borrowed from the Game Boy Advance / Wonderswan Color versions, not including the additional areas and monsters present in the GBA version. Game data is saved as in the original Famicom version (by using Tent, Sleeping Bag, and Cottage or by going into an inn). However, there are now three save game slots and a "Temporary Save '' option available in the game.
For the 20th anniversary of Final Fantasy, Square Enix remade Final Fantasy and Final Fantasy II for the PlayStation Portable. The games were released in Japan and North America in 2007, and in European territories in 2008. The PSP version features higher - resolution 2D graphics, full motion video sequences, a remixed soundtrack, and a new dungeon as well as the bonus dungeons from Dawn of Souls. The script is the same as in the Dawn of Souls version, aside from the new dungeon.
Square Enix released the original NES version of the game on the Wii 's Virtual Console service in Japan on May 26, 2009, in North America on October 5, 2009 and in the PAL region as an import on May 7, 2010.
On February 25, 2010, Square Enix released the iOS version of Final Fantasy, based on the PSP port with touch controls, worldwide. On June 13, 2012, Square Enix released the Windows Phone version, which is based on the iOS version. On July 27, 2012, Square Enix released an Android port, largely based on the iOS version though lacking the new dungeons of the 20th - anniversary edition.
On November 11, 2016, the game (alongside 29 other games) was included in the NES Classic Edition / Nintendo Classic Mini: Nintendo Entertainment System released by Nintendo.
Final Fantasy has been well received by critics and commercially successful; the original release sold 400,000 copies. According to Square 's publicity department, the Japanese Famicom and MSX releases sold a combined 600,000 copies, and the North American NES release sold 700,000 copies. As of March 31, 2003, the game, including all re-releases at the time, had shipped 1.99 million copies worldwide, with 1.21 million of those copies being shipped in Japan and 780,000 abroad. As of November 19, 2007, the PlayStation Portable version has shipped 140,000 copies.
Editors at IGN ranked Final Fantasy the 11th best game on the NES, calling the game 's class system diverse, and praising its convenient use of vehicles as a means of traveling across the world map. GamesRadar ranked it the eighth best NES game ever made. The staff felt that while Dragon Warrior introduced gamers to the genre, Final Fantasy popularized it. In 2004, readers of Retro Gamer voted Final Fantasy 93rd top retro game, with the staff noting that "despite poor visuals and a relatively simple quest, many still consider the original to be the best (with the exception of FFVII). '' In 2006, Final Fantasy appeared in the Japanese magazine Famitsu 's Top 100 games list, where readers voted it the 63rd best game of all time. GameFAQs users made a similar list in 2005, which ranked Final Fantasy at 76th. It was rated the 49th best game made on a Nintendo system in Nintendo Power 's Top 200 Games list. In 2008, Nintendo Power ranked it the 19th best Nintendo Entertainment System video game, praising it for setting up the basics of console role - playing games, along with Dragon Warrior, and citing examples such as epic stories, leveling up, random battles, and character classes.
Final Fantasy was one of the most influential early console role - playing games and played a major role in legitimizing and popularizing the genre. According to IGN 's Matt Casamassina, Final Fantasy 's storyline had a deeper and more engaging story than the original Dragon Quest (known as Dragon Warrior in North America). Modern critics have pointed out that the game is poorly paced by contemporary standards, and involves much more time wandering in search of random battle encounters to raise their experience levels and money than it does exploring and solving puzzles. Other reviewers find the level - building and exploration portions of the game as the most amusing ones. In 1987, Famitsu initially described the original Final Fantasy as "one of many '' that imitated the Dragon Quest formula. The game is considered by some to be the weakest and most difficult installment of the series.
The subsequent versions of Final Fantasy have garnered mostly favorable reviews from the media. Peer Schneider of IGN enjoyed the WonderSwan Color version, praising its graphical improvements, especially the environments, characters, and monsters. Famitsu scored this version a 30 out of 40. Final Fantasy Origins was generally well - received; GamePro said the music was "fantastic '', and that the graphics had a "suitably retro cuteness to them. '' Reviews for Final Fantasy I & II: Dawn of Souls were generally positive, with Jeremy Dunham of IGN giving particular praise to the improved English translation, saying it was better than any previous version of the game. The PlayStation Portable version was not as critically successful as the previous releases; GameSpot 's Kevin VanOrd cited the visuals as its strongest enhancement but stated that the additional random enemy encounters and updated graphics did not add much value. The Dawn of Souls package was rated 76th in Nintendo Power 's Top 200 Games list.
A soundtrack album was released together with the score of Final Fantasy II in 1989. Some of the game 's tracks became mainstays to the Final Fantasy series: the "Prelude '', the arpeggio played on the title screen; the "Opening Theme '', which is played when the party crosses the bridge early in the game and later referred to as the Final Fantasy theme; and the "Victory Fanfare '', which is played after every victorious battle. The opening motif of the battle theme has also been reused a number of times in the series. The theme song that plays when the player characters first cross the bridge from Coneria has become the recurring theme music of the series and has been featured in most numbered Final Fantasy titles. Final Fantasy was also the basis for the series finale of a video game - themed cartoon series Captain N: The Game Master entitled "The Fractured Fantasy of Captain N ''. 8 - Bit Theater, a sprite - based webcomic created by Brian Clevinger, parodies the game, and has become very popular in the gaming community since it started in March 2001.
The video game has spawned two direct cross-over prequels on the PlayStation Portable: Dissidia Final Fantasy and Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy. Warrior of Light, based on Yoshitaka Amano 's design of the lead character, and Garland are the respective hero and villain representing Final Fantasy. Warrior of Light is voiced by Toshihiko Seki in the Japanese version and Grant George in the English version, while Garland is voiced by Kenji Utsumi in the Japanese version and Christopher Sabat in the English version. Both games add background information to the world of Final Fantasy. For instance, Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy names the world of Final Fantasy "World A '' in order to distinguish it from World B, the world of Dissidia.
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life is strange 2 before the storm pc | Life is Strange: Before the Storm - Wikipedia
Life Is Strange: Before the Storm is an episodic graphic adventure video game developed by Deck Nine and published by Square Enix. The first of three episodes was released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One on 31 August 2017. It is set as a prequel to Life Is Strange, focusing on sixteen - year - old Chloe Price and her relationship with schoolmate Rachel Amber. Gameplay concerns itself mostly with the use of branching dialogues.
Life Is Strange: Before the Storm is a graphic adventure played from a third - person view. The player assumes control of sixteen - year - old Chloe Price, three years prior to Life Is Strange. Unlike its predecessor, the game does not include time travel. Instead, Before the Storm features the ability "Backtalk '', with which the player can call upon Chloe to get out of certain precarious situations; "Backtalk '' may also make a situation worse. A dialogue tree is used when a conversation or commentary is prompted. Occasional decisions will temporarily or permanently change outcomes. The environment can be interacted with and altered, including marking walls with graffiti.
Sixteen - year - old Chloe Price enters an old mill to attend a house concert. Conflict arises with two men inside, whom she evades when schoolmate Rachel Amber causes a distraction. The next day, Chloe and Rachel reunite at school. They decide to stow away on a cargo train, ending up at a lookout point. Using a viewfinder there, Rachel is upset by what she sees and insists on getting drunk. Having stolen some wine, they take a walk to a scrapyard. Chloe confronts Rachel about her change in mood, but is refused an answer. After Rachel leaves, Chloe discovers the wrecked car in which her father was killed. She meets up with Rachel again, who discloses that she witnessed her father cheating on her mother through the viewfinder. Rachel destroys a family photo in a burning trash bin, and in a fit of rage kicks it over, igniting a wildfire.
Publisher Square Enix chose Deck Nine to develop the prequel to Life Is Strange after the developer 's proprietary StoryForge tools had made an impression. Development started in 2016 with the Unity game engine. Rhianna DeVries, who initially did the game 's motion capture for Chloe Price, voices the character, while the original voice actress Ashly Burch serves as writing consultant. Burch did not reprise her role due to the SAG - AFTRA strike. The music was written and performed by the British indie folk band Daughter, and released as an official soundtrack by Glassnote Records on 1 September 2017. Instrumentation was employed to represent different sides of the lead character: piano for isolation, electric guitar for rebelliousness, and layered vocals for friendship. Daughter took the script and concept artwork as inspiration.
Prior to its official announcement, images had leaked online indicating that a prequel to Life Is Strange was in development. Square Enix revealed Life Is Strange: Before the Storm on 11 June during E3 2017, stating that it would be released over three chapters starting on 31 August for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One. The Deluxe Edition includes the bonus chapter "Farewell '' -- featuring Max Caulfield of the original game as a playable character -- three additional outfits, and Mixtape Mode, allowing players to customise playlists with the game 's soundtrack.
Critics appraised Episode 1: Awake the most on its character development of Chloe Price and Rachel Amber. Jeremy Peeples of Hardcore Gamer found Chloe 's behaviour "endearing '' and noted that her personality was portrayed with multiple layers. Sam Loveridge at GamesRadar wrote that Rachel was the more authentic character on account of her more "grounded '' dialogue. Despite disparaging Chloe for being "her same tiresomely combative self '' early on, Metro saw her fleshed out by enduring the loss of her father. Game Informer 's Kimberley Wallace thought the younger version of Chloe brought a "naivety and vulnerability '' worthy of sympathy. Conversely, the relationship between Chloe and Rachel was said to have formed "at unnatural speed ''. Peeples and Loveridge favoured the "Backtalk '' gameplay feature, while Metro and Wallace cared little for it. Otherwise lauded were the story, graphics, voice acting, and soundtrack.
Following E3 2017, Life Is Strange: Before the Storm received one of GamesRadar 's Best of E3 awards and was nominated for Hardcore Gamer 's Adventure Game award.
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when did the song raindrops keep falling on my head come out | Raindrops Keep Fallin ' on My Head - wikipedia
"Raindrops Keep Fallin ' on My Head '' is a song written by Hal David and Burt Bacharach for the 1969 film Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid. It won an Academy Award for Best Original Song. David and Bacharach also won Best Original Score. The song was recorded by B.J. Thomas in seven takes, after Bacharach expressed dissatisfaction with the first six. In the film version of the song, Thomas had been recovering from laryngitis, which made his voice sound hoarser than in the 7 - inch release. The film version featured a separate vaudeville - style instrumental break in double time while Paul Newman performed bicycle stunts.
The single by B.J. Thomas reached number 1 on charts in the United States, Canada, Norway and reached number 38 in the UK Singles Chart. It topped the Billboard Hot 100 for four weeks in January 1970 and was also the first American number - one hit of the 1970s. The song also spent seven weeks atop the Billboard adult contemporary chart. Billboard ranked it as the No. 4 song of 1970. According to Billboard magazine, Thomas ' single had sold over 2 million copies by March 14, 1970, with eight - track and cassette versions also climbing the charts.
Ray Stevens was first offered the opportunity to record it for the film, but turned it down. He chose instead to record the song "Sunday Morning Coming Down '', written by Kris Kristofferson. Bob Dylan is supposed to have been approached for the song, but he, too, reportedly declined. The trumpet solos in the song are performed by Chuck Findley.
In 2004, it finished at number 23 on AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Songs survey of top tunes in American cinema. In 2008, the single was ranked 85th on Billboard 's Hot 100 All - Time Top Songs and placed 95th in the 55th Anniversary edition of the All - Time Hot 100 list in 2013. Billboard Magazine also ranked the song 15th on its Top 50 Movie Songs of All Time list in 2014.
The song, initially when it came out, I believe it was October of 69, the movie did n't come out until December, it did get some bad reviews. It was a very unique and different sounding song, Bacharach and David never had any qualms about trying to do anything different, or push the envelope so to speak. So nowadays, it sounds pretty tame, but back then, radio resisted it to some degree. But, when the movie came out it hit hugely and sold about 200,000 to 300,000 records a day (and continued selling) for about three years.
On December 3, 2013, the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences announced that the single would be inducted into the 2014 Grammy Hall Of Fame.
"Raindrops Keep Fallin ' on My Head '' was used in the film Spy Hard, which parodied the scene in Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid. Police Constable Pan-Am sings the opening lines at the end of his appearance in Series 2, Episode 4 of Monty Python 's Flying Circus. It is on the soundtracks to Forrest Gump and Spider - Man 2, in the latter accentuating Peter Parker 's blissful mood after abandoning his Spider - Man identity and its responsibilities. It was used in the Kevin Smith film Clerks II. The first episode of the second season of the popular medical drama Grey 's Anatomy is named after the song. It is also used in The Simpsons, episode 16 of the fourth season, called "Duffless '', at the end of the episode, while credits are presented. It was also used in a season 1 episode of Arrested Development entitled "Altar Egos ''. It was also used in the 2003 film The In - Laws starring Michael Douglas and Albert Brooks, which was a remake of the 1979 Peter Falk / Alan Arkin film.
B.J. Thomas version
Johnny Farnham version
The song has been covered numerous times. In 1969, Craig Douglas released a version produced by Tony Hatch. From January 24 to March 13, 1970, it was a number - one hit (for seven weeks) in Australia on the Go - Set National Top 40 for local pop singer, Johnny Farnham. In 1970, it was also covered by Dionne Warwick on her album I 'll Never Fall in Love Again, by Engelbert Humperdinck on his album We Made It Happen, Johnny Mathis on his album Raindrops Keep Fallin ' on My Head, Perry Como on his album It 's Impossible, The Four Tops on their album Changing Times, Andy Williams on his album, Raindrops Keep Fallin ' on My Head, and The Free Design on their album Stars / Time / Bubbles / Love. Portuguese - born television and radio presenter Pedro Biker released a Danish version re-entitled "Regndråber Drypper I Mit Hår '' in 1970. A Swedish version was also made in 1970, "Regnet det bara öser ner '' sung by Siw Malmkvist. Genesis referenced the song title in their lyrics of In the Cage '' in 1974.
It has been covered in French by French singer Sacha Distel, whose version Toute La Pluie Tombe Sur Moi was a number 10 hit in the UK Singles Chart, and number 13 in Ireland, as well as number 10 in France. Distel also recorded a version with the original English lyrics, and another in Italian, Gocce Di Pioggia Su Di Me. Bobbie Gentry 's version reached number 40 in the UK chart. Paul Mauriat recorded it with his Grand Orchestra it 1973. It was the only known cover in the USSR.
The Welsh rock band Manic Street Preachers cover version is credited with adding greater nuance to the song, the Financial Times citing their recording as transforming the song from carefree optimism to "an exhortation to keep going in the face of tragedy '' and noting that Bradfield 's voice "added grit to the facile lyric ''. The group often spent their downtime on the tour bus watching the film Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid, and incorporated the song into live sets. After the disappearance of lyricist Richey Edwards, the band decided to continue rather than split up. Having booked studio time in France to record their fourth album, Everything Must Go, they were invited to record for the War Child album The Help Album. The project required all songs to be recorded in one day. While band biographer Simon Price has described the recording and release of the record as a "coded message '' that the band still existed, Bradfield recalls the events differently: "... us putting it out was n't planned as us saying ' We 're OK, guys! ', but the deadline was the next day after we 'd arrived in this place, for some kind of new beginning. '' The band 's recorded version of the song contains the first recorded instance of drummer Sean Moore performing on trumpet, and also appears on their 2003 B - sides and rarities compilation album Lipstick Traces (A Secret History of Manic Street Preachers). The Manics further reference the film Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid with the B - side "Sepia ''.
The Barry Sisters covered the song in a Yiddish version ("Trop'ns Fin Regen Oif Mein Kop '') on their 1973 album Our Way.
Lisa Miskovsky covered the song in the extended version of her self - titled (2004) album.
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what is an accurate description of the 1920s | Roaring Twenties - wikipedia
The Roaring Twenties was the period of Western society and Western culture that occurred during and around the 1920s. It was a period of sustained economic prosperity with a distinctive cultural edge in the United States and Western Europe, particularly in major cities such as Berlin, Chicago, London, Los Angeles, New York City, Paris, and Sydney. In the French Third Republic, the decade was known as the "années folles '' ("Crazy Years ''), emphasizing the era 's social, artistic and cultural dynamism. Jazz music blossomed, the flapper redefined the modern look for British and American women, and Art Deco peaked. Not everything roared: in the wake of the hyper - emotional patriotism of World War I, Warren G. Harding brought back normalcy to the politics of the United States. This era saw the large - scale use of automobiles, telephones, motion pictures, radio, and electric appliances. Aviation became a business. The economies saw rapid industrial growth, accelerated consumer demand, plus significant changes in lifestyle and culture. The media focused on celebrities, especially sports heroes and movie stars, as cities rooted for their home teams and filled the new palatial cinemas and gigantic sports stadiums. In most major democratic states, women won the right to vote.
The social and cultural features known as the Roaring Twenties began in leading metropolitan centers, then spread widely in the aftermath of World War I. The United States gained dominance in world finance. Thus, when Germany could no longer afford to pay World War I reparations to the United Kingdom, France and the other Allied Powers, the United States came up with the Dawes Plan; named after banker, and later 30th Vice President Charles G. Dawes, respectively. Wall Street invested heavily in Germany, which repaid its reparations to countries that, in turn, used the dollars to pay off their war debts to Washington. By the middle of the decade, prosperity was widespread, with the second half of the decade known, especially in Germany, as the "Golden Twenties ''.
The spirit of the Roaring Twenties was marked by a general feeling of novelty associated with modernity and a break with traditions. Everything seemed to be feasible through modern technology. New technologies, especially automobiles, moving pictures, and radio, brought "modernity '' to a large part of the population. Formal decorative frills were shed in favor of practicality in both daily life and architecture. At the same time, Jazz and dancing rose in popularity, in opposition to the mood of World War I. As such, the period is also often referred to as the Jazz Age.
The Wall Street Crash of 1929 ended the era, as the Great Depression brought years of worldwide gloom and hardship.
The Roaring Twenties was a decade of great economic growth and widespread prosperity, driven by recovery from wartime devastation and postponed spending, a boom in construction, and the rapid growth of consumer goods such as automobiles and electricity in North America and Western Europe and a few other developed countries such as Australia. The economy of the United States, which had successfully transitioned from a wartime economy to a peacetime economy, boomed and provided loans for a European boom as well. However, some sectors were stagnant, especially farming and coal mining. The United States became the richest country in the world per capita and since the late 19th century was the largest in terms of total GDP. Its industry was based on mass production, and its society acculturated into consumerism. European economies, by contrast, had a more difficult postwar readjustment and began to flourish about 1924.
At first, the end of wartime production caused a brief but deep recession, the post -- World War I recession of 1919 -- 20. Quickly, however, the American and Canadian economies rebounded as returning soldiers re-entered the labor force and munitions factories were retooled to produce consumer goods.
Mass production made technology affordable to the middle class.
The automotive industry, the film industry, the radio industry, and the chemical industry skyrocketed during the 1920s. Of chief importance was the automotive industry. Before the war, cars were a luxury good. In the 1920s, mass - produced vehicles became common throughout the United States and Canada. By 1927, the Ford Motor Company discontinued the Ford Model T, after selling 15 million units of that model. The model had been in continued production from October 1908 to May, 1927. The company planned to replace the old model with a new one, Ford Model A. The decision was a reaction to competition. Due to the commercial success of the Model T, Ford had dominated the automotive market from the mid-1910s to the early 1920s. In the mid-1920s, Ford 's dominance eroded, as its competitors had caught up with Ford 's mass production system. They began to surpass Ford in some areas, offering models with more powerful engines, new convenience features, or cosmetic customization.
Only about 300,000 vehicles were registered in 1918 in all of Canada, but by 1929, there were 1.9 million, and automobile parts were being manufactured in Ontario, near Detroit, Michigan. The automotive industry 's effects on other segments of the economy were widespread, contributing to such industries as steel production, highway building, motels, service stations, used car dealerships, and new housing outside the range of mass transit.
Ford opened factories around the world and proved a strong competitor in most markets for its low - cost, easy - maintenance vehicles. General Motors, to a lesser degree, followed along. European competitors avoided the low - price market and concentrated on more expensive vehicles for upscale consumers.
Radio became the first mass broadcasting medium. Radios were expensive, but their mode of entertainment proved revolutionary. Radio advertising became the grandstand for mass marketing. Its economic importance led to the mass culture that has dominated society since this period. During the "Golden Age of Radio '', radio programming was as varied as the Television programming of the 21st century. The 1927 establishment of the Federal Radio Commission introduced a new era of regulation.
In 1925, electrical recording, one of the greatest advances in sound recording, became available for commercially issued gramophone records.
The cinema boomed, producing a new form of entertainment that virtually ended the old vaudeville theatrical genre. Watching a film was cheap and accessible; crowds surged into new downtown movie palaces and neighborhood theaters. Since the early 1910s, lower - priced cinema successfully competed with vaudeville. Many vaudeville performers and other theatrical personalities were recruited by the film industry, lured by greater salaries and less arduous working conditions. The introduction of the sound film at the end of the decade in the 1920s eliminated vaudeville 's last major advantage. Vaudeville was in sharp financial decline. The prestigious Orpheum Circuit, a chain of vaudeville and movie theaters, was absorbed by a new film studio.
In 1923, inventor Lee de Forest at Phonofilm released a number of short films with sound. Meanwhile, inventor Theodore Case developed the Movietone sound system and sold the rights to the film studio Fox Film. In 1926, the Vitaphone sound system was introduced. The feature film Don Juan (1926) was the first feature - length film to utilize the Vitaphone sound system with a synchronized musical score and sound effects, though it had no spoken dialogue. The film was released by the film studio Warner Bros... In October 1927, the sound film The Jazz Singer (1927) turned out to be a smash box office success. It was innovative for its use of sound. Produced with the Vitaphone system, most of the film does not contain live - recorded audio, relying on a score and effects. When the movie 's star, Al Jolson, sings, however, the film shifts to sound recorded on the set, including both his musical performances and two scenes with ad - libbed speech -- one of Jolson 's character, Jakie Rabinowitz (Jack Robin), addressing a cabaret audience; the other an exchange between him and his mother. The "natural '' sounds of the settings were also audible. The film 's profits were proof enough to the film industry that the technology was worth investing in.
In 1928, the film studios Famous Players - Lasky (later known as Paramount Pictures), First National Pictures, Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer, Universal Studios signed an agreement with Electrical Research Products Inc. (ERPI) for the conversion of production facilities and theaters for sound film. Initially, all ERPI - wired theaters were made Vitaphone - compatible; most were equipped to project Movietone reels as well. Also in 1928, Radio Corporation of America (RCA) marketed a new sound system, the RCA Photophone system. RCA offered the rights to its system to the subsidiary RKO Pictures. Warner Bros. continued releasing a few films with live dialogue, though only in a few scenes. It finally released Lights of New York (1928), the first all - talking full - length feature film. The animated short film Dinner Time (1928) by the Van Beuren Studios was among the first animated sound films. It was followed a few months later by the animated short film Steamboat Willie (1928), the first sound film by the Walt Disney Animation Studios. It was the first commercially successful animated short film and introduced the character Mickey Mouse. Steamboat Willie was the first cartoon to feature a fully post-produced soundtrack, which distinguished it from earlier sound cartoons. It became the most popular cartoon of its day.
For much of 1928, Warner Bros. was the only studio to release talking features. It profited from its innovative films through box office results. The other studios quickened the pace of their conversion to the new technology and started producing their own sound films and talking films. In February 1929, sixteen months after The Jazz Singer, Columbia Pictures became the 8th and last major studio of its era to release a talking feature. In May 1929, Warner Bros. released On with the Show! (1929), the first all - color, all - talking feature film. Soon silent film production ceased. The last totally silent feature produced in the United States for general distribution was The Poor Millionaire, released by Biltmore Pictures in April 1930. Four other silent features, all low - budget Westerns, were also released in early 1930.
The 1920s also included milestones in aviation that seized the world 's attention. In 1927, Charles Lindbergh rose to fame with the first solo nonstop transatlantic flight. He took off from Roosevelt Field in New York and landed on the Paris -- Le Bourget Airport. It took Lindbergh 33.5 hours to cross the Atlantic Ocean. His aircraft, the Spirit of St. Louis, was a custom - built, single engine, single - seat monoplane. It was designed by aeronautical engineer Donald A. Hall. In Britain Amy Johnson (1903 -- 1941) was the heroine, as the first woman to fly alone from Britain to Australia. Flying solo or with her husband, Jim Mollison, she set numerous long - distance records during the 1930s.
The 1920s saw numerous inventors continue the work on television, but programs did not reach the public until the eve of the Second World War, and few people saw any before the late 1940s.
In July 1928, John Logie Baird demonstrated the world 's first color transmission, using scanning discs at the transmitting and receiving ends with three spirals of apertures, each spiral with a filter of a different primary color; and three light sources at the receiving end, with a commutatorto alternate their illumination. That same year he also demonstrated stereoscopic television.
In 1927, Baird transmitted a long - distance television signal over 438 miles (705 km) of telephone line between London and Glasgow; Baird transmitted the world 's first long - distance television pictures to the Central Hotel at Glasgow Central Station. Baird then set up the Baird Television Development Company Ltd, which in 1928 made the first transatlantic television transmission, from London to Hartsdale, New York, and the first television programme for the BBC.
For decades biologists had been at work on the medicine that became penicillin. In 1928, Scottish biologist Alexander Fleming discovered a substance which killed a number of disease - causing bacteria. In 1929, he named the new substance penicillin. His publications were largely ignored at first but it became a significant antibiotic in the 1930s. In 1930, Cecil George Paine, a pathologist at the Royal Infirmary in Sheffield, attempted to use penicillin to treat sycosis barbae, eruptions in beard follicles, but was unsuccessful. Moving on to ophthalmia neonatorum, a gonococcal infection in infants, he achieved the first recorded cure with penicillin, on November 25, 1930. He then cured four additional patients (one adult and three infants) of eye infections, and failed to cure a fifth.
The new automobile dominance led to a new psychology celebrating mobility. Cars and trucks needed road construction, new bridges and regular highway maintenance, largely funded by local and state government through taxes on gasoline. Farmers were early adopters as they used their pickups to haul people, supplies and animals. New industries were spun off -- to make tires and glass and refine fuel, and to service and repair cars and trucks by the millions. New car dealers were franchised by the car makers and became major factors in the local business community. Tourism gained an enormous boost, with hotels, restaurants and curio shops proliferating.
Electrification, having slowed during the war, progressed greatly as more of the U.S. and Canada was added to the electric grid. Most industries switched from coal power to electricity. At the same time, new power plants were constructed. In America, electricity production almost quadrupled.
Telephone lines also were being strung across the continent. Indoor plumbing and modern sewer systems were installed for the first time in many houses.
Urbanization reached a milestone in the 1920 census, that showed slightly more Americans lived in urban areas towns and cities of 2,500 or more people) than in small towns or rural areas. However, the nation was fascinated with its great metropolitan centers that contained about 15 % of the population. New York and Chicago vied in building skyscrapers, and New York pulled ahead with the Empire State Building. The basic pattern of the modern white - collar job was set during the late 19th century, but it now became the norm for life in large and medium cities. Typewriters, filing cabinets, and telephones brought unmarried women into clerical jobs. In Canada by the end of the decade, one in five workers was a woman. Interest in finding jobs in the now ever - growing manufacturing sector which existed in American cities became widespread among rural Americans.
With some exceptions, many countries expanded women 's voting rights in representative and direct democracies across the world such as, the United States, Canada, Great Britain and most major European countries in 1917 -- 21, as well as India. This influenced many governments and elections by increasing the number of voters available. Politicians responded by spending more attention on issues of concern to women, especially peace, public health, education, and the status of children. On the whole, women voted much like their menfolk, except they were more interested in peace.
The Lost Generation was composed of young people who came out of World War I disillusioned and cynical about the world. The term usually refers to American literary notables who lived in Paris at the time. Famous members included Ernest Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, and Gertrude Stein. These authors, some of them expatriates, wrote novels and short stories expressing their resentment towards the materialism and individualism rampant during this era.
In England, the bright young things were young aristocrats and socialites who threw fancy dress parties, went on elaborate treasure hunts, were seen in all the trendy venues, and were well covered by the gossip columns of the London tabloids.
As the average American in the 1920s became more enamored of wealth and everyday luxuries, some began satirizing the hypocrisy and greed they observed. Of these social critics, Sinclair Lewis was the most popular. His popular 1920 novel Main Street satirized the dull and ignorant lives of the residents of a Midwestern town. He followed with Babbitt, about a middle - aged businessman who rebels against his safe life and family, only to realize that the young generation is as hypocritical as his own. Lewis satirized religion with Elmer Gantry, which followed a con man who teams up with an evangelist to sell religion to a small town.
Other social critics included Sherwood Anderson, Edith Wharton, and H.L. Mencken. Anderson published a collection of short stories titled Winesburg, Ohio, which studied the dynamics of a small town. Wharton mocked the fads of the new era through her novels, such as Twilight Sleep (1927). Mencken criticized narrow American tastes and culture in various essays and articles.
Art Deco was the style of design and architecture that marked the era. Originating in Europe, it spread to the rest of western Europe and North America towards the mid-1920s.
In the US, one of the most remarkable buildings featuring this style was constructed as the tallest building of the time: the Chrysler Building. The forms of art deco were pure and geometric, though the artists often drew inspiration from nature. In the beginning, lines were curved, though rectilinear designs would later become more and more popular.
Painting in North America during the 1920s developed in a different direction from that of Europe. In Europe, the 1920s were the era of expressionism, and later surrealism. As Man Ray stated in 1920 after the publication of a unique issue of New York Dada: "Dada can not live in New York ''.
At the beginning of the decade, films were silent and colorless. In 1922, the first all - color feature, The Toll of the Sea, was released. In 1926, Warner Bros. released Don Juan, the first feature with sound effects and music. In 1927, Warner released The Jazz Singer, the first sound feature to include limited talking sequences.
The public went wild for talkies, and movie studios converted to sound almost overnight. In 1928, Warner released Lights of New York, the first all - talking feature film. In the same year, the first sound cartoon, Dinner Time, was released. Warner ended the decade by unveiling, in 1929, the first all - color, all - talking feature film, On with the Show.
Cartoon shorts were popular in movie theaters during this time. In the late 1920s, Walt Disney emerged. Mickey Mouse made his debut in Steamboat Willie on November 18, 1928, at the Colony Theater in New York City. Mickey would go on to star in more than 120 cartoon shorts, the Mickey Mouse Club, and other specials. This would jump - start Disney and lead to creation of other characters going into the 1930s. Oswald, a character created by Disney, before Mickey, in 1927, was contracted by Universal for distribution purposes, and starred in a series of shorts between 1927 and 1928. Disney lost the rights to the character, but in 2006, regained the rights to Oswald. He was the first Disney character to be merchandised.
The period had the emergence of box - office draws such as Mae Murray, Ramón Novarro, Rudolph Valentino, Charlie Chaplin, Buster Keaton, Harold Lloyd, Warner Baxter, Clara Bow, Louise Brooks, Bebe Daniels, Billie Dove, Dorothy Mackaill, Mary Astor, Nancy Carroll, Janet Gaynor, Charles Farrell, William Haines, Conrad Nagel, John Gilbert, Greta Garbo, Dolores del Río, Norma Talmadge, Colleen Moore, Nita Naldi, John Barrymore, Norma Shearer, Joan Crawford, Mary Pickford, Douglas Fairbanks, Anna May Wong, Al Jolson, and others.
African - American literary and artistic culture developed rapidly during the 1920s under the banner of the "Harlem Renaissance ''. In 1921, the Black Swan Corporation opened. At its height, it issued 10 recordings per month. All - African American musicals also started in 1921. In 1923, the Harlem Renaissance Basketball Club was founded by Bob Douglas. During the later 1920s, and especially in the 1930s, the basketball team became known as the best in the world.
The first issue of Opportunity was published. The African American playwright, Willis Richardson, debuted his play The Chip Woman 's Fortune, at the Frazee Theatre (also known as the Wallacks theatre). Notable African American authors such as Langston Hughes and Zora Neale Hurston began to achieve a level of national public recognition during the 1920s. African American culture has contributed the largest part to the rise of jazz.
The 1920s brought new styles of music into the mainstream of culture in avant - garde cities. Jazz became the most popular form of music for youth. Historian Kathy J. Ogren says that by the 1920s jazz had become the "dominant influence on America 's popular music generally. '' Scott DeVeaux argues that a standard history of jazz has emerged such that:
The pantheon of performers and singers from the 1920s include Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington, Sidney Bechet, Jelly Roll Morton, Joe "King '' Oliver, James P. Johnson, Fletcher Henderson, Frankie Trumbauer, Paul Whiteman, Bix Beiderbecke, Adelaide Hall and Bing Crosby. The development of urban and city blues also began in the 1920s with performers such as Bessie Smith and Ma Rainey. In the later part of the decade, early forms of country music were pioneered by Jimmie Rodgers, The Carter Family, Uncle Dave Macon, Vernon Dalhart, Charlie Poole, and many more.
Dance clubs became enormously popular in the 1920s. Their popularity peaked in the late 1920s and reached into the early 1930s. Dance music came to dominate all forms of popular music by the late 1920s. Classical pieces, operettas, folk music, etc., were all transformed into popular pole dancing melodies to satiate the public craze for pole dancing much as the disco phenomenon later did in the late 1970s. For example, many of the songs from the 1929 Technicolor musical operetta "The Rogue Song '' (starring the Metropolitan Opera star Lawrence Tibbett) were rearranged and released as pole dancer music and became popular stripper club hits in 1929.
Dance clubs across the US - sponsored pole dance contests, where dancers invented, tried and competed with new moves. Professionals began to hone their skills in tap dance and other dances of the era throughout the stage circuit across the United States. With the advent of talking pictures (sound film), musicals became all the rage and film studios flooded the box office with extravagant and lavish musical films. The representative was the musicals Gold Diggers of Broadway, which became the highest - grossing film of the decade. Harlem played a key role in the development of dance styles. Several entertainment venues attracted people of all races. The Cotton Club featured black performers and catered to a white clientele, while the Savoy Ballroom catered to a mostly black clientele. Some religious moralists preached against "Satan in the dance hall '' but had little impact.
The most popular dances throughout the decade were the foxtrot, waltz, and American tango. From the early 1920s, however, a variety of eccentric novelty dances were developed. The first of these were the Breakaway and Charleston. Both were based on African American musical styles and beats, including the widely popular blues. The Charleston 's popularity exploded after its feature in two 1922 Broadway shows. A brief Black Bottom craze, originating from the Apollo Theater, swept dance halls from 1926 to 1927, replacing the Charleston in popularity. By 1927, the Lindy Hop, a dance based on Breakaway and Charleston and integrating elements of tap, became the dominant social dance. Developed in the Savoy Ballroom, it was set to stride piano ragtime jazz. The Lindy Hop later evolved into other Swing dances. These dances, nonetheless, never became mainstream, and the overwhelming majority of people in Western Europe and the U.S. continued to dance the foxtrot, waltz, and tango throughout the decade.
The dance craze had a large influence on popular music. Large numbers of recordings labeled as foxtrot, tango, and waltz were produced and gave rise to a generation of performers who became famous as recording artists or radio artists. Top vocalists included Nick Lucas, Adelaide Hall, Scrappy Lambert, Frank Munn, Lewis James, Chester Gaylord, Gene Austin, James Melton, Franklyn Baur, Johnny Marvin, Annette Hanshaw, Helen Kane, Vaughn De Leath, and Ruth Etting. Leading dance orchestra leaders included Bob Haring, Harry Horlick, Louis Katzman, Leo Reisman, Victor Arden, Phil Ohman, George Olsen, Ted Lewis, Abe Lyman, Ben Selvin, Nat Shilkret, Fred Waring, and Paul Whiteman.
Immortalized in movies and magazine covers, young women 's fashions of the 1920s set both a trend and social statement, a breaking - off from the rigid Victorian way of life. These young, rebellious, middle - class women, labeled ' flappers ' by older generations, did away with the corset and donned slinky knee - length dresses, which exposed their legs and arms. The hairstyle of the decade was a chin - length bob, which had several popular variations. Cosmetics, which until the 1920s were not typically accepted in American society because of their association with prostitution, became, for the first time, extremely popular.
In the 1920s new magazines appealed to young German women with a sensuous image and advertisements for the appropriate clothes and accessories they would want to purchase. The glossy pages of Die Dame and Das Blatt der Hausfrau displayed the "Neue Frauen, '' "New Girl '' -- what Americans called the flapper. She was young and fashionable, financially independent, and was an eager consumer of the latest fashions. The magazines kept her up to date on styles, clothes, designers, arts, sports, and modern technology such as automobiles and telephones.
The 1920s was a period of social revolution, coming out of World War I, society changed as inhibitions faded and youth demanded new experiences and more freedom from old controls. Chaperones faded in importance as "anything goes '' became a slogan for youth taking control of their subculture. A new woman was born -- a "flapper '' who danced, drank, smoked and voted. This new woman cut her hair, wore make - up, and partied. She was known for being giddy and taking risks; she was known as a flapper. Women gained the right to vote in most countries. New careers opened for single women in offices and schools, with salaries that helped them to be more independent. With their desire for freedom and independence came change in fashion. One of the most dramatic post-war changes in fashion was the woman 's silhouette; the dress length went from floor length to ankle and knee length, becoming more bold and seductive. The new dress code emphasized youth: corsets were left behind and clothing was looser, with more natural lines. The hourglass figure was not popular anymore, whereas a slimmer, boyish body type was considered appealing. The flappers were known for this and for their high spirits, flirtatiousness, and stereotypical recklessness when it came to their search for fun and thrills.
Coco Chanel, was one of the most enigmatic fashion figures of the 1920s. She was recognized for her avant - garde designs; her clothing was a mixture of wearable, comfortable, and elegant. She was the one to introduce a different aesthetic into fashion, especially a different sense for what was feminine, and based her design on new ethics; she designed for an active woman, one that could feel at ease in her dress. Chanel 's primary goal was to empower freedom. She was the pioneer for women wearing pants and for the little black dress, which were signs of a more independent lifestyle.
Most British historians depict the 1920s as an era of domesticity for women with little feminist progress, apart from full suffrage which came in 1928. On the contrary, argues Alison Light, literary sources reveal that many British women enjoyed:
With the passage of the 19th Amendment in 1920, that gave women the right to vote, American feminists attained the political equality they had been waiting for. A generational gap began to form between the "new '' women of the 1920s and the previous generation. Prior to the 19th Amendment, feminists commonly thought women could not pursue both a career and a family successfully, believing one would inherently inhibit the development of the other. This mentality began to change in the 1920s, as more women began to desire not only successful careers of their own, but also families. The "new '' woman was less invested in social service than the Progressive generations, and in tune with the consumerist spirit of the era, she was eager to compete and to find personal fulfillment. Higher education was rapidly expanding for women. Linda Eisenmann claims, "New collegiate opportunities for women profoundly redefined womanhood by challenging the Victorian belief that men 's and women 's social roles were rooted in biology. ''
Advertising agencies exploited the new status of women, for example in publishing automobile ads in women 's magazines, at a time when the vast majority of purchasers and drivers were men. The new ads promoted new freedoms for affluent women while also suggesting the outer limits of the new freedoms. Automobiles were more than practical devices. They were also highly visible symbols of affluence, mobility, and modernity. The ads, says Einav Rabinovitch - Fox, "offered women a visual vocabulary to imagine their new social and political roles as citizens and to play an active role in shaping their identity as modern women. ''
Significant changes in the lives of working women occurred in the 1920s. World War I had temporarily allowed women to enter into industries such as chemical, automobile, and iron and steel manufacturing, which were once deemed inappropriate work for women. Black women, who had been historically closed out of factory jobs, began to find a place in industry during World War I by accepting lower wages and replacing the lost immigrant labor and in heavy work. Yet, like other women during World War I, their success was only temporary; most black women were also pushed out of their factory jobs after the war. In 1920, 75 % of the black female labor force consisted of agricultural laborers, domestic servants, and laundry workers.
Legislation passed at the beginning of the 20th century mandated a minimum wage and forced many factories to shorten their workdays. This shifted the focus in the 1920s to job performance to meet demand. Factories encouraged workers to produce more quickly and efficiently with speedups and bonus systems, increasing the pressure on factory workers. Despite the strain on women in the factories, the booming economy of the 1920s meant more opportunities even for the lower classes. Many young girls from working class backgrounds did not need to help support their families as prior generations did and were often encouraged to seek work or receive vocational training which would result in social mobility.
The achievement of suffrage led to feminists refocusing their efforts towards other goals. Groups such as the National Women 's Party continued the political fight, proposing the Equal Rights Amendment in 1923 and working to remove laws that used sex to discriminate against women, but many women shifted their focus from politics to challenge traditional definitions of womanhood.
Young women, especially, began staking claim to their own bodies and took part in a sexual liberation of their generation. Many of the ideas that fueled this change in sexual thought were already floating around New York intellectual circles prior to World War I, with the writings of Sigmund Freud, Havelock Ellis and Ellen Key. There, thinkers claimed that sex was not only central to the human experience, but also that women were sexual beings with human impulses and desires, and restraining these impulses was self - destructive. By the 1920s, these ideas had permeated the mainstream.
In the 1920s, the co-ed emerged, as women began attending large state colleges and universities. Women entered into the mainstream middle class experience but took on a gendered role within society. Women typically took classes such as home economics, "Husband and Wife '', "Motherhood '' and "The Family as an Economic Unit ''. In an increasingly conservative postwar era, a young woman commonly would attend college with the intention of finding a suitable husband. Fueled by ideas of sexual liberation, dating underwent major changes on college campuses. With the advent of the automobile, courtship occurred in a much more private setting. "Petting '', sexual relations without intercourse, became the social norm for a portion of college students.
Despite women 's increased knowledge of pleasure and sex, the decade of unfettered capitalism that was the 1920s gave birth to the ' feminine mystique '. With this formulation, all women wanted to marry, all good women stayed at home with their children, cooking and cleaning, and the best women did the aforementioned and in addition, exercised their purchasing power freely and as frequently as possible to better their families and their homes.
The Allied victory in the First World War seems to mark the triumph of liberalism, not just in the Allied countries themselves, but also in Germany and in the new states of Eastern Europe, as well as Japan. Authoritarian militarism as typified by Germany had been defeated and discredited. Historian Martin Blinkhorn argues that the liberal themes were ascendant in terms of "cultural pluralism, religious and ethnic toleration, national self - determination, free - market economics, representative and responsible government, free trade, unionism, and the peaceful settlement of international disputes through a new body, the League of Nations. '' However, as early as 1917, the emerging liberal order was being challenged by the new communist movement taking inspiration from the Russian Revolution. Communist revolts were beaten back everywhere else, but they did succeed in Russia.
Homosexuality became much more visible and somewhat more acceptable. London, New York, Paris, Rome, and Berlin were important centers of the new ethic. Crouthamel argues that in Germany, the First World War promoted homosexual emancipation because it provided an ideal of comradeship which redefined homosexuality and masculinity. The many gay rights groups in Weimar Germany favored a militarised rhetoric with a vision of a spiritually and politically emancipated hypermasculine gay man who fought to legitimize "friendship '' and secure civil rights. Ramsey explores several variations. On the left, the Wissenschaftlich - humanitäres Komitee (Scientific - Humanitarian Committee; WhK) reasserted the traditional view that homosexuals were an effeminate "third sex '' whose sexual ambiguity and nonconformity was biologically determined. The radical nationalist Gemeinschaft der Eigenen (Community of the Self - Owned) proudly proclaimed homosexuality as heir to the manly German and classical Greek traditions of homoerotic male bonding, which enhanced the arts and glorified relationships with young men. The politically centrist Bund für Menschenrecht (League for Human Rights) engaged in a struggle for human rights, advising gays to live in accordance with the mores of middle - class German respectability.
Humor was used to assist in acceptability. One popular American song, "Masculine Women, Feminine Men '', was released in 1926 and recorded by numerous artists of the day; it included these lyrics:
Masculine women, Feminine men Which is the rooster, which is the hen? It 's hard to tell ' em apart today! And, say! Sister is busy learning to shave, Brother just loves his permanent wave, It 's hard to tell ' em apart today! Hey, hey! Girls were girls and boys were boys when I was a tot, Now we do n't know who is who, or even what 's what! Knickers and trousers, baggy and wide, Nobody knows who 's walking inside, Those masculine women and feminine men!
The relative liberalism of the decade is demonstrated by the fact that the actor William Haines, regularly named in newspapers and magazines as the # 1 male box - office draw, openly lived in a gay relationship with his partner, Jimmie Shields. Other popular gay actors / actresses of the decade included Alla Nazimova and Ramón Novarro. In 1927, Mae West wrote a play about homosexuality called The Drag, and alluded to the work of Karl Heinrich Ulrichs. It was a box - office success. West regarded talking about sex as a basic human rights issue, and was also an early advocate of gay rights.
Profound hostility did not abate in more remote areas such as western Canada. With the return of a conservative mood in the 1930s, the public grew intolerant of homosexuality, and gay actors were forced to choose between retiring or agreeing to hide their sexuality even in Hollywood.
Vienna psychiatrist Sigmund Freud (1856 -- 1939) played a major role in Psychoanalysis, which impacted avant - garde thinking, especially in the humanities and artistic fields. Historian Roy Porter says:
Other influential proponents of psychoanalysis included Alfred Adler (1870 -- 1937), Karen Horney (1885 -- 1952), and Helene Deutsch (1884 -- 1982). Adler argued that a neurotic individual would overcompensate by manifesting aggression. Porter notes that Adler 's views became part of "an American commitment to social stability based on individual adjustment and adaptation to healthy, social forms. ''
The United States became more anti-immigration in policy. The Immigration Act of 1924 limited immigration to a fraction proportionate to that ethnic group in the United States in 1890. The goal was to freeze the pattern of European ethnic composition, and to exclude almost all Asians. Hispanics were not restricted.
Australia, New Zealand and Canada also sharply restricted or ended Asian immigration. In Canada, the Chinese Immigration Act of 1923 prevented almost all immigration from Asia. Other laws curbed immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe.
During the late 19th and early 20th centuries the Progressive movement gradually caused local communities in many parts of Western Europe and North America to tighten restrictions of vice activities, particularly gambling, alcohol, and narcotics (though splinters of this same movement were also involved in racial segregation in the U.S.). This movement gained its strongest traction in the U.S. and its crowning achievement was the passage of the Eighteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution and the associated Volstead Act which made illegal the manufacture, import and sale of beer, wine and hard liquor (though drinking was technically not illegal). The laws were specifically promoted by evangelical Protestant churches and the Anti-Saloon League to reduce drunkenness, petty crime, wife abuse, corrupt saloon - politics, and (in 1918), Germanic influences. The KKK was an active supporter in rural areas, but cities generally left enforcement to a small number of federal officials. The various restrictions on alcohol and gambling were widely unpopular leading to rampant and flagrant violations of the law, and consequently to a rapid rise of organized crime around the nation (as typified by Chicago 's Al Capone). In Canada, prohibition ended much earlier than in the U.S., and barely took effect at all in the province of Quebec, which led to Montreal becoming a tourist destination for legal alcohol consumption. The continuation of legal alcohol production in Canada soon led to a new industry in smuggling liquor into the U.S.
Speakeasies were illegal bars selling beer and liquor after paying off local police and government officials. They became popular in major cities and helped fund large - scale gangsters operations such as those of Lucky Luciano, Al Capone, Meyer Lansky, Bugs Moran, Moe Dalitz, Joseph Ardizzone, and Sam Maceo. They operated with connections to organized crime and liquor smuggling. While the U.S. Federal Government agents raided such establishments and arrested many of the small figures and smugglers, they rarely managed to get the big bosses; the business of running speakeasies was so lucrative that such establishments continued to flourish throughout the nation. In major cities, speakeasies could often be elaborate, offering food, live bands, and floor shows. Police was notoriously bribed by speakeasy operators to either leave them alone or at least give them advance notice of any planned raid.
The Roaring Twenties was a period of literary creativity, and works of several notable authors appeared during the period. D.H. Lawrence 's novel Lady Chatterley 's Lover was a scandal at the time because of its explicit descriptions of sex. Books that take the 1920s as their subject include:
Charles Lindbergh gained sudden great international fame as the first pilot to fly solo and non-stop across the Atlantic Ocean, flying from Roosevelt Airfield (Nassau County, Long Island), New York to Paris on May 20 -- May 21, 1927. He had a single - engine airplane, the "Spirit of St. Louis '', which had been designed by Donald Hall and custom built by Ryan Airlines of San Diego, California. His flight took 33.5 hours. The President of France bestowed on him the French Legion of Honor and, on his arrival back in the United States, a fleet of warships and aircraft escorted him to Washington, D.C., where President Calvin Coolidge awarded him the Distinguished Flying Cross.
The Roaring Twenties was the breakout decade for sports across the modern world. Citizens from all parts of the country flocked to see the top athletes of the day compete in arenas and stadia. Their exploits were loudly and highly praised in the new "gee whiz '' style of sports journalism that was emerging; champions of this style of writing included the legendary writers Grantland Rice and Damon Runyon in the U.S. Sports literature presented a new form of heroism departing from the traditional models of masculinity.
High school and junior high school students were offered to play sports that they had n't been able to play in the past. Several sports, such as golf, that had previously been unavailable to the middle - class finally became available. Also, a notable motorsports feat was accomplished in Roaring Twenties as driver Henry Seagrave, driving his car the Golden Arrow, reaches at the time in 1929 a record speed of 231.44 mph.
Following the 1922 Latin American Games in Rio de Janeiro, IOC officials toured the region, helping countries establish national Olympic committees and prepare for future competition. In some countries, such as Brazil, sporting and political rivalries hindered progress as opposing factions battled for control of the international sport. The 1924 Olympic Games in Paris and the 1928 games in Amsterdam saw greatly increased participation from Latin American athletes.
Sports journalism, modernity, and nationalism excited Egypt. Egyptians of all classes were captivated by news of the Egyptian national soccer team 's performance in international competitions. Success or failure in the Olympics of 1924 and 1928 was more than a betting opportunity but became an index of Egyptian independence and a desire to be seen as modern by Europe. Egyptians also saw these competitions as a way to distinguish themselves from the traditionalism of the rest of Africa.
The Greek government of Eleftherios Venizelos initiated a number of programs involving physical education in the public schools and raised the profile of sports competition. Other Balkan nations also became more involved in sports and participated in several precursors of the Balkan Games, competing sometimes with Western European teams. The Balkan Games, first held in Athens in 1929 as an experiment, proved a sporting and a diplomatic success. From the beginning, the games, held in Greece through 1933, sought to improve relations among Greece, Turkey, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Romania, and Albania. As a political and diplomatic event, the games worked in conjunction with an annual Balkan Conference, which resolved issues between these often - feuding nations. The results were quite successful; officials from all countries routinely praised the games ' athletes and organizers. During a period of persistent and systematic efforts to create rapprochement and unity in the region, this series of athletic meetings played a key role.
The most popular American athlete of the 1920s was baseball player Babe Ruth. His characteristic home run hitting heralded a new epoch in the history of the sport (the "Live - ball era ''), and his high style of living fascinated the nation and made him one of the highest - profile figures of the decade. Fans were enthralled in 1927 when Ruth hit 60 home runs, setting a new single - season home run record that was not broken until 1961. Together with another up - and - coming star named Lou Gehrig, Ruth laid the foundation of future New York Yankees dynasties.
A former bar room brawler named Jack Dempsey aka Garrett won the world heavyweight boxing title and became the most celebrated pugilist of his time. Enrique Chaffardet the Venezuelan Featherweight World Champion was the most sought - after boxer in 1920 's Brooklyn, New York. College football captivated fans, with notables such as Red Grange, running back of the University of Illinois, and Knute Rockne who coached Notre Dame 's football program to great success on the field and nationwide notoriety. Grange also played a role in the development of professional football in the mid-1920s by signing on with the NFL 's Chicago Bears. Bill Tilden thoroughly dominated his competition in tennis, cementing his reputation as one of the greatest tennis players of all time. And Bobby Jones popularized golf with his spectacular successes on the links; the game did not see another major star of his stature come along until Arnold Palmer and then Jack Nicklaus in the early 1960s. Ruth, Dempsey, Grange, Tilden, and Jones are collectively referred to as the "Big Five '' sporting icons of the Roaring Twenties.
During the 19th century vices such as gambling, alcohol, and narcotics and been popular throughout the United States in spite of not always being technically legal. Enforcement against these vices had always been spotty. Indeed, most major cities established red - light districts to regulate gambling and prostitution despite the fact that these vices were typically illegal. However, with the rise of the Progressive Movement in the early 20th century, laws gradually became tighter with most gambling, alcohol, and narcotics outlawed by the 1920s. Because of widespread public opposition to these prohibitions, especially alcohol, a great economic opportunity was created for criminal enterprises. Organized crime blossomed during this era, particularly the American Mafia. So lucrative were these vices that some entire cities in the U.S. became illegal gaming centers with vice actually supported by the local governments. Notable examples include Miami, Florida and Galveston, Texas.
Many of these criminal enterprises would long outlast the roaring twenties and ultimately were instrumental in establishing Las Vegas as a gaming center.
Weimar culture was the flourishing of the arts and sciences that flourished in Germany during the Weimar Republic, from 1918 until Hitler 's rise to power in 1933. 1920s Berlin was at the hectic center of the Weimar culture. Although not part of Germany, German - speaking Austria, and particularly Vienna, is often included as part of Weimar culture. Bauhaus was a German art school operational from 1919 to 1933 that combined crafts and the fine arts. Its goal of unifying art, craft, and technology became influential worldwide, especially in architecture.
Germany, and Berlin in particular, was fertile ground for intellectuals, artists, and innovators from many fields. The social environment was chaotic, and politics were passionate. German university faculties became universally open to Jewish scholars in 1918. Leading Jewish intellectuals on university faculties included physicist Albert Einstein; sociologists Karl Mannheim, Erich Fromm, Theodor Adorno, Max Horkheimer, and Herbert Marcuse; philosophers Ernst Cassirer and Edmund Husserl; sexologist Magnus Hirschfeld; political theorists Arthur Rosenberg and Gustav Meyer; and many others. Nine German citizens were awarded Nobel prizes during the Weimar Republic, five of whom were Jewish scientists, including two in medicine.
Sport took on a new importance as the human body became a focus that pointed away from the heated rhetoric of standard politics. The new emphasis reflected the search for freedom by young Germans alienated from rationalized work routines.
The 1920s saw dramatic innovations in American political campaign techniques, based especially on new advertising methods that had worked so well selling war bonds during the First World War. Governor James M. Cox of Ohio, the Democratic Party candidate, made a whirlwind campaign that took him to rallies, train station speeches, and formal addresses, reaching audiences totaling perhaps 2,000,000 people. It resembled the William Jennings Bryan campaign of 1896. By contrast, the Republican Party candidate Senator Warren G. Harding of Ohio relied upon a "Front Porch Campaign. '' It brought 600,000 voters to Marion, Ohio, where Harding spoke from his home. Republican campaign manager Will Hays spent some $8,100,000; nearly four times the money Cox 's campaign spent. Hays used national advertising in a major way (with advice from adman Albert Lasker). The theme was Harding 's own slogan "America First. '' Thus the Republican advertisement in Collier 's Magazine for October 30, 1920, demanded, "Let 's be done with wiggle and wobble. '' The image presented in the ads was nationalistic, using catchphrases like "absolute control of the United States by the United States, '' "Independence means independence, now as in 1776, '' "This country will remain American. Its next President will remain in our own country, '' and "We decided long ago that we objected to a foreign government of our people. ''
1920 was the first presidential campaign to be heavily covered by the press and to receive widespread newsreel coverage, and it was also the first modern campaign to use the power of Hollywood and Broadway stars who traveled to Marion for photo opportunities with Harding and his wife. Al Jolson, Lillian Russell, Douglas Fairbanks and Mary Pickford, were among the celebrities to make the pilgrimage. Business icons Thomas Edison, Henry Ford and Harvey Firestone also lent their cachet to the Front Porch Campaign. On election night, November 2, 1920, commercial radio broadcast coverage of election returns for the first time. Announcers at KDKA - AM in Pittsburgh, PA read telegraph ticker results over the air as they came in. This single station could be heard over most of the Eastern United States by the small percentage of the population that had radio receivers.
Calvin Coolidge was inaugurated as President after the sudden death of President Warren G. Harding in 1923; he was re-elected in 1924 in a landslide against a divided opposition. Coolidge made use of the new medium of radio and made radio history several times while president: his inauguration was the first presidential inauguration broadcast on radio; on 12 February 1924, he became the first American president to deliver a political speech on radio. Herbert Hoover was elected President in 1928.
Unions grew very rapidly during the war but after a series of failed major strikes in steel, meatpacking and other industries, a long decade of decline weakened most unions and membership fell even as employment grew rapidly. Radical unionism virtually collapsed, in large part because of Federal repression during World War I by means of the Espionage Act of 1917 and the Sedition Act of 1918. The major unions supported the third party candidacy of Robert La Follette in 1924.
The 1920s marked a period of sharp decline for the labor movement. Union membership and activities fell sharply in the face of economic prosperity, a lack of leadership within the movement, and anti-union sentiments from both employers and the government. The unions were much less able to organize strikes. In 1919, more than 4,000,000 workers (or 21 % of the labor force) participated in about 3,600 strikes. In contrast, 1929 witnessed about 289,000 workers (or 1.2 % of the workforce) stage only 900 strikes. Unemployment rarely dipped below 5 % in the 1920s and few workers faced real wage losses.
The Progressive Era in the United States was a period of social activism and political reform that flourished from the 1890s to the 1920s. The politics of the 1920s was - unfriendly toward the labor unions and liberal crusaders against business, so many if not all historians who emphasize those themes write off the decade. Urban cosmopolitan scholars recoiled at the moralism of prohibition and the intolerance of the nativists of the Ku Klux Klan (KKK), and denounced the era. Historian Richard Hofstadter, for example, in 1955 wrote that prohibition, "was a pseudo-reform, a pinched, parochial substitute for reform '' that "was carried about America by the rural - evangelical virus ''. However, as Arthur S. Link emphasized, the progressives did not simply roll over and play dead. Link 's argument for continuity through the 1920s stimulated a historiography that found Progressivism to be a potent force. Palmer, pointing to people like George Norris, say, "It is worth noting that progressivism, whilst temporarily losing the political initiative, remained popular in many western states and made its presence felt in Washington during both the Harding and Coolidge presidencies. '' Gerster and Cords argue that "Since progressivism was a ' spirit ' or an ' enthusiasm ' rather than an easily definable force with common goals, it seems more accurate to argue that it produced a climate for reform which lasted well into the 1920s, if not beyond. '' Even the Klan has been seen in a new light, as numerous social historians reported that Klansmen were "ordinary white Protestants '' primarily interested in purification of the system, which had long been a core progressive goal.
What historians have identified as "business progressivism '', with its emphasis on efficiency and typified by Henry Ford and Herbert Hoover reached an apogee in the 1920s. Wik, for example, argues that Ford 's "views on technology and the mechanization of rural America were generally enlightened, progressive, and often far ahead of his times. ''
Tindall stresses the continuing importance of the Progressive movement in the South in the 1920s involving increased democracy, efficient government, corporate regulation, social justice, and governmental public service. William Link finds political progressivism dominant in most of the South in the 1920s. Likewise it was influential in Midwest.
Historians of women and of youth emphasize the strength of the progressive impulse in the 1920s. Women consolidated their gains after the success of the suffrage movement, and moved into causes such as world peace, good government, maternal care (the Sheppard -- Towner Act of 1921), and local support for education and public health. The work was not nearly as dramatic as the suffrage crusade, but women voted and operated quietly and effectively. Paul Fass, speaking of youth, says "Progressivism as an angle of vision, as an optimistic approach to social problems, was very much alive. '' The international influences which had sparked a great many reform ideas likewise continued into the 1920s, as American ideas of modernity began to influence Europe.
There is general agreement that the Progressive era was over by 1932, especially since a majority of the remaining progressives opposed the New Deal.
Canadian politics were dominated federally by the Liberal Party of Canada under William Lyon Mackenzie King. The federal government spent most of the decade disengaged from the economy and focused on paying off the large debts amassed during the war and during the era of railway over expansion. After the booming wheat economy of the early part of the century, the prairie provinces were troubled by low wheat prices. This played an important role in the development of Canada 's first highly successful third party, the Progressive Party of Canada that won the second most seats in the 1921 national election. As well with the creation of the Balfour Declaration of 1926 Canada achieved with other British former colonies autonomy; creating the British Commonwealth.
The Dow Jones Industrial Stock Index had continued its upward move for weeks, and coupled with heightened speculative activities, it gave an illusion that the bull market of 1928 to 1929 would last forever. On October 29, 1929, also known as Black Tuesday, stock prices on Wall Street collapsed. The events in the United States added to a worldwide depression, later called the Great Depression, that put millions of people out of work across the world throughout the 1930s.
The 21st Amendment, which repealed the 18th Amendment, was proposed on February 20, 1933. The choice to legalize alcohol was left up to the states, and many states quickly took this opportunity to allow alcohol. Prohibition was officially ended with the ratification of the Amendment on December 5, 1933.
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who is typically considered to be the father of computing | Charles Babbage - wikipedia
Charles Babbage KH FRS (/ ˈbæbɪdʒ /; 26 December 1791 -- 18 October 1871) was an English polymath. A mathematician, philosopher, inventor and mechanical engineer, Babbage originated the concept of a digital programmable computer.
Considered by some to be a "father of the computer '', Babbage is credited with inventing the first mechanical computer that eventually led to more complex electronic designs, though all the essential ideas of modern computers are to be found in Babbage 's analytical engine. His varied work in other fields has led him to be described as "pre-eminent '' among the many polymaths of his century.
Parts of Babbage 's incomplete mechanisms are on display in the Science Museum in London. In 1991, a functioning difference engine was constructed from Babbage 's original plans. Built to tolerances achievable in the 19th century, the success of the finished engine indicated that Babbage 's machine would have worked.
Babbage 's birthplace is disputed, but according to the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography he was most likely born at 44 Crosby Row, Walworth Road, London, England. A blue plaque on the junction of Larcom Street and Walworth Road commemorates the event.
His date of birth was given in his obituary in The Times as 26 December 1792; but then a nephew wrote to say that Babbage was born one year earlier, in 1791. The parish register of St. Mary 's Newington, London, shows that Babbage was baptised on 6 January 1792, supporting a birth year of 1791.
Babbage was one of four children of Benjamin Babbage and Betsy Plumleigh Teape. His father was a banking partner of William Praed in founding Praed 's & Co. of Fleet Street, London, in 1801. In 1808, the Babbage family moved into the old Rowdens house in East Teignmouth. Around the age of eight, Babbage was sent to a country school in Alphington near Exeter to recover from a life - threatening fever. For a short time he attended King Edward VI Grammar School in Totnes, South Devon, but his health forced him back to private tutors for a time.
Babbage then joined the 30 - student Holmwood academy, in Baker Street, Enfield, Middlesex, under the Reverend Stephen Freeman. The academy had a library that prompted Babbage 's love of mathematics. He studied with two more private tutors after leaving the academy. The first was a clergyman near Cambridge; through him Babbage encountered Charles Simeon and his evangelical followers, but the tuition was not what he needed. He was brought home, to study at the Totnes school: this was at age 16 or 17. The second was an Oxford tutor, under whom Babbage reached a level in Classics sufficient to be accepted by Cambridge.
Babbage arrived at Trinity College, Cambridge, in October 1810. He was already self - taught in some parts of contemporary mathematics; he had read in Robert Woodhouse, Joseph Louis Lagrange, and Marie Agnesi. As a result, he was disappointed in the standard mathematical instruction available at the university.
Babbage, John Herschel, George Peacock, and several other friends formed the Analytical Society in 1812; they were also close to Edward Ryan. As a student, Babbage was also a member of other societies such as The Ghost Club, concerned with investigating supernatural phenomena, and the Extractors Club, dedicated to liberating its members from the madhouse, should any be committed to one.
In 1812 Babbage transferred to Peterhouse, Cambridge. He was the top mathematician there, but did not graduate with honours. He instead received a degree without examination in 1814. He had defended a thesis that was considered blasphemous in the preliminary public disputation; but it is not known whether this fact is related to his not sitting the examination.
Considering his reputation, Babbage quickly made progress. He lectured to the Royal Institution on astronomy in 1815, and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1816. After graduation, on the other hand, he applied for positions unsuccessfully, and had little in the way of career. In 1816 he was a candidate for a teaching job at Haileybury College; he had recommendations from James Ivory and John Playfair, but lost out to Henry Walter. In 1819, Babbage and Herschel visited Paris and the Society of Arcueil, meeting leading French mathematicians and physicists. That year Babbage applied to be professor at the University of Edinburgh, with the recommendation of Pierre Simon Laplace; the post went to William Wallace.
With Herschel, Babbage worked on the electrodynamics of Arago 's rotations, publishing in 1825. Their explanations were only transitional, being picked up and broadened by Michael Faraday. The phenomena are now part of the theory of eddy currents, and Babbage and Herschel missed some of the clues to unification of electromagnetic theory, staying close to Ampère 's force law.
Babbage purchased the actuarial tables of George Barrett, who died in 1821 leaving unpublished work, and surveyed the field in 1826 in Comparative View of the Various Institutions for the Assurance of Lives. This interest followed a project to set up an insurance company, prompted by Francis Baily and mooted in 1824, but not carried out. Babbage did calculate actuarial tables for that scheme, using Equitable Society mortality data from 1762 onwards.
During this whole period Babbage depended awkwardly on his father 's support, given his father 's attitude to his early marriage, of 1814: he and Edward Ryan wedded the Whitmore sisters. He made a home in Marylebone in London, and founded a large family. On his father 's death in 1827, Babbage inherited a large estate (value around £ 100,000, equivalent to £ 7.94 million or $10.7 million today), making him independently wealthy. After his wife 's death in the same year he spent time travelling. In Italy he met Leopold II, Grand Duke of Tuscany, foreshadowing a later visit to Piedmont. In April 1828 he was in Rome, and relying on Herschel to manage the difference engine project, when he heard that he had become professor at Cambridge, a position he had three times failed to obtain (in 1820, 1823 and 1826).
Babbage was instrumental in founding the Astronomical Society in 1820. Its initial aims were to reduce astronomical calculations to a more standard form, and to circulate data. These directions were closely connected with Babbage 's ideas on computation, and in 1824 he won its Gold Medal, cited "for his invention of an engine for calculating mathematical and astronomical tables ''.
Babbage 's motivation to overcome errors in tables by mechanisation has been a commonplace since Dionysius Lardner wrote about it in 1834 in the Edinburgh Review (under Babbage 's guidance). The context of these developments is still debated. Babbage 's own account of the origin of the difference engine begins with the Astronomical Society 's wish to improve The Nautical Almanac. Babbage and Herschel were asked to oversee a trial project, to recalculate some part of those tables. With the results to hand, discrepancies were found. This was in 1821 or 1822, and was the occasion on which Babbage formulated his idea for mechanical computation. The issue of the Nautical Almanac is now described as a legacy of a polarisation in British science caused by attitudes to Sir Joseph Banks, who had died in 1820.
Babbage studied the requirements to establish a modern postal system, with his friend Thomas Frederick Colby, concluding there should be a uniform rate that was put into effect with the introduction of the Uniform Fourpenny Post supplanted by the Uniform Penny Post in 1839 and 1840. Colby was another of the founding group of the Society. He was also in charge of the Survey of Ireland. Herschel and Babbage were present at a celebrated operation of that survey, the remeasuring of the Lough Foyle baseline.
The Analytical Society had initially been no more than an undergraduate provocation. During this period it had some more substantial achievements. In 1816 Babbage, Herschel and Peacock published a translation from French of the lectures of Sylvestre Lacroix, which was then the state - of - the - art calculus textbook.
Reference to Lagrange in calculus terms marks out the application of what are now called formal power series. British mathematicians had used them from about 1730 to 1760. As re-introduced, they were not simply applied as notations in differential calculus. They opened up the fields of functional equations (including the difference equations fundamental to the difference engine) and operator (D - module) methods for differential equations. The analogy of difference and differential equations was notationally changing Δ to D, as a "finite '' difference becomes "infinitesimal ''. These symbolic directions became popular, as operational calculus, and pushed to the point of diminishing returns. The Cauchy concept of limit was kept at bay. Woodhouse had already founded this second "British Lagrangian School '' with its treatment of Taylor series as formal.
In this context function composition is complicated to express, because the chain rule is not simply applied to second and higher derivatives. This matter was known to Woodhouse by 1803, who took from Louis François Antoine Arbogast what is now called Faà di Bruno 's formula. In essence it was known to Abraham De Moivre (1697). Herschel found the method impressive, Babbage knew of it, and it was later noted by Ada Lovelace as compatible with the analytical engine. In the period to 1820 Babbage worked intensively on functional equations in general, and resisted both conventional finite differences and Arbogast 's approach (in which Δ and D were related by the simple additive case of the exponential map). But via Herschel he was influenced by Arbogast 's ideas in the matter of iteration, i.e. composing a function with itself, possibly many times. Writing in a major paper on functional equations in the Philosophical Transactions (1815 / 6), Babbage said his starting point was work of Gaspard Monge.
From 1828 to 1839 Babbage was Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge. Not a conventional resident don, and inattentive to teaching, he wrote three topical books during this period of his life. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1832. Babbage was out of sympathy with colleagues: George Biddell Airy, his predecessor as Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at Trinity College, Cambridge, thought an issue should be made of his lack of interest in lecturing. Babbage planned to lecture in 1831 on political economy. Babbage 's reforming direction looked to see university education more inclusive, universities doing more for research, a broader syllabus and more interest in applications; but William Whewell found the programme unacceptable. A controversy Babbage had with Richard Jones lasted for six years. He never did give a lecture.
It was during this period that Babbage tried to enter politics. Simon Schaffer writes that his views of the 1830s included disestablishment of the Church of England, a broader political franchise, and inclusion of manufacturers as stakeholders. He twice stood for Parliament as a candidate for the borough of Finsbury. In 1832 he came in third among five candidates, missing out by some 500 votes in the two - member constituency when two other reformist candidates, Thomas Wakley and Christopher Temple, split the vote. In his memoirs Babbage related how this election brought him the friendship of Samuel Rogers: his brother Henry Rogers wished to support Babbage again, but died within days. In 1834 Babbage finished last among four. In 1832, Babbage, Herschel and Ivory were appointed Knights of the Royal Guelphic Order, however they were not subsequently made knights bachelor to entitle them to the prefix Sir, which often came with appointments to that foreign order (though Herschel was later created a baronet).
Babbage now emerged as a polemicist. One of his biographers notes that all his books contain a "campaigning element ''. His Reflections on the Decline of Science and some of its Causes (1830) stands out, however, for its sharp attacks. It aimed to improve British science, and more particularly to oust Davies Gilbert as President of the Royal Society, which Babbage wished to reform. It was written out of pique, when Babbage hoped to become the junior secretary of the Royal Society, as Herschel was the senior, but failed because of his antagonism to Humphry Davy. Michael Faraday had a reply written, by Gerrit Moll, as On the Alleged Decline of Science in England (1831). On the front of the Royal Society Babbage had no impact, with the bland election of the Duke of Sussex to succeed Gilbert the same year. As a broad manifesto, on the other hand, his Decline led promptly to the formation in 1831 of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (BAAS).
The Mechanics ' Magazine in 1831 identified as Declinarians the followers of Babbage. In an unsympathetic tone it pointed out David Brewster writing in the Quarterly Review as another leader; with the barb that both Babbage and Brewster had received public money.
In the debate of the period on statistics (qua data collection) and what is now statistical inference, the BAAS in its Statistical Section (which owed something also to Whewell) opted for data collection. This Section was the sixth, established in 1833 with Babbage as chairman and John Elliot Drinkwater as secretary. The foundation of the Statistical Society followed. Babbage was its public face, backed by Richard Jones and Robert Malthus.
Babbage published On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures (1832), on the organisation of industrial production. It was an influential early work of operational research. John Rennie the Younger in addressing the Institution of Civil Engineers on manufacturing in 1846 mentioned mostly surveys in encyclopaedias, and Babbage 's book was first an article in the Encyclopædia Metropolitana, the form in which Rennie noted it, in the company of related works by John Farey, Jr., Peter Barlow and Andrew Ure. From An essay on the general principles which regulate the application of machinery to manufactures and the mechanical arts (1827), which became the Encyclopædia Metropolitana article of 1829, Babbage developed the schematic classification of machines that, combined with discussion of factories, made up the first part of the book. The second part considered the "domestic and political economy '' of manufactures.
The book sold well, and quickly went to a fourth edition (1836). Babbage represented his work as largely a result of actual observations in factories, British and abroad. It was not, in its first edition, intended to address deeper questions of political economy; the second (late 1832) did, with three further chapters including one on piece rate. The book also contained ideas on rational design in factories, and profit sharing.
In Economy of Machinery was described what is now called the "Babbage principle ''. It pointed out commercial advantages available with more careful division of labour. As Babbage himself noted, it had already appeared in the work of Melchiorre Gioia in 1815. The term was introduced in 1974 by Harry Braverman. Related formulations are the "principle of multiples '' of Philip Sargant Florence, and the "balance of processes ''.
What Babbage remarked is that skilled workers typically spend parts of their time performing tasks that are below their skill level. If the labour process can be divided among several workers, labour costs may be cut by assigning only high - skill tasks to high - cost workers, restricting other tasks to lower - paid workers. He also pointed out that training or apprenticeship can be taken as fixed costs; but that returns to scale are available by his approach of standardisation of tasks, therefore again favouring the factory system. His view of human capital was restricted to minimising the time period for recovery of training costs.
Another aspect of the work was its detailed breakdown of the cost structure of book publishing. Babbage took the unpopular line, from the publishers ' perspective, of exposing the trade 's profitability. He went as far as to name the organisers of the trade 's restrictive practices. Twenty years later he attended a meeting hosted by John Chapman to campaign against the Booksellers Association, still a cartel.
It has been written that "what Arthur Young was to agriculture, Charles Babbage was to the factory visit and machinery ''. Babbage 's theories are said to have influenced the layout of the 1851 Great Exhibition, and his views had a strong effect on his contemporary George Julius Poulett Scrope. Karl Marx argued that the source of the productivity of the factory system was exactly the combination of the division of labour with machinery, building on Adam Smith, Babbage and Ure. Where Marx picked up on Babbage and disagreed with Smith was on the motivation for division of labour by the manufacturer: as Babbage did, he wrote that it was for the sake of profitability, rather than productivity, and identified an impact on the concept of a trade.
John Ruskin went further, to oppose completely what manufacturing in Babbage 's sense stood for. Babbage also affected the economic thinking of John Stuart Mill. George Holyoake saw Babbage 's detailed discussion of profit sharing as substantive, in the tradition of Robert Owen and Charles Fourier, if requiring the attentions of a benevolent captain of industry, and ignored at the time.
Works by Babbage and Ure were published in French translation in 1830; On the Economy of Machinery was translated in 1833 into French by Édouard Biot, and into German the same year by Gottfried Friedenberg. The French engineer and writer on industrial organisation Léon Lalanne was influenced by Babbage, but also by the economist Claude Lucien Bergery, in reducing the issues to "technology ''. William Jevons connected Babbage 's "economy of labour '' with his own labour experiments of 1870. The Babbage principle is an inherent assumption in Frederick Winslow Taylor 's scientific management.
Mary Boole, the wife of Babbage 's collaborator George Boole claimed that there was profound influence -- via her uncle George Everest -- of Indian thought in general and Indian logic, in particular, on him and on George Boole, as well as on Augustus De Morgan:
Think what must have been the effect of the intense Hinduizing of three such men as Babbage, De Morgan, and George Boole on the mathematical atmosphere of 1830 -- 65. What share had it in generating the Vector Analysis and the mathematics by which investigations in physical science are now conducted?
In 1837, responding to the series of eight Bridgewater Treatises, Babbage published his Ninth Bridgewater Treatise, under the title On the Power, Wisdom and Goodness of God, as manifested in the Creation. In this work Babbage weighed in on the side of uniformitarianism in a current debate. He preferred the conception of creation in which a God - given natural law dominated, removing the need for continuous "contrivance ''.
The book is a work of natural theology, and incorporates extracts from related correspondence of Herschel with Charles Lyell. Babbage put forward the thesis that God had the omnipotence and foresight to create as a divine legislator. In this book, Babbage dealt with relating interpretations between science and religion; on the one hand, he insisted that "there exists no fatal collision between the words of Scripture and the facts of nature; '' on the one hand, he wrote the Book of Genesis was not meant to be read literally in relation to scientific terms. Against those who said these were in conflict, he wrote "that the contradiction they have imagined can have no real existence, and that whilst the testimony of Moses remains unimpeached, we may also be permitted to confide in the testimony of our senses. ''
The Ninth Bridgewater Treatise was quoted extensively in Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation. The parallel with Babbage 's computing machines is made explicit, as allowing plausibility to the theory that transmutation of species could be pre-programmed.
Jonar Ganeri, author of Indian Logic, believes Babbage may have been influenced by Indian thought; one possible route would be through Henry Thomas Colebrooke. Mary Everest Boole argues that Babbage was introduced to Indian thought in the 1820s by her uncle George Everest:
Some time about 1825, (Everest) came to England for two or three years, and made a fast and lifelong friendship with Herschel and with Babbage, who was then quite young. I would ask any fair - minded mathematician to read Babbage 's Ninth Bridgewater Treatise and compare it with the works of his contemporaries in England; and then ask himself whence came the peculiar conception of the nature of miracle which underlies Babbage 's ideas of Singular Points on Curves (Chap, viii) -- from European Theology or Hindu Metaphysic? Oh! how the English clergy of that day hated Babbage 's book!
Babbage was raised in the Protestant form of the Christian faith, his family having inculcated in him an orthodox form of worship. He explained:
"My excellent mother taught me the usual forms of my daily and nightly prayer; and neither in my father nor my mother was there any mixture of bigotry and intolerance on the one hand, nor on the other of that unbecoming and familiar mode of addressing the Almighty which afterwards so much disgusted me in my youthful years. ''
Rejecting the Athanasian Creed as a "direct contradiction in terms '', in his youth he looked to Samuel Clarke 's works on religion, of which Being and Attributes of God (1704) exerted a particularly strong influence on him. Later in life, Babbage concluded that "the true value of the Christian religion rested, not on speculative theology, but on "those doctrines of kindness and benevolence which that religion claims and enforces, not merely in favour of man himself but of every creature susceptible of pain or of happiness. ''
In his autobiography Passages from the Life of a Philosopher (1864), Babbage wrote a whole chapter on the topic of religion, where he identified three sources of divine knowledge:
He stated, on the basis of the design argument, that studying the works of nature had been the more appealing evidence, and the one which led him to actively profess the existence of God. Advocating for natural theology, he wrote:
"In the works of the Creator ever open to our examination, we possess a firm basis on which to raise the superstructure of an enlightened creed. The more man inquires into the laws which regulate the material universe, the more he is convinced that all its varied forms arise from the action of a few simple principles... The works of the Creator, ever present to our senses, give a living and perpetual testimony of his power and goodness far surpassing any evidence transmitted through human testimony. The testimony of man becomes fainter at every stage of transmission, whilst each new inquiry into the works of the Almighty gives to us more exalted views of his wisdom, his goodness, and his power. ''
Like Samuel Vince, Babbage also wrote a defense of the belief in divine miracles. Against objections previously posed by David Hume, Babbage advocated for the belief of divine agency, stating "we must not measure the credibility or incredibility of an event by the narrow sphere of our own experience, nor forget that there is a Divine energy which overrides what we familiarly call the laws of nature. '' He alluded to the limits of human experience, expressing: "all that we see in a miracle is an effect which is new to our observation, and whose cause is concealed. The cause may be beyond the sphere of our observation, and would be thus beyond the familiar sphere of nature; but this does not make the event a violation of any law of nature. The limits of man 's observation lie within very narrow boundaries, and it would be arrogance to suppose that the reach of man 's power is to form the limits of the natural world. ''
The British Association was consciously modelled on the Deutsche Naturforscher - Versammlung, founded in 1822. It rejected romantic science as well as metaphysics, and started to entrench the divisions of science from literature, and professionals from amateurs. Belonging as he did to the "Wattite '' faction in the BAAS, represented in particular by James Watt the younger, Babbage identified closely with industrialists. He wanted to go faster in the same directions, and had little time for the more gentlemanly component of its membership. Indeed, he subscribed to a version of conjectural history that placed industrial society as the culmination of human development (and shared this view with Herschel). A clash with Roderick Murchison led in 1838 to his withdrawal from further involvement. At the end of the same year he sent in his resignation as Lucasian professor, walking away also from the Cambridge struggle with Whewell. His interests became more focussed, on computation and metrology, and on international contacts.
A project announced by Babbage was to tabulate all physical constants (referred to as "constants of nature '', a phrase in itself a neologism), and then to compile an encyclopaedic work of numerical information. He was a pioneer in the field of "absolute measurement ''. His ideas followed on from those of Johann Christian Poggendorff, and were mentioned to Brewster in 1832. There were to be 19 categories of constants, and Ian Hacking sees these as reflecting in part Babbage 's "eccentric enthusiasms ''. Babbage 's paper On Tables of the Constants of Nature and Art was reprinted by the Smithsonian Institution in 1856, with an added note that the physical tables of Arnold Henry Guyot "will form a part of the important work proposed in this article ''.
Exact measurement was also key to the development of machine tools. Here again Babbage is considered a pioneer, with Henry Maudslay, William Sellers, and Joseph Whitworth.
Through the Royal Society Babbage acquired the friendship of the engineer Marc Brunel. It was through Brunel that Babbage knew of Joseph Clement, and so came to encounter the artisans whom he observed in his work on manufactures. Babbage provided an introduction for Isambard Kingdom Brunel in 1830, for a contact with the proposed Bristol & Birmingham Railway. He carried out studies, around 1838, to show the superiority of the broad gauge for railways, used by Brunel 's Great Western Railway.
In 1838, Babbage invented the pilot (also called a cow - catcher), the metal frame attached to the front of locomotives that clears the tracks of obstacles; he also constructed a dynamometer car. His eldest son, Benjamin Herschel Babbage, worked as an engineer for Brunel on the railways before emigrating to Australia in the 1850s.
Babbage also invented an ophthalmoscope, which he gave to Thomas Wharton Jones for testing. Jones, however, ignored it. The device only came into use after being independently invented by Hermann von Helmholtz.
Babbage achieved notable results in cryptography, though this was still not known a century after his death. Letter frequency was category 18 of Babbage 's tabulation project. Joseph Henry later defended interest in it, in the absence of the facts, as relevant to the management of movable type.
As early as 1845, Babbage had solved a cipher that had been posed as a challenge by his nephew Henry Hollier, and in the process, he made a discovery about ciphers that were based on Vigenère tables. Specifically, he realized that enciphering plain text with a keyword rendered the cipher text subject to modular arithmetic. During the Crimean War of the 1850s, Babbage broke Vigenère 's autokey cipher as well as the much weaker cipher that is called Vigenère cipher today. His discovery was kept a military secret, and was not published. Credit for the result was instead given to Friedrich Kasiski, a Prussian infantry officer, who made the same discovery some years later. However, in 1854, Babbage published the solution of a Vigenère cipher, which had been published previously in the Journal of the Society of Arts. In 1855, Babbage also published a short letter, "Cypher Writing '', in the same journal. Nevertheless, his priority was n't established until 1985.
Babbage involved himself in well - publicised but unpopular campaigns against public nuisances. He once counted all the broken panes of glass of a factory, publishing in 1857 a "Table of the Relative Frequency of the Causes of Breakage of Plate Glass Windows '': Of 464 broken panes, 14 were caused by "drunken men, women or boys ''.
Babbage 's distaste for commoners ("the Mob '') included writing "Observations of Street Nuisances '' in 1864, as well as tallying up 165 "nuisances '' over a period of 80 days. He especially hated street music, and in particular the music of organ grinders, against whom he railed in various venues. The following quotation is typical:
It is difficult to estimate the misery inflicted upon thousands of persons, and the absolute pecuniary penalty imposed upon multitudes of intellectual workers by the loss of their time, destroyed by organ - grinders and other similar nuisances.
Babbage was not alone in his campaign. A convert to the cause was the MP Michael Thomas Bass.
In the 1860s, Babbage also took up the anti-hoop - rolling campaign. He blamed hoop - rolling boys for driving their iron hoops under horses ' legs, with the result that the rider is thrown and very often the horse breaks a leg. Babbage achieved a certain notoriety in this matter, being denounced in debate in Commons in 1864 for "commencing a crusade against the popular game of tip - cat and the trundling of hoops. ''
Babbage 's machines were among the first mechanical computers. That they were not actually completed was largely because of funding problems and clashes of personality, most notably with Airy, the Astronomer Royal.
Babbage directed the building of some steam - powered machines that achieved some modest success, suggesting that calculations could be mechanised. For more than ten years he received government funding for his project, which amounted to £ 17,000, but eventually the Treasury lost confidence in him.
While Babbage 's machines were mechanical and unwieldy, their basic architecture was similar to a modern computer. The data and program memory were separated, operation was instruction - based, the control unit could make conditional jumps, and the machine had a separate I / O unit.
In Babbage 's time, printed mathematical tables were calculated by human computers; in other words, by hand. They were central to navigation, science and engineering, as well as mathematics. Mistakes were known to occur in transcription as well as calculation.
At Cambridge, Babbage saw the fallibility of this process, and the opportunity of adding mechanisation into its management. His own account of his path towards mechanical computation references a particular occasion:
In 1812 he was sitting in his rooms in the Analytical Society looking at a table of logarithms, which he knew to be full of mistakes, when the idea occurred to him of computing all tabular functions by machinery. The French government had produced several tables by a new method. Three or four of their mathematicians decided how to compute the tables, half a dozen more broke down the operations into simple stages, and the work itself, which was restricted to addition and subtraction, was done by eighty computers who knew only these two arithmetical processes. Here, for the first time, mass production was applied to arithmetic, and Babbage was seized by the idea that the labours of the unskilled computers could be taken over completely by machinery which would be quicker and more reliable.
There was another period, seven years later, when his interest was aroused by the issues around computation of mathematical tables. The French official initiative by Gaspard de Prony, and its problems of implementation, were familiar to him. After the Napoleonic Wars came to a close, scientific contacts were renewed on the level of personal contact: in 1819 Charles Blagden was in Paris looking into the printing of the stalled de Prony project, and lobbying for the support of the Royal Society. In works of the 1820s and 1830s, Babbage referred in detail to de Prony 's project.
Babbage began in 1822 with what he called the difference engine, made to compute values of polynomial functions. It was created to calculate a series of values automatically. By using the method of finite differences, it was possible to avoid the need for multiplication and division.
For a prototype difference engine, Babbage brought in Joseph Clement to implement the design, in 1823. Clement worked to high standards, but his machine tools were particularly elaborate. Under the standard terms of business of the time, he could charge for their construction, and would also own them. He and Babbage fell out over costs around 1831.
Some parts of the prototype survive in the Museum of the History of Science, Oxford. This prototype evolved into the "first difference engine. '' It remained unfinished and the finished portion is located at the Science Museum in London. This first difference engine would have been composed of around 25,000 parts, weighed fifteen tons (13,600 kg), and would have been 8 ft (2.4 m) tall. Although Babbage received ample funding for the project, it was never completed. He later (1847 -- 1849) produced detailed drawings for an improved version, "Difference Engine No. 2 '', but did not receive funding from the British government. His design was finally constructed in 1989 -- 1991, using his plans and 19th - century manufacturing tolerances. It performed its first calculation at the Science Museum, London, returning results to 31 digits.
Nine years later, in 2000, the Science Museum completed the printer Babbage had designed for the difference engine.
The Science Museum has constructed two Difference Engines according to Babbage 's plans for the Difference Engine No 2. One is owned by the museum. The other, owned by the technology multimillionaire Nathan Myhrvold, went on exhibition at the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California on 10 May 2008. The two models that have been constructed are not replicas; Myhrvold 's engine is the first design by Babbage, and the Science Museum 's is a later model.
After the attempt at making the first difference engine fell through, Babbage worked to design a more complex machine called the Analytical Engine. He hired C.G. Jarvis, who had previously worked for Clement as a draughtsman. The Analytical Engine marks the transition from mechanised arithmetic to fully - fledged general purpose computation. It is largely on it that Babbage 's standing as computer pioneer rests.
The major innovation was that the Analytical Engine was to be programmed using punched cards: the Engine was intended to use loops of Jacquard 's punched cards to control a mechanical calculator, which could use as input the results of preceding computations. The machine was also intended to employ several features subsequently used in modern computers, including sequential control, branching and looping. It would have been the first mechanical device to be, in principle, Turing - complete. The Engine was not a single physical machine, but rather a succession of designs that Babbage tinkered with until his death in 1871.
Ada Lovelace, who corresponded with Babbage during his development of the Analytical Engine, is credited with developing an algorithm that would enable the Engine to calculate a sequence of Bernoulli numbers. Despite documentary evidence in Lovelace 's own handwriting, some scholars dispute to what extent the ideas were Lovelace 's own. For this achievement, she is often described as the first computer programmer; though no programming language had yet been invented.
Lovelace also translated and wrote literature supporting the project. Describing the engine 's programming by punch cards, she wrote: "We may say most aptly that the Analytical Engine weaves algebraical patterns just as the Jacquard loom weaves flowers and leaves. ''
Babbage visited Turin in 1840 at the invitation of Giovanni Plana. In 1842 Charles Wheatstone approached Lovelace to translate a paper of Luigi Menabrea, who had taken notes of Babbage 's Turin talks; and Babbage asked her to add something of her own. Fortunato Prandi who acted as interpreter in Turin was an Italian exile and follower of Giuseppe Mazzini.
Per Georg Scheutz wrote about the difference engine in 1830, and experimented in automated computation. After 1834 and Lardner 's Edinburgh Review article he set up a project of his own, doubting whether Babbage 's initial plan could be carried out. This he pushed through with his son, Edvard Scheutz. Another Swedish engine was that of Martin Wiberg (1860).
In 2011, researchers in Britain proposed a multimillion - pound project, "Plan 28 '', to construct Babbage 's Analytical Engine. Since Babbage 's plans were continually being refined and were never completed, they intended to engage the public in the project and crowd - source the analysis of what should be built. It would have the equivalent of 675 bytes of memory, and run at a clock speed of about 7 Hz. They hope to complete it by the 150th anniversary of Babbage 's death, in 2021.
Advances in MEMs and nanotechnology have led to recent high - tech experiments in mechanical computation. The benefits suggested include operation in high radiation or high temperature environments. These modern versions of mechanical computation were highlighted in The Economist in its special "end of the millennium '' black cover issue in an article entitled "Babbage 's Last Laugh ''.
Due to his association with the town Babbage was chosen in 2007 to appear on the 5 Totnes pound note. An image of Babbage features in the British cultural icons section of the newly designed British passport in 2015.
On 25 July 1814, Babbage married Georgiana Whitmore at St. Michael 's Church in Teignmouth, Devon; her sister Louisa married Edward Ryan. The couple lived at Dudmaston Hall, Shropshire (where Babbage engineered the central heating system), before moving to 5 Devonshire Street, London in 1815.
Charles and Georgiana had eight children, but only four -- Benjamin Herschel, Georgiana Whitmore, Dugald Bromhead and Henry Prevost -- survived childhood. Charles ' wife Georgiana died in Worcester on 1 September 1827, the same year as his father, their second son (also named Charles) and their newborn son Alexander.
His youngest surviving son, Henry Prevost Babbage (1824 -- 1918), went on to create six small demonstration pieces for Difference Engine No. 1 based on his father 's designs, one of which was sent to Harvard University where it was later discovered by Howard H. Aiken, pioneer of the Harvard Mark I. Henry Prevost 's 1910 Analytical Engine Mill, previously on display at Dudmaston Hall, is now on display at the Science Museum.
Babbage lived and worked for over 40 years at 1 Dorset Street, Marylebone, where he died, at the age of 79, on 18 October 1871; he was buried in London 's Kensal Green Cemetery. According to Horsley, Babbage died "of renal inadequacy, secondary to cystitis. '' He had declined both a knighthood and baronetcy. He also argued against hereditary peerages, favouring life peerages instead.
In 1983 the autopsy report for Charles Babbage was discovered and later published by his great - great - grandson. A copy of the original is also available. Half of Babbage 's brain is preserved at the Hunterian Museum in the Royal College of Surgeons in London. The other half of Babbage 's brain is on display in the Science Museum, London.
There is a black plaque commemorating the 40 years Babbage spent at 1 Dorset Street, London. Locations, institutions and other things named after Babbage include::
Babbage frequently appears in steampunk works; he has been called an iconic figure of the genre. Other works in which Babbage appears include:
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who is the longest serving parliamentarian in canada's history | Records of members of parliament of Canada - wikipedia
The youngest ever MP is currently Pierre - Luc Dusseault, elected in the general election of 2011 at the age of 19 years and 11 months for the riding of Sherbrooke. He succeeded former Liberal Party MP, Claude - André Lachance, who was elected in the federal election of 1974. Lachance was 20 years and 3 months old when elected.
The youngest ever woman MP used to be Carole Jacques when she was elected at the general election of September 4, 1984 at the age of 24 years and 2 months. During the 2011 Canadian Federal Election, Laurin Liu of the riding Rivière - des - Mille - Îles, was elected at the age of 20 years. In the same election, many women under the age of 24 were elected including Charmaine Borg, in the riding of Terrebonne -- Blainville who is a mere 10 days older than Liu. Others under 24 include Ève Péclet, 21, Mylène Freeman, 22, and others.
The oldest MP was William Anderson Black who retained his seat until his death at the age of 86 years, 10 months and 22 days.
Wilfrid Laurier was an MP for 44 years and 11 months between January 22, 1874 and February 17, 1919, although his tenure was not continuous. He did serve continuously for 41 years and 2 months from November 28, 1877 to February 17, 1919, making him also the MP with the longest continuous service.
John Dahmer died five days after being elected, before he could be officially sworn in as an MP.
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when was the wedworth-townsend paramedic act passed and what was it about | The Wedsworth - Townsend Act - wikipedia
The Wedsworth - Townsend Act (sic) is the pilot episode for the TV series Emergency!, a made - for - TV movie, broadcast on NBC on January 15, 1972 (46 years ago) (1972 - 01 - 15). The primary cast from the pilot also starred in the TV series for the entire run through 1977.
The title, despite the possibly deliberate misspelling of "Wedworth '', refers to the Wedworth - Townsend Paramedic Act of the California State Legislature, which that legislature passed and which the then State Governor Ronald Reagan signed into law on July 14, 1970 (47 years ago) (1970 - 07 - 14).
After a late - night fire run, Los Angeles County Station 10 Fire & Rescue man John Gage (Randolph Mantooth), gets into a discussion with his battalion chief (Art Balinger) about joining a new program called the paramedics. At first Gage turns down the offer because he does not want to become an "ambulance attendant ''. But in a failed rescue, the victim dies on arrival at Rampart Hospital. Noting the word "rescue '' on the vehicle 's markings, Gage snorts derisively: "Rescue, hell. All we rescued was a corpse. '' As a result, he reconsiders his earlier reluctance and talks to someone about joining the paramedics; it is at this point that he first meets Los Angeles Fireman and future partner Roy DeSoto (Kevin Tighe).
At first Gage is still not convinced to join; while he would have the training, he would not have the authority, but DeSoto tells him of a bill before the state legislature that would commission the paramedics, meaning that if the bill had any chance of passage they would have to be ready. DeSoto further states there are presently only six qualified paramedics for the entire population of the Los Angeles area -- over 6 ⁄ million people. That convinces Gage to sign the application, and he begins his paramedic training in earnest at Rampart under the tutelage of ER senior doctor Kelly Brackett (Robert Fuller), neurological surgeon and ER doctor Joe Early (Bobby Troup) and ER head nurse Dixie McCall (Julie London).
Despite his willingness to train the new paramedics, Brackett is firmly against the program itself, preferring highly skilled medical help in the field rather than "hose jockeys '' running the risk of losing a life due to inexperience or ineptitude. His attitude toward the program does not go unnoticed by Gage, who passes the paramedic course and is reassigned and partnered with DeSoto at the new Station 51. With the paramedic program not yet authorized, any emergency involving injury requires Gage and DeSoto to stop at Rampart en route and pick up a nurse, namely McCall, to administer authorized medical help.
When Squad 51 is called out on a traffic crash involving a vehicle over a cliff with two injuries, they again pick up McCall at Rampart, but a freak occurrence at the scene renders McCall unconscious, and the paramedics are forced to call Rampart for instructions. When they tell Brackett that McCall is also unconscious, Brackett orders them not to treat the patients. But Gage, still embittered over his failure at Squad 10, insubordinates and yells into the biophone: "To hell with the orders! '' With that, he shuts down the link.
Later at Rampart, Brackett reprimands Gage and DeSoto for their insubordination, but then compliments their job performance; the three victims were stabilized; McCall had vasovagal syncope (unconsciousness brought on by intense stress) while the other two patients, according to Dr. Early, were simple cases. Finally realizing the paramedic program does indeed work, Brackett takes an unscheduled trip to Sacramento to address the State Assembly. In his address, Brackett goes on the record stating that he is not in favor of inexperienced youngsters saving lives in the field, but also asserts his conviction that the paramedic program can save lives, and is willing to support it until a better alternative becomes available. To the relief of Brackett and Assemblyman Michael Wolski (Jack Kruschen), the bill is approved by the Assembly, sending it to the floor of the legislature, but Brackett is due back in Los Angeles before the vote that evening.
Back in L.A., Gage and DeSoto are dispatched on a major night call that includes police, The Salvation Army, civil defense, and the county fire department: an explosion and cave - in at a flood - control tunnel at the Alameda Diversion Complex. Gage realizes that lack of discipline could permanently end the paramedic program, but seeing all the injuries and people begging for help only exacerbates Gage 's and DeSoto 's collective feelings of helplessness. They eventually reach a victim with a heart condition pinned underneath a trencher; after freeing the victim they radio Rampart with their situation. When the victim 's heart starts fibrillating during the EKG reading, Brackett orders them to defibrillate. DeSoto reminds Brackett of the risks, but thinking more about the patient, Brackett lies to the paramedics telling them that the legislature had already approved the Paramedic bill; he then roars at them: "Zap ' im, damn it! Zap ' im! '' Reluctantly, Gage defibrillates the patient, who stabilizes after the second attempt. Brackett offers his "highest congratulations '' to the "doctors '' for saving the man 's life.
At daybreak with the situation under control, as the exhausted rescue workers make their way out of the Complex, DeSoto finds a newspaper (dropped by a woman grieving over her husband killed in the disaster) folded to an article about the passing of the Paramedic bill the previous night thanks to support from Dr. Brackett. (His picture was in the article). Brackett and McCall drive out to the scene to see Gage and DeSoto in person and to compliment their performance. DeSoto and Gage return the compliment for what Brackett did: Gage: I really do n't know what to say. Brackett: Who asked?
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who sings the grey's anatomy theme song | Grey 's Anatomy (soundtrack) - wikipedia
The Grey 's Anatomy Original Soundtrack is the soundtrack album series for the medical drama television series Grey 's Anatomy, with four volumes released in the series.
Release Date: September 27, 2005
Release Date: September 12, 2006
The iTunes version of the album also includes Sing - Sing 's "Come, Sing Me a Song '' as the sixteenth track.
Release Date: September 11, 2007
Release Date: September 9, 2011
Release Date: March 31, 2011
Soundtrack for the season 7 episode "Song Beneath the Song ''
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what happened to the tv show the real | The Real (Talk Show) - wikipedia
The Real is an American syndicated talk show. The series initially received a trial run on Fox owned markets in the summer of 2013. The series was developed as a talk show designed to appeal to younger female viewers who, like the co-hosts, were experiencing new events in their lives. It was green - lit for national syndication later that fall and officially premiered the following year. The Real has become a huge success and has an estimated net worth of 15 million dollars.
On January 3, 2018, Fox Television Stations picked up two more seasons of the series, effectively allowing Warner Bros. Television Distribution to continue to produce it into the 2019 - 20 television season.
In the summer of 2013, it was announced that the series was ordered for a test run on seven Fox - owned stations in New York, Los Angeles, Washington D.C., Philadelphia, Phoenix, Houston and Tampa. In October 2013, it was announced that The Real had been green - lit for a national syndicated launch and would premiere on September 15, 2014 - until September 15, 2017 with reruns airing on BET. Along with The Wendy Williams Show, most recently, the show now airs with reruns airing on BET Her in 2017.
In February 2015, Warner Bros. announced the series had been renewed for a second season. In October 2015, the series was renewed for a third and fourth seasons, allowing it to air through 2018.
The program switched to broadcasting live day - and - date in its fourth season (though still tape - delayed for stations carrying it in other timeslots), and the series now encores twice nightly on BET Her for markets where it is otherwise unseen.
SallyAnn Salsano and Rachel Miskowiec are recognized as the series ' executive producers; it is produced by 495 Productions and Telepictures Productions, and is distributed by Warner Bros. Domestic Television Distribution.
The panel consisted of actress Tamera Mowry - Housley from the 1990s sitcom, Sister, Sister; hostess and fashion expert Jeannie Mai; R&B singer and television personality, Tamar Braxton, best known for her hit reality series Braxton Family Values; singer and actress Adrienne Houghton, known for being the lead singer in groups 3LW and The Cheetah Girls; and comedian and actress Loni Love, known for being the runner up on Star Search season 26 and a panelist on Chelsea Lately.
Tamar Braxton announced her departure from the series through a Warner Bros. press release on May 22, 2016, intending to concentrate on her music career.
The Real celebrated its 100th episode on February 24, 2015. In January 2016, the co-hosts traveled to Washington, D.C. to visit The White House and First Lady Michelle Obama. In addition to granting an interview, The First Lady and the co-hosts spoke to high schoolers about college.
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paul engemann - scarface (push it to the limit) | Scarface (Push It to the Limit) - wikipedia
"Scarface (Push It to the Limit) '' is a song written by record producers Giorgio Moroder and Pete Bellotte and recorded by American musician Paul Engemann. It appeared on the soundtrack for the 1983 motion picture Scarface. This song appears in the movie in the montage sequence that demonstrates Tony Montana 's rise in wealth and position after he kills Frank Lopez (Robert Loggia) and takes over as the head cocaine trafficker in Miami. In the film, the song appeared in a slightly longer version, featuring a guitar solo during the instrumental break. This version was eventually released on a 12 - inch single LP with the guitar solo included.
The song is composed with a tempo of 156 beats per minute.
It has been employed as a montage song for underdog or dark horse characters, such as in the South Park episode "Up the Down Steroid '' (in a techno format remixed by Moroder himself), and in the It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia episode entitled "Mac 's Big Break ''. A variation of this theme is used in a montage for the American Dad! episode "The Adventures of Twill Ongenbone and His Boy Jabari ''. Similarly, the 2009 - 2010 Britvic advert for ' Drench ' bottled water features the song while a goldfish remembers its way through a maze. It is also the entrance song for German boxer Ralf Riemer.
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where does something borrowed something blue come from | Something old - wikipedia
"Something old '' is the first line of a traditional rhyme that details what a bride should wear at her wedding for good luck:
Something old, something new, something borrowed, something blue, and a silver sixpence in her shoe.
The old item provided protection for the baby to come. The item borrowed from another happy bride provided good luck. The colour blue was a sign of fidelity. The sixpence -- a silver British coin -- was a symbol of prosperity or acted as a ward against evil done by frustrated suitors. The superstition is known since 1883 when it was attributed to the county of Lancashire. An 1898 compilation of English folklore recounted that:
In this country an old couplet directs that the bride shall wear: -- "Something old, something new, Something borrowed, something blue. '' "The something blue '' takes, I am given to understand, usually the form of a garter, an article of dress which plays an important part in some wedding rites, as, for instance, in the old custom of plucking off the garter of the bride. "The something old '' and "something blue '' are devices to baffle the Evil Eye. The usual effect on the bride of the Evil Eye is to render her barren, and this is obviated by wearing "something borrowed '', which should properly be the undergarment of some woman who has been blessed with children: the clothes communicate fertility to the bride.
Another compilation of the era frames this poem as "a Lancashire version '', as contrast against a Leicestershire recitation that "a bride on her wedding day should wear -- ' Something new, Something blue, Something borrowed '... '', and so omits the "something old ''. The authors note that this counters other regional folklore warning against the wearing of blue on the wedding day, but relates the use of the color to phrases like "true blue '' which make positive associations with the color.
The rhyme can earlier be found in an 1876 edition of Notes and Queries, and is called an "ancient custom '' in another 1876 book, Bye - gones, Relating to Wales and the Border Counties. This version is referenced as well in an 1871 short story, "Marriage Superstitions, and the Miseries of a Bride Elect '', in The St. James 's Magazine.
At the wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton, the bride had:
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where was the i like it video filmed | I Like It (Cardi B, Bad Bunny and J Balvin song) - wikipedia
"I Like It '' is a song recorded by American rapper Cardi B with Puerto Rican recording artist Bad Bunny and Colombian singer J Balvin for her debut studio album Invasion of Privacy (2018). It was released on May 25, 2018 to radio stations through Atlantic Records as the fourth single from the album. "I Like It '' was written by the three performers with Jordan Thorpe and Klenord Raphael, and produced by J. White, Tainy, Craig Kallman and Invincible. The Latin trap song comprises a trap - salsa beat, and contains a sample from "I Like It Like That '', written by Tony Pabón and Manny Rodriguez, and performed by Pete Rodriguez, with Benny Bonnilla on the timbales.
Commercially, the single topped the US Billboard Hot 100, becoming Cardi B 's second number one, the most for a female rapper in the chart 's history, and the first for both Bad Bunny and J Balvin. It also reached the top 10 in Canada, New Zealand, Portugal, Slovakia, Spain, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom.
"I Like It '' is a Latin trap number. It is a blend of trap and salsa, and samples 1960s boogaloo song "I Like It Like That ''. As noted by a Billboard editor, the song is "heavily indebted to the world of Latin hip hop. '' Bad Bunny raps in English and Spanish, while J Balvin performs in Spanish.
Writing for Rolling Stone, Brittany Spanos commented "(it) sounds like it was chemically concocted in a mad scientist 's lab to be 2018 's reigning song of the summer. (...) Everything about this song is perfect for summer: the trap - meets - salsa beat, features from two of reggaeton 's biggest stars, a sample of Pete Rodriguez 's half - century - old boogaloo hit "I Like It Like That. '' '' In The Atlantic, Hannah Giorgis also deemed it "song of the summer '' considering "(the song) is irresistible because it channels the rapper at her best: when she feels at home. '' She also noted that the verses from both Bad Bunny and J. Balvin "match Cardi 's energy '' and "add complementary dynamism to the track. '' Neil Z. Yeung of AllMusic considered it a "notable highlight '' of the album. Billboard staff considered it the best song of the first half of 2018, and the year 's best Latin song of the summer.
Prior to its release as a single, the song debuted at number eight on the US Billboard Hot 100, becoming Cardi B 's fifth top - ten entry on the chart and the highest debut of the songs from the album, which all debuted on the Hot 100 during the album 's first week of release. Bad Bunny and J Balvin earned their first and second top 10s, respectively. Following the release of the single 's accompanying music video, the song rose to a new peak of number seven on the chart, For the chart issue dated June 16, with "I Like It '' and "Girls Like You, '' her collaboration with Maroon 5 charting at number four, Cardi B scored two concurrent Hot 100 top - five singles for the second time in 2018. It ascended to number two the next week, blocked from the top by XXXTentacion 's "Sad! ''. It reached number one in its twelfth week, earning Cardi her second chart - topper, thus making her the first female rapper in history to do so. Bad Bunny and J Balvin scored their first number one. She also became the first female soloist to reach number one with two songs from a debut album since Lady Gaga, who did it in 2009. "I Like It '' reached number one on Digital Songs in its 20th chart week, claiming the sixth - longest wait to the summit since the chart began in 2004. Internationally, the single also charted within the top 10 in Canada, New Zealand, Portugal, Slovakia, Spain, Switzerland and the United Kingdom.
Commenting on the single topping the Hot 100, editor Leila Cobo for Billboard explained its notablity, "it 's part of an accelerated spike of Spanish and Spanish - infused songs on the chart (...) This surge can be attributed at least in part to streaming, which has broadened the scope for Latin music that is still shunned from major mainstream outlets. But it also reflects the times, the moment and the new openness of the world, despite the entrenchment at the border. ''
The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Eif Rivera and filmed in March 2018 in Little Havana, Miami. A preview of the clip was featured on YouTube Music 's announcement video on May 23. Released on May 29, 2018, the music video opens with Cardi B in a neighborhood, followed by scenes of Bad Bunny in the streets and J Balvin in a club. It also features scenes of the trio performing together.
Director Eif Rivera stated in an interview that he was inspired by the movie I Like It Like That (1994), which opening scene centered in a neighborhood of the South Bronx.
Credits adapted from Tidal.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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who killed king geoffrey in game of thrones | Joffrey Baratheon - wikipedia
Joffrey Baratheon is a fictional character in the A Song of Ice and Fire series of epic fantasy novels by American author George R.R. Martin, and its television adaptation Game of Thrones.
Introduced in 1996 's A Game of Thrones, Joffrey is the eldest son of Cersei Lannister from the kingdom of Westeros. He subsequently appeared in Martin 's A Clash of Kings (1998) and A Storm of Swords (2000).
Joffrey is portrayed by Irish actor Jack Gleeson in the HBO television adaptation.
Joffrey Baratheon is not a point of view character in the novels, so his actions are witnessed and interpreted through the eyes of other people, such as his mother Cersei Lannister, his uncle Tyrion Lannister and his one - time fiancée Sansa Stark. Joffrey is mostly a background character in the novels. He inherits his mother 's traditional Lannister looks, and has blond hair and green eyes, and is believed by many to be very handsome.
In public, Joffrey is allegedly the oldest son and heir of King Robert Baratheon and Queen Cersei Lannister, both of whom entered into a political marriage alliance after Robert took the throne by force from the ' Mad King ' Aerys II Targaryen. In reality, his biological father is his mother 's twin brother, Jaime Lannister. He has a younger sister, Myrcella, and a younger brother, Tommen, both of whom are also products of Jaime and Cersei 's incestuous relationship. Their sole biological grandparents, Tywin and Joanna Lannister, were also first cousins.
Joffrey is an amoral sadist who disguises his cruelty with a thin veneer of charm. This is best epitomized by his response when his (then) betrothed offends him: Joffrey pronounces that his mother had taught him never to strike a woman, and so commissions a knight of the Kingsguard to hit her instead. He enjoys forcing people to fight to the death, and enforces cruel punishments for lesser crimes. He has no sense of personal responsibility, blaming failures on others. He lacks self - control and often insults his allies and family members. Joffrey is one of the story 's few characters to display no redeeming qualities whatsoever.
Joffrey is 12 years old at the beginning of A Game of Thrones (1996).
Prince Joffrey is taken by his parents to Winterfell and is betrothed to Sansa Stark in order to create an alliance between House Baratheon and House Stark. At first, Joffrey is kind and polite to Sansa. However, he refuses to show sympathy with the family when Bran Stark falls from a tower; this makes Joffrey 's uncle Tyrion have to physically punish him until he shows respect. While on the Kingsroad to King 's Landing, Joffrey and Sansa come across Arya Stark practicing swordplay with a commoner Mycah. Joffrey accuses Mycah of assaulting a noble girl and makes a cut on his face with a sword. This causes Arya to hit Joffrey, allowing Mycah to escape. Joffrey then turns on Arya, making her direwolf Nymeria attack Joffrey, injuring him. Later, Joffrey lies about the attack, saying it was unprovoked and demands Nymeria to be killed; however, Sansa 's direwolf Lady is killed instead. He later orders his bodyguard and sworn sword Sandor "The Hound '' Clegane to kill Mycah and bring him back his corpse, which he does.
Later, Eddard Stark discovers that Joffrey is not King Robert 's son and rightful heir, by examining the family history and realizing that black hair is a dominant trait in the Baratheon line, hence the blonde hair can be attributed to the incestuous relationship of Queen Cersei and Ser Jaime. This causes Eddard to refuse to acknowledge Joffrey 's claim to the throne when King Robert dies. He is taken into custody and his guards and household are murdered.
Sansa kneels and begs for Joffrey to spare her father 's life and give him a chance to confess the treason. Joffrey promises Sansa that if Eddard truly does confess, he would be merciful. Reluctant at first, Eddard begrudgingly accepts Joffrey as the rightful King in order to spare Sansa 's life. However, Joffrey, though pleased by Eddard 's "confession '', says that he has no acceptance for traitors and instead beheads Eddard and later forces Sansa to look upon her father 's head.
Joffrey is briefly seen in A Clash of Kings (1998). He rules with whim and caprice, proving difficult for even his mother to control. Sansa becomes imprisoned to his will, and he frequently has his guards beat her when she displeases him. When Stannis Baratheon attacks King 's Landing, Joffrey leaves the battlefield, damaging the morale of his army. The battle is only won by his uncle Tyrion 's use of wildfire and his grandfather Tywin 's last - minute counterattack aided by the forces of House Tyrell.
Joffrey sets aside his earlier betrothal to Sansa Stark in favor of Margaery Tyrell, cementing an alliance between the Lannisters and House Tyrell. At Tyrion and Sansa 's wedding, he humiliates his uncle and is outraged when his uncle threatens him after he commands him to consummate their marriage. Tyrion only avoids punishment when his father Tywin assures Joffrey that his uncle was drunk and had no intention of threatening the king. Later after the events of the "Red Wedding '', Joffrey gleefully plans on serving Sansa her recently deceased brother 's head, when Tyrion and Tywin are outraged. Tyrion threatens Joffrey once again, and later Joffrey turns on Tywin, who responds by commanding Joffrey to be sent to his room, much to Joffrey 's chagrin. During his wedding feast in the throne room, he presents an extremely offensive play of "The War of the Five Kings, '' with each of the kings played by dwarves, to humiliate his uncle. He also repeatedly torments Tyrion and Sansa, forcing the former to be his cupbearer. At the conclusion of the dinner, however, Joffrey 's wine is poisoned, and he dies in an event known as "The Purple Wedding, '' in which Tyrion is falsely accused and arrested by Cersei in A Storm of Swords (2000). It is later revealed that Lady Olenna Tyrell and Lord Petyr Baelish were the true perpetrators, with assistance from royal fool Ser Dontos Hollard, who successfully smuggles Tyrion 's wife Sansa out of King 's Landing before either of them can be caught and tried for Joffrey 's murder.
Joffrey is mentioned a few times in the later novels.
In January 2007 HBO secured the rights to adapt Martin 's series for television. Years later young actor Jack Gleeson was cast as Joffrey Baratheon.
Joffrey Baratheon is the Crown Prince of the Seven Kingdoms. He is the eldest of Cersei Lannister 's children and heir to the Iron Throne. Evil, arrogant, vicious, and cruel, he has a short temper and believes he can do anything he wants. He is also a coward when confronted by those who are n't afraid of him. Joffrey is also unaware that King Robert is not his real father -- in reality, he is the son of Jaime Lannister.
After Robert 's death, the Lannisters make Joffrey King against his father 's will, and his mother uses him as a puppet. A cruel ruler, Joffrey makes a mistake when, against Cersei 's and Sansa 's wishes, he refuses to honor his promise of sparing Ned; instead, Joffrey has him executed.
His act worsens the situation with the Lannisters ' war effort as his uncle Jaime is captured by the Starks and his uncles Renly and Stannis have challenged his claim to the Iron Throne. He frequently orders his Kingsguard to beat Sansa. His cruelty and ignorance of the commoners ' suffering makes him unpopular after he orders the City Watch to kill all of his father 's bastard children in King 's Landing which would later lead to a riot where he is almost killed. When Stannis attacks King 's Landing, Joffrey serves only as a figurehead and avoids the heavy fighting. When the battle eventually turns in Stannis ' favor, Cersei calls her son into the safety of the castle, damaging the morale of his army. The battle is only won by his uncle Tyrion and his grandfather Tywin, aided by the forces of House Tyrell. To cement the alliance between their families, Joffrey 's engagement to Sansa is annulled so he can marry Margaery Tyrell.
The marriage is yet to take place, and rifts are growing between Joffrey and his uncle and grandfather, who are (in their respective ways) rebutting his cruelty. He also seems to take little interest in his bride, but is amazed and altered by her ways of winning the people 's favor, in which he takes part. At Tyrion and Sansa 's wedding, he humiliates his uncle and is outraged when his uncle threatens him after he commands him to consummate their marriage. Tyrion only avoids punishment when his father Tywin assures Joffrey that his uncle was drunk and had no intention of threatening the king. Later after the events of the "Red Wedding '', Joffrey gleefully plans on serving Sansa her recently deceased brother 's head, when Tyrion and Tywin are outraged. Tyrion threatens Joffrey once again, and later Joffrey turns on Tywin, who responds by commanding Joffrey to be sent to his room, much to Joffrey 's chagrin.
Joffrey finally marries Margaery. During his wedding feast in the gardens of the Red Keep, he presents an extremely offensive play of "The War of the Five Kings, '' with each of the kings played by dwarves, to humiliate his uncle. He also repeatedly torments Tyrion and Sansa, forcing the former to be his cupbearer. At the height of festivities Joffrey is suddenly overcome by poison, and he dies. His uncle Tyrion is accused and arrested. It is confirmed, however, he was poisoned by Olenna Tyrell, with assistance from Petyr Baelish and Dontos Hollard, as she wanted to protect Margaery from the physical and emotional abuse that Joffrey had very clearly inflicted on Sansa. Olenna later confides to Margaery that she would never have let her marry "that monster ''. Following Joffrey 's funeral, his younger brother and heir, Tommen, is crowned King.
Jack Gleeson has received positive reviews for his role as Joffrey Baratheon in the television series. In 2016, Rolling Stone ranked the character # 4 in their list of the "40 Greatest TV Villains of All Time ''. Author Martin described Joffrey as similar to "five or six people that I went to school with... a classic bully... incredibly spoiled ''.
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what song did patrick sing in dirty dancing | She 's Like the Wind - wikipedia
"She 's Like the Wind '' is a 1987 power ballad from the film Dirty Dancing, performed by Patrick Swayze. Though Swayze is the primary vocalist on the single, it was billed as being performed by "Patrick Swayze featuring Wendy Fraser ''; Fraser is heard throughout much of the song, specifically in the final chorus. The single reached number three on the Billboard Hot 100 and number one on the Adult Contemporary chart.
Swayze and Stacy Widelitz co-wrote the song in 1984.
It was originally intended for the soundtrack of Grandview, U.S.A. and was meant to be about Jamie Lee Curtis ' character in the film. However, the song was not used in that film. During production of Dirty Dancing in 1987, Swayze played the demo for producer Linda Gottlieb and director Emile Ardolino. They loved it and passed it on to Jimmy Ienner and Bob Feiden, the soundtrack 's executive producers. It was recorded for the soundtrack in November 1986, with Michael Lloyd producing. The song, like the film in which it was featured, was a success, reaching number three on the Billboard Hot 100 and number one on Adult Contemporary, and was a hit around the world. It is still in circulation on radio. The soundtrack album was number one for 19 weeks.
Swayze co-wrote and performed two tracks on the soundtrack to the film Road House (1989), plus he co-wrote and performed a duet with Larry Gatlin for the film Next of Kin (1989).
The music video in black and white features clips from the movie Dirty Dancing. The video can be seen on the Ultimate Dirty Dancing DVD.
The song was released commercially on 7 '' vinyl in many countries, with a 3 - track 12 '' maxi single and 2 - track cassette also produced. CD singles were a relatively new format, however; a 2 and 3 - track 5 '' CD and Japanese mini CD single were commercially released.
"She 's Like the Wind '' is a cover recorded by American recording artists Lumidee and Tony Sunshine for Lumidee 's second album, Unexpected (2007). It was released as the lead single from Unexpected in the U.S. and Europe on April 3, 2007.
According to Lumidee, the idea to record a remake of Patrick Swayze 's 1987 song "She 's Like The Wind '' was inspired by her European label when she recommended a collaboration with fellow New York recording artist Tony Sunshine. She also said, "We 'd been talking about working together but had n't been able to. But he loved the idea of doing something with this song. ''
The music video for this version was directed by Dayo.
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tessellations that use more than one type of regular polygon are called semi regular tessellations | Tessellation - wikipedia
A tessellation of a flat surface is the tiling of a plane using one or more geometric shapes, called tiles, with no overlaps and no gaps. In mathematics, tessellations can be generalized to higher dimensions and a variety of geometries.
A periodic tiling has a repeating pattern. Some special kinds include regular tilings with regular polygonal tiles all of the same shape, and semiregular tilings with regular tiles of more than one shape and with every corner identically arranged. The patterns formed by periodic tilings can be categorized into 17 wallpaper groups. A tiling that lacks a repeating pattern is called "non-periodic ''. An aperiodic tiling uses a small set of tile shapes that can not form a repeating pattern. In the geometry of higher dimensions, a space - filling or honeycomb is also called a tessellation of space.
A real physical tessellation is a tiling made of materials such as cemented ceramic squares or hexagons. Such tilings may be decorative patterns, or may have functions such as providing durable and water - resistant pavement, floor or wall coverings. Historically, tessellations were used in Ancient Rome and in Islamic art such as in the decorative geometric tiling of the Alhambra palace. In the twentieth century, the work of M.C. Escher often made use of tessellations, both in ordinary Euclidean geometry and in hyperbolic geometry, for artistic effect. Tessellations are sometimes employed for decorative effect in quilting. Tessellations form a class of patterns in nature, for example in the arrays of hexagonal cells found in honeycombs.
Tessellations were used by the Sumerians (about 4000 BC) in building wall decorations formed by patterns of clay tiles.
Decorative mosaic tilings made of small squared blocks called tesserae were widely employed in classical antiquity, sometimes displaying geometric patterns.
In 1619 Johannes Kepler made an early documented study of tessellations. He wrote about regular and semiregular tessellations in his Harmonices Mundi; he was possibly the first to explore and to explain the hexagonal structures of honeycomb and snowflakes.
Some two hundred years later in 1891, the Russian crystallographer Yevgraf Fyodorov proved that every periodic tiling of the plane features one of seventeen different groups of isometries. Fyodorov 's work marked the unofficial beginning of the mathematical study of tessellations. Other prominent contributors include Shubnikov and Belov (1964), and Heinrich Heesch and Otto Kienzle (1963).
In Latin, tessella is a small cubical piece of clay, stone or glass used to make mosaics. The word "tessella '' means "small square '' (from tessera, square, which in turn is from the Greek word τέσσερα for four). It corresponds to the everyday term tiling, which refers to applications of tessellations, often made of glazed clay.
Tessellation or tiling in two dimensions is a topic in geometry that studies how shapes, known as tiles, can be arranged to fill a plane without any gaps, according to a given set of rules. These rules can be varied. Common ones are that there must be no gaps between tiles, and that no corner of one tile can lie along the edge of another. The tessellations created by bonded brickwork do not obey this rule. Among those that do, a regular tessellation has both identical regular tiles and identical regular corners or vertices, having the same angle between adjacent edges for every tile. There are only three shapes that can form such regular tessellations: the equilateral triangle, square, and regular hexagon. Any one of these three shapes can be duplicated infinitely to fill a plane with no gaps.
Many other types of tessellation are possible under different constraints. For example, there are eight types of semi-regular tessellation, made with more than one kind of regular polygon but still having the same arrangement of polygons at every corner. Irregular tessellations can also be made from other shapes such as pentagons, polyominoes and in fact almost any kind of geometric shape. The artist M.C. Escher is famous for making tessellations with irregular interlocking tiles, shaped like animals and other natural objects. If suitable contrasting colours are chosen for the tiles of differing shape, striking patterns are formed, and these can be used to decorate physical surfaces such as church floors.
More formally, a tessellation or tiling is a cover of the Euclidean plane by a countable number of closed sets, called tiles, such that the tiles intersect only on their boundaries. These tiles may be polygons or any other shapes. Many tessellations are formed from a finite number of prototiles in which all tiles in the tessellation are congruent to the given prototiles. If a geometric shape can be used as a prototile to create a tessellation, the shape is said to tessellate or to tile the plane. The Conway criterion is a sufficient but not necessary set of rules for deciding if a given shape tiles the plane periodically without reflections: some tiles fail the criterion but still tile the plane. No general rule has been found for determining if a given shape can tile the plane or not, which means there are many unsolved problems concerning tessellations.
Mathematically, tessellations can be extended to spaces other than the Euclidean plane. The Swiss geometer Ludwig Schläfli pioneered this by defining polyschemes, which mathematicians nowadays call polytopes. These are the analogues to polygons and polyhedra in spaces with more dimensions. He further defined the Schläfli symbol notation to make it easy to describe polytopes. For example, the Schläfli symbol for an equilateral triangle is (3), while that for a square is (4). The Schläfli notation makes it possible to describe tilings compactly. For example, a tiling of regular hexagons has three six - sided polygons at each vertex, so its Schläfli symbol is (6, 3).
Other methods also exist for describing polygonal tilings. When the tessellation is made of regular polygons, the most common notation is the vertex configuration, which is simply a list of the number of sides of the polygons around a vertex. The square tiling has a vertex configuration of 4.4. 4.4, or 4. The tiling of regular hexagons is noted 6.6. 6, or 6.
Mathematicians use some technical terms when discussing tilings. An edge is the intersection between two bordering tiles; it is often a straight line. A vertex is the point of intersection of three or more bordering tiles. Using these terms, an isogonal or vertex - transitive tiling is a tiling where every vertex point is identical; that is, the arrangement of polygons about each vertex is the same. The fundamental region is a shape such as a rectangle that is repeated to form the tessellation. For example, a regular tessellation of the plane with squares has a meeting of four squares at every vertex.
The sides of the polygons are not necessarily identical to the edges of the tiles. An edge - to - edge tiling is any polygonal tessellation where adjacent tiles only share one full side, i.e., no tile shares a partial side or more than one side with any other tile. In an edge - to - edge tiling, the sides of the polygons and the edges of the tiles are the same. The familiar "brick wall '' tiling is not edge - to - edge because the long side of each rectangular brick is shared with two bordering bricks.
A normal tiling is a tessellation for which every tile is topologically equivalent to a disk, the intersection of any two tiles is a single connected set or the empty set, and all tiles are uniformly bounded. This means that a single circumscribing radius and a single inscribing radius can be used for all the tiles in the whole tiling; the condition disallows tiles that are pathologically long or thin.
A monohedral tiling is a tessellation in which all tiles are congruent; it has only one prototile. A particularly interesting type of monohedral tessellation is the spiral monohedral tiling. The first spiral monohedral tiling was discovered by Heinz Voderberg in 1936; the Voderberg tiling has a unit tile that is a nonconvex enneagon. The Hirschhorn tiling, published by Michael D. Hirschhorn and D.C. Hunt in 1985, is a pentagon tiling using irregular pentagons: regular pentagons can not tile the Euclidean plane as the internal angle of a regular pentagon, 3π / 5, is not a divisor of 2π.
An isohedral tiling is a special variation of a monohedral tiling in which all tiles belong to the same transitivity class, that is, all tiles are transforms of the same prototile under the symmetry group of the tiling. If a prototile admits a tiling, but no such tiling is isohedral, then the prototile is called anisohedral and forms anisohedral tilings.
A regular tessellation is a highly symmetric, edge - to - edge tiling made up of regular polygons, all of the same shape. There are only three regular tessellations: those made up of equilateral triangles, squares, or regular hexagons. All three of these tilings are isogonal and monohedral.
A semi-regular (or Archimedean) tessellation uses more than one type of regular polygon in an isogonal arrangement. There are eight semi-regular tilings (or nine if the mirror - image pair of tilings counts as two). These can be described by their vertex configuration; for example, a semi-regular tiling using squares and regular octagons has the vertex configuration 4.8 (each vertex has one square and two octagons). Many non-edge - to - edge tilings of the Euclidean plane are possible, including the family of Pythagorean tilings, tessellations that use two (parameterised) sizes of square, each square touching four squares of the other size. An edge tessellation is one in which each tile can be reflected over an edge to take up the position of a neighbouring tile, such as in an array of equilateral or isosceles triangles.
Tilings with translational symmetry in two independent directions can be categorized by wallpaper groups, of which 17 exist. It has been claimed that all seventeen of these groups are represented in the Alhambra palace in Granada, Spain. Though this is disputed, the variety and sophistication of the Alhambra tilings have surprised modern researchers. Of the three regular tilings two are in the p6m wallpaper group and one is in p4m. Tilings in 2D with translational symmetry in just one direction can be categorized by the seven frieze groups describing the possible frieze patterns. Orbifold notation can be used to describe wallpaper groups of the Euclidean plane.
Penrose tilings, which use two different quadrilaterals, are the best known example of tiles that forcibly create non-periodic patterns. They belong to a general class of aperiodic tilings, which use tiles that can not tessellate periodically. The recursive process of substitution tiling is a method of generating aperiodic tilings. One class that can be generated in this way is the rep - tiles; these tilings have surprising self - replicating properties. Pinwheel tilings are non-periodic, using a rep - tile construction; the tiles appear in infinitely many orientations. It might be thought that a non-periodic pattern would be entirely without symmetry, but this is not so. Aperiodic tilings, while lacking in translational symmetry, do have symmetries of other types, by infinite repetition of any bounded patch of the tiling and in certain finite groups of rotations or reflections of those patches. A substitution rule, such as can be used to generate some Penrose patterns using assemblies of tiles called rhombs, illustrates scaling symmetry. A Fibonacci word can be used to build an aperiodic tiling, and to study quasicrystals, which are structures with aperiodic order.
Wang tiles are squares coloured on each edge, and placed so that abutting edges of adjacent tiles have the same colour; hence they are sometimes called Wang dominoes. A suitable set of Wang dominoes can tile the plane, but only aperiodically. This is known because any Turing machine can be represented as a set of Wang dominoes that tile the plane if and only if the Turing machine does not halt. Since the halting problem is undecidable, the problem of deciding whether a Wang domino set can tile the plane is also undecidable.
Truchet tiles are square tiles decorated with patterns so they do not have rotational symmetry; in 1704, Sébastien Truchet used a square tile split into two triangles of contrasting colours. These can tile the plane either periodically or randomly.
Sometimes the colour of a tile is understood as part of the tiling; at other times arbitrary colours may be applied later. When discussing a tiling that is displayed in colours, to avoid ambiguity one needs to specify whether the colours are part of the tiling or just part of its illustration. This affects whether tiles with the same shape but different colours are considered identical, which in turn affects questions of symmetry. The four colour theorem states that for every tessellation of a normal Euclidean plane, with a set of four available colours, each tile can be coloured in one colour such that no tiles of equal colour meet at a curve of positive length. The colouring guaranteed by the four colour theorem does not generally respect the symmetries of the tessellation. To produce a colouring which does, it is necessary to treat the colours as part of the tessellation. Here, as many as seven colours may be needed, as in the picture at right.
Next to the various tilings by regular polygons, tilings by other polygons have also been studied.
Any triangle or quadrilateral (even non-convex) can be used as a prototile to form a monohedral tessellation, often in more than one way. Copies of an arbitrary quadrilateral can form a tessellation with translational symmetry and 2-fold rotational symmetry with centres at the midpoints of all sides. For an asymmetric quadrilateral this tiling belongs to wallpaper group p2. As fundamental domain we have the quadrilateral. Equivalently, we can construct a parallelogram subtended by a minimal set of translation vectors, starting from a rotational centre. We can divide this by one diagonal, and take one half (a triangle) as fundamental domain. Such a triangle has the same area as the quadrilateral and can be constructed from it by cutting and pasting.
If only one shape of tile is allowed, tilings exists with convex N - gons for N equal to 3, 4, 5 and 6. For N = 5, see Pentagonal tiling, for N = 6, see Hexagonal tiling, for N = 7, see Heptagonal tiling and for N = 8, see octagonal tiling.
For results on tiling the plane with polyominoes, see Polyomino § Uses of polyominoes.
Voronoi or Dirichlet tilings are tessellations where each tile is defined as the set of points closest to one of the points in a discrete set of defining points. (Think of geographical regions where each region is defined as all the points closest to a given city or post office.) The Voronoi cell for each defining point is a convex polygon. The Delaunay triangulation is a tessellation that is the dual graph of a Voronoi tessellation. Delaunay triangulations are useful in numerical simulation, in part because among all possible triangulations of the defining points, Delaunay triangulations maximize the minimum of the angles formed by the edges. Voronoi tilings with randomly placed points can be used to construct random tilings of the plane.
Tessellation can be extended to three dimensions. Certain polyhedra can be stacked in a regular crystal pattern to fill (or tile) three - dimensional space, including the cube (the only Platonic polyhedron to do so), the rhombic dodecahedron, the truncated octahedron, and triangular, quadrilateral, and hexagonal prisms, among others. Any polyhedron that fits this criterion is known as a plesiohedron, and may possess between 4 and 38 faces. Naturally occurring rhombic dodecahedra are found as crystals of andradite (a kind of garnet) and fluorite.
A Schwarz triangle is a spherical triangle that can be used to tile a sphere.
Tessellations in three or more dimensions are called honeycombs. In three dimensions there is just one regular honeycomb, which has eight cubes at each polyhedron vertex. Similarly, in three dimensions there is just one quasiregular honeycomb, which has eight tetrahedra and six octahedra at each polyhedron vertex. However, there are many possible semiregular honeycombs in three dimensions. Uniform polyhedra can be constructed using the Wythoff construction.
The Schmitt - Conway biprism is a convex polyhedron with the property of tiling space only aperiodically.
It is possible to tessellate in non-Euclidean geometries such as hyperbolic geometry. A uniform tiling in the hyperbolic plane (which may be regular, quasiregular or semiregular) is an edge - to - edge filling of the hyperbolic plane, with regular polygons as faces; these are vertex - transitive (transitive on its vertices), and isogonal (there is an isometry mapping any vertex onto any other).
A uniform honeycomb in hyperbolic space is a uniform tessellation of uniform polyhedral cells. In 3 - dimensional hyperbolic space there are nine Coxeter group families of compact convex uniform honeycombs, generated as Wythoff constructions, and represented by permutations of rings of the Coxeter diagrams for each family.
In architecture, tessellations have been used to create decorative motifs since ancient times. Mosaic tilings often had geometric patterns. Later civilisations also used larger tiles, either plain or individually decorated. Some of the most decorative were the Moorish wall tilings of Islamic architecture, using Girih and Zellige tiles in buildings such as the Alhambra and La Mezquita.
Tessellations frequently appeared in the graphic art of M.C. Escher; he was inspired by the Moorish use of symmetry in places such as the Alhambra when he visited Spain in 1936. Escher made four "Circle Limit '' drawings of tilings that use hyperbolic geometry. For his woodcut "Circle Limit IV '' (1960), Escher prepared a pencil and ink study showing the required geometry. Escher explained that "No single component of all the series, which from infinitely far away rise like rockets perpendicularly from the limit and are at last lost in it, ever reaches the boundary line. ''
Tessellated designs often appear on textiles, whether woven, stitched in or printed. Tessellation patterns have been used to design interlocking motifs of patch shapes in quilts.
Tessellations are also a main genre in origami (paper folding), where pleats are used to connect molecules such as twist folds together in a repeating fashion.
Tessellation is used in manufacturing industry to reduce the wastage of material (yield losses) such as sheet metal when cutting out shapes for objects like car doors or drinks cans.
Tessellation is apparent in the mudcrack - like cracking of thin films -- with a degree of self - organisation being observed using micro and nanotechnologies.
The honeycomb provides a well - known example of tessellation in nature with its hexagonal cells.
In botany, the term "tessellate '' describes a checkered pattern, for example on a flower petal, tree bark, or fruit. Flowers including the fritillary and some species of Colchicum are characteristically tessellate.
Many patterns in nature are formed by cracks in sheets of materials. These patterns can be described by Gilbert tessellations, also known as random crack networks. The Gilbert tessellation is a mathematical model for the formation of mudcracks, needle - like crystals, and similar structures. The model, named after Edgar Gilbert, allows cracks to form starting from randomly scattered over the plane; each crack propagates in two opposite directions along a line through the initiation point, its slope chosen at random, creating a tessellation of irregular convex polygons. Basaltic lava flows often display columnar jointing as a result of contraction forces causing cracks as the lava cools. The extensive crack networks that develop often produce hexagonal columns of lava. One example of such an array of columns is the Giant 's Causeway in Northern Ireland. Tessellated pavement, a characteristic example of which is found at Eaglehawk Neck on the Tasman Peninsula of Tasmania, is a rare sedimentary rock formation where the rock has fractured into rectangular blocks.
Other natural patterns occur in foams; these are packed according to Plateau 's laws, which require minimal surfaces. Such foams present a problem in how to pack cells as tightly as possible: in 1887, Lord Kelvin proposed a packing using only one solid, the bitruncated cubic honeycomb with very slightly curved faces. In 1993, Denis Weaire and Robert Phelan proposed the Weaire -- Phelan structure, which uses less surface area to separate cells of equal volume than Kelvin 's foam.
Tessellations have given rise to many types of tiling puzzle, from traditional jigsaw puzzles (with irregular pieces of wood or cardboard) and the tangram to more modern puzzles which often have a mathematical basis. For example, polyiamonds and polyominoes are figures of regular triangles and squares, often used in tiling puzzles. Authors such as Henry Dudeney and Martin Gardner have made many uses of tessellation in recreational mathematics. For example, Dudeney invented the hinged dissection, while Gardner wrote about the rep - tile, a shape that can be dissected into smaller copies of the same shape. Inspired by Gardner 's articles in Scientific American, the amateur mathematician Marjorie Rice found four new tessellations with pentagons. Squaring the square is the problem of tiling an integral square (one whose sides have integer length) using only other integral squares. An extension is squaring the plane, tiling it by squares whose sizes are all natural numbers without repetitions; James and Frederick Henle proved that this was possible.
Triangular tiling, one of the three regular tilings of the plane.
Snub hexagonal tiling, a semiregular tiling of the plane
Floret pentagonal tiling, dual to a semiregular tiling and one of 15 monohedral pentagon tilings.
A honeycomb is a natural tessellated structure.
The Voderberg tiling, a spiral, monohedral tiling made of enneagons.
Alternated octagonal or tritetragonal tiling is a uniform tiling of the hyperbolic plane.
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list of cities and municipalities in rizal province | Rizal - Wikipedia
Rizal, officially known as the Province of Rizal (Filipino: Lalawigan ng Rizal), is a province in the Philippines located in the Calabarzon region, just 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) east of Manila. The province is named after José Rizal, one of the main national heroes of the Philippines. Rizal is bordered by Metro Manila to the west, Bulacan to the north, Quezon to the east and Laguna to the southeast. The province also lies on the northern shores of Laguna de Bay, the largest lake in the country. Rizal is a mountainous province perched on the western slopes of the southern portion of the Sierra Madre mountain range. Antipolo offers a panoramic view of Metro Manila and is the location of the Hinulugang Taktak, a waterfall attraction.
Tagalog settlement arrived some time in the pre-Spaniard period. The provincial territory began with the organization of the Tondo province and Laguna province during the Spanish administration. Some of the towns like Pasig, Parañaque, Taytay and Cainta were already thriving.
From the reports of the Encomiendas in 1582 - 1583, the Encomiendas of Moron (Morong) was under the jurisdiction of La Laguna and, the Encomiendas of Passi (Pasig), Taitay (Taytay) and Tagui (Taguig) belonged to the Province of Tondo. It was recorded that in 1591, the Encomiendas of Moron and Taitay were under the jurisdiction of the Franciscan Order in the Province of La Laguna; and the Encomiendas of Nabotas (Navotas), Tambobo (Malabon), Tondo, Parañaque (then La Huerta, Parañaque), Longalo (Don Galo, Parañaque), Tagui and Pasig were under the jurisdiction of the Augustinians in the Province of Tondo.
In 1853, a new political subdivision was formed. This consisted of the towns of Antipolo (now a city), Bosoboso, Cainta and Taytay from the Province of Tondo; and the towns of Morong, Baras, Tanay, Pililla, Angono, Binangonan and Jalajala from the Province of La Laguna, with the capital at Morong. This district was later changed to Distrito Politico - Militar de Morong after four years.
In 1860, by virtue of Circular No. 83, dated September 2, 1859, the Province of Tondo became the Province of Manila. All its towns were placed under the administration, fiscal supervision and control of the Governor of the new province.
The town of Mariquina (Marikina) became the capital of the Province of Manila during the tenure of the revolutionary government of Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo. The Province of Morong had for its capital the town of Antipolo for the period 1898 - 1899, and the town of Tanay for 1899 - 1900.
On February 6, 1901, the First Philippine Commission sought to establish civil government in the country through a provincial organization act after the Filipino - Spanish and Filipino - American conflicts.
Therefore, on June 5, 1901, a historic meeting was held at the Pasig Catholic Church for the organization of a civil government in the Provinces of Manila and Morong, with 221 delegates in attendance. The first Philippine Commission, headed by William Howard Taft and composed of Commissioners Luke E. Wright, Henry C. Ide, Bernard Moses and Dean C. Worcester, discussed with the Assembly the issue of whether or not to write the Province of Manila with Morong Province, was not self - sufficient to operate as a separate province.
Although the delegates from Morong, Hilarion Raymundo and José Tupas, objected to the proposal, Juan Sumulong of Antipolo strongly advocated the move. After much acrimonious debate and upon the suggestion of Trinidad H. Pardo de Tavera the body agreed on the creation of a new province independent of the Province of Manila. The new province was aptly named after Jose Rizal, the country 's national hero.
On June 11, 1901, the province of Rizal was officially and legally created by virtue of an Act No. 137 by the First Philippine Commission which during the time was acting as the unicameral legislative body in the island of Luzon.
The new province was composed of 29 municipalities, 17 from the old Province of Manila (Caloocan, Las Piñas, Mariquina (Marikina), Montalban (Rodriguez), Muntinlupa, Navotas, Novaliches, Parañaque, Pasig, Pateros, Pineda (Pasay), San Felipe Neri (Mandaluyong), San Juan del Monte (San Juan), San Mateo, San Pedro Macati (Makati), Taguig, Tambobong (Malabon)); and 12 from the Politico - Militar District of Morong, (Angono, Baras, Binangonan, Cainta, Antipolo, Cardona, Jalajala, Morong, Pililla, Tanay, Taytay and Teresa). The City of Manila from the old Province of Manila was treated as a separate entity. The seat of the provincial government was Pasig.
In year 1939, Quezon City was established, which included parts of Caloocan, and later on, Novaliches and parts of Marikina and San Juan towns.
During World War II, Japanese fighter and bomber planes rained explosives on the province in December 1941. Japanese Imperial troops invaded Rizal in 1942 at the onset of the Japanese Occupation. The establishment of the General Headquarters of the Philippine Commonwealth Army and Philippine Constabulary went the military stationed in Rizal from January 3, 1942 to June 30, 1946 against the Japanese Occupation.
Many Rizaleños organised themselves into a resistance movement, grouped in some places as the Hunters ROTC and the Marking 's Filipino - American Troops (MFAT) in guerrilla camps in the province 's mountains. The guerrilla forces also aided Filipino soldiers in the Philippine Commonwealth Army and American troops in fighting the Japanese troops. The local military unit of the Philippine Commonwealth Army was active from January 3, 1942 to June 30, 1946, while the local unit of the Philippine Constabulary was active from October 28, 1944 to June 30, 1946. United States forces had liberated parts of Luzon by January 1945. During the Allied Liberation that lasted until August that year, the combined U.S. and Philippine Commonwealth military ground troops aided the local Rizaleño Hunters ROTC and MFAT.
Through Presidential Decree No 824, Rizal was partitioned on 7 November 1975 to form Metro Manila. The municipalities of Las Piñas, Parañaque, Muntinlupa, Taguig, Pateros, Makati, Mandaluyong, San Juan, Malabon, Navotas, Pasig and Marikina, and the three cities of Caloocan, Pasay and Quezon City were excised to form the new region, while the other 14 towns remained in Rizal.
Rizal Governor Dr. Casimiro Ynares III on June 17, 2008 announced the transfer of the Capitol from Pasig. Its ₱ 270 - million capitol building, constructed in Antipolo by Ortigas & Co., owner thereof, was completed by December of that year. Built on 5 - hectare lot at the Ynares Center, it employs 2,008 employees. The New Capitol was successfully inaugurated on March 4, 2009, bringing back the Capitol Building inside the provincial territory, from which it was absent for 33 years (when Pasig was incorporated into Metro Manila).
Rizal covers a total area of 1,191.94 square kilometres (460.21 sq mi) occupying the northern - central section of the Calabarzon in Luzon. The province is bordered on the north by Bulacan, east by Quezon, southeast by Laguna, south by the Laguna de Bay, and west by Metro Manila.
Located 20 kilometres (12 mi) east of Manila, commuters take approximately an hour to reach the provincial seat which is at Antipolo. Generally hilly and mountainous in terrain, most of the province 's southern towns lie in the shores of Laguna de Bay, the country 's largest inland body of water. The province has an area of 1,191.94 square kilometres (460.21 sq mi).
Talim Island, the largest island situated within the Laguna de Bay is under the jurisdiction of the province.
Rizal comprises 13 municipalities and 1 city.
The population of Rizal in the 2015 census was 2,884,227 people, with a density of 2,400 inhabitants per square kilometre or 6,200 inhabitants per square mile.
Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion with about 80 percent adherence (Diocese of Antipolo, (Catholic - Hierarchy), 2004). Various Christian groups exist such as Aglipayan Church, Born - again Christians, Jesus Is Lord Church, Iglesia Ni Cristo, Jehovah 's Witnesses, Baptist, Church of Christ of Latter Day Saints, El Shaddai (movement) Methodists, Presbyterians, Seventh - day Adventist and other Evangelical Christians. Muslims and other Non-Christians are also present.
Before the 1990s, the primary source of economy in Rizal province were the huge piggery estates owned by Manila - based families. In the recent years, the province became one of the most progressive provinces in country, owing to its proximity to Metro Manila, the economic center of the Philippines. Antipolo, Taytay and Cainta serve as the economic centers of the province, while Angono, Rodriguez, Morong, San Mateo, Tanay, Binangonan and Teresa are taking successful steps to urbanize areas within their jurisdiction. Other areas of the province are having difficulty to start the urbanization process, mainly because of the lack of main roads to connect these to economic centers.
In a study recently conducted by the National Statistics Coordination Board (NSCB), Rizal province came out to be the Philippines ' least poor province with a poverty incidence rate of 3.4 %, even lower than that of the National Capital Region or Metro Manila.. In April 23, 2013, the National Statistics Coordination Board (NCSB) reported that Rizal, from being the least poor province in poverty incidence moved down to the 3rd Place, with Cavite taking over as the least province by 4.1 % (compared to Rizal 's 7.6 %) and Laguna for 2nd with 6.3 %.
Antipolo, the province 's capital city, is the center of trade and exchange, tourism, government and economy. It is also a center of education and sports because of the availability of various educational and physical training facilities. Acclaimed of its scenic attractions, the city also produces agricultural products such as cashew nuts and rice cakes. Taytay, the province 's center of garment and textile manufacturing, is also the town where the country 's largest mall operator runs a store near the town center. Meanwhile, Cainta serves as the center of business - process outsourcing (BPO) businesses in the province, aside from being known for the presence of several shopping centers and delicacies such as bibingka or rice cakes.
The provincial legislature or the Sangguniang Panlalawigan is composed of ten elected members. Four members are elected from each of the province 's legislative district, while each of Antipolo 's legislative district elect a single member.
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who did the voiceover in a christmas story | Jean Shepherd - wikipedia
Jean Parker Shepherd, Jr. (July 26, 1921 -- October 16, 1999) was an American storyteller, radio and TV personality, writer and actor. He was often referred to by the nickname Shep. With a career that spanned decades, Shepherd is known to modern audiences for the film A Christmas Story (1983), which he narrated and co-scripted, based on his own semi-autobiographical stories.
Born in 1921 on the south side of Chicago, Illinois, Shepherd briefly lived in East Chicago, Indiana, and was raised in Hammond, Indiana, where he graduated from Hammond High School in 1939. The movie A Christmas Story is loosely based on his days growing up in Hammond 's southeast side neighborhood of Hessville. As a youth he worked briefly as a mail carrier in a steel mill and earned his Amateur radio license (W9QWN) at age 16, sometimes claiming he was even younger. He sporadically attended Indiana University, but never graduated. Shepherd was a lifelong Chicago White Sox fan.
During World War II, he served stateside in the U.S. Army Signal Corps. Shepherd then had an extensive career in a variety of media.
After his military service, Shepherd began his broadcast radio career in early 1945 on WJOB in Hammond, Indiana, later working at WTOD in Toledo, Ohio, in 1946. He began working in Cincinnati, Ohio, in January 1947 at WSAI, later also working at Cincinnati stations WCKY and WKRC the following year, before returning to WSAI. From 1951 to 1953, he had a late - night broadcast on KYW in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, after which he returned to Cincinnati for several shows on WLW. After a stint on television (see below), he returned to radio. "Shep, '' as he was known, settled in at WOR radio New York City, New York, at the end of February 1955, and on an overnight slot in 1956, where he delighted his fans by telling stories, reading poetry (especially the works of Robert W. Service), and organizing comedic listener stunts. The most famous of the last involved creating a hoax about a non-existent book, I, Libertine, by the equally non-existent author "Frederick R. Ewing '', in 1956. During a discussion on how easy it was to manipulate the best seller lists, which at that time were based not only on sales but demand, Shepherd suggested that his listeners visit bookstores and ask for a copy of I, Libertine which led to booksellers attempting to purchase the book from their distributors. Fans of the show eventually took it further, planting references to the book and author so widely that demand for the book led to it being claimed by some to have been listed on The New York Times Best Seller list. Shepherd, Theodore Sturgeon and Betty Ballantine later wrote the actual book, with a cover painted by illustrator Frank Kelly Freas, published by Ballantine Books. Among his close friends in the late 1950s were Shel Silverstein and Herb Gardner. With them and actress Lois Nettleton, Shepherd performed in the revue he created, Look, Charlie. Later he was married to Nettleton for about six years.
When he was about to be released by WOR in 1956 for not being commercial, he did a commercial for Sweetheart Soap, not a sponsor, and was immediately fired. His listeners besieged WOR with complaints, and when Sweetheart offered to sponsor him he was reinstated. Eventually, he attracted more sponsors than he wanted -- the commercials interrupted the flow of his monologues. Ex WOR engineer, Frank Cernese, adds: The commercials of that era were on "ETs '' -- phonograph records about 14 '' in diameter. Three large turntables were available to play them in sequence. However, Shepherd liked the engineer to look at him and listen when he told his stories. That left little time to load the turntables and cue the appropriate cuts. That 's when he started complaining about "too many commercials ''. His last WOR broadcast was on April 1, 1977. His subsequent radio work consisted only of short segments on several other stations, including crosstown WCBS, and occasional commentaries on NPR 's All Things Considered. His final radio gig was the Sunday night radio show "Shepherd 's Pie '' on WBAI in the mid-1990s, which consisted of his reading his stories uncut, uninterrupted and unabridged. The show was one of WBAI 's most popular of the period. In addition to his stories, his shows also contained, among other things, humorous anecdotes and general commentaries about the human condition, observations about life in New York, accounts of vacations in Maine and travels throughout the world. Among the most striking of his programs was his account of his participation in the March on Washington in August 1963, during which Dr. Martin Luther King gave his "I Have a Dream '' speech, and the program that aired on November 25, 1963 -- the burial day of President John F. Kennedy. However, his most scintillating programs remain his often prophetic, bitingly humorous commentaries about ordinary life in America.
Throughout his radio career, he performed entirely without scripts. His friend and WOR colleague Barry Farber marveled at how he could talk so long with very little written down. Yet during a radio interview, Shepherd once claimed that some shows took several weeks to prepare, but this would probably have been in the thinking and outlining stage rather than in anything like a script. On most of his Fourth of July broadcasts, however, he would read one of his most enduring and popular short stories, "Ludlow Kissel and the Dago Bomb that Struck Back, '' about a neighborhood drunk and his disastrous fireworks escapades. In the 1960s and 1970s, his WOR show ran from 11: 15 pm to midnight, later changed to 10: 15 pm to 11 pm, so his "Ludlow Kissel '' reading was coincidentally timed to many New Jersey and New York local town fireworks displays, which would traditionally reach their climax at 10 pm. It was possible, on one of those July 4 nights, to park one 's car on a hilltop and watch several different pyrotechnic displays, accompanied by Shepherd 's masterful storytelling.
Shepherd wrote a series of humorous short stories about growing up in northwest Indiana and its steel towns, many of which were first told by him on his programs and then published in Playboy. The stories were later assembled into books titled In God We Trust, All Others Pay Cash, Wanda Hickey 's Night of Golden Memories: and Other Disasters, The Ferrari in the Bedroom, and A Fistful of Fig Newtons. Some of those situations were incorporated into his movies and television fictional stories. He also wrote a column for the early Village Voice, a column for Car and Driver, numerous individual articles for diverse publications, including Mad Magazine ("The Night People vs. Creeping Meatballism '', March / April 1957), and introductions for books such as The America of George Ade, American Snapshots, and the 1970 reprint of the 1929 Johnson Smith Catalogue.
When Eugene B. Bergmann 's Excelsior, You Fathead! The Art and Enigma of Jean Shepherd was published in 2005, Publishers Weekly reviewed:
This prismatic portrait affirms Shepherd 's position as one of the 20th century 's great humorists. Railing against conformity, he forged a unique personal bond with his loyal listeners, who participated in his legendary literary prank by asking bookstores for the nonexistent novel I, Libertine (when publisher Ian Ballantine had Shepherd, author Theodore Sturgeon, and illustrator Frank Kelly Freas make the fake real, PW called it "the hoax that became a book ''). Storyteller Shepherd 's grand theme was life itself... Novelist Bergmann (Rio Amazonas) interviewed 32 people who knew Shepherd or were influenced by him and listened to hundreds of broadcast tapes, inserting transcripts of Shepherd 's own words into a "biographical framework '' of exhaustive research.
Shep 's Army: Bummers, Blisters, and Boondoggles, almost three dozen of Jean Shepherd 's radio stories about the army, transcribed, edited and introduced by Eugene B. Bergmann, is a book of stories by Shepherd, never before in print. (Opus Books, August 2013)
Early in his career, Shepherd had a television program on WLW - TV in Cincinnati called Rear Bumper. He claimed that he was recommended to replace the resigning Steve Allen on NBC 's Tonight Show. Shepherd was reportedly brought to New York City by NBC executives to prepare for the position, but they were contractually bound to first offer it to Jack Paar. The network was certain Paar would hold out for a role in prime time, but he accepted the late - night assignment. However, he did not assume the position permanently until Shepherd and Ernie Kovacs had co-hosted the show.
In late 1960 and early 1961, he did a weekly television show on WOR (channel 9) in New York, but it did not last long. Between 1971 and 1994, Shepherd became a screenwriter of note, writing and producing numerous works for both television and cinema, all based on his originally spoken and written stories. He was the writer and narrator of the show Jean Shepherd 's America, produced by Boston Public Television station WGBH for PBS, in which he visited various American locales, and interviewed local people of interest. He used a somewhat similar format for the New Jersey Network TV show Shepherd 's Pie. On many of the Public TV shows he wrote, directed and edited entire shows.
He also wrote and narrated many works, the most famous being the 1983 MGM feature film A Christmas Story, which is now considered a holiday classic. Shepherd narrates the film as the adult Ralph Parker, and also has a cameo role playing a man in line at the department store waiting for Santa Claus.
Ten years later, Shepherd and A Christmas Story director Bob Clark returned to the same working - class Cleveland street neighborhood to film a sequel, It Runs in the Family (later known as My Summer Story), released by MGM in 1994 and featuring an almost entirely different cast from the previous film.
PBS aired several television movies based on Shepherd stories, also featuring the Parker family. These included The Phantom of the Open Hearth (1976), which aired as part of the anthology series Visions; The Great American Fourth of July and Other Disasters (1982) and The Star - Crossed Romance of Josephine Cosnowski (1985), both as part of the anthology series American Playhouse; and Ollie Hopnoodle 's Haven of Bliss (1988), a co-production with The Disney Channel. All were narrated by Shepherd but otherwise featured different casts.
On Saturday nights for several years, Shepherd broadcast his WOR radio program live from the Limelight Cafe in New York City 's Greenwich Village, and he also performed at many colleges nationwide. His live shows were a perennial favorite at Rutgers to wildly enthusiastic standing room only crowds, and Fairleigh Dickinson Universities (he often referred to the latter as "Fairly Ridiculous University '' on his WOR show). He performed at Princeton University for over 30 years, beginning in 1956 until 1996, three years before his death. He performed before sold - out audiences at Carnegie Hall and Town Hall.
He was also emcee for several important jazz concerts in the late 1950s. Shepherd 's first known recording featured his short comments interspersed with jazz pieces. The title: Jean Shepherd -- Into the Unknown With Jazz Music (1955). Shepherd improvised spoken word narration for the title track on jazz musician Charles Mingus 's 1957 album The Clown. Eight record albums of live and studio performances of Shepherd were released between 1955 and 1975. In 1993, Shepherd recorded the opening narration and the voice of the Audio - Animatronics "Father '' character for the updated Carousel of Progress attraction at Walt Disney World Magic Kingdom.
On some of his broadcasts he played parts of recordings of such novelty songs as "The Bear Missed the Train '' (a parody of the Yiddish ballad "Bei Mir Bist Du Schoen '') and "The Sheik of Araby ''. Sometimes Shepherd would accompany the recordings by playing the Jew 's harp, nose flute, or kazoo, and occasionally even by thumping his knuckles on his head.
The theme song of his show was "Bahn Frei! '' by Eduard Strauss. The particular version Shepherd used was a recording by Arthur Fiedler and the Boston Pops, with arrangement by Peter Bodge, released in April 1946 by RCA Victor - Red Seal. This arrangement recast the 19th - century polka from one relating to travel by train to a fast - tempo piece directed to horses and a race track, principally achieved by opening with a well - known bugle call named "Call to the Post. ''
Shepherd kept most of his personal life secret, from both his radio audience and most of his friends. Married four times, he lived in several New York City locations during his WOR days and for a time in New Milford (Bergen County), New Jersey, and in Washington (Warren County), New Jersey. In 1984, he moved to Sanibel Island, Florida, with his wife Leigh Brown. He died in a hospital in nearby Fort Myers, Florida, in 1999 of "natural causes. ''
Shepherd maintained his interest in amateur radio throughout his life. After leaving Hammond, he obtained the call signs W4QWN (Kentucky), W8QWN (Ohio) and W3STE (Pennsylvania). Upon his arrival at WOR in New York in 1955, he obtained the call K2ORS, with which he would often be heard speaking to other ham radio operators for the remainder of his life.
It is unknown to what extent Shepherd 's radio and published stories were fact, fiction or a combination of the two. The childhood friends included in many of his stories were people he claimed to have invented, yet high school yearbooks and numerous other sources confirm that many of them, including school buddies "Flick '' and "Schwartz, '' did indeed exist. His father was a cashier at the Borden Milk Company. Shepherd always referred to him as "the old man. '' During an interview on the Long John Nebel Show -- an all - night radio program that ran on WOR starting at midnight -- Shepherd once claimed that his real father was a cartoonist along the lines of Herblock, and that he inherited his skills at line drawings. This may well have not been true but Shepherd 's ink drawings do adorn some of his published writings, and a number of previously unknown ones were sold on eBay from his former wife Lois Nettleton 's collection after her death in 2008.
The 1930 Federal Census Record for Hammond, Indiana, indicates that Jean 's father did work for a dairy company. His actual occupation reads "cashier. '' The 1930 census record (which misspells the last name as "Shephard '' when searching) lists the following family members: Jean Shepherd, age 30, head; Anna Shepherd, age 30, wife; Jean Shepherd Jr, age 8, son; and Randall Shepherd, age 6, son. According to this record, Jean Sr, Anna, Jean Jr, and Randall were all born in Illinois, and Jean Sr 's parents (Emmett and Flora) were born in Kansas. However, all other decennial federal and state census records, as well as other official documents such as death certificates, indicate that Emmett and Flora were born in Indiana. Anna 's parents, August and Katherine, were born in Germany.
Jean Shepherd had two children, a son Randall and a daughter Adrian, with his second wife Joan but he publicly denied this, including in his last will and testament, executed some five months prior to his death. Randall Shepherd describes his father as having frequently come home late or not at all. Randall had almost no contact with him after his parents ' divorce.
Shepherd 's oral narrative style was a precursor to that used by Spalding Gray and Garrison Keillor. Marshall McLuhan in Understanding Media wrote that Shepherd "regards radio as a new medium for a new kind of novel that he writes nightly. '' In the Seinfeld season six DVD set, commenting on the episode titled "The Gymnast '', Jerry Seinfeld said, "He really formed my entire comedic sensibility -- I learned how to do comedy from Jean Shepherd. '' Furthermore, the first name of Seinfeld 's third child is "Shepherd. '' On January 23, 2012 the Paley Center for Media (formerly The Museum of Television and Radio) presented a tribute to Shepherd. Seinfeld was interviewed for the hour and discussed how Shepherd and he had similar ways of humorously discussing minor incidents in life. He confirmed the importance of Shepherd on his career.
Shepherd 's life and multimedia career are examined in the 2005 book Excelsior, You Fathead! The Art and Enigma of Jean Shepherd by Eugene B. Bergmann.
Shepherd was an influence on Bill Griffith 's Zippy comic strip, as Griffith noted in his strip for January 9, 2000. Griffith explained, "The inspiration -- just plucking random memories from my childhood, as I 'm wont to do in my Sunday strip (also a way to expand beyond Zippy) -- and Shep was a big part of them ''.
In an interview with New York magazine, Steely Dan 's Donald Fagen says that the eponymous figure from his solo album The Nightfly was based on Jean Shepherd.
Though he primarily spent his radio career playing music, New York Top 40 DJ Dan Ingram has acknowledged Shepherd 's style as an influence.
An article he wrote for the March -- April 1957 issue of MAD magazine, "The Night People vs Creeping Meatballism '', described the differences between what he considered to be "day people '' (conformists) and "night people '' (non-conformists). The opening credits of John Cassavetes ' 1959 film Shadows include "Presented by Jean Shepherd 's Night People ''.
In 2005, Shepherd was posthumously inducted into the National Radio Hall of Fame, and in November 2013 he was posthumously inducted into the Broadcast Pioneers of Philadelphia Hall of Fame.
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when did roger bryant of the jackson southernaires die | Jackson Southernaires - wikipedia
The Jackson Southernaires is an American traditional black gospel music group from Jackson, Mississippi, producer Frank Crisler formed the group in 1940, yet they did not become active until 1969, with the release of Too Late by Song Bird Records. At its inception, The group consisted of five members; Huey Williams, Roger Bryant, Jr., Maurice Surrell, James Burks, and Luther Jennings. The group received a nomination for a Grammy Award in the Best Traditional Gospel Album category at the 34th Annual Grammy Awards. The group has released 28 albums, including their 2010 release, Back Again, with Blackberry Records. Eleven albums have charted on the Billboard magazine charts, only on the Gospel Albums chart.
The Jackson, Mississippi - based traditional black gospel group, The Jackson Southernaires was founded by record producer, Frank Crisler, in 1940. They did not start actively recording and releasing music until 1969. The group at its inception had as its rostrum Huey Williams, Roger Bryant, Jr., Maurice Surrell, James Burks, and Luther Jennings, Dr. Gary Miles, Granard McClendon, Melvin Wilson.
The group has released 28 albums from 1969 until 2010, with the following labels: Song Bird Records, Malaco Records, MCA Records, Redemption Records, and Blackberry Records. Of these albums, eleven charted on the Billboard magazine Gospel Albums chart, and those were, Made in Mississippi, Greatest Hits, Lord We Need Your Blessing, Hear Our Prayers O Lord, Power Packed, On the Third Day, Thank You Mama for Praying for Me, Live and Anointed, The Word in Song, The Brothers Dream... Alive, and Warrior. The group received a Grammy Award nomination for the Best Traditional Gospel Album at the 34th Annual Grammy Awards, for the album Thank You Mama for Praying for Me.
(*) -- Denotes a Grammy Award nomination, for that particular album
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what was the significance of closing the silk road | Silk Road - wikipedia
The Silk Road or Silk Route was an ancient network of trade routes that were for centuries central to cultural interaction originally through regions of Eurasia connecting the East and West and stretching from the Korean peninsula and Japan to the Mediterranean Sea. The Silk Road concept refers to both the terrestrial and the maritime routes connecting Asia and Europe. The overland Steppe route stretching through the Eurasian steppe is considered the ancestor to the Silk Road (s).
While the term is of modern coinage, the Silk Road derives its name from the lucrative trade in silk (and horses) carried out along its length, beginning during the Han dynasty (207 BCE -- 220 CE). The Han dynasty expanded Central Asian sections of the trade routes around 114 BCE, largely through missions and explorations of the Chinese imperial envoy, Zhang Qian. The Chinese took great interest in the safety of their trade products and extended the Great Wall of China to ensure the protection of the trade route.
Trade on the Silk Road played a significant role in the development of the civilizations of China, the Goguryeo kingdom (Korea), Japan, the Indian subcontinent, Persia, Europe, the Horn of Africa and Arabia, opening long - distance political and economic relations between the civilizations. Though silk was certainly the major trade item exported from China, many other goods were traded, as well as religions, syncretic philosophies, and various technologies. Diseases, most notably plague, also spread along the Silk Routes. In addition to economic trade, the Silk Road was a route for cultural trade among the civilizations along its network.
The main traders during antiquity included the Chinese, Arabs, Indian, Somalis, Syrians, Jews, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Georgians, Armenians, Bactrians, Turkmens, and (from the 5th to the 8th century) the Sogdians.
In June 2014, UNESCO designated the Chang'an - Tianshan corridor of the Silk Road as a World Heritage Site. The Indian portion is on the tentative site list.
The Silk Road derives its name from the lucrative Eurasian silk and horse trade, a major reason for the connection of trade routes into an extensive transcontinental network. The German terms Seidenstraße and Seidenstraßen ("the Silk Road (s) '') were coined by Ferdinand von Richthofen, who made seven expeditions to China from 1868 to 1872. The term Silk Route is also used. Although the term was coined in the 19th century, it did not gain widespread acceptance in academia or popularity among the public until the 20th century. The first book entitled The Silk Road was by Swedish geographer Sven Hedin in 1938. The fall of the Soviet Union and ' Iron Curtain ' in 1989 led to a surge of public and academic interest in Silk Road sites and studies in the former Soviet republics of Central Asia.
Use of the term ' Silk Road ' is not without its detractors. For instance, Warwick Ball contends that the maritime spice trade with India and Arabia was far more consequential for the economy of the Roman Empire than the silk trade with China, which at sea was conducted mostly through India and on land was handled by numerous intermediaries such as the Sogdians. Going as far as to call the whole thing a "myth '' of modern academia, Ball argues that there was no coherent overland trade system and no free movement of goods from East Asia to the West until the period of the Mongol Empire. He notes that traditional authors discussing East - West trade such as Marco Polo and Edward Gibbon never labelled any route as a silk one in particular. However, that spice trade route was actually the maritime route of what is now considered the Silk Road (see below.)
Central Eurasia has been known from ancient times for its horse riding and horse breeding communities, and the overland Steppe Route across the northern steppes of Central Eurasia was in use long before that of the Silk Road. Archeological sites such as the Berel burial ground in Kazakhstan, confirmed that the nomadic Arimaspians were not only breeding horses for trade but also great craftsmen able to propagate exquisite art pieces along the Silk Road. From the 2nd millennium BCE, nephrite jade was being traded from mines in the region of Yarkand and Khotan to China. Significantly, these mines were not very far from the lapis lazuli and spinel ("Balas Ruby '') mines in Badakhshan, and, although separated by the formidable Pamir Mountains, routes across them were apparently in use from very early times.
Some remnants of what was probably Chinese silk dating from 1070 BCE have been found in Ancient Egypt. The Great Oasis cities of Central Asia played a crucial role in the effective functioning of the Silk Road trade. The originating source seems sufficiently reliable, but silk degrades very rapidly, so it can not be verified whether it was cultivated silk (which would almost certainly have come from China) or a type of "wild silk '', which might have come from the Mediterranean region or the Middle East.
Following contacts between Metropolitan China and nomadic western border territories in the 8th century BCE, gold was introduced from Central Asia, and Chinese jade carvers began to make imitation designs of the steppes, adopting the Scythian - style animal art of the steppes (depictions of animals locked in combat). This style is particularly reflected in the rectangular belt plaques made of gold and bronze, with other versions in jade and steatite. The tomb of a Scythian prince near Stuttgart, Germany, dated to the 6th century BCE, was excavated and found to have not only Greek bronzes but also Chinese silks. Similar animal - shaped pieces of art and wrestler motifs on belts have been found in Scythian grave sites stretching from the Black Sea region all the way to Warring States era archaeological sites in Inner Mongolia (at Aluchaideng) and Shaanxi (at Keshengzhuang) in China.
The expansion of Scythian cultures, stretching from the Hungarian plain and the Carpathian Mountains to the Chinese Kansu Corridor, and linking the Middle East with Northern India and the Punjab, undoubtedly played an important role in the development of the Silk Road. Scythians accompanied the Assyrian Esarhaddon on his invasion of Egypt, and their distinctive triangular arrowheads have been found as far south as Aswan. These nomadic peoples were dependent upon neighbouring settled populations for a number of important technologies, and in addition to raiding vulnerable settlements for these commodities, they also encouraged long - distance merchants as a source of income through the enforced payment of tariffs. Soghdian Scythian merchants played a vital role in later periods in the development of the Silk Road.
By the time of Herodotus (c. 475 BCE), the Royal Road of the Persian Empire ran some 2,857 km (1,775 mi) from the city of Susa on the Karun (250 km (155 mi) east of the Tigris) to the port of Smyrna (modern İzmir in Turkey) on the Aegean Sea. It was maintained and protected by the Achaemenid Empire (c. 500 -- 330 BCE) and had postal stations and relays at regular intervals. By having fresh horses and riders ready at each relay, royal couriers could carry messages and traverse the length of the road in nine days, while normal travellers took about three months.
The next major step in the development of the Silk Road was the expansion of the Greek empire of Alexander the Great into Central Asia. In August 329 BCE, at the mouth of the Fergana Valley in Tajikistan across the mountain pass from the modern Chinese province of Xinjiang, Alexander founded the city of Alexandria Eschate or "Alexandria The Furthest ''. This later became a major staging point on the northern Silk Route. See Dayuan (Ta - yuan; Chinese: 大 宛; literarily "Great Ionians '').
The Greeks remained in Central Asia for the next three centuries, first through the administration of the Seleucid Empire, and then with the establishment of the Greco - Bactrian Kingdom (250 -- 125 BCE) in Bactria (modern Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and Pakistan) and the later Indo - Greek Kingdom (180 BCE -- 10 CE) in modern Northern Pakistan and Afghanistan. They continued to expand eastward, especially during the reign of Euthydemus (230 -- 200 BCE), who extended his control beyond Alexandria Eschate to Sogdiana. There are indications that he may have led expeditions as far as Kashgar in Chinese Turkestan, leading to the first known contacts between (China and the West around 200 BCE. The Greek historian Strabo writes, "they extended their empire even as far as the Seres (China) and the Phryni. ''
The Hellenistic world and Classical Greek philosophy mixed with Eastern philosophies, leading to syncretisms such as Greco - Buddhism.
With the Mediterranean linked to the Fergana Valley, the next step was to open a route across the Tarim Basin and the Hexi Corridor to China Proper. This extension came around 130 BCE, with the embassies of the Han dynasty to Central Asia following the reports of the ambassador Zhang Qian (who was originally sent to obtain an alliance with the Yuezhi against the Xiongnu). Zhang Qian visited directly the kingdom of Dayuan in Ferghana, the territories of the Yuezhi in Transoxiana, the Bactrian country of Daxia with its remnants of Greco - Bactrian rule, and Kangju. He also made reports on neighbouring countries that he did not visit, such as Anxi (Parthia), Tiaozhi (Mesopotamia), Shendu (Pakistan) and the Wusun. Zhang Qian 's report suggested the economic reason for Chinese expansion and wall - building westward, and trailblazed the silk road which is one of the most famous trade routes. After the defeat of the Xiongnu, however, Chinese armies established themselves in Central Asia, initiating the Silk Route as a major avenue of international trade. Some say that the Chinese Emperor Wu became interested in developing commercial relationships with the sophisticated urban civilizations of Ferghana, Bactria, and the Parthian Empire: "The Son of Heaven on hearing all this reasoned thus: Ferghana (Dayuan "Great Ionians '') and the possessions of Bactria (Ta - Hsia) and Parthian Empire (Anxi) are large countries, full of rare things, with a population living in fixed abodes and given to occupations somewhat identical with those of the Chinese people, but with weak armies, and placing great value on the rich produce of China '' (Hou Hanshu, Later Han History). Others say that Emperor Wu was mainly interested in fighting the Xiongnu and that major trade began only after the Chinese pacified the Hexi Corridor.
"China snatched control of the Silk Road from the Hsiung - nu '', when the Chinese general Cheng Ki "installed himself as protector of the Tarim at Wu - lei, situated between Kara Shahr and Kucha. '' "China 's control of the Silk Road at the time of the later Han, by ensuring the freedom of transcontinental trade along the double chain of oases north and south of the Tarim, favoured the dissemination of Buddhism in the river basin, and with it Indian literature and Hellenistic art. ''
The Chinese were also strongly attracted by the tall and powerful horses (named "Heavenly horses '') in the possession of the Dayuan (literally the "Great Ionians '', the Greek kingdoms of Central Asia), which were of capital importance in fighting the nomadic Xiongnu. The Chinese subsequently sent numerous embassies, around ten every year, to these countries and as far as Seleucid Syria. "Thus more embassies were dispatched to Anxi (Parthia), Yancai (who later joined the Alans), Lijian (Syria under the Greek Seleucids), Tiaozhi (Mesopotamia), and Tianzhu (northwestern India)... As a rule, rather more than ten such missions went forward in the course of a year, and at the least five or six. '' (Hou Hanshu, Later Han History). These connections marked the beginning of the Silk Road trade network that extended to the Roman Empire. The Chinese campaigned in Central Asia on several occasions, and direct encounters between Han troops and Roman legionaries (probably captured or recruited as mercenaries by the Xiong Nu) are recorded, particularly in the 36 BCE battle of Sogdiana (Joseph Needham, Sidney Shapiro). It has been suggested that the Chinese crossbow was transmitted to the Roman world on such occasions, although the Greek gastraphetes provides an alternative origin. R. Ernest Dupuy and Trevor N. Dupuy suggest that in 36 BCE, a "Han expedition into central Asia, west of Jaxartes River, apparently encountered and defeated a contingent of Roman legionaries. The Romans may have been part of Antony 's army invading Parthia. Sogdiana (modern Bukhara), east of the Oxus River, on the Polytimetus River, was apparently the most easterly penetration ever made by Roman forces in Asia. The margin of Chinese victory appears to have been their crossbows, whose bolts and darts seem easily to have penetrated Roman shields and armour. '' The Roman historian Florus also describes the visit of numerous envoys, which included Seres (China), to the first Roman Emperor Augustus, who reigned between 27 BCE and 14 CE:
Even the rest of the nations of the world which were not subject to the imperial sway were sensible of its grandeur, and looked with reverence to the Roman people, the great conqueror of nations. Thus even Scythians and Sarmatians sent envoys to seek the friendship of Rome. Nay, the Seres came likewise, and the Indians who dwelt beneath the vertical sun, bringing presents of precious stones and pearls and elephants, but thinking all of less moment than the vastness of the journey which they had undertaken, and which they said had occupied four years. In truth it needed but to look at their complexion to see that they were people of another world than ours.
The Han army regularly policed the trade route against nomadic bandit forces generally identified as Xiongnu. Han general Ban Chao led an army of 70,000 mounted infantry and light cavalry troops in the 1st century CE to secure the trade routes, reaching far west to the Tarim basin. Ban Chao expanded his conquests across the Pamirs to the shores of the Caspian Sea and the borders of Parthia. It was from here that the Han general dispatched envoy Gan Ying to Daqin (Rome). The Silk Road essentially came into being from the 1st century BCE, following these efforts by China to consolidate a road to the Western world and India, both through direct settlements in the area of the Tarim Basin and diplomatic relations with the countries of the Dayuan, Parthians and Bactrians further west. The Silk Roads were a "complex network of trade routes '' that gave people the chance to exchange goods and culture.
A maritime Silk Route opened up between Chinese - controlled Giao Chỉ (centred in modern Vietnam, near Hanoi), probably by the 1st century. It extended, via ports on the coasts of India and Sri Lanka, all the way to Roman - controlled ports in Roman Egypt and the Nabataean territories on the northeastern coast of the Red Sea. The earliest Roman glassware bowl found in China was unearthed from a Western Han tomb in Guangzhou, dated to the early 1st century BCE, indicating that Roman commercial items were being imported through the South China Sea. According to Chinese dynastic histories, it is from this region that the Roman embassies arrived in China, beginning in 166 CE during the reigns of Marcus Aurelius and Emperor Huan of Han. Other Roman glasswares have been found in Eastern - Han - era tombs (25 -- 220 CE) more further inland in Nanjing and Luoyang. P.O. Harper asserts that a 2nd or 3rd - century Roman gilt silver plate found in Jingyuan, Gansu, China with a central image of the Greco - Roman god Dionysus resting on a feline creature, most likely came via Greater Iran (i.e. Sogdiana). Valerie Hansen (2012) believed that earliest Roman coins found in China date to the 4th century, during Late Antiquity and the Dominate period, and come from the Byzantine Empire. However, Warwick Ball (2016) highlights the recent discovery of sixteen Principate - era Roman coins found in Xi'an (formerly Chang'an, one of the two Han capitals) that were minted during the reigns of Roman emperors spanning from Tiberius to Aurelian (i.e. 1st to 3rd centuries CE). It is true that these coins were found in China, but they were deposited there in the twentieth century, not in ancient times, and therefore they do not shed light on historic contacts between China and Rome. Roman golden medallions made during the reign of Antoninus Pius and quite possibly his successor Marcus Aurelius have been found at Óc Eo in southern Vietnam, which was then part of the Kingdom of Funan bordering the Chinese province of Jiaozhi in northern Vietnam. Given the archaeological finds of Mediterranean artefacts made by Louis Malleret in the 1940s, Óc Eo may have been the same site as the port city of Kattigara described by Ptolemy in his Geography (c. 150 CE), although Ferdinand von Richthofen had previously believed it was closer to Hanoi.
Soon after the Roman conquest of Egypt in 30 BCE, regular communications and trade between China, Southeast Asia, India, the Middle East, Africa, and Europe blossomed on an unprecedented scale. The eastern trade routes from the earlier Hellenistic powers and the Arabs that were part of the Silk Road were inherited by the Roman Empire. With control of these trade routes, citizens of the Roman Empire would receive new luxuries and greater prosperity for the Empire as a whole. The Roman - style glassware discovered in the archeological sites of Gyeongju, capital of the Silla kingdom (Korea) showed that Roman artifacts were traded as far as the Korean peninsula. The Greco - Roman trade with India started by Eudoxus of Cyzicus in 130 BCE continued to increase, and according to Strabo (II. 5.12), by the time of Augustus, up to 120 ships were setting sail every year from Myos Hormos in Roman Egypt to India. The Roman Empire connected with the Central Asian Silk Road through their ports in Barygaza (known today as Bharuch) and Barbaricum (known today as the cities of Karachi, Sindh, and Pakistan) and continued along the western coast of India. An ancient "travel guide '' to this Indian Ocean trade route was the Greek Periplus of the Erythraean Sea written in 60 CE.
The travelling party of Maës Titianus penetrated farthest east along the Silk Road from the Mediterranean world, probably with the aim of regularising contacts and reducing the role of middlemen, during one of the lulls in Rome 's intermittent wars with Parthia, which repeatedly obstructed movement along the Silk Road. Intercontinental trade and communication became regular, organised, and protected by the ' Great Powers. ' Intense trade with the Roman Empire soon followed, confirmed by the Roman craze for Chinese silk (supplied through the Parthians), even though the Romans thought silk was obtained from trees. This belief was affirmed by Seneca the Younger in his Phaedra and by Virgil in his Georgics. Notably, Pliny the Elder knew better. Speaking of the bombyx or silk moth, he wrote in his Natural Histories "They weave webs, like spiders, that become a luxurious clothing material for women, called silk. '' The Romans traded spices, glassware, perfumes, and silk.
Roman artisans began to replace yarn with valuable plain silk cloths from China and the Silla Kingdom in Gyeongju, Korea. Chinese wealth grew as they delivered silk and other luxury goods to the Roman Empire, whose wealthy Roman women admired their beauty. The Roman Senate issued, in vain, several edicts to prohibit the wearing of silk, on economic and moral grounds: the import of Chinese silk caused a huge outflow of gold, and silk clothes were considered to be decadent and immoral.
I can see clothes of silk, if materials that do not hide the body, nor even one 's decency, can be called clothes... Wretched flocks of maids labour so that the adulteress may be visible through her thin dress, so that her husband has no more acquaintance than any outsider or foreigner with his wife 's body.
The Roman Empire, and its demand for sophisticated Asian products, crumbled in the West around the 5th century.
The unification of Central Asia and Northern India within Kushan Empire in the 1st to 3rd centuries reinforced the role of the powerful merchants from Bactria and Taxila. They fostered multi-cultural interaction as indicated by their 2nd century treasure hoards filled with products from the Greco - Roman world, China, and India, such as in the archeological site of Begram.
Byzantine Greek historian Procopius stated that two Nestorian Christian monks eventually uncovered the way of how silk was made. From this revelation, monks were sent by the Byzantine Emperor Justinian (ruled 527 -- 565) as spies on the Silk Road from Constantinople to China and back to steal the silkworm eggs, resulting in silk production in the Mediterranean, particularly in Thrace in northern Greece, and giving the Byzantine Empire a monopoly on silk production in medieval Europe. In 568 the Byzantine ruler Justin II was greeted by a Sogdian embassy representing Istämi, ruler of the Turkic Khaganate, who formed an alliance with the Byzantines against Khosrow I of the Sasanian Empire that allowed the Byzantines to bypass the Sasanian merchants and trade directly with the Sogdians for purchasing Chinese silk. Although the Byzantines had already procured silkworm eggs from China by this point, the quality of Chinese silk was still far greater than anything produced in the West, a fact that is perhaps emphasized by the discovery of coins minted by Justin II found in a Chinese tomb of Shanxi province dated to the Sui Dynasty (581 -- 618).
Both the Old Book of Tang and New Book of Tang, covering the history of the Chinese Tang dynasty (618 -- 907), record that a new state called Fu - lin (拂 菻; i.e. Byzantine Empire) was virtually identical to the previous Daqin (大秦; i.e. Roman Empire). Several Fu - lin embassies were recorded for the Tang period, starting in 643 with an alleged embassy by Constans II (transliterated as Bo duo li, 波多 力, from his nickname "Kōnstantinos Pogonatos '') to the court of Emperor Taizong of Tang. The History of Song describes the final embassy and its arrival in 1081, apparently sent by Michael VII Doukas (transliterated as Mie li sha ling kai sa, 滅 力 沙 靈 改 撒, from his name and title Michael VII Parapinakēs Caesar) to the court of Emperor Shenzong of the Song dynasty (960 -- 1279). However, the History of Yuan claims that a Byzantine man became a leading astronomer and physician in Khanbaliq, at the court of Kublai Khan, Mongol founder of the Yuan dynasty (1271 -- 1368) and was even granted the noble title ' Prince of Fu lin ' (Chinese: 拂 菻 王; Fú lǐn wáng). The Uyghur Nestorian Christian diplomat Rabban Bar Sauma, who set out from his Chinese home in Khanbaliq (Beijing) and acted as a representative for Arghun (a grandnephew of Kublai Khan), traveled throughout Europe and attempted to secure military alliances with Edward I of England, Philip IV of France, Pope Nicholas IV, as well as the Byzantine ruler Andronikos II Palaiologos. Andronikos II had two half - sisters who were married to great - grandsons of Genghis Khan, which made him an in - law with the Yuan - dynasty Mongol ruler in Beijing, Kublai Khan. The History of Ming preserves an account where the Hongwu Emperor, after founding the Ming dynasty (1368 -- 1644), had a supposed Byzantine merchant named Nieh - ku - lun (捏 古 倫) deliver his proclamation about the establishment of a new dynasty to the Byzantine court of John V Palaiologos in September 1371. Friedrich Hirth (1885), Emil Bretschneider (1888), and more recently Edward Luttwak (2009) presumed that this was none other than Nicolaus de Bentra, a Roman Catholic bishop of Khanbilaq chosen by Pope John XXII to replace the previous archbishop John of Montecorvino.
Although the Silk Road was initially formulated during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han (141 -- 87 BCE), it was reopened by the Tang Empire in 639 when Hou Junji conquered the Western Regions, and remained open for almost four decades. It was closed after the Tibetans captured it in 678, but in 699, during Empress Wu 's period, the Silk Road reopened when the Tang reconquered the Four Garrisons of Anxi originally installed in 640, once again connecting China directly to the West for land - based trade. The Tang captured the vital route through the Gilgit Valley from Tibet in 722, lost it to the Tibetans in 737, and regained it under the command of the Goguryeo - Korean General Gao Xianzhi.
While the Turks were settled in the Ordos region (former territory of the Xiongnu), the Tang government took on the military policy of dominating the central steppe. The Tang dynasty (along with Turkic allies) conquered and subdued Central Asia during the 640s and 650s. During Emperor Taizong 's reign alone, large campaigns were launched against not only the Göktürks, but also separate campaigns against the Tuyuhun, the oasis states, and the Xueyantuo. Under Emperor Taizong, Tang general Li Jing conquered the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. Under Emperor Gaozong, Tang general Su Dingfang conquered the Western Turkic Khaganate, which was an important ally of Byzantine empire. After these conquests, the Tang dynasty fully controlled the Xiyu, which was the strategic location astride the Silk Road. This led the Tang dynasty to reopen the Silk Road.
The Tang dynasty established a second Pax Sinica, and the Silk Road reached its golden age, whereby Persian and Sogdian merchants benefited from the commerce between East and West. At the same time, the Chinese empire welcomed foreign cultures, making it very cosmopolitan in its urban centres. In addition to the land route, the Tang dynasty also developed the maritime Silk Route. Chinese envoys had been sailing through the Indian Ocean to India since perhaps the 2nd century BCE, yet it was during the Tang dynasty that a strong Chinese maritime presence could be found in the Persian Gulf and Red Sea into Persia, Mesopotamia (sailing up the Euphrates River in modern - day Iraq), Arabia, Egypt, Aksum (Ethiopia), and Somalia in the Horn of Africa.
The Silk Road represents an early phenomenon of political and cultural integration due to inter-regional trade. In its heyday, it sustained an international culture that strung together groups as diverse as the Magyars, Armenians, and Chinese. The Silk Road reached its peak in the west during the time of the Byzantine Empire; in the Nile - Oxus section, from the Sassanid Empire period to the Il Khanate period; and in the sinitic zone from the Three Kingdoms period to the Yuan Dynasty period. Trade between East and West also developed across the Indian Ocean, between Alexandria in Egypt and Guangzhou in China. Persian Sassanid coins emerged as a means of currency, just as valuable as silk yarn and textiles.
Under its strong integrating dynamics on the one hand and the impacts of change it transmitted on the other, tribal societies previously living in isolation along the Silk Road, and pastoralists who were of barbarian cultural development, were drawn to the riches and opportunities of the civilisations connected by the routes, taking on the trades of marauders or mercenaries. Many barbarian tribes became skilled warriors able to conquer rich cities and fertile lands and to forge strong military empires.
The Sogdians dominated the East - West trade after the 4th century up to the 8th century, with Suyab and Talas ranking among their main centres in the north. They were the main caravan merchants of Central Asia. Their commercial interests were protected by the resurgent military power of the Göktürks, whose empire has been described as "the joint enterprise of the Ashina clan and the Soghdians ''. A.V. Dybo noted that "according to historians, the main driving force of the Great Silk Road were not just Sogdians, but the carriers of a mixed Sogdian - Türkic culture that often came from mixed families. '' Their trade, with some interruptions, continued in the 9th century within the framework of the Uighur Empire, which until 840 extended across northern Central Asia and obtained from China enormous deliveries of silk in exchange for horses. At this time caravans of Sogdians travelling to Upper Mongolia are mentioned in Chinese sources. They played an equally important religious and cultural role. Part of the data about eastern Asia provided by Muslim geographers of the 10th century actually goes back to Sogdian data of the period 750 -- 840 and thus shows the survival of links between east and west. However, after the end of the Uighur Empire, Sogdian trade went through a crisis. What mainly issued from Muslim Central Asia was the trade of the Samanids, which resumed the northwestern road leading to the Khazars and the Urals and the northeastern one toward the nearby Turkic tribes.
The Silk Road gave rise to the clusters of military states of nomadic origins in North China, ushered the Nestorian, Manichaean, Buddhist, and later Islamic religions into Central Asia and China.
By the Umayyad era, Damascus had overtaken Ctesiphon as a major trade center until the Abbasid dynasty built the city of Baghdad, which became the most important city along the silk road.
At the end of its glory, the routes brought about the largest continental empire ever, the Mongol Empire, with its political centres strung along the Silk Road (Beijing in North China, Karakorum in central Mongolia, Sarmakhand in Transoxiana, Tabriz in Northern Iran, Sarai and Astrakhan in lower Volga, Solkhat in Crimea, Kazan in Central Russia, Erzurum in eastern Anatolia), realising the political unification of zones previously loosely and intermittently connected by material and cultural goods.
The Islamic world was expanded into Central Asia during the 8th century, under the Umayyad Caliphate, while its successor the Abbasid Caliphate put a halt to Chinese westward expansion at the Battle of Talas in 751 (near the Talas River in modern - day Kyrgyzstan). However, following the disastrous An Lushan Rebellion (755 -- 763) and the conquest of the Western Regions by the Tibetan Empire, the Tang Empire was unable to reassert its control over Central Asia. Contemporary Tang authors noted how the dynasty had gone into decline after this point. In 848 the Tang Chinese, led by the commander Zhang Yichao, were only able to reclaim the Hexi Corridor and Dunhuang in Gansu from the Tibetans. The Persian Samanid Empire (819 -- 999) centered in Bukhara (Uzbekistan) continued the trade legacy of the Sogdians. The disruptions of trade were curtailed in that part of the world by the end of the 10th century and conquests of Central Asia by the Turkic Islamic Kara - Khanid Khanate, yet Nestorian Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, and Buddhism in Central Asia virtually disappeared.
During the early 13th century Khwarezmia was invaded by the early Mongol Empire. The Mongol ruler Genghis Khan had the once vibrant cities of Bukhara and Samarkand burned to the ground after besieging them. However, in 1370 Samarkand saw a revival as the capital of the new Timurid Empire. The Turko - Mongol ruler Timur forcefully moved artisans and intellectuals from across Asia to Samarkand, making it one of the most important trade centers and cultural entrepôts of the Islamic world.
The Mongol expansion throughout the Asian continent from around 1207 to 1360 helped bring political stability and re-established the Silk Road (via Karakorum). It also brought an end to the dominance of the Islamic Caliphate over world trade. Because the Mongols came to control the trade routes, trade circulated throughout the region, though they never abandoned their nomadic lifestyle.
The Mongol rulers wanted to establish their capital on the Central Asian steppe, so to accomplish this goal, after every conquest they enlisted local people (traders, scholars, artisans) to help them construct and manage their empire.
The Mongol diplomat Rabban Bar Sauma visited the courts of Europe in 1287 -- 88 and provided a detailed written report to the Mongols. Around the same time, the Venetian explorer Marco Polo became one of the first Europeans to travel the Silk Road to China. His tales, documented in The Travels of Marco Polo, opened Western eyes to some of the customs of the Far East. He was not the first to bring back stories, but he was one of the most widely read. He had been preceded by numerous Christian missionaries to the East, such as William of Rubruck, Benedykt Polak, Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, and Andrew of Longjumeau. Later envoys included Odoric of Pordenone, Giovanni de ' Marignolli, John of Montecorvino, Niccolò de ' Conti, and Ibn Battuta, a Moroccan Muslim traveller who passed through the present - day Middle East and across the Silk Road from Tabriz between 1325 -- 54.
In the 13th century efforts were made at forming a Franco - Mongol alliance, with an exchange of ambassadors and (failed) attempts at military collaboration in the Holy Land during the later Crusades. Eventually the Mongols in the Ilkhanate, after they had destroyed the Abbasid and Ayyubid dynasties, converted to Islam and signed the 1323 Treaty of Aleppo with the surviving Muslim power, the Egyptian Mamluks.
Some studies indicate that the Black Death, which devastated Europe starting in the late 1340s, may have reached Europe from Central Asia (or China) along the trade routes of the Mongol Empire. One theory holds that Genoese traders coming from the entrepot of Trebizond in northern Turkey carried the disease to Western Europe; like many other outbreaks of plague, there is strong evidence that it originated in marmots in Central Asia and was carried westwards to the Black Sea by Silk Road traders.
The fragmentation of the Mongol Empire loosened the political, cultural, and economic unity of the Silk Road. Turkmeni marching lords seized land around the western part of the Silk Road from the decaying Byzantine Empire. After the fall of the Mongol Empire, the great political powers along the Silk Road became economically and culturally separated. Accompanying the crystallisation of regional states was the decline of nomad power, partly due to the devastation of the Black Death and partly due to the encroachment of sedentary civilisations equipped with gunpowder.
The consolidation of the Ottoman and Safavid empires in the Middle East led to a revival of overland trade, interrupted sporadically by warfare between them. The silk trade continued to flourish until it was disrupted by the collapse of the Safavid Empire in the 1720s.
After an earthquake that hit Tashkent in Central Asia in 1966, the city had to rebuild itself. Although it took a huge toll on their markets, this commenced a revival of modern silk road cities.
The Eurasian Land Bridge (a railway through China, Kazakhstan, Mongolia and Russia) is sometimes referred to as the "New Silk Road ''. The last link in one of these two railway routes was completed in 1990, when the railway systems of China and Kazakhstan connected at Alataw Pass (Alashan Kou). In 2008 the line was used to connect the cities of Ürümqi in China 's Xinjiang Province to Almaty and Astana in Kazakhstan. In October 2008 the first Trans - Eurasia Logistics train reached Hamburg from Xiangtan. Starting in July 2011 the line has been used by a freight service that connects Chongqing, China with Duisburg, Germany, cutting travel time for cargo from about 36 days by container ship to just 13 days by freight train. In 2013, Hewlett - Packard began moving large freight trains of laptop computers and monitors along this rail route.
In September 2013, during a visit to Kazakhstan, Chinese President Xi Jinping introduced a plan for creating a New Silk Road from China to Europe. The latest iterations of this plan, dubbed "One Belt, One Road '' (OBOR), includes a land - based Silk Road Economic Belt and Maritime Silk Road, with primary points in Ürümqi, Dostyk, Astana, Gomel, Brest, and the Polish cities of Małaszewicze and Łódź, which would be hubs of logistics and transshipment to other countries of Europe.
On 15 February 2016, with a change in routing, the first train dispatched under the OBOR scheme arrived from eastern Zhejiang Province to Tehran. Though this section does not complete the Silk Road -- style overland connection between China and Europe, plans are underway to extend the route past Tehran, through Istanbul, into Europe. The actual route went through Almaty, Bishkek, Samarkand, and Dushanbe.
In January 2017, the service sent its first train to London. The network additionally connects to Madrid and Milan.
The Silk Road consisted of several routes. As it extended westwards from the ancient commercial centres of China, the overland, intercontinental Silk Road divided into northern and southern routes bypassing the Taklamakan Desert and Lop Nur.
The northern route started at Chang'an (now called Xi'an), an ancient capital of China that was moved further east during the Later Han to Luoyang. The route was defined around the 1st century BCE when Han Wudi put an end to harassment by nomadic tribes.
The northern route travelled northwest through the Chinese province of Gansu from Shaanxi Province and split into three further routes, two of them following the mountain ranges to the north and south of the Taklamakan Desert to rejoin at Kashgar, and the other going north of the Tian Shan mountains through Turpan, Talgar, and Almaty (in what is now southeast Kazakhstan). The routes split again west of Kashgar, with a southern branch heading down the Alai Valley towards Termez (in modern Uzbekistan) and Balkh (Afghanistan), while the other travelled through Kokand in the Fergana Valley (in present - day eastern Uzbekistan) and then west across the Karakum Desert. Both routes joined the main southern route before reaching ancient Merv, Turkmenistan. Another branch of the northern route turned northwest past the Aral Sea and north of the Caspian Sea, then and on to the Black Sea.
A route for caravans, the northern Silk Road brought to China many goods such as "dates, saffron powder and pistachio nuts from Persia; frankincense, aloes and myrrh from Somalia; sandalwood from India; glass bottles from Egypt, and other expensive and desirable goods from other parts of the world. '' In exchange, the caravans sent back bolts of silk brocade, lacquer - ware, and porcelain.
The southern route or Karakoram route was mainly a single route running from China through the Karakoram mountains, where it persists in modern times as the international paved road connecting Pakistan and China as the Karakoram Highway. It then set off westwards, but with southward spurs enabling the journey to be completed by sea from various points. Crossing the high mountains, it passed through northern Pakistan, over the Hindu Kush mountains, and into Afghanistan, rejoining the northern route near Merv, Turkmenistan. From Merv, it followed a nearly straight line west through mountainous northern Iran, Mesopotamia, and the northern tip of the Syrian Desert to the Levant, where Mediterranean trading ships plied regular routes to Italy, while land routes went either north through Anatolia or south to North Africa. Another branch road travelled from Herat through Susa to Charax Spasinu at the head of the Persian Gulf and across to Petra and on to Alexandria and other eastern Mediterranean ports from where ships carried the cargoes to Rome.
The southwestern route is believed to be the Ganges / Brahmaputra Delta, which has been the subject of international interest for over two millennia. Strabo, the 1st - century Roman writer, mentions the deltaic lands: "Regarding merchants who now sail from Egypt... as far as the Ganges, they are only private citizens... '' His comments are interesting as Roman beads and other materials are being found at Wari - Bateshwar ruins, the ancient city with roots from much earlier, before the Bronze Age, presently being slowly excavated beside the Old Brahmaputra in Bangladesh. Ptolemy 's map of the Ganges Delta, a remarkably accurate effort, showed that his informants knew all about the course of the Brahmaputra River, crossing through the Himalayas then bending westward to its source in Tibet. It is doubtless that this delta was a major international trading center, almost certainly from much earlier than the Common Era. Gemstones and other merchandise from Thailand and Java were traded in the delta and through it. Chinese archaeological writer Bin Yang and some earlier writers and archaeologists, such as Janice Stargardt, strongly suggest this route of international trade as Sichuan - Yunnan - Burma - Bangladesh route. According to Bin Yang, especially from the 12th century the route was used to ship bullion from Yunnan (gold and silver are among the minerals in which Yunnan is rich), through northern Burma, into modern Bangladesh, making use of the ancient route, known as the ' Ledo ' route. The emerging evidence of the ancient cities of Bangladesh, in particular Wari - Bateshwar ruins, Mahasthangarh, Bhitagarh, Bikrampur, Egarasindhur, and Sonargaon, are believed to be the international trade centers in this route.
Maritime Silk Road or Maritime Silk Route refer to the maritime section of historic Silk Road that connects China to Southeast Asia, Indonesian archipelago, Indian subcontinent, Arabian peninsula, all the way to Egypt and finally Europe.
The trade route encompassed numbers of bodies of waters; including South China Sea, Strait of Malacca, Indian Ocean, Gulf of Bengal, Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf and the Red Sea. The maritime route overlaps with historic Southeast Asian maritime trade, Spice trade, Indian Ocean trade and after 8th century -- the Arabian naval trade network. The network also extend eastward to East China Sea and Yellow Sea to connect China with Korean Peninsula and Japanese archipelago.
Richard Foltz, Xinru Liu, and others have described how trading activities along the Silk Road over many centuries facilitated the transmission not just of goods but also ideas and culture, notably in the area of religions. Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Buddhism, Christianity, Manichaeism, and Islam all spread across Eurasia through trade networks that were tied to specific religious communities and their institutions. Notably, established Buddhist monasteries along the Silk Road offered a haven, as well as a new religion for foreigners.
The spread of religions and cultural traditions along the Silk Roads, according to Jerry H. Bentley, also led to syncretism. One example was the encounter with the Chinese and Xiongnu nomads. These unlikely events of cross-cultural contact allowed both cultures to adapt to each other as an alternative. The Xiongnu adopted Chinese agricultural techniques, dress style, and lifestyle, while the Chinese adopted Xiongnu military techniques, some dress style, music, and dance. Perhaps most surprising of the cultural exchanges between China and the Xiongnu, Chinese soldiers would sometimes defect and convert to the Xiongnu way of life and stay in the steppes for fear of punishment.
The transmission of Christianity was primarily known as Nestorianism on the Silk Road. In 781, an inscribed stele shows Nestorian Christian missionaries arriving on the Silk Road. Christianity had spread both east and west, simultaneously bringing Syriac language and evolving the forms of worship.
The transmission of Buddhism to China via the Silk Road began in the 1st century CE, according to a semi-legendary account of an ambassador sent to the West by the Chinese Emperor Ming (58 -- 75). During this period Buddhism began to spread throughout Southeast, East, and Central Asia. Mahayana, Theravada, and Tibetan Buddhism are the three primary forms of Buddhism that spread across Asia via the Silk Road.
The Buddhist movement was the first large - scale missionary movement in the history of world religions. Chinese missionaries were able to assimilate Buddhism, to an extent, to native Chinese Daoists, which would bring the two beliefs together. Buddha 's community of followers, the Sangha, consisted of male and female monks and laity. These people moved through India and beyond to spread the ideas of Buddha. As the number of members within the Sangha increased, it became costly so that only the larger cities were able to afford having the Buddha and his disciples visit. It is believed that under the control of the Kushans, Buddhism was spread to China and other parts of Asia from the middle of the first century to the middle of the third century. Extensive contacts started in the 2nd century, probably as a consequence of the expansion of the Kushan empire into the Chinese territory of the Tarim Basin, due to the missionary efforts of a great number of Buddhist monks to Chinese lands. The first missionaries and translators of Buddhists scriptures into Chinese were either Parthian, Kushan, Sogdian, or Kuchean.
One result of the spread of Buddhism along the Silk Road was displacement and conflict. The Greek Seleucids were exiled to Iran and Central Asia because of a new Iranian Dynasty called the Parthians at the beginning of the 2nd century BCE, and as a result the Parthians became the new middle men for trade in a period when the Romans were major customers for silk. Parthian scholars were involved in one of the first ever Buddhist text translations into the Chinese language. Its main trade centre on the Silk Road, the city of Merv, in due course and with the coming of age of Buddhism in China, became a major Buddhist centre by the middle of the 2nd century. Knowledge among people on the silk roads also increased when Emperor Ashoka of the Maurya dynasty (268 -- 239 BCE) converted to Buddhism and raised the religion to official status in his northern Indian empire.
From the 4th century CE onward, Chinese pilgrims also started to travel on the Silk Road to India to get improved access to the original Buddhist scriptures, with Fa - hsien 's pilgrimage to India (395 -- 414), and later Xuanzang (629 -- 644) and Hyecho, who traveled from Korea to India. The travels of the priest Xuanzang were fictionalized in the 16th century in a fantasy adventure novel called Journey to the West, which told of trials with demons and the aid given by various disciples on the journey.
There were many different schools of Buddhism travelling on the Silk Road. The Dharmaguptakas and the Sarvastivadins were two of the major Nikaya schools. These were both eventually displaced by the Mahayana, also known as "Great Vehicle ''. This movement of Buddhism first gained influence in the Khotan region. The Mahayana, which was more of a "pan-Buddhist movement '' than a school of Buddhism, appears to have begun in northwestern India or Central Asia. It formed during the 1st century BCE and was small at first, and the origins of this "Greater Vehicle '' are not fully clear. Some Mahayana scripts were found in northern Pakistan, but the main texts are still believed to have been composed in Central Asia along the Silk Road. These different schools and movements of Buddhism were a result of the diverse and complex influences and beliefs on the Silk Road. With the rise of Mahayana Buddhism, the initial direction of Buddhist development changed. This form of Buddhism highlighted, as stated by Xinru Liu, "the elusiveness of physical reality, including material wealth. '' It also stressed getting rid of material desire to a certain point; this was often difficult for followers to understand.
During the 5th and 6th centuries CE, merchants played a large role in the spread of religion, in particular Buddhism. Merchants found the moral and ethical teachings of Buddhism to be an appealing alternative to previous religions. As a result, merchants supported Buddhist monasteries along the Silk Road, and in return the Buddhists gave the merchants somewhere to stay as they traveled from city to city. As a result, merchants spread Buddhism to foreign encounters as they traveled. Merchants also helped to establish diaspora within the communities they encountered, and over time their cultures became based on Buddhism. As a result, these communities became centers of literacy and culture with well - organized marketplaces, lodging, and storage. The voluntary conversion of Chinese ruling elites helped the spread of Buddhism in East Asia and led Buddhism to become widespread in Chinese society. The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism essentially ended around the 7th century with the rise of Islam in Central Asia.
Many artistic influences were transmitted via the Silk Road, particularly through Central Asia, where Hellenistic, Iranian, Indian and Chinese influences could intermix. Greco - Buddhist art represents one of the most vivid examples of this interaction. Silk was also a representation of art, serving as a religious symbol. Most importantly, silk was used as currency for trade along the silk road.
These artistic influences can be seen in the development of Buddhism where, for instance, Buddha was first depicted as human in the Kushan period. Many scholars have attributed this to Greek influence. The mixture of Greek and Indian elements can be found in later Buddhist art in China and throughout countries on the Silk Road.
The production of art consisted of many different items that were traded along the Silk Roads from the East to the West. One common product, the lapis lazuli, was a blue stone with golden specks, which was used as paint after it was ground into powder.
On 22 June 2014, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) named the Silk Road a World Heritage Site at the 2014 Conference on World Heritage. The United Nations World Tourism Organization has been working since 1993 to develop sustainable international tourism along the route with the stated goal of fostering peace and understanding.
Bishkek and Almaty each have a major east - west street named after the Silk Road (Kyrgyz: Жибек жолу, Jibek Jolu in Bishkek, and Kazakh: Жібек жолы, Jibek Joly in Almaty).
Caravanserai of Sa 'd al - Saltaneh
Caravanserai of Sa 'd al - Saltaneh
Sultanhani caravanserai
Sultanhani caravanserai
18th century caravanserai in Sheki, Azerbaijan
Orbelian 's Caravanserai, Armenia
bridge in Ani, capital of medieval Armenia
Taldyk pass
Dunhuang
Zeinodin Caravanserai
Sogdian man on a Bactrian camel, sancai ceramic glaze, Chinese Tang Dynasty (618 - 907)
Ancient Chinese customs post on Silk Road near Dunhuang
The ruins of a Han Dynasty (206 BCE -- 220 CE) Chinese watchtower made of rammed earth at Dunhuang, Gansu province
A late Zhou or early Han Chinese bronze mirror inlaid with glass, perhaps incorporated Greco - Roman artistic patterns
A Chinese Western Han Dynasty (202 BCE -- 9 CE) bronze rhinoceros with gold and silver inlay
Han dynasty Granary west of Dunhuang on the Silk Road.
Ornamented Trakian sword, 6th century, excavated in Gyerim - ro, South Korea
Modern woven carpet illustrating camel caravan on Silk Road, from Kashgar
Green Roman glass cup unearthed from an Eastern Han Dynasty (25 - 220 CE) tomb, Guangxi, southern China
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what was eminem's like toy soldiers about | Like Toy Soldiers - wikipedia
"Like Toy Soldiers '' is a song by American rapper Eminem, from his fifth album Encore (2004). "Like Toy Soldiers '' received positive reviews from music critics, and peaked at number 34 on the Billboard Hot 100. Outside the United States, "Like Toy Soldiers '' topped the charts in the United Kingdom and peaked within the top 10 of the charts in 12 countries, including Australia and New Zealand. The song samples "Toy Soldiers '' by Martika.
"Like Toy Soldiers '' tells the story of Eminem 's attempts to calm a violent community of rappers. Eminem speaks openly about problems with The Source magazine and its editor Benzino, as well as the situation between 50 Cent and Ja Rule and his label Murder Inc., which Eminem felt went far beyond the Jay Z vs. Nas feud. The song finishes as Eminem offers a truce to his enemies. In addition, this song also reveals that Eminem had tried to stop Ja Rule & 50 Cent 's feud, but lost it when he heard Ja Rule making fun of his daughter on a track called "Loose Change '' - ("The Ja Shit, I tried to squash it, It was too late to stop it, There 's a certain line you just do n't cross and he crossed it, I heard him say Hailie 's name on a song and I just lost it ''). In the song "Loose Change '', Ja Rule says Eminem claims his then ex-wife is "a known slut '' and his mother "a crackhead '', and then asks him "so what 's Hailie gon na be when she grows up? ''. "Like Toy Soldiers '' was later included on Eminem 's compilation album Curtain Call: The Hits in 2005. Throughout his career, Eminem, at most, only alludes to Suge Knight, completing a line in this song, "my intentions were good, I went through my whole career without ever mentioning -. '' Styles P used the instrumental version in his song "Soldiers Song '', in 2005.
As a result of this song, Eminem refused to get himself involved in some of 50 Cent 's later feuds, including Jadakiss, Fat Joe (both of whom he collaborated with in 2004), and The Game.
AllMusic highlighted the song. A positive overview came from J - 23: "'' Like Toy Soldiers '' is among his best work here, from his production (complete with Martika sample), to his gripping recount, assessment and conclusion of the Benzino and Murder Inc beefs. '' Pitchfork was also positive, calling it:
a public hand - wringing over the feuds that Em and 50 Cent have been drawn into, the consequences of these battles, and -- most importantly -- the toll they 've taken, both physically and emotionally. The martial beat is a bit heavy - handed, but it 's counterbalanced by the pleasantly surprising chorus ' sample of Martika 's "Toy Soldiers '', perhaps a nod to either Kanye 's helium - vocaled samples or the 00s trend toward trance - pop covers of 80s hits.
NME wrote a favorable review:
' Like Toy Soldiers ' is a case in point. The best track of this album, and probably any album this year, it should be appalling. It interpolates (by which we mean ' steals ') the chorus to a long - forgotten ' 80s power ballad by Martika, which would be a surefire route to disaster in anyone else 's hands. Instead, with its martial drumbeat, unashamedly vast - scale soft rock dynamics and that similarly monolithic chorus, it is perhaps hip - hop 's first genuine lighters - in - the - air stadium anthem. And yet it 's probably the most personal track on the album... as Em tries to draw a line under the various beefs he and his cohorts have been embroiled in. "Even though the battle was won / I feel like we lost it / I spent (so much energy) on it / Honestly I 'm exhausted '', he admits. If the sheer volume and widescreen sweep of ' Like Toy Soldiers ' is a cover for this exhaustion, then it sure works.
Rolling Stone Magazine described: "it 's really mature, as when the Martika - sampling "Like Toy Soldiers '' renounces battle rhyming and its deadly consequences. '' USA Today noted: "A military drumbeat drives Like Toy Soldiers, in which Eminem offers an explanation for his beef with the Murder Inc. rap clique, The Source magazine and its rapper / owner Benzino, and his part in a dispute between 50 Cent and Ja Rule. He seems to wish none of it had ever happened, and he 's ready to move on. '' RapReviews was less positive: "Continuing to wring out sympathy from his tear - soaked towel of a life, Eminem doubles - up with "Like Toy Soldiers, '' another self - produced, self - sorry introspection on the Slim Shady saga. '' The Guardian was happy of sampling: "Like Toy Soldiers, about Ja Rule and Benzino, is similarly brilliant. Set to the album 's one genuinely fantastic backing track, involving a military drumbeat and a sample from Martika 's forgotten 1980s hit Toy Soldiers, its lyrics switch from truce - calling to belligerent indignation and back again, often in the space of one line. '' The New York Times described:
"(Like) Toy Soldiers, '' scheduled to be the next single, recycles the 1980s pop hit by Martika so that Eminem can rehash his beefs with Ja Rule and the Source. But the vitriol is mainly gone, and he sounds sad and clear - eyed, ending the rhyme by proposing a truce: "It 's not a plea that I 'm coppin ' / I 'm just willing to be the bigger man / If y'all can (quiet) poppin ' / Off at the jaws (with the knockin '), / ' Cause frankly I 'm sick of talkin ' / I 'm not gon na let someone else 's coffin / Rest on my conscience. ''
Stylus Magazine, however, is a bit negative: "perhaps you do n't mind that Em ruins maybe the best musical moment on the record, the Martika interpolation of "Like Toy Soldiers '', just so he can recapitulate ad nauseum (sic) the details of his pitiful n - word controversy (and somehow indirectly blame Afrocentrism for his youthful idiocy). '' Entertainment Weekly was very critical of the song: "Instead of addressing other matters that extend beyond his immediate universe, he wastes time attacking his sworn enemies at The Source (in both ' Like Toy Soldiers ' and ' Yellow Brick Road '). '' The Boston Phoenix called it a "self - knowing anti-anthem ''. SPIN, however, seemed to put the song in a different light: "On ' Like Toy Soldiers, ' over a stirring, ' Jesus Walks ' - style loop of Martika 's doleful ' 80s hit, Eminem brings light, not heat, to a couple years ' worth of beefs, from 50 Cent 's feud with the Murder Inc. crew to Em 's conflict with rapper Benzino and The Source 's edit staff, stating his case while resisting the urge to pour gas on any fires. ''
Released on December 3, 2004, the song 's video starts with two young boys, one who is white and one who is black, reading a book called "Toy Soldiers, '' which contains the lyrics of this song. It begins at the hospital where Eminem and other rappers are watching, in despair, the doctors trying to save D12 member Bugz (played by fellow D12 member Proof), who was killed in 1999. Eminem is then seen in a series of scenes rapping the song in a deserted alleyway, before the video goes through a series of scenes showing the various feuds mentioned in the song. They include seeing the news, rappers battling in studios, and street encounters. Near the end, Eminem stands shocked seeing the shooting of Bugz. It switches back to the hospital, where Bugz dies, and finishes at his funeral, which has a choir in which the black child and the white child from when Martika starts to sing.
Cameo appearances in the video include 50 Cent, Luis Resto, Dr. Dre, Obie Trice, and D12. Dead rappers include Tupac Shakur, The Notorious B.I.G., Big L, and Bugz are also shown in animation form at the end of the music video to show the fatal consequences of rap wars.
In a case of life imitating art, Proof himself was shot and killed on April 11, 2006 after an altercation broke out at a nightclub in Detroit, Michigan. "In the year after he (Proof) died, I would stare at the ceiling and think about that video (Like Toy Soldiers). Did karma cause that to happen in real life? Did I? You always want to point the finger at somebody else when something like that happens, you know? ''
shipments figures based on certification alone
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what films have emma stone and ryan gosling | Emma Stone - Wikipedia
Emily Jean Stone (born November 6, 1988) is an American actress. The recipient of such accolades as an Academy Award, a BAFTA Award, and a Golden Globe, she was the highest - paid actress in the world in 2017. She appeared in Forbes Celebrity 100 in 2013 and the Time 100 in 2017, and has been cited in the media as one of the most talented actresses of her generation.
Born and raised in Scottsdale, Arizona, Stone began acting as a child, in a theater production of The Wind in the Willows in 2000. As a teenager, she relocated to Los Angeles with her mother, and made her television debut in In Search of the New Partridge Family (2004), a reality show that produced only an unsold pilot. After small television roles, she made her film debut in Superbad (2007), and received positive media attention for her role in Zombieland (2009). The 2010 teen comedy Easy A was Stone 's first starring role, earning her nominations for the BAFTA Rising Star Award and the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress. This breakthrough was followed with further success in the romantic comedy Crazy, Stupid, Love (2011) and the drama The Help (2011).
Stone gained wider recognition for playing Gwen Stacy in the 2012 superhero film The Amazing Spider - Man, and its sequel in 2014. She was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for the role of a recovering drug addict in the black comedy - drama Birdman (2014). Her Broadway debut came in a revival of the musical Cabaret (2014 -- 2015). Stone won an Academy Award for Best Actress for playing an aspiring actress in the highly successful musical film La La Land (2016), following which she portrayed Billie Jean King in the biographical sports film Battle of the Sexes (2017).
Emily Jean Stone was born on November 6, 1988, in Scottsdale, Arizona, to Krista Jean Stone (née Yeager), a homemaker, and Jeffrey Charles Stone, the founder and CEO of a general - contracting company. Stone lived on the grounds of the Camelback Inn resort from the age of 12 to 15. She has a younger brother, Spencer. Her paternal grandfather, Conrad Ostberg Sten, was from a Swedish family that anglicized their surname to "Stone '' when they immigrated to the United States through Ellis Island. She also has German, English, Scottish, and Irish ancestry.
As an infant, Stone had baby colic and cried frequently; she consequently developed nodules and calluses on her vocal cords while she was a child. Stone has described herself as having been "loud '' and "bossy '' while growing up. She was educated at Sequoya Elementary School and attended Cocopah Middle School for the sixth grade. Although she did not like school, she has stated that her controlling nature meant that "I made sure I got all As ''. Stone suffered panic attacks as a child, which she says caused a decline in her social skills. She underwent therapy but states that it was her participation in local theater plays that helped cure the attacks.
The first time I had a panic attack I was sitting in my friend 's house, and I thought the house was burning down. I called my mom and she brought me home, and for the next three years it just would not stop. I would go to the nurse at lunch most days and just wring my hands. I would ask my mom to tell me exactly how the day was going to be, then ask again 30 seconds later. I just needed to know that no one was going to die and nothing was going to change.
Stone started acting at age four; she wanted a career in sketch comedy initially, but shifted her focus toward musical theater, and took voice lessons for several years. Her acting debut, at the age of 11, came in a stage production of The Wind in the Willows, playing the part of Otter. The actress was homeschooled for two years, during which time she appeared in sixteen productions at Phoenix 's Valley Youth Theatre -- including The Princess and the Pea, Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland, and Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat -- and performed with the theater 's improvisational comedy troupe. Around this time, she traveled to Los Angeles and auditioned unsuccessfully for a role in Nickelodeon 's All That. Her parents later sent her for private acting lessons with a local acting coach, who had worked at the William Morris Agency in the 1970s.
Stone attended Xavier College Preparatory -- an all - girl Catholic high school -- as a freshman, but dropped out after one semester to become an actress. She prepared a PowerPoint presentation for her parents titled "Project Hollywood '' (featuring Madonna 's 2003 song "Hollywood '') to convince them to let her move to California to pursue an acting career. In January 2004, she moved with her mother to an apartment in Los Angeles. She recalls: "I went up for every single show on the Disney Channel and auditioned to play the daughter on every single sitcom '', adding, "I ended up getting none. '' Between auditions for roles, she enrolled in online high - school classes, and worked part - time at a dog - treat bakery.
When Stone registered for the Screen Actors Guild, the name "Emily Stone '' was already taken. "Riley Stone '' was the stage name she chose initially, but after guest - starring in the NBC drama Medium and the Fox sitcom Malcolm in the Middle, she decided that she was more comfortable with "Emma ''. She made her television debut as Laurie Partridge on the VH1 talent competition reality show In Search of the New Partridge Family (2004). The resulting show, retitled The New Partridge Family (2004), remained an unsold pilot. She followed this with a guest appearance in Louis C.K. 's HBO series Lucky Louie. She auditioned to star as Claire Bennet in the NBC science fiction drama Heroes (2007) but was unsuccessful and later called this her "rock bottom '' experience. In April 2007, she played Violet Trimble in the Fox action drama Drive, but the show was canceled after seven episodes.
Stone made her feature film debut in Greg Mottola 's comedy Superbad (2007), co-starring Michael Cera and Jonah Hill. The film tells the story of two high school students who go through a series of comic misadventures after they plan to buy alcohol for a party. To play the role of Hill 's romantic interest, she dyed her hair red. A reviewer for The Hollywood Reporter found her "appealing '', but felt that her role was poorly written. Stone has described the experience of acting in her first film as "amazing... (but) very different than other experiences I 've had since then ''. The film was a commercial success, and earned her the Young Hollywood Award for Exciting New Face.
The following year, Stone starred in the comedy The Rocker (2008) playing Amelia Stone, the "straight face '' bass guitarist in a band; she learned to play the bass for the role. The actress, who describes herself as "a big smiler and laugher '', has admitted that she found it difficult portraying a character whose personality traits were so different from her own. The film, and her performance, received negative reviews from critics and was a commercial failure. Her next release, the romantic comedy The House Bunny, performed better at the box - office, becoming a moderate commercial success. The film sees her play the president of a sorority, and perform a cover version of the Waitresses ' 1982 song "I Know What Boys Like ''. Reviews for the film were generally negative, though she was praised for her supporting role, and TV Guide 's Ken Fox wrote of Stone that: "She 's positively incandescent, lighting up a movie that would be pretty dim without her. ''
Stone appeared in three films released in 2009. The first of these was opposite Matthew McConaughey, Jennifer Garner and Michael Douglas in Mark Waters ' Ghosts of Girlfriends Past. Loosely based on Charles Dickens ' 1843 novella A Christmas Carol, the romantic comedy has her playing a ghost who haunts her former boyfriend. Critical reaction to the film was negative, though it was a modest commercial success. Her most financially profitable venture that year was Ruben Fleischer 's $102.3 million - grossing horror comedy film Zombieland, in which she features alongside Jesse Eisenberg, Woody Harrelson and Abigail Breslin. In the film, she appeared as a con artist and survivor of a zombie apocalypse, in a role which Empire 's Chris Hewitt found to be "somewhat underwritten ''. In a more positive review, the critic for The Daily Telegraph wrote: "(T) he hugely promising Stone... (is) a tough cookie who projects the aura of being wiser than her years. '' Stone 's final release in 2009 was Kieran and Michelle Mulroney 's Paper Man, a comedy - drama which disappointed critics.
Stone provided the voice of an Australian Shepherd in Marmaduke (2010), a comedy from director Tom Dey, which is based on Brad Anderson 's long - running comic strip of the same name. Her breakthrough came the same year with a starring role in Easy A, a teen comedy directed by Will Gluck. Partially based on Nathaniel Hawthorne 's 1850 historical romance novel The Scarlet Letter, the film tells the story of Olive Penderghast (Stone), a high school student who becomes embroiled in a comic sex scandal after a false rumor circulates that she is sexually promiscuous. Stone read the script before the project was optioned for production, and pursued it with her manager while production details were being finalized. She found the script "so different and unique from anything I 'd read before '', saying that it was "funny and sweet ''. When Stone discovered that the film had begun production, she met with Gluck, expressing her enthusiasm for the project. A few months later, the audition process started and she met again with Gluck, becoming one of the first actresses to audition. The film received positive critical reviews, and Stone 's performance was considered its prime asset. Anna Smith of Time Out commented: "Stone gives a terrific performance, her knowing drawl implying intellect and indifference with underlying warmth. '' With a total box office of $75 million, the film was a commercial success. Stone was nominated for a BAFTA Rising Star Award and a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Musical or Comedy, and won the MTV Movie Award for Best Comedic Performance.
In October 2010, Stone hosted an episode of NBC 's late - night sketch comedy Saturday Night Live; her appearances included a sketch playing off her resemblance to Lindsay Lohan. Stone described it as "the greatest week of my life ''. She hosted it again in 2011, appeared in an episode in 2014, and in its 40th anniversary special in 2015. A brief appearance in the sex comedy Friends with Benefits (2011) reunited her with Gluck. She followed this with a supporting role in Glenn Ficarra and John Requa 's romantic comedy Crazy, Stupid, Love (2011) alongside Steve Carell, Ryan Gosling and Julianne Moore. The film features her as a law school graduate, and the love interest of Gosling 's character. Despite finding "some inevitable collapses into convention '' in the film, Drew McWeeny of HitFix wrote that Stone "ties the whole film together ''. At the 2012 Teen Choice Awards, she won the Choice Movie Actress -- Comedy award for her performance in the film. Crazy, Stupid, Love was a box office success, grossing $142.9 million worldwide with a production budget of $50 million.
Disillusioned at being typecast as the "sarcastic interest of the guy '', Stone co-starred with Viola Davis in Tate Taylor 's period drama The Help (2011), a film she found to be challenging. The film is based on Kathryn Stockett 's 2009 novel of the same name and is set in 1960s Jackson, Mississippi. She met with Taylor to express a desire to work in the film. Taylor has said: "Emma was completely awkward and dorky, with her raspy voice, and she sat down and we got a little intoxicated and had a blast, and I just thought, ' God! God! This is Skeeter. '' She was cast as Eugenia "Skeeter '' Phelan, an aspiring writer learning about the lives of the African - American maids. In preparation for the part, she trained to speak in a Southern dialect; she also educated herself on the Civil Rights Movement through literature and film. With a worldwide gross of $216 million against a budget of $25 million, The Help became Stone 's most commercially successful film to that point. The film, and her performance, received positive reviews from critics. Writing for Empire, Anna Smith thought that Stone was "well - meaning and hugely likable '' despite finding flaws in the character. The film was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Picture, and won Best Ensemble Cast from the Women Film Critics Circle and the Broadcast Film Critics Association.
Stone declined a role in the action comedy film 21 Jump Street after signing on to Marc Webb 's 2012 film The Amazing Spider - Man, a reboot of Sam Raimi 's Spider - Man series. She portrayed Gwen Stacy, the love interest of the title character (played by Andrew Garfield). Stone returned to a blond hair color for the role, having dyed it red previously. She told The Vancouver Sun that she felt responsible to educate herself about Spider - Man and admitted that she had not read the comics: "My experience was with the Sam Raimi movies... I always assumed that Mary Jane was his first love '', adding that she was only familiar with Stacy 's character from Bryce Dallas Howard 's portrayal in Spider - Man 3. The Amazing Spider - Man was a commercial success and was the seventh highest - grossing film of 2012 with global revenues of $757.9 million. Entertainment Weekly 's Lisa Schwarzbaum found Stone "irresistible '', and Ian Freer of Empire magazine was particularly impressed with Stone 's and Garfield 's performances. At the annual People 's Choice Awards ceremony, she was nominated for three awards, including Favorite Movie Actress. Later that year, Stone voiced a role in the crime - based video game, Sleeping Dogs, which earned her a Spike Video Game Award for Best Performance by a Human Female nomination.
Stone began 2013 with a voice role in DreamWorks ' The Croods, an animated feature nominated for an Academy Award for Best Animated Feature. This followed with an appearance in Movie 43, an anthology film which consists of sixteen short stories -- she played the title role in the segment entitled "Veronica ''. The actress collaborated with Ryan Gosling and Sean Penn in Ruben Fleischer 's Gangster Squad (2013), a crime thriller set in Los Angeles during the 1940s. The New York Times ' A.O. Scott dismissed the film as "a hectic jumble of fedoras and zoot suits '', but praised her pairing with Gosling. Stone expressed a desire to work with Gosling on more projects.
In 2014, Stone reprised the role of Gwen Stacy in The Amazing Spider - Man 2. In an interview with Total Film, the actress explained that her character was not dependent on the film 's protagonist. "She saves him more than he saves her. She 's incredibly helpful to Spider - Man... He 's the muscle, she 's the brains. '' Her performance was well received by critics; an Empire reviewer praised her for standing out in the film: "Stone is the Heath Ledger of this series, doing something unexpected with an easily dismissed supporting character. '' The role earned her the Favorite Movie Actress award at the 2015 Kids ' Choice Awards. Later that year, Stone took on a role in Woody Allen 's romantic comedy Magic in the Moonlight, a modest commercial success. A.O. Scott criticized her role, and pairing with Colin Firth, describing it as "the kind of pedantic nonsense that is meant to signify superior intellect ''.
The black comedy - drama Birdman, from director Alejandro González Iñárritu, was Stone 's final film release in 2014. Co-starring Michael Keaton and Edward Norton, the film features her in the role of Sam Thomson, the recovering - addict daughter of actor Riggan Thomson (Keaton), who becomes his assistant. Iñárritu created the character based on his experience with his daughter. Birdman was critically acclaimed, and was the most successful film at the 87th Academy Awards; it was nominated for nine awards, winning four, including Best Picture. The Movie Network considered it one of Stone 's best performances to date and Robbie Collin of The Daily Telegraph was impressed with a monologue she delivers, which he thought was "like a knitting needle to the gut ''. She received numerous accolades for her portrayal, including nominations for an Academy, a BAFTA, a Golden Globe, a Screen Actors Guild, and a Critics ' Choice Movie award for Best Supporting Actress.
From November 2014 to February 2015, Stone starred in a revival of the Broadway musical Cabaret as Sally Bowles, taking over the role from Michelle Williams. Considering it to be "the most nerve - racking thing ever '', Stone told the Entertainment Weekly magazine that she listened to a French radio station to mentally prepare herself for the role. Variety 's Marilyn Stasio was critical of her singing and found her performance "a bit narrow as an emotional platform, but a smart choice for her acting skills, the perfect fit for her sharp intelligence and kinetic energy. '' Both of Stone 's 2015 films -- the romantic comedy - drama Aloha, and the mystery drama Irrational Man -- were critical and commercial failures, and her roles were panned by critics. In Cameron Crowe 's Aloha, she took on the role of an Asian - American air force pilot alongside Bradley Cooper, and in the Woody Allen - directed Irrational Man, she portrayed the romantic interest of Joaquin Phoenix 's character, a philosophy professor. The former was controversial for whitewashing the cast; Stone later regretted the project, acknowledging whitewashing as a widespread problem in Hollywood. Despite the criticism, she was nominated for Choice Movie Actress -- Comedy at the 2015 Teen Choice Awards.
During her Cabaret show, Stone met director Damien Chazelle, who, impressed with her performance, cast her in his musical comedy - drama La La Land. The project, which marked her third collaboration with Gosling, featured Stone as Mia Dolan, an aspiring actress living in Los Angeles. Stone borrowed several real - life experiences for her character, and in preparation, watched The Umbrellas of Cherbourg and films of Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers. For the musical 's soundtrack, she recorded six songs. La La Land served as the opening film at the 2016 Venice Film Festival, and received highly positive reviews. Besides being Stone 's highest - rated film on the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film was successful at the box office, earning over $440 million against its $30 million budget. Writing for The Guardian, Peter Bradshaw reviewed, "Stone has never been better: superbly smart, witty, vulnerable, her huge doe eyes radiating intelligence even, or especially, when they are filling with tears. '' Stone received an Academy, BAFTA, Golden Globe and a SAG award for Best Actress.
Stone 's sole film release of 2017 was the sports drama Battle of the Sexes, based on the 1973 eponymous match between tennis players Billie Jean King (Stone) and Bobby Riggs (Steve Carell). In preparation, Stone met with King, watched old footage and interviews of her, trained with a dialect coach to speak in King 's accent, and drank high - calorie protein shakes to gain 15 pounds (6.8 kg). The film premiered to positive reviews at the 2017 Toronto International Film Festival, and certain critics considered Stone 's performance to be the best of her career. Benjamin Lee of The Guardian praised her for playing against type, and credited her for being "strong '' and "convincing '' in the part. Even so, the film earned less than its $25 million budget. Stone received her fourth Golden Globe nomination for it, and attended the ceremony with King.
In September 2018, Stone will feature in and serve as an executive producer for the Netflix fantasy series Maniac, co-starring Jonah Hill and directed by Cary Fukunaga. She will then star as Abigail Masham, who served under Queen Anne, in Yorgos Lanthimos ' historical drama The Favourite. Stone is also set to appear in the drama Love May Fail, based on Matthew Quick 's 2015 novel and will portray Cruella de Vil in a live - action spin - off of One Hundred and One Dalmatians. In addition, Stone has committed to star in a sequel to Zombieland.
Stone moved from Los Angeles to Greenwich Village, New York City, in 2009. In 2016, she moved back to Los Angeles. Despite frequent media coverage, the actress has refused to speak about her private life. Concerned with living a "normal '' life, she has said that she finds little value in media attention. She has expressed her fondness for her profession, and has cited actress Diane Keaton as an influence, who is (in Stone 's words) "one of the most covered - up actresses of all time ''. She has also named actress and singer - songwriter Marion Cotillard as one of her inspirations.
Stone has a close relationship with her family. She says: "I am blessed with a great family and great people around me that would be able to kick me in the shins if I ever for one minute got lost up in the clouds. I 've been really lucky in that sense. '' During the production of The Amazing Spider - Man in 2010, Stone dated co-star Andrew Garfield. The nature of their relationship was well - documented by the media, with frequent speculation about an impending engagement or a break - up. The couple refused to talk about it publicly, though they made several appearances together. In 2015, they were reported to have broken up.
According to Stone, she suffers from asthma, which she discovered after having difficulty breathing while filming Easy A. Her mother was diagnosed with triple - negative breast cancer and was cured in 2008. Stone and her mother celebrated by getting tattoos of birds ' feet, designed by Paul McCartney, a reference to the Beatles ' "Blackbird '', which is a song she and her mother love. She appeared in a Revlon campaign that promoted breast cancer awareness. In 2011, the actress featured in a collaborative video between Star Wars and Stand Up to Cancer, which aimed to raise funds for cancer research. Two years later, she attended an event by Gilda 's Club, an organization working for a similar purpose. From 2012 to 2014, she hosted the Entertainment Industry Foundation 's Revlon Run / Walk, which helps fight women 's cancer.
Stone, alongside three other celebrities, was present at the 2012 Nickelodeon HALO Awards, a television special that profiled five teenagers who are "Helping And Leading Others '' (HALO). In 2014, on an occasion in New York, Stone and Garfield encouraged paparazzi to visit websites, which spread awareness of causes, such as autism. She attended the 2014 Earth Hour, a worldwide movement for the planet organized by the World Wide Fund for Nature. In 2015, she was part of a fundraising event in support of the Motion Picture & Television Fund, which helps people in the television and film industry with limited or no resources. In 2018, she collaborated with 300 women in Hollywood to set up the Time 's Up initiative to protect women from harassment and discrimination.
Several media publications consider Stone one of her generation 's most talented actresses. Commenting on her performance in The Help, Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter called her "one of our very best young actresses ''. She is known for starring both in high - profile, mainstream productions and in low - budget independent films. Time 's Daniel D'Addario describes the latter as "substantive risk '' and adds that taking on a role in them provides her an opportunity to "try something new and to get credibility ''. Analyzing her on - screen persona, Jessica Kiang of Indiewire noted that Stone "usually (plays) the approachable, down - to - earth, girl - next - door type, (and) in person she demonstrates many of those qualities too, along with an absolute refusal to take herself too seriously. ''
As her career in Hollywood films has developed, Stone has become a successful and popular actress. In 2008, she topped Saturday Night Magazine 's Top 20 Rising Stars Under 30 and was included in a similar list compiled by Moviefone. LoveFilm placed her on their list of 2010 Top 20 Actresses Under 30, and her performance in Easy A was included in Time 's Top 10 Everything of 2010. She appeared in the 2013 Celebrity 100, a compilation of the 100 most powerful people in the world, as selected annually by Forbes. The magazine reported that she had earned $16 million from June 2012 to June 2013. That same year, she was ranked first in the magazine 's Top 10 Best Value Stars. In 2015, Forbes published that she had become one of the highest - paid actresses with earnings of $6.5 million. The magazine would rank her as the world 's highest - paid actress two years later with yearly earnings of $26 million. In 2017, she was featured by Time as one of the 100 most influential people in the world.
Stone is considered a style icon -- the media cites her hair, eyes, and husky voice as her trademarks. Vogue credits the actress for her "sophisticated, perfectly put - together looks '', writing that "her charisma, both on - screen and off -, has charmed many. '' In 2009, she featured in AskMen 's Top 99 Women, FHM 's 100 Sexiest Women in the World, and Maxim magazine 's Hot 100; the latter also placed her on the list on three other occasions -- 2010, 2011, and 2014. She continued to be featured in AskMen 's annual beauty lists from 2010 to 2015, ranking among the top forty each year. In 2011, she appeared in Victoria 's Secret 's list of What is Sexy? as the Sexiest Actress. She was mentioned in several other media outlet lists that year, including People magazine 's 100 Most Beautiful Women, each of FHM 's and FHM Australia 's 100 Sexiest Women in the World, and Men 's Health magazine 's 100 Hottest Women. She ranked sixth on Empire 's list of the 100 Sexiest Movie Stars in 2013. Stone was named the best dressed woman of 2012 by Vogue magazine and was featured in similar listings by Glamour in 2013 and 2015, and People in 2014. In 2017, Buzznet named her one of the world 's most beautiful women.
According to the review aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes and the box - office site Box Office Mojo, Stone 's most critically acclaimed and commercially successful films are Superbad (2007), Zombieland (2009), Easy A (2010), Crazy, Stupid, Love (2011), The Help (2011), The Amazing Spider - Man (2012), The Amazing Spider - Man 2 (2014), Birdman (2014), and La La Land (2016).
Stone has been nominated for two Academy Awards: Best Supporting Actress for Birdman and Best Actress for La La Land and three British Academy Film Awards: BAFTA Rising Star Award, Best Supporting Actress for Birdman, and Best Actress in a Leading Role for La La Land, winning both of her nominations for La La Land. She won Best Actress in a Comedy or Musical at the 74th Golden Globe Awards and Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role for her role in La La Land.
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what kind of car does bo drive in lost girl | The Dukes of Hazzard - wikipedia
The Dukes of Hazzard is an American action - comedy television series that aired on CBS from January 26, 1979, to February 8, 1985. The show aired for a total of 147 episodes spanning seven seasons. The series was inspired by the 1975 film Moonrunners, which was also created by Gy Waldron and had many identical or similar character names and concepts.
The Dukes of Hazzard follows the adventures of "The Duke Boys, '' cousins Bo Duke (John Schneider) and Luke Duke (Tom Wopat) (including Coy and Vance Duke for most of season 5), who live on a family farm in fictional Hazzard County, Georgia, with their attractive female cousin Daisy (Catherine Bach) and their wise old Uncle Jesse (Denver Pyle). The Duke boys race around in their customized 1969 Dodge Charger stock car, dubbed (The) General Lee, evading crooked and corrupt county commissioner Boss Hogg (Sorrell Booke) and his bumbling and corrupt Sheriff Rosco P. Coltrane (James Best) along with his deputy (s), and always managing to get caught in the middle of the various escapades and incidents that often occur in the area. Bo and Luke had previously been sentenced to probation for illegal transportation of moonshine; their Uncle Jesse made a plea bargain with the U.S. Government to refrain from distilling moonshine in exchange for Bo and Luke 's freedom. As a result, Bo and Luke are on probation and not allowed to carry firearms -- instead, they often use compound bows, sometimes with arrows tipped with dynamite -- or to leave Hazzard County unless they get probation permission from their probation officer, Boss Hogg, although the exact details of their probation terms vary from episode to episode. Sometimes it is implied that they would be jailed for merely crossing the county line; on other occasions, it is shown that they may leave Hazzard, as long as they are back within a certain time limit. Several other technicalities of their probation also came into play at various times.
Corrupt county commissioner Jefferson Davis (J.D.) "Boss '' Hogg, who either runs or has fingers in virtually everything in Hazzard County, is forever angry with the Dukes, especially Bo and Luke, for always foiling his crooked schemes. He is always looking for ways to get them out of the picture so that his plots have a chance of succeeding. Many episodes revolve around Hogg trying to engage in an illegal scheme, sometimes with aid of hired criminal help. Some of these are get - rich - quick schemes, though many others affect the financial security of the Duke farm, which Hogg has long wanted to acquire for various reasons. Other times, Hogg hires criminals from out of town to do his dirty work for him, and often tries to frame Bo and Luke for various crimes as part of these plots. Bo and Luke always seem to stumble over Hogg 's latest scheme, sometimes by curiosity, and often by sheer luck, and put it out of business. Despite the Dukes often coming to his rescue (see below), Hogg forever seems to have an irrational dislike of the clan, particularly Bo and Luke, often accusing them of spying on him, robbing or planning to rob him, and other supposedly nefarious actions, as he believes they are generally out to get him.
The other main characters of the show include local mechanic Cooter Davenport (Ben Jones), who in early episodes was portrayed as a wild, unshaven rebel, often breaking or treading on the edge of the law, before settling down to become the Duke family 's best friend (he is often referred to as an "honorary Duke '') and owns the local garage; and Enos Strate (Sonny Shroyer), an honest but naive young deputy who, despite his friendship with the Dukes (and his crush on Daisy), is reluctantly forced to take part in Hogg and Rosco 's crooked schemes. In the third and fourth seasons, when Enos leaves for his own show, he is replaced by Boss ' cousin Deputy Cletus Hogg (Rick Hurst), Boss 's cousin, who is slightly more wily than Enos but still a somewhat reluctant player in Hogg 's plots.
Owing to their fundamentally good natures, the Dukes often wind up helping Boss Hogg out of trouble, albeit grudgingly. More than once Hogg is targeted by former associates who are either seeking revenge or have double crossed him after a scheme has unraveled in one way or another. Sheriff Coltrane also finds himself targeted in some instances. On such occasions, Bo and Luke usually have to rescue their adversaries as an inevitable precursor to defeating the bad guys; in other instances, the Dukes join forces with Hogg and Coltrane to tackle bigger threats to Hazzard or one of their respective parties. These instances became more frequent as the show progressed, and later seasons saw a number of stories where the Dukes and Hogg (and Coltrane) temporarily work together.
The series was developed from the 1975 film Moonrunners. Created by Gy Waldron in collaboration with ex-moonshiner Jerry Rushing, this movie shares many identical and very similar names and concepts with the subsequent TV series. Although itself essentially a comedy, this original movie was much cruder and edgier than the family - friendly TV series that would evolve from it.
In 1977, Waldron was approached by Warner Bros. with the idea of developing Moonrunners into a television series. Waldron reworked various elements from Moonrunners, and from it was devised what would become The Dukes of Hazzard. Production began in October 1978 with the original intention of only nine episodes being produced as mid-season filler. The first five episodes were filmed in Covington and Conyers, Georgia and surrounding areas, including some location work in nearby Atlanta. After completing production on the fifth episode, "High Octane '', the cast and crew broke for Christmas break, expecting to return in several weeks ' time to complete the ordered run of episodes. In the meantime, executives at Warner Bros. were impressed by the rough preview cuts of the completed episodes and saw potential in developing the show into a full - running series; part of this plan was to move production from Georgia to the Warner Bros. lot in Burbank, California, primarily to simplify production as well as develop a larger workshop to service the large number of automobiles needed for the series.
Rushing appeared as shady used car dealer Ace Parker in the third episode produced, "Repo Men '' (the fourth to be broadcast). Rushing believed this to be the start of a recurring role, in return for which he would supply creative ideas from his experiences: many of the Dukes (and thus Moonrunners) characters and situations were derived from Rushing 's experiences as a youth, and much of the character of Bo Duke he states to be based on him. However, "Repo Men '' would turn out to be the character 's only appearance in the entire show 's run, leading to a legal dispute in the following years over the rights to characters and concepts between Rushing and Warner Bros., although he remained on good terms with cast and crew and in recent years has made appearances at several fan conventions.
By the end of the first (half) season, the family - friendly tone of The Dukes of Hazzard was mostly in place. When the show returned for a second season in Fall 1979 (its first full season), with a few further minor tweaks, the show quickly found its footing as a family - friendly comedy - adventure series. By the third season, starting in Fall 1980, the template was well set in place for that which would be widely associated with the show.
As well as its regular car chases, jumps and stunts, The Dukes of Hazzard relied on character familiarity, with each character effectively serving the same role within a typical episode, and with Deputy Cletus replacing Deputy Enos in Seasons 3 and 4, and Coy and Vance Duke temporarily replacing Bo and Luke (due to a salary dispute) for most of Season 5, being the only major cast changes through the show 's run (Ben Jones and James Best both left temporarily during the second season due to different disputes with producers, but both returned within a few episodes). Of the characters, only Uncle Jesse and Boss Hogg appeared in all 145 episodes; Daisy appears in all but one, the third season 's "To Catch a Duke ''. The General Lee also appears in all but one (the early first - season episode "Mary Kaye 's Baby '', the fourth to be produced and the third broadcast).
The pilot episode was to include a barber modeled after Floyd Lawson on The Andy Griffith Show as a regular character, but was eliminated when the final draft of the pilot 's script was written and before the show was cast.
When John Schneider auditioned for the role of Bo Duke, he came to the audition in a dilapidated pickup truck, sporting a week - long beard growth, wearing overalls and a white T - shirt with a pack of cigarettes rolled up in a sleeve collar, and carrying a can of beer, trying to look the part. At the audition, Schneider drank the beer and said he was from Snellville. The producers bought his "Good Ol ' Boy '' act and Schneider was hired on the spot.
Throughout its network television run, The Dukes of Hazzard had a consistent mix of up - and - comers and established stars make guest appearances.
NASCAR driver Terry Labonte makes a brief, uncredited appearance as a crewman in the episode Undercover Dukes Part 1. The race cars supplied for both part 1 and part 2 of Undercover Dukes were supplied by Labonte 's race owner, Billy Hagan. However, the emblems of the sponsors of the cars (at that time Labonte was sponsored by Budweiser) were covered to avoid paying royalties.
During the show 's second season, the show 's writers began flirting with the idea of incorporating a "celebrity speed trap '' into some of the episodes, as a means to feature top country stars of the day performing their hits. On its first couple of instances, the "Speed Trap '' was featured early in the story, but for most of the cases, it was featured in the last few minutes of an episode, often used when the main story was running too short to fill episode time.
The "celebrity speed trap '' feature was essentially similar: Aware that a big - name country star was passing through the area, Boss Hogg would order Rosco to lower the speed limit on a particular road to an unreasonable level (using a reversible sign, with one speed limit on one side and another, far lower, on the back), so that the targeted singer would be in violation of the posted limit. The singer would be required to give a free performance at the Boar 's Nest in exchange for having their citations forgiven; the performer would then perform one of their best - known hits or other popular country music standard, while the Dukes, Boss, Rosco, Enos, Cletus, Cooter, and other patrons whooped and hollered in enjoyment of the performance. More often than not, the performer would give a sarcastic parting shot to Boss and Rosco.
Singers who were featured in the "speed trap '' segments were:
Honorable Mentions: Mickey Gilley, Loretta Lynn
Gilley 's and Lynn 's appearances were not solely for the celebrity speed trap. After performing a concert in Hazzard, Gilley was nabbed while leaving and forced to do a second show to nullify his citation. Lynn was kidnapped by criminals wanting to break into the music business. Loretta Lynn was the very first country music guest star on the show in 1979 and had an entire show titled "Find Loretta Lynn. ''
Note: Janie Fricke was the only guest country star who did not perform a song, celebrity speed trap or otherwise. She played an accomplice to a robber in an episode who hid money in the dashboard of the car that was to become the General Lee.
The Dukes of Hazzard was consistently among the top - rated television series (at one point, ranking second only to Dallas, which immediately followed the show on CBS ' Friday night schedule). With that success came huge profits in merchandising, with a wide array of Dukes of Hazzard toys and products being licensed and becoming big sellers. However, over the course of the show 's fourth season, series stars Tom Wopat and John Schneider became increasingly concerned about a contract dispute over their salaries and merchandising royalties owed to them over the high sales of Dukes products. Neither were being paid what was owed to them and this became very frustrating to the duo. As a result, in the spring of 1982, as filming was due to begin on the fifth season, Wopat and Schneider did not report to the set in protest over the matter. Catherine Bach also considered walking out due to similar concerns, but Wopat and Schneider convinced her to stay, insisting that if she left then there may not be a show to come back to, and that settling the issue was up to them.
Production was pushed back by a few weeks as fairly similar looking replacements were subsequently, hastily hired: Byron Cherry as Coy Duke and Christopher Mayer as Vance Duke. Bo and Luke were said to have gone to race on the NASCAR circuit; how they managed to do this, bearing in mind the terms of their probation, was never explained. Cherry and Mayer were originally contracted at just ten episodes as stand - ins, still with hope that a settlement might be reached with Wopat and Schneider (in total, they made 19 episodes including 1 with Bo and Luke). Some scripts for Coy and Vance were originally written for Bo and Luke but with their names quite literally crossed out and Coy and Vance penned in. The new Dukes -- previously - unmentioned nephews of Uncle Jesse, who were said to have left the farm in 1976, before the show had started -- were unpopular with the great majority of viewers, and the ratings immediately sank. Much of the criticism was that Coy and Vance were nothing but direct clones of Bo and Luke, with Coy a direct "carbon copy '' replacement for Bo and Vance for Luke, with little variation in character. This was something that even show creator Gy Waldron has said was wrong, and that he insisted, unsuccessfully, that audiences would not accept direct character clones and the two replacements should be taken in a different direction characterwise, but was overridden by producers. Waldron also commented that if Bach too had walked, the show would have most probably been cancelled. It was reported that prior to filming, Cherry and Mayer were given Bo and Luke episodes to watch, to study and learn to emulate them, although Cherry has said in interviews that he does n't recall this ever happening.
Hit hard by the significant drop in ratings, Warner Bros. renegotiated with Wopat and Schneider, and eventually a settlement was reached, and the original Duke boys returned to the series in early 1983, four episodes from the conclusion of the fifth season. Initially, part of the press release announcing Wopat and Schneider 's return suggested that Cherry and Mayer would remain as part of the cast (though presumably in a reduced role), but it was quickly realized that "four Duke boys '' would not work within the context of the series, and due to the huge unpopularity associated with their time on the show, they were quickly written out of the same episode in which Bo and Luke returned.
Although Coy and Vance were never popular with the majority, a few viewers were disappointed by their departure episode, "Welcome Back, Bo ' N ' Luke '', which was for the most part a standard episode, with the return of Bo and Luke and the departure of Coy and Vance tacked onto the beginning (Bo and Luke return from their NASCAR tour just as Coy and Vance leave Hazzard to tend to a sick relative). Even a few viewers commented that they were disappointed by this, and that they would have liked to have seen both pairs of Duke boys team up to tackle a particularly dastardly plot by Boss Hogg before Coy and Vance 's departure, but as it turned out, Coy and Vance had little dialogue and were gone by the first commercial break, never to be seen again.
While the return of Bo and Luke was welcomed by ardent and casual viewers alike, and as a result ratings recovered slightly, the show never completely regained its former popularity. One of Wopat and Schneider 's disputes even before they left was what they considered to be increasingly weak and formulaic scripts and episode plots. With Wopat and Schneider 's return, the producers agreed to try a wider scope of storylines. However, although it continued for two more seasons, the show never fully returned to its former glory. As well as what was widely recognized to be increasingly inferior scripts, many cast members decried the miniature car effects newly incorporated to depict increasingly absurd General Lee and patrol car stunts (which had previously been performed with real cars by stunt drivers). The miniature car effects were intended as a budget saving measure (to save the cost of repairing or replacing damaged vehicles) and to help compete visually with KITT from the NBC series Knight Rider. In February 1985, The Dukes of Hazzard ended its run after seven seasons.
The General Lee was based on a 1969 Dodge Charger owned by Bo and Luke (the series used mostly 1969 Chargers in the beginning; later on, they also modified 1968 Chargers to look like 1969s by installing 1969 - model taillamps, taillamp panels, and grilles). It was orange with a Confederate battle flag painted on the roof, the words "GENERAL LEE '' over each door, and the number "01 '' on each door. In the original five Georgia - filmed episodes, a Confederate flag along with a checkered racing flag in a criss - cross pattern could be seen behind the rear window; this was removed when it was felt that this extra detail did not show up enough on - screen to warrant the already very tight time constraints of preparing and repairing each example of the car. The name refers to the American Civil War Confederate General Robert E. Lee. The television show was based on the movie Moonrunners, in turn based on actual moonshine runners who used a 1958 Chrysler named Traveler, after General Lee 's horse (with a slight spelling change). Traveler was originally intended to be the name of the Duke boys ' stock car too, until producers agreed that General Lee had more punch to it.
Since it was built as a race car, the doors were welded shut. Through the history of the show, an estimated 309 Chargers were used; 17 are still known to exist in various states of repair. A replica was owned by John Schneider, known as "Bo 's General Lee. '' In 2008, Schneider sold "Bo 's General Lee '' at the Barrett - Jackson automobile auction for $230,000. An eBay auction which garnered a bid of $9,900,500 for the car was never finalized, with the purported bidder claiming his account had been hacked. The underside of the hood has the signatures of the cast from the 1997 TV movie. Schneider has also restored over 20 other General Lees to date. In 2008, a replica of the General Lee fetched a high bid of $450,000 at the Barrett - Jackson auto auction, indicating the significant interest in the car as a cultural icon. In 2012, the "General Lee 1 '', the first car used in filming the series, was purchased at auction by golfer Bubba Watson for $110,000. The car had been scrapped after being wrecked during the famous opening jump shoot, and was later discovered in a junk - yard by the president of the North American General Lee fan club. In 2015, following a wave of sentiment against confederate symbolism in the wake of shootings in Charleston, SC, (relating to photos where the attacker had posed with the Confederate flag), Bubba Watson announced that he would remove the Confederate Flag from the roof of General Lee 1 and repaint it with the US National Flag.
The show also used 1968 Chargers (which shared the same sheet metal) by changing the grille and taillight panel to the 1969 style, and removing the round side marker lights. These Chargers performed many record - breaking jumps throughout the show, almost all of them resulting in a completely destroyed car. The 1970 Chargers were modified by removing the chrome bumper and changing the taillights.
The Duke boys added a custom air horn to the General Lee that played the first twelve notes of the song Dixie. The Dixie horn was not originally planned, until a Georgia local hot rod racer drove by and sounded his car 's Dixie horn. The producers immediately rushed after him asking where he had bought the horn. Warner Bros. purchased several Chargers for stunts, as they generally destroyed at least one or two cars per episode. By the end of the show 's sixth season, the Chargers were becoming harder to find, and more expensive. In addition, the television series Knight Rider began to rival the General Lee 's stunts. As such, the producers used 1: 8 scale miniatures, filmed by Jack Sessums ' crew, or recycled stock jump footage -- the latter being a practice that had been in place to an extent since the second season, and had increased as the seasons passed.
Some of the 01 and Confederate flag motifs were initially hand painted, but as production sped up, these were replaced with vinyl decals for quick application (and removal), as needed.
During the first five episodes of the show that were filmed in Georgia, the cars involved with filming were given to the crew at H&H body shop near the filming location. At this shop, the men worked day and night to prepare the wrecked cars for the next day while still running their body shop during the day. Time was of the essence, and the men that worked at this shop worked hard hours to get the cars prepared for the show.
The third episode "Mary Kaye 's Baby '' is the only one in which the General Lee does not appear. Instead, the Dukes drove around in a blue 1975 Plymouth Fury borrowed from Cooter that Luke later destroyed by shooting an arrow at the car, whose trunk had been leaking due to the moonshine stowed in the back.
The Duke boys ' CB handle was (jointly) "Lost Sheep ''. Originally when the show was conceived, their handle was to be "General Lee '' to match their vehicle, but this was only ever used on - screen on one occasion, in the second episode, "Daisy 's Song '', when Cooter calls Bo and Luke over the CB by this handle, although they were actually driving Daisy 's Plymouth Roadrunner (see below) at the time. As it became obvious that the "General Lee '' handle would be out of place when the Duke boys were in another vehicle, the "Lost Sheep '' handle was devised (with Uncle Jesse being "Shepherd '' and Daisy being "Bo Peep '').
The 1975 AMC Matador was one of many different Hazzard County police cars used on the series, mostly in the first season; they had light bars and working radios. A 1972 Dodge Polara and a 1974 Dodge Monaco were used during the pilot episode "One Armed Bandits '', these were also seen in the show 's title sequence. From the second season, the 1977 Dodge Monaco was mostly used. From mid-season four the similar looking 1978 Plymouth Fury was used instead. The Matadors and Furies were former Los Angeles Police Department vehicles, while the Monacos were former California Highway Patrol units.
A 1974 Plymouth Road Runner (yellow with a black stripe) was Daisy Duke 's car in the first five episodes of the first season. For the last episodes of the first season a similarly painted 1971 model with a matching "Road Runner '' stripe was used. In the second season Bo and Luke send it off a cliff in "The Runaway. '' Another identical Plymouth 1971 model car appeared in the background a few more episodes along with the Jeep CJ - 7 until it was finally dropped altogether.
Dixie was the name given to Daisy Duke 's white 1980 Jeep CJ - 7 "Golden Eagle '' which had a golden eagle emblem on the hood and the name "Dixie '' on the sides. Like other vehicles in the show, there was actually more than one Jeep used throughout the series. Sometimes it would have an automatic transmission, and other times it would be a manual. The design of the roll cage also varied across the seasons. When the Jeep was introduced at the end of the second season 's "The Runaway '', it was seen to have doors and a slightly different paint job, but, bar one appearance in the next produced episode, "Arrest Jesse Duke '' (actually broadcast before "The Runaway '', causing a continuity error), thereafter the doors were removed and the paint job was made all - white, with "Dixie '' painted on the sides of the hood. These Jeeps were leased to the producers of the show by American Motors Corporation in exchange for a brief mention in the closing credits of the show.
Uncle Jesse 's truck was a white Ford pickup truck, most commonly a Sixth generation (1973 -- 1977) F100 Styleside. However, in the earliest episodes it had a Flareside bed, and varied between F100 and F250 models throughout the show 's run. Bo, Luke and Daisy also drove Jesse 's truck on occasion.
A White 1970 Cadillac De Ville convertible was used as Boss Hogg 's car, notably with large bull horns as a hood ornament. In early seasons, Hogg was almost always driven by a chauffeur, who was normally nameless and had little or no dialogue, but identified on occasion as being called "Alex ''; and played by several different uncredited actors, including stuntman Gary Baxley. This chauffeur would often be dressed in a red plaid shirt and deep brown or black Stetson hat, but on occasion would be an older man, sometimes dressed in more typical chauffeur attire. Hogg is first seen to drive for himself in the second season opener "Days of Shine and Roses '', where he and Jesse challenge each other to one last moonshine race. From the fourth season onward, except for a couple of brief reappearances of the chauffeur (during the fourth season), Hogg drove himself around in his Cadillac (or occasionally driven by Rosco and, in the series ' finale, by Uncle Jesse) and frequently challenged others by invoking his driving expertise from his days as a ridge - runner. Unlike other vehicles in the series, Boss Hogg 's Cadillac is typically treated with kid gloves. The car is almost always seen with its convertible top down, with the top only being seen in two episodes, "Daisy 's Song '' (the chauffeur was called "Eddie '' in this episode), the second to be produced and broadcast, and briefly in the second - season episode "Witness for the Persecution '', when Cooter is returning it to the Court House after repairs.
The theme song "The Good Ol ' Boys '' was written and performed by Waylon Jennings. He was also "The Balladeer '' (as credited), and served as narrator of the show. However, the version released as a single is not the same version that was used in the show 's opening credits; the single version has a repeat of the chorus and an instrumental to pad out the length, uses a different instrumental mix that emphasizes the bass, and replaces the last verse with an inside joke about how the TV show producers "keep on showing (Jennings 's) hands and not (his) face on TV. ''
In 1980, the song reached # 1 on the American Country chart and peaked at # 21 on the Billboard Hot 100.
Soon before the series ended its original run on CBS, The Dukes of Hazzard went into off - network syndication. Although not as widely run as it was back in the 1980s and the years since, reruns of the program do continue to air in various parts of the United States.
Notably, television stations that aired the show in syndication include KCOP Los Angeles, WGN - TV Chicago, KBHK San Francisco, WKBD Detroit, WTAF / WTXF Philadelphia, KTXL Sacramento, WVTV Milwaukee, KMSP Minneapolis -- Saint Paul, among others.
Nationwide, the show also aired on ABC Family (2000 -- 2001, 2004) and CMT (2005 -- 2007, 2010 -- 2012, 2014 -- 15) and TV Land (2015); TV Land dropped the show in the wake of protests and controversy surrounding the display of the Confederate flag.
The Nashville Network bought The Dukes of Hazzard from Warner Bros. in 1997 for well over $10 million; not only did it improve the network 's ratings, the show was also popular among younger viewers, a demographic TNN had a notorious difficulty in drawing; The Dukes of Hazzard has run either on TNN or sister network CMT ever since.
The show ran for seven seasons and a total of 145 episodes. Many of the episodes followed a similar structure "out - of - town crooks pull a robbery or commit a crime or scandal, Duke boys blamed, spend the rest of the hour clearing their names, the General Lee flies and the squad cars crash ''.
The second - season episodes "Jude Emery '', about a Texas Ranger, and "Mason Dixon 's Girls '', about a travelling private investigator and his female associates, were both pilots written by Dukes creator Gy Waldron for proposed new shows. Both failed to sell.
There were two made - for - TV reunion movies that aired on CBS, The Dukes of Hazzard: Reunion! (1997) and The Dukes of Hazzard: Hazzard in Hollywood (2000). Also made were The Dukes of Hazzard in 2005 and a direct - to - video prequel The Dukes of Hazzard: The Beginning in 2007.
Warner Home Video has released all seven seasons of The Dukes of Hazzard on DVD in Regions 1 and 2. The two TV - movies that followed the series were released on DVD in Region 1 on June 10, 2008 and in Region 4 on June 4, 2014. In Region 4, Warner has released only the first six seasons on DVD and the two TV movies. The Compete Series & 2 TV Movies will be released on DVD in Region 1 on November 14, 2017.
The TV series was also made available for streaming and download through a variety of services.
In 2005, Tom Wopat and John Schneider were reunited during "Exposed '', a fifth season episode of the television series Smallville. Wopat guest - starred as Kansas State Senator Jack Jennings, an old friend of Clark Kent 's adoptive father Jonathan Kent (portrayed by Schneider). In the episode, Jennings drives a 1968 Dodge Charger -- the same body style as The General Lee.
Lizard Lick Towing featured an episode with its repossession specialists Ronnie Shirley and Bobby Brantley repossess a General Lee replica.
John Schneider and Tom Wopat have recently been featured reprising their roles as Bo and Luke Duke in ads for AutoTrader.com. Then The General Lee gets replaced in the commercial with the new generation version which is a 2013 Dodge Viper which is General Lee the 2nd.
In 2015, in the wake of renewed debate about the symbolism of the Confederate battle flag (which was prominently featured on the General Lee ' s roof and panel behind the rear window in the first five episodes), reruns of the original series were pulled from circulation. Warner Bros., which owns the property, announced it would also no longer create merchandise bearing the flag, including miniatures of the General Lee. However many people still make and sell custom General Lee diecast replicas everywhere online.
Artifacts from the show are on display in Luray, Virginia, Nashville, Tennessee and in Gatlinburg, Tennessee. Cooter 's Place in Luray is overseen by Ben "Cooter '' Jones from the series. The Gatlinburg location features a gift shop, Dukes of Hazzard - themed indoor mini golf and go - cart track, with a small display of costumes, collectables and artifacts from the show.
Covington and Conyers, Georgia; where the original five episodes were produced, have been two major tourist attractions for Dukes of Hazzard fans.
Dixie Outfitters in Branson, Missouri on Highway 76 has the General Lee and Rosco 's police car signed by Daisy, Cooter, Cletus and Enos.
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what two products are produced in the dehydration synthesis of two amino acids | Peptide bond - wikipedia
A peptide bond, also known as an amide bond, is a covalent chemical bond linking two consecutive amino acid monomers along a peptide or protein chain.
When two amino acids form a dipeptide through a peptide bond it is called condensation. In condensation, two amino acids approach each other, with the acid moiety of one coming near the amino moiety of the other. One loses a hydrogen and oxygen from its carboxyl group (COOH) and the other loses a hydrogen from its amino group (NH). This reaction produces a molecule of water (H O) and two amino acids joined by a peptide bond (- CO-NH -). The two joined amino acids are called a dipeptide.
The amide bond is synthesized when the carboxyl group of one amino acid molecule reacts with the amino group of the other amino acid molecule, causing the release of a molecule of water (H O), hence the process is a dehydration synthesis reaction (also known as a condensation reaction).
The formation of the peptide bond consumes energy, which, in living systems, is derived from ATP. Polypeptides and proteins are chains of amino acids held together by peptide bonds. Living organisms employ enzymes to produce polypeptides, and ribosomes to produce proteins. Peptides are synthesized by specific enzymes. For example, the tripeptide glutathione is synthesized in two steps from free amino acids, by two enzymes: gamma - glutamylcysteine synthetase and glutathione synthetase.
A peptide bond can be broken by hydrolysis (the addition of water). In the presence of water they will break down and release 8 -- 16 kilojoule / mol (2 -- 4 kcal / mol) of free energy. This process is extremely slow, with the half life at 25C of between 350 and 600 years per bond.
In living organisms, the process is normally catalyzed by enzymes known as peptidases or proteases, although there are reports of peptide bond hydrolysis caused by conformational strain as the peptide / protein folds into the native structure. This non-enzymatic process is thus not accelerated by transition state stabilization, but rather by ground state destabilization.
The wavelength of absorption A for a peptide bond is 190 -- 230 nm (which makes it particularly susceptible to UV radiation).
Significant delocalisation of the lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen atom gives the group a partial double bond character. The partial double bond renders the amide group planar, occurring in either the cis or trans isomers. In the unfolded state of proteins, the peptide groups are free to isomerize and adopt both isomers; however, in the folded state, only a single isomer is adopted at each position (with rare exceptions). The trans form is preferred overwhelmingly in most peptide bonds (roughly 1000: 1 ratio in trans: cis populations). However, X-Pro peptide groups tend to have a roughly 30: 1 ratio, presumably because the symmetry between the C α (\ displaystyle \ mathrm (C ^ (\ alpha))) and C δ (\ displaystyle \ mathrm (C ^ (\ delta))) atoms of proline makes the cis and trans isomers nearly equal in energy (See figure, below).
The dihedral angle associated with the peptide group (defined by the four atoms C α − C ′ − N − C α (\ displaystyle C ^ (\ alpha) - C ^ (\ prime) - N-C ^ (\ alpha))) is denoted ω (\ displaystyle \ omega); ω = 0 ∘ (\ displaystyle \ omega = 0 ^ (\ circ)) for the cis isomer (synperiplanar conformation) and ω = 180 ∘ (\ displaystyle \ omega = 180 ^ (\ circ)) for the trans isomer (antiperiplanar conformation). Amide groups can isomerize about the C ' - N bond between the cis and trans forms, albeit slowly (τ ∼ (\ displaystyle \ tau \ sim) 20 seconds at room temperature). The transition states ω = ± 90 ∘ (\ displaystyle \ omega = \ pm 90 ^ (\ circ)) requires that the partial double bond be broken, so that the activation energy is roughly 80 kilojoule / mol (20 kcal / mol) (See Figure below). However, the activation energy can be lowered (and the isomerization catalyzed) by changes that favor the single - bonded form, such as placing the peptide group in a hydrophobic environment or donating a hydrogen bond to the nitrogen atom of an X-Pro peptide group. Both of these mechanisms for lowering the activation energy have been observed in peptidyl prolyl isomerases (PPIases), which are naturally occurring enzymes that catalyze the cis - trans isomerization of X-Pro peptide bonds.
Conformational protein folding is usually much faster (typically 10 -- 100 ms) than cis - trans isomerization (10 -- 100 s). A nonnative isomer of some peptide groups can disrupt the conformational folding significantly, either slowing it or preventing it from even occurring until the native isomer is reached. However, not all peptide groups have the same effect on folding; nonnative isomers of other peptide groups may not affect folding at all.
Due to its resonance stabilization, the peptide bond is relatively unreactive under physiological conditions, even less than similar compounds such as esters. Nevertheless, peptide bonds can undergo chemical reactions, usually through an attack of an electronegative atom on the carbonyl carbon, breaking the carbonyl double bond and forming a tetrahedral intermediate. This is the pathway followed in proteolysis and, more generally, in N-O acyl exchange reactions such as those of inteins. When the functional group attacking the peptide bond is a thiol, hydroxyl or amine, the resulting molecule may be called a cyclol or, more specifically, a thiacyclol, an oxacyclol or an azacyclol, respectively.
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who is the chief legal advisor to the government | Law Officers of the Crown - wikipedia
The Law Officers of the Crown are the chief legal advisers to the Crown, and advise and represent the central and devolved governments in the United Kingdom and national and sub-national governments in other Commonwealth realms.
In England and Wales, Northern Ireland and most Commonwealth and colonial governments, the chief law officer of the Crown is the Attorney General. In Scotland, the chief law officer is the Lord Advocate, and following devolution of justice to the Scottish Parliament a new position of Advocate General for Scotland was created to advise the UK Government on matters of Scots law.
The Attorney General for England and Wales is the chief legal adviser of the Crown in England and Wales, and a member of the UK Government. The Attorney General provides legal advice to the Government of the day. By convention, and unlike the papers of other ministers, this legal advice is available to subsequent governments. In the second half of the 20th century it became unusual for the Attorney General to be formally a member of the Cabinet. Rather he / she would attend only when the Cabinet required legal advice.
The Attorney General oversees the small Attorney General 's Office and also has responsibility for the Government Legal Department, which is headed by the Treasury Solicitor. When a Government Department has no internal legal capacity, the Government Legal Department provides it, instructing independent counsel where necessary. The Attorney General is a barrister and can appear in court in person, though in practice he / she rarely does so, and then only in cases of outstanding national importance. In those cases the Government Legal Department provides his back - up.
The Attorney General also has supervisory powers over prosecutions, including those mounted by the Crown Prosecution Service, headed by the Director of Public Prosecutions; the Serious Fraud Office; and the Revenue and Customs Prosecutions Office.
The Attorney General has public interest functions, being, for example, the trustee of default where a sole trustee has died, and can also take cases to the Supreme Court where points of general legal importance need to be settled.
The Attorney General is assisted by the Solicitor General for England and Wales, currently Robert Buckland. Under the Law Officers Act 1997, the Solicitor General may do anything on behalf of, or in the place of, the Attorney General, and vice versa.
Under the Government of Wales Act 2006, the Counsel General for Wales is the chief legal adviser to, and a member of, the Welsh Government.
The chief legal adviser in Scotland is the Lord Advocate, currently James Wolffe. The Lord Advocate heads the Crown Office and Procurator Fiscal Service, and is the chief public prosecutor in Scotland.
The Lord Advocate is assisted by the Solicitor General for Scotland, currently Alison Di Rollo.
Under constitutional reforms, the Lord Advocate has become a member of the Scottish Government, while Her Majesty 's Government is advised on Scots law by the holder of the newly created post of Advocate General for Scotland.
In 1972 the functions of the former Attorney General for Northern Ireland were conferred on the Attorney General for England and Wales as part of direct rule. When policing and justice were devolved to the Northern Ireland Assembly on 12 April 2010, these functions were split between: -
The Advocate General for Northern Ireland, who is the chief legal adviser to the UK Government on Northern Ireland law. The post is held by the Attorney General for England and Wales by virtue of office.
The Attorney General for Northern Ireland, who is the chief legal adviser to the Northern Ireland Executive. John Larkin QC was appointed to that position on 24 May 2010 by the First Minister of Northern Ireland and deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland.
Most Commonwealth and colonial governments also have their own Attorneys General. Sometimes the legal advisers of subnational governments are given the title Advocate General. In Hong Kong, apart from the Solicitor General and the Crown Prosecutor (the Director of Public Prosecutions before 1997), there are also the Law Officer (Civil), the Law Officer (International) and the Law Draftsman. All these five offices are "Law Officers '' reporting to the Attorney General (known since 1997 as the Secretary for Justice).
In Canada the term law officers are not used, but the title holders with similar roles are:
Some subjects are entitled to have an attorney general: these include a Queen consort and the Prince of Wales, who has an Attorney General for the Duchy of Cornwall. There is also an Attorney General for the Duchy of Lancaster, which is a mostly landed inheritance that is held in trust for the monarch and administered independently of the monarch under the supervision of a Government minister, the Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster.
Before the establishment of the Irish Free State in 1922, the legal advisers to the Crown in the Courts of Ireland were the Attorney - General for Ireland and the Solicitor - General for Ireland. These offices became redundant in 1921.
The Crown also had a legal adviser for the High Court of Admiralty, known as the Admiralty Advocate, but this office lapsed in 1875 when the Admiralty Court became part of the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division of the High Court of Justice.
The Crown 's representative in the ecclesiastical courts of England was the King 's Advocate (or Queen 's Advocate when the monarch was female). This office has been vacant since the resignation of its last holder in 1872.
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a substance that causes an allergic reaction triggers the release of a class of substances known as | Allergy - wikipedia
Allergies, also known as allergic diseases, are a number of conditions caused by hypersensitivity of the immune system to something in the environment that usually causes little or no problem in most people. These diseases include hay fever, food allergies, atopic dermatitis, allergic asthma, and anaphylaxis. Symptoms may include red eyes, an itchy rash, sneezing, a runny nose, shortness of breath, or swelling. Food intolerances and food poisoning are separate conditions.
Common allergens include pollen and certain food. Metals and other substances may also cause problems. Food, insect stings, and medications are common causes of severe reactions. Their development is due to both genetic and environmental factors. The underlying mechanism involves immunoglobulin E antibodies (IgE), part of the body 's immune system, binding to an allergen and then to a receptor on mast cells or basophils where it triggers the release of inflammatory chemicals such as histamine. Diagnosis is typically based on a person 's medical history. Further testing of the skin or blood may be useful in certain cases. Positive tests, however, may not mean there is a significant allergy to the substance in question.
Early exposure to potential allergens may be protective. Treatments for allergies include avoiding known allergens and the use of medications such as steroids and antihistamines. In severe reactions injectable adrenaline (epinephrine) is recommended. Allergen immunotherapy, which gradually exposes people to larger and larger amounts of allergen, is useful for some types of allergies such as hay fever and reactions to insect bites. Its use in food allergies is unclear.
Allergies are common. In the developed world, about 20 % of people are affected by allergic rhinitis, about 6 % of people have at least one food allergy, and about 20 % have atopic dermatitis at some point in time. Depending on the country about 1 -- 18 % of people have asthma. Anaphylaxis occurs in between 0.05 -- 2 % of people. Rates of many allergic diseases appear to be increasing. The word "allergy '' was first used by Clemens von Pirquet in 1906.
Many allergens such as dust or pollen are airborne particles. In these cases, symptoms arise in areas in contact with air, such as eyes, nose, and lungs. For instance, allergic rhinitis, also known as hay fever, causes irritation of the nose, sneezing, itching, and redness of the eyes. Inhaled allergens can also lead to increased production of mucus in the lungs, shortness of breath, coughing, and wheezing.
Aside from these ambient allergens, allergic reactions can result from foods, insect stings, and reactions to medications like aspirin and antibiotics such as penicillin. Symptoms of food allergy include abdominal pain, bloating, vomiting, diarrhea, itchy skin, and swelling of the skin during hives. Food allergies rarely cause respiratory (asthmatic) reactions, or rhinitis. Insect stings, food, antibiotics, and certain medicines may produce a systemic allergic response that is also called anaphylaxis; multiple organ systems can be affected, including the digestive system, the respiratory system, and the circulatory system. Depending on the rate of severity, it can cause a skin reactions, bronchoconstriction, swelling, low blood pressure, coma, and death. This type of reaction can be triggered suddenly, or the onset can be delayed. The nature of anaphylaxis is such that the reaction can seem to be subsiding, but may recur throughout a period of time.
Substances that come into contact with the skin, such as latex, are also common causes of allergic reactions, known as contact dermatitis or eczema. Skin allergies frequently cause rashes, or swelling and inflammation within the skin, in what is known as a "wheal and flare '' reaction characteristic of hives and angioedema.
With insect stings a large local reaction may occur (an area of skin redness greater than 10 cm in size). It can last one to two days. This reaction may also occur after immunotherapy.
Risk factors for allergy can be placed in two general categories, namely host and environmental factors. Host factors include heredity, sex, race, and age, with heredity being by far the most significant. However, there have been recent increases in the incidence of allergic disorders that can not be explained by genetic factors alone. Four major environmental candidates are alterations in exposure to infectious diseases during early childhood, environmental pollution, allergen levels, and dietary changes.
A wide variety of foods can cause allergic reactions, but 90 % of allergic responses to foods are caused by cow 's milk, soy, eggs, wheat, peanuts, tree nuts, fish, and shellfish. Other food allergies, affecting less than 1 person per 10,000 population, may be considered "rare ''. The use of hydrolysed milk baby formula versus standard milk baby formula does not appear to change the risk.
The most common food allergy in the US population is a sensitivity to crustacea. Although peanut allergies are notorious for their severity, peanut allergies are not the most common food allergy in adults or children. Severe or life - threatening reactions may be triggered by other allergens, and are more common when combined with asthma.
Rates of allergies differ between adults and children. Peanut allergies can sometimes be outgrown by children. Egg allergies affect one to two percent of children but are outgrown by about two - thirds of children by the age of 5. The sensitivity is usually to proteins in the white, rather than the yolk.
Milk - protein allergies are most common in children. Approximately 60 % of milk - protein reactions are immunoglobulin E-mediated, with the remaining usually attributable to inflammation of the colon. Some people are unable to tolerate milk from goats or sheep as well as from cows, and many are also unable to tolerate dairy products such as cheese. Roughly 10 % of children with a milk allergy will have a reaction to beef. Beef contains a small amount of protein that is present in cow 's milk. Lactose intolerance, a common reaction to milk, is not a form of allergy at all, but rather due to the absence of an enzyme in the digestive tract.
Those with tree nut allergies may be allergic to one or to many tree nuts, including pecans, pistachios, pine nuts, and walnuts. Also seeds, including sesame seeds and poppy seeds, contain oils in which protein is present, which may elicit an allergic reaction.
Allergens can be transferred from one food to another through genetic engineering; however genetic modification can also remove allergens. Little research has been done on the natural variation of allergen concentrations in the unmodified crops.
Latex can trigger an IgE - mediated cutaneous, respiratory, and systemic reaction. The prevalence of latex allergy in the general population is believed to be less than one percent. In a hospital study, 1 in 800 surgical patients (0.125 percent) reported latex sensitivity, although the sensitivity among healthcare workers is higher, between seven and ten percent. Researchers attribute this higher level to the exposure of healthcare workers to areas with significant airborne latex allergens, such as operating rooms, intensive - care units, and dental suites. These latex - rich environments may sensitize healthcare workers who regularly inhale allergenic proteins.
The most prevalent response to latex is an allergic contact dermatitis, a delayed hypersensitive reaction appearing as dry, crusted lesions. This reaction usually lasts 48 -- 96 hours. Sweating or rubbing the area under the glove aggravates the lesions, possibly leading to ulcerations. Anaphylactic reactions occur most often in sensitive patients who have been exposed to a surgeon 's latex gloves during abdominal surgery, but other mucosal exposures, such as dental procedures, can also produce systemic reactions.
Latex and banana sensitivity may cross-react. Furthermore, those with latex allergy may also have sensitivities to avocado, kiwifruit, and chestnut. These people often have perioral itching and local urticaria. Only occasionally have these food - induced allergies induced systemic responses. Researchers suspect that the cross-reactivity of latex with banana, avocado, kiwifruit, and chestnut occurs because latex proteins are structurally homologous with some other plant proteins.
About 10 % of people report that they are allergic to penicillin; however, 90 % turn out not to be. Serious allergies only occur in about 0.03 %.
Another non-food protein reaction, urushiol - induced contact dermatitis, originates after contact with poison ivy, eastern poison oak, western poison oak, or poison sumac. Urushiol, which is not itself a protein, acts as a hapten and chemically reacts with, binds to, and changes the shape of integral membrane proteins on exposed skin cells. The immune system does not recognize the affected cells as normal parts of the body, causing a T - cell - mediated immune response. Of these poisonous plants, sumac is the most virulent. The resulting dermatological response to the reaction between urushiol and membrane proteins includes redness, swelling, papules, vesicles, blisters, and streaking.
Estimates vary on the percentage of the population that will have an immune system response. Approximately 25 percent of the population will have a strong allergic response to urushiol. In general, approximately 80 percent to 90 percent of adults will develop a rash if they are exposed to. 0050 milligrams (7.7 × 10 gr) of purified urushiol, but some people are so sensitive that it takes only a molecular trace on the skin to initiate an allergic reaction.
Allergic diseases are strongly familial: identical twins are likely to have the same allergic diseases about 70 % of the time; the same allergy occurs about 40 % of the time in non-identical twins. Allergic parents are more likely to have allergic children, and those children 's allergies are likely to be more severe than those in children of non-allergic parents. Some allergies, however, are not consistent along genealogies; parents who are allergic to peanuts may have children who are allergic to ragweed. It seems that the likelihood of developing allergies is inherited and related to an irregularity in the immune system, but the specific allergen is not.
The risk of allergic sensitization and the development of allergies varies with age, with young children most at risk. Several studies have shown that IgE levels are highest in childhood and fall rapidly between the ages of 10 and 30 years. The peak prevalence of hay fever is highest in children and young adults and the incidence of asthma is highest in children under 10.
Overall, boys have a higher risk of developing allergies than girls, although for some diseases, namely asthma in young adults, females are more likely to be affected. These differences between the sexes tend to decrease in adulthood.
Ethnicity may play a role in some allergies; however, racial factors have been difficult to separate from environmental influences and changes due to migration. It has been suggested that different genetic loci are responsible for asthma, to be specific, in people of European, Hispanic, Asian, and African origins.
Allergic diseases are caused by inappropriate immunological responses to harmless antigens driven by a TH2 - mediated immune response. Many bacteria and viruses elicit a TH1 - mediated immune response, which down - regulates TH2 responses. The first proposed mechanism of action of the hygiene hypothesis was that insufficient stimulation of the TH1 arm of the immune system leads to an overactive TH2 arm, which in turn leads to allergic disease. In other words, individuals living in too sterile an environment are not exposed to enough pathogens to keep the immune system busy. Since our bodies evolved to deal with a certain level of such pathogens, when they are not exposed to this level, the immune system will attack harmless antigens and thus normally benign microbial objects -- like pollen -- will trigger an immune response.
The hygiene hypothesis was developed to explain the observation that hay fever and eczema, both allergic diseases, were less common in children from larger families, which were, it is presumed, exposed to more infectious agents through their siblings, than in children from families with only one child. The hygiene hypothesis has been extensively investigated by immunologists and epidemiologists and has become an important theoretical framework for the study of allergic disorders. It is used to explain the increase in allergic diseases that have been seen since industrialization, and the higher incidence of allergic diseases in more developed countries. The hygiene hypothesis has now expanded to include exposure to symbiotic bacteria and parasites as important modulators of immune system development, along with infectious agents.
Epidemiological data support the hygiene hypothesis. Studies have shown that various immunological and autoimmune diseases are much less common in the developing world than the industrialized world and that immigrants to the industrialized world from the developing world increasingly develop immunological disorders in relation to the length of time since arrival in the industrialized world. Longitudinal studies in the third world demonstrate an increase in immunological disorders as a country grows more affluent and, it is presumed, cleaner. The use of antibiotics in the first year of life has been linked to asthma and other allergic diseases. The use of antibacterial cleaning products has also been associated with higher incidence of asthma, as has birth by Caesarean section rather than vaginal birth.
Chronic stress can aggravate allergic conditions. This has been attributed to a T helper 2 (TH2) - predominant response driven by suppression of interleukin 12 by both the autonomic nervous system and the hypothalamic -- pituitary -- adrenal axis. Stress management in highly susceptible individuals may improve symptoms.
International differences have been associated with the number of individuals within a population have allergy. Allergic diseases are more common in industrialized countries than in countries that are more traditional or agricultural, and there is a higher rate of allergic disease in urban populations versus rural populations, although these differences are becoming less defined.
Alterations in exposure to microorganisms is another plausible explanation, at present, for the increase in atopic allergy. Endotoxin exposure reduces release of inflammatory cytokines such as TNF - α, IFNγ, interleukin - 10, and interleukin - 12 from white blood cells (leukocytes) that circulate in the blood. Certain microbe - sensing proteins, known as Toll - like receptors, found on the surface of cells in the body are also thought to be involved in these processes.
Gutworms and similar parasites are present in untreated drinking water in developing countries, and were present in the water of developed countries until the routine chlorination and purification of drinking water supplies. Recent research has shown that some common parasites, such as intestinal worms (e.g., hookworms), secrete chemicals into the gut wall (and, hence, the bloodstream) that suppress the immune system and prevent the body from attacking the parasite. This gives rise to a new slant on the hygiene hypothesis theory -- that co-evolution of humans and parasites has led to an immune system that functions correctly only in the presence of the parasites. Without them, the immune system becomes unbalanced and oversensitive. In particular, research suggests that allergies may coincide with the delayed establishment of gut flora in infants. However, the research to support this theory is conflicting, with some studies performed in China and Ethiopia showing an increase in allergy in people infected with intestinal worms. Clinical trials have been initiated to test the effectiveness of certain worms in treating some allergies. It may be that the term ' parasite ' could turn out to be inappropriate, and in fact a hitherto unsuspected symbiosis is at work. For more information on this topic, see Helminthic therapy.
In the early stages of allergy, a type I hypersensitivity reaction against an allergen encountered for the first time and presented by a professional antigen - presenting cell causes a response in a type of immune cell called a T 2 lymphocyte, which belongs to a subset of T cells that produce a cytokine called interleukin - 4 (IL - 4). These T 2 cells interact with other lymphocytes called B cells, whose role is production of antibodies. Coupled with signals provided by IL - 4, this interaction stimulates the B cell to begin production of a large amount of a particular type of antibody known as IgE. Secreted IgE circulates in the blood and binds to an IgE - specific receptor (a kind of Fc receptor called FcεRI) on the surface of other kinds of immune cells called mast cells and basophils, which are both involved in the acute inflammatory response. The IgE - coated cells, at this stage, are sensitized to the allergen.
If later exposure to the same allergen occurs, the allergen can bind to the IgE molecules held on the surface of the mast cells or basophils. Cross-linking of the IgE and Fc receptors occurs when more than one IgE - receptor complex interacts with the same allergenic molecule, and activates the sensitized cell. Activated mast cells and basophils undergo a process called degranulation, during which they release histamine and other inflammatory chemical mediators (cytokines, interleukins, leukotrienes, and prostaglandins) from their granules into the surrounding tissue causing several systemic effects, such as vasodilation, mucous secretion, nerve stimulation, and smooth muscle contraction. This results in rhinorrhea, itchiness, dyspnea, and anaphylaxis. Depending on the individual, allergen, and mode of introduction, the symptoms can be system - wide (classical anaphylaxis), or localized to particular body systems; asthma is localized to the respiratory system and eczema is localized to the dermis.
After the chemical mediators of the acute response subside, late - phase responses can often occur. This is due to the migration of other leukocytes such as neutrophils, lymphocytes, eosinophils and macrophages to the initial site. The reaction is usually seen 2 -- 24 hours after the original reaction. Cytokines from mast cells may play a role in the persistence of long - term effects. Late - phase responses seen in asthma are slightly different from those seen in other allergic responses, although they are still caused by release of mediators from eosinophils and are still dependent on activity of T 2 cells.
Although allergic contact dermatitis is termed an "allergic '' reaction (which usually refers to type I hypersensitivity), its pathophysiology actually involves a reaction that more correctly corresponds to a type IV hypersensitivity reaction. In type IV hypersensitivity, there is activation of certain types of T cells (CD8+) that destroy target cells on contact, as well as activated macrophages that produce hydrolytic enzymes.
Effective management of allergic diseases relies on the ability to make an accurate diagnosis. Allergy testing can help confirm or rule out allergies. Correct diagnosis, counseling, and avoidance advice based on valid allergy test results reduces the incidence of symptoms and need for medications, and improves quality of life. To assess the presence of allergen - specific IgE antibodies, two different methods can be used: a skin prick test, or an allergy blood test. Both methods are recommended, and they have similar diagnostic value.
Skin prick tests and blood tests are equally cost - effective, and health economic evidence shows that both tests were cost - effective compared with no test. Also, early and more accurate diagnoses save cost due to reduced consultations, referrals to secondary care, misdiagnosis, and emergency admissions.
Allergy undergoes dynamic changes over time. Regular allergy testing of relevant allergens provides information on if and how patient management can be changed, in order to improve health and quality of life. Annual testing is often the practice for determining whether allergy to milk, egg, soy, and wheat have been outgrown, and the testing interval is extended to 2 -- 3 years for allergy to peanut, tree nuts, fish, and crustacean shellfish. Results of follow - up testing can guide decision - making regarding whether and when it is safe to introduce or re-introduce allergenic food into the diet.
Skin testing is also known as "puncture testing '' and "prick testing '' due to the series of tiny punctures or pricks made into the patient 's skin. Small amounts of suspected allergens and / or their extracts (e.g., pollen, grass, mite proteins, peanut extract) are introduced to sites on the skin marked with pen or dye (the ink / dye should be carefully selected, lest it cause an allergic response itself). A small plastic or metal device is used to puncture or prick the skin. Sometimes, the allergens are injected "intradermally '' into the patient 's skin, with a needle and syringe. Common areas for testing include the inside forearm and the back.
If the patient is allergic to the substance, then a visible inflammatory reaction will usually occur within 30 minutes. This response will range from slight reddening of the skin to a full - blown hive (called "wheal and flare '') in more sensitive patients similar to a mosquito bite. Interpretation of the results of the skin prick test is normally done by allergists on a scale of severity, with + / − meaning borderline reactivity, and 4 + being a large reaction. Increasingly, allergists are measuring and recording the diameter of the wheal and flare reaction. Interpretation by well - trained allergists is often guided by relevant literature. Some patients may believe they have determined their own allergic sensitivity from observation, but a skin test has been shown to be much better than patient observation to detect allergy.
If a serious life - threatening anaphylactic reaction has brought a patient in for evaluation, some allergists will prefer an initial blood test prior to performing the skin prick test. Skin tests may not be an option if the patient has widespread skin disease, or has taken antihistamines in the last several days.
Patch testing is a method used to determine if a specific substance causes allergic inflammation of the skin. It tests for delayed reactions. It is used to help ascertain the cause of skin contact allergy, or contact dermatitis. Adhesive patches, usually treated with a number of common allergic chemicals or skin sensitizers, are applied to the back. The skin is then examined for possible local reactions at least twice, usually at 48 hours after application of the patch, and again two or three days later.
An allergy blood test is quick and simple, and can be ordered by a licensed health care provider (e.g., an allergy specialist), GP, or PED. Unlike skin - prick testing, a blood test can be performed irrespective of age, skin condition, medication, symptom, disease activity, and pregnancy. Adults and children of any age can take an allergy blood test. For babies and very young children, a single needle stick for allergy blood testing is often more gentle than several skin tests.
An allergy blood test is available through most laboratories. A sample of the patient 's blood is sent to a laboratory for analysis, and the results are sent back a few days later. Multiple allergens can be detected with a single blood sample. Allergy blood tests are very safe, since the person is not exposed to any allergens during the testing procedure.
The test measures the concentration of specific IgE antibodies in the blood. Quantitative IgE test results increase the possibility of ranking how different substances may affect symptoms. A rule of thumb is that the higher the IgE antibody value, the greater the likelihood of symptoms. Allergens found at low levels that today do not result in symptoms can nevertheless help predict future symptom development. The quantitative allergy blood result can help determine what a patient is allergic to, help predict and follow the disease development, estimate the risk of a severe reaction, and explain cross-reactivity.
A low total IgE level is not adequate to rule out sensitization to commonly inhaled allergens. Statistical methods, such as ROC curves, predictive value calculations, and likelihood ratios have been used to examine the relationship of various testing methods to each other. These methods have shown that patients with a high total IgE have a high probability of allergic sensitization, but further investigation with allergy tests for specific IgE antibodies for a carefully chosen of allergens is often warranted.
Laboratory methods to measure specific IgE antibodies for allergy testing include enzyme - linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA, or EIA), radioallergosorbent test (RAST) and fluorescent enzyme immunoassay (FEIA).
Challenge testing: Challenge testing is when small amounts of a suspected allergen are introduced to the body orally, through inhalation, or via other routes. Except for testing food and medication allergies, challenges are rarely performed. When this type of testing is chosen, it must be closely supervised by an allergist.
Elimination / Challenge tests: This testing method is used most often with foods or medicines. A patient with a suspected allergen is instructed to modify his diet to totally avoid that allergen for a set time. If the patient experiences significant improvement, he may then be "challenged '' by reintroducing the allergen, to see if symptoms are reproduced.
Unreliable tests: There are other types of allergy testing methods that are unreliable, including applied kinesiology (allergy testing through muscle relaxation), cytotoxicity testing, urine autoinjection, skin titration (Rinkel method), and provocative and neutralization (subcutaneous) testing or sublingual provocation.
Before a diagnosis of allergic disease can be confirmed, other possible causes of the presenting symptoms should be considered. Vasomotor rhinitis, for example, is one of many maladies that shares symptoms with allergic rhinitis, underscoring the need for professional differential diagnosis. Once a diagnosis of asthma, rhinitis, anaphylaxis, or other allergic disease has been made, there are several methods for discovering the causative agent of that allergy.
Some foods during pregnancy has been linked to allergies in the child. Vegetable oil, nuts and fast food may increase the risk while fruits, vegetables and fish may decrease it. Another review found no effect of eating fish during pregnancy on allergy risk.
Probiotic supplements taken during pregnancy or infancy may help to prevent atopic dermatitis.
Management of allergies typically involves avoiding what triggers the allergy and medications to improve the symptoms. Allergen immunotherapy may be useful for some types of allergies.
Several medications may be used to block the action of allergic mediators, or to prevent activation of cells and degranulation processes. These include antihistamines, glucocorticoids, epinephrine (adrenaline), mast cell stabilizers, and antileukotriene agents are common treatments of allergic diseases. Anti-cholinergics, decongestants, and other compounds thought to impair eosinophil chemotaxis, are also commonly used. Though rare, the severity of anaphylaxis often requires epinephrine injection, and where medical care is unavailable, a device known as an epinephrine autoinjector may be used.
Allergen immunotherapy is useful for environmental allergies, allergies to insect bites, and asthma. Its benefit for food allergies is unclear and thus not recommended. Immunotherapy involves exposing people to larger and larger amounts of allergen in an effort to change the immune system 's response.
Meta - analyses have found that injections of allergens under the skin is effective in the treatment in allergic rhinitis in children and in asthma. The benefits may last for years after treatment is stopped. It is generally safe and effective for allergic rhinitis and conjunctivitis, allergic forms of asthma, and stinging insects.
The evidence also supports the use of sublingual immunotherapy for rhinitis and asthma but it is less strong. For seasonal allergies the benefit is small. In this form the allergen is given under the tongue and people often prefer it to injections. Immunotherapy is not recommended as a stand - alone treatment for asthma.
An experimental treatment, enzyme potentiated desensitization (EPD), has been tried for decades but is not generally accepted as effective. EPD uses dilutions of allergen and an enzyme, beta - glucuronidase, to which T - regulatory lymphocytes are supposed to respond by favoring desensitization, or down - regulation, rather than sensitization. EPD has also been tried for the treatment of autoimmune diseases but evidence does not show effectiveness.
A review found no effectiveness of homeopathic treatments and no difference compared with placebo. The authors concluded that, based on rigorous clinical trials of all types of homeopathy for childhood and adolescence ailments, there is no convincing evidence that supports the use of homeopathic treatments.
According to the NCCIH, the evidence is relatively strong that saline nasal irrigation and butterbur are effective, when compared to other alternative medicine treatments, for which the scientific evidence is weak, negative, or nonexistent, such as honey, acupuncture, omega 3 's, probiotics, astragalus, capsaicin, grape seed extract, Pycnogenol, quercetin, spirulina, stinging nettle, tinospora or guduchi.
The allergic diseases -- hay fever and asthma -- have increased in the Western world over the past 2 -- 3 decades. Increases in allergic asthma and other atopic disorders in industrialized nations, it is estimated, began in the 1960s and 1970s, with further increases occurring during the 1980s and 1990s, although some suggest that a steady rise in sensitization has been occurring since the 1920s. The number of new cases per year of atopy in developing countries has, in general, remained much lower.
Although genetic factors govern susceptibility to atopic disease, increases in atopy have occurred within too short a time frame to be explained by a genetic change in the population, thus pointing to environmental or lifestyle changes. Several hypotheses have been identified to explain this increased rate; increased exposure to perennial allergens due to housing changes and increasing time spent indoors, and changes in cleanliness or hygiene that have resulted in the decreased activation of a common immune control mechanism, coupled with dietary changes, obesity and decline in physical exercise. The hygiene hypothesis maintains that high living standards and hygienic conditions exposes children to fewer infections. It is thought that reduced bacterial and viral infections early in life direct the maturing immune system away from T 1 type responses, leading to unrestrained T 2 responses that allow for an increase in allergy.
Changes in rates and types of infection alone however, have been unable to explain the observed increase in allergic disease, and recent evidence has focused attention on the importance of the gastrointestinal microbial environment. Evidence has shown that exposure to food and fecal - oral pathogens, such as hepatitis A, Toxoplasma gondii, and Helicobacter pylori (which also tend to be more prevalent in developing countries), can reduce the overall risk of atopy by more than 60 %, and an increased rate of parasitic infections has been associated with a decreased prevalence of asthma. It is speculated that these infections exert their effect by critically altering T 1 / T 2 regulation. Important elements of newer hygiene hypotheses also include exposure to endotoxins, exposure to pets and growing up on a farm.
The concept of "allergy '' was originally introduced in 1906 by the Viennese pediatrician Clemens von Pirquet, after he noted that some of his patients were hypersensitive to normally innocuous entities such as dust, pollen, or certain foods. Pirquet called this phenomenon "allergy '' from the Ancient Greek words ἄλλος allos meaning "other '' and ἔργον ergon meaning "work ''.
All forms of hypersensitivity used to be classified as allergies, and all were thought to be caused by an improper activation of the immune system. Later, it became clear that several different disease mechanisms were implicated, with the common link to a disordered activation of the immune system. In 1963, a new classification scheme was designed by Philip Gell and Robin Coombs that described four types of hypersensitivity reactions, known as Type I to Type IV hypersensitivity. With this new classification, the word "allergy '' was restricted to type I hypersensitivities (also called immediate hypersensitivity), which are characterized as rapidly developing reactions.
A major breakthrough in understanding the mechanisms of allergy was the discovery of the antibody class labeled immunoglobulin E (IgE). IgE was simultaneously discovered in 1966 -- 67 by two independent groups: Ishizaka 's team at the Children 's Asthma Research Institute and Hospital in Denver, Colorado, and by Gunnar Johansson and Hans Bennich in Uppsala, Sweden. Their joint paper was published in April 1969.
Radiometric assays include the radioallergosorbent test (RAST test) method, which uses IgE - binding (anti-IgE) antibodies labeled with radioactive isotopes for quantifying the levels of IgE antibody in the blood. Other newer methods use colorimetric or fluorescence - labeled technology in the place of radioactive isotopes.
The RAST methodology was invented and marketed in 1974 by Pharmacia Diagnostics AB, Uppsala, Sweden, and the acronym RAST is actually a brand name. In 1989, Pharmacia Diagnostics AB replaced it with a superior test named the ImmunoCAP Specific IgE blood test, which uses the newer fluorescence - labeled technology.
American College of Allergy Asthma and Immunology (ACAAI) and the American Academy of Allergy Asthma and Immunology (AAAAI) issued the Joint Task Force Report "Pearls and pitfalls of allergy diagnostic testing '' in 2008, and is firm in its statement that the term RAST is now obsolete:
The term RAST became a colloquialism for all varieties of (in vitro allergy) tests. This is unfortunate because it is well recognized that there are well - performing tests and some that do not perform so well, yet they are all called RASTs, making it difficult to distinguish which is which. For these reasons, it is now recommended that use of RAST as a generic descriptor of these tests be abandoned.
The new version, the ImmunoCAP Specific IgE blood test, is the only specific IgE assay to receive FDA approval to quantitatively report to its detection limit of 0.1 kU / l.
An allergist is a physician specially trained to manage and treat allergies, asthma and the other allergic diseases. In the United States physicians holding certification by the American Board of Allergy and Immunology (ABAI) have successfully completed an accredited educational program and evaluation process, including a proctored examination to demonstrate knowledge, skills, and experience in patient care in allergy and immunology. Becoming an allergist / immunologist requires completion of at least nine years of training. After completing medical school and graduating with a medical degree, a physician will undergo three years of training in internal medicine (to become an internist) or pediatrics (to become a pediatrician). Once physicians have finished training in one of these specialties, they must pass the exam of either the American Board of Pediatrics (ABP), the American Osteopathic Board of Pediatrics (AOBP), the American Board of Internal Medicine (ABIM), or the American Osteopathic Board of Internal Medicine (AOBIM). Internists or pediatricians wishing to focus on the sub-specialty of allergy - immunology then complete at least an additional two years of study, called a fellowship, in an allergy / immunology training program. Allergist / immunologists listed as ABAI - certified have successfully passed the certifying examination of the ABAI following their fellowship.
In the United Kingdom, allergy is a subspecialty of general medicine or pediatrics. After obtaining postgraduate exams (MRCP or MRCPCH), a doctor works for several years as a specialist registrar before qualifying for the General Medical Council specialist register. Allergy services may also be delivered by immunologists. A 2003 Royal College of Physicians report presented a case for improvement of what were felt to be inadequate allergy services in the UK. In 2006, the House of Lords convened a subcommittee. It concluded likewise in 2007 that allergy services were insufficient to deal with what the Lords referred to as an "allergy epidemic '' and its social cost; it made several recommendations.
Low - allergen foods are being developed, as are improvements in skin prick test predictions; evaluation of the atopy patch test; in wasp sting outcomes predictions and a rapidly disintegrating epinephrine tablet, and anti-IL - 5 for eosinophilic diseases.
Aerobiology is the study of biological particles passively dispersed through the air. One aim is the prevention of allergies due to pollen.
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where will american league wildcard game be played | 2017 American League Wild Card game - wikipedia
The 2017 American League Wild Card Game was a play - in game during Major League Baseball 's 2017 postseason that was played between the American League 's (AL) two wild card teams, the New York Yankees and the Minnesota Twins. The game was televised nationally by ESPN. The game took place on October 3 at Yankee Stadium, with the Yankees winning 8 -- 4, thus eliminating the Twins from the postseason and advancing the Yankees to the AL Division Series (ALDS), in which they defeated the Cleveland Indians, 3 -- 2.
This was Minnesota 's first playoff appearance as a Wild Card team, and their first postseason appearance since the 2010 American League Division Series. After clinching their spot, the Twins named Ervin Santana as their starting pitcher. Miguel Sanó was left off of the roster because of his injured left shin. The Twins had a 85 -- 77 record and finished in second place in the AL Central, 17 games behind the Indians.
This was New York 's sixth playoff appearance as a Wild Card team, and their first postseason appearance since the 2015 American League Wild Card Game. Luis Severino started for the Yankees. With a 91 -- 71 record, the Yankees finished in second place in the AL East, two games behind the division - winning Red Sox.
This was the fifth postseason meeting between the two clubs, with the Yankees winning all four previous series. Their most recent meeting was in the 2010 American League Division Series in which the Yankees swept the Twins in three games.
The Twins did not waste any time getting to Severino, with Brian Dozier hitting a leadoff home run. This was followed by a walk to Jorge Polanco and another home run, this one by Eddie Rosario, to put the Twins quickly up 3 -- 0. After allowing a single by Eduardo Escobar and a double by Max Kepler, Severino was relieved after only recording one out, marking the shortest appearance by a Yankees pitcher in postseason history. Chad Green relieved Severino and recorded consecutive strikeouts to end the inning. The Yankees quickly responded, however, tying the game in the bottom of the first inning on a three - run home run by Didi Gregorius as Twins starter Ervin Santana threw 41 pitches. Brett Gardner 's home run in the next inning gave the Yankees the lead. In the top of the third, after loading the bases with one out, Green was replaced by David Robertson. Robertson induced a potential double - play ground ball from Byron Buxton, but Buxton beat it out to tie the game at 4 -- 4.
José Berríos relieved Santana to start the bottom of the third, and the Yankees quickly regained the lead with a two - out single by Greg Bird. In the bottom of the fourth, rookie sensation Aaron Judge hit a two - run home run to extend the Yankee lead to 7 -- 4. Tommy Kahnle relieved Robertson, who had thrown a career - high 3 ⁄ innings, all scoreless, in the top of the seventh and threw two shutout innings of his own. In the bottom of the seventh, a two - out bases - loaded walk to Aaron Hicks further extended the Yankees ' lead to 8 -- 4. Closer Aroldis Chapman pitched the ninth inning in a non-save situation for the Yankees to end the game.
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what is the typical use for a video aux | Audio and video interfaces and connectors - wikipedia
Audio connectors and video connectors are electrical connectors (or optical connectors) - plugs and sockets - for carrying audio signal and video signal. Audio interfaces and video interfaces define physical parameters and interpretation of signals. For digital audio and digital video, this can be thought of as defining the physical layer, data link layer, and most or all of the application layer. For analog audio and analog video these functions are all represented in a single signal specification like NTSC or the direct speaker - driving signal of analog audio. Physical characteristics of the electrical or optical equipment includes the types and numbers of wires required, voltages, frequencies, optical intensity, and the physical design of the connectors. Any data link layer details define how application data is encapsulated (for example for synchronization or error - correction). Application layer details define the actual audio or video format being transmitted, often incorporating a codecs not specific to the interface, such as PCM, MPEG - 2, or the DTS Coherent Acoustics codec. In some cases, the application layer is left open; for example, HDMI contains an Ethernet channel for general data transmission.
Some types of connectors are used by multiple hardware interfaces; for example, RCA connectors are defined both by the composite video and component video interfaces, but DVI is the only interface that uses the DVI connector. This means that in some cases not all components with physically compatible connectors will actually work together.
Some of these connectors, and other types of connectors, are also used at radio frequency (RF) to connect a radio or television receiver to an antenna or to a cable system; RF connector applications are not further described here. Analog A / V connectors often use shielded cables to inhibit radio frequency interference (RFI) and noise.
For efficiency and simplicity, the same codec or signal convention is used by the storage medium. For example, VHS tapes can store a magnetic representation of an NTSC signal, and the specification for Blu - ray Discs incorporates PCM, MPEG - 2, and DTS. Some playback devices can re-encode audio or video so that the format used for storage does not have to be the same as the format transmitted over the A / V interface (which is helpful if a projector or monitor can not handle a newer codec).
Several connection standards are designed to carry not only audio / video data, but also data traffic (often USB) and power:
Some connection standards can carry both audio and video signals simultaneously:
The electrical coaxial cable (with RCA jacks) or optical fibre (TOSLINK).
Note that there are no differences in the signals transmitted over optical or coaxial S / PDIF connectors -- both carry exactly the same information. Selection of one over the other rests mainly on the availability of appropriate connectors on the chosen equipment and the preference and convenience of the user. Connections longer than 6 meters or so, or those requiring tight bends, should use coaxial cable, since the high light signal attenuation of TOSLINK cables limits its effective range.
High - Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI) is a compact audio / video standard for transmitting uncompressed digital data.
There are three HDMI connector types. Type A and Type B were defined by the HDMI 1.0 specification. Type C was defined by the HDMI 1.3 specification.
Type A is electrically compatible with single link DVI - D. Type B is electrically compatible with dual link DVI - D but has not yet been used in any products.
IEEE 1394 FireWire is a digital data transfer protocol commonly used for digital cameras (common on MiniDV tape camcorders), but also used for computer data and audio data transfers. In the United States, cable TV converter set top boxes by law also have the connection for transferring content directly to a TV (if equipped with a port) or computer for viewing. 1394 can also use coaxial cable as a medium for longer runs.
Unlike Point - to - Point connections listed above, IEEE 1394 is able to host several signals on the same wire, with the data delivered and shown on the destination set. It is also fully bi-directional, with its full bandwidth used in one direction or the other, or split directions up to its maximum.
DisplayPort is a digital display interface standard (approved May 2006, current version 1.4 published on March 1 2016). It defines a new license - free, royalty - free, digital audio / video interconnect, intended to be used primarily between a computer and its display monitor, or a computer and a home - theater system.
The video signal is not compatible with DVI or HDMI, but a DisplayPort connector can pass these signals through. DisplayPort is a competitor to the HDMI connector, the de facto digital connection for high - definition consumer electronics devices.
Audio connectors are used for audio frequencies. They can be analog or digital.
Single - wire connectors used frequently for analog audio include:
A phone connector (tip, ring, sleeve) also called an audio jack, phone plug, jack plug, stereo plug, mini-jack, or mini-stereo. This includes the original 6.35 mm (quarter inch) jack and the more recent 3.5 mm (miniature or 1 / 8 inch) and 2.5 mm (subminiature) jacks, both mono and stereo versions.
A DIN connector is a connector that was originally standardized by the Deutsches Institut für Normung (DIN). Mini-DIN is a variation.
The BNC (Bayonet Neill Concelman) connector is a very common type of RF connector used for terminating coaxial cable.
TOSLINK or Optical Cable is a standardized optical fiber connection system.
XLR connector plugs and sockets are used mostly in professional audio and video electronics cabling applications. XLR connector are also known as Cannon plugs after their original manufacturer. They are used for analog or digital balanced audio with a balanced line
Digital audio interfaces and interconnects with the AES / EBU interface also normally use an XLR connector.
RCA connectors, also known as phono connectors or phono plugs, are used for analog or digital audio or analog video. These were first used inside pre -- World War II radio - phonographs to connect the turntable pickup to the radio chassis. They were not intended to be disconnected and reconnected frequently, and their retaining friction was quite sufficient for their original purpose. Furthermore, the design of both cable and chassis connectors was for minimum cost. Initially intended for audio - frequency connections only, the RCA plug was also used for analog composite video and non-critical radio - frequency applications.
Video connectors carry only video signals. Common video - only connectors include:
The Mini-DIN connectors are a family of multi-pin electrical connectors used in a variety of applications. Mini-DIN is similar to the larger, older DIN connector. Both are standards of the Deutsches Institut für Normung, the German standards body.
D - subminiature or D - sub is a common type of electrical connector used particularly in computers. Calling them "sub-miniature '' was appropriate when they were first introduced, but today they are among the largest common connectors used in computers. The DB25 is used for multi-track recording and other multi-channel audio, analog or digital (ADAT interface (DB25)), and was the standard connector for IBM compatible PC printer connection before USB and other connections became popular. It offered 8 simultaneous data pathways to the printer.
Video In Video Out, usually seen as the acronym VIVO (commonly pronounced vee - voh), is a graphics card port which enables some video cards to have bidirectional (input and output) video transfer through a Mini-DIN, usually of the 9 - pin variety, and a specialised splitter cable (which can sometimes also transfer sound).
VIVO is found predominantly on high - end ATI video cards, although a few high - end NVIDIA video cards also have this port. VIVO on these graphics cards typically supports Composite, S - Video, and Component as outputs, and composite and S - Video as inputs. Many other video cards only support component and / or S - Video outputs to complement Video Graphics Array or DVI, typically using a component breakout cable and an S - Video cable.
The Digital Visual Interface (DVI) is a video interface standard designed to maximize the visual quality of digital display devices such as flat panel LCD computer displays and digital projectors. It is designed for carrying uncompressed digital video data to a display.
There are four basic connectors:
The connector also includes provision for a second data link for high resolution displays, though many devices do not implement this. In those that do, the connector is sometimes referred to as DVI - DL (dual link).
So we need to know two things about the connector:
For computers:
There are exceptions to the above:
Older sound cards had no common standard color codes until after PC 99. The PC System Design Guide (also known as the PC 97, PC 98, PC 99, or PC 2001 specification) is a series of hardware design requirements and recommendations for IBM PC compatible personal computers, compiled by Microsoft and Intel Corporation during 1997 -- 2001. PC 99 introduced a color code for the various standard types of plugs and connectors used on PCs.
The color codes for audio plugs follow:
Newer connectors are identified by their shape and not their colour.
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when is handmaid's tale season 2 released | The Handmaid 's Tale (TV series) - wikipedia
The Handmaid 's Tale is an American dystopian drama web television series created by Bruce Miller, based on the 1985 novel of the same name by Margaret Atwood. It was ordered by the streaming service Hulu as a straight - to - series order of 10 episodes, for which production began in late 2016. The plot features a dystopian future following a Second American Civil War wherein a totalitarian society subjects fertile women, called "Handmaids '', into child - bearing servitude.
The first three episodes of the series premiered on April 26, 2017; the subsequent seven episodes aired on a weekly basis every Wednesday. In May 2017, the series was renewed for a second season which premiered on April 25, 2018.
The Handmaid 's Tale has received widespread critical acclaim and its first season won eight Primetime Emmy Awards from thirteen nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series. It is the first show produced by Hulu to win a major award as well as the first series on a streaming service to win an Emmy for Outstanding Series. It also became the first streaming series to win the Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series -- Drama. Elisabeth Moss was also awarded the Golden Globe for Best Actress.
In May 2018, Hulu announced that the series had been renewed for a third season.
In the near future, fertility rates collapse as a result of sexually transmitted diseases and environmental pollution. With this chaos, the totalitarian, theonomic government of "Gilead '' establishes rule in the former United States in the aftermath of a civil war. Society is organized by power - hungry leaders along with a new, militarized, hierarchical regime of fanaticism and newly created social classes, in which women are brutally subjugated, and by law are not allowed to work, own property, handle money, or read.
Worldwide infertility has resulted in the conscription of the few remaining fertile women in Gilead, called "Handmaids '', according to an extremist interpretation of the Biblical account of Bilhah. They are assigned to the homes of the ruling elite, where they must submit to ritualized rape by their male masters in order to become pregnant and bear children for those men and their wives.
Alongside the Handmaids, much of society is now grouped into classes that dictate their freedoms and duties. Women are divided into a small range of social categories, each one signified by a plain dress in a specific color: Handmaids wear red, Marthas (who are housekeepers and cooks, named after the biblical figure) wear green, and Wives (who are expected to run their households) wear blue and turquoise.
Econowives, the lower - class women who still have minimal agency, are a sort of mixture of all these categories, and they wear gray (a departure from the book in which Econowives wear clothing striped with the aforementioned colors). Women prisoners are called Unwomen and are worked to death clearing toxic waste in the Colonies.
Another class of women, Aunts (who train and oversee the Handmaids), wear brown. Additionally, the Eyes are a secret police watching over the general populace for signs of rebellion, Hunters track down people attempting to flee the country, and Jezebels are sex workers in secret brothels catering to the elite ruling class.
June Osborne, renamed Offred (Elisabeth Moss), is the Handmaid assigned to the home of the Gileadan Commander Fred Waterford (Joseph Fiennes) and his wife Serena Joy (Yvonne Strahovski). Offred is subject to strict rules and constant scrutiny; an improper word or deed on her part can lead to brutal punishment.
Offred, who is named after her male master ("Of Fred '') like all Handmaids, was married and had a daughter, a job, a bank account, and her own name and identity in the "time before '', but all she can safely do now is follow the rules of Gilead in hopes that she can someday live free again and be reunited with her husband and daughter. The Waterfords, key players in the rise of Gilead, have their own conflicts with the realities of the society they have helped create.
June has been helping Serena to complete Fred 's work for some months while he is too ill from his bomb injuries to do so himself, but as soon as he returns home he excludes Serena from his office. Serena tells June that the Putnams ' child, Angela, (called Charlotte by Janine, who is her biological mother) is sick. June advocates for Janine to be able to see the baby, and Serena agrees to ask about it for the baby 's sake. Naomi Putnam dislikes the idea, but she is overruled by her husband, Warren. Serena petitions Fred to allow the sick child to be seen by a Martha who, prior to the Sons of Jacob coup, was one of the nation 's top neonatologists. Fred denies the request, saying that whatever happens to the child must now be left to God 's will. A dismayed Serena forges Fred 's signature to a written order that transfers the Martha to the hospital for a day. Aunt Lydia tells June that she will hold her personally responsible if anything goes wrong with Janine 's visit to the hospital. The neonatologist can find no physical explanation for the child 's deterioration and can recommend no further treatment. She advises them to unplug the baby from all of the machines and help her to feel safe and warm. When Fred discovers that Serena forged his signature on an order to temporarily transfer the physician / Martha, he beats Serena with his belt as June is forced to watch. Serena later tearfully rejects June 's offer of sympathy. Meanwhile, Eden is working hard to please Nick, but after she rearranges his garret and uncovers the bundle of handmaids ' letters he recovered from June, he becomes angry, demanding that she never touch his belongings. The episode ends in the hospital with Janine, partly undressed, singing "I Only Want to Be with You '' to her child and bouncing her as her baby gurgles happily.
A straight - to - series order by Hulu of The Handmaid 's Tale was announced in April 2016, with Elisabeth Moss set to star. Based on the 1985 novel of the same name by Margaret Atwood, the series was created by Bruce Miller, who is also an executive producer with Daniel Wilson, Fran Sears, and Warren Littlefield. Atwood serves as consulting producer, giving feedback on some of the areas where the series expands upon or modernizes the book. She also played a small cameo role in the first episode. Moss is also a producer. In June 2016, Reed Morano was announced as director of the series. Samira Wiley, Max Minghella, and Ann Dowd joined the cast in July 2016. Joseph Fiennes, Madeline Brewer, and Yvonne Strahovski were cast in August 2016, followed by O.T. Fagbenle and Amanda Brugel in September 2016. In October 2016, Ever Carradine joined the cast, and Alexis Bledel was added in January 2017.
Filming on the series took place in Toronto, Mississauga, Hamilton, Burlington, Oakville, and Cambridge, Ontario, from September 2016 to February 2017. The first full trailer of the TV series was released by Hulu on YouTube on March 23, 2017. The series premiered on April 26, 2017.
On May 3, 2017, The Handmaid 's Tale was renewed for a second season to premiere in 2018. Moss told the news media that the subsequent episodes would cover further developments in the story, filling in some of the unanswered questions and continuing the narrative already "finished '' in the book. The second season consists of 13 episodes and began filming in fall 2017. Alexis Bledel returned as a series regular. Showrunner Bruce Miller stated that he envisioned 10 seasons of the show, stating, "Well, you know, honestly, when I started, I tried to game out in my head what would ten seasons be like? If you hit a home run, you want energy to go around the bases, you want enough story to keep going, if you can hook the audience to care about these people enough that they 're actually crying at the finale. ''
Season 2 was filmed primarily in Toronto, Ontario, but some scenes were shot in Hamilton, Ontario and in Cambridge, Ontario. Season 3 is to start production in Toronto in October 2018.
The first three episodes of the series premiered on April 26, 2017; the subsequent seven episodes were released on a weekly basis. In Canada, the series is broadcast weekly by Bravo and the streaming service CraveTV; the first two episodes premiered on April 30, 2017. In Scandinavia, the series is available on HBO Nordic. In the United Kingdom, the series premiered on May 28, 2017, on Channel 4. In Ireland, the series premiered on February 5, 2018 on RTÉ2, with a showing of the first two episodes. RTÉ also became the first broadcaster in Europe to debut Season 2 following its broadcast in the US and Canada. In the Brazil, the series premiered on March 7, 2018, on Paramount Channel.
In New Zealand, the series was released on the subscription video on demand service Lightbox on June 8, 2017. In Australia, the series premiered on the TV channel SBS 's video streaming service SBS on Demand, on July 6, 2017.
The first season was released on Blu - ray and DVD on March 13, 2018.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the first season has an approval rating of 95 % based on 107 reviews, with an average rating of 8.7 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Haunting and vivid, The Handmaid 's Tale is an endlessly engrossing adaptation of Margaret Atwood 's dystopian novel that 's anchored by a terrific central performance from Elisabeth Moss. '' On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 92 out of 100 based on 41 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''.
Daniel Fienberg of The Hollywood Reporter called it "probably the spring 's best new show ''. Jen Chaney of Vulture gave it a highly positive review, and wrote that it is "A faithful adaptation of the book that also brings new layers to Atwood 's totalitarian, sexist world of forced surrogate motherhood '' and that "this series is meticulously paced, brutal, visually stunning, and so suspenseful from moment to moment that only at the end of each hour will you feel fully at liberty to exhale ''.
There was much debate on whether parallels could be drawn between the series (and by extension, the book it is based on) and American society during the Presidency of Donald Trump. A comparison has also been made to the Salafi / Wahabbi extremism of ISIL, under which enslaved women of religious minorities are passed around and utilized as sex objects and vessels to bear new jihadis.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the second season has an approval rating of 92 % based on 74 reviews, with an average rating of 8.31 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Beautifully shot but dishearteningly relevant, The Handmaid 's Tale centers its sophomore season tightly around its compelling cast of characters, making room for broader social commentary through more intimate lenses. '' On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 86 out of 100 based on 28 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''.
However, the second season of the show received criticism for being excessive in its depictions of violence with critics questioning whether it was merely "torture porn '' and going too far. The Atlantic 's Sophie Gilbert wrote: "There came a point during the first episode where, for me, it became too much. '' Lisa Miller of The Cut wrote: "I have pressed mute and fast forward so often this season, I am forced to wonder: ' Why am I watching this '? It all feels so gratuitous, like a beating that never ends. '' And The Daily Telegraph 's Rebecca Reid admitted she had an anxiety attack watching an episode of the show.
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who won the first gold medal for india in commonwealth games 2018 | India at the 2018 Commonwealth Games - wikipedia
India competed at the 2018 Commonwealth Games on the Gold Coast, Australia from 4 to 15 April 2018. It was India 's 18th appearance at the Commonwealth Games. With 26 Gold medals and a total of 66 medals, India finished 3rd for the tournament. It was India 's best position since the 2010 Commonwealth Games.
The following is a list of the number of competitors representing India that participated at the Games per India / discipline:
India was the best nation in 5 disciplines, weightlifting, shooting, wrestling, badminton and table tennis, and the second best nation in boxing.
* Competed in heats only.
India will be represented by 10 athletes, 5 men and 5 women.
India has qualified a men 's and women 's basketball teams for a total of 24 athletes (12 men and 12 women). Both teams were invited by FIBA and the CGF.
The following is the India roster in the women 's basketball tournament of the 2018 Commonwealth Games.
India will be represented by 12 athletes, 8 men and 4 women.
India participated with 9 athletes (4 men and 5 women).
India will be represented by 7 athletes, 3 men and 4 women.
India has qualified a men 's and a women 's team for a total of 36 athletes (18 men and 18 women) based on the FIH World Rankings as of October 31, 2017
Hockey India announced the team of 18 members will be lead by Manpreet Singh. Squad: Goalkeepers: Sreejesh Parattu Raveendran, Suraj Karkera Defenders: Rupinder Pal Singh, Harmanpreet Singh, Varun Kumar, Kothajit Singh, Gurinder Singh, Amit Rohidas Midfielders: Manpreet Singh (C), Chinglensana Singh Kangujam (VC), Sumit, Vivek Sagar Prasad Forwards: Akashdeep Singh, S.V. Sunil, Gurjant Singh, Mandeep Singh, Lalit Upadhyay, Dilpreet Singh
Hockey India has announced the team will be lead by Rani Rampal. Squad: Goalkeepers: Savita (VC), Rajani Etimarpu Defenders: Deepika, Sunita Lakra, Deep Grace Ekka, Gurjit Kaur, Sushila Chanu Pukhrambam Midfielders: Monika, Namita Toppo, Nikki Pradhan, Neha Goyal, Lilima Minz Forwards: Rani (C), Vandana Kataria, Lalremsiami, Navjot Kaur, Navneet Kaur, Poonam Rani
India will be represented by 10 athletes, 5 men and 5 women.
India participated with 4 athletes (3 men and 1 woman).
Team of 6 athletes will represent India at the squash competition in the 2018 Commonwealth Games.
India will be represented by 10 athletes, 5 men and 5 women. Achanta Sharath Kamal, Sathiyan Gnanasekaran, Sanil Shetty, Harmeet Desai and Anthony Amalraj make up the men 's Table Tennis squad. The women 's squad is constituted of Manika Batra, Mouma Das, Sutirtha Mukherjee, Madhurika Patkar and Pooja Sahasrabudhe.
India participated with 12 athletes (6 men and 6 women).
Key:
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all of the following are considered types of mediated communication except a(n) | Intercultural communication - wikipedia
Intercultural communication is a discipline that studies communication across different cultures and social groups, or how culture affects communication. It is used to describe the wide range of communication processes and problems that naturally appear within an organization or social context made up of individuals from different religious, social, ethnic, and educational backgrounds. Intercultural communication is sometimes used synonymously with cross-cultural communication. In this sense it seeks to understand how people from different countries and cultures act, communicate and perceive the world around them. Many people in intercultural business communication argue that culture determines how individuals encode messages, what medium they choose for transmitting them, and the way messages are interpreted. With regard to intercultural communication proper, it studies situations where people from different cultural backgrounds interact. Aside from language, intercultural communication focuses on social attributes, thought patterns, and the cultures of different groups of people. It also involves understanding the different cultures, languages and customs of people from other countries. Intercultural communication plays a role in social sciences such as anthropology, cultural studies, linguistics, psychology and communication studies. Intercultural communication is also referred to as the base for international businesses. There are several cross-cultural service providers around who can assist with the development of intercultural communication skills. Research is a major part of the development of intercultural communication skills.
Identity and culture are also studied within the discipline of communication to analyze how globalization influences ways of thinking, beliefs, values, and identity, within and between cultural environments. Intercultural communication scholars approach theory with a dynamic outlook and do not believe culture can be measured nor that cultures share universal attributes. Scholars acknowledge that culture and communication shift along with societal changes and theories should consider the constant shifting and nuances of society.
The study of intercultural communication requires intercultural understanding, which is defined as an ability to understand and value cultural differences. Language is and example of an important cultural component that is linked to intercultural understanding.
Cross-cultural business communication is very helpful in building cultural intelligence through coaching and training in cross-cultural communication management and facilitation, cross-cultural negotiation, multicultural conflict resolution, customer service, business and organizational communication. Cross-cultural understanding is not just for incoming expats. Cross-cultural understanding begins with those responsible for the project and reaches those delivering the service or content. The ability to communicate, negotiate and effectively work with people from other cultures is vital to international business.
Important points to consider:
There is a connection between a person 's personality traits and the ability to adapt to the host - country 's environment -- including the ability to communicate within that environment.
Two key personality traits are openness and resilience. Openness includes traits such as tolerance for ambiguity, extrovertedness, and open - mindedness. Resilience includes having an internal locus of control, persistence, tolerance for ambiguity, and resourcefulness.
These factors, combined with the person 's cultural and racial identity and level of preparedness for change, comprise that person 's potential for adaptation.
There are common conceptualizations of attributes that define collectivistic and individualistic cultures. Operationalizing the perceptions of cultural identities works under the guise that cultures are static and homogeneous, when in fact cultures within nations are multi-ethnic and individuals show high variation in how cultural differences are internalized and expressed.
Globalization plays a central role in theorizing for mass communication, media, and cultural communication studies. Intercultural communication scholars emphasize that globalization emerged from the increasing diversity of cultures throughout the world and thrives with the removal of cultural barriers. The notion of nationality, or the construction of national space, is understood to emerge dialectically through communication and globalization.
The problems in intercultural communication usually come from problems in message transmission. In communication between people of the same culture, the person who receives the message interprets it based on values, beliefs, and expectations for behavior similar to those of the person who sent the message. When this happens, the way the message is interpreted by the receiver is likely to be fairly similar to what the speaker intended. However, when the receiver of the message is a person from a different culture, the receiver uses information from his or her culture to interpret the message. The message that the receiver interprets may be very different from what the speaker intended.
Nonverbal communication has been shown to account for between 65 % and 93 % of interpreted communication. Minor variations in body language, speech rhythms, and punctuality often cause mistrust and misperception of the situation among cross-cultural parties. This is where nonverbal communication can cause problems with intercultural communication. Misunderstandings with nonverbal communication can lead to miscommunication and insults with cultural differences. For example, a handshake in one culture may be recognized as appropriate, whereas another culture may recognize it as rude or inappropriate.
Effective communication depends on the informal understandings among the parties involved that are based on the trust developed between them. When trust exists, there is implicit understanding within communication, cultural differences may be overlooked, and problems can be dealt with more easily. The meaning of trust and how it is developed and communicated vary across societies. Similarly, some cultures have a greater propensity to be trusting than others.
The following types of theories can be distinguished in different strands: focus on effective outcomes, on accommodation or adaption, on identity negotiation and management, on communication networks, on acculturation and adjustment.
Intercultural communication is competent when it accomplishes the objectives in a manner that is appropriate to the context and relationship. Intercultural communication thus needs to bridge the dichotomy between appropriateness and effectiveness: Proper means of intercultural communication leads to a 15 % decrease in miscommunication.
Competent communication is an interaction that is seen as effective in achieving certain rewarding objectives in a way that is also related to the context in which the situation occurs. In other words, it is a conversation with an achievable goal that is used at an appropriate time / location.
Intercultural communication can be linked with identity, which means the competent communicator is the person who can affirm others ' avowed identities. As well as goal attainment is also a focus within intercultural competence and it involves the communicator to convey a sense of communication appropriateness and effectiveness in diverse cultural contexts.
Ethnocentrism plays a role in intercultural communication. The capacity to avoid ethnocentrism is the foundation of intercultural communication competence. Ethnocentrism is the inclination to view one 's own group as natural and correct, and all others as aberrant.
People must be aware that to engage and fix intercultural communication there is no easy solution and there is not only one way to do so. Listed below are some of the components of intercultural competence.
The following are ways to improve communication competence:
Verbal communication consist of messages being sent and received continuously with the speaker and the listener, it is focused on the way messages are portrayed. Verbal communication is based on language and use of expression, the tone in which the sender of the message relays the communication can determine how the message is received and in what context.
Factors that affect verbal communication:
The way a message is received is dependent on these factors as they give a greater interpretation for the receiver as to what is meant by the message. By emphasizing a certain phrase with the tone of voice, this indicates that it is important and should be focused more on.
Along with these attributes, verbal communication is also accompanied with non-verbal cues. These cues make the message clearer and give the listener an indication of what way the information should be received.
Example of non-verbal cues
In terms of intercultural communication there are language barriers which are effected by verbal forms of communication. In this instance there is opportunity for miscommunication between two or more parties. Other barriers that contribute to miscommunication would be the type of words chosen in conversation. Due to different cultures there are different meaning in vocabulary chosen, this allows for a message between the sender and receiver to be misconstrued.
Nonverbal communication is behavior that communicates without words -- though it often may be accompanied by words. Minor variations in body language, speech rhythms, and punctuality often cause differing interpretations of the situation among cross-cultural parties.
Kinesic behavior is communication through body movement -- e.g., posture, gestures, facial expressions and eye contact. The meaning of such behavior varies across countries.
Occulesics are a form of kinesics that includes eye contact and the use of the eyes to convey messages.
Proxemics concern the influence of proximity and space on communication (e.g., in terms of personal space and in terms of office layout). For example, space communicates power in the US and Germany.
Paralanguage refers to how something is said, rather than the content of what is said -- e.g., rate of speech, tone and inflection of voice, other noises, laughing, yawning, and silence.
Object language or material culture refers to how we communicate through material artifacts -- e.g., architecture, office design and furniture, clothing, cars, cosmetics, and time. In monochronic cultures, time is experienced linearly and as something to be spent, saved, made up, or wasted. Time orders life, and people tend to concentrate on one thing at a time. In polychronic cultures, people tolerate many things happening simultaneously and emphasize involvement with people. In these cultures, people may be highly distractible, focus on several things at once, and change plans often.
Clothing and the way people dress is used as a form of nonverbal communication.
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when was the last time the new england patriots played jacksonville jaguars | Jacksonville Jaguars - wikipedia
National Football League (1995 -- present)
Black, Teal, Gold
Division championships (3)
The Jacksonville Jaguars are an American professional football franchise based in Jacksonville, Florida. The Jaguars compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the American Football Conference (AFC) South division. The team plays its home games at TIAA Bank Field.
The Jaguars and the Carolina Panthers joined the NFL as expansion teams for the 1995 season. Since their inception, the Jaguars have won division championships in 1998 and 1999 (as members of the now - defunct AFC Central) and 2017 (as members of the AFC South) and have qualified for the playoffs seven times, most recently in 2017 after a ten - season playoff drought.
From their inception until 2011, the Jacksonville Jaguars ' majority owner was Wayne Weaver. The team was then purchased by Pakistani - born businessman Shahid Khan for an estimated $ 770 million. In 2015, Forbes estimated the team value at $1.48 billion.
In 1989, the prospective ownership group Touchdown Jacksonville! was organized. The group initially included future Florida Governor Jeb Bush and Jacksonville developer Tom Petway, and came to be led by shoe magnate Wayne Weaver, founder of Nine West. In 1991, the NFL announced plans to add two expansion teams in 1994 (later delayed until 1995), its first expansion since the 1976 addition of the Seattle Seahawks and the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. Touchdown Jacksonville! announced its bid for a team, and Jacksonville was ultimately chosen as one of five finalists, along with Charlotte, St. Louis, Baltimore, and Memphis.
Jacksonville was considered the least likely expansion candidate for several reasons. The Jacksonville metropolitan area and television market were smaller than those of nearly every team in the league. Although Jacksonville was the 15th largest city in the nation at the time (It has since grown to become the 11th - largest), it has always been a medium - sized market because the surrounding suburbs and rural areas are far smaller than the city itself. There were 635,000 people in Jacksonville proper according to the 1990 census, but only 900,000 people in the metropolitan area. Additionally, the Gator Bowl was outdated, and the ownership group struggled to negotiate a lease with the city. The troubled negotiations over the Gator Bowl lease led the ownership group to withdraw from the NFL expansion bidding in July 1993.
Charlotte was awarded the first franchise -- the Carolina Panthers -- in October 1993. Surprisingly, the naming of the second expansion city was delayed a month. Most pundits speculated that the delay was made to allow St. Louis to shore up its bid. At the time, St. Louis was considered the favorite for the second franchise, with Baltimore 's three bids also considered strong. However, in a surprising move, the NFL owners voted 26 -- 2 in favor of awarding the 30th franchise to Jacksonville.
After the Gator Bowl game on December 31, 1993, the old stadium was essentially demolished and replaced with a reinforced concrete superstructure. All that remained of the old stadium was the west upper concourse and a portion of the ramping system. To accommodate construction, the 1994 and 1995 games of "The World 's Largest Outdoor Cocktail Party '' were split between the home fields of Florida and Georgia, and the 1994 Gator Bowl was played at Ben Hill Griffin Stadium in Gainesville.
In January 1994 Wayne Weaver chose Tom Coughlin as the first - ever head coach of the Jaguars. Coughlin had worked in the NFL as a position coach, but he had been neither a head coach nor a coordinator in the NFL.
The Jaguars ' hiring of Coughlin contrasted with the hiring moves made by their fellow expansion team. The same month that Weaver hired Coughlin as his head coach, Carolina Panthers owner Jerry Richardson went a more conventional route and hired former Buffalo Bills general manager Bill Polian as the Panthers ' first GM (the Panthers ' head coach, Dom Capers, would not be hired until a full year after Coughlin). As it emerged that Weaver had no intention of hiring a general manager, it became apparent that Coughlin would have most of the authority regarding hiring decisions. Coughlin spent his year as "head coach without a team '' preparing for the personnel moves that would come from the expansion draft, free agency, and the rookie draft in the spring of 1995.
Along with the Carolina Panthers, the Jacksonville Jaguars entered the NFL as the first expansion teams in almost 20 years. Both teams participated in the 1995 NFL expansion draft, with the Jaguars taking Steve Beuerlein with the first pick. Beuerlein quickly lost his starting job to former Green Bay Packers backup Mark Brunell. The Jaguars finished their inaugural season with a record of 4 -- 12. Both the Jaguars and the Panthers (7 -- 9) broke the previous record for most wins by an expansion team (3) set by the Cincinnati Bengals in 1968. The inaugural season featured many of the players who would lead Jacksonville into the playoffs in the team 's next four seasons, including quarterback Mark Brunell (acquired in a draft day trade from Green Bay), offensive lineman Tony Boselli (drafted with the 2nd pick overall in the 1995 NFL Draft) running back James Stewart (also drafted in 1995), and wide receiver Jimmy Smith (signed as a free agent).
The team played its first regular season game at home in front of a crowd of 72,363 on September 3, 1995, a 10 -- 3 loss against the Houston Oilers. The team picked up its first win in Week 4 as the Jaguars defeated the Oilers 17 -- 16 on October 1 in Houston. The next week against the Pittsburgh Steelers, the Jaguars earned their first home win by defeating the eventual AFC Champions 20 -- 16. The team 's other two wins came in a season sweep of the Cleveland Browns including a Week 17 24 -- 21 victory sealed by a Mike Hollis 34 - yard field goal in the Browns ' final game before the team relocated to Baltimore and was renamed the Ravens.
Jacksonville 's 1996 season was a marked success as they won six of their last seven games of the season and finished with a record of 9 -- 7. Quarterback Mark Brunell threw for over 4,000 yards and wide receivers Keenan McCardell and Jimmy Smith each accumulated over 1,000 receiving yards. In the team 's final game of the regular season against the Atlanta Falcons, needing a win to earn a playoff berth, the Jaguars caught a bit of luck when Morten Andersen, one of the most accomplished kickers in NFL history, missed a 30 - yard field goal with less than a minute remaining that would have given the Falcons the lead. The Jaguars clinched the fifth seed in the AFC playoffs.
The Jaguars visited the Buffalo Bills in their first playoff game in franchise history. Despite being a heavy underdog, the Jaguars won 30 -- 27, and knocked Buffalo quarterback Jim Kelly out of what would turn out to be the last game of his career. Their next game was on the road against the Denver Broncos, who had earned the AFC 's top seed with a 13 -- 3 record and were widely regarded as the best team in the AFC, if not the NFL. While the Broncos scored two touchdowns early in the game, after the first quarter, the Jaguars largely dominated. In what is often regarded as one of the three biggest upsets in NFL playoff history, the Jaguars defeated the Broncos by the same score as the previous week against the Bills, 30 -- 27. Upon their return home, the Jags were greeted by an estimated 40,000 fans at the stadium. Many of these fans had watched the game on the stadium JumboTron displays and had stayed into the early hours of the morning when the team arrived. In the AFC Championship Game, the Jaguars miracle season came to an end, as they lost 20 -- 6 to the New England Patriots, in Foxboro. Their fellow second - year NFC expansion team, the Carolina Panthers, also got to their conference championship game, where they lost 30 -- 13 to the eventual Super Bowl champion Green Bay Packers.
In 1997, the franchise 's third season, the Jaguars and the Steelers both finished the season with an 11 -- 5 record, tops in the AFC Central Division. Pittsburgh won the division in a tiebreaker as a result of having higher net in division games than Jacksonville. As a result, the Jaguars settled for 2nd place in the division, a Wild Card berth and, for the second straight year, the 5th seed in the AFC playoffs. The Jags postseason would end quickly as they fell in their first game, a 42 -- 17 defeat against the eventual Super Bowl champion Denver Broncos at Mile High Stadium. The Broncos, led by Terrell Davis, ran at will against the Jaguars, rushing for 5 touchdowns and over 300 yards.
In 1998, the Jaguars again finished 11 -- 5 and won their first AFC Central Division title. The team became the first NFL expansion team to make the playoffs three times in its first four seasons of play. In the Wild Card Round, the Jaguars hosted their first home playoff game, a 25 -- 10 win over the New England Patriots. The team 's season ended the next week in the Divisional Round as the New York Jets defeated the Jaguars 34 -- 24.
In 1999, the Jaguars compiled a league best 14 -- 2 regular season record, the best record in franchise history. The team 's two losses were to the Tennessee Titans. The Jaguars won the AFC Central Division for the second straight year and clinched the # 1 seed in the AFC. The Jaguars hosted the Miami Dolphins in the AFC Divisional playoffs, a 62 -- 7 victory in what would be Dan Marino and Jimmy Johnson 's last NFL game. Jacksonville 's 62 points and 55 - point margin are the second most ever in NFL playoff history, and Fred Taylor 's 90 - yard run in the first quarter is the longest ever in an NFL playoff game.
The Jaguars ' bid for a Super Bowl title came to an end the next week in the AFC championship game. The Jags fell at home to the Titans 33 -- 14 in a game that the Jaguars led 14 -- 10 at halftime, before allowing 23 unanswered points in the 2nd half. The Jaguars finished the 1999 season 15 -- 3, with all three of their losses coming against the Titans. The loss marked the end of an era that saw the Jaguars make the playoffs in four of the team 's first 5 years and would be the team 's last playoff appearance until the 2005 season.
The Jaguars struggled during this period, due in part to salary cap problems. In the 2000 season, veteran quarterback Mark Brunell and young running back Fred Taylor led the squad through a painful 7 -- 9 season. The Jaguars finished with records of 6 -- 10 in both the 2001 and 2002 seasons.
After the 2002 season, head coach Tom Coughlin was fired after eight seasons, leading the Jaguars to a total record of 68 -- 60 and four trips to the playoffs. The 2002 season also marked the last full season for Jaguars quarterback Mark Brunell, who was benched in the third game of 2003 in favor of Byron Leftwich. Brunell piled up over 25,000 yards as a Jaguar and earned three trips to the Pro Bowl. In 2002 the NFL split up the two conferences into four divisions, sending the Jacksonville Jaguars to the AFC South. This put them in the same division as the Indianapolis Colts, Tennessee Titans, and the expansion Houston Texans.
In 2003, the Jaguars hired Jack Del Rio as head coach. Del Rio was a linebacker during the late 80s and early 90s before retiring. He was formerly the Carolina Panthers ' defensive coordinator, bringing the team 's defensive ranking from 30th to second. Prior to that, Del Rio was the Baltimore Ravens linebackers coach, participating in that capacity on the Ravens ' record setting championship 2000 defense. The Jaguars selected quarterback Byron Leftwich with the seventh pick of the NFL draft. The Jaguars had high hopes for their new quarterback. The team had many failures and heartbreaking moments, ending the 2003 season at 5 -- 11 and missing the playoffs for the fourth consecutive season. Despite resolving their salary cap problems, the team 's rebuilding was clearly taking longer than expected.
The 2004 season, the 10th season of the Jaguars franchise, resulted in a 9 -- 7 record, their first winning season since 1999, with road victories against the Green Bay Packers at Lambeau Field and the Indianapolis Colts at the RCA Dome. The Jaguars ' defense was a strong suit, as it included two Pro Bowl players, defensive tackles Marcus Stroud and John Henderson. Josh Scobee was selected in the 5th round of the 2004 NFL Draft and became a dominant placekicker for the Jaguars setting multiple franchise records. Byron Leftwich enjoyed a solid year in 2004, helped by strong performances from holdovers Fred Taylor and Jimmy Smith. Unfortunately, Taylor sustained a season - ending injury at Green Bay. The very next week the Jaguars fell to the Houston Texans, which would ultimately eliminate them from playoff contention.
The 2005 Jaguars hoped to challenge the Colts for the division title. However, due to their scintillating 13 -- 0 start, including two victories against the Jaguars, the Colts easily clinched the AFC South title. With a 12 -- 4 record, the Jaguars earned a wild card and their first playoff appearance since 1999. While the Jaguars managed to win key games in 2005, nine of their final ten games were against opponents with losing records. Though these games were wins, key players Byron Leftwich, Mike Peterson, Akin Ayodele, Paul Spicer, and Rashean Mathis were hurt during this stretch. The Jaguars ended the season losing 28 -- 3 to the two - time defending champion New England Patriots on January 7, 2006 in the AFC wild card playoff round.
Jacksonville looked like a team on the rise coming off of their 12 -- 4 season, and was considered a playoff contender entering the season. But injuries plagued the team. Reggie Hayward, Greg Jones, Donovin Darius, Byron Leftwich, and Mike Peterson all suffered season - ending injuries. Marcus Stroud, Matt Jones, Paul Spicer, and Fred Taylor also faced injuries during the season. The team started off 2 -- 0, defeating the Dallas Cowboys (earning the NFL 's highest winning percentage on opening days at. 750 with a record of 9 -- 3), and shutting out the defending champs Pittsburgh Steelers. But the team lost its next two games, and suffered embarrassing losses to the Houston Texans over the course of the season (Jacksonville has struggled against the Texans since Houston entered the league in 2002). They missed the playoffs with an 8 -- 8 record, but there were some positives, in particular an impressive rookie season by their second - round draft pick, running back Maurice Jones - Drew.
In the 2007 NFL Draft, the Jaguars used their first - round pick (21st overall) to select Florida safety Reggie Nelson. On June 15, 2007, the Jaguars released veteran strong safety Donovin Darius, who had seen diminished playing time in previous years due to mounting injuries. On August 31, 2007, the Jaguars announced that long time back - up quarterback David Garrard would start for the team, ahead of former first round draft pick Byron Leftwich, who was released in the team 's final roster cuts. Garrard led the Jaguars to an 11 -- 5 record and a wild card spot in the playoffs. The Jaguars defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers 31 -- 29 to win their first playoff game in almost eight years and their first road playoff win since 1997. It was also the first time in the 50 + year history of the Steelers that they had been beaten twice at home by the same team in the same season. However, in the divisional round, the Jaguars fell to the then - undefeated New England Patriots; the teams were tied at halftime, but the Patriots pulled ahead and won 31 -- 20. Tom Brady completed 26 of 28 passes in this game, being pressured by the Jaguars ' defense only once, on the first play. This game, more than any other, gave the Jaguars ' front office a strong desire to upgrade the pass rush during the offseason.
The team 's offense in 2007 was largely a run - first offense, with Maurice Jones - Drew and Fred Taylor each putting up a lot of yards. David Garrard, however showed to be an efficient passer in 2007, throwing only 3 interceptions.
The 2008 season began with high expectations for the Jaguars. The team acquired free agent wide receiver Jerry Porter and rookie defensive ends Quentin Groves of Auburn and Derrick Harvey of Florida to address the team 's most glaring needs. (Porter was released the following year and Groves was traded to Oakland in 2010.) Journalists including ESPN. com 's Kevin Seifert predicted the Jaguars were poised to make a Super Bowl run.
However, the Jaguars failed to live up to those expectations, struggling to a 5 -- 11 finish, the franchise 's worst record since 2003. The team 's struggles were in part, the result of a rash of injuries to the team 's offensive line. The Jaguars lost starting guards Vince Manuwai and Maurice Williams for the season within the first quarter of the opening game. Tackle Richard Collier 's career ended in early September when he was brutally attacked and shot 14 times. Center Brad Meester missed the first two months of the season and guard Chris Naeole, signed to the roster mid-season in response to these injuries, was injured in pregame warmups before playing a single snap. The 2008 season marked the end of running back Fred Taylor 's 11 - year career as a Jaguar. Taylor, who is considered to be one of the greatest Jaguars in the history of the franchise, rushed for over 10,000 yards during his tenure with Jacksonville and earned one trip to the Pro Bowl. In 2009, he signed with the New England Patriots. Taylor 's departure opened up the door for Maurice Jones - Drew to become the team 's feature running back. In 2011, Taylor signed a one - day contract so he could retire as a Jaguar.
The Jaguars hoped to begin a new era in 2009 under their first - ever general manager, Gene Smith. Smith made his mark early on in the 2009 NFL Draft by acquiring talent such as Eugene Monroe, Terrance Knighton, Derek Cox, Eben Britton and Mike Thomas, who all made significant contributions in their rookie years. The Jaguars finished off this season 7 -- 9 and did not manage to make the playoffs. In the offseason, the Jaguars parted ways with veteran players John Henderson and Reggie Hayward as part of the team 's "youth movement ''.
However, 2009 also saw the team 's attendance numbers plummet, leading to television blackouts and speculation that the team could eventually be moved or sold. 2009 marked a low point, with the team 's attendance averaging around 50,000, causing seven of the eight home games to be blacked out, and leading NFL commissioner Roger Goodell to address the issue with owner Wayne Weaver. Jacksonville is one of the league 's smallest markets, though its stadium is relatively large; since 2005 the team has covered nearly 10,000 of the stadium 's 73,000 total seats with tarp in order to lower the stadium 's official capacity to a more typical size and reduce blackouts. 73,000 total seats still ranks as one of the largest in the NFL. From 2008 the team further suffered from the late - 2000s recession, which hit Florida particularly hard, and structural changes within the NFL that disadvantage teams in smaller markets.
In 2010, to address this issue, the team and the City of Jacksonville undertook several measures aimed at ensuring the franchise 's continued viability in Jacksonville. Supporters began the "Team Teal '' drive to drum up ticket sales. The city negotiated a five - year, $16.6 million naming rights deal with Jacksonville - based EverBank to rename the stadium EverBank Field. As a result, the Jaguars ' attendance increased dramatically in 2010. While attendance figures were stagnant for most of the NFL, Jacksonville saw an increase of 36.5 %, by far the highest in the league, and had none of their home games blacked out.
The 2010 season proved a big year for the Jaguars on the field as well. Running back Maurice Jones - Drew emerged as second in the league in rushing yards and David Garrard threw for 23 touchdowns, a franchise record. Marcedes Lewis went to his first pro bowl and the Jags had one of the best young defensive tackle duo with Terrance Knighton and rookie Tyson Alualu. Josh Scobee set a team record with a 59 - yard field goal to beat the Indianapolis Colts. Heading into December, Jacksonville was at the top of the AFC South and in playoff contention. In Week 15, they lost to Indianapolis, 34 -- 24, which placed the Colts back atop the AFC South. The Jaguars lost their last two games, placing themselves out of playoff contention. They finished the season 8 -- 8.
In the 2011 NFL draft, the Jaguars traded a first and a second round pick in order to move up to the 10th pick and select Missouri quarterback Blaine Gabbert.
On September 6, 2011, quarterback David Garrard was cut from the team just days before the start of the season; Luke McCown was named starter. The move was similar to the one that named Garrard himself the starter over Byron Leftwich in 2007. McCown started two games until he threw four interceptions in a lopsided loss to the New York Jets and Blaine Gabbert was named the starter the following week. The Jaguars offense would continue to struggle under the rookie quarterback, losing the next 4 games in a row, until an upset victory over the Baltimore Ravens at home on Monday Night Football.
On November 29, 2011, owner Wayne Weaver announced the firing of head coach Jack Del Rio, whose record had been 3 -- 8 through the first 12 weeks of the season and 68 -- 71 over his 9 - year tenure. Del Rio was succeeded by defensive coordinator Mel Tucker on an interim basis. Weaver also announced that General Manager Gene Smith had been given a three - year extension of his contract.
Immediately following the announcement of Del Rio being fired, Weaver also announced that the team would be sold to Illinois businessman Shahid Khan. Khan 's assumption of ownership was approved a couple of weeks later by the NFL team owners, and Khan took over full ownership on January 4, 2012. He immediately began the team 's search for head coaching candidates.
On February 13, 2012, the Jaguars hired MetLife Stadium president and CEO Mark Lamping as team president. Lamping also spent 13 years as the president of the St. Louis Cardinals. Lamping is the second team president in franchise history and the first since 1997, when David Seldin left that position.
On January 10, 2012, former Atlanta Falcons offensive coordinator Mike Mularkey was named head coach of the Jaguars. On January 13, it was announced that interim head coach Mel Tucker would remain on the staff as defensive coordinator / assistant head coach and that former Falcons quarterbacks coach Bob Bratkowski would become offensive coordinator. On January 20, 2012, the team hired John Bonamego as special teams coordinator.
The Jaguars began the 2012 season with a new coaching staff and a new owner. One of the main priorities of the new leadership was to improve the team 's struggling receiving corps and see improvement from quarterback Blaine Gabbert after a disappointing rookie season. To do this, the team selected wide receiver Justin Blackmon in the first round of the 2012 NFL Draft and acquired Laurent Robinson in free agency. Despite the changes, the team struggled mightily on both sides of the ball. The team finished with a 2 -- 14 record, the worst in franchise history. Both general manager Gene Smith and head coach Mike Mularkey were fired shortly after the end of the season.
On August 21, 2012, the Jaguars announced they had finalized a deal to play one regular season home game each year between 2013 and 2016 at London 's historic Wembley Stadium as part of the NFL International Series. The first of these games was against the San Francisco 49ers on October 27, 2013. This deal was later extended through 2020.
On January 8, 2013, former Atlanta Falcons Director of Player Personnel David Caldwell was hired as the second full - time General Manager in Jaguars history. He formerly served as a scout for the Indianapolis Colts for 10 years from 1998 -- 2007. His first task with the team was to lead the interview process for a new head coach. Nine days later former Seattle Seahawks defensive coordinator Gus Bradley was named head coach of the Jaguars. The Jaguars struggled early on in 2013 and went into the bye week with an 0 -- 8 record. On November 1 Justin Blackmon was suspended indefinitely after violating the NFL 's Policy and Program for Substances of Abuse. Despite the loss of Blackmon the Jaguars got their first win with Gus Bradley on November 10 with a 29 -- 27 victory over the Tennessee Titans. This was followed by a respectable showing against the Arizona Cardinals, despite a 27 -- 14 loss, and the Jaguars ' second and third victory of the season against the Houston Texans and the Cleveland Browns. The Jaguars would win again the very next week against the Houston Texans 27 -- 20 on Thursday night, improving to 4 -- 9. They finished the season 4 -- 12.
After finishing the 2013 season with a 4 -- 12 record, a two - win improvement over the previous season, the Jaguars traded their 2011 NFL draft first round draft pick Blaine Gabbert to the San Francisco 49ers for the 6th round pick of the 2014 NFL draft. Maurice Jones - Drew, after 7 years with the Jaguars, also left the team and signed a three - year contract with the Oakland Raiders.
In the first round of the 2014 NFL draft the Jaguars selected quarterback Blake Bortles from University of Central Florida and then wide receiver Marqise Lee from University of Southern California in the second round. The new draft picks helped put more confidence in the struggling team. Justin Blackmon was suspended yet again for violating the NFL 's Policy and Program for Substances of Abuse in July. Later in July, EverBank Field unveiled their two new endzone scoreboards, which are considered to be the world 's largest. The Jaguars managed to end their season with a 3 -- 13 record.
Dante Fowler Jr. was selected by the Jaguars as the third overall pick in the 2015 NFL draft. However, Fowler tore his ACL at rookie minicamp on May 8 and did not return for the 2015 season. Josh Scobee was traded to the Pittsburgh Steelers for a 2016 NFL Draft sixth round pick. Jason Myers took over as the main placekicker for the Jaguars. The Jaguars finished the 2015 season with a record of 5 -- 11, the team 's fifth straight losing season and their eighth straight non-winning season.
With plenty of cap space to work with, Jacksonville splurged in free agency, adding defensive tackle Malik Jackson from the Denver Broncos and cornerback Prince Amukamara from the New York Giants. With the fifth selection, the Jaguars selected cornerback Jalen Ramsey from Florida State University in the first round and then the second round linebacker Myles Jack of UCLA in the 2016 NFL Draft. Jack was considered to be a top - 10 talent, but fell to the second round due to a knee injury. On October 2, 2016, the Jacksonville Jaguars defeated the Indianapolis Colts 30 -- 27 in the NFL International Series game. On December 18, 2016, Gus Bradley was fired after the Jaguars ' ninth loss in a row during the 2016 season. Bradley 's W-L record as head coach of the Jaguars was 14 -- 48 in three seasons.
On January 9, 2017 the Jaguars announced the interim head coach Doug Marrone was to be the new head coach, the contract of General Manager David Caldwell was to be extended and Tom Coughlin was returning to Jacksonville to become Executive Vice President of Football Operations. Both Doug Marrone and David Caldwell report to the Executive Vice President Tom Coughlin.
In the first round of the 2017 NFL Draft the Jaguars selected running back Leonard Fournette of LSU. At the annual NFL International Series in London on September 24, 2017 Jaguars players locked arms and kneeled during the national anthem in response to President Donald Trump 's remarks on NFL players who kneel. Shahid Khan also participated with the Jaguars in locking arms during the anthem and the Baltimore Ravens kneeled on the opposite side of the field. The Jaguars went on to defeat the Ravens in a 44 - 7 win. Four weeks later on October 17, President of the Jaguars Mark Lamping sent a letter of apology to the director of military affairs and veterans in Jacksonville that says the Jaguars were '' remiss in not fully comprehending the effect of the national anthem demonstration on foreign soil has had on the men and women who have or continue to serve our country. ''
After their week 15 win over the Houston Texans, the Jaguars clinched their first playoff trip since 2007; they finished the season 10 - 6, a seven - game turnaround from the previous year. The Jaguars defeated the Buffalo Bills 10 - 3 in Jacksonville, marking the first playoff win in ten years. In the Divisional Round, on January 14, 2018, the Jaguars defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers 45 - 42 in Pittsburgh to advance to their 3rd AFC Championship Game, and their first since 1999. However, they narrowly fell to the New England Patriots 24 - 20. For the season, the defense earned the nickname "Sacksonville '' because of its dominance.
The day after the NFL awarded the expansion team to Jacksonville, a triumphant Wayne Weaver held up the Jaguars ' proposed silver helmet and teal jersey at the NFL owners ' meeting in Chicago. The team 's colors were to be teal, gold, and silver with black accents. However, this jersey and helmet design, with a gold leaping jaguar, created controversy. Ford Motor Company, then - parent of the automaker Jaguar, believed that the Jaguars ' logo bore too much resemblance to the automaker 's logo. Though no lawsuit was brought to trial, lawyers from the team and the automaker negotiated an ultimately amicable agreement whereby Jaguar would be named the official car of the Jaguars, and the Jaguars would redesign their uniforms.
The new logo was a snarling jaguar head with a teal tongue, which Weaver said was his wife 's touch. He also claimed that the teal tongue came from "feeding Panthers to our Jaguars '' -- an obvious jab at their expansion brethren. During the Jaguars ' first ever preseason game teal - colored candies were handed out to all the fans who attended, turning their tongues a teal color just like on the logo. Additionally, raspberry lollipops were handed out by the "Candy Man '' in section 142 to also turn the home fans ' tongues teal.
In 2009, Weaver announced that he wanted to ' clean up ' the team 's image. This meant the elimination of the full - body crawling Jaguar logo, the clawing Jaguar, and the two previous wordmarks which bent the text around these logos.
In February 2013, Jaguars owner Shahid Khan, who had acquired the team in late 2011, introduced a new brand identity for the team that included a new logo, wordmark, and secondary logo. The new Jaguar head logo was intended to be "fiercer '' and more realistic. The secondary logo incorporated the new Jaguar head logo along with the first official usage of the team 's popular nickname "Jags ''. The two images were incased in a shield - style shape, designed to be a tribute to Jacksonville 's military community.
Beginning in 2013, the Jaguars began to feature gold more prominently than in the past. In fact, from 2009 -- 12 gold had only been used in the team logo and as a minor accent color.
Jaguars wordmark logo (1995 -- 1998)
Jaguars wordmark logo (1999 -- 2008)
Jaguars wordmark logo (2009 -- 2012)
For most of their history, the Jaguars have done what many other NFL teams located in subtropical climates traditionally practice: wear their white jerseys at home during the first half of the season -- forcing opponents to wear their dark ones under the sweltering autumns in Jacksonville. The only exceptions were in 2004 and 2008 -- 10, when the Jaguars chose to wear teal for all home games. In the preseason, the Jaguars typically wear teal at home since these games are played at night when there is very little advantage with the heat.
Following the logo change, the redesigned uniforms featured an all - black helmet, white pants with teal, black, and gold stripes, and numbers with gold inner trim and black outer trim. The home jersey was teal with white numbers and the away jersey was white with teal numbers. Both jerseys had a black collar and no sleeve stripes.
A prowling jaguar on each sleeve replaced the leaping jaguar going across both shoulders in the original design. The Jaguars in 1995 were the first NFL team to have 2 - tone borders on their numbers and lettering, and the first NFL team to show a complex logo (the crawling Jaguar) on the sleeve.
Minor modifications were introduced to the Jaguars uniform during this time, most notably the font of the jersey numbers, replacing the original block numbers with a unique font. Two stripes were also added to the end of the sleeves below the prowling jaguar.
During this period, the Jaguars made minor changes to their uniform, each time adding more black to the look.
The team introduced a black alternate jersey in 2002. During that same year, the team also introduced alternate black pants, worn with either the white or the teal jersey. After the black pants were introduced, the white pants would only be seen for the first few games of the year, presumably due to the heat. The black pants originally included two teal stripes down each side. The fan reaction to the extra black in the alternate jersey and alternate pants was positive, so in 2004 the Jaguars went through a formal uniform change, which teams are only allowed to do once every five years. These changes were mostly to the away look. Before 2004, the white away jerseys had teal numbers with black and gold trim, but after, the white jerseys had black numbers with teal and gold trim. The black pants were also changed. The teal stripes were replaced with the Jaguar logo on each hip. Teal almost disappeared from the away uniform.
The stripes on the white pants were altered in 2008 so that the center, thickest stripe was black, and its accents were teal. In the 2008 year, the gold in the uniforms noticeably shifted from a bright yellow metallic appearance to more beige.
The Jaguars unveiled new uniforms for the 2009 season. Team owner Wayne Weaver reportedly wanted to "clean up '' the look, feeling that the team had too many uniform styles. The new uniforms were introduced in a press conference on April 22.
At this press conference, Weaver elaborated that different people had taken different liberties with the Jaguars ' image over the years, singling out the ' All Black ' look which the team wore for every prime - time home game from 2003 to 2007 as a point of regret. He also said that the team would wear their teal jerseys at home even on hot days, saying that the practice of choosing to wear white on hot days had also diluted the team 's image. The new uniform reflected a simpler look overall. The collar and sleeve ends are the same color as the rest of the jersey. The crawling jaguar was removed. The numbers on the jerseys were changed to a simpler, block font with a thicker, single color border. After all of these subtractions, two features were added. The first was a "JAGUARS '' wordmark underneath the NFL insignia on the chest. The second was two thin ' stripes ' of off - color fabric which were added to each midseam of the jersey, curling up to the neckline on the front and below the number on the back. The stripe on the home jersey is a white line next to a black line, matching the color of the numbers, and the stripe on the away jersey is a black line next to a teal line, again matching the numbers. The pants have similar stripes, both for the home and away uniform. The away uniforms were still black pants and numbers on a white jersey, but they now used teal as the only accent color as opposed to using gold in previous years. The Jaguars ' identity, in terms of colors, beginning in 2009 is exclusively teal and black, with gold only being used in the logo. The final change made to the Jaguars ' uniforms in 2009 was to the helmet. The new helmet and facemask were black just like the old ones, but when light hit the new ones a certain way, both the helmet and face mask sparkled with a shiny teal appearance. These were the first helmets in professional football which changed color with different angles of light. The logo and number decals also incorporated this effect.
Prior to the 2012 season, new Jaguars owner Shahid Khan announced that the team would once again use a black jersey, something they had not done since 2008. In September of that year, the team announced that it would use the black jersey and black pants as their primary home uniform. The teal jersey was resurrected as an alternate.
On April 23, 2013, the Jaguars unveiled new uniforms designed by Nike. The primary home jersey is black with white numerals outlined in teal and gold. The road jersey is white with teal numerals outlined in black and gold, marking the first time since 2003 that the team has used teal numbers on their road jersey. The alternate jersey is teal with black numerals outlined in white and gold. The team had never before used black numbers on their teal jersey. All three jerseys feature a contrasting stripe that bends around the neck, and semi-glossy patches on the shoulders meant to resemble claw marks. The team added their new shield logo onto a patch just above the player 's heart, meant to pay tribute to Jacksonville 's military heritage.
The helmet, first of its kind in the NFL, features a glossy gold finish in the back that fades to matte black in the front, via a color gradient.
The new uniform set includes black and white pants with the Jaguars logo on the hip and a tri-color pattern down the player 's leg.
In November 2015, as one of eight teams participating in Nike 's "Color Rush '' initiative for four games of Thursday Night Football during the 2015 season, Jacksonville introduced an all - gold second alternative uniform. The set features a gold jersey with black sleeves and black trim, as well as all gold pants. The white front and back numbers are lined in the teal accent color and bordered by black. The TV numbers on the shoulders are white with black bordering. The set also features gold undershirts and socks.
Since his introduction in 1996, Jaxson de Ville has served as the Jaguars ' mascot. Jaxson entertains the crowd before and during games with his antics. The mascot has established a reputation for making dramatic entrances including bungee jumping off the stadium lights, sliding down a rope from the scoreboard and parachuting into the stadium.
Jaxson 's antics got him into trouble in 1998 and stemmed the changing of the NFL 's mascot rules, and also caused him to calm down. However, Jaxson was still seen, by some, as a mascot that gets in the way during the game. After the October 22, 2007 game against Indianapolis, Colts President Bill Polian complained to the NFL, and Jaxson was reprimanded again.
Jaxson 's first appearance was on August 18, 1996 and was played by Curtis Dvorak from his inception until his retirement in June 2015.
The Jacksonville Roar is the professional cheerleading squad of the Jaguars. The group was established in 1995, the team 's inaugural year, and regularly performs choreographed routines during the team 's home contests.
In addition to performing at games and pep rallies, members function as goodwill ambassadors of the team, participating in corporate, community, and charitable events in the Jacksonville metropolitan area where they sign autographs and pose for pictures. They also join NFL tours to entertain American servicemen and women around the world.
TIAA Bank Field (formerly known as Jacksonville Municipal Stadium, Alltel Stadium, and EverBank Field) is located on the north bank of the St. Johns River, and has been the home of the Jaguars since the team 's first season in 1995. The stadium has a capacity of 69,132, with additional seating added during Florida -- Georgia Game and the Gator Bowl.
The stadium served as the site of Super Bowl XXXIX in addition to four Jaguar playoff games including the 1999 AFC Championship Game. It also hosted the ACC Championship Game from 2005 -- 07 and the River City Showdown in 2007 and 2008.
From 1995 -- 97 and again from 2006 -- 09, the stadium was named Jacksonville Municipal Stadium. From 1997 -- 2006, the stadium was referred to as Alltel Stadium. The naming rights were purchased by EverBank prior to the 2010 season. Prior to the 2018 season the Jaguars announced the stadium would be renamed TIAA Bank Field.
The stadium got a substantial upgrade in 2014 with the addition of new scoreboards, pools, cabana seating and premium seating that includes 180 field - level seats. The scoreboards are 60 feet high and 362 feet long. The new scoreboards at EverBank Field are now the world 's largest video boards. Two 25 feet by 12 feet pools were installed in the north and south end zones along with the cabana seating. The stadium upgrades were $63 million that owner Shahid Khan helped finance $20 million of the total cost.
The Jacksonville Jaguars have three primary rivals: their divisional rivals (Tennessee Titans, Indianapolis Colts, and Houston Texans). They have geographic rivalries with the Miami Dolphins and Tampa Bay Buccaneers. The Jaguars also have a rivalry with their 1995 expansion brethren, the Carolina Panthers. The Jaguars also have rivalries with other teams that arose from the AFC Central days, most notably with the Pittsburgh Steelers.
This is a partial list of the Jaguars ' last five completed seasons. For the full season - by - season franchise results, see List of Jacksonville Jaguars seasons.
Note: The Finish, Wins, Losses, and Ties columns list regular season results and exclude any postseason play.
As of December 31, 2017
Running backs
Wide receivers
Tight ends
Defensive linemen
Defensive backs
Special teams
Roster updated March 28, 2018 Depth chart Transactions 71 Active, 1 Inactive
Although not officially retired, the number 71 worn by offensive tackle Tony Boselli, the Jaguars ' first - ever draft pick, has not been worn since his retirement in 2002. According to team officials, while the number is not in circulation, the number (along with Fred Taylor 's number 28) is officially available for use if the circumstances warrant it.
A contest was held in July 2006 to name the club 's ring of honor and "Pride of the Jaguars '' was chosen with 36 % of the vote. It was unveiled during the 2006 season during a game against the New York Jets on October 8. Former offensive tackle Tony Boselli was the first player inducted.
On January 1, 2012, team owner Wayne Weaver and his wife Delores were added to the Pride of the Jaguars in their final game before the sale of the team to Shahid Khan. On June 7, 2012 the Jaguars announced Fred Taylor would be the next inductee into the Pride of the Jaguars. He was officially inducted on September 30, 2012. Longtime Jaguars quarterback Mark Brunell was also inducted into the "Pride of the Jaguars '' on December 15, 2013.
→ Coaching Staff → Management and Scouting → Staff Directory → More NFL staffs
The Jacksonville Jaguars Foundation was established in 1994, when the franchise deal was first announced. Since then, the Foundation has given over $20 million to area efforts in community improvement. The Foundation focuses on many initiatives, such as Honor Rows, anti-tobacco programs, NFL Play 60, and support for veterans. The Foundation grants over $1 million annually to organizations that assist "economically and socially disadvantaged youth and families ''.
The Jaguars ' first head coach, Tom Coughlin, established the Tom Coughlin Jay Fund Foundation in 1996 to help young cancer victims and their families with emotional and financial assistance. The charity remained in Jacksonville after Coughlin left to coach the New York Giants.
Media affiliates
From their inaugural 1995 season until 2013, the Jaguars ' flagship radio station was WOKV, which simulcasts on both AM 690 and on 104.5 FM.
Starting with the 2014 season, the team will be moving the broadcast to WJXL (1010 AM and 92.5 FM) and simulcast on 99.9 Gator Country
Frank Frangie is the play - by - play announcer with former Jaguars players Tony Boselli and Jeff Lageman providing color analysis.
WJXT televises all preseason games and also televises regular season games that are televised nationally on ESPN or NFL Network.
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what channel on direct tv is american idol | Mnet (TV Channel) - Wikipedia
Mnet (acronym of Music Network) is a music television and youth - oriented channel in South Korea owned by CJ E&M, a division of CJ Group.
The CJ E&M Center Studio located in Sangam - dong, Mapo - gu, Seoul is the broadcast and recording center of many Mnet programs with a studio audience, namely the live weekly music show M! Countdown. It is also the venue for live performances in survival shows such as Show Me The Money, Unpretty Rapstar, Produce 101 (seasons one and two), Idol School, and Produce 48. The global website named for Mnet Global changed to MWave in April 2013. Other sites from Mnet are not affected with the change.
Note: "Music Makes One '' is still used in the watermark of Mnet 's logo and also as the title of the main site.
Mnet airs original dramas on Fridays at 22: 50 ~ 00: 50 KST meanwhile reruns of dramas from other CJ E&M channels are aired on Saturdays and Sundays airing at 23: 00 ~ 00: 00 KST.
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which city is niagara falls located in canada | Niagara Falls, Ontario - Wikipedia
Niagara Falls (/ naɪˈæɡrə / ny - AG - ra) is a city in Ontario, Canada. It is on the western bank of the Niagara River in the Golden Horseshoe region of Southern Ontario, with a population of 88,071 at the 2016 census. The municipality was incorporated on 12 June 1903. Across the Niagara River is Niagara Falls, New York.
The Niagara River flows over Niagara Falls at this location, creating a natural spectacle which attracts millions of tourists each year.
This area, which stretches along the Niagara Parkway and tourist promenade, is particularly concentrated at the brink of the falls. Apart from the river 's natural attractions, it includes observation towers, high - rise hotels, souvenir shops, museums, indoor water parks, casinos and theatres, mostly with colourful neon billboards and advertisements, and sufficient parking to accommodate visitors. Further to the north or south, golf courses are operated alongside historic sites from the War of 1812.
This area was long part of the Iroquois Confederacy territory: five powerful First Nations mostly along the southern edge of the Great Lakes. The Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga and Seneca were based largely in present - day New York, ranging from east near the Hudson River, to western areas of Seneca Lake and along Ontario and other Great Lakes.
The Niagara Falls area has had some European settlement since the 17th century. Louis Hennepin, a French priest and missionary, is regarded as the first European to visit the area in the 1670s. French colonists settled mostly in Lower Canada, beginning near the Atlantic, and in Quebec and Montreal. Increased settlement in this area took place during and after the American Revolutionary War, when the British Crown made land grants to Loyalists to help them resettle in Upper Canada and provide some compensation for their losses after the United States became independent. Loyalist Robert Land received 200 acres (81 ha) and was one of the first people of European descent to settle in the Niagara Region. He moved to nearby Hamilton three years later due to the relentless noise of falls.
Tourism started in the early 19th century and has been a vital part of the local economy since that time. The falls became known as a natural wonder, in part to their being featured in paintings by prominent American artists of the 19th century such as Albert Bierstadt. Such works were reproduced as lithographs, becoming widely distributed. In addition, Niagara Falls markets itself as a honeymoon destination; it is the self - proclaimed "honeymoon capital of the world. ''
In 1856, the Town of Clifton was incorporated. The name of the town was changed to Niagara Falls in 1881. In 1882, the community of Drummondville (near the present - day corner of Lundy 's Lane and Main Street) was incorporated as the village of Niagara Falls. The village was referred to as Niagara Falls South to differentiate it from the town. In 1904, the town and village amalgamated to form the City of Niagara Falls.
In 1882, Irish author Oscar Wilde visited Niagara Falls after lecturing in Buffalo during a lecture tour of North America. He stayed at the Prospect House in Niagara Falls, New York.
An Internment camp was set up at The Armoury in Niagara Falls from December 1914 to August 1918.
In 1953, the American actress Marilyn Monroe filmed Niagara here. This was a major event for the city.
In 1962, the city amalgamated with the surrounding Stamford Township, resulting in a doubling of population.
With the creation of a Niagara regional government in 1970, the city absorbed the village of Chippawa, Willoughby Township and part of Crowland Township, creating the present - day municipal boundaries.
The city 's official historian is Sherman Zavitz, who gives regular radio broadcasts on many aspects of Niagara 's history.
Niagara Falls is approximately 130 km (81 mi) by road from Ontario 's capital of Toronto, which is across Lake Ontario to the north. The area of the Niagara Region is approximately 1,800 km (690 sq mi).
The city is built along the Niagara Falls waterfalls and the Niagara Gorge on the Niagara River, which flows from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario.
The city of Niagara Falls has a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfa / Dfb) which is moderated to an extent in all seasons by proximity to water bodies. Winters are cold, with a January high of − 0.4 ° C (31.3 ° F) and a low of − 7.8 ° C (18.0 ° F). However, temperatures above 0 ° C (32.0 ° F) are common during winter. The average annual snowfall is 154 centimetres (61 in), in which it can receive lake effect snow from both lakes Erie and Ontario. Summers are warm to hot, with a July high of 27.4 ° C (81.3 ° F) and a low of 17 ° C (62.6 ° F). The average annual precipitation is 970.2 millimetres (38 in), which is relatively evenly distributed throughout the year.
Although more historical and cultural diversity exists, Niagara Falls has 11 communities and 67 neighbourhoods defined by Planning Neighbourhoods and Communities for the City of Niagara Falls.
In 2011, the population of Niagara Falls was 81,300 persons, while the metropolitan area had 422,805. The population of Niagara Falls is older than Canada in general in terms of age structure. Youths under 18 years of age number 19.3 %. Some 7,715 (9.5 %) inhabitants described themselves as visible minorities (non-white / non-European), with the majority of those Black, Chinese, Filipino and South Asian people.
83.97 % of Niagara Falls city residents self - identified with Christian denominations. The largest denominations are Catholic (41.99 %), Protestant (36.80 %), and 5.18 % other Christian mostly Eastern Orthodox, 14.10 % claimed no religious affiliation, while other religions (1.93 %) including Sikh, Jewish, Buddhist, Hindu, and Muslim accounted for the rest.
With a plentiful and inexpensive source of hydroelectric power from the waterfalls, many electro - chemical and electro - metallurgical industries located there in the early to mid-20th century.
Industry began moving out of the city in the 1970s and 80s because of economic recession and increasing global competition in the manufacturing sector. Tourism increasingly became the city 's most important revenue source. Generally speaking, Niagara Falls, Ontario is a more popular destination than Niagara Falls, New York, in part due to the better view of the falls from the Canadian side of the river. In the 20th century, there was a favourable exchange rate when comparing Canadian and U.S. currencies, and Ontario had a greater focus on tourism. Also, Ontario 's legal drinking age of 19, in comparison to a legal drinking age of 21 in the U.S., attracts potential alcohol consumers from across the border.
The Ontario government introduced legal gambling to the local economy in the mid-1990s. Casino Niagara precipitated an economic boom in the late 1990s as numerous luxury hotels and tourist attractions were built, and a second casino, Niagara Fallsview, opened in 2004. Both attracted American tourists due in part to the comparatively less expensive Canadian dollar, and despite the opening of the Seneca Niagara Casino on the American side. When the Canadian and US currencies moved closer to parity in the 2000s, Niagara Falls, Ontario continued to be a popular destination for Americans. Its tourist areas had many attractions and a vibrancy, while Niagara Falls, New York languished in a prolonged economic downturn.
In 2004, several tourist establishments in Niagara Falls began adding a three percent marketing fee to bills. The collected money is untraceable, and there are no controls over how each establishment spends it. The Ontario government -- concerned tourists could be misled into believing the fees were endorsed by the government -- warned hotels and restaurants in 2008 not to claim the fee if it was not being remitted to a legitimate non-profit agency that promotes tourism. The practise continues, and takes in an estimated $15 million per - year from tourists unaware the fee is voluntary and can be removed from their bill.
Recent development has been mostly centred on the Clifton Hill and Fallsview areas. The Niagara Falls downtown (Queen Street) is undergoing a major revitalization; the city is encouraging redevelopment of this area as an arts and culture district. The downtown was a major centre for local commerce and night life up until the 1970s, when the Niagara Square Shopping Centre began to draw away crowds and retailers. Since 2006, Historic Niagara has brought art galleries, boutiques, cafés and bistros to the street. Attractions include renovation of the Seneca Theatre.
On 3 October 2012, the Mayor of Niagara Falls opened the new Queen Street Downtown Park featuring a children 's playground complete with soft artificial turf, benches, seating, landscaping and the "Water Molecule '' sculpture, created by artist Derek Costello.
The city encourages location filming of movies and TV series and many have taken advantage of locations. Recent titles include several currently filming as well as Reliving Marilyn (2017 TV Movie), Fight! (2017), Odd Squad: The Movie (2016) and Blanket Fort: Vada Gets Toxic (2016).
Some cultural areas of Niagara Falls include Queen Street, Main and Ferry Streets, Stamford Centre and Chippawa Square. Community centres that are host to cultural activities include the City of Niagara Falls Museums, Niagara Falls Public Libraries, Coronation 50 Plus Recreation Centre, Club Italia and Scotia Bank Convention Centre.
The Niagara Stars of the defunct Canadian Baseball League played in Welland, Ontario and the Niagara IceDogs play in St. Catharines, Ontario.
Niagara Falls City Council consists of eight councillors and a mayor. City elections take place every four years with the most recent election held on 27 October 2014. Council is responsible for policy and decision making, monitoring the operation and performance of the city, analysing and approving budgets and determining spending priorities. Due to regulations put forward by the Municipal Elections Act 1996, elections are held on the fourth Monday in October except for religious holidays or if a member of council or if the mayor resigns.
Niagara Falls and Niagara Falls, New York are linked to major highways in Canada and the United States respectively, with the Queen Elizabeth Way acting as a major artery between Toronto and Fort Erie, Ontario. Highway 420 (along with Niagara Regional Road 420) connect the Rainbow Bridge to the QEW. The Whirlpool Bridge is at the end of Bridge Street. The Niagara Parkway is a road operated under the Niagara Parks Commission which connects Niagara - on - the - Lake to Fort Erie via Niagara Falls.
Niagara Falls formerly had King 's Highways passing through the city. These included:
Via Rail Canada and Amtrak jointly provide one train per day in each direction. This is The Maple Leaf which operates between Toronto Union, Niagara, Buffalo, Albany and New York 's Penn station), arriving and departing out of the Niagara Falls station. In the summer it offers a bike train service on a limited schedule.
In summer 2009, Go Transit Started a pilot project providing weekend and holiday train service from Toronto to Niagara falls From Mid June to mid October. These GO Trains run seasonally between Toronto Union Station and Niagara Falls at weekends.
At other times, regular hourly GO train services are provided between Toronto Union and Burlington station, where connecting bus services operate to and from the rail station at Niagara.
The City of Niagara Falls is working toward Bike Friendly designation and providing more resources to encourage active transportation.
Niagara Falls has one post-secondary institution in the city and another in the Niagara Region. Niagara is served by the District School Board of Niagara and the Niagara Catholic District School Board which operate elementary and secondary schools in the region. There are also numerous private institutions offer alternatives to the traditional education systems.
Niagara Falls is also served by a growing library system composed of four branches, with the main branch in the downtown area. It is visited by over 10,000 people weekly. An extensive online database of photographs and artwork is maintained at Historic Niagara Digital Collections.
Niagara Falls is served by two main local newspapers, three radio stations and a community television channel. All other media is regionally based, as well, from Hamilton and Toronto.
Local newspapers are:
Due to its proximity to Hamilton and Toronto, local residents have access to the papers like The Hamilton Spectator, the Toronto Star, and the Toronto Sun.
The area is otherwise served by stations from Toronto, Hamilton and Buffalo.
Television stations from Toronto and Buffalo are also widely available. Officially, Niagara Falls is part of the Toronto television market, even though it is directly across the Niagara River from its American twin city, which is part of the Buffalo market.
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which miracle is recorded in all of the gospels | Miracles of Jesus - wikipedia
Portals: Christianity Bible
The miracles of Jesus are the supernatural deeds attributed to Jesus in Christian and Islamic texts. The majority are faith healing, exorcisms, resurrection of the dead and control over nature.
In the Synoptic Gospels (Mark, Matthew, and Luke), Jesus refuses to give a miraculous sign to prove his authority. In the Gospel of John, Jesus is said to have performed seven miraculous signs that characterize his ministry, from changing water into wine at the start of his ministry to raising Lazarus from the dead at the end.
To many Christians and Muslims, the miracles are actual historical events. Others, including liberal Christians, consider these stories to be figurative. Since the Enlightenment, scholars have taken a highly skeptical approach to claims about miracles.
In most cases, Christian authors associate each miracle with specific teachings that reflect the message of Jesus.
In The Miracles of Jesus, H. Van der Loos describes two main categories of miracles attributed to Jesus: those that affected people, e.g., the Blind Man of Bethsaida and are called "healings '', and those that "controlled nature '', e.g., Walking on Water. The three types of healings are cures where an ailment is cured, exorcisms where demons are cast away and the resurrection of the dead. Karl Barth said that, among these miracles, the Transfiguration of Jesus is unique in that the miracle happens to Jesus himself.
According to Craig Blomberg, one characteristic shared among all miracles of Jesus in the Gospel accounts is that he delivered benefits freely and never requested or accepted any form of payment for his healing miracles, unlike some high priests of his time who charged those who were healed. In Matthew 10: 8 he advised his disciples to heal the sick without payment and stated: "freely ye received, freely give. ''
It is not always clear when two reported miracles refer to the same event. For example, in the Healing the Centurion 's servant, the Gospels of Matthew and Luke narrate how Jesus healed the servant of a Roman Centurion in Capernaum at a distance. The Gospel of John has a similar but slightly different account at Capernaum, and states that it was the son of a royal official who was cured at a distance.
The largest group of miracles mentioned in the New Testament involves cures. The Gospels give varying amounts of detail for each episode, sometimes Jesus cures simply by saying a few words, at other times employs material such as spit and mud. Generally they are referred to in the Synoptic Gospels but not in the Gospel of John.
The canonical Gospels tell a number of stories of Jesus healing blind people. The earliest is a story of the healing of a blind man in Bethsaida in the Gospel of Mark.
Mark 's Gospel also has an account of the healing of a man named Bartimaeus, done as Jesus is leaving Jericho. The Gospel of Matthew has a simpler account loosely based on this, with two unnamed blind men instead of one (this ' doubling ' is a characteristic of Matthew 's treatment of the Mark text) and a slightly different version of the story, taking place in Galilee, earlier in the narrative. The Gospel of Luke tells the same story of Jesus healing an unnamed blind man, but moves the event in the narrative to when Jesus approaches Jericho.
The Gospel of John describes an episode in which Jesus heals a man blind from birth, placed during the Festival of Tabernacles, about six months before his crucifixion. Jesus mixes spittle with dirt to make a mud mixture, which he then places on the man 's eyes. He asks the man to wash his eyes in the Pool of Siloam. When the man does this, he is able to see. When asked by his disciples whether the cause of the blindness was the sins of the man 's father or his mother, Jesus states that it was neither. (
A story in which Jesus cures a leper appears in Mark 1: 40 - 45, Matthew 8: 1 - 4 and Luke 5: 12 - 16. Having cured the man, he instructs him to offer the requisite ritual sacrifices as prescribed by the Deuteronomic Code and Priestly Code, and not to tell anyone who had healed him; but the man disobeyed, increasing Jesus ' fame, and thereafter Jesus withdrew to deserted places, but was followed there.
In an episode in the Gospel of Luke Luke 17: 11 - 19, while on his way to Jerusalem, Jesus sends ten lepers who sought his assistance to the priests, and they were healed as they go, but the only one who comes back to thank Jesus is a Samaritan.
Healing the paralytic at Capernaum appears in Matthew 9: 1 - 8, Mark 2: 1 - 12 and Luke 5: 17 - 26. The Synoptics state that a paralytic was brought to Jesus on a mat; Jesus told him to get up and walk, and the man did so. Jesus also told the man that his sins were forgiven, which irritated the Pharisees. Jesus is described as responding to the anger by asking whether it is easier to say that someone 's sins are forgiven, or to tell the man to get up and walk. Mark and Luke state that Jesus was in a house at the time, and that the man had to be lowered through the roof by his friends due to the crowds blocking the door.
A similar cure is described in the Gospel of John as the Healing the paralytic at Bethesda and occurs at the Pool of Bethesda. In this cure Jesus also tells the man to take his mat and walk.
The Cure of a bleeding woman miracle appears in Mark 5: 21 - 43, Matthew 9: 18 - 26 and Luke 8: 40 - 56, along with the miracle of the Daughter of Jairus. The Gospels state that while heading to Jairus ' house Jesus was approached by a woman who had been suffering from bleeding for 12 years, and that she touched Jesus ' cloak (fringes of his garment) and was instantly healed. Jesus turned about and, when the woman came forward, said "Daughter, your faith has healed you, go in peace ''.
Healing the mother of Peter 's wife. The Synoptics describe Jesus as healing the mother - in - law of Simon Peter when he visited Simon 's house in Capernaum, around the time of Jesus recruiting Simon as an Apostle (Mark has it just after the calling of Simon, while Luke has it just before). The Synoptics imply that this led other people to seek out Jesus.
Jesus healing an infirm woman appears in Luke 13: 10 - 17. While teaching in a synagogue on a Sabbath, Jesus cured a woman who had been crippled by a spirit for eighteen years and could not stand straight at all.
Healing a man with dropsy is described in Luke 14: 1 - 6. In this miracle, Jesus cured a man with dropsy at the house of a prominent Pharisee on the Sabbath. Jesus justified the cure by asking: "If one of you has a child or an ox that falls into a well on the Sabbath day, will you not immediately pull it out? ''
In the Healing of the man with a withered hand miracle, the Synoptics state that Jesus entered a synagogue on Sabbath, and found a man with a withered hand there, whom Jesus healed, having first challenged the people present to decide what was lawful for Sabbath -- to do good or to do evil, to save life or to kill. The Gospel of Mark adds that this angered the Pharisees so much that they started to contemplate killing Jesus.
The Healing the deaf mute of Decapolis miracle only appears in the Gospel of Mark. The Gospel states that Jesus went to the Decapolis and met a man there who was deaf and mute, and cured him. Specifically, Jesus first touched the man 's ears, and touched his tongue after spitting, and then said Ephphatha!, an Aramaic word meaning Be opened.
The Healing of Malchus was Christ 's final miracle before his resurrection. Simon Peter had cut off the ear of the High Priest 's servant, Malchus, during the scene in the Garden of Gethsemane. Jesus restored the ear by touching it with His hand.
The Healing the Centurion 's servant miracle is reported in Matthew 8: 5 - 13 and Luke 7: 1 - 10. These two Gospels narrate how Jesus healed the servant of a Roman Centurion in Capernaum. John 4: 46 - 54 has a similar account at Capernaum, but states that it was the son of a royal official who was cured at a distance.
Jesus healing in the land of Gennesaret appears in Matthew 14: 34 - 36 and Mark 6: 53 - 56. As Jesus passes through Gennesaret all those who touch his cloak are healed.
Matthew 9: 35 - 36 also reports that after the miracle of Jesus exorcising a mute, Jesus went through all the towns and villages, teaching in their synagogues, proclaiming the good news of the kingdom and healing every disease and sickness.
According to the three Synoptic Gospels, Jesus performed many exorcisms of demoniacs. These incidents are not mentioned in the Gospel of John and appear to have been excluded due to theological considerations.
The seven major exorcism accounts in the Synoptic Gospels which have details, and imply specific teachings, are:
There are also brief mentions of other exorcisms, e.g.:
All four canonical gospels describe the resurrection of Jesus; three of them also relate a separate occasion on which Jesus calls a dead person back to life:
The Gospels include eight pre-resurrection accounts concerning Jesus ' power over nature:
Post-resurrection miracles attributed to Jesus are also recorded in the Gospels:
Accounts of Jesus performing miracles are also found outside the New Testament. Later, 2nd century texts, called Infancy Gospels, narrate Jesus performing miracles during his childhood.
Miracles performed by Jesus are mentioned in two sections of the Quran (suras 3: 49 and 5: 110) in broad strokes with little detail or comment.
In the Book of Mormon, Jesus appears in America as a resurrected being and performs additional miracles, calling the 12 apostles.
Miracles were widely believed in around the time of Jesus. Gods and demigods such as Heracles (better known by his Roman name, Hercules), Asclepius (a Greek physician who became a god) and Isis of Egypt all were thought to have healed the sick and overcome death (i.e. have raised people from the dead). Some thought that mortal men, if sufficiently famous and virtuous, could do likewise; there were myths about philosophers like Pythagoras and Empedocles calming storms at sea, chasing away pestilences, and being greeted as gods, and similarly some Jews believed that Elisha the Prophet had cured lepers and restored the dead. The achievements of the 1st century Apollonius of Tyana, though occurring after Jesus ' life, were used by a 3rd - century opponent of the Christians to argue that Christ was neither original nor divine (Eusebius of Caesaria argued against the charge).
The first Gospels were written against this background of Hellenistic and Jewish belief in miracles and other wondrous acts as signs - the term is explicitly used in the Gospel of John to describe Jesus ' miracles - seen to be validating the credentials of divine wise men.
Many Christians believe Jesus ' miracles were historical events and that his miraculous works were an important part of his life, attesting to his divinity and the Hypostatic union, i.e., the dual natures of Jesus as God and Man. They see Jesus ' experiences of hunger, weariness, and death as evidences of his humanity, and miracles as evidences of his divinity.
Christian authors also view the miracles of Jesus not merely as acts of power and omnipotence, but as works of love and mercy, performed not with a view to awe by omnipotence, but to show compassion for sinful and suffering humanity. And each miracle involves specific teachings.
Since according to the Gospel of John, it was impossible to narrate all of the miracles performed by Jesus, the Catholic Encyclopedia states that the miracles presented in the Gospels were selected for a twofold reason: first for the manifestation of God 's glory, and then for their evidential value. Jesus referred to his "works '' as evidences of his mission and his divinity, and in John 5: 36 he declared that his miracles have greater evidential value than the testimony of John the Baptist. John 10: 37 - 38 quotes Jesus as follows:
"Do not believe me unless I do what my Father does. But if I do it, even though you do not believe me, believe the miracles, that you may know and understand that the Father is in me, and I in the Father. ''
In Christian teachings, the miracles were as much a vehicle for Jesus ' message as his words. Many emphasize the importance of faith, for instance in Cleansing ten lepers, Jesus did not say: "My power has saved you '' but said:
"Rise and go; your faith has saved you. ''
Similarly, in the Walking on Water miracle, Apostle Peter learns an important lesson about faith in that as his faith wavers, he begins to sink.
Christian authors have discussed the miracles of Jesus at length and assigned specific motives to each miracle, e.g., authors Pentecost and Danilson suggest that the Walking on Water miracle centered on the relationship of Jesus with his apostles, rather than their peril or the miracle itself. And that the miracle was specifically designed by Jesus to teach the apostles that when encountering obstacles, they need to rely on their faith in Christ, first and foremost.
Authors Donahue and Harrington argue that the Daughter of Jairus miracle teaches that faith as embodied in the bleeding woman can exist in seemingly hopeless situations, and that through belief, healing can be achieved, in that when the woman is healed, Jesus tells her "Your faith has healed you ''.
Liberal Christians place less emphasis on miraculous events associated with the life of Jesus than on his teachings. The effort to remove superstitious elements from Christian faith dates to intellectual reformist Christians such as Erasmus and the Deists in the 15th -- 17th centuries. In the 19th century, self - identified liberal Christians sought to elevate Jesus ' humane teachings as a standard for a world civilization freed from cultic traditions and traces of pagan belief in the supernatural. The debate over whether a belief in miracles was mere superstition or essential to accepting the divinity of Christ constituted a crisis within the 19th - century church, for which theological compromises were sought.
Attempts to account for miracles through scientific or rational explanation were mocked even at the turn of the 19th -- 20th century. A belief in the authenticity of miracles was one of five tests established in 1910 by the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America to distinguish true believers from what they saw as false professors of faith such as "educated, ' liberal ' Christians. ''
Contemporary liberal Christians may prefer to read Jesus ' miracles as metaphorical narratives for understanding the power of God. Not all theologians with liberal inclinations reject the possibility of miracles, but may reject the polemicism that denial or affirmation entails.
The Scottish philosopher David Hume published an influential essay on miracles in his An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (1748) in which he argued that any evidence for miracles was outweighed by the possibility that those who described them were deceiving themselves or others:
Bart Ehrman states that what makes science possible is the assumption of the uniformity of the laws of nature, but given that miracles are by definition events that go against the usual way nature works, historians are virtually unable to confirm or refute reports of Jesus ' miracles.
According to the Jesus Seminar Jesus probably cured some sick people, but described Jesus ' healings in modern terms, relating them to "psychosomatic maladies. '' They found six of the nineteen healings to be "probably reliable ''. Most participants in the Jesus Seminar believe Jesus practiced exorcisms, as Josephus, Philostratus, and others wrote about other contemporary exorcists, but do not believe the gospel accounts were accurate reports of specific events or that demons exist. They did not find any of the nature miracles to be historical events.
Healing the mother of Peter 's wife
Healing the deaf mute of Decapolis
Healing the blind at birth
Healing the Paralytic at Bethesda
The Blind Man of Bethsaida
The Blind man Bartimaeus in Jericho
Healing the Centurion 's servant
Christ healing an infirm woman
The man with a withered hand
Cleansing a leper
Cleansing ten lepers
Healing a man with dropsy
Healing the bleeding woman
Healing the paralytic at Capernaum
Healing in Gennesaret
Two blind men
A boy possessed by a demon
The Canaanite woman 's daughter
The Gerasenes demonic
At the Synagogue in Capernaum
Christ exorcising at sunset
The blind and mute man
Exorcising a mute
Young Man from Nain
Daughter of Jairus
Raising of Lazarus
Marriage at Cana
Walking on water
Calming the storm
Transfiguration
Feeding the multitude
Draught of fishes
Cursing the fig tree
Coin in the fish 's mouth
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what is the meaning of grand trunk road | Grand Trunk road - wikipedia
The Grand Trunk Road is one of Asia 's oldest and longest major roads. For more than two millennia, it has linked South Asia with Central Asia. It runs from Chittagong, Bangladesh west to Howrah, West Bengal in India, then across Northern India through Delhi, passing from Amritsar. From there, the road continues towards Lahore and Peshawar in Pakistan, finally terminating in Kabul, Afghanistan.
The route spanning the Grand Trunk (GT) road existed during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya, extending from the mouth of the Ganges to the north - western frontier of the Empire. The predecessor of the modern road was rebuilt by Sher Shah Suri, who renovated and extended the ancient Mauryan route in the 16th century. The road was considerably upgraded in the British period between 1833 and 1860.
It coincides with current N1 (Chittagong to Dhaka), N4 & N405 (Dhaka to Sirajganj), N507 (Sirajganj to Natore) and N6 (Natore to Rajshai towards Purnea in India) in Bangladesh; NH 12 (Rajshahi to Purnea), NH 27 (Purnea to Patna), NH 19 (Patna to Agra), NH 44 (Agra to Jalandhar via New Delhi, Ambala and Ludhiana) and NH 3 (Jalandhar to Attari, Amritsar towards Lahore in Pakistan) in India; N - 5 (Lahore to Peshawar and Khyber Pass towards Jalalabad in Afghanistan) in Pakistan and AH1 (Torkhan - Jalalabad to Kabul) in Afghanistan.
Research indicates that the Grand Trunk road predated even Buddha 's birth and was called Uttara Path, meaning, road to the North. During the time of the Maurya Empire in the 3rd century BCE, overland trade between India and several parts of western Asia and the Hellenistic world went through the cities of the north - west, primarily (Takshashila in present - day Pakistan, see inset in map). Takshashila was well connected by roads with other parts of the Maurya empire. The Mauryas had maintained this very ancient highway from Takshashila to Pataliputra (present - day Patna in India). Chandragupta Maurya had a whole army of officials overseeing the maintenance of this road as told by the Greek diplomat Megasthenes who spent fifteen years at the Mauryan court. Constructed in eight stages, this road is said to have connected the cities of Purushapura, Takshashila, Hastinapura, Kanyakubja, Prayag, Pataliputra and Tamralipta, a distance of around 2600 kilometers.
The grand trunk road is mentioned in a number of literary works including those of Foster and Rudyard Kipling. Kipling described the road as: "Look! Look again! and chumars, bankers and tinkers, barbers and bunnias, pilgrims -- and potters -- all the world going and coming. It is to me as a river from which I am withdrawn like a log after a flood. And truly the Grand Trunk Road is a wonderful spectacle. It runs straight, bearing without crowding India 's traffic for fifteen hundred miles -- such a river of life as nowhere else exists in the world. ''
Originally, the road extended up to parts of modern day Pakistan, the Mughals extended the Grand Trunk Road still further, westwards. At one time, it extended to Kabul in Afghanistan, crossing the Khyber Pass and ran up to Kolkata and further to Bangladesh. The road was later improved by the British rulers of colonial India. It was renovated again to run from Calcutta to Peshawar (present - day Pakistan). Over the centuries, the road acted as one of the major trade routes in the region and facilitated both travel and postal communication. Since the era of Sher Shah Suri, the road was dotted with caravansarais at regular intervals, and trees were planted on both sides of the road to give shade to the travellers and merchants. Sher Shah made many roads for tax - free trade. The Grand Trunk Road is still used for transportation in present - day India, where parts of the road have been widened and included in the national highway system, retaining the old name.
Distribution of the Edicts and Pillars of Ashoka along the GT road
Ashokan pillar currently at Feroz Shah Kotla in Delhi was moved from Topra Kalan in Yamunanagar district
Kushan - era Mahabodhi temple at Bodh Gaya along GT road
Mughal era Kos Minar along GT road at Taraori in Karnal district
Jalalabad -- Kabul Road, Afghanistan, it is considered the western-most, and most dangerous, stretch of the GT Road
GT Road above the River Jhelum in Pakistan.
G.T. Road in Lahore
Original GT Road passing through Margalla Hills to Kala Chitta Range
Newly realigned GT Road passing by the westernmost point of Margalla Hills near Islamabad to Kala Chitta Range
Coordinates: 27 ° 20 ′ 13 '' N 79 ° 03 ′ 50 '' E / 27.337 ° N 79.064 ° E / 27.337; 79.064
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8 out of 10 cats does countdown wikipedia | 8 Out of 10 Cats Does Countdown - wikipedia
8 Out of 10 Cats Does Countdown is a crossover between the panel games 8 Out of 10 Cats and Countdown. The show follows the format of Countdown, but with hosts and contestants from 8 Out of 10 Cats, and an emphasis on humour.
The first episode aired as part of Channel 4 's "mash - up night '' on 2 January 2012; the first full series was aired in July 2013 and multiple series have since been commissioned. Episodes feature Jimmy Carr as host; two teams of two contestants feature in most episodes, with Sean Lock and Jon Richardson as permanent team captains (various other personalities, such as Lee Mack, Sarah Millican, Bill Bailey and Claudia Winkleman, deputise when either captain is unavailable to film). Rachel Riley and Susie Dent take up their regular roles from Countdown; Joe Wilkinson appears in many earlier episodes as Rachel 's assistant and has also stood in as a team captain.
On 2 January 2012, Channel 4 orchestrated a special "mash - up night '' to celebrate its 30th anniversary, which involved two shows on the network merging their formats. One combination depicted Countdown and 8 Out of 10 Cats. Jimmy Carr took over as host alongside Rachel Riley. Sean Lock and Jon Richardson competed as contestants and Joe Wilkinson joined Susie Dent in Dictionary Corner. The show consisted of four letters rounds, two numbers rounds and the conundrum, interspersed with 8 Out of 10 Cats - style banter.
A second special episode called 8 Out of 10 Cats Does Countdown was broadcast on 24 August 2012 as part of Channel 4 's "Funny Fortnight ''. Once again, Carr was host, Lock and Richardson were contestants, and Riley and Dent returned to their roles. In Dictionary Corner, Susie was joined by David O'Doherty. Wilkinson and past contestant Clarke Carlisle also featured. In this edition there were five letters rounds, four numbers rounds and a conundrum.
Two additional specials aired in April 2013, with Lee Mack playing against Richardson, as Lock was unwell. In addition to the regulars, these specials also featured Rhod Gilbert, Rob Beckett, Stephen Mangan and Richard Osman as contestants, Tim Key and Henning Wehn in Dictionary Corner, and Wilkinson as Riley 's "personal assistant ''.
On 9 July 2013, Channel 4 announced it had commissioned a full series of 8 Out of 10 Cats Does Countdown to air later in the summer. Six episodes aired from July to September. The final episode of the series was part of Channel 4 's "80s Night ''. The opening sequence for the final episode featured the standard title sequence for 8 Out of 10 Cats interspersed with images of the title sequence that Countdown used in the 1980s. Another series of six episodes were broadcast between 3 January and 28 February 2014.
Recordings for a new series of six episodes began on 19 May 2014. The first episode was broadcast on 6 June 2014, with the series originally scheduled to end on 11 July 2014; however, it was stretched to seven episodes and therefore ended on 18 July 2014. Another four episodes were recorded on 2 and 16 July 2014; the first recording was episode seven of Series 3. The next three episodes began airing from 5 September 2014 and concluded on 19 September 2014.
Rachel Riley confirmed via Twitter on 19 September 2014 that more episodes of 8 Out of 10 Cats Does Countdown would be filmed for 2015. It was announced in November that the show would have a Christmas special, followed by a new six - episode series. Episodes for the fifth series were recorded throughout December 2014 with one of the episodes also being recorded on 1 February 2015. Recording for series 6 began on 5 March 2015 and its broadcast in May 2015, with further recordings in May, June and July 2015.
Further recordings also took place in November and December 2015. Another Christmas Special aired on 8 December 2015 and another six - part series began in January 2016. A further series followed in 2016, beginning in August and running through October. A tenth series began broadcast on 8 June 2017.
Each episode lasts one hour, including advertising breaks, although the January 2012 special lasted only 30 minutes. Due to the comedy interspersed between and during rounds, the game does not consist of the standard 15 rounds. The first few specials had different numbers of rounds ranging from 7 to 10. In the two full series of the show, there were either 8 or 9 rounds. The first three quarters of the show contained a letters round and a numbers round; the last section had a letters round, a numbers round (if there was time) and a conundrum. More recent series featured rounds involving two contestants participating in humorous activities, such as being blindfolded and identifying props that were spelt with nine letters.
The letters and numbers rounds are the same as in Countdown, and there are also "Teatime teasers ''. The conundrums and teatime teasers typically contain sexual words or innuendos, such as "GONADTIP '' (clue: "One way to become a parent '', answer: "ADOPTING '').
Whilst the clock is ticking, as the contestants attempt to find a word or reach the target from the numbers within 30 seconds, Carr often takes part in some form of unusual or non-sequitur activity such as trying to get a dog through an obstacle course, stacking a house of cards or enticing a bird of prey to fly onto his arm. Rachel Riley is occasionally involved in these segments.
Apart from during the first two specials, there are two contestants on each team, with Jon and Sean as permanent guests. During some rounds, contestants all offer an answer but only the best answer from each team counts. During some rounds, one player per team is nominated to give an answer.
A celebrity appears in Dictionary Corner, and, after each numbers round, they present a poem, song or other comedic segment. Susie Dent 's "Origin of Words '' section does not appear, but is instead replaced with an additional segment from the guest.
In earlier episodes, Joe Wilkinson appeared as Rachel 's assistant in the second half of the show, often dressed in costume whilst using props. The humour continued throughout the series, such as Wilkinson offered special prizes, replacing letter tiles with symbols or turning up despite having been "fired ''. During Wilkinson 's sketches Robert Deaton (as Wilkinson 's half - brother Fabio) sometimes appears. Since 2016, Wilkinson has appeared sporadically as a contestant.
The first mashup was watched by 2.49 million viewers, making it the second most watched Channel 4 show that week. The next episode, part of "Funny Fortnight '', received 1.76 million viewers, which was an 8.3 % audience share. The 2014 Christmas special was watched by 1.75 million viewers: a 7.6 % audience share.
Ratings are sourced from BARB. All ratings from Series 9 onwards include + 1.
In 2014, 8 Out of 10 Cats Does Countdown was nominated for the British Comedy Awards in two categories: Best Comedy Panel Programme and Best Comedy Moment of 2014. Sean Lock was also nominated for Best Male Television Comic, and Joe Wilkinson was nominated for Best Comedy Breakthrough Artist.
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the colon (large intestine) is the site where most nutrients are absorbed | Large intestine - Wikipedia
The large intestine, also known as the large bowel or colon, is the last part of the gastrointestinal tract and of the digestive system in vertebrates. Water is absorbed here and the remaining waste material is stored as feces before being removed by defecation.
Most sources define the large intestine as the combination of the cecum, colon, rectum, and anal canal. Some other sources exclude the anal canal.
In humans, the large intestine begins in the right iliac region of the pelvis, just at or below the waist, where it is joined to the end of the small intestine at the cecum, via the ileocecal valve. It then continues as the colon ascending the abdomen, across the width of the abdominal cavity as the transverse colon, and then descending to the rectum and its endpoint at the anal canal. Overall, in humans, the large intestine is about 1.5 metres (5 ft) long, which is about one - fifth of the whole length of the gastrointestinal tract.
The colon is the last part of the digestive system. It extracts water and salt from solid wastes before they are eliminated from the body and is the site in which flora - aided (largely bacterial) fermentation of unabsorbed material occurs. Unlike the small intestine, the colon does not play a major role in absorption of foods and nutrients. About 1.5 litres or 45 ounces of water arrives in the colon each day.
The length of the adult human male colon is 166 cm (range of 80 to 313 cm), on average, for females it is 155 cm (range of 80 to 214 cm). The average inner diameter of sections of the colon in centimeters (with ranges in parentheses) are cecum 8.7 (8.0 - 10.5), ascending colon 6.6 (6.0 - 7.0), transverse colon 5.8 (5.0 - 6.5), descending / sigmoid colon 6.3 (6.0 - 6.8) and rectum near rectal / sigmoid junction 5.7 (4.5 - 7.5).
In mammals, the colon consists of five sections: the cecum plus the ascending colon, the transverse colon, the descending colon, the sigmoid colon and the rectum.
Sections of the colon are:
The parts of the colon are either intraperitoneal or behind it in the retroperitoneum. Retroperitoneal organs in general do not have a complete covering of peritoneum, so they are fixed in location. Intraperitoneal organs are completely surrounded by peritoneum and are therefore mobile. Of the colon, the ascending colon, descending colon and rectum are retroperitoneal, while the cecum, appendix, transverse colon and sigmoid colon are intraperitoneal. This is important as it affects which organs can be easily accessed during surgery, such as a laparotomy.
The cecum is the first section of the colon and involved in the digestion, while the appendix which develops embryologically from it, is a structure of the colon, not involved in digestion and considered to be part of the gut - associated lymphoid tissue. The function of the appendix is uncertain, but some sources believe that the appendix has a role in housing a sample of the colon 's microflora, and is able to help to repopulate the colon with bacteria if the microflora has been damaged during the course of an immune reaction.
The ascending colon is the first of four sections of the large intestine. It is connected to the small intestine by a section of bowel called the cecum. The ascending colon runs upwards through the abdominal cavity toward the transverse colon for approximately eight inches (20 cm).
One of the main functions of the colon is to remove the water and other key nutrients from waste material and recycle it. As the waste material exits the small intestine through the ileocecal valve, it will move into the cecum and then to the ascending colon where this process of extraction starts. The unwanted waste material is moved upwards toward the transverse colon by the action of peristalsis. The ascending colon is sometimes attached to the appendix via Gerlach 's valve. The appendix, traditionally seen as a vestigial organ, has been shown to have a high concentration of lymphatic cells. In ruminants, the ascending colon is known as the spiral colon. Taking into account all ages and sexes, colon cancer occurs here most often (41 %).
The transverse colon is the part of the colon from the hepatic flexure to the splenic flexure (the turn of the colon by the spleen). The transverse colon hangs off the stomach, attached to it by a large fold of peritoneum called the greater omentum. On the posterior side, the transverse colon is connected to the posterior abdominal wall by a mesentery known as the transverse mesocolon.
The transverse colon is encased in peritoneum, and is therefore mobile (unlike the parts of the colon immediately before and after it).
The proximal two - thirds of the transverse colon is perfused by the middle colic artery, a branch of the superior mesenteric artery (SMA), while the latter third is supplied by branches of the inferior mesenteric artery (IMA). The "watershed '' area between these two blood supplies, which represents the embryologic division between the midgut and hindgut, is an area sensitive to ischemia.
The descending colon is the part of the colon from the splenic flexure to the beginning of the sigmoid colon. One function of the descending colon in the digestive system is to store feces that will be emptied into the rectum. It is retroperitoneal in two - thirds of humans. In the other third, it has a (usually short) mesentery. The arterial supply comes via the left colic artery. The descending colon is also called the distal gut, as it is further along the gastrointestinal tract than the proximal gut. Gut flora are very dense in this region.
The sigmoid colon is the part of the large intestine after the descending colon and before the rectum. The name sigmoid means S - shaped (see sigmoid; cf. sigmoid sinus). The walls of the sigmoid colon are muscular, and contract to increase the pressure inside the colon, causing the stool to move into the rectum.
The sigmoid colon is supplied with blood from several branches (usually between 2 and 6) of the sigmoid arteries, a branch of the IMA. The IMA terminates as the superior rectal artery.
Sigmoidoscopy is a common diagnostic technique used to examine the sigmoid colon.
The rectum is the last section of the large intestine. It holds the formed feces awaiting elimination via defecation.
The cecum -- the first part of the large intestine
The taenia coli run the length of the large intestine. Because the taenia coli are shorter than the large bowel itself, the colon becomes sacculated, forming the haustra of the colon which are the shelf - like intraluminal projections.
Arterial supply to the colon comes from branches of the superior mesenteric artery (SMA) and inferior mesenteric artery (IMA). Flow between these two systems communicates via a "marginal artery '' that runs parallel to the colon for its entire length. Historically, it has been believed that the arc of Riolan, or the meandering mesenteric artery (of Moskowitz), is a variable vessel connecting the proximal SMA to the proximal IMA that can be extremely important if either vessel is occluded. However, recent studies conducted with improved imaging technology have questioned the actual existence of this vessel, with some experts calling for the abolition of the terms from future medical literature.
Venous drainage usually mirrors colonic arterial supply, with the inferior mesenteric vein draining into the splenic vein, and the superior mesenteric vein joining the splenic vein to form the hepatic portal vein that then enters the liver.
Lymphatic drainage from the ascending colon and proximal two - thirds of the transverse colon is to the colic lymph nodes and the superior mesenteric lymph nodes, which drain into the cisterna chyli. The lymph from the distal one - third of the transverse colon, the descending colon, the sigmoid colon, and the upper rectum drain into the inferior mesenteric and colic lymph nodes. The lower rectum to the anal canal above the pectinate line drain to the internal iliac nodes. The anal canal below the pectinate line drains into the superficial inguinal nodes. The pectinate line only roughly marks this transition.
One variation on the normal anatomy of the colon occurs when extra loops form, resulting in a colon that is up to five metres longer than normal. This condition, referred to as redundant colon, typically has no direct major health consequences, though rarely volvulus occurs, resulting in obstruction and requiring immediate medical attention. A significant indirect health consequence is that use of a standard adult colonoscope is difficult and in some cases impossible when a redundant colon is present, though specialized variants on the instrument (including the pediatric variant) are useful in overcoming this problem.
The wall of the large intestine is lined with simple columnar epithelium with invaginations. The invaginations are called the intestinal glands or colonic crypts.
The colon crypts are shaped like microscopic thick walled test tubes with a central hole down the length of the tube (the crypt lumen). Four tissue sections are shown here, two cut across the long axes of the crypts and two cut parallel to the long axes. In these images the cells have been stained by immunohistochemistry to show a brown - orange color if the cells produce a mitochondrial protein called cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (CCOI). The nuclei of the cells (located at the outer edges of the cells lining the walls of the crypts) are stained blue - gray with haematoxylin. As seen in panels C and D, crypts are about 75 to about 110 cells long. Baker et al. found that the average crypt circumference is 23 cells. Thus, by the images shown here, there are an average of about 1,725 to 2530 cells per colonic crypt. Nooteboom et al. measuring the number of cells in a small number of crypts reported a range of 1500 to 4900 cells per colonic crypt. Cells are produced at the crypt base and migrate upward along the crypt axis before being shed into the colonic lumen days later. There are 5 to 6 stem cells at the bases of the crypts.
As estimated from the image in panel A, there are about 100 colonic crypts per square millimeter of the colonic epithelium. Since the average length of the human colon is 160.5 cm and the average inner circumference of the colon is 6.2 cm. the inner surface epithelial area of the human colon has an average area of about 995 sq cm, which includes 9,950,000 (close to 10 million) crypts.
In the four tissue sections shown here, many of the intestinal glands have cells with a mitochondrial DNA mutation in the CCOI gene and appear mostly white, with their main color being the blue - gray staining of the nuclei. As seen in panel B, a portion of the stem cells of three crypts appear to have a mutation in CCOI, so that 40 % to 50 % of the cells arising from those stem cells form a white segment in the cross cut area.
Overall, the percent of crypts deficient for CCOI is less than 1 % before age 40, but then increases linearly with age. Colonic crypts deficient for CCOI in women reaches, on average, 18 % in women and 23 % in men by 80 -- 84 years of age.
Crypts of the colon can reproduce by fission, as seen in panel C, where a crypt is fissioning to form two crypts, and in panel B where at least one crypt appears to be fissioning. Most crypts deficient in CCOI are in clusters of crypts (clones of crypts) with two or more CCOI - deficient crypts adjacent to each other (see panel D).
About 150 of the many thousands of protein coding genes expressed in the large intestine, some are specific to the mucous membrane in different regions and include CEACAM7.
The large intestine absorbs water and any remaining absorbable nutrients from the food before sending the indigestible matter to the rectum. The colon absorbs vitamins that are created by the colonic bacteria, such as vitamin K (especially important as the daily ingestion of vitamin K is not normally enough to maintain adequate blood coagulation), vitamin B12, thiamine and riboflavin. It also compacts feces, and stores fecal matter in the rectum until it can be discharged via the anus in defecation. The large intestine also secretes K+ and Cl -. Chloride secretion increases in cystic fibrosis. Recycling of various nutrients takes place in colon. Examples include fermentation of carbohydrates, short chain fatty acids, and urea cycling.
The appendix is attached to the inferior surface of the cecum, and contains a small amount of mucosa - associated lymphoid tissue which gives the appendix an undetermined role in immunity. However, the appendix is known to be important in fetal life as it contains endocrine cells that release biogenic amines and peptide hormones important for homeostasis during early growth and development. The appendix can be removed with no apparent damage or consequence to the patient.
By the time the chyme has reached this tube, most nutrients and 90 % of the water have been absorbed by the body. At this point some electrolytes like sodium, magnesium, and chloride are left as well as indigestible parts of ingested food (e.g., a large part of ingested amylose, starch which has been shielded from digestion heretofore, and dietary fiber, which is largely indigestible carbohydrate in either soluble or insoluble form). As the chyme moves through the large intestine, most of the remaining water is removed, while the chyme is mixed with mucus and bacteria (known as gut flora), and becomes feces. The ascending colon receives fecal material as a liquid. The muscles of the colon then move the watery waste material forward and slowly absorb all the excess water, causing the stools to gradually solidify as they move along into the descending colon.
The bacteria break down some of the fiber for their own nourishment and create acetate, propionate, and butyrate as waste products, which in turn are used by the cell lining of the colon for nourishment. No protein is made available. In humans, perhaps 10 % of the undigested carbohydrate thus becomes available, though this may vary with diet; in other animals, including other apes and primates, who have proportionally larger colons, more is made available, thus permitting a higher portion of plant material in the diet. The large intestine produces no digestive enzymes -- chemical digestion is completed in the small intestine before the chyme reaches the large intestine. The pH in the colon varies between 5.5 and 7 (slightly acidic to neutral).
Water absorption at the colon typically proceeds against a transmucosal osmotic pressure gradient. The standing gradient osmosis is the reabsorption of water against the osmotic gradient in the intestines. Cells occupying the intestinal lining pump sodium ions into the intercellular space, raising the osmolarity of the intercellular fluid. This hypertonic fluid creates an osmotic pressure that drives water into the lateral intercellular spaces by osmosis via tight junctions and adjacent cells, which then in turn moves across the basement membrane and into the capillaries, while more sodium ions are pumped again into the intercellular fluid. Although water travels down an osmotic gradient in each individual step, overall, water usually travels against the osmotic gradient due to the pumping of sodium ions into the intercellular fluid. This allows the large intestine to absorb water despite the blood in capillaries being hypotonic compared to the fluid within the intestinal lumen.
The large intestine houses over 700 species of bacteria that perform a variety of functions, as well as fungi, protozoa, and archaea. Species diversity varies by geography and diet. The microbes in a human distal gut often number in the vicinity of 100 trillion, and can weigh around 200 grams (0.44 pounds). This mass of mostly symbiotic microbes has recently been called the latest human organ to be "discovered '' or in other words, the "forgotten organ ''.
The large intestine absorbs some of the products formed by the bacteria inhabiting this region. Undigested polysaccharides (fiber) are metabolized to short - chain fatty acids by bacteria in the large intestine and absorbed by passive diffusion. The bicarbonate that the large intestine secretes helps to neutralize the increased acidity resulting from the formation of these fatty acids.
These bacteria also produce large amounts of vitamins, especially vitamin K and biotin (a B vitamin), for absorption into the blood. Although this source of vitamins, in general, provides only a small part of the daily requirement, it makes a significant contribution when dietary vitamin intake is low. An individual who depends on absorption of vitamins formed by bacteria in the large intestine may become vitamin - deficient if treated with antibiotics that inhibit the vitamin producing species of bacteria as well as the intended disease - causing bacteria.
Other bacterial products include gas (flatus), which is a mixture of nitrogen and carbon dioxide, with small amounts of the gases hydrogen, methane, and hydrogen sulfide. Bacterial fermentation of undigested polysaccharides produces these. Some of the fecal odor is due to indoles, metabolized from the amino acid tryptophan. The normal flora is also essential in the development of certain tissues, including the cecum and lymphatics.
They are also involved in the production of cross-reactive antibodies. These are antibodies produced by the immune system against the normal flora, that are also effective against related pathogens, thereby preventing infection or invasion.
The two most prevalent phyla of the colon are firmicutes and bacteroides. The ratio between the two seems to vary widely as reported by the Human Microbiome Project. Bacteroides are implicated in the initiation of colitis and colon cancer. Bifidobacteria are also abundant, and are often described as ' friendly bacteria '.
A mucus layer protects the large intestine from attacks from colonic commensal bacteria.
Following are the most common diseases or disorders of the colon:
Colonoscopy is the endoscopic examination of the large intestine and the distal part of the small bowel with a CCD camera or a fiber optic camera on a flexible tube passed through the anus. It can provide a visual diagnosis (e.g. ulceration, polyps) and grants the opportunity for biopsy or removal of suspected colorectal cancer lesions. Colonoscopy can remove polyps as small as one millimetre or less. Once polyps are removed, they can be studied with the aid of a microscope to determine if they are precancerous or not. It takes 15 years or less for a polyp to turn cancerous.
Colonoscopy is similar to sigmoidoscopy -- the difference being related to which parts of the colon each can examine. A colonoscopy allows an examination of the entire colon (1200 -- 1500 mm in length). A sigmoidoscopy allows an examination of the distal portion (about 600 mm) of the colon, which may be sufficient because benefits to cancer survival of colonoscopy have been limited to the detection of lesions in the distal portion of the colon.
A sigmoidoscopy is often used as a screening procedure for a full colonoscopy, often done in conjunction with a fecal occult blood test (FOBT). About 5 % of these screened patients are referred to colonoscopy.
Virtual colonoscopy, which uses 2D and 3D imagery reconstructed from computed tomography (CT) scans or from nuclear magnetic resonance (MR) scans, is also possible, as a totally non-invasive medical test, although it is not standard and still under investigation regarding its diagnostic abilities. Furthermore, virtual colonoscopy does not allow for therapeutic maneuvers such as polyp / tumour removal or biopsy nor visualization of lesions smaller than 5 millimeters. If a growth or polyp is detected using CT colonography, a standard colonoscopy would still need to be performed. Additionally, surgeons have lately been using the term pouchoscopy to refer to a colonoscopy of the ileo - anal pouch.
The large intestine is truly distinct only in tetrapods, in which it is almost always separated from the small intestine by an ileocaecal valve. In most vertebrates, however, it is a relatively short structure running directly to the anus, although noticeably wider than the small intestine. Although the caecum is present in most amniotes, only in mammals does the remainder of the large intestine develop into a true colon.
In some small mammals, the colon is straight, as it is in other tetrapods, but, in the majority of mammalian species, it is divided into ascending and descending portions; a distinct transverse colon is typically present only in primates. However, the taeniae coli and accompanying haustra are not found in either carnivorans or ruminants. The rectum of mammals (other than monotremes) is derived from the cloaca of other vertebrates, and is, therefore, not truly homologous with the "rectum '' found in these species.
In fish, there is no true large intestine, but simply a short rectum connecting the end of the digestive part of the gut to the cloaca. In sharks, this includes a rectal gland that secretes salt to help the animal maintain osmotic balance with the seawater. The gland somewhat resembles a caecum in structure, but is not a homologous structure.
Intestines
Colon. Deep dissection. Anterior view.
This article incorporates text in the public domain from the 20th edition of Gray 's Anatomy (1918)
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who told kerala is god's own country | God 's Own country - wikipedia
God 's Own Country, is a phrase meaning an area, region or country supposedly favoured by God, that was first used to describe the Wicklow Mountains in Ireland, and has subsequently been used to refer to various places, including Australia, England (Cornwall, Surrey, Yorkshire), United States, New Zealand, Kerala state (India), Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland.
The expression was first used to describe the Wicklow Mountains of Ireland by Edward du Bois, writing under the pseudonym "A Knight Errant '' in 1807,
When used in reference to England, "God 's own country '' refers to the legend that as a boy Jesus of Nazareth visited England with his great uncle, Joseph of Arimathea. The event itself inspiring the musical prelude to William Blake 's "Milton '', the piece And did those feet in ancient time also known as ' Jerusalem ' which has become an unofficial anthem of England. The poem asks did Jesus visit England in ancient times, and in so doing created the New Jerusalem, or heaven in England.
Another first usage of the term by Edward du Bois was in a poem describing the English county of Surrey in 1839. The phrase was also used in its more literal meaning to refer to Heaven, in a poem by Elizabeth Harcourt Rolls Mitchell in 1857.
The phrase is also used to describe Yorkshire, England 's largest county. This is used interchangeably with God 's Own County.
The phrase later found sporadic use to describe several American regions. Most known is the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. It was also used by the Confederate army to describe parts of Tennessee in the 1860s. The phrase was also used to describe California in the 1860s, and by Clement Laird Vallandigham to describe the land of the Mississippi plains. None of these remain widely used to describe a region, though it is still occasionally used to describe the United States overall.
During World War II, German Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels sarcastically mocked the USA as "Aus Gottes eigenem Land '' (From God 's Own Country) in an essay that appeared in the German newspaper Das Reich on August 9, 1942. Goebbels ridiculed America as a young land that lacked culture, education and history in contrast with Germany. In 1943, the Nazis published an anti-American, anti-semitic propaganda book written by Erwin Berghaus called "USA - nackt!: Bilddokumente aus Gottes eigenem Land '' (USA naked! Photo documents from God 's own country) which also mockingly characterized the USA with the phrase. Several modern German newspapers such as Die Welt, Der Tagesspiegel and Die Zeit have also used the phrase "Gottes eigenes Land '' (God 's own country) to criticize American culture and society.
The earliest recorded use of the phrase as applied to New Zealand was as the title of a poem about New Zealand written by Thomas Bracken. It was published in a book of his poems in 1890, and again in 1893 in a book entitled Lays and Lyrics: God 's Own Country and Other Poems. God 's Own Country as a phrase was often used and popularised by New Zealand 's longest serving prime minister, Richard John Seddon. He last quoted it on 10 June 1906 when he sent a telegram to the Victorian premier, Thomas Bent, the day before leaving Sydney to return home to New Zealand. "Just leaving for God 's own country, '' he wrote. He never made it, dying the next day on the ship Oswestry Grange. Bracken 's God 's Own Country is less well known internationally than God Defend New Zealand which he published in 1876. The latter poem, set to music by John Joseph Woods, was declared the country 's national hymn in 1940, and made the second national anthem of New Zealand along with God Save the Queen in 1977.
In Australia, the phrase "God 's own country '' was often used to describe the country in the early 1900s, but it appears to have gradually fallen out of favour. The phrase "God 's Country '' is often used to describe Queensland and the Sutherland Shire in southern Sydney
Kerala is a state in south - west India; the phrase was adopted as a slogan by the tourism department of the state 's government in the 1980s.
The phrase "God 's own country '' was heard during the 1970s in Rhodesia (formerly: Southern Rhodesia, now: Zimbabwe), where most people perceived the land as beautiful despite the ongoing Bush War of the time. Evidence of the phrase being used earlier in reference to Rhodesia is found in Chartered Millions: Rhodesia and the Challenge to the British Commonwealth by John Hobbis Harris, published 1920 by Swarthmore Press (refer to page 27). The phrase "Godzone '' is distinctly different and was not used in Rhodesia.
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what is the meaning of the song colors of the wind | Colors of the Wind - wikipedia
"Colors of the Wind '' is a song written by lyricist Stephen Schwartz and composer Alan Menken for Walt Disney Pictures ' 33rd animated feature film Pocahontas (1995). The film 's theme song, "Colors of the Wind '' was originally recorded by American singer and actress Judy Kuhn in her role as the singing voice of Pocahontas. American actress and recording artist Vanessa Williams 's cover of the song was released as the lead single from the film 's soundtrack on March 23, 1995. A pop and R&B ballad, produced by Grammy Award - winning producer Keith Thomas, the song 's lyrics speak of respecting nature and living in harmony with the Earth 's creatures. The song is also featured on her third studio album The Sweetest Days.
"Colors of the Wind '' won the Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 68th Academy Awards in 1995, becoming composer Alan Menken 's fourth win in the category. It also won the Golden Globe in the same category as well as the Grammy Award for Best Song Written for a Movie. The song poetically presents the Native American viewpoint that the earth is a living entity where humankind is connected to everything in nature.
Months before Pocahontas was released, the film version of Colors of the Wind was featured on the Walt Disney Masterpiece Collection VHS release for Walt Disney Pictures ' 32nd animated feature film The Lion King (1994).
The first two notes of Alan Menken 's melody span a musical interval of a major sixth. Overall, the span of the melody reaches an eleventh. Because the melody spans a slightly larger range than some instruments, such as the Native American flute, can reach, alternative versions of the melody have been arranged that span a more modest interval.
Described as a "stirring anthem to animism '', this song is Pocahontas ' exhortation to Captain John Smith about the wonders of the earth and nature, including the spirit within all living things, encouraging him not to think of them as things he can conquer or own, but rather as beings to respect and live with in harmony. She also urges him to accept humans who are different in appearance and culture and to learn from them.
There is some debate over where the song begins within the narrative of the movie. The first part sung, when the music technically begins, has Pocahontas talking about how having experience with other races does not necessarily mean understanding them, and has her asking John Smith whether she is the savage between the two of them. As she sings this, she angrily shoves his gun into his hands, implying that that European attitude towards guns, violence, and racism is far more savage than the views that the Native Americans have. Pocahontas then tells John Smith that there is a lot about the Earth he does n't know. At this point, it is considered that the song actually begins. The first line of the chorus tells of the wolf crying to the "blue corn moon '', with the second line varying with the verse context. The phrase "blue corn moon '' has no actual meaning in Native American folklore. It was made up by lyricist Stephen Schwartz because he liked the sound of it, being inspired by a Native American love poem that read "I will come to you in the moon of green corn ''. The second time the chorus is sung in the single version, the second line becomes "Or let the eagle tell you where he 's been '' since the film version only has the one chorus already mentioned. The third line tells of singing with the voices of the mountains, as the fourth line concludes with the title imagery of painting with the colors of the wind.
The version contained on the Masterpiece Collection VHS release for Disney 's previous animated film The Lion King mutes the intro line.
With the DVD release, a multilingual version of Colors of the wind made of some of the original dubs, was included in the bonus material. Since its first release, more dubs have been made, including some unofficial dubs, made by local TV stations.
Alexandra Wilcke (de) (German), along with the whole German cast of the movie, received a prize for the best foreign version.
Daniela Mercury (credits)
Véronica Romero (credits)
Monique Spartalis (da) (credits)
Native (credits) and
Judith Bérard (fr) (trailer)
Jennifer Rush (credits)
Margrét Eir (credits)
Vanessa Williams (credits)
รวิ วรรณ จินดา (Rawiwan Chinda) (credits)
Sertab Erener (credits)
Due to the popularity of the song, many versions of it exist by different artists and in several languages. Cover artists include:
The song was covered in different languages for the series We Love Disney by:
sales figures based on certification alone
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where was the original mapp and lucia filmed | Mapp and Lucia (1985 tv series) - Wikipedia
Mapp and Lucia is a British television series, set in the fictional Sussex coastal town of Tilling - on - Sea and based on three 1930s novels by E.F. Benson. It was produced by London Weekend Television, filmed in Rye (on which Benson based Tilling) and neighbouring Winchelsea in the 1980s, and starred Prunella Scales as Mapp, Geraldine McEwan as Lucia, Nigel Hawthorne as Georgie, and Denis Lill as Major Benjy. The script was by Gerald Savory. There were ten episodes, (which aired in two series of five) broadcast on Channel 4 in 1985 and 1986. These have been repeated over the years, most recently on ITV Encore in 2015, shortly after the broadcast of the new BBC adaptation Mapp and Lucia and the death of Geraldine McEwan.
Filming took place in Rye and Winchelsea as well as Kent -- Chilham features in episodes 1, 2 and 10, doubling as Risholme and Hever Castle features as the residence of Poppy, Duchess of Sheffield.
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when did chick fil a come to colorado | Chick - fil - A - wikipedia
Chick - fil - A (/ tʃ ɪkfɪˈleɪ / chik - fil - AY, a play on the American English pronunciation of "fillet '') is an American fast food restaurant chain headquartered in the city of College Park, Georgia, specializing in chicken sandwiches. Founded in May 1946, it operates more than 2,200 restaurants, primarily in the United States. The restaurant serves breakfast before transitioning to its lunch and dinner menu. Chick - fil - A also offers customers catered selections from its menu for special events.
Many of the company 's values are influenced by the religious beliefs of its late founder, S. Truett Cathy, a devout Southern Baptist. Most notably, all Chick - fil - A restaurants are closed for business on Sundays, as well as on Thanksgiving and Christmas.
The chain 's origin can be traced to the Dwarf Grill (now the Dwarf House), a restaurant opened by S. Truett Cathy, the chain 's former chairman and CEO, in 1946. The restaurant is located in Hapeville, Georgia, a suburb of Atlanta, and is near the location of the now - demolished Ford Motor Company Atlanta Assembly Plant, for many years a source of many of the restaurant 's patrons.
In 1961, after 15 years in the fast food business, Cathy found a pressure - fryer that could cook the chicken sandwich in the same amount of time it took to cook a fast - food hamburger. Following this discovery, he registered the name Chick - fil - A, Inc. The company 's trademarked slogan, "We Did n't Invent the Chicken, Just the Chicken Sandwich, '' refers to their flagship menu item, the Chick - fil - A chicken sandwich.
The first Chick - fil - A opened in 1967, in the food court of the Greenbriar Mall, in a suburb of Atlanta. During the 1970s and early 1980s, the chain expanded by opening new franchises in suburban malls ' food courts. The first freestanding franchise was opened April 16, 1986, on North Druid Hills Road in Atlanta, Georgia, and the company began to focus more on this type of franchise than on the food court type. Although it has expanded outward from its original geographic base, most new restaurants are located in Southern suburban areas. In October 2015, the company opened a three - story 5,000 - square - foot restaurant in Manhattan that became the largest free - standing Chick - fil - A in the country at that time. As of 2016, the chain has approximately 1,950 locations. It also has 31 drive - through - only locations. Chick - fil - A also can be found at universities, hospitals, and airports through licensing agreements.
Since 1997, the Atlanta - based company has been the title sponsor of the Peach Bowl, an annual college football bowl game played in Atlanta on New Year 's Eve. Chick - fil - A also is a key sponsor of the SEC and the ACC of college athletics.
The company expanded for the first time outside of the United States by opening an outlet at the Calgary International Airport in Calgary, Alberta, Canada in May 2014. This restaurant is located near the departure area for flights bound for the United States. However, as with its American locations, it is closed Sundays and Christmas Day (it is, however, open on what would be Thanksgiving Day in America; as Thanksgiving Day is celebrated the month prior in Canada).
Chick - fil - A retains ownership of each restaurant. Chick - fil - A selects the restaurant location and builds it. Chick - fil - A franchisees need only a $10,000 initial investment to become an operator. Each operator is handpicked and goes through a rigorous training program; the interviews plus training can take months and is not an easy process. Chick - fil - A states on their site: "This is not the right opportunity for you if you:
Since 2010, Chick - fil - A has led the fast food industry in average sales per restaurant, despite being open only six days a week, earning an average $4.8 million per restaurant in 2016 (Whataburger was second with $2.7 million per restaurant).
"Eat Mor Chikin '' is the chain 's most prominent advertising slogan, created by The Richards Group in 1995. The slogan is often seen in advertisements, featuring Holstein dairy cows that are often seen wearing (or holding) signs that (usually) read: "Eat Mor Chikin '' in all capital letters. The ad campaign was temporarily halted during a mad cow disease scare on January 1, 2004, so as not to make the chain seem insensitive or appear to be taking advantage of the scare to increase its sales. Two months later, the cows were put up again. The cows replaced the chain 's old mascot, Doodles, an anthropomorphized chicken who still appears as the C on the logo.
Chick - fil - A vigorously protects its intellectual property, sending cease and desist letters to those they think have infringed on their trademarks. The corporation has successfully protested at least 30 instances of the use of an "eat more '' phrase, saying that the use would cause confusion of the public, dilute the distinctiveness of their intellectual property, and diminish its value.
A 2011 letter to Vermont artist Bo Muller - Moore who screen prints T - shirts reading: "Eat More Kale '' demanded that he cease printing the shirts and turn over his website. The incident drew criticism from Vermont governor Peter Shumlin, and created backlash against what he termed Chick - fil - A 's "corporate bullying. '' On December 11, 2014, Bo Muller - Moore announced that the U.S. Patent Office granted his application to trademark his "Eat More Kale '' phrase. A formal announcement of his victory took place on December 12, 2014, with Shumlin and other supporters on the Statehouse steps. His public fight drew regional and national attention, the support of Shumlin, and a team of pro-bono law students from the University of New Hampshire legal clinic.
After 22 years with The Richards Group, Chick - fil - A switched to McCann New York in 2016. Along with the cows, ads included famous people in history in a campaign called "Chicken for Breakfast. It 's not as crazy as you think. ''
Truett Cathy opened his first restaurant, The Dwarf Grill -- later renamed the Dwarf House -- in Hapeville, Georgia, in 1946, and developed the pressure - cooked chicken breast sandwich there. At the original Chick - fil - A Dwarf Grill, in addition to the full - size entrances, there is also an extra small - sized front door. The original Dwarf House in Hapeville, Georgia is open 24 hours a day, six days a week, except on Sundays, Thanksgiving, and Christmas. The store closes at 10: 00 p.m. on Saturday nights, and the day before Thanksgiving and Christmas and reopens at 6 a.m. on Monday mornings and day after Thanksgiving and Christmas. It has a larger dine - in menu than the other Dwarf House locations as well as an animated seven dwarfs display in the back of the restaurant. It was across the street from the former Ford Motor Company factory called Atlanta Assembly.
Truett 's original, full - service restaurants offer a substantial menu and provide customers a choice of table service, walk - up counter service or a drive - thru window. As of 2012, 13 Chick - fil - A Dwarf House restaurants were operating in the metro Atlanta area.
In 1996, the first Truett 's Grill was opened in Morrow, Georgia. The second location opened in 2003 in McDonough, Georgia, and a third location opened in 2006 in Griffin, Georgia. Similar to the Chick - fil - A Dwarf Houses, these independently owned restaurants offer traditional, sit - down dining and expanded menu selections in a diner - themed dinner. In 2017, Chick - fil - A demolished several Dwarf House locations to replace them with Truett 's Grill locations.
S. Truett Cathy was a devout Southern Baptist; his religious beliefs had a major impact on the company. The company 's official statement of corporate purpose says that the business exists "To glorify God by being a faithful steward of all that is entrusted to us. To have a positive influence on all who come in contact with Chick - fil - A. ''
Cathy 's beliefs are also responsible for the chain 's most well - known and distinctive feature: all Chick - fil - A locations (both corporate owned and franchised) are closed on Sundays, as well as on Thanksgiving and Christmas. Cathy states as the final step in his Five - Step recipe for Business Success "I was not so committed to financial success that I was willing to abandon my principles and priorities. One of the most visible examples of this is our decision to close on Sunday. Our decision to close on Sunday was our way of honoring God and of directing our attention to things that mattered more than our business. ''
In an interview with ABC News 's Nightline, Truett 's son Dan T. Cathy told reporter Vicki Mabrey that the company is also closed on Sundays because "by the time Sunday came, he was just worn out. And Sunday was not a big trading day, anyway, at the time. So he was closed that first Sunday and we 've been closed ever since. He figured if he did n't like working on Sundays, that other people did n't either. '' The younger Cathy also quoted his father as saying, "I do n't want to ask people to do that what I am not willing to do myself. ''
Their website states, "The Chick - fil - A culture and service tradition in our Restaurants is to treat every person with honor, dignity and respect -- regardless of their belief, race, creed, sexual orientation or gender. ''
Chick - fil - A 's reputation on being closed on Sundays extends to non-traditional locations. On December 17, 2017 Chick - fil - A broke their tradition and opened on a Sunday to prepare meals for passengers left stranded, during the power outage at Atlanta Hartsfield - Jackson International Airport. In addition to countless shopping malls and airports, a Chick - fil - A location at Mercedes - Benz Stadium in Atlanta will be closed on Sundays despite its main tenant, the Atlanta Falcons, playing most of their home games on Sundays. The location will be open when the Falcons have a Monday night, Thursday night or Saturday home game, as well as non-Sunday home games of Atlanta United FC and other events at the stadium. On Sundays, the digital signs will be flipped and concessionaire Levy Restaurants will sell nonbranded food and drinks at the location.
This also applies to places that are known for round - the - clock activity. For example, when Chick - fil - A finally expanded into the Las Vegas area following Cathy 's death (as he never wanted to expand into the area due to what he perceived as the city 's "sinful '' image), all locations were open 24 hours a day (as most service industries are in the Las Vegas Valley), but still closed on Sunday, closing at 11: 59PM on Saturday night and reopening at 12: 01AM Monday morning.
In January 2011, the media reported that Chick - fil - A was co-sponsoring a marriage conference with the Pennsylvania Family Institute (PFI), an organization that has opposed same - sex marriage legislation. Chick - fil - A clarified that "one of our independent Restaurant Operators in Pennsylvania was asked to provide sandwiches to two Art of Marriage video seminars ''. The WinShape Foundation, a charitable organization founded by Truett and his wife, also stated that it would not allow same - sex couples to participate in its marriage retreats.
Chick - fil - A has donated over $5 million, via WinShape, to groups that oppose same - sex marriage. Of this, more than $3 million was donated primarily to Christian organizations whose agendas included positions that oppose same - sex marriage, with the money donated between 2003 and 2009. A total of $1.9 million was donated in 2010 to groups such as the Marriage & Family Foundation, Exodus International, and the Family Research Council (FRC). That year, the FRC, which received $1,000 was listed as an anti-gay hate group by the Southern Poverty Law Center. WinShape has also contributed to Christian groups including the Fellowship of Christian Athletes and Exodus International, the latter of which is noted for supporting ex-gay conversion therapy. In response, students at several colleges and universities worked to ban or remove the company 's restaurants from their campuses. On January 28, 2013, Shane L. Windmeyer, the leader of Campus Pride, suspended their campaign.
In June and July 2012, Chick - fil - A 's chief operating officer Dan T. Cathy made several public statements about same - sex marriage, saying that those who "have the audacity to define what marriage is about '' were "inviting God 's judgment on our nation ''. Several prominent politicians expressed disapproval. Boston Mayor Thomas Menino and Chicago Alderman Proco "Joe '' Moreno said they hoped to block franchise expansion into their areas. The proposed bans drew criticism from liberal pundits, legal experts, and the American Civil Liberties Union. The Jim Henson Company, which had a Pajanimals kids ' meal toy licensing arrangement with Chick - fil - A, said it would cease its business relationship, and donate the payment to the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation. Chick - fil - A stopped distributing the toys, claiming that unrelated safety concerns that had arisen prior to the controversy. Chick - fil - A released a statement on July 31, 2012, saying, "We are a restaurant company focused on food, service, and hospitality; our intent is to leave the policy debate over same - sex marriage to the government and political arena. ''
In response to the controversy, former Arkansas Governor Mike Huckabee initiated a Chick - fil - A Appreciation Day movement to counter a boycott of Chick - fil - A launched by same - sex marriage activists. More than 600,000 people RSVPed on Facebook for Huckabee 's appreciation event. On August 1, Chick - fil - A restaurants experienced a large show of public support across the nation with the company reporting record - breaking sales. A consulting firm estimated that the average Chick - fil - A restaurant had 29.9 percent more sales and 367 more customers than it did on a typical Wednesday.
In September 2012, The Civil Rights Agenda (TCRA) announced that Chick - fil - A had "ceased donating to organizations that promote discrimination, specifically against LGBT civil rights. '' Chick - fil - A officials did state in an internal document that they "will treat every person equally, regardless of sexual orientation. '' In a letter from Chick - fil - A 's Senior Director of Real Estate, the company states, "The WinShape Foundation is now taking a much closer look at the organizations it considers helping, and in that process will remain true to its stated philosophy of not supporting organizations with political agendas. ''
According to Chicago Alderman Proco "Joe '' Moreno, Chick - fil - A has a statement of respect for all people regardless of sexual orientation in an internal document called Chick - fil - A: Who We Are. A document released by Chick - fil - A on September 20, 2012, does not mention any organizations opposed to same - sex marriage as being part of Chick - fil - A 's donation base. WinShape Marriage will continue to be supported financially, with a stated focus on couple retreats to strengthen marriages.
According to Focus on the Family 's website, CitizenLink.com, "Chick - fil - A and its charitable - giving arm, the WinShape Foundation, did not agree to stop making donations to groups that support the Biblical definition of marriage in exchange for being allowed to open a franchise in Chicago. '' Mike Huckabee stated that he "talked earlier today personally with Dan Cathy, CEO of Chick Fil - A about the new reports that Chick Fil - A had capitulated to demands of the supporters of same sex marriage. This is not true. The company continues to focus on the fair treatment of all of its customers and employees, but to end confusion gave me this statement. '' The statement provided by Chick - fil - A was posted on Huckabee 's website.
As of April 2018, Chick Fil - A reportedly continues to donate to anti-L.G.B.T. groups.
Though Chick - fil - A has always used trans - fat free processes in its chicken sandwiches, anticipating the dietary concerns of consumers, in 2008, it became the first fast - food restaurant to become completely trans - fat free.
In 2011, food blogger and activist Vani Hari wrote a post titled "Chick - fil - A or Chemical Fil - A? '' on her website, FoodBabe.com. She noted that Chick - fil - A sandwiches contained nearly 100 ingredients, including peanut oil with TBHQ. In October 2012, Chick - fil - A invited Hari to meet with company executives at its Atlanta, GA headquarters. In December 2013, Chick - fil - A notified Hari that it had eliminated the dye Yellow No. 5 and had reduced the sodium content in its chicken soup. The company also said that it is testing a peanut oil that does not contain TBHQ and that it would start testing sauces and dressings made without high - fructose corn syrup in 2014.
According to the Food and Drug Administration, antibiotics used in livestock, many of which are also used to treat humans, have contributed to the rise of dangerous bacteria. In December 2012, the FDA announced plans to phase out certain antibiotics in the food production industry.
In February 2014, Chick - fil - A announced plans to serve chicken raised without antibiotics in its restaurants nationwide within five years. Chick - fil - A is the first quick service restaurant to set forth a plan and commit to serving only poultry raised without antibiotics.
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how did cut off louisiana get its name | Cut Off, Louisiana - wikipedia
Cut Off (historically named La Coupe) is a census - designated place (CDP) on the Bayou Lafourche in Lafourche Parish, Louisiana, United States. The population was 5,635 at the 2000 census. It is part of the Houma -- Bayou Cane -- Thibodaux Metropolitan Statistical Area. Cut Off 's ZIP code is 70345, the area code is 985 and local telephone prefixes are 325, 632 and 693.
Cut Off had its start by the building of a canal cutoff at that point to shorten its route. The name was French in origin.
Cut Off is located at 29 ° 30 ′ 55 '' N 90 ° 20 ′ 2 '' W / 29.51528 ° N 90.33389 ° W / 29.51528; - 90.33389 (29.515201, - 90.333839).
According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 14.9 square miles (39 km), of which 14.8 square miles (38 km) is land and 0.1 square miles (0.26 km) (0.74 %) is water.
As of the census of 2000, there were 5,635 people, 2,033 households, and 1,608 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 381.7 people per square mile (147.4 / km2). There were 2,136 housing units at an average density of 144.7 per square mile (55.9 / km2). The racial makeup of the CDP was 91.41 % White, 1.12 % African American, 3.78 % Native American, 1.26 % Asian, 0.04 % Pacific Islander, 1.10 % from other races, and 1.30 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.13 % of the population.
There were 2,033 households out of which 39.2 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 66.0 % were married couples living together, 8.6 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 20.9 % were non-families. 18.0 % of all households were made up of individuals and 8.1 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.76 and the average family size was 3.12.
In the CDP, the population was spread out with 27.3 % under the age of 18, 8.3 % from 18 to 24, 30.5 % from 25 to 44, 22.5 % from 45 to 64, and 11.4 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females there were 96.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.1 males.
The median income for a household in the CDP was $38,077, and the median income for a family was $42,986. Males had a median income of $35,994 versus $19,225 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $16,353. About 7.3 % of families and 7.9 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 9.6 % of those under age 18 and 10.8 % of those age 65 or over.
The United States Postal Service operates the Cut Off Post Office.
Lafourche Parish Public Schools operates public schools.
Larose - Cut Off Middle School is in nearby Larose.
South Lafourche High School is in Galliano, and has a Cut Off postal address.
Cut Off School opened in 1927. In September 1950 the schools of Larose and Cut Off were consolidated into Larose - Cut Off High School. It was then consolidated with Golden Meadow High School to form South Lafourche High School in 1966.
Lafourche Parish Library operates the South Lafourche Library in Galliano, which has a Cut Off postal address.
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what type of government did japan have during ww2 | Government of Japan - wikipedia
The government of Japan is a constitutional monarchy in which the power of the Emperor is limited and is relegated primarily to ceremonial duties. As in many other states, the Government is divided into three branches: the Executive branch, the Legislative branch and the Judicial branch.
The Government runs under the framework established by the Constitution of Japan, adopted in 1947. It is a unitary state, containing forty - seven administrative divisions, with the Emperor as its head of state. His role is ceremonial and he has no powers related to Government. Instead, it is the Cabinet, composing of the Ministers of State and the Prime Minister, that directs and controls the Government. The Cabinet is the source of power of the Executive branch, and is formed by the Prime Minister, who is the head of government. He or she is designated by the National Diet and appointed to office by the Emperor.
The National Diet is the legislature, the organ of the Legislative branch. It is bicameral, consisting of two houses with the House of Councillors being the upper house, and the House of Representatives being the lower house. Its members are directly elected from the people, who are the source of sovereignty. The Supreme Court and other inferior courts make up the Judicial branch, and they are independent from the executive and the legislative branches.
Prior to the Meiji Restoration, Japan was ruled by successive military shōguns. During this period, effective power of the government resided in the Shogun, who officially ruled the country in the name of the Emperor. The Shoguns were the hereditary military governors, with their modern rank equivalent to a generalissimo. Although the Emperor was the sovereign who appointed the Shogun, his roles were ceremonial and he took no part in governing the country. This is often compared to the present role of the Emperor, whose official role is to appoint the Prime Minister.
The Meiji Restoration in 1868 led to the resignation of Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu, agreeing to "be the instrument for carrying out '' the Emperor 's orders. This event restored the country to Imperial rule and the proclamation of the Empire of Japan. In 1889, the Meiji Constitution was adopted in a move to strengthen Japan to the level of western nations, resulting in the first parliamentary system in Asia. It provided a form of mixed constitutional - absolute monarchy, with an independent judiciary, based on the Prussian model of the time.
A new aristocracy known as the kazoku was established. It merged the ancient court nobility of the Heian period, the kuge, and the former daimyōs, feudal lords subordinate to the shōgun. It also established the Imperial Diet, consisting of the House of Representatives and the House of Peers. Members of the House of Peers were made up of the Imperial Family, the Kazoku, and those nominated by the Emperor, while members of the House of Representatives were elected by direct male suffrage. Despite clear distinctions between powers of the executive branch and the Emperor in the Meiji Constitution, ambiguity and contradictions in the Constitution eventually led to a political crisis. It also devalued the notion of civilian control over the military, which meant that the military could develop and exercise a great influence on politics.
Following the end of World War II, the Constitution of Japan was adopted as an intention to replace the previous Imperial rule with a form of Western - style liberal democracy.
The Emperor of Japan (天皇) is the head of the Imperial Family and the ceremonial head of state. He is defined by the Constitution to be "the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people ''. However, he is not the nominal Chief Executive and he possesses only certain ceremonially important powers. He has no real powers related to the Government as stated clearly in article 4 of the Constitution.
Article 6 of the Constitution of Japan delegates the Emperor the following ceremonial roles:
While the Cabinet is the source of executive power and most of its power is exercised directly by the Prime Minister, several of its powers are exercised by the Emperor. The powers exercised via the Emperor, as stipulated by Article 7 of the Constitution, are:
The Emperor is known to hold the nominal ceremonial authority. For example, the Emperor is the only person that has the authority to appoint the Prime Minister, even though the Diet has the power to designate the person fitted for the position. One such example can be prominently seen in the 2009 Dissolution of the House of Representatives. The House was expected to be dissolved on the advice of the Prime Minister, but was temporarily unable to do so for the next general election, as both the Emperor and Empress were visiting Canada.
In this manner, the Emperor 's modern role is often compared to those of the Shogunate period and much of Japan 's history, whereby the Emperor held great symbolic authority but had little political power; which is often held by others nominally appointed by the Emperor himself. Today, a legacy has somewhat continued for a retired Prime Minister who still wields considerable power, to be called a Shadow Shogun (闇 将軍).
Unlike his European counterparts, the Emperor is not the source of sovereign power and the government does not act under his name. Instead, the Emperor represents the State and appoints other high officials in the name of the State, in which the Japanese people hold sovereignty. Article 5 of the Constitution, in accordance with the Imperial Household Law, allows a regency to be established in the Emperor 's name, should the Emperor be unable to perform his duties.
Historically, the Imperial House of Japan is said to be the oldest continuing hereditary monarchy in the world. According to the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, Japan was founded by the Imperial House in 660 BC by Emperor Jimmu (神武 天皇). Emperor Jimmu was the first Emperor of Japan and the ancestor of all of the Emperors that followed. He is, according to Japanese mythology, the direct descendant of Amaterasu (天 照 大御神), the sun goddess of the native Shinto religion, through Ninigi, his great - grandfather.
The Current Emperor of Japan (今 上 天皇) is Akihito. He was officially enthroned on November 12, 1990. He is styled as His Imperial Majesty (天皇 陛下), and his reign bears the era name of Heisei (平成). Naruhito, the Crown Prince of Japan, is the heir apparent to the Chrysanthemum Throne.
The Executive branch of Japan is headed by the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister is the head of the Cabinet, and is designated by the legislative organ, the National Diet. The Cabinet consists of the Ministers of State and may be appointed or dismissed by the Prime Minister at any time. Explicitly defined to be the source of executive power, it is in practice, however, mainly exercised by the Prime Minister. The practice of its powers is responsible to the Diet, and as a whole, should the Cabinet lose confidence and support to be in office by the Diet, the Diet may dismiss the Cabinet en masse with a motion of no confidence.
The Prime Minister of Japan (内閣 総理 大臣) is designated by the National Diet and serves a term of four years or less; with no limits imposed on the number of terms the Prime Minister may hold. The Prime Minister heads the Cabinet and exercises "control and supervision '' of the executive branch, and is the head of government and commander - in - chief of the Japan Self - Defense Forces. The Prime Minister is vested with the power to present bills to the Diet, to sign laws, to declare a state of emergency, and may also dissolve the Diet 's House of Representatives at will. He or she presides over the Cabinet and appoints, or dismisses, the other Cabinet ministers.
Both houses of the National Diet designates the Prime Minister with a ballot cast under the run - off system. Under the Constitution, should both houses not agree on a common candidate, then a joint committee is allowed to be established to agree on the matter; specifically within a period of ten days, exclusive of the period of recess. However, if both houses still do not agree to each other, the decision made by the House of Representatives is deemed to be that of the National Diet. Upon designation, the Prime Minister is presented with their commission, and then formally appointed to office by the Emperor.
As a candidate designated by the Diet, he or she is required to report to the Diet whenever demanded. The Prime Minister must also be both a civilian and a member of either house of the Diet.
※ As of November 18, 2017
The Cabinet of Japan (内閣) consists of the Ministers of State and the Prime Minister. The members of the Cabinet are appointed by the Prime Minister, and under the Cabinet Law, the number of members of the Cabinet appointed, excluding the Prime Minister, must be fourteen or less, but may only be increased to nineteen should a special need arise. Article 68 of the Constitution states that all members of the Cabinet must be civilians and the majority of them must be chosen from among the members of either house of the National Diet. The precise wording leaves an opportunity for the Prime Minister to appoint some non-elected Diet officials. The Cabinet is required to resign en masse while still continuing its functions, till the appointment of a new Prime Minister, when the following situation arises:
Conceptually deriving legitimacy from the Diet, whom it is responsible to, the Cabinet exercises its power in two different ways. In practice, much of its power is exercised by the Prime Minister, while others are exercised nominally by the Emperor.
Article 73 of the Constitution of Japan expects the Cabinet to perform the following functions, in addition to general administration:
Under the Constitution, all laws and cabinet orders must be signed by the competent Minister and countersigned by the Prime Minister, before being formally promulgated by the Emperor. Also, all members of the Cabinet can not be subject to legal action without the consent of the Prime Minister; however, without impairing the right to take legal action.
※ As of November 18, 2017
The Ministries of Japan (行政 機関) consist of eleven ministries and the Cabinet Office. Each ministry is headed by a Minister of State, which are mainly senior legislators, and are appointed from among the members of the Cabinet by the Prime Minister. The Cabinet Office, formally headed by the Prime Minister, is an agency that handles the day - to - day affairs of the Cabinet. The ministries are the most influential part of the daily - exercised executive power, and since few ministers serve for more than a year or so necessary to grab hold of the organisation, most of its power lies within the senior bureaucrats.
※ As of November 18, 2017
The Board of Audit (会計 検査 院) is the only unique body of the Government; in which, the Board is totally independent from the Diet and the Cabinet. It reviews government expenditures and submits an annual report to the Diet. Article 90 of the Constitution of Japan and the Board of Audit Act of 1947 gives this body substantial independence from both controls.
The Legislative branch organ of Japan is the National Diet (国会). It is a bicameral legislature, composing of a lower house, the House of Representatives, and an upper house, the House of Councillors. Empowered by the Constitution to be "the highest organ of State power '' and the only "sole law - making organ of the State '', its houses are both directly elected under a parallel voting system and is ensured by the Constitution to have no discrimination on the qualifications of each members; whether be it based on "race, creed, sex, social status, family origin, education, property or income ''. The National Diet, therefore, reflects the sovereignty of the people; a principle of popular sovereignty whereby the supreme power lies within, in this case, the Japanese people.
The Diet responsibilities includes the making of laws, the approval of the annual national budget, the approval of the conclusion of treaties and the selection of the Prime Minister. In addition, it has the power to initiate draft constitutional amendments, which, if approved, are to be presented to the people for ratification in a referendum before being promulgated by the Emperor, in the name of the people. The Constitution also enables both houses to conduct investigations in relation to government, demand the presence and testimony of witnesses, and the production of records, as well as allowing either house of the Diet to demand the presence of the Prime Minister or the other Minister of State, in order to give answers or explanations whenever so required. The Diet is also able to impeach Court judges convicted of criminal or irregular conduct. The Constitution, however, does not specify the voting methods, the number of members of each house, and all other matters pertaining to the method of election of the each members, and are thus, allowed to be determined for by law.
Under the provisions of the Constitution and by law, all adults aged over 18 are eligible to vote, with a secret ballot and a universal suffrage, and those elected have certain protections from apprehension while the Diet is in session. Speeches, debates, and votes cast in the Diet also enjoy parliamentary privileges. Each house is responsible for disciplining its own members, and all deliberations are public unless two - thirds or more of those members present passes a resolution agreeing it otherwise. The Diet also requires the presence of at least one - third of the membership of either house in order to constitute a quorum. All decisions are decided by a majority of those present, unless otherwise stated by the Constitution, and in the case of a tie, the presiding officer has the right to decide the issue. A member can not be expelled, however, unless a majority of two - thirds or more of those members present passes a resolution therefor.
Under the Constitution, at least one session of the Diet must be convened each year. The Cabinet can also, at will, convoke extraordinary sessions of the Diet and is required to, when a quarter or more of the total members of either house demands it. During an election, only the House of Representatives is dissolved. The House of Councillors is however, not dissolved but only closed, and may, in times of national emergency, be convoked for an emergency session. The Emperor both convokes the Diet and dissolves the House of Representatives, but only does so on the advice of the Cabinet.
For bills to become Law, they are to be first passed by both houses of the National Diet, signed by the Ministers of State, countersigned by the Prime Minister, and then finally promulgated by the Emperor; however, without specifically giving the Emperor the power to oppose legislation.
The House of Representatives of Japan (衆議院) is the Lower house, with the members of the house being elected once every four years, or when dissolved, for a four - year term. As of November 18, 2017, it has 465 members. Of these, 176 members are elected from 11 multi-member constituencies by a party - list system of proportional representation, and 289 are elected from single - member constituencies. 233 seats are required for majority. The House of Representatives is the more powerful house out of the two, it is able to override vetoes on bills imposed by the House of Councillors with a two - thirds majority. It can, however, be dissolved by the Prime Minister at will. Members of the house must be of Japanese nationality; those aged 18 years and older may vote, while those aged 25 years and older may run for office in the lower house.
The legislative powers of the House of Representatives is considered to be more powerful than that of the House of Councillors. While the House of Councillors has the ability to veto most decisions made by the House of Representatives, some however, can only be delayed. This includes the legislation of treaties, the budget, and the selection of the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister, and collectively his Cabinet, can in turn, however, dissolve the House of Representatives whenever intended. While the House of Representatives is considered to be officially dissolved upon the preparation of the document, the House is only formally dissolved by the dissolution ceremony. The dissolution ceremony of the House is as follows:
It is customary that, upon the dissolution of the House, members will shout the Three Cheers of Banzai (萬歲).
The House of Councillors of Japan (参議院) is the Upper house, with half the members of the house being elected once every three years, for a six - year term. As of November 18, 2017, it has 242 members. Of these, 73 are elected from the 47 prefectural districts, by single non-transferable votes, and 48 are elected from a nationwide list by proportional representation with open lists. The House of Councillors can not be dissolved by the Prime Minister. Members of the house must be of Japanese nationality; those aged 18 years and older may vote, while those aged 30 years and older may run for office in the upper house.
As the House of Councillors can veto a decision made by the House of Representatives, the House of Councillors can cause the House of Representatives to reconsider its decision. The House of Representatives however, can still insist on its decision by overwriting the veto by the House of Councillors with a two - thirds majority of its members present. Each year, and when required, the National Diet is convoked at the House of Councillors, on the advice of the Cabinet, for an extra or an ordinary session, by the Emperor. A short speech is, however, usually first made by the Speaker of the House of Representatives before the Emperor proceeds to convoke the Diet with his Speech from the throne.
The Judicial branch of Japan consists of the Supreme Court, and four other lower courts; the High Courts, District Courts, Family Courts and Summary Courts. Divided into four basic tiers, the Court 's independence from the executive and legislative branches are guaranteed by the Constitution, and is stated as: "no extraordinary tribunal shall be established, nor shall any organ or agency of the Executive be given final judicial power ''; a feature known as the Separation of Powers. Article 76 of the Constitution states that all the Court judges are independent in the exercise of their own conscience and that they are only bounded by the Constitution and the laws. Court judges are removable only by public impeachment, and can only be removed, without impeachment, when they are judicially declared mentally or physically incompetent to perform their duties. The Constitution also explicitly denies any power for executive organs or agencies to administer disciplinary actions against judges. However, a Supreme Court judge may be dismissed by a majority in a referendum; of which, must occur during the first general election of the National Diet 's House of Representatives following the judge 's appointment, and also the first general election for every ten years lapse thereafter. Trials must be conducted, with judgment declared, publicly, unless the Court "unanimously determines publicity to be dangerous to public order or morals ''; with the exception for trials of political offenses, offenses involving the press, and cases wherein the rights of people as guaranteed by the Constitution, which can not be deemed and conducted privately. Court judges are appointed by the Cabinet, in attestation of the Emperor, while the Chief Justice is appointed by the Emperor, after being nominated by the Cabinet; which in practice, known to be under the recommendation of the former Chief Justice.
The Legal system in Japan has been historically influenced by Chinese law; developing independently during the Edo period through texts such as Kujikata Osadamegaki. It has, however, changed during the Meiji Restoration, and is now largely based on the European civil law; notably, the civil code based on the German model still remains in effect. A quasi-jury system has recently came into use, and the legal system also includes a bill of rights since May 3, 1947. The collection of Six Codes makes up the main body of the Japanese statutory law.
All Statutory Laws in Japan are required to be rubber stamped by the Emperor with the Privy Seal of Japan (天皇 御璽), and no Law can take effect without the Cabinet 's signature, the Prime Minister 's countersignature and the Emperor 's promulgation.
The Supreme Court of Japan (最高 裁判所) is the court of last resort and has the power of Judicial review; as defined by the Constitution to be "the court of last resort with power to determine the constitutionality of any law, order, regulation or official act ''. The Supreme Court is also responsible for nominating judges to lower courts and determining judicial procedures. It also oversees the judicial system, overseeing activities of public prosecutors, and disciplining judges and other judicial personnel.
The High Courts of Japan (高等 裁判所) has the jurisdiction to hear appeals to judgments rendered by District Courts and Family Courts, excluding cases under the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. Criminal appeals are directly handled by the High Courts, but Civil cases are first handled by District Courts. There are eight High Courts in Japan: the Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, Hiroshima, Fukuoka, Sendai, Sapporo, and Takamatsu High Courts.
The Penal system of Japan (矯正 施設) is operated by the Ministry of Justice. It is part of the criminal justice system, and is intended to resocialize, reform, and rehabilitate offenders. The ministry 's Correctional Bureau administers the adult prison system, the juvenile correctional system, and three of the women 's guidance homes, while the Rehabilitation Bureau operates the probation and the parole systems.
The Local Governments of Japan (地方 公共 団体) are unitary, in which local jurisdictions largely depend on the national government both administratively and financially. They are established as an act of devolution. Under the Constitution, all matters pertaining to the local self - government is allowed to be determined for by law; more specifically, the Local Autonomy Law.
The Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications intervenes significantly in local government, as do other ministries. This is done chiefly financially because many local government jobs need funding initiated by national ministries. This is dubbed as the "thirty - percent autonomy ''.
The result of this power is a high level of organizational and policy standardization among the different local jurisdictions allowing them to preserve the uniqueness of their prefecture, city, or town. Some of the more collectivist jurisdictions, such as Tokyo and Kyoto, have experimented with policies in such areas as social welfare that later were adopted by the national government.
Japan is divided into forty - seven administrative divisions, the prefectures are: one metropolitan district (Tokyo), two urban prefectures (Kyoto and Osaka), forty - three rural prefectures, and one "district '', Hokkaidō. Large cities are subdivided into wards, and further split into towns, or precincts, or subprefectures and counties.
Cities are self - governing units administered independently of the larger jurisdictions within which they are located. In order to attain city status, a jurisdiction must have at least 500,000 inhabitants, 60 percent of whom are engaged in urban occupations. There are self - governing towns outside the cities as well as precincts of urban wards. Like the cities, each has its own elected mayor and assembly. Villages are the smallest self - governing entities in rural areas. They often consist of a number of rural hamlets containing several thousand people connected to one another through the formally imposed framework of village administration. Villages have mayors and councils elected to four - year terms.
Each jurisdiction has a chief executive, called a governor (知事, chiji) in prefectures and a mayor (市町村 長, shichōsonchō) in municipalities. Most jurisdictions also have a unicameral assembly (議会, gikai), although towns and villages may opt for direct governance by citizens in a general assembly (総会, sōkai). Both the executive and assembly are elected by popular vote every four years.
Local governments follow a modified version of the separation of powers used in the national government. An assembly may pass a vote of no confidence in the executive, in which case the executive must either dissolve the assembly within ten days or automatically lose their office. Following the next election, however, the executive remains in office unless the new assembly again passes a no confidence resolution.
The primary methods of local lawmaking are local ordinance (条例, jōrei) and local regulations (規則, kisoku). Ordinances, similar to statutes in the national system, are passed by the assembly and may impose limited criminal penalties for violations (up to 2 years in prison and / or 1 million yen in fines). Regulations, similar to cabinet orders in the national system, are passed by the executive unilaterally, are superseded by any conflicting ordinances, and may only impose a fine of up to 50,000 yen.
Local governments also generally have multiple committees such as school boards, public safety committees (responsible for overseeing the police), personnel committees, election committees and auditing committees. These may be directly elected or chosen by the assembly, executive or both.
All prefectures are required to maintain departments of general affairs, finance, welfare, health, and labor. Departments of agriculture, fisheries, forestry, commerce, and industry are optional, depending on local needs. The Governor is responsible for all activities supported through local taxation or the national government.
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who said it's better to have loved and lost | In Memoriam A.H.H. - Wikipedia
"In Memoriam A.H.H. '' is a poem by the British poet Alfred, Lord Tennyson, completed in 1849. It is a requiem for the poet 's beloved Cambridge friend Arthur Henry Hallam, who died suddenly of a cerebral haemorrhage in Vienna in 1833. It contains some of Tennyson 's most accomplished lyrical work, and is an unusually sustained exercise in lyric verse. It is widely considered to be one of the great poems of the 19th century.
The original title of the poem was "The Way of the Soul '', and this might give an idea of how the poem is an account of all Tennyson 's thoughts and emotions as he grieves over the death of a close friend. He views the cruelty of nature and mortality in light of materialist science and faith. Owing to its length and its arguable breadth of focus, the poem might not be thought an elegy or a dirge in the strictest formal sense.
The poem is not arranged exactly in the order in which it was written. The prologue, for example, is thought to have been one of the last things written. The earliest material is thought to be that which begins "Fair ship, that from the Italian shore Saileth the placid ocean - plains '' and imagines the return of Hallam 's body from Italy. Critics believe, however, that the poem as a whole is meant to be chronological in terms of the progression of Tennyson 's grief. The passage of time is marked by the three descriptions of Christmas at different points in the poem, and the poem ends with a description of the marriage of Tennyson 's sister.
"In Memoriam '' is written in four - line ABBA stanzas of iambic tetrameter, and such stanzas are now called In Memoriam Stanzas. Though not metrically unusual, given the length of the work, the metre creates a tonal effect that often divides readers -- is it the natural sound of mourning and grief, or merely monotonous? The poem is divided into 133 cantos (including the prologue and epilogue), and in contrast to its constant and regulated metrical form, encompasses many different subjects: profound spiritual experiences, nostalgic reminiscence, philosophical speculation, Romantic fantasizing and even occasional verse. The death of Hallam, and Tennyson 's attempts to cope with this, remain the strand that ties all these together.
The most frequently quoted lines in the poem are perhaps
This stanza is to be found in Canto 27. The last two lines are usually taken as offering a meditation on the dissolution of a romantic relationship. However, the lines originally referred to the death of the poet 's beloved friend. They are reminiscent of a line from William Congreve 's popular 1700 play, The Way of the World: "' tis better to be left than never to have been loved. ''
Another much - quoted phrase from the poem is "nature, red in tooth and claw, '' found in Canto 56, referring to humanity:
Also, the following are found in Canto 54
Also occasionally quoted are these lines from Canto 123
This references the recent discovery by geologists of Earth 's great age and mutability, a scientific wonder that underlay emerging ideas of nature and evolution.
In writing the poem, Tennyson was influenced by the evolutionary ideas of transmutation of species presented in Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation which had been published in 1844, and had caused a storm of controversy about the theological implications of impersonal nature functioning without direct divine intervention. An Evangelical focus on unquestioning belief in revealed truth taken from a literal interpretation of the Bible was already coming into conflict with emerging findings of science. Tennyson expressed the difficulties evolution raised for faith in "the truths that never can be proved '', while still believing the older idea that reason would eventually harmonise science and religion, as there could be no real contradiction.
Although this phrase is commonly ascribed to Tennyson, it already was in use. For example, The Hagerstown Mail in March 1837: "Hereupon, the beasts, enraged at the humbug, fell upon him tooth and claw. ''
This poem was published before Charles Darwin made his theory public in 1859. However, the phrase "Nature, red in tooth and claw '' in canto 56 quickly was adopted by others as a phrase that evokes the process of natural selection. It was and is used by both those opposed to and in favour of the theory of evolution.
However, at the end of the poem, Tennyson emerges with his Christian faith reaffirmed, progressing from doubt and despair to faith and hope, a dominant theme also seen in his poem "Ulysses ''.
The poem was a great favourite of Queen Victoria, who after the death of Prince Albert wrote that she was "soothed & pleased '' by it. In 1862 Victoria requested a meeting with Tennyson because she was so impressed by the poem, and when she met him again in 1883 she told him what a comfort it had been.
The British literary scholar Christopher Ricks relates the following lines to Tennyson 's childhood home at Somersby Rectory in Somersby, Lincolnshire, particularly the poet 's departure after the death of his father.
Unwatched, the garden bough shall sway, The tender blossom flutter down, Unloved, that beech will gather brown, This maple burn itself away.
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jlo as a fly girl on in living color | List of in Living Color cast members - wikipedia
Cast members came and went during the run of In Living Color. Some earlier cast members continued to appear in later seasons so later casts also include some previous years ' cast members.
Starring
Featuring
Starring
Featuring
Jim Carrey, Tommy Davidson, David Alan Grier and T'Keyah Crystal Keymáh were the only cast members for all five seasons.
Chris Rock was never an official cast member on In Living Color, but did appear (as a "special guest star '') in a number of skits in the fifth season, and reprised his "Cheap Pete '' character from I 'm Gonna Git You Sucka. In the early years of In Living Color, Rock was parodied as being the only African American cast member on Saturday Night Live (SNL also had Tim Meadows). In an SNL skit honoring Mother 's Day, Rock 's mother jokes that she is disappointed in him for being on SNL, and asks "Has In Living Color called yet? ''
Other recurring guest stars in the fifth season include Nick Bakay (for The Dirty Dozens sketches) and Peter Marshall (ringmaster for several loopy editions of Hollywood Squares). Rapper Biz Markie also appeared in various roles as a guest star in the fifth season, such as being (not too much) in drag as Wanda the Ugly Woman 's sister or as "Dirty Dozens '' contestant Damian "Foosball '' Franklin.
The Fly Girls troupe had various members over In Living Color 's five - season run. The original lineup consisted of Cari French, Carrie Ann Inaba, Deidre Lang, Lisa Marie Todd, and Michelle Whitney - Morrison. Rosie Perez was the choreographer for the first four seasons.
Sometimes the Fly Girls could be used as extras in sketches, or be part of an opening gag. In one sketch, they were shown performing open - heart surgery (in the sketch, the girls are dancing in order to pay their way through medical school).
In the fifth season Arthur Rainer became the main choreographer with Lisa Joann Thompson and Deidre Lang as assistant choreographers.
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what is the percentage share of agriculture in national income in india at present | Economy of India - Wikipedia
The economy of India is a developing mixed economy. It is the world 's seventh - largest economy by nominal GDP and the third - largest by purchasing power parity (PPP). The country ranks 139th in per capita GDP (nominal) with $2,134 and 122nd in per capita GDP (PPP) with $7,783 as of 2018. After 1991 economic liberalisation, India achieved 6 - 7 % average GDP growth annually. In FY 2015 and 2018 India 's economy became the world 's fastest growing major economy, surpassing China.
The long - term growth prospective of the Indian economy is positive due to its young population, corresponding low dependency ratio, healthy savings and investment rates, and increasing integration into the global economy. India topped the World Bank 's growth outlook for the first time in fiscal year 2015 -- 16, during which the economy grew 7.6 %. Despite previous reforms, economic growth is still significantly slowed by bureaucracy, poor infrastructure, and inflexible labor laws (especially the inability to lay off workers in a business slowdown).
India has one of the fastest growing service sectors in the world with an annual growth rate above 9 % since 2001, which contributed to 57 % of GDP in 2012 -- 13. India has become a major exporter of IT services, Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) services, and software services with $154 billion revenue in FY 2017. This is the fastest - growing part of the economy. The IT industry continues to be the largest private - sector employer in India. India is the third - largest start - up hub in the world with over 3,100 technology start - ups in 2014 -- 15 The agricultural sector is the largest employer in India 's economy but contributes to a declining share of its GDP (17 % in 2013 -- 14). India ranks second worldwide in farm output. The industry (manufacturing) sector has held a steady share of its economic contribution (26 % of GDP in 2013 -- 14). The Indian automobile industry is one of the largest in the world with an annual production of 21.48 million vehicles (mostly two and three - wheelers) in 2013 -- 14. India had $600 billion worth of retail market in 2015 and one of world 's fastest growing e-commerce markets.
The combination of protectionist, import - substitution, Fabian socialism, and social democratic - inspired policies governed India for sometime after the end of British rule. The economy was then characterised by extensive regulation, protectionism, public ownership of large monopolies, pervasive corruption and slow growth. Since 1991, continuing economic liberalisation has moved the country towards a market - based economy. By 2008, India had established itself as one of the world 's faster - growing economies.
The citizens of the Indus Valley Civilisation, a permanent settlement that flourished between 2800 BC and 1800 BC, practised agriculture, domesticated animals, used uniform weights and measures, made tools and weapons, and traded with other cities. Evidence of well - planned streets, a drainage system and water supply reveals their knowledge of urban planning, which included the first - known urban sanitation systems and the existence of a form of municipal government.
For a continuous duration of nearly 1700 years from the year 1 AD, India is the top most economy constituting 35 to 40 % of world GDP.
Maritime trade was carried out extensively between South India and Southeast and West Asia from early times until around the fourteenth century AD. Both the Malabar and Coromandel Coasts were the sites of important trading centres from as early as the first century BC, used for import and export as well as transit points between the Mediterranean region and southeast Asia. Over time, traders organised themselves into associations which received state patronage. Historians Tapan Raychaudhuri and Irfan Habib claim this state patronage for overseas trade came to an end by the thirteenth century AD, when it was largely taken over by the local Parsi, Jewish, Syrian Christian and Muslim communities, initially on the Malabar and subsequently on the Coromandel coast.
Other scholars suggest trading from India to West Asia and Eastern Europe was active between the 14th and 18th centuries. During this period, Indian traders settled in Surakhani, a suburb of greater Baku, Azerbaijan. These traders built a Hindu temple, which suggests commerce was active and prosperous for Indians by the 17th century.
Further north, the Saurashtra and Bengal coasts played an important role in maritime trade, and the Gangetic plains and the Indus valley housed several centres of river - borne commerce. Most overland trade was carried out via the Khyber Pass connecting the Punjab region with Afghanistan and onward to the Middle East and Central Asia. Although many kingdoms and rulers issued coins, barter was prevalent. Villages paid a portion of their agricultural produce as revenue to the rulers, while their craftsmen received a part of the crops at harvest time for their services.
The Indian economy was large and prosperous under the Mughal Empire, up until the 18th century. Sean Harkin estimates China and India may have accounted for 60 to 70 percent of world GDP in the 17th century. The Mughal economy functioned on an elaborate system of coined currency, land revenue and trade. Gold, silver and copper coins were issued by the royal mints which functioned on the basis of free coinage. The political stability and uniform revenue policy resulting from a centralised administration under the Mughals, coupled with a well - developed internal trade network, ensured that India -- before the arrival of the British -- was to a large extent economically unified, despite having a traditional agrarian economy characterised by a predominance of subsistence agriculture, with 64 % of the workforce in the primary sector (including agriculture), but with 36 % of the workforce also in the secondary and tertiary sectors, higher than in Europe, where 65 -- 90 % of its workforce were in agriculture in 1700 and 65 -- 75 % were in agriculture in 1750. Agricultural production increased under Mughal agrarian reforms, with Indian agriculture being advanced compared to Europe at the time, such as the widespread use of the seed drill among Indian peasants before its adoption in European agriculture, and higher per - capita agricultural output and standards of consumption.
The Mughal Empire had a thriving industrial manufacturing economy, with India producing about 25 % of the world 's industrial output up until 1750, making it the most important manufacturing center in international trade. Manufactured goods and cash crops from the Mughal Empire were sold throughout the world. Key industries included textiles, shipbuilding, and steel, and processed exports included cotton textiles, yarns, thread, silk, jute products, metalware, and foods such as sugar, oils and butter. Cities and towns boomed under the Mughal Empire, which had a relatively high degree of urbanization for its time, with 15 % of its population living in urban centres, higher than the percentage of the urban population in contemporary Europe at the time and higher than that of British India in the 19th century.
In early modern Europe, there was significant demand for products from Mughal India, particularly cotton textiles, as well as goods such as spices, peppers, indigo, silks, and saltpeter (for use in munitions). European fashion, for example, became increasingly dependent on Mughal Indian textiles and silks. From the late 17th century to the early 18th century, Mughal India accounted for 95 % of British imports from Asia, and the Bengal Subah province alone accounted for 40 % of Dutch imports from Asia. In contrast, there was very little demand for European goods in Mughal India, which was largely self - sufficient. Indian goods, especially those from Bengal, were also exported in large quantities to other Asian markets, such as Indonesia and Japan. At the time, Mughal Bengal was the most important center of cotton textile production and shipbuilding.
In the early 18th century, the Mughal Empire declined, as it lost western, central and parts of south and north India to the Maratha Empire, which integrated and continued to administer those regions. The decline of the Mughal Empire led to decreased agricultural productivity, which in turn negatively affected the textile industry. The subcontinent 's dominant economic power in the post-Mughal era was the Bengal Subah in the east., which continued to maintain thriving textile industries and relatively high real wages. However, the former was devastated by the Maratha invasions of Bengal and then British colonization in the mid-18th century. After the loss at the Third Battle of Panipat, the Maratha Empire disintegrated into several confederate states, and the resulting political instability and armed conflict severely affected economic life in several parts of the country -- although this was mitigated by localised prosperity in the new provincial kingdoms. By the late eighteenth century, the British East India Company had entered the Indian political theatre and established its dominance over other European powers. This marked a determinative shift in India 's trade, and a less - powerful impact on the rest of the economy.
There is no doubt that our grievances against the British Empire had a sound basis. As the painstaking statistical work of the Cambridge historian Angus Maddison has shown, India 's share of world income collapsed from 22.6 % in 1700, almost equal to Europe 's share of 23.3 % at that time, to as low as 3.8 % in 1952. Indeed, at the beginning of the 20th century, "the brightest jewel in the British Crown '' was the poorest country in the world in terms of per capita income.
From the beginning of the 19th century, the British East India Company 's gradual expansion and consolidation of power brought a major change in taxation and agricultural policies, which tended to promote commercialisation of agriculture with a focus on trade, resulting in decreased production of food crops, mass impoverishment and destitution of farmers, and in the short term, led to numerous famines. The economic policies of the British Raj caused a severe decline in the handicrafts and handloom sectors, due to reduced demand and dipping employment. After the removal of international restrictions by the Charter of 1813, Indian trade expanded substantially with steady growth. The result was a significant transfer of capital from India to England, which, due to the colonial policies of the British, led to a massive drain of revenue rather than any systematic effort at modernisation of the domestic economy.
Under British rule, India 's share of the world economy declined from 24.4 % in 1700 down to 4.2 % in 1950. India 's GDP (PPP) per capita was stagnant during the Mughal Empire and began to decline prior to the onset of British rule. India 's share of global industrial output declined from 25 % in 1750 down to 2 % in 1900. At the same time, the United Kingdom 's share of the world economy rose from 2.9 % in 1700 up to 9 % in 1870. The British East India Company, following their conquest of Bengal in 1757, had forced open the large Indian market to British goods, which could be sold in India without tariffs or duties, compared to local Indian producers who were heavily taxed, while in Britain protectionist policies such as bans and high tariffs were implemented to restrict Indian textiles from being sold there, whereas raw cotton was imported from India without tariffs to British factories which manufactured textiles from Indian cotton and sold them back to the Indian market. British economic policies gave them a monopoly over India 's large market and cotton resources. India served as both a significant supplier of raw goods to British manufacturers and a large captive market for British manufactured goods.
British territorial expansion in India throughout the 19th century created an institutional environment that, on paper, guaranteed property rights among the colonisers, encouraged free trade, and created a single currency with fixed exchange rates, standardised weights and measures and capital markets within the company - held territories. It also established a system of railways and telegraphs, a civil service that aimed to be free from political interference, a common - law and an adversarial legal system. This coincided with major changes in the world economy -- industrialisation, and significant growth in production and trade. However, at the end of colonial rule, India inherited an economy that was one of the poorest in the developing world, with industrial development stalled, agriculture unable to feed a rapidly growing population, a largely illiterate and unskilled labour force, and extremely inadequate infrastructure.
The 1872 census revealed that 91.3 % of the population of the region constituting present - day India resided in villages. This was a decline from the earlier Mughal era, when 85 % of the population resided in villages and 15 % in urban centers under Akbar 's reign in 1600. Urbanisation generally remained sluggish in British India until the 1920s, due to the lack of industrialisation and absence of adequate transportation. Subsequently, the policy of discriminating protection (where certain important industries were given financial protection by the state), coupled with the Second World War, saw the development and dispersal of industries, encouraging rural -- urban migration, and in particular the large port cities of Bombay, Calcutta and Madras grew rapidly. Despite this, only one - sixth of India 's population lived in cities by 1951.
The impact of British rule on India 's economy is a controversial topic. Leaders of the Indian independence movement and economic historians have blamed colonial rule for the dismal state of India 's economy in its aftermath and argued that financial strength required for industrial development in Britain was derived from the wealth taken from India. At the same time, right - wing historians have countered that India 's low economic performance was due to various sectors being in a state of growth and decline due to changes brought in by colonialism and a world that was moving towards industrialisation and economic integration.
Several economic historians have argued that real wage decline occurred in the early 19th century, or possibly beginning in the very late 18th century, largely as a result of British imperialism. Economic historian Prasannan Parthasarathi presented earnings data which showed real wages and living standards in 18th century Bengal and Mysore being higher than in Britain, which in turn had the highest living standards in Europe. Mysore 's average per - capita income was five times higher than subsistence level, i.e. five times higher than $400 (1990 international dollars), or $2,000 per capita. In comparison, the highest national per - capita incomes in 1820 were $1,838 for the Netherlands and $1,706 for Britain. It has also been argued that India went through a period of deindustrialization in the latter half of the 18th century as an indirect outcome of the collapse of the Mughal Empire.
Indian economic policy after independence was influenced by the colonial experience, which was seen as exploitative by Indian leaders exposed to British social democracy and the planned economy of the Soviet Union. Domestic policy tended towards protectionism, with a strong emphasis on import substitution industrialisation, economic interventionism, a large government - run public sector, business regulation, and central planning, while trade and foreign investment policies were relatively liberal. Five - Year Plans of India resembled central planning in the Soviet Union. Steel, mining, machine tools, telecommunications, insurance, and power plants, among other industries, were effectively nationalised in the mid-1950s.
Never talk to me about profit, Jeh, it is a dirty word.
Jawaharlal Nehru, the first prime minister of India, along with the statistician Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis, formulated and oversaw economic policy during the initial years of the country 's independence. They expected favourable outcomes from their strategy, involving the rapid development of heavy industry by both public and private sectors, and based on direct and indirect state intervention, rather than the more extreme Soviet - style central command system. The policy of concentrating simultaneously on capital - and technology - intensive heavy industry and subsidising manual, low - skill cottage industries was criticised by economist Milton Friedman, who thought it would waste capital and labour, and retard the development of small manufacturers. The rate of growth of the Indian economy in the first three decades after independence was derisively referred to as the Hindu rate of growth by economists, because of the unfavourable comparison with growth rates in other Asian countries.
I can not decide how much to borrow, what shares to issue, at what price, what wages and bonus to pay, and what dividend to give. I even need the government 's permission for the salary I pay to a senior executive.
Since 1965, the use of high - yielding varieties of seeds, increased fertilisers and improved irrigation facilities collectively contributed to the Green Revolution in India, which improved the condition of agriculture by increasing crop productivity, improving crop patterns and strengthening forward and backward linkages between agriculture and industry. However, it has also been criticised as an unsustainable effort, resulting in the growth of capitalistic farming, ignoring institutional reforms and widening income disparities.
Subsequently, the Emergency and Garibi Hatao concept under which income tax levels at one point rose to a maximum of 97.5 % -- a world record for non-communist economies -- started diluting the earlier efforts.
In the late 1970s, the government led by Morarji Desai eased restrictions on capacity expansion for incumbent companies, removed price controls, reduced corporate taxes and promoted the creation of small - scale industries in large numbers.
The collapse of the Soviet Union, which was India 's major trading partner, and the Gulf War, which caused a spike in oil prices, resulted in a major balance - of - payments crisis for India, which found itself facing the prospect of defaulting on its loans. India asked for a $1.8 billion bailout loan from the International Monetary Fund (IMF), which in return demanded de-regulation.
In response, the Narasimha Rao government, including Finance Minister Manmohan Singh, initiated economic reforms in 1991. The reforms did away with the Licence Raj, reduced tariffs and interest rates and ended many public monopolies, allowing automatic approval of foreign direct investment in many sectors. Since then, the overall thrust of liberalisation has remained the same, although no government has tried to take on powerful lobbies such as trade unions and farmers, on contentious issues such as reforming labour laws and reducing agricultural subsidies. By the turn of the 21st century, India had progressed towards a free - market economy, with a substantial reduction in state control of the economy and increased financial liberalisation. This has been accompanied by increases in life expectancy, literacy rates and food security, although urban residents have benefited more than rural residents.
While the credit rating of India was hit by its nuclear weapons tests in 1998, it has since been raised to investment level in 2003 by Standard & Poor 's (S&P) and Moody 's. India experienced high growth rates, averaging 9 % from 2003 to 2007. Growth then moderated in 2008 due to the global financial crisis. In 2003, Goldman Sachs predicted that India 's GDP in current prices would overtake France and Italy by 2020, Germany, UK and Russia by 2025 and Japan by 2035, making it the third - largest economy of the world, behind the US and China. India is often seen by most economists as a rising economic superpower which will play a major role in the 21st - century global economy.
Starting in 2012, India entered a period of reduced growth, which slowed to 5.6 %. Other economic problems also became apparent: a plunging Indian rupee, a persistent high current account deficit and slow industrial growth. Hit by the US Federal Reserve 's decision to taper quantitative easing, foreign investors began rapidly pulling money out of India -- though this reversed with the stock market approaching its all - time high and the current account deficit narrowing substantially.
India started recovery in 2013 -- 14 when the GDP growth rate accelerated to 6.4 % from the previous year 's 5.5 %. The acceleration continued through 2014 - 15 and 2015 -- 16 with growth rates of 7.5 % and 8.0 % respectively. For the first time since 1990, India grew faster than China which registered 6.9 % growth in 2015. However the growth rate subsequently decelerated, to 7.1 % and 6.6 % in 2016 - 17 and 2017 - 18 respectively, partly because of the disruptive effects of 2016 Indian banknote demonetisation and the Goods and Services Tax (India).
India is ranked 100th out of 190 countries in the World Bank 's 2018 ease of doing business index, up 30 points from the last year 's 130. This is first time in history where India got into the top 100 rank. In terms of dealing with construction permits and enforcing contracts, it is ranked among the 10 worst in the world, while it has a relatively favourable ranking when it comes to protecting minority investors or getting credit. The strong efforts taken by the Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion (DIPP) to boost ease of doing business rankings at the state level is said to impact the overall rankings of India.
Historically, India has classified and tracked its economy and GDP in three sectors: agriculture, industry and services. Agriculture includes crops, horticulture, milk and animal husbandry, aquaculture, fishing, sericulture, aviculture, forestry and related activities. Industry includes various manufacturing sub-sectors. India 's definition of services sector includes its construction, retail, software, IT, communications, hospitality, infrastructure operations, education, health care, banking and insurance, and many other economic activities.
India ranks second worldwide in farm output. Agriculture and allied sectors like forestry, logging and fishing accounted for 17 % of the GDP and employed 49 % of its total workforce in 2014. Agriculture accounted for 23 % of GDP, and employed 59 % of the country 's total workforce in 2016. As the Indian economy has diversified and grown, agriculture 's contribution to GDP has steadily declined from 1951 to 2011, yet it is still the country 's largest employment source and a significant piece of its overall socio - economic development. Crop - yield - per - unit - area of all crops has grown since 1950, due to the special emphasis placed on agriculture in the five - year plans and steady improvements in irrigation, technology, application of modern agricultural practices and provision of agricultural credit and subsidies since the Green Revolution in India. However, international comparisons reveal the average yield in India is generally 30 % to 50 % of the highest average yield in the world. The states of Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Bihar, West Bengal, Gujarat and Maharashtra are key contributors to Indian agriculture.
India receives an average annual rainfall of 1,208 millimetres (47.6 in) and a total annual precipitation of 4000 billion cubic metres, with the total utilisable water resources, including surface and groundwater, amounting to 1123 billion cubic metres. 546,820 square kilometres (211,130 sq mi) of the land area, or about 39 % of the total cultivated area, is irrigated. India 's inland water resources and marine resources provide employment to nearly six million people in the fisheries sector. In 2010, India had the world 's sixth - largest fishing industry.
India is the largest producer of milk, jute and pulses, and has the world 's second - largest cattle population with 170 million animals in 2011. It is the second - largest producer of rice, wheat, sugarcane, cotton and groundnuts, as well as the second - largest fruit and vegetable producer, accounting for 10.9 % and 8.6 % of the world fruit and vegetable production, respectively. India is also the second - largest producer and the largest consumer of silk, producing 77,000 tons in 2005. India is the largest exporter of cashew kernels and cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL). Foreign exchange earned by the country through the export of cashew kernels during 2011 -- 12 reached ₹ 4,390 crore (₹ 43.9 billion) based on statistics from the Cashew Export Promotion Council of India (CEPCI). 131,000 tonnes of kernels were exported during 2011 -- 12. There are about 600 cashew processing units in Kollam, Kerala. India 's foodgrain production remained stagnant at approximately 252 million tonnes (MT) during both the 2015 -- 16 and 2014 -- 15 crop years (July -- June). India exports several agriculture products, such as Basmati rice, wheat, cereals, spices, fresh fruits, dry fruits, buffalo beef meat, cotton, tea, coffee and other cash crops particularly to the Middle East, Southeast and East Asian countries. About 10 percent of its export earnings come from this trade.
Industry accounts for 26 % of GDP and employs 22 % of the total workforce. According to the World Bank, India 's industrial manufacturing GDP output in 2015 was 6th largest in the world on current US dollar basis ($559 billion), and 9th largest on inflation - adjusted constant 2005 US dollar basis ($197.1 billion). The industrial sector underwent significant changes due to the 1991 economic reforms, which removed import restrictions, brought in foreign competition, led to the privatisation of certain government - owned public - sector industries, liberalised the foreign direct investment (FDI) regime, improved infrastructure and led to an expansion in the production of fast - moving consumer goods. Post-liberalisation, the Indian private sector was faced with increasing domestic and foreign competition, including the threat of cheaper Chinese imports. It has since handled the change by squeezing costs, revamping management, and relying on cheap labour and new technology. However, this has also reduced employment generation, even among smaller manufacturers who previously relied on labour - intensive processes.
Petroleum products and chemicals are a major contributor to India 's industrial GDP, and together they contribute over 34 % of its export earnings. India hosts many oil refinery and petrochemical operations, including the world 's largest refinery complex in Jamnagar that processes 1.24 million barrels of crude per day. By volume, the Indian chemical industry was the third - largest producer in Asia, and contributed 5 % of the country 's GDP. India is one of the five - largest producers of agrochemicals, polymers and plastics, dyes and various organic and inorganic chemicals. Despite being a large producer and exporter, India is a net importer of chemicals due to domestic demands.
The chemicals manufacturing industry contributed $141 billion (6 % of GDP) and employed 17.33 million people (4 % of the workforce) in 2016.
The Indian pharmaceutical industry has grown in recent years to become a major manufacturer of health care products to the world. India produced about 8 % of the global pharmaceutical supply in 2011 by value, including over 60,000 generic brands of medicines. The industry grew from $6 billion in 2005 to $36.7 billion in 2016, a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 17.46 %. It is expected to grow at a CAGR of 15.92 % to reach $55 billion in 2020. India is expected to become the sixth - largest pharmaceutical market in the world by 2020. It is one of the fastest - growing industrial sub-sectors and a significant contributor of India 's export earnings. The state of Gujarat has become a hub for the manufacture and export of pharmaceuticals and active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs).
Engineering is the largest sub-sector of India 's industrial sector, by GDP, and the third - largest by exports. It includes transport equipment, machine tools, capital goods, transformers, switchgears, furnaces, and cast and forged parts for turbines, automobiles and railways. The industry employs about four million workers. On a value - added basis, India 's engineering subsector exported $67 billion worth of engineering goods in the 2013 -- 14 fiscal year, and served part of the domestic demand for engineering goods.
The engineering industry of India includes its growing car, motorcycle and scooters industry, and productivity machinery such as tractors. India manufactured and assembled about 18 million passenger and utility vehicles in 2011, of which 2.3 million were exported. India is the largest producer and the largest market for tractors, accounting for 29 % of global tractor production in 2013. India is the 12th - largest producer and 7th - largest consumer of machine tools.
The automotive manufacturing industry contributed $79 billion (4 % of GDP) and employed 6.76 million people (2 % of the workforce) in 2016.
India is one of the largest centres for polishing diamonds and gems and manufacturing jewellery; it is also one of the two largest consumers of gold. After crude oil and petroleum products, the export and import of gold, precious metals, precious stones, gems and jewellery accounts for the largest portion of India 's global trade. The industry contributes about 7 % of India 's GDP, employs millions, and is a major source of its foreign - exchange earnings. The gems and jewellery industry, in 2013, created ₹ 251,000 crore (US $37 billion) in economic output on value - added basis. It is growing sector of Indian economy, and A.T. Kearney projects it to grow to ₹ 500,000 crore (US $75 billion) by 2018.
The gems and jewellery industry has been economically active in India for several thousand years. Until the 18th century, India was the only major reliable source of diamonds. Now, South Africa and Australia are the major sources of diamonds and precious metals, but along with Antwerp, New York, and Ramat Gan, Indian cities such as Surat and Mumbai are the hubs of world 's jewellery polishing, cutting, precision finishing, supply and trade. Unlike other centres, the gems and jewellery industry in India is primarily artisan - driven; the sector is manual, highly fragmented, and almost entirely served by family - owned operations.
The particular strength of this sub-sector is in precision cutting, polishing and processing small diamonds (below one carat). India is also a hub for processing of larger diamonds, pearls and other precious stones. Statistically, 11 out of 12 diamonds set in any jewellery in the world are cut and polished in India. It is also a major hub of gold and other precious - metal - based jewellery. Domestic demand for gold and jewellery products is another driver of India 's GDP.
Textile industry contributes about 4 per cent to the country 's GDP, 14 per cent of the industrial production, and 17 per cent to export earnings. India 's textile industry has transformed in recent years from a declining sector to a rapidly developing one. After freeing the industry in 2004 -- 2005 from a number of limitations, primarily financial, the government permitted massive investment inflows, both domestic and foreign. From 2004 to 2008, total investment into the textile sector increased by 27 billion dollars. Ludhiana produces 90 % of woollens in India and is known as the Manchester of India. Tirupur has gained universal recognition as the leading source of hosiery, knitted garments, casual wear and sportswear. Expanding textile centres such as Ichalkaranji enjoy one of the highest per - capita incomes in the country. India 's cotton farms, fibre and textile industry provides employment to 45 million people in India, including some child labour (1 %). The sector is estimated to employ around 400,000 children under the age of 18.
With strength of over 1.3 million active personnel, India has the third - largest military force and the largest volunteer army. The total budget sanctioned for the Indian military for the financial year 2017 was (US $53.5 billion). Defence spending is expected to rise to US $62 billion by 2022.
The services sector has the largest share of India 's GDP, accounting for 57 % in 2012, up from 15 % in 1950. It is the seventh - largest services sector by nominal GDP, and third largest when purchasing power is taken into account. The services sector provides employment to 27 % of the work force. Information technology and business process outsourcing are among the fastest - growing sectors, having a cumulative growth rate of revenue 33.6 % between fiscal years 1997 -- 98 and 2002 -- 03, and contributing to 25 % of the country 's total exports in 2007 -- 08.
India is the fourth - largest civil aviation market in the world recording an air traffic of 131 million passengers in 2016. The market is estimated to have 800 aircraft by 2020. which would account for 4.3 per cent of global volumes.
Civil aviation in India traces its beginnings to 18 February 1911, when Henri Pequet, a French aviator, carried 6,500 pieces of mail on a Humber biplane from Allahabad to Naini. Later on 15 October 1932, J.R.D. Tata flew a consignment of mail from Karachi to Juhu Airport. His airline later became Air India and was the first Aiasn airline to cross Atlantic Ocean as well as first Asian airline to fly jets..
In March 1953, the Indian Parliament passed the Air Corporations Act to streamline and nationalise the then existing privately owned eight domestic airlines into Indian Airlines for domestic services and the Tata group owned Air India for international services.. The International Airports Authority of India (IAAI) was constituted in 1972 while the National Airports Authority was constituted in 1986. The Bureau of Civil Aviation Security was established in 1987 following the crash of Air India Flight 182.
the government de-regularised the civil aviation sector in 1991 when the government allowed private airlines to operate charter and non-scheduled services under the ' Air Taxi ' Scheme until 1994, when the Air Corporation Act was repealed and private airlines could now operate scheduled services. Private airlines including Jet Airways, Air Sahara, Modiluft, Damania Airways and NEPC Airlines commenced domestic operations during this period.
The aviation industry experienced a rapid transformation following deregulation. Several low - cost carriers entered the Indian market in 2004 -- 05. Major new entrants included Air Deccan, Air Sahara, Kingfisher Airlines, SpiceJet, GoAir, Paramount Airways and IndiGo. Kingfisher Airlines became the first Indian air carrier on 15 June 2005 to order Airbus A380 aircraft worth US $ 3 billion. However, Indian aviation would struggle due to an economic slowdown and rising fuel and operation costs. This led to consolidation, buy outs and discontinuations. In 2007, Air Sahara and Air Deccan were acquired by Jet Airways and Kingfisher Airlines respectively. Paramount Airways ceased operations in 2010 and Kingfisher shut down in 2012. Etihad Airways agreed to acquire a 24 % stake in Jet Airways in 2013. AirAsia India, a low - cost carrier operating as a joint venture between Air Asia and Tata Sons launched in 2014. As of 2013 -- 14, only IndiGo and GoAir were generating profits.
The financial services industry contributed $809 billion (37 % of GDP) and employed 14.17 million people (3 % of the workforce) in 2016, and the banking sector contributed $407 billion (19 % of GDP) and employed 5.5 million people (1 % of the workforce) in 2016. The Indian money market is classified into the organised sector, comprising private, public and foreign - owned commercial banks and cooperative banks, together known as ' scheduled banks '; and the unorganised sector, which includes individual or family - owned indigenous bankers or money lenders and non-banking financial companies. The unorganised sector and microcredit are preferred over traditional banks in rural and sub-urban areas, especially for non-productive purposes such as short - term loans for ceremonies.
Prime Minister Indira Gandhi nationalised 14 banks in 1969, followed by six others in 1980, and made it mandatory for banks to provide 40 % of their net credit to priority sectors including agriculture, small - scale industry, retail trade and small business, to ensure that the banks fulfilled their social and developmental goals. Since then, the number of bank branches has increased from 8,260 in 1969 to 72,170 in 2007 and the population covered by a branch decreased from 63,800 to 15,000 during the same period. The total bank deposits increased from ₹ 59.1 billion (US $880 million) in 1970 -- 71 to ₹ 38,309.22 billion (US $570 billion) in 2008 -- 09. Despite an increase of rural branches -- from 1,860 or 22 % of the total in 1969 to 30,590 or 42 % in 2007 -- only 32,270 of 500,000 villages are served by a scheduled bank.
India 's gross domestic savings in 2006 -- 07 as a percentage of GDP stood at a high 32.8 %. More than half of personal savings are invested in physical assets such as land, houses, cattle, and gold. The government - owned public - sector banks hold over 75 % of total assets of the banking industry, with the private and foreign banks holding 18.2 % and 6.5 % respectively. Since liberalisation, the government has approved significant banking reforms. While some of these relate to nationalised banks -- such as reforms encouraging mergers, reducing government interference and increasing profitability and competitiveness -- other reforms have opened the banking and insurance sectors to private and foreign companies.
According to the report of The National Association of Software and Services Companies (NASSCOM), India has a presence of around 400 companies in the fintech space, with an investment of about $420 million in 2015. The NASSCOM report also estimated the fintech software and services market to grow 1.7 times by 2020, making it worth $8 billion. The Indian fintech landscape is segmented as follows -- 34 % in payment processing, followed by 32 % in banking and 12 % in the trading, public and private markets.
The information technology (IT) industry in India consists of two major components: IT services and business process outsourcing (BPO). The sector has increased its contribution to India 's GDP from 1.2 % in 1998 to 7.5 % in 2012. According to NASSCOM, the sector aggregated revenues of US $ 147 billion in 2015, where export revenue stood at US $ 99 billion and domestic at US $ 48 billion, growing by over 13 %.
The growth in the IT sector is attributed to increased specialisation, and an availability of a large pool of low - cost, highly skilled, fluent English - speaking workers -- matched by increased demand from foreign consumers interested in India 's service exports, or looking to outsource their operations. The share of the Indian IT industry in the country 's GDP increased from 4.8 % in 2005 -- 06 to 7 % in 2008. In 2009, seven Indian firms were listed among the top 15 technology outsourcing companies in the world.
The business process outsourcing services in the outsourcing industry in India caters mainly to Western operations of multinational corporations. As of 2012, around 2.8 million people work in the outsourcing sector. Annual revenues are around $11 billion, around 1 % of GDP. Around 2.5 million people graduate in India every year. Wages are rising by 10 -- 15 percent as a result of skill shortages.
India became the tenth - largest insurance market in the world in 2013, rising from 15th in 2011. At a total market size of US $66.4 billion in 2013, it remains small compared to world 's major economies, and the Indian insurance market accounts for 2 % of the world 's insurance business. India 's life and non-life insurance industry has been growing at 20 %, and double - digit growth is expected to continue through 2021. The market retains about 360 million active life - insurance policies, the most in the world. Of the 52 insurance companies in India, 24 are active in life - insurance business. The life - insurance industry is projected to increase at double - digit CAGR through 2019, reaching US $1 trillion annual notional values by 2021.
The industry reported a growth rate of around 10 % from 1996 -- 97 to 2000 -- 01. After opening the sector, growth rates averaged 15.85 % from 2001 -- 02 to 2010 -- 11. Specialised insurers Export Credit Guarantee Corporation and Agriculture Insurance Company (AIC) offer credit guarantee and crop insurance, respectively. AIC, which initially offered coverage under the National Agriculture Insurance Company (NAIS), has now started providing crop insurance on commercial line as well. It has introduced several innovative products such as weather insurance and insurance related to specific crops. The premium underwritten by the non-life insurers during 2010 -- 11 was ₹ 42,576 crore (₹ 425 billion) against ₹ 34,620 crore (₹ 346 billion) in 2009 -- 10. The growth was satisfactory, particularly given across - the - broad cuts in the tariff rates. The private insurers underwrote premiums of ₹ 17,424 crore (₹ 174 billion) against ₹ 13,977 crore (₹ 140 billion) in 2009 -- 10. Public sector insurers underwrote premiums of ₹ 25,151.8 crore (₹ 252 billion) in 2010 -- 11 against ₹ 20,643.5 crore (₹ 206 billion) in 2009 -- 10, a growth of 21.8 % against 14.5 % in 2009 -- 10.
The Indian insurance business had been under - developed with low levels of insurance penetration. Post liberalisation, the sector has succeeded in raising penetration from 2.3 (life 1.8 and non-life 0.7) in 2000 to 5.1 (life 4.4 and non-life 0.7) in 2010.
Primary energy consumption of India is the third - largest after China and the US with 5.3 % global share in the year 2015. Coal and crude oil together account for 85 % of the primary energy consumption of India. India 's oil reserves meet 25 % of the country 's domestic oil demand. As of April 2015, India 's total proven crude oil reserves are 763.476 million metric tons, while gas reserves stood at 1,490 billion cubic metres (53 trillion cubic feet). Oil and natural gas fields are located offshore at Bombay High, Krishna Godavari Basin and the Cauvery Delta, and onshore mainly in the states of Assam, Gujarat and Rajasthan. India is the fourth - largest consumer of oil and net oil imports were nearly ₹ 820,000 crore (US $120 billion) in 2014 -- 15, which had an adverse effect on the country 's current account deficit. The petroleum industry in India mostly consists of public sector companies such as Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC), Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited (HPCL), Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited (BPCL) and Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL). There are some major private Indian companies in the oil sector such as Reliance Industries Limited (RIL) which operates the world 's largest oil refining complex.
India became the world 's third - largest producer of electricity in 2013 with a 4.8 % global share in electricity generation, surpassing Japan and Russia. By the end of calendar year 2015, India had an electricity surplus with many power stations idling for want of demand. The utility electricity sector had an installed capacity of 303 GW as of May 2016 of which thermal power contributed 69.8 %, hydroelectricity 15.2 %, other sources of renewable energy 13.0 %, and nuclear power 2.1 %. India meets most of its domestic electricity demand through its 106 billion tonnes of proven coal reserves. India is also rich in certain alternative sources of energy with significant future potential such as solar, wind and biofuels (jatropha, sugarcane). India 's dwindling uranium reserves stagnated the growth of nuclear energy in the country for many years. Recent discoveries in the Tummalapalle belt may be among the top 20 natural uranium reserves worldwide, and an estimated reserve of 846,477 metric tons (933,081 short tons) of thorium -- about 25 % of world 's reserves -- are expected to fuel the country 's ambitious nuclear energy program in the long - run. The Indo - US nuclear deal has also paved the way for India to import uranium from other countries.
India 's infrastructure and transport sector contributes about 5 % of its GDP. India has a road network of over 5,472,144 kilometres (3,400,233 mi) as of 31 March 2015, the third - largest road network in the world behind United States and China. At 1.66 km of roads per square kilometre of land (2.68 miles per square mile), the quantitative density of India 's road network is higher than that of Japan (0.91) and the United States (0.67), and far higher than that of China (0.46), Brazil (0.18) or Russia (0.08). Qualitatively, India 's roads are a mix of modern highways and narrow, unpaved roads, and are being improved. As of 31 March 2015, 61.05 % of Indian roads were paved. India has the lowest kilometre - lane road density per 100,000 people among G - 27 countries, leading to traffic congestion. It is upgrading its infrastructure. As of May 2014, India had completed over 22,600 kilometres (14,000 mi) of 4 - or 6 - lane highways, connecting most of its major manufacturing, commercial and cultural centres. India 's road infrastructure carries 60 % of freight and 87 % of passenger traffic.
Indian Railways is the fourth - largest rail network in the world, with a track length of 114,500 kilometres (71,100 mi) and 7,172 stations. This government - owned - and - operated railway network carried an average of 23 million passengers a day, and over a billion tonnes of freight in 2013. India has a coastline of 7,500 kilometres (4,700 mi) with 13 major ports and 60 operational non-major ports, which together handle 95 % of the country 's external trade by volume and 70 % by value (most of the remainder handled by air). Nhava Sheva, Mumbai is the largest public port, while Mundra is the largest private sea port. The airport infrastructure of India includes 125 airports, of which 66 airports are licensed to handle both passengers and cargo.
The retail industry, excluding wholesale, contributed $482 billion (22 % of GDP) and employed 249.94 million people (57 % of the workforce) in 2016. The industry is the second largest employer in India, after agriculture. The Indian retail market is estimated to be US $600 billion and one of the top - five retail markets in the world by economic value. India has one of the fastest - growing retail markets in the world, and is projected to reach $1.3 trillion by 2020.
India 's retail industry mostly consists of local mom - and - pop stores, owner - manned shops and street vendors. Retail supermarkets are expanding, with a market share of 4 % in 2008. In 2012, the government permitted 51 % FDI in multi-brand retail and 100 % FDI in single - brand retail. However, a lack of back - end warehouse infrastructure and state - level permits and red tape continue to limit growth of organised retail. Compliance with over thirty regulations such as "signboard licences '' and "anti-hoarding measures '' must be made before a store can open for business. There are taxes for moving goods from state to state, and even within states. According to The Wall Street Journal, the lack of infrastructure and efficient retail networks cause a third of India 's agriculture produce to be lost from spoilage.
The World Travel & Tourism Council calculated that tourism generated ₹ 15.24 lakh crore (US $230 billion) or 9.4 % of the nation 's GDP in 2017 and supported 41.622 million jobs, 8 % of its total employment. The sector is predicted to grow at an annual rate of 6.9 % to ₹ 32.05 lakh crore (US $480 billion) by 2028 (9.9 % of GDP). Over 10 million foreign tourists arrived in India in 2017 compared to 8.89 million in 2016, recording a growth of 15.6 %. India earned $21.07 billion in foreign exchange from tourism receipts in 2015. International tourism to India has seen a steady growth from 2.37 million arrivals in 1997 to 8.03 million arrivals in 2015. The United States is the largest source of international tourists to India, while European Union nations and Japan are other major sources of international tourists. Less than 10 % of international tourists visit the Taj Mahal, with the majority visiting other cultural, thematic and holiday circuits. Over 12 million Indian citizens take international trips each year for tourism, while domestic tourism within India adds about 740 million Indian travellers.
India has a fast - growing medical tourism sector of its health care economy, offering low - cost health services and long - term care. In October 2015, the medical tourism sector was estimated to be worth US $3 billion. It is projected to grow to $7 -- 8 billion by 2020. In 2014, 184,298 foreign patients traveled to India to seek medical treatment.
India 's healthcare sector is expected to grow at a CAGR of 29 % between 2015 and 2020, to reach US $280 billion, buoyed by rising incomes, greater health awareness, increased precedence of lifestyle diseases, and improved access to health insurance.
The logistics industry in India was worth over $160 billion in 2016, and grew at a CAGR of 7.8 % in the previous five - year period. The industry employs about 22 million people. India was ranked 35th out of 160 countries in the World Bank 's 2016 Logistics Performance Index.
The telecommunication sector generated ₹ 2.20 lakh crore (US $33 billion) in revenue in 2014 -- 15, accounting for 1.94 % of total GDP. India is the second - largest market in the world by number of telephone users (both fixed and mobile phones) with 1.053 billion subscribers as of 31 August 2016. It has one of the lowest call - tariffs in the world, due to fierce competition among telecom operators. India has the world 's third - largest Internet user - base. As of 31 March 2016, there were 342.65 million Internet subscribers in the country.
Industry estimates indicate that there are over 554 million TV consumers in India as of 2012. India is the largest direct - to - home (DTH) television market in the world by number of subscribers. As of May 2016, there were 84.80 million DTH subscribers in the country.
Mining contributed $63 billion (3 % of GDP) and employed 20.14 million people (5 % of the workforce) in 2016. India 's mining industry was the fourth - largest producer of minerals in the world by volume, and eighth - largest producer by value in 2009. In 2013, it mined and processed 89 minerals, of which four were fuel, three were atomic energy minerals, and 80 non-fuel. The government - owned public sector accounted for 68 % of mineral production by volume in 2011 -- 12.
Nearly 50 % of India 's mining industry, by output value, is concentrated in eight states: Odisha, Rajasthan, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka. Another 25 % of the output by value comes from offshore oil and gas resources. India operated about 3,000 mines in 2010, half of which were coal, limestone and iron ore. On output - value basis, India was one of the five largest producers of mica, chromite, coal, lignite, iron ore, bauxite, barites, zinc and manganese; while being one of the ten largest global producers of many other minerals. India was the fourth - largest producer of steel in 2013, and the seventh - largest producer of aluminium.
India 's mineral resources are vast. However, its mining industry has declined -- contributing 2.3 % of its GDP in 2010 compared to 3 % in 2000, and employed 2.9 million people -- a decreasing percentage of its total labour. India is a net importer of many minerals including coal. India 's mining sector decline is because of complex permit, regulatory and administrative procedures, inadequate infrastructure, shortage of capital resources, and slow adoption of environmentally sustainable technologies.
In fiscal year 2014 -- 15, India was the third - largest producer of raw steel and the largest producer of sponge iron. The industry produced 91.46 million tons of finished steel and 9.7 million tons of pig iron. Most iron and steel in India is produced from iron ore.
The construction industry contributed $288 billion (13 % of GDP) and employed 60.42 million people (14 % of the workforce) in 2016.
Until the liberalisation of 1991, India was largely and intentionally isolated from world markets, to protect its economy and to achieve self - reliance. Foreign trade was subject to import tariffs, export taxes and quantitative restrictions, while foreign direct investment (FDI) was restricted by upper - limit equity participation, restrictions on technology transfer, export obligations and government approvals; these approvals were needed for nearly 60 % of new FDI in the industrial sector. The restrictions ensured that FDI averaged only around $200 million annually between 1985 and 1991; a large percentage of the capital flows consisted of foreign aid, commercial borrowing and deposits of non-resident Indians. India 's exports were stagnant for the first 15 years after independence, due to general neglect of trade policy by the government of that period; imports in the same period, with early industrialisation, consisted predominantly of machinery, raw materials and consumer goods. Since liberalisation, the value of India 's international trade has increased sharply, with the contribution of total trade in goods and services to the GDP rising from 16 % in 1990 -- 91 to 47 % in 2009 -- 10. Foreign trade accounted for 48.8 % of India 's GDP in 2015. Globally, India accounts for 1.44 % of exports and 2.12 % of imports for merchandise trade and 3.34 % of exports and 3.31 % of imports for commercial services trade. India 's major trading partners are the European Union, China, the United States and the United Arab Emirates. In 2006 -- 07, major export commodities included engineering goods, petroleum products, chemicals and pharmaceuticals, gems and jewellery, textiles and garments, agricultural products, iron ore and other minerals. Major import commodities included crude oil and related products, machinery, electronic goods, gold and silver. In November 2010, exports increased 22.3 % year - on - year to ₹ 850.63 billion (US $13 billion), while imports were up 7.5 % at ₹ 1,251.33 billion (US $19 billion). The trade deficit for the same month dropped from ₹ 468.65 billion (US $7.0 billion) in 2009 to ₹ 400.7 billion (US $6.0 billion) in 2010.
India is a founding - member of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and its successor, the WTO. While participating actively in its general council meetings, India has been crucial in voicing the concerns of the developing world. For instance, India has continued its opposition to the inclusion of labour, environmental issues and other non-tariff barriers to trade in WTO policies.
Since independence, India 's balance of payments on its current account has been negative. Since economic liberalisation in the 1990s, precipitated by a balance - of - payment crisis, India 's exports rose consistently, covering 80.3 % of its imports in 2002 -- 03, up from 66.2 % in 1990 -- 91. However, the global economic slump followed by a general deceleration in world trade saw the exports as a percentage of imports drop to 61.4 % in 2008 -- 09. India 's growing oil import bill is seen as the main driver behind the large current account deficit, which rose to $118.7 billion, or 11.11 % of GDP, in 2008 -- 09. Between January and October 2010, India imported $82.1 billion worth of crude oil. The Indian economy has run a trade deficit every year from 2002 to 2012, with a merchandise trade deficit of US $189 billion in 2011 -- 12. Its trade with China has the largest deficit, about $31 billion in 2013.
India 's reliance on external assistance and concessional debt has decreased since liberalisation of the economy, and the debt service ratio decreased from 35.3 % in 1990 -- 91 to 4.4 % in 2008 -- 09. In India, external commercial borrowings (ECBs), or commercial loans from non-resident lenders, are being permitted by the government for providing an additional source of funds to Indian corporates. The Ministry of Finance monitors and regulates them through ECB policy guidelines issued by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) under the Foreign Exchange Management Act of 1999. India 's foreign exchange reserves have steadily risen from $5.8 billion in March 1991 to $318.6 billion in December 2009. In 2012, the United Kingdom announced an end to all financial aid to India, citing the growth and robustness of Indian economy.
India 's current account deficit reached an all - time high in 2013. India has historically funded its current account deficit through borrowings by companies in the overseas markets or remittances by non-resident Indians and portfolio inflows. From April 2016 to January 2017, RBI data showed that, for the first time since 1991, India was funding its deficit through foreign direct investment inflows. The Economic Times noted that the development was "a sign of rising confidence among long - term investors in Prime Minister Narendra Modi 's ability to strengthen the country 's economic foundation for sustained growth ''.
As the third - largest economy in the world in PPP terms, India has attracted foreign direct investment (FDI). During the year 2011, FDI inflow into India stood at $36.5 billion, 51.1 % higher than the 2010 figure of $24.15 billion. India has strengths in telecommunication, information technology and other significant areas such as auto components, chemicals, apparels, pharmaceuticals, and jewellery. Despite a surge in foreign investments, rigid FDI policies were a significant hindrance. Over time, India has adopted a number of FDI reforms. India has a large pool of skilled managerial and technical expertise. The size of the middle - class population stands at 300 million and represents a growing consumer market.
India liberalised its FDI policy in 2005, allowing up to a 100 % FDI stake in ventures. Industrial policy reforms have substantially reduced industrial licensing requirements, removed restrictions on expansion and facilitated easy access to foreign technology and investment. The upward growth curve of the real - estate sector owes some credit to a booming economy and liberalised FDI regime. In March 2005, the government amended the rules to allow 100 % FDI in the construction sector, including built - up infrastructure and construction development projects comprising housing, commercial premises, hospitals, educational institutions, recreational facilities, and city - and regional - level infrastructure. Between 2012 and 2014, India extended these reforms to defence, telecom, oil, retail, aviation, and other sectors.
From 2000 to 2010, the country attracted $178 billion as FDI. The inordinately high investment from Mauritius is due to routing of international funds through the country given significant tax advantages -- double taxation is avoided due to a tax treaty between India and Mauritius, and Mauritius is a capital gains tax haven, effectively creating a zero - taxation FDI channel. FDI accounted for 2.1 % of India 's GDP in 2015.
As the government has eased 87 foreign investment direct rules across 21 sectors in the last three years, FDI inflows hit $60.1 billion between 2016 and 2017 in India.
Since 2000, Indian companies have expanded overseas, investing FDI and creating jobs outside India. From 2006 to 2010, FDI by Indian companies outside India amounted to 1.34 per cent of its GDP. Indian companies have deployed FDI and started operations in the United States, Europe and Africa. The Indian company Tata is the United Kingdom 's largest manufacturer and private - sector employer.
In 2015, a total of US $68.91 billion was made in remittances to India from other countries, and a total of US $8.476 billion was made in remittances by foreign workers in India to their home countries. The UAE, the US, and Saudi Arabia were the top sources of remittances to India, while Bangladesh, Pakistan and Nepal were the top recipients of remittances from India. Remittances to India accounted for 3.32 % of the country 's GDP in 2015.
Between 1985 and 2018 20,846 deals have been announced in, into (inbound) and out of (outbound) India. This cumulates to a value of 618 bil. USD. In terms of value, 2010 has been the most active year with deals worth almost 60 bil. USD. Most deals have been conducted in 2007 (1,510).
Here is a list of the top 10 deals with Indian companies participating:
The Indian rupee (₹) is the only legal tender in India, and is also accepted as legal tender in neighbouring Nepal and Bhutan, both of which peg their currency to that of the Indian rupee. The rupee is divided into 100 paisas. The highest - denomination banknote is the ₹ 2,000 note; the lowest - denomination coin in circulation is the 50 paise coin. Since 30 June 2011, all denominations below 50 paise have ceased to be legal currency. India 's monetary system is managed by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), the country 's central bank. Established on 1 April 1935 and nationalised in 1949, the RBI serves as the nation 's monetary authority, regulator and supervisor of the monetary system, banker to the government, custodian of foreign exchange reserves, and as an issuer of currency. It is governed by a central board of directors, headed by a governor who is appointed by the Government of India. The benchmark interest rates are set by the Monetary Policy Committee.
The rupee was linked to the British pound from 1927 to 1946, and then to the US dollar until 1975 through a fixed exchange rate. It was devalued in September 1975 and the system of fixed par rate was replaced with a basket of four major international currencies: the British pound, the US dollar, the Japanese yen and the Deutsche mark. In 1991, after the collapse of its largest trading partner, the Soviet Union, India faced the major foreign exchange crisis and the rupee was devalued by around 19 % in two stages on 1 and 2 July. In 1992, a Liberalized Exchange Rate Mechanism (LERMS) was introduced. Under LERMS, exporters had to surrender 40 percent of their foreign exchange earnings to the RBI at the RBI - determined exchange rate; the remaining 60 % could be converted at the market - determined exchange rate. In 1994, the rupee was convertible on the current account, with some capital controls.
After the sharp devaluation in 1991 and transition to current account convertibility in 1994, the value of the rupee has been largely determined by market forces. The rupee has been fairly stable during the decade 2000 -- 2010. In September 2013, the rupee touched an all - time low 68.27 to the US dollar.
India 's gross national income per capita had experienced high growth rates since 2002. It tripled from ₹ 19,040 in 2002 -- 03 to ₹ 53,331 in 2010 -- 11, averaging 13.7 % growth each of these eight years, with peak growth of 15.6 % in 2010 -- 11. However growth in the inflation - adjusted per - capita income of the nation slowed to 5.6 % in 2010 -- 11, down from 6.4 % in the previous year. These consumption levels are on an individual basis. The average family income in India was $6,671 per household in 2011.
According to 2011 census data, India has about 330 million houses and 247 million households. The household size in India has dropped in recent years, the 2011 census reporting 50 % of households have four or fewer members, with an average 4.8 members per household including surviving grandparents. These households produced a GDP of about $1.7 trillion. Consumption patterns note: approximately 67 % of households use firewood, crop residue or cow - dung cakes for cooking purposes; 53 % do not have sanitation or drainage facilities on premises; 83 % have water supply within their premises or 100 metres (330 ft) from their house in urban areas and 500 metres (1,600 ft) from the house in rural areas; 67 % of the households have access to electricity; 63 % of households have landline or mobile telephone service; 43 % have a television; 26 % have either a two - or four - wheel motor vehicle. Compared to 2001, these income and consumption trends represent moderate to significant improvements. One report in 2010 claimed that high - income households outnumber low - income households.
New World Wealth publishes reports tracking the total wealth of countries, which is measured as the private wealth held by all residents of a country. According to New World Wealth, India 's total wealth increased from $3,165 billion in 2007 to $8,230 billion in 2017, a growth rate of 160 %. India 's total wealth rose by 25 % from $6.2 trillion in 2016 to $8.23 trillion in 2017, making it the sixth wealthiest nation in the world. There are 20,730 multimillionaires (7th largest in the world) and 119 billionaires in India (3rd largest in the world). With 330,400 high net - worth individuals (HNWI), India is home to the 9th highest number of HNWIs in the world. Mumbai is the wealthiest Indian city and the 12th wealthiest in the world, with a total net worth of $950 billion in 2017. Twenty - eight billionaires reside in the city. As of December 2016, the next wealthiest cities in India were Delhi ($450 billion), Bangalore ($320 billion), Hyderabad ($310 billion), Kolkata ($290 billion), Chennai ($150 billion) and Gurgaon ($110 billion).
In May 2014, the World Bank reviewed and proposed revisions to its poverty calculation methodology of 2005 and purchasing - power - parity basis for measuring poverty. According to the revised methodology, the world had 872.3 million people below the new poverty line, of which 179.6 million lived in India. With 17.5 % of total world 's population, India had a 20.6 % share of world 's poorest in 2013. According to a 2005 -- 2006 survey, India had about 61 million children under the age of 5 who were chronically malnourished. A 2011 UNICEF report stated that between 1990 and 2010, India achieved a 45 percent reduction in under age 5 mortality rates, and now ranks 46th of 188 countries on this metric.
Since the early 1960s, successive governments have implemented various schemes to alleviate poverty, under central planning, that have met with partial success. In 2005, the government enacted the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), guaranteeing 100 days of minimum wage employment to every rural household in all the districts of India. In 2011, it was widely criticised and beset with controversy for corrupt officials, deficit financing as the source of funds, poor quality of infrastructure built under the programme, and unintended destructive effects. Other studies suggest that the programme has helped reduce rural poverty in some cases. Yet other studies report that India 's economic growth has been the driver of sustainable employment and poverty reduction, though a sizeable population remains in poverty.
Agricultural and allied sectors accounted for about 52.1 % of the total workforce in 2009 -- 10. While agriculture employment has fallen over time in percentage of labour employed, services which includes construction and infrastructure have seen a steady growth accounting for 20.3 % of employment in 2012 -- 13. Of the total workforce, 7 % is in the organised sector, two - thirds of which are in the government - controlled public sector. About 51.2 % of the workforce in India is self - employed. According to a 2005 -- 06 survey, there is a gender gap in employment and salaries. In rural areas, both men and women are primarily self - employed, mostly in agriculture. In urban areas, salaried work was the largest source of employment for both men and women in 2006.
Unemployment in India is characterised by chronic (disguised) unemployment. Government schemes that target eradication of both poverty and unemployment -- which in recent decades has sent millions of poor and unskilled people into urban areas in search of livelihoods -- attempt to solve the problem by providing financial assistance for starting businesses, honing skills, setting up public sector enterprises, reservations in governments, etc. The decline in organised employment, due to the decreased role of the public sector after liberalisation, has further underlined the need for focusing on better education and created political pressure for further reforms. India 's labour regulations are heavy, even by developing country standards, and analysts have urged the government to abolish or modify them in order to make the environment more conducive for employment generation. The 11th five - year plan has also identified the need for a congenial environment to be created for employment generation, by reducing the number of permissions and other bureaucratic clearances required. Inequalities and inadequacies in the education system have been identified as an obstacle, which prevents the benefits of increased employment opportunities from reaching all sectors of society.
Child labour in India is a complex problem that is rooted in poverty. Since the 1990s, the government has implemented a variety of programs to eliminate child labour. These have included setting up schools, launching free school lunch programs, creating special investigation cells, etc. Author Sonalde Desai stated that recent studies on child labour in India have found some pockets of industries in which children are employed, but overall, relatively few Indian children are employed. Child labour below the age of 10 is now rare. In the 10 -- 14 age group, the latest surveys find only 2 % of children working for wage, while another 9 % work within their home or rural farms assisting their parents in times of high work demand such as sowing and harvesting of crops.
India has the largest diaspora around the world, an estimated 16 million people, many of whom work overseas and remit funds back to their families. The Middle East region is the largest source of employment of expat Indians. The crude oil production and infrastructure industry of Saudi Arabia employs over 2 million expat Indians. Cities such as Dubai and Abu Dhabi in United Arab Emirates have employed another 2 million Indians during the construction boom in recent decades. In 2009 -- 10, remittances from Indian migrants overseas stood at ₹ 2,500 billion (US $37 billion), the highest in the world, but their share in FDI remained low at around 1 %.
With 1.27 billion people and the world 's third - largest economy in terms of purchasing power, India 's recent growth and development has been one of the most significant achievements of our times. Over the six and half decades since independence, the country has brought about a landmark agricultural revolution that has transformed the nation from chronic dependence on grain imports into a global agricultural powerhouse that is now a net exporter of food. Life expectancy has more than doubled, literacy rates have quadrupled, health conditions have improved. India will soon have the largest and youngest workforce the world has ever seen. At the same time, the country is in the midst of a massive wave of urbanization as some 10 million people move to towns and cities each year in search of jobs and opportunity. It is the largest rural - urban migration of this century. Massive investments will be needed to create the jobs, housing, and infrastructure to meet soaring aspirations and make towns and cities more livable and green.
Agriculture is an important part of the Indian economy. At around 1,530,000 square kilometres (590,000 sq mi), India has the second - largest amount of arable land, after the US, with 52 % of total land under cultivation. Although the total land area of the country is only slightly more than one third of China or the US, India 's arable land is marginally smaller than that of the US, and marginally larger than that of China. However, agricultural output lags far behind its potential. The low productivity in India is a result of several factors. According to the World Bank, India 's large agricultural subsidies are distorting what farmers grow and hampering productivity - enhancing investment. Over-regulation of agriculture has increased costs, price risks and uncertainty, and governmental intervention in labour, land, and credit are hurting the market. Infrastructure such as rural roads, electricity, ports, food storage, retail markets and services remain inadequate. The average size of land holdings is very small, with 70 % of holdings being less than one hectare (2.5 acres) in size. Irrigation facilities are inadequate, as revealed by the fact that only 46 % of the total cultivable land was irrigated as of 2016, resulting in farmers still being dependent on rainfall, specifically the monsoon season, which is often inconsistent and unevenly distributed across the country. In an effort to bring an additional two crore hectares (20 million hectares; 50 million acres) of land under irrigation, various schemes have been attempted, including the Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme (AIBP) which was provided ₹ 80,000 crore (₹ 800 billion) in the union budget. Farming incomes are also hampered by lack of food storage and distribution infrastructure; a third of India 's agricultural production is lost from spoilage.
Corruption has been a pervasive problem in India. A 2005 study by Transparency International (TI) found that more than half of those surveyed had first - hand experience of paying a bribe or peddling influence to get a job done in a public office in the previous year. A follow - up study in 2008 found this rate to be 40 percent. In 2011, TI ranked India at 95th place amongst 183 countries in perceived levels of public sector corruption. By 2016, India saw a reduction in corruption and its ranking improved to 79th place.
In 1996, red tape, bureaucracy and the Licence Raj were suggested as a cause for the institutionalised corruption and inefficiency. More recent reports suggest the causes of corruption include excessive regulations and approval requirements, mandated spending programs, monopoly of certain goods and service providers by government - controlled institutions, bureaucracy with discretionary powers, and lack of transparent laws and processes.
Computerisation of services, various central and state vigilance commissions, and the 2005 Right to Information Act -- which requires government officials to furnish information requested by citizens or face punitive action -- have considerably reduced corruption and opened avenues to redress grievances.
In 2011, the Indian government concluded that most spending fails to reach its intended recipients, as the large and inefficient bureaucracy consumes budgets. India 's absence rates are among the worst in the world; one study found that 25 % of public sector teachers and 40 % of government - owned public - sector medical workers could not be found at the workplace. Similarly, there are many issues facing Indian scientists, with demands for transparency, a meritocratic system, and an overhaul of the bureaucratic agencies that oversee science and technology.
India has an underground economy, with a 2006 report alleging that India topped the worldwide list for black money with almost $1,456 billion stashed in Swiss banks. This would amount to 13 times the country 's total external debt. These allegations have been denied by the Swiss Banking Association. James Nason, the Head of International Communications for the Swiss Banking Association, suggested "The (black money) figures were rapidly picked up in the Indian media and in Indian opposition circles, and circulated as gospel truth. However, this story was a complete fabrication. The Swiss Bankers Association never published such a report. Anyone claiming to have such figures (for India) should be forced to identify their source and explain the methodology used to produce them. '' A recent step taken by Prime Minister Modi, on 8 November 2016, involved the demonetization of all 500 and 1000 rupee bank notes (replaced by new 500 and 2000 rupee notes) in order to return black money into the economy.
India has made progress increasing the primary education attendance rate and expanding literacy to approximately three - fourths of the population. India 's literacy rate had grown from 52.2 % in 1991 to 74.04 % in 2011. The right to education at elementary level has been made one of the fundamental rights under the eighty - sixth Amendment of 2002, and legislation has been enacted to further the objective of providing free education to all children. However, the literacy rate of 74 % is lower than the worldwide average and the country suffers from a high drop - out rate. Literacy rates and educational opportunities vary by region, gender, urban and rural areas, and among different social groups.
Poverty rates in India 's poorest states are three to four times higher than those in the more advanced states. While India 's average annual per capita income was $1,410 in 2011 -- placing it among the poorest of the world 's middle - income countries -- it was just $436 in Uttar Pradesh (which has more people than Brazil) and only $294 in Bihar, one of India 's poorest states.
A critical problem facing India 's economy is the sharp and growing regional variations among India 's different states and territories in terms of poverty, availability of infrastructure and socio - economic development. Six low - income states -- Assam, Chhattisgarh, Nagaland, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and Uttar Pradesh -- are home to more than one - third of India 's population. Severe disparities exist among states in terms of income, literacy rates, life expectancy and living conditions.
The five - year plans, especially in the pre-liberalisation era, attempted to reduce regional disparities by encouraging industrial development in the interior regions and distributing industries across states. The results have been discouraging as these measures increased inefficiency and hampered effective industrial growth. The more advanced states have been better placed to benefit from liberalisation, with well - developed infrastructure and an educated and skilled workforce, which attract the manufacturing and service sectors. Governments of less - advanced states have tried to reduce disparities by offering tax holidays and cheap land, and focused on sectors like tourism which can develop faster than other sectors. India 's income Gini coefficient is 33.9, according to the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), indicating overall income distribution to be more uniform than East Asia, Latin America and Africa.
There is a continuing debate on whether India 's economic expansion has been pro-poor or anti-poor. Studies suggest that the economic growth has been pro-poor and has reduced poverty in India.
The development of Indian security markets began with the launch of the Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE) in July 1875 and Ahmedabad Stock exchange in 1894. Since then, 22 other exchanges have traded in Indian cities. In 2014, India 's stock exchange market became the 10th largest in the world by market capitalisation, just above those of South Korea and Australia. India 's two major stock exchanges, BSE and National Stock Exchange of India, had a market capitalisation of US $1.71 trillion and US $1.68 trillion as of February 2015, according to World Federation of Exchanges.
The initial public offering (IPO) market in India has been small compared to NYSE and NASDAQ, raising US $300 million in 2013 and US $1.4 billion in 2012. Ernst & Young stated that the low IPO activity reflects market conditions, slow government approval processes and complex regulations. Before 2013, Indian companies were not allowed to list their securities internationally without first completing an IPO in India. In 2013, these security laws were reformed and Indian companies can now choose where they want to list first: overseas, domestically, or both concurrently. Further, security laws have been revised to ease overseas listings of already - listed companies, to increase liquidity for private equity and international investors in Indian companies.
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what movie is every rose has its thorn in | Every Rose Has Its Thorn - wikipedia
"Every Rose Has Its Thorn '' is the title of a power ballad song by American glam metal band Poison. It was released in October 1988 as the third single from Poison 's second album Open Up and Say... Ahh!. The band 's signature song, it is also their only number - one hit in the U.S., reaching the top spot on December 24, 1988, for three weeks (carrying over into 1989) and it also charted at # 11 on the Mainstream Rock chart. It was a number 13 hit in the UK. "Every Rose Has Its Thorn '' was named number 34 on VH1 's "100 Greatest Songs of the 80s '', # 100 on their "100 Greatest Love Songs '' and # 7 on MTV and VH1 "Top 25 Power Ballads ''.
In an interview with VH1 's Behind the Music, Bret Michaels said the inspiration for the song came from a night when he was in a laundromat waiting for his clothes to dry, and called his girlfriend on a pay phone. Michaels said he heard a male voice in the background and was devastated; he said he went into the laundromat and wrote "Every Rose Has Its Thorn '' as a result.
The music video to "Every Rose '' was directed by Marty Callner. It starts out with a forlorn Bret Michaels in bed with a young woman, they both look unhappy. He gets up, does the heavy sigh that is at the start of the song and walks away to play the acoustic guitar, the video then goes into video clips of the band 's tour. The same young woman is seen driving a Thunderbird in the rain, (two different times) listening to "Every Rose '' on the car 's radio. The rest of the video is interspersed with various clips from the band 's 1988 tour. The video ends with Bret Michaels playing the last of the song on his acoustic guitar and walking away.
"Every Rose Has Its Thorn '' became the group 's first (and only to date) number - one single on the Billboard Hot 100; it climbed to the top during the last two weeks of 1988 and the first week of 1989. Billboard ranked it as the No. 3 song for 1989.
The song originally appeared on the album Open Up and Say... Ahh!. It was later included in greatest hits compilations such as Poison 's Greatest Hits: 1986 -- 1996, The Best of Poison: 20 Years of Rock or Best of Ballads & Blues.
Live versions of the song appeared on the following albums:
An acoustic version appeared as a bonus track on Poison 's 2000 album Crack a Smile... and More!
Bret Michaels re-recorded the song in 2001 for his solo album Ballads, Blues & Stories.
A country version by Bret Michaels appears on
The song appeared in the films:
The song appeared in one or more episodes of the following TV shows:
The song was made available to download on February 12, 2012 for play in Rock Band 3 Basic and PRO mode utilizing real guitar / bass guitar, and MIDI compatible electronic drum kits / keyboards plus vocal harmonies. The song appeared in 2009 music game Band Hero.
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next number in sequence 1 1 2 6 24 | List of OEIS sequences - Wikipedia
This article provides a list of integer sequences in the On - Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences that have their own English Wikipedia entries.
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who does michiel huisman play on game of thrones | Michiel Huisman - wikipedia
Michiel Huisman (Dutch pronunciation: (miˈɣil ˈɦœysmɑn); born 18 July 1981) is a Dutch actor, musician, and singer - songwriter, who has acted in both Dutch and English language TV series and films. Huisman played Ellis Jones in the fantasy romance film The Age of Adaline (2015), Sonny on the television series Treme (2010 -- 2013), and Daario Naharis on Game of Thrones (2014 -- 2016). He has also played recurring roles on television such as Liam McGuinnis on Nashville (2012 -- 2014) and as Cal Morrison on Orphan Black (2014 -- 2015).
Huisman began his career on Dutch television, in the Dutch soap opera Goede tijden, slechte tijden (1998). He later played starring roles in the Dutch TV series De co-assistent (2007 -- 2010) and Bloedverwanten (2010), supporting roles in the Dutch films Costa! (2001) and Full Moon Party (2002), and leading roles in Phileine Says Sorry (2003) and Floris (2004). He also played a supporting role in Black Book (2006). During the early years of his acting career, Huisman was also part of a band called Fontane.
Huisman 's first international acting experience came in 2006, when he guest - starred in an episode of the British TV series Dalziel and Pascoe. He subsequently appeared in The Young Victoria (2009), World War Z (2013), Wild (2014), The Invitation (2015) and The Age of Adaline (2015).
Michiel Huisman was born on 18 July 1981 in Amstelveen, a town near Amsterdam, in the Netherlands.
Huisman is married to Dutch actress Tara Elders. They have a daughter born in 2007. The couple used to live in New Orleans, Louisiana, but as of 2017 they have taken up residence in New York City in a McIntyre Building.
Huisman was singer and guitarist in the Dutch band Fontane, which he formed together with Roland van der Hoofd, Gilles Tuinder, Bas van Geldere, and Donny Griffioen. The band released the singles "1 + 1 = 2 '' (2001), "Slapeloos '' (2002), and "Neem Me Mee '' (2003). The first single was on the soundtrack of the film Costa! (2001) and the second was on the soundtrack of Full Moon Party (2002), both in which Huisman played a starring role. The band also recorded a version of Willeke Alberti 's song "Telkens weer '' for the soundtrack of the movie Love to Love (2003).
After two members left the band, Fontane split up and Huisman decided to pursue music on his own. Huisman released the singles "Deel Van Mij '' (2005) and "Geef Je Over '' (2006), and the album Luchtige Verhalen (2005) as a solo artist. Huisman said in interview about his solo career: "It does n't feel like a new start, but as if I 've started just now. '' and "It is personal and closerby. Also the sound of the album. ''
Huisman began his acting career with a supporting role on Goede Tijden, Slechte Tijden -- the longest - running soap opera on Dutch television -- where he played Rover, a 14 - year - old model who accuses his employers of engaging in child pornography. He was then cast in the made - for - TV films Suzy Q and Uitgesloten.
He played supporting roles in the Dutch films Costa! and Volle Maan, both of which were directed by Johan Nijenhuis and aimed at a teen - aged audience. At the same time, he also had a recurring role on the Dutch police series Spangen. Huisman moved into leading - man territory in 2003 with the film Phileine Says Sorry, which was an adaptation of Ronald Giphart 's book of the same title. He also starred as medieval knight Floris in the film Floris, based on the Dutch TV series.
In the years that followed he played a leading role in the football comedy Johan, recurring guest roles in the comedy series Meiden van De Wit and the first season of the drama series Bloedverwanten, and the leading role in the medical drama series De Co-Assistent. He also played a small supporting role in the 2006 film Zwartboek by Paul Verhoeven, which became the most successful Dutch film of all time.
In 2006, Huisman made his first foray into the international acting world with a supporting role in an episode of the British TV series Dalziel and Pascoe. He followed this with a role as Ernest II, Duke of Saxe - Coburg and Gotha in The Young Victoria, and the BBC made - for - TV drama Margot in which he portrayed Rudolf Nureyev. He then joined the main cast of the HBO series Treme, as Sonny, a Dutch busker who plays keyboards and guitar. He was taught New Orleans piano by Davis Rogan. During his time on Treme, Huisman also played a small supporting role in the apocalyptic action film World War Z and started recurring as Liam McGuinnis on Nashville.
Huisman replaced British actor Ed Skrein in the role of Daario Naharis for the fourth season (2014) of Game of Thrones. Huisman was promoted to series regular for the fifth season (2015) of the series. Huisman also recurred on seasons 2 and 3 of Orphan Black, portraying Cal Morrison, a rugged outdoorsman who crosses paths with the clones.
In 2014, Huisman appeared in the Academy Award - nominated biographical drama film Wild and starred in the advertising campaign for Chanel No. 5 's The One That I Want, which was directed by Baz Luhrmann. In 2015, Huisman appeared in the thriller The Invitation, and played the leading role in the 2015 fantasy romance film The Age of Adaline.
In 2016, Huisman was cast as the lead role in the war - drama The Ottoman Lieutenant which tells the story of a Turkish officer (Huisman) who falls in love with an idealistic American nurse during World War I. The film also stars Hera Hilmar as Huisman 's love interest, as well as Josh Hartnett and Ben Kingsley. The film was released for an Oscar - qualifying run in December 2016 before releasing wide in March 2017.
Also in 2016, Huisman played Walter Davidson in a Discovery Channel limited series titled Harley and the Davidsons which told the origin story of Harley - Davidson Inc. The three - part series premiered in September 2016, and gained reasonable reviews from critics and from Harley - Davidson themselves.
In November 2016, Huisman was cast opposite Lily James to star as the male lead in the romantic drama Guernsey, based on the 2008 novel The Guernsey Literary and Potato Peel Pie Society. In 2017 Huisman was announced to play the male lead in another romantic drama titled Irreplaceable You, which will tell the story of Abbie and Sam, soul mates who were destined to be together until death got in the way. The film will also star Gugu Mbatha - Raw, Steve Coogan and Christopher Walken.
Huisman was signed to star in the thriller film 2: 22 which is set to be released June 30, 2017. Also in June 2017, Huisman was cast to star in the upcoming Netflix TV - series The Haunting of Hill House, which is based on the Shirley Jackson classic 1959 novel of the same name. The straight - to - series 10 - episode drama is described as a modern reimagining of the tale, and will follow four people living in an 80 - year - old mansion. Huisman is set to play Steven Crane, the oldest Crane sibling and a published writer of supernatural books -- including a memoir about his family 's time living at Hill House. Filmaker Mike Flanagan will write, direct and executive produce the series.
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when did meet me in st louis take place | Meet Me in St. Louis - wikipedia
Meet Me in St. Louis is a musical film made by Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer and released in 1944. Divided into a series of seasonal vignettes, starting with Summer 1903, it relates the story of a year in the life of the Smith family in St. Louis, leading up to the opening of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition (more commonly referred to as the World 's Fair) in the spring of 1904. The picture stars Judy Garland, Margaret O'Brien, Mary Astor, Lucille Bremer, Tom Drake, Leon Ames, Marjorie Main, June Lockhart, and Joan Carroll.
The film was adapted by Irving Brecher and Fred F. Finklehoffe from a series of short stories by Sally Benson, originally published in The New Yorker magazine under the title "5135 Kensington '', and later in novel form as Meet Me in St. Louis. The film was directed by Vincente Minnelli, who met Garland on the set and later married her. It was the second - highest grossing picture of the year, only behind Going My Way.In 1994, the film has been deemed "culturally significant '' by the Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry.
Garland debuted the standards "The Trolley Song '', "The Boy Next Door '', and "Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas '', all of which became hits after the film was released. Arthur Freed, the producer of the film, also wrote and performed one of the songs.
The backdrop for Meet Me in St. Louis is St. Louis, Missouri in the year leading up to the 1904 World 's Fair.
It is summer 1903. The Smith family leads a comfortable upper - middle class life. Alonzo Smith (Leon Ames) and his wife Anna (Mary Astor) have four daughters: Rose (Lucille Bremer), Esther (Judy Garland), Agnes (Joan Carroll), and Tootie (Margaret O'Brien); and a son, Lon Jr. (Henry H. Daniels, Jr.). Esther, the second eldest daughter, is in love with the boy next door, John Truett (Tom Drake), although he does not notice her at first. Rose is expecting a phone call in which she hopes to be proposed to by Warren Sheffield (Robert Sully).
Esther finally gets to meet John properly when he is a guest at the Smiths ' house party, although her chances of romancing him do n't go to plan when, after all the guests are gone and he is helping her turn off the gas lamps throughout the house, he tells her she uses the same perfume as his grandmother and that she has "a mighty strong grip for a girl ''.
Esther hopes to meet John again the following Friday on a trolley ride from the city to the construction site of the World Fair. Esther is sad when the trolley sets off without any sign of him, but cheers up when she sees him running to catch the trolley mid journey.
On Halloween, Tootie returns home injured, claiming that John Truett attacked her. Without bothering to investigate, Esther confronts John, physically attacking him and scolding him for being a "bully ''. When Esther returns home, Tootie confesses that what really happened was that John was trying to protect Tootie and Agnes from the police after a dangerous prank they pulled went wrong. Upon learning the truth, Esther immediately dashes to John 's house next door to apologize, and they share their first kiss.
Mr. Smith announces to the family that he is to be sent to New York City on business and eventually they will all move. The family is devastated and upset at the news of the move, especially Rose and Esther whose romances, friendships, and educational plans are threatened. Esther is also aghast because they will miss the World 's Fair.
An elegant ball takes place on Christmas Eve. Esther is devastated when John can not take her as his date, due to his leaving his tuxedo at the tailor 's and being unable to get it back. But she is relieved when her grandfather (Harry Davenport) offers to take her instead. At the ball, Esther fills up a visiting girl 's (Lucille Ballard, played by June Lockhart) dance card with losers because she thinks Lucille is a rival of Rose 's. But when Lucille turns out to be interested in Lon, Esther switches her dance card with Lucille 's and instead dances herself with the clumsy and awkward partners. After being rescued by Grandpa, she is overwhelmed when John unexpectedly turns up after somehow managing to obtain a tuxedo, and the pair dance together for the rest of the evening. Later on, John proposes to Esther and she accepts.
Esther returns home to an upset Tootie. She is soothed by the poignant "Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas ''. Tootie, however, becomes more upset at the prospect of the family 's move and runs downstairs, out into the cold to destroy the snowmen they have made. Mr. Smith sees his daughter 's upsetting outburst from an upstairs window.
Mr. Smith later announces that the family will not leave St. Louis after all when he realizes how much the move will affect his family. Warren boldly declares his love for Rose, stating that they will marry at the first possible opportunity.
On or after April 30, 1904, the family take two horse drawn buggies to the World 's Fair. The film ends that night with the entire family (including boyfriends - to - turn - into - presumed - husbands and Lon 's new love interest) overlooking the Grand Lagoon at the center of the World 's Fair just as thousands of lights illuminate the grand pavilions.
The musical score for the film was adapted by Roger Edens, who also served as an uncredited associate producer. Georgie Stoll conducted the orchestrations of Conrad Salinger. Some of the songs in the film are from around the time of the St Louis Exposition. Others were written for the movie.
Judy Garland pre-recording of "Boys and Girls Like You and Me '' for this film survives today, but the film footage has been lost.
Upon its 1944 release, Meet Me in St. Louis was a massive critical and commercial success. During its initial theatrical release, it earned a then - massive $5,016,000 in the US and Canada and $1,550,000 elsewhere resulting in a profit of $2,359,000.
Time called it "one of the year 's prettiest pictures ''; "Technicolor has seldom been more affectionately used than in its registrations of the sober mahoganies and tender muslins and benign gaslights of the period. Now & then, too, the film gets well beyond the charm of mere tableau for short flights in the empyrean of genuine domestic poetry. These triumphs are creditable mainly to the intensity and grace of Margaret O'Brien and to the ability of director Minnelli & Co. to get the best out of her. '' O'Brien drew further praise from Time; "(her) song and her cakewalk done in a nightgown at a grown - up party, are entrancing acts. Her self - terrified Halloween adventures richly set against firelight, dark streets, and the rusty confabulations of fallen leaves, bring this section of the film very near the first - rate. '' The film is a New York Times Critics ' Pick: after seeing it at the Astor Theatre, Bosley Crowther called it "a warm and beguiling picturization based on Sally Benson 's memoirs of her folks. '' Crowther concludes: "As a comparable screen companion to Life With Father, we would confidently predict that Meet Me in St. Louis has a future that is equally bright. In the words of one of the gentlemen, it is a ginger - peachy show. '' Writing in The New Yorker, Wolcott Gibbs praised the film as "extremely attractive '' and called the dialogue "funny in a sense rather rare in the movies, '' although he thought it was too long.
In 2005, Richard Schickel included the film on Time. com 's ALL - TIME 100 best films, saying "It had wonderful songs (and) a sweetly unneurotic performance by Judy Garland... Despite its nostalgic charm, Minnelli infused the piece with a dreamy, occasionally surreal, darkness and it remains, for some of us, the greatest of American movie musicals. ''
Arthur Freed: "Meet Me in St. Louis is my personal favourite. I got along wonderfully with Judy, but the only time we were ever on the outs was when we did this film. She did n't want to do the picture. Even her mother came to me about it. We bumped into some trouble with some opinions -- Eddie Mannix, the studio manager, thought the Halloween sequence was wrong, but it was left in. There was a song that Rodgers and Hammerstein had written, called Boys and Girls Like You and Me, that Judy did wonderfully, but it slowed up the picture and it was cut out. After the preview of the completed film, Judy came over to me and said, "Arthur remind me not to tell you what kind of pictures to make. '' (It) was the biggest grosser Metro had up to that time, except for Gone With the Wind. ''
The film currently holds a 100 % "Fresh '' rating on the review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 30 critical reviews with an average score of 8.7 / 10.
The film was nominated for four Academy Awards: Best Writing, Adapted Screenplay, Best Cinematography, Color, Best Music, Scoring of a Musical Picture, and Best Music, Song (Ralph Blane and Hugh Martin for "The Trolley Song ''). Margaret O'Brien received an Academy Juvenile Award for her work that year, in which she appeared in several movies along with Meet Me in St. Louis.
In 1994, the film has been deemed "culturally significant '' by the Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry.
The American Film Institute ranked the film 10th on AFI 's Greatest Movie Musicals; two songs from the film made AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Songs ("The Trolley Song '' at # 26 and "Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas '' at # 76).
Gerald Kaufman wrote a study of the film, with the same title, which was published by the British Film Institute in 1994.
The late - 19th century vintage carousel in this movie could be found at Bob - Lo Amusement Park in Amherstburg, Ontario until the park closed in September 1993. It was dismantled and sold to private collectors.
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which of the following would not be examples of primary sources | Historian - wikipedia
A historian is a person who researches, studies, and writes about the past, and is regarded as an authority on it. Historians are concerned with the continuous, methodical narrative and research of past events as relating to the human race; as well as the study of all history in time. If the individual is concerned with events preceding written history, the individual is an historian of prehistory. Although "historian '' can be used to describe amateur and professional historians alike, it is reserved more recently for those who have acquired graduate degrees in the discipline. Some historians, though, are recognized by publications or training and experience. "Historian '' became a professional occupation in the late nineteenth century as research universities were emerging in Germany and elsewhere.
During the Irving v Penguin Books and Lipstadt trial, it became evident that the court needed to identify what was an "objective historian '' in the same vein as the reasonable person, and reminiscent of the standard traditionally used in English law of "the man on the Clapham omnibus ''. This was necessary so that there would be a legal bench mark to compare and contrast the scholarship of an objective historian against the methods employed by David Irving, as before the Irving v Penguin Books and Lipstadt trial, there was no legal precedent for what constituted an objective historian.
Justice Gray leant heavily on the research of one of the expert witnesses, Richard J. Evans, who compared illegitimate distortion of the historical record practice by holocaust deniers with established historical methodologies.
In summarising Gray 's judgement, in an article published in the Yale Law Journal, Wendie E. Schneider distils these seven points for what he meant by an objective historian:
Schneider uses the concept of the "objective historian '' to suggest that this could be an aid in assessing what makes an historian suitable as an expert witnesses under the Daubert standard in the United States. Schneider proposed this, because, in her opinion, Irving could have passed the standard Daubert tests unless a court was given "a great deal of assistance from historians ''.
Schneider proposes that by testing an historian against the criteria of the "objective historian '' then, even if an historian holds specific political views (and she gives an example of a well - qualified historian 's testimony that was disregarded by a United States court because he was a member of a feminist group), providing the historian uses the "objective historian '' standards, he or she is a "conscientious historian ''. It was Irving 's failure as an "objective historian '' not his right wing views that caused him to lose his libel case, as a "conscientious historian '' would not have "deliberately misrepresented and manipulated historical evidence '' to support his political views.
The process of historical analysis involves investigation and analysis of competing ideas, facts, and purported facts to create coherent narratives that explain "what happened '' and "why or how it happened ''. Modern historical analysis usually draws upon other social sciences, including economics, sociology, politics, psychology, anthropology, philosophy, and linguistics. While ancient writers do not normally share modern historical practices, their work remains valuable for its insights within the cultural context of the times. An important part of the contribution of many modern historians is the verification or dismissal of earlier historical accounts through reviewing newly discovered sources and recent scholarship or through parallel disciplines like archaeology.
Understanding the past appears to be a universal human need, and the telling of history has emerged independently in civilizations around the world. What constitutes history is a philosophical question (see philosophy of history). The earliest chronologies date back to Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, though no historical writers in these early civilizations were known by name.
Systematic historical thought emerged in ancient Greece, a development that became an important influence on the writing of history elsewhere around the Mediterranean region. The earliest known critical historical works were The Histories, composed by Herodotus of Halicarnassus (484 -- c. 425 BCE) who later became known as the "father of history '' (Cicero). Herodotus attempted to distinguish between more and less reliable accounts, and personally conducted research by travelling extensively, giving written accounts of various Mediterranean cultures. Although Herodotus ' overall emphasis lay on the actions and characters of men, he also attributed an important role to divinity in the determination of historical events. Thucydides largely eliminated divine causality in his account of the war between Athens and Sparta, establishing a rationalistic element that set a precedent for subsequent Western historical writings. He was also the first to distinguish between cause and immediate origins of an event, while his successor Xenophon (c. 431 -- 355 BCE) introduced autobiographical elements and character studies in his Anabasis.
The Romans adopted the Greek tradition. While early Roman works were still written in Greek, the Origines, composed by the Roman statesman Cato the Elder (234 -- 149 BCE), was written in Latin, in a conscious effort to counteract Greek cultural influence. Strabo (63 BCE -- c. 24 CE) was an important exponent of the Greco - Roman tradition of combining geography with history, presenting a descriptive history of peoples and places known to his era. Livy (59 BCE -- 17 CE) records the rise of Rome from city - state to empire. His speculation about what would have happened if Alexander the Great had marched against Rome represents the first known instance of alternate history.
In Chinese historiography, the Classic of History is one of the Five Classics of Chinese classic texts and one of the earliest narratives of China. The Spring and Autumn Annals, the official chronicle of the State of Lu covering the period from 722 to 481 BCE, is among the earliest surviving Chinese historical texts arranged on annalistic principles. Sima Qian (around 100 BCE) was the first in China to lay the groundwork for professional historical writing. His written work was the Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian), a monumental lifelong achievement in literature. Its scope extends as far back as the 16th century BCE, and it includes many treatises on specific subjects and individual biographies of prominent people, and also explores the lives and deeds of commoners, both contemporary and those of previous eras.
Christian historiography began early, perhaps as early as Luke - Acts, which is the primary source for the Apostolic Age. Writing history was popular among Christian monks and clergy in the Middle Ages. They wrote about the history of Jesus Christ, that of the Church and that of their patrons, the dynastic history of the local rulers. In the Early Middle Ages historical writing often took the form of annals or chronicles recording events year by year, but this style tended to hamper the analysis of events and causes. An example of this type of writing is the Anglo - Saxon Chronicles, which were the work of several different writers: it was started during the reign of Alfred the Great in the late 9th century, but one copy was still being updated in 1154.
Muslim historical writings first began to develop in the 7th century, with the reconstruction of the Prophet Muhammad 's life in the centuries following his death. With numerous conflicting narratives regarding Muhammad and his companions from various sources, scholars had to verify which sources were more reliable. To evaluate these sources, they developed various methodologies, such as the science of biography, science of hadith and Isnad (chain of transmission). They later applied these methodologies to other historical figures in the Islamic civilization. Famous historians in this tradition include Urwah (d. 712), Wahb ibn Munabbih (d. 728), Ibn Ishaq (d. 761), al - Waqidi (745 -- 822), Ibn Hisham (d. 834), Muhammad al - Bukhari (810 -- 870) and Ibn Hajar (1372 -- 1449).
During the Age of Enlightenment, the modern development of historiography through the application of scrupulous methods began.
French philosophe Voltaire (1694 -- 1778) had an enormous influence on the art of history writing. His best - known histories are The Age of Louis XIV (1751), and Essay on the Customs and the Spirit of the Nations (1756). "My chief object, '' he wrote in 1739, "is not political or military history, it is the history of the arts, of commerce, of civilization -- in a word, -- of the human mind. '' He broke from the tradition of narrating diplomatic and military events, and emphasized customs, social history, and achievements in the arts and sciences. He was the first scholar to make a serious attempt to write the history of the world, eliminating theological frameworks, and emphasizing economics, culture, and political history.
At the same time, philosopher David Hume was having a similar impact on history in Great Britain. In 1754, he published the History of England, a six - volume work that extended from the Invasion of Julius Caesar to the Revolution in 1688. Hume adopted a similar scope to Voltaire in his history; as well as the history of Kings, Parliaments, and armies, he examined the history of culture, including literature and science, as well. William Robertson, a Scottish historian, and the Historiographer Royal published the History of Scotland 1542 - 1603, in 1759 and his most famous work, The history of the reign of Charles V in 1769. His scholarship was painstaking for the time and he was able to access a large number of documentary sources that had previously been unstudied. He was also one of the first historians who understood the importance of general and universally applicable ideas in the shaping of historical events.
The apex of Enlightenment history was reached with Edward Gibbon 's, monumental six - volume work, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, published on 17 February 1776. Because of its relative objectivity and heavy use of primary sources, at the time its methodology became a model for later historians. This has led to Gibbon being called the first "modern historian ''. The book sold impressively, earning its author a total of about £ 9000. Biographer Leslie Stephen wrote that thereafter, "His fame was as rapid as it has been lasting. ''
The tumultuous events surrounding the French Revolution inspired much of the historiography and analysis of the early 19th century. Interest in the 1688 Glorious Revolution was also rekindled by the Great Reform Act of 1832 in England.
Thomas Carlyle published his magnum opus, the three - volume The French Revolution: A History in 1837. The resulting work had a passion new to historical writing. Thomas Macaulay produced his most famous work of history, The History of England from the Accession of James the Second, in 1848. His writings are famous for their ringing prose and for their confident, sometimes dogmatic, emphasis on a progressive model of British history, according to which the country threw off superstition, autocracy and confusion to create a balanced constitution and a forward - looking culture combined with freedom of belief and expression. This model of human progress has been called the Whig interpretation of history.
In his main work Histoire de France, French historian Jules Michelet coined the term Renaissance (meaning "Re-birth '' in French language), as a period in Europe 's cultural history that represented a break from the Middle Ages, creating a modern understanding of humanity and its place in the world. The nineteen volume work covered French history from Charlemagne to the outbreak of the Revolution. Michelet was one of the first historians to shift the emphasis of history to the common people, rather than the leaders and institutions of the country. Another important French historian of the period was Hippolyte Taine. He was the chief theoretical influence of French naturalism, a major proponent of sociological positivism and one of the first practitioners of historicist criticism. Literary historicism as a critical movement has been said to originate with him.
One of the major progenitors of the history of culture and art, was the Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt Burckhardt 's best - known work is The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (1860). According to John Lukacs, he was the first master of cultural history, which seeks to describe the spirit and the forms of expression of a particular age, a particular people, or a particular place. By the mid-19th century, scholars were beginning to analyse the history of institutional change, particularly the development of constitutional government. William Stubbs 's Constitutional History of England (3 vols., 1874 -- 78) was an important influence on this developing field. The work traced the development of the English constitution from the Teutonic invasions of Britain until 1485, and marked a distinct step in the advance of English historical learning.
Karl Marx introduced the concept of historical materialism into the study of world historical development. In his conception, the economic conditions and dominant modes of production determined the structure of society at that point. Previous historians had focused on cyclical events of the rise and decline of rulers and nations. Process of nationalization of history, as part of national revivals in the 19th century, resulted with separation of "one 's own '' history from common universal history by such way of perceiving, understanding and treating the past that constructed history as history of a nation. A new discipline, sociology, emerged in the late 19th century and analyzed and compared these perspectives on a larger scale.
The modern academic study of history and methods of historiography were pioneered in 19th - century German universities. Leopold von Ranke was a pivotal influence in this regard, and is considered as the founder of modern source - based history.
Specifically, he implemented the seminar teaching method in his classroom, and focused on archival research and analysis of historical documents. Beginning with his first book in 1824, the History of the Latin and Teutonic Peoples from 1494 to 1514, Ranke used an unusually wide variety of sources for an historian of the age, including "memoirs, diaries, personal and formal missives, government documents, diplomatic dispatches and first - hand accounts of eye - witnesses ''. Over a career that spanned much of the century, Ranke set the standards for much of later historical writing, introducing such ideas as reliance on primary sources (empiricism), an emphasis on narrative history and especially international politics (aussenpolitik). Sources had to be hard, not speculations and rationalizations. His credo was to write history the way it was. He insisted on primary sources with proven authenticity.
The term Whig history was coined by Herbert Butterfield in his short book The Whig Interpretation of History in 1931, (a reference to the British Whigs, advocates of the power of Parliament) to refer to the approach to historiography that presents the past as an inevitable progression towards ever greater liberty and enlightenment, culminating in modern forms of liberal democracy and constitutional monarchy. In general, Whig historians emphasized the rise of constitutional government, personal freedoms, and scientific progress. The term has been also applied widely in historical disciplines outside of British history (the history of science, for example) to criticize any teleological (or goal - directed), hero - based, and transhistorical narrative. Butterfield 's antidote to Whig history was "... to evoke a certain sensibility towards the past, the sensibility which studies the past ' for the sake of the past ', which delights in the concrete and the complex, which ' goes out to meet the past ', which searches for ' unlikenesses between past and present '. '' Butterfield 's formulation received much attention, and the kind of historical writing he argued against in generalised terms is no longer academically respectable.
The French Annales School radically changed the focus of historical research in France during the 20th century by stressing long - term social history, rather than political or diplomatic themes. The school emphasized the use of quantification and the paying of special attention to geography. An eminent member of this school, Georges Duby, described his approach to history as one that
relegated the sensational to the sidelines and was reluctant to give a simple accounting of events, but strived on the contrary to pose and solve problems and, neglecting surface disturbances, to observe the long and medium - term evolution of economy, society, and civilisation.
Marxist historiography developed as a school of historiography influenced by the chief tenets of Marxism, including the centrality of social class and economic constraints in determining historical outcomes. Friedrich Engels wrote The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844, which was salient in creating the socialist impetus in British politics from then on, e.g. the Fabian Society. R.H. Tawney 's The Agrarian Problem in the Sixteenth Century (1912) and Religion and the Rise of Capitalism (1926), reflected his ethical concerns and preoccupations in economic history. A circle of historians inside the Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB) formed in 1946 and became a highly influential cluster of British Marxist historians, who contributed to history from below and class structure in early capitalist society. Members included Christopher Hill, Eric Hobsbawm and E.P. Thompson.
World history, as a distinct field of historical study, emerged as an independent academic field in the 1980s. It focused on the examination of history from a global perspective and looked for common patterns that emerged across all cultures. Arnold J. Toynbee 's ten - volume A Study of History, written between 1933 and 1954, was an important influence on this developing field. He took a comparative topical approach to independent civilizations and demonstrated that they displayed striking parallels in their origin, growth, and decay. William H. McNeill wrote The Rise of the West (1965) to improve upon Toynbee by showing how the separate civilizations of Eurasia interacted from the very beginning of their history, borrowing critical skills from one another, and thus precipitating still further change as adjustment between traditional old and borrowed new knowledge and practice became necessary.
An undergraduate history degree is often used as a stepping stone to graduate studies in business or law. Many historians are employed at universities and other facilities for post-secondary education. In addition, it is normal for colleges and universities to require the PhD degree for new full - time hires, and a master 's degree for part - timers. Publication is increasingly required by smaller schools, so graduate papers become journal articles and PhD dissertations become published monographs. The graduate student experience is difficult -- those who finish their doctorate in the United States take on average 8 or more years; funding is scarce except at a few very rich universities. Being a teaching assistant in a course is required in some programs; in others it is a paid opportunity awarded a fraction of the students. Until the 1980s it was rare for graduate programs to teach how to teach; the assumption was that teaching was easy and that learning how to do research was the main mission.
Professional historians typically work in colleges and universities, archival centers, government agencies, museums, and as freelance writers and consultants. The job market for new PhDs in history is poor and getting worse, with many relegated to part - time "adjunct '' teaching jobs with low pay and no benefits.
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type 1 error type 2 error power of the test | Type I and type II errors - wikipedia
In statistical hypothesis testing, a type I error is the rejection of a true null hypothesis (also known as a "false positive '' finding), while a type II error is failing to reject a false null hypothesis (also known as a "false negative '' finding). More simply stated, a type I error is to falsely infer the existence of something that is not there, while a type II error is to falsely infer the absence of something that is.
In statistics, a null hypothesis is a statement that one seeks to nullify with evidence to the contrary. Most commonly it is a statement that the phenomenon being studied produces no effect or makes no difference. An example of a null hypothesis is the statement "This diet has no effect on people 's weight. '' Usually, an experimenter frames a null hypothesis with the intent of rejecting it: that is, intending to run an experiment which produces data that shows that the phenomenon under study does make a difference. In some cases there is a specific alternative hypothesis that is opposed to the null hypothesis, in other cases the alternative hypothesis is not explicitly stated, or is simply "the null hypothesis is false '' -- in either event, this is a binary judgment, but the interpretation differs and is a matter of significant dispute in statistics.
A type I error (or error of the first kind) is the incorrect rejection of a true null hypothesis. Usually a type I error leads one to conclude that a supposed effect or relationship exists when in fact it does n't. Examples of type I errors include a test that shows a patient to have a disease when in fact the patient does not have the disease, a fire alarm going on indicating a fire when in fact there is no fire, or an experiment indicating that a medical treatment should cure a disease when in fact it does not.
A type II error (or error of the second kind) is the failure to reject a false null hypothesis. Examples of type II errors would be a blood test failing to detect the disease it was designed to detect, in a patient who really has the disease; a fire breaking out and the fire alarm does not ring; or a clinical trial of a medical treatment failing to show that the treatment works when really it does.
In terms of false positives and false negatives, a positive result corresponds to rejecting the null hypothesis, while a negative result corresponds to failing to reject the null hypothesis; "false '' means the conclusion drawn is incorrect. Thus a type I error is a false positive, and a type II error is a false negative.
When comparing two means, concluding the means were different when in reality they were not different would be a Type I error; concluding the means were not different when in reality they were different would be a Type II error. Various extensions have been suggested as "Type III errors '', though none have wide use.
All statistical hypothesis tests have a probability of making type I and type II errors. For example, all blood tests for a disease will falsely detect the disease in some proportion of people who do n't have it, and will fail to detect the disease in some proportion of people who do have it. A test 's probability of making a type I error is denoted by α. A test 's probability of making a type II error is denoted by β. These error rates are traded off against each other: for any given sample set, the effort to reduce one type of error generally results in increasing the other type of error. For a given test, the only way to reduce both error rates is to increase the sample size, and this may not be feasible. A test statistic is robust if the Type I error rate is controlled.
These terms are also used in a more general way by social scientists and others to refer to flaws in reasoning. This article is specifically devoted to the statistical meanings of those terms and the technical issues of the statistical errors that those terms describe.
In statistical test theory, the notion of statistical error is an integral part of hypothesis testing. The test requires an unambiguous statement of a null hypothesis, which usually corresponds to a default "state of nature '', for example "this person is healthy '', "this accused is not guilty '' or "this product is not broken ''. An alternative hypothesis is the negation of null hypothesis, for example, "this person is not healthy '', "this accused is guilty '' or "this product is broken ''. The result of the test may be negative, relative to the null hypothesis (not healthy, guilty, broken) or positive (healthy, not guilty, not broken). If the result of the test corresponds with reality, then a correct decision has been made. However, if the result of the test does not correspond with reality, then an error has occurred. Due to the statistical nature of a test, the result is never, except in very rare cases, free of error. Two types of error are distinguished: type I error and type II error.
A type I error occurs when the null hypothesis (H) is true, but is rejected. It is asserting something that is absent, a false hit. A type I error may be likened to a so - called false positive (a result that indicates that a given condition is present when it actually is not present).
In terms of folk tales, an investigator may see the wolf when there is none ("raising a false alarm ''). Where the null hypothesis, H, is: no wolf.
The type I error rate or significance level is the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis given that it is true. It is denoted by the Greek letter α (alpha) and is also called the alpha level. Often, the significance level is set to 0.05 (5 %), implying that it is acceptable to have a 5 % probability of incorrectly rejecting the null hypothesis.
A type II error occurs when the null hypothesis is false, but erroneously fails to be rejected. It is failing to assert what is present, a miss. A type II error may be compared with a so - called false negative (where an actual ' hit ' was disregarded by the test and seen as a ' miss ') in a test checking for a single condition with a definitive result of true or false. A Type II error is committed when we fail to believe a true alternative hypothesis.
In terms of folk tales, an investigator may fail to see the wolf when it is present ("failing to raise an alarm ''). Again, H: no wolf.
The rate of the type II error is denoted by the Greek letter β (beta) and related to the power of a test (which equals 1 − β).
Tabularised relations between truth / falseness of the null hypothesis and outcomes of the test:
(Probability = 1 - α)
(Probability = α)
(Probability = 1 - β)
Hypothesis: "Adding water to toothpaste protects against cavities. ''
Null hypothesis (H): "Adding water does not make toothpaste more effective in fighting cavities. ''
This null hypothesis is tested against experimental data with a view to nullifying it with evidence to the contrary.
A type I error occurs when detecting an effect (adding water to toothpaste protects against cavities) that is not present. The null hypothesis is true (i.e., it is true that adding water to toothpaste does not make it more effective in protecting against cavities), but this null hypothesis is rejected based on bad experimental data or an extreme outcome of chance alone.
Hypothesis: "Adding fluoride to toothpaste protects against cavities. ''
Null hypothesis (H): "Adding fluoride to toothpaste has no effect on cavities. ''
This null hypothesis is tested against experimental data with a view to nullifying it with evidence to the contrary.
A type II error occurs when failing to detect an effect (adding fluoride to toothpaste protects against cavities) that is present. The null hypothesis is false (i.e., adding fluoride is actually effective against cavities), but the experimental data is such that the null hypothesis can not be rejected.
Hypothesis: "The evidence produced before the court proves that this man is guilty. ''
Null hypothesis (H): "This man is innocent. ''
A type I error occurs when convicting an innocent person (a miscarriage of justice). A type II error occurs when letting a guilty person go free (an error of impunity).
A positive correct outcome occurs when convicting a guilty person. A negative correct outcome occurs when letting an innocent person go free.
Hypothesis: "A patient 's symptoms improve after treatment A more rapidly than after a placebo treatment. ''
Null hypothesis (H): "A patient 's symptoms after treatment A are indistinguishable from a placebo. ''
A Type I error would falsely indicate that treatment A is more effective than the placebo, whereas a Type II error would be a failure to demonstrate that treatment A is more effective than placebo even though it actually is more effective.
In 1928, Jerzy Neyman (1894 -- 1981) and Egon Pearson (1895 -- 1980), both eminent statisticians, discussed the problems associated with "deciding whether or not a particular sample may be judged as likely to have been randomly drawn from a certain population '': and, as Florence Nightingale David remarked, "it is necessary to remember the adjective ' random ' (in the term ' random sample ') should apply to the method of drawing the sample and not to the sample itself ''.
They identified "two sources of error '', namely:
In 1930, they elaborated on these two sources of error, remarking that:
In 1933, they observed that these "problems are rarely presented in such a form that we can discriminate with certainty between the true and false hypothesis '' (p. 187). They also noted that, in deciding whether to fail to reject, or reject a particular hypothesis amongst a "set of alternative hypotheses '' (p. 201), H, H,..., it was easy to make an error:
In all of the papers co-written by Neyman and Pearson the expression H always signifies "the hypothesis to be tested ''.
In the same paper they call these two sources of error, errors of type I and errors of type II respectively.
It is standard practice for statisticians to conduct tests in order to determine whether or not a "speculative hypothesis '' concerning the observed phenomena of the world (or its inhabitants) can be supported. The results of such testing determine whether a particular set of results agrees reasonably (or does not agree) with the speculated hypothesis.
On the basis that it is always assumed, by statistical convention, that the speculated hypothesis is wrong, and the so - called "null hypothesis '' that the observed phenomena simply occur by chance (and that, as a consequence, the speculated agent has no effect) -- the test will determine whether this hypothesis is right or wrong. This is why the hypothesis under test is often called the null hypothesis (most likely, coined by Fisher (1935, p. 19)), because it is this hypothesis that is to be either nullified or not nullified by the test. When the null hypothesis is nullified, it is possible to conclude that data support the "alternative hypothesis '' (which is the original speculated one).
The consistent application by statisticians of Neyman and Pearson 's convention of representing "the hypothesis to be tested '' (or "the hypothesis to be nullified '') with the expression H has led to circumstances where many understand the term "the null hypothesis '' as meaning "the nil hypothesis '' -- a statement that the results in question have arisen through chance. This is not necessarily the case -- the key restriction, as per Fisher (1966), is that "the null hypothesis must be exact, that is free from vagueness and ambiguity, because it must supply the basis of the ' problem of distribution, ' of which the test of significance is the solution. '' As a consequence of this, in experimental science the null hypothesis is generally a statement that a particular treatment has no effect; in observational science, it is that there is no difference between the value of a particular measured variable, and that of an experimental prediction.
If the probability of obtaining a result as extreme as the one obtained, supposing that the null hypothesis were true, is lower than a pre-specified cut - off probability (for example, 5 %), then the result is said to be statistically significant and the null hypothesis is rejected.
British statistician Sir Ronald Aylmer Fisher (1890 -- 1962) stressed that the "null hypothesis '':
... is never proved or established, but is possibly disproved, in the course of experimentation. Every experiment may be said to exist only in order to give the facts a chance of disproving the null hypothesis.
Statistical tests always involve a trade - off between:
A threshold value can be varied to make the test more restrictive or more sensitive, with the more restrictive tests increasing the risk of rejecting true positives, and the more sensitive tests increasing the risk of accepting false positives.
An automated inventory control system that rejects high - quality goods of a consignment commits a type I error, while a system that accepts low - quality goods commits a type II error.
The notions of false positives and false negatives have a wide currency in the realm of computers and computer applications, as follows.
Security vulnerabilities are an important consideration in the task of keeping computer data safe, while maintaining access to that data for appropriate users. Moulton (1983), stresses the importance of:
A false positive occurs when spam filtering or spam blocking techniques wrongly classify a legitimate email message as spam and, as a result, interferes with its delivery. While most anti-spam tactics can block or filter a high percentage of unwanted emails, doing so without creating significant false - positive results is a much more demanding task.
A false negative occurs when a spam email is not detected as spam, but is classified as non-spam. A low number of false negatives is an indicator of the efficiency of spam filtering.
The term "false positive '' is also used when antivirus software wrongly classifies a harmless file as a virus. The incorrect detection may be due to heuristics or to an incorrect virus signature in a database. Similar problems can occur with antitrojan or antispyware software.
Detection algorithms of all kinds often create false positives. Optical character recognition (OCR) software may detect an "a '' where there are only some dots that appear to be an "a '' to the algorithm being used.
False positives are routinely found every day in airport security screening, which are ultimately visual inspection systems. The installed security alarms are intended to prevent weapons being brought onto aircraft; yet they are often set to such high sensitivity that they alarm many times a day for minor items, such as keys, belt buckles, loose change, mobile phones, and tacks in shoes.
The ratio of false positives (identifying an innocent traveller as a terrorist) to true positives (detecting a would - be terrorist) is, therefore, very high; and because almost every alarm is a false positive, the positive predictive value of these screening tests is very low.
The relative cost of false results determines the likelihood that test creators allow these events to occur. As the cost of a false negative in this scenario is extremely high (not detecting a bomb being brought onto a plane could result in hundreds of deaths) whilst the cost of a false positive is relatively low (a reasonably simple further inspection) the most appropriate test is one with a low statistical specificity but high statistical sensitivity (one that allows a high rate of false positives in return for minimal false negatives).
Biometric matching, such as for fingerprint recognition, facial recognition or iris recognition, is susceptible to type I and type II errors. The null hypothesis is that the input does identify someone in the searched list of people, so:
If the system is designed to rarely match suspects then the probability of type II errors can be called the "false alarm rate ''. On the other hand, if the system is used for validation (and acceptance is the norm) then the FAR is a measure of system security, while the FRR measures user inconvenience level.
In the practice of medicine, there is a significant difference between the applications of screening and testing.
For example, most states in the USA require newborns to be screened for phenylketonuria and hypothyroidism, among other congenital disorders. Although they display a high rate of false positives, the screening tests are considered valuable because they greatly increase the likelihood of detecting these disorders at a far earlier stage.
The simple blood tests used to screen possible blood donors for HIV and hepatitis have a significant rate of false positives; however, physicians use much more expensive and far more precise tests to determine whether a person is actually infected with either of these viruses.
Perhaps the most widely discussed false positives in medical screening come from the breast cancer screening procedure mammography. The US rate of false positive mammograms is up to 15 %, the highest in world. One consequence of the high false positive rate in the US is that, in any 10 - year period, half of the American women screened receive a false positive mammogram. False positive mammograms are costly, with over $100 million spent annually in the U.S. on follow - up testing and treatment. They also cause women unneeded anxiety. As a result of the high false positive rate in the US, as many as 90 -- 95 % of women who get a positive mammogram do not have the condition. The lowest rate in the world is in the Netherlands, 1 %. The lowest rates are generally in Northern Europe where mammography films are read twice and a high threshold for additional testing is set (the high threshold decreases the power of the test).
The ideal population screening test would be cheap, easy to administer, and produce zero false - negatives, if possible. Such tests usually produce more false - positives, which can subsequently be sorted out by more sophisticated (and expensive) testing.
False negatives and false positives are significant issues in medical testing. False negatives may provide a falsely reassuring message to patients and physicians that disease is absent, when it is actually present. This sometimes leads to inappropriate or inadequate treatment of both the patient and their disease. A common example is relying on cardiac stress tests to detect coronary atherosclerosis, even though cardiac stress tests are known to only detect limitations of coronary artery blood flow due to advanced stenosis.
False negatives produce serious and counter-intuitive problems, especially when the condition being searched for is common. If a test with a false negative rate of only 10 %, is used to test a population with a true occurrence rate of 70 %, many of the negatives detected by the test will be false.
False positives can also produce serious and counter-intuitive problems when the condition being searched for is rare, as in screening. If a test has a false positive rate of one in ten thousand, but only one in a million samples (or people) is a true positive, most of the positives detected by that test will be false. The probability that an observed positive result is a false positive may be calculated using Bayes ' theorem.
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the main latitude line passing through the middle of australia continent is | International date line - Wikipedia
The International Date Line (IDL) is an imaginary line of demarcation on the surface of Earth that runs from the North Pole to the South Pole and demarcates the change of one calendar day to the next. It passes through the middle of the Pacific Ocean, roughly following the 180 ° line of longitude but deviating to pass around some territories and island groups.
The IDL is roughly based on the meridian of 180 ° longitude, roughly down the middle of the Pacific Ocean, and halfway around the world from the Greenwich meridian. In many places, the IDL follows the 180 ° meridian exactly. In other places, however, the IDL deviates east or west away from that meridian. These various deviations generally accommodate the political and / or economic affiliations of the affected areas.
Proceeding from north to south, the first deviation of the IDL from 180 ° is to pass to the east of Wrangel Island and the Chukchi Peninsula, the easternmost part of Russian Siberia. (Wrangel Island lies directly on the meridian at 71 ° 32 ′ N 180 ° 0 ′ E, also noted as 71 ° 32 ′ N 180 ° 0 ′ W.) It then passes through the Bering Strait between the Diomede Islands at a distance of 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) from each island at 168 ° 58 ′ 37 '' W. It then bends considerably west of 180 °, passing west of St. Lawrence Island and St. Matthew Island.
The IDL crosses between the U.S. Aleutian Islands (Attu Island being the westernmost) and the Commander Islands, which belong to Russia. It then bends southeast again to return to 180 °. Thus, all of Russia is to the west of the IDL, and all of the United States is to the east except for the insular areas of Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, and Wake Island.
The IDL remains on the 180 ° meridian until passing the equator. Two US - owned uninhabited atolls, Howland Island and Baker Island, just north of the equator in the central Pacific Ocean (and ships at sea between 172.5 ° W and 180 °), have the latest time on Earth (UTC − 12 hours).
The IDL circumscribes Kiribati by swinging far to the east, almost reaching the 150 ° W meridian. Kiribati 's easternmost islands, the southern Line Islands south of Hawaii, have the most advanced time on Earth, UTC + 14 hours. South of Kiribati, the IDL returns westwards but remains east of 180 °, passing between Samoa and American Samoa.
In much of this area, the IDL follows the 165 ° W meridian. Accordingly, Samoa, Tokelau, Wallis and Futuna, Fiji, Tonga, Tuvalu and New Zealand 's Kermadec Islands and Chatham Islands are all west of the IDL and have the same date. American Samoa, the Cook Islands, Niue, and French Polynesia are east of the IDL and one day behind.
The IDL then bends southwest to return to 180 °. It follows that meridian until reaching Antarctica, which has multiple time zones. Conventionally, the IDL is not drawn into Antarctica on most maps. (See § Cartographic practice and convention below.)
A person who goes around the world from east to west (the same direction as Magellan 's voyage) would gain or set their clock back one hour for every 15 ° of longitude crossed, and would gain 24 hours for one circuit of the globe from east to west if they did not compensate by setting their clock forward one day when they crossed the IDL. In contrast, a west - to - east circumnavigation of the globe loses an hour for every 15 ° of longitude crossed but gains back a day when crossing the IDL. The IDL must therefore be observed in conjunction with the Earth 's time zones: on crossing it in either direction, the calendar date is adjusted by one day.
For the two hours between 10: 00 and 11: 59 UTC each day, three different calendar dates are observed at the same time in different places on Earth. For example, at 10: 15 UTC Thursday, it is 23: 15 Wednesday in American Samoa (UTC − 11), Thursday in most of the world, and 00: 15 Friday in Kiritimati (UTC + 14).
During the first hour (UTC 10: 00 -- 10: 59), all three calendar dates include inhabited places. During the second hour (UTC 11: 00 -- 11: 59) one of the calendar dates is limited to an uninhabited maritime time zone twelve hours behind UTC (UTC − 12).
According to the clock, the first areas to experience a new day and a New Year are islands that use UTC + 14. These include portions of the Republic of Kiribati, including Millennium Island in the Line Islands, as well as Samoa during the southern summer. The first major cities to experience a new day are Auckland and Wellington, New Zealand (UTC + 12; UTC + 13 with daylight saving time).
A 1995 realignment of the IDL made Caroline Island one of the first points of land on Earth to reach January 1, 2000 on the calendar (UTC + 14). As a result, this atoll was renamed Millennium Island.
The areas that are the first to see the daylight of a new day vary by the season. Around the June solstice, the first area would be anyplace within the Kamchatka Time Zone (UTC + 12) that is far enough north to experience midnight sun on the given date. At the equinoxes, the first place to see daylight would be the uninhabited Millennium Island in Kiribati, which is the easternmost land located west of the IDL.
Near the December solstice, the first places would be Antarctic research stations using New Zealand Time (UTC + 13) during summer that experience midnight sun. These include Amundsen - Scott South Pole Station, McMurdo Station, Scott Base and Mario Zucchelli Station.
There are two ways time zones and thereby the location of the International Date Line are determined, one on land and adjacent territorial waters, and the other on open seas.
All nations unilaterally determine their standard time zones, applicable only on land and adjacent territorial waters. This date line can be called de facto since it is not based on international law, but on national laws. These national zones do not extend into international waters.
The nautical date line, not the same as the IDL, is a de jure construction determined by international agreement. It is the result of the 1917 Anglo - French Conference on Time - keeping at Sea, which recommended that all ships, both military and civilian, adopt hourly standard time zones on the high seas. The United States adopted its recommendation for U.S. military and merchant marine ships in 1920. This date line is implied but not explicitly drawn on time zone maps. It follows the 180 ° meridian except where it is interrupted by territorial waters adjacent to land, forming gaps -- it is a pole - to - pole dashed line. The 15 ° gore that is offset from UTC by 12 hours is bisected by the nautical date line into two 7.5 ° gores that differ from UTC by ± 12 hours.
Ships are supposed to adopt the standard time of a country if they are within its territorial waters within 12 nautical miles (14 mi; 22 km) of land, then revert to international time zones (15 ° wide pole - to - pole gores) as soon as they leave. In reality, ships use these time zones only for radio communication and similar purposes. For internal purposes, such as work and meal hours, ships use a time zone of their own choosing.
The IDL on the map on this page and all other maps is based on the de facto line and is an artificial construct of cartographers, as the precise course of the line in international waters is arbitrary. The IDL does not extend into Antarctica on the world time zone maps by the United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) or the United Kingdom 's Her Majesty 's Nautical Almanac Office (HMNAO). The IDL on modern CIA maps now reflects the most recent shifts in the IDL (see § Historical alterations below). The current HMNAO map does not draw the IDL in conformity with recent shifts in the IDL; it draws a line virtually identical to that adopted by the UK 's Hydrographic Office about 1900. Instead, HMNAO labels island groups with their time zones, which do reflect the most recent IDL shifts. This approach is consistent with the principle of national and nautical time zones: the islands of eastern Kiribati are actually "islands '' of Asian date (west side of IDL) in a sea of American date (east side of IDL).
No international organization, nor any treaty between nations, has fixed the IDL drawn by cartographers: the 1884 International Meridian Conference explicitly refused to propose or agree to any time zones, stating that they were outside its purview. The conference resolved that the Universal Day, midnight - to - midnight Greenwich Mean Time (now known as Coordinated Universal Time, or UTC), which it did agree to, "shall not interfere with the use of local or standard time where desirable ''. From this comes the utility and importance of UTC or "Z (Zulu) '' time: it permits a single universal reference for time that is valid for all points on the globe at the same moment.
As part of New Spain, the Philippines long had its most important communication with Acapulco in Mexico and was accordingly on the east side of the IDL despite being at the far western edge of the Pacific Ocean. From 1521 to 1844, the Philippines was one day behind its Asian neighbors (Saturday, 16 March 1521 was the first European visit, when Ferdinand Magellan claimed the area for Spain; colonization began on Friday, 27 April 1565). After Mexico gained its independence from Spain in 1821, Philippine trade interests turned to Imperial China, the Dutch East Indies and adjacent areas, so the Philippines decided to shift back to the west side of the IDL by removing Tuesday, 31 December 1844 from its calendar. The change was also applied to Mariana Islands, Guam and Caroline Islands since they also belonged to Spain. Because of this change, New Year 's Eve happened on Monday, 30 December 1844. Effective Wednesday, 1 January 1845, the Philippines, Guam, Mariana Islands and Caroline Islands switched back to Asian date. Western publications were generally unaware of this change until the early 1890s, so erroneously gave the International Date Line a large western bulge for the next half century.
The Russian Empire settled northwest North America from Siberia, from the west with its own Julian calendar (it did not adopt the Gregorian calendar until 1918). The United States purchased Russian America while based in the contiguous United States, from the east with its own Gregorian calendar (adopted in 1752 while several British colonies). The transfer ceremony occurred on the day that the commissioners appointed by the governments of Russia and the United States for that purpose arrived via the USS Ossipee at New Archangel (Sitka), the capital of Russian America. The United States recorded this date as Friday, 18 October 1867 (Gregorian), now known as Alaska Day, whereas the Russian governor, who had remained in New Archangel, would have recorded it as Saturday, 7 October 1867 (Julian). Senator Charles Sumner stated during his three - hour ratification speech (an encyclopedic discussion of Russian America) on Tuesday, 9 April 1867, that this day of the week and calendar discord should be changed. Because the transfer of ownership officially occurred at 3: 30 p.m. Sitka mean solar time (time zones were not yet in use), that was the date and time that Alaska changed from an Asian and Julian date to an American and Gregorian date. If the transfer had occurred at the preceding midnight then Friday, 6 October 1867 (Julian) would have been followed by Friday, 18 October 1867 (Gregorian), a duplicate day with a 12 - day difference appropriate both for changing from an Asian date to an American date (equivalent to moving the IDL from the east to the west of Alaska) and for changing from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar during the 19th century.
The Samoan Islands, now divided into Samoa and American Samoa, were on the west side of the IDL until 1892. In that year, King Malietoa Laupepa was persuaded by American traders to adopt the American date (three hours behind California) to replace the former Asian date (four hours ahead of Japan). The change was made by repeating Monday, 4 July 1892, American Independence Day.
In 2011, Samoa shifted back to the west side of the IDL by removing Friday, 30 December 2011 from its calendar. This changed the timezone from UTC − 11 to UTC + 13. Samoa made the change because Australia and New Zealand have become its biggest trading partners, and also have large communities of expatriates. Being 21 hours behind made business difficult because having weekends on backward days meant only four days of the week were shared workdays.
The IDL now passes between Samoa and American Samoa, which remains on the east (American) side of the line.
Tokelau is a territory of New Zealand north of Samoa whose principal transportation and communications links with the rest of the world pass through Samoa. For that reason, Tokelau crossed the IDL along with Samoa in 2011.
Kwajalein atoll, like the rest of the Marshall Islands, passed from Spanish to German to Japanese control during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. During that period it was west of the IDL. Although Kwajalein formally became part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands with the rest of the Marshalls after World War II, the United States established a military installation there. Because of that, Kwajalein used the Hawaiian date, so was effectively east of the International Date Line (unlike the rest of the Marshalls). Kwajalein returned to the west side of the IDL by removing Saturday, 21 August 1993 from its calendar to match the dates used by the rest of the Marshall Islands, at the request of its government. Along with the shift, Kwajalein 's work week was changed to Tuesday through Saturday to match the Hawaiian work week of Monday through Friday on the other side of the IDL.
As a British colony, the now - Republic of Kiribati was centred in the Gilbert Islands, just west of the IDL of the time. Upon independence in 1979, it acquired the Phoenix and Line Islands, east of the IDL, from the United States. As a result, the country straddled the IDL. Government and commercial concerns on opposite sides of the line could only conduct routine business by radio or telephone on the four days of the week which were weekdays on both sides. To eliminate this anomaly, Kiribati introduced a change of date for its eastern half on Sunday, 1 January 1995. After the change, the IDL in effect moved eastwards to go around the entire country. Strictly legal, the 1917 nautical IDL convention is still valid. When the land time zone says it 's Monday, these islands would form enclaves of Monday in an ocean which has Sunday. Maps are usually not drawn this way.
As a consequence of the 1995 change, Kiribati 's easternmost territory, the Line Islands, including the inhabited island of Kiritimati (Christmas Island), started the year 2000 before any other country, a feature the Kiribati government capitalized upon as a potential tourist draw.
Generally, the Christian calendar and Christian churches recognize the authority of the IDL. Christmas for example, is celebrated on 25 December (according to either the Gregorian or the Julian calendar, depending upon which of the two is used by the particular church) as that date falls in countries located on either side of the Date Line. Thus, whether it is Western Christmas or Orthodox Christmas, Christians in Samoa, immediately west of the Date Line, will celebrate the holiday a day before Christians in American Samoa, which is immediately east of the Date Line.
A problem with the general rule above arises in certain Christian churches that solemnly observe a Sabbath day as a particular day of the week, when those churches are located in countries near the Date Line. Notwithstanding the difference in dates, the same sunrise happened over American Samoa as happens over Samoa a few minutes later, and the same sunset happens over Samoa as happened over American Samoa a few minutes earlier. In other words, the secular days are legally different but they are physically the same; and that causes questions to arise under religious law.
Because the Date Line was an arbitrary imposition, the question can arise as to which Saturday on either side of the Date Line (or, more fundamentally, on either side of 180 degrees longitude) is the "real '' Saturday. This issue (which also arises in Judaism) is a particular problem for Seventh Day Adventists, Seventh Day Baptists, and similar churches located in countries near the Date Line.
In Tonga, Seventh Day Adventists (who usually observe Saturday, the seventh - day Sabbath) observe Sunday due to their understanding of the International Date Line, as Tonga lies east of the 180 ° meridian. Sunday as observed in Tonga (as with Kiribati, Samoa, and parts of Fiji and Tuvalu) is considered by the Seventh - day Adventist Church to be the same day as Saturday observed in most other places.
Most Seventh Day Adventists in Samoa planned to observe Sabbath on Sunday after Samoa 's crossing the date line in December 2011, but SDA groups in Samatau village and other places (approx. 300 members) decided to accept the IDL adjustment and observe the Sabbath on Saturday. Debate continues within the Seventh - day Adventist community in the Pacific as to which day is really the seventh - day Sabbath.
The Samoan Independent Seventh - day Adventist Church, which is not affiliated to the worldwide Seventh - day Adventist Church, has decided to continue worshiping on Saturday, after a six - day week at the end of 2011.
Similarly, the Islamic calendar and Muslim communities recognize the convention of the IDL. In particular, the day for holding the Jumu'ah prayer appears to be local Friday everywhere in the world.
The IDL is not a factor in the start and end of Islamic lunar months. These depend solely on sighting the new crescent moon. As an example, the fasts of the month of Ramadan begin the morning after the crescent is sighted. That this day may vary in different parts of the world is well known in Islam. (See Ramadan § Beginning.)
The concept of an international date line in Jewish law is first mentioned by 12th - century decisors. But it was not until the introduction of improved transportation and communications systems in the 20th century that the question of an international date line truly became a question of practical Jewish law.
As a practical matter, the conventional International Date Line -- or another line in the Pacific Ocean close to it -- serves as a de facto date line for purposes of Jewish law, at least in existing Jewish communities. For example, residents of the Jewish communities of Japan, New Zealand, Hawaii, and French Polynesia all observe Shabbat on local Saturday. However, there is not unanimity as to how Jewish law reaches that conclusion. For this reason, some authorities rule that certain aspects of Sabbath observance are required on Sunday (in Japan and New Zealand) or Friday (in Hawaii and French Polynesia) in addition to Saturday. Additionally, there are differences of opinion as to which day or days individual Jews traveling in the Pacific region away from established Jewish communities should observe Shabbat.
For individuals crossing the date line, the change of calendar date influences some aspects of practice under Jewish law. Yet other aspects depend on an individual 's experience of sunsets and sunrises to count days, notwithstanding the calendar date.
The date line is a central factor in Umberto Eco 's book The Island of the Day Before (1994), in which the protagonist finds himself on a becalmed ship, with an island close at hand on the other side of the IDL. Unable to swim, the protagonist indulges in increasingly confused speculation regarding the physical, metaphysical and religious import of the date line.
The concept behind the IDL (though not the IDL itself, which did not yet exist) appears as a plot device in Jules Verne 's book Around the World in Eighty Days (1873). The main protagonist, Phileas Fogg, travels eastward around the world. He had bet with his friends that he could do it in 80 days. To win the wager, Fogg must return by 8: 45 pm on Saturday, 21 December 1872. However, the journey suffers a series of delays and when Fogg reaches London, it 's 8: 50 pm on Friday, 20 December, although he believes it 's Saturday, 21 December and that he has lost the wager by a margin of only five minutes. The next day, however, it is revealed that the day is Saturday, not Sunday, and Fogg arrives at his club just in time to win the bet. Verne explains:
In journeying eastward he (Fogg) had gone towards the sun, and the days therefore diminished for him as many times four minutes as he crossed degrees in this direction. There are three hundred and sixty degrees on the circumference of the earth; and these three hundred and sixty degrees, multiplied by four minutes, gives precisely twenty - four hours -- that is, the day unconsciously gained. In other words, while Phileas Fogg, going eastward, saw the sun pass the meridian eighty times, his friends in London only saw it pass the meridian seventy - nine times.
Fogg had thought it was one day more than it actually was, because he had forgotten this simple fact. During his journey, he had added a full day to his clock, at the rhythm of an hour per fifteen degrees, or four minutes per degree, as Verne writes. At the time, the concept of a de jure International Date Line did not exist. If it did, he would have been made aware that it would be a day less than it used to be once he reached this line. Thus, the day he would add to his clock throughout his journey would be thoroughly removed upon crossing this imaginary line. But a de facto date line did exist since the UK, India and the US had the same calendar with different local times, and he should have noticed when he arrived to the US that the local date was not the same as in his diary (his servant Jean Passepartout kept his clock in London time, despite the tips of his surroundings).
Ceremonies aboard ships to mark a sailor 's or passenger 's first crossing of the Equator, as well as crossing the International Date Line, have been long - held traditions in navies and in other maritime services around the world.
The need for a temporal discontinuity on the globe can be described mathematically as following from the Borsuk - Ulam Theorem in dimension 1: It is a topological fact that there does not exist any continuous, one - to - one function mapping from a circle onto an interval.
Coordinates: 0 ° N 180 ° W / 0 ° N 180 ° W / 0; - 180
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what part of norway is in the arctic circle | Arctic Norway - wikipedia
Arctic Norway (Norwegian: Det arktiske Norge) comprises the northernmost parts of Norway that lie above the Arctic circle. Norway, being one of the most stretched - out countries in the world, reaches from approximately 58 ° N to 81 ° N, so large parts lie north of the Arctic circle at 66 ° 33 ′.
Arctic Norway consists of four geographically separated parts:
The Arctic circle crosses mainland Norway at Saltfjellet, which separates Helgeland from the northern part of Nordland county. Thus about half of the county lies north of the Arctic circle, along with the whole of Troms and Finnmark counties. The total area of mainland Norway above the Arctic circle is ca. 95,000 km (37,000 sq mi). The population is about 393,000, which makes this the most populated arctic region in the world.
Svalbard archipelago is situated some 640 km (400 mi) north of mainland Norway and has an area of 61,000 km (24,000 sq mi). The population is about 2,400, and includes Longyearbyen, the northernmost town in the world.
Bear Island (Norwegian: Bjørnøya) is situated some 400 kilometres (250 mi) north of mainland Norway, about two - thirds the distance to Svalbard. It has an area of 178 km (69 sq mi). The population is 9, which is the staff of the weather station.
Jan Mayen is situated some 880 km northwest of mainland Norway and about 450 km off the coast of Greenland. It has an area of 373 km. The population is 18, which is the staff of the weather station.
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when did michael jordan get drafted in the nba | Michael Jordan - wikipedia
Michael Jeffrey Jordan (born February 17, 1963), also known by his initials, MJ, is an American retired professional basketball player. Jordan played 15 seasons in the National Basketball Association (NBA) for the Chicago Bulls and Washington Wizards. His biography on the NBA website states: "By acclamation, Michael Jordan is the greatest basketball player of all time. '' Jordan was one of the most effectively marketed athletes of his generation and was considered instrumental in popularizing the NBA around the world in the 1980s and 1990s. He is currently the principal owner and chairman of the NBA 's Charlotte Hornets.
Jordan played three seasons for coach Dean Smith at the University of North Carolina. As a freshman, he was a member of the Tar Heels ' national championship team in 1982. Jordan joined the Bulls in 1984 as the third overall draft pick. He quickly emerged as a league star and entertained crowds with his prolific scoring. His leaping ability, demonstrated by performing slam dunks from the free throw line in slam dunk contests, earned him the nicknames Air Jordan and His Airness. He also gained a reputation for being one of the best defensive players in basketball. In 1991, he won his first NBA championship with the Bulls, and followed that achievement with titles in 1992 and 1993, securing a "three - peat ''. Although Jordan abruptly retired from basketball before the beginning of the 1993 -- 94 NBA season and started a new career playing minor league baseball, he returned to the Bulls in March 1995 and led them to three additional championships in 1996, 1997, and 1998, as well as a then - record 72 regular - season wins in the 1995 -- 96 NBA season. Jordan retired for a second time in January 1999, but returned for two more NBA seasons from 2001 to 2003 as a member of the Wizards.
Jordan 's individual accolades and accomplishments include five Most Valuable Player (MVP) Awards, ten All - NBA First Team designations, nine All - Defensive First Team honors, fourteen NBA All - Star Game appearances, three All - Star Game MVP Awards, ten scoring titles, three steals titles, six NBA Finals MVP Awards, and the 1988 NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award. Among his numerous accomplishments, Jordan holds the NBA records for highest career regular season scoring average (30.12 points per game) and highest career playoff scoring average (33.45 points per game). In 1999, he was named the greatest North American athlete of the 20th century by ESPN, and was second to Babe Ruth on the Associated Press 's list of athletes of the century. Jordan is a two - time inductee into the Basketball Hall of Fame, having been enshrined in 2009 for his individual career, and again in 2010 as part of the group induction of the 1992 United States men 's Olympic basketball team ("The Dream Team ''). He became a member of the FIBA Hall of Fame in 2015.
Jordan is also known for his product endorsements. He fueled the success of Nike 's Air Jordan sneakers, which were introduced in 1985 and remain popular today. Jordan also starred as himself in the 1996 film Space Jam. In 2006, he became part - owner and head of basketball operations for the Charlotte Bobcats; he bought a controlling interest in 2010. In 2015, Jordan became the first billionaire player in NBA history as a result of the increase in value of NBA franchises. He is the third - richest African - American, behind Oprah Winfrey and Robert F. Smith.
Jordan was born in Brooklyn, New York, to Deloris (née Peoples), who worked in banking, and James R. Jordan Sr., an equipment supervisor. His family moved to Wilmington, North Carolina, when he was a toddler.
Jordan is the fourth of five children. He has two older brothers, Larry Jordan and James R. Jordan, Jr., one older sister, Deloris, and one younger sister, Roslyn. Jordan 's brother James retired in 2006 as the Command Sergeant Major of the 35th Signal Brigade of the XVIII Airborne Corps in the U.S. Army.
Jordan attended Emsley A. Laney High School in Wilmington, where he highlighted his athletic career by playing basketball, baseball, and football. He tried out for the varsity basketball team during his sophomore year, but at 5'11 '' (1.80 m), he was deemed too short to play at that level. His taller friend, Harvest Leroy Smith, was the only sophomore to make the team.
Motivated to prove his worth, Jordan became the star of Laney 's junior varsity squad, and tallied several 40 - point games. The following summer, he grew four inches (10 cm) and trained rigorously. Upon earning a spot on the varsity roster, Jordan averaged about 20 points per game over his final two seasons of high school play. As a senior, he was selected to the McDonald 's All - American Team after averaging a triple - double: 29.2 points, 11.6 rebounds, and 10.1 assists.
Jordan was recruited by numerous college basketball programs, including Duke, North Carolina, South Carolina, Syracuse, and Virginia. In 1981, Jordan accepted a basketball scholarship to North Carolina, where he majored in cultural geography.
As a freshman in coach Dean Smith 's team - oriented system, he was named ACC Freshman of the Year after he averaged 13.4 points per game (ppg) on 53.4 % shooting (field goal percentage). He made the game - winning jump shot in the 1982 NCAA Championship game against Georgetown, which was led by future NBA rival Patrick Ewing. Jordan later described this shot as the major turning point in his basketball career. During his three seasons at North Carolina, he averaged 17.7 ppg on 54.0 % shooting, and added 5.0 rebounds per game (rpg). He was selected by consensus to the NCAA All - American First Team in both his sophomore (1983) and junior (1984) seasons. After winning the Naismith and the Wooden College Player of the Year awards in 1984, Jordan left North Carolina one year before his scheduled graduation to enter the 1984 NBA draft. The Chicago Bulls selected Jordan with the third overall pick, after Hakeem Olajuwon (Houston Rockets) and Sam Bowie (Portland Trail Blazers). One of the primary reasons why Jordan was not drafted sooner was because the first two teams were in need of a center. However, Trail Blazers general manager Stu Inman contended that it was not a matter of drafting a center, but more a matter of taking Sam Bowie over Jordan, in part because Portland already had Clyde Drexler, who was a guard with similar skills to Jordan. ESPN, citing Bowie 's injury - laden college career, named the Blazers ' choice of Bowie as the worst draft pick in North American professional sports history. Jordan returned to North Carolina to complete his degree in 1986.
During his rookie season with the Bulls, Jordan averaged 28.2 ppg on 51.5 % shooting. He quickly became a fan favorite even in opposing arenas, and appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated with the heading "A Star Is Born '' just over a month into his professional career. The fans also voted in Jordan as an All - Star starter during his rookie season. Controversy arose before the All - Star game when word surfaced that several veteran players -- led by Isiah Thomas -- were upset by the amount of attention Jordan was receiving. This led to a so - called "freeze - out '' on Jordan, where players refused to pass the ball to him throughout the game. The controversy left Jordan relatively unaffected when he returned to regular season play, and he would go on to be voted Rookie of the Year. The Bulls finished the season 38 -- 44 and lost to the Milwaukee Bucks in four games in the first round of the playoffs.
Jordan 's second season was cut short when he broke his foot in the third game of the year, causing him to miss 64 games. Despite Jordan 's injury and a 30 -- 52 record (at the time it was fifth worst record of any team to qualify for the playoffs in NBA history), the Bulls made the playoffs. Jordan recovered in time to participate in the playoffs and performed well upon his return. Against a 1985 -- 86 Boston Celtics team that is often considered one of the greatest in NBA history, Jordan set the still - unbroken record for points in a playoff game with 63 in Game 2. The Celtics, however, managed to sweep the series.
Jordan had completely recovered in time for the 1986 -- 87 season, and he had one of the most prolific scoring seasons in NBA history. He became the only player other than Wilt Chamberlain to score 3,000 points in a season, averaging a league high 37.1 points on 48.2 % shooting. In addition, Jordan demonstrated his defensive prowess, as he became the first player in NBA history to record 200 steals and 100 blocked shots in a season. Despite Jordan 's success, Magic Johnson won the league 's Most Valuable Player Award. The Bulls reached 40 wins, and advanced to the playoffs for the third consecutive year. However, they were again swept by the Celtics.
Jordan again led the league in scoring during the 1987 -- 88 season, averaging 35.0 ppg on 53.5 % shooting and won his first league MVP Award. He was also named the Defensive Player of the Year, as he had averaged 1.6 blocks and a league high 3.16 steals per game. The Bulls finished 50 -- 32, and made it out of the first round of the playoffs for the first time in Jordan 's career, as they defeated the Cleveland Cavaliers in five games. However, the Bulls then lost in five games to the more experienced Detroit Pistons, who were led by Isiah Thomas and a group of physical players known as the "Bad Boys ''.
In the 1988 -- 89 season, Jordan again led the league in scoring, averaging 32.5 ppg on 53.8 % shooting from the field, along with 8 rpg and 8 assists per game (apg). The Bulls finished with a 47 -- 35 record, and advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals, defeating the Cavaliers and New York Knicks along the way. The Cavaliers series included a career highlight for Jordan when he hit The Shot over Craig Ehlo at the buzzer in the fifth and final game of the series. However, the Pistons again defeated the Bulls, this time in six games, by utilizing their "Jordan Rules '' method of guarding Jordan, which consisted of double and triple teaming him every time he touched the ball.
The Bulls entered the 1989 -- 90 season as a team on the rise, with their core group of Jordan and young improving players like Scottie Pippen and Horace Grant, and under the guidance of new coach Phil Jackson. Jordan averaged a league leading 33.6 ppg on 52.6 % shooting, to go with 6.9 rpg and 6.3 apg in leading the Bulls to a 55 -- 27 record. They again advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals after beating the Bucks and Philadelphia 76ers. However, despite pushing the series to seven games, the Bulls lost to the Pistons for the third consecutive season.
In the 1990 -- 91 season, Jordan won his second MVP award after averaging 31.5 ppg on 53.9 % shooting, 6.0 rpg, and 5.5 apg for the regular season. The Bulls finished in first place in their division for the first time in 16 years and set a franchise record with 61 wins in the regular season. With Scottie Pippen developing into an All - Star, the Bulls had elevated their play. The Bulls defeated the New York Knicks and the Philadelphia 76ers in the opening two rounds of the playoffs. They advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals where their rival, the Detroit Pistons, awaited them. However, this time the Bulls beat the Pistons in a four - game sweep.
The Bulls advanced to the NBA Finals for the first time in franchise history to face the Los Angeles Lakers, who had Magic Johnson and James Worthy, two formidable opponents. The Bulls won the series four games to one, and compiled a 15 -- 2 playoff record along the way. Perhaps the best known moment of the series came in Game 2 when, attempting a dunk, Jordan avoided a potential Sam Perkins block by switching the ball from his right hand to his left in mid-air to lay the shot into the basket. In his first Finals appearance, Jordan posted per game averages of 31.2 points on 56 % shooting from the field, 11.4 assists, 6.6 rebounds, 2.8 steals, and 1.4 blocks. Jordan won his first NBA Finals MVP award, and he cried while holding the NBA Finals trophy.
Jordan and the Bulls continued their dominance in the 1991 -- 92 season, establishing a 67 -- 15 record, topping their franchise record from 1990 -- 91. Jordan won his second consecutive MVP award with averages of 30.1 points, 6.4 rebounds and 6.1 assists per game on 52 % shooting. After winning a physical 7 - game series over the New York Knicks in the second round of the playoffs and finishing off the Cleveland Cavaliers in the Conference Finals in 6 games, the Bulls met Clyde Drexler and the Portland Trail Blazers in the Finals. The media, hoping to recreate a Magic -- Bird rivalry, highlighted the similarities between "Air '' Jordan and Clyde "The Glide '' during the pre-Finals hype. In the first game, Jordan scored a Finals - record 35 points in the first half, including a record - setting six three - point field goals. After the sixth three - pointer, he jogged down the court shrugging as he looked courtside. Marv Albert, who broadcast the game, later stated that it was as if Jordan was saying, "I ca n't believe I 'm doing this. '' The Bulls went on to win Game 1, and defeat the Blazers in six games. Jordan was named Finals MVP for the second year in a row and finished the series averaging 35.8 ppg, 4.8 rpg, and 6.5 apg, while shooting 53 % from the floor.
In the 1992 -- 93 season, despite a 32.6 ppg, 6.7 rpg, and 5.5 apg campaign, Jordan 's streak of consecutive MVP seasons ended as he lost the award to his friend Charles Barkley. Coincidentally, Jordan and the Bulls met Barkley and his Phoenix Suns in the 1993 NBA Finals. The Bulls won their third NBA championship on a game - winning shot by John Paxson and a last - second block by Horace Grant, but Jordan was once again Chicago 's leader. He averaged a Finals - record 41.0 ppg during the six - game series, and became the first player in NBA history to win three straight Finals MVP awards. He scored more than 30 points in every game of the series, including 40 or more points in 4 consecutive games. With his third Finals triumph, Jordan capped off a seven - year run where he attained seven scoring titles and three championships, but there were signs that Jordan was tiring of his massive celebrity and all of the non-basketball hassles in his life.
During the Bulls ' playoff run in 1993, controversy arose when Jordan was seen gambling in Atlantic City, New Jersey, the night before a game against the New York Knicks. In that same year, he admitted that he had to cover $57,000 in gambling losses, and author Richard Esquinas wrote a book claiming he had won $1.25 million from Jordan on the golf course. In 2005, Jordan talked to Ed Bradley of the CBS evening show 60 Minutes about his gambling and admitted that he made some reckless decisions. Jordan stated, "Yeah, I 've gotten myself into situations where I would not walk away and I 've pushed the envelope. Is that compulsive? Yeah, it depends on how you look at it. If you 're willing to jeopardize your livelihood and your family, then yeah. '' When Bradley asked him if his gambling ever got to the level where it jeopardized his livelihood or family, Jordan replied, "No. ''
On October 6, 1993, Jordan announced his retirement, citing a loss of desire to play the game. Jordan later stated that the death of his father three months earlier also shaped his decision. Jordan 's father was murdered on July 23, 1993, at a highway rest area in Lumberton, North Carolina, by two teenagers, Daniel Green and Larry Martin Demery, who carjacked his luxury Lexus bearing the license plate "UNC 0023 ''. His body was dumped in a South Carolina swamp and was not discovered until August 3. The assailants were traced from calls that they made on James Jordan 's cell phone. The two criminals were caught, convicted at trial, and sentenced to life in prison. Jordan was close to his father; as a child he had imitated his father 's proclivity to stick out his tongue while absorbed in work. He later adopted it as his own signature, displaying it each time he drove to the basket. In 1996, he founded a Chicago area Boys & Girls Club and dedicated it to his father.
In his 1998 autobiography For the Love of the Game, Jordan wrote that he had been preparing for retirement as early as the summer of 1992. The added exhaustion due to the Dream Team run in the 1992 Olympics solidified Jordan 's feelings about the game and his ever - growing celebrity status. Jordan 's announcement sent shock waves throughout the NBA and appeared on the front pages of newspapers around the world.
Jordan then further surprised the sports world by signing a minor league baseball contract with the Chicago White Sox on February 7, 1994. He reported to spring training in Sarasota, Florida, and was assigned to the team 's minor league system on March 31, 1994. Jordan has stated this decision was made to pursue the dream of his late father, who had always envisioned his son as a Major League Baseball player. The White Sox were another team owned by Bulls owner Jerry Reinsdorf, who continued to honor Jordan 's basketball contract during the years he played baseball.
In 1994, Jordan played for the Birmingham Barons, a Double - A minor league affiliate of the Chicago White Sox, batting. 202 with three home runs, 51 runs batted in, 30 stolen bases, 114 strikeouts, 51 base on balls, and 11 errors. He also appeared for the Scottsdale Scorpions in the 1994 Arizona Fall League, batting. 252 against the top prospects in baseball. On November 1, 1994, his number 23 was retired by the Bulls in a ceremony that included the erection of a permanent sculpture known as The Spirit outside the new United Center.
In the 1993 -- 94 season, the Bulls achieved a 55 -- 27 record without Jordan in the lineup, and lost to the New York Knicks in the second round of the playoffs. The 1994 -- 95 Bulls were a shell of the championship team of just two years earlier. Struggling at mid-season to ensure a spot in the playoffs, Chicago was 31 -- 31 at one point in mid-March. The team received help, however, when Jordan decided to return to the Bulls.
In March 1995, Jordan decided to quit baseball due to the ongoing Major League Baseball strike, as he wanted to avoid becoming a potential replacement player. On March 18, 1995, Jordan announced his return to the NBA through a two - word press release: "I 'm back. '' The next day, Jordan took to the court with the Bulls to face the Indiana Pacers in Indianapolis, scoring 19 points. The game had the highest Nielsen rating of a regular season NBA game since 1975. Although he could have opted to wear his normal number in spite of the Bulls having retired it, Jordan instead wore number 45, as he had while playing baseball.
Although he had not played an NBA game in a year and a half, Jordan played well upon his return, making a game - winning jump shot against Atlanta in his fourth game back. He then scored 55 points in the next game against the Knicks at Madison Square Garden on March 28, 1995. Boosted by Jordan 's comeback, the Bulls went 13 -- 4 to make the playoffs and advanced to the Eastern Conference Semifinals against the Orlando Magic. At the end of Game 1, Orlando 's Nick Anderson stripped Jordan from behind, leading to the game - winning basket for the Magic; he would later comment that Jordan "did n't look like the old Michael Jordan '' and that "No. 45 does n't explode like No. 23 used to. ''
Jordan responded by scoring 38 points in the next game, which Chicago won. Before the game, Jordan decided that he would immediately resume wearing his former number, 23. The Bulls were fined $25,000 for failing to report the impromptu number change to the NBA. Jordan was fined an additional $5,000 for opting to wear white sneakers when the rest of the Bulls wore black. He averaged 31 points per game in the series, but Orlando won the series in 6 games.
Jordan was freshly motivated by the playoff defeat, and he trained aggressively for the 1995 -- 96 season. The Bulls were strengthened by the addition of rebound specialist Dennis Rodman, and the team dominated the league, starting the season at 41 -- 3. The Bulls eventually finished with the then - best regular season record in NBA history, 72 -- 10; this record was later surpassed by the 2015 -- 16 Golden State Warriors. Jordan led the league in scoring with 30.4 ppg and won the league 's regular season and All - Star Game MVP awards.
In the playoffs, the Bulls lost only three games in four series (Miami Heat 3 -- 0, New York Knicks 4 -- 1, Orlando Magic 4 -- 0). They defeated the Seattle SuperSonics 4 -- 2 in the NBA Finals to win their fourth championship. Jordan was named Finals MVP for a record fourth time, surpassing Magic Johnson 's three Finals MVP awards. He also achieved only the second sweep of the MVP Awards in the All - Star Game, regular season and NBA Finals, Willis Reed having achieved the first, during the 1969 -- 70 season. Because this was Jordan 's first championship since his father 's murder, and it was won on Father 's Day, Jordan reacted very emotionally upon winning the title, including a memorable scene of him crying on the locker room floor with the game ball.
In the 1996 -- 97 season, the Bulls started out 69 -- 11, but missed out on a second consecutive 70 - win season by losing their final two games to finish 69 -- 13. However, this year Jordan was beaten for the NBA MVP Award by Karl Malone. The Bulls again advanced to the Finals, where they faced Malone and the Utah Jazz. The series against the Jazz featured two of the more memorable clutch moments of Jordan 's career. He won Game 1 for the Bulls with a buzzer - beating jump shot. In Game 5, with the series tied at 2, Jordan played despite being feverish and dehydrated from a stomach virus. In what is known as the "Flu Game '', Jordan scored 38 points, including the game - deciding 3 - pointer with 25 seconds remaining. The Bulls won 90 -- 88 and went on to win the series in six games. For the fifth time in as many Finals appearances, Jordan received the Finals MVP award. During the 1997 NBA All - Star Game, Jordan posted the first triple double in All - Star Game history in a victorious effort; however, he did not receive the MVP award.
Jordan and the Bulls compiled a 62 -- 20 record in the 1997 -- 98 season. Jordan led the league with 28.7 points per game, securing his fifth regular - season MVP award, plus honors for All - NBA First Team, First Defensive Team and the All - Star Game MVP. The Bulls won the Eastern Conference Championship for a third straight season, including surviving a seven - game series with the Indiana Pacers in the Eastern Conference Finals; it was the first time Jordan had played in a Game 7 since the 1992 Eastern Conference Semifinals with the Knicks. After winning, they moved on for a rematch with the Jazz in the Finals.
The Bulls returned to the Delta Center for Game 6 on June 14, 1998, leading the series 3 -- 2. Jordan executed a series of plays, considered to be one of the greatest clutch performances in NBA Finals history. With the Bulls trailing 86 -- 83 with 41.9 seconds remaining in the fourth quarter, Phil Jackson called a timeout. When play resumed, Jordan received the inbound pass, drove to the basket, and hit a shot over several Jazz defenders, cutting the Utah lead to 86 -- 85. The Jazz brought the ball upcourt and passed the ball to forward Karl Malone, who was set up in the low post and was being guarded by Rodman. Malone jostled with Rodman and caught the pass, but Jordan cut behind him and took the ball out of his hands for a steal. Jordan then dribbled down the court and paused, eyeing his defender, Jazz guard Bryon Russell. With 10 seconds remaining, Jordan started to dribble right, then crossed over to his left, possibly pushing off Russell, although the officials did not call a foul. With 5.2 seconds left, Jordan gave Chicago an 87 -- 86 lead with a game - winning jumper, the climactic shot of his Bulls career. Afterwards, John Stockton missed a game - winning three - pointer. Jordan and the Bulls won their sixth NBA championship and second three - peat. Once again, Jordan was voted the Finals MVP, having led all scorers averaging 33.5 points per game, including 45 in the deciding Game 6. Jordan 's six Finals MVPs is a record; Shaquille O'Neal, Magic Johnson, LeBron James and Tim Duncan are tied for second place with three apiece. The 1998 Finals holds the highest television rating of any Finals series in history. Game 6 also holds the highest television rating of any game in NBA history.
With Phil Jackson 's contract expiring, the pending departures of Scottie Pippen and Dennis Rodman looming, and being in the latter stages of an owner - induced lockout of NBA players, Jordan retired for the second time on January 13, 1999. On January 19, 2000, Jordan returned to the NBA not as a player, but as part owner and President of Basketball Operations for the Washington Wizards. Jordan 's responsibilities with the Wizards were comprehensive. He controlled all aspects of the Wizards ' basketball operations, and had the final say in all personnel matters. Opinions of Jordan as a basketball executive were mixed. He managed to purge the team of several highly paid, unpopular players (such as forward Juwan Howard and point guard Rod Strickland), but used the first pick in the 2001 NBA draft to select high schooler Kwame Brown, who did not live up to expectations and was traded away after four seasons.
Despite his January 1999 claim that he was "99.9 % certain '' that he would never play another NBA game, in the summer of 2001 Jordan expressed interest in making another comeback, this time with his new team. Inspired by the NHL comeback of his friend Mario Lemieux the previous winter, Jordan spent much of the spring and summer of 2001 in training, holding several invitation - only camps for NBA players in Chicago. In addition, Jordan hired his old Chicago Bulls head coach, Doug Collins, as Washington 's coach for the upcoming season, a decision that many saw as foreshadowing another Jordan return.
On September 25, 2001, Jordan announced his return to the NBA to play for the Washington Wizards, indicating his intention to donate his salary as a player to a relief effort for the victims of the September 11, 2001 attacks. In an injury - plagued 2001 -- 02 season, he led the team in scoring (22.9 ppg), assists (5.2 apg), and steals (1.42 spg). However, torn cartilage in his right knee ended Jordan 's season after only 60 games, the fewest he had played in a regular season since playing 17 games after returning from his first retirement during the 1994 -- 95 season. Jordan started 53 of his 60 games for the season, averaging 24.3 points, 5.4 assists, and 6.0 rebounds, and shooting 41.9 % from the field in his 53 starts. His last seven appearances were in a reserve role, in which he averaged just over 20 minutes per game.
Playing in his 14th and final NBA All - Star Game in 2003, Jordan passed Kareem Abdul - Jabbar as the all - time leading scorer in All - Star Game history (a record since broken by Kobe Bryant). That year, Jordan was the only Washington player to play in all 82 games, starting in 67 of them. He averaged 20.0 points, 6.1 rebounds, 3.8 assists, and 1.5 steals per game. He also shot 45 % from the field, and 82 % from the free throw line. Even though he turned 40 during the season, he scored 20 or more points 42 times, 30 or more points nine times, and 40 or more points three times. On February 21, 2003, Jordan became the first 40 - year - old to tally 43 points in an NBA game. During his stint with the Wizards, all of Jordan 's home games at the MCI Center were sold out, and the Wizards were the second most - watched team in the NBA, averaging 20,172 fans a game at home and 19,311 on the road. However, neither of Jordan 's final two seasons resulted in a playoff appearance for the Wizards, and Jordan was often unsatisfied with the play of those around him. At several points he openly criticized his teammates to the media, citing their lack of focus and intensity, notably that of the number one draft pick in the 2001 NBA draft, Kwame Brown.
With the recognition that 2002 -- 03 would be Jordan 's final season, tributes were paid to him throughout the NBA. In his final game at the United Center in Chicago, which was his old home court, Jordan received a four - minute standing ovation. The Miami Heat retired the number 23 jersey on April 11, 2003, even though Jordan never played for the team. At the 2003 All - Star Game, Jordan was offered a starting spot from Tracy McGrady and Allen Iverson, but refused both. In the end, he accepted the spot of Vince Carter, who decided to give it up under great public pressure.
Jordan played in his final NBA game on April 16, 2003 in Philadelphia. After scoring only 13 points in the game, Jordan went to the bench with 4 minutes and 13 seconds remaining in the third quarter and his team trailing the Philadelphia 76ers, 75 -- 56. Just after the start of the fourth quarter, the First Union Center crowd began chanting "We want Mike! '' After much encouragement from coach Doug Collins, Jordan finally rose from the bench and re-entered the game, replacing Larry Hughes with 2: 35 remaining. At 1: 45, Jordan was intentionally fouled by the 76ers ' Eric Snow, and stepped to the line to make both free throws. After the second foul shot, the 76ers in - bounded the ball to rookie John Salmons, who in turn was intentionally fouled by Bobby Simmons one second later, stopping time so that Jordan could return to the bench. Jordan received a three - minute standing ovation from his teammates, his opponents, the officials, and the crowd of 21,257 fans.
Jordan played on two Olympic gold medal - winning American basketball teams. He won a gold medal as a college player in the 1984 Summer Olympics. The team was coached by Bob Knight and featured players such as Patrick Ewing, Sam Perkins, Chris Mullin, Steve Alford, and Wayman Tisdale. Jordan led the team in scoring, averaging 17.1 ppg for the tournament.
In the 1992 Summer Olympics, he was a member of the star - studded squad that included Magic Johnson, Larry Bird, and David Robinson and was dubbed the "Dream Team ''. Jordan was the only player to start all 8 games in the Olympics. Playing limited minutes due to the frequent blowouts, Jordan averaged 14.9 ppg, finishing second on the team in scoring. Jordan and fellow Dream Team members Patrick Ewing and Chris Mullin are the only American men 's basketball players to win Olympic gold medals as amateurs and professionals.
After his third retirement, Jordan assumed that he would be able to return to his front office position as Director of Basketball Operations with the Wizards. However, his previous tenure in the Wizards ' front office had produced the aforementioned mixed results and may have also influenced the trade of Richard "Rip '' Hamilton for Jerry Stackhouse (although Jordan was not technically Director of Basketball Operations in 2002). On May 7, 2003, Wizards owner Abe Pollin fired Jordan as Washington 's President of Basketball Operations. Jordan later stated that he felt betrayed, and that if he had known he would be fired upon retiring he never would have come back to play for the Wizards.
Jordan kept busy over the next few years. He stayed in shape, played golf in celebrity charity tournaments, and spent time with his family in Chicago. He also promoted his Jordan Brand clothing line and rode motorcycles. Since 2004, Jordan has owned Michael Jordan Motorsports, a professional closed - course motorcycle road racing team that competed with two Suzukis in the premier Superbike championship sanctioned by the American Motorcyclist Association (AMA) until the end of the 2013 season. In 2006, Jordan and his wife Juanita pledged $5 million to Chicago 's Hales Franciscan High School. The Jordan Brand has made donations to Habitat for Humanity and a Louisiana branch of the Boys & Girls Clubs of America.
On June 15, 2006, Jordan bought a minority stake in the Charlotte Bobcats, becoming the team 's second - largest shareholder behind majority owner Robert L. Johnson. As part of the deal, Jordan took full control over the basketball side of the operation, with the title "Managing Member of Basketball Operations. '' Despite Jordan 's previous success as an endorser, he has made an effort not to be included in Charlotte 's marketing campaigns. A decade earlier, Jordan had made a bid to become part - owner of Charlotte 's original NBA team, the Charlotte Hornets, but talks collapsed when owner George Shinn refused to give Jordan complete control of basketball operations.
In February 2010, it was reported that Jordan was seeking majority ownership of the Bobcats. As February wore on, it became apparent that Jordan and former Houston Rockets president George Postolos were the leading contenders for ownership of the team. On February 27, the Bobcats announced that Johnson had reached an agreement with Jordan and his group, MJ Basketball Holdings, to buy the team pending NBA approval. On March 17, the NBA Board of Governors unanimously approved Jordan 's purchase, making him the first former player to become the majority owner of an NBA team. It also made him the league 's only African - American majority owner of an NBA team.
During the 2011 NBA lockout, The New York Times wrote that Jordan led a group of 10 to 14 hardline owners who wanted to cap the players ' share of basketball - related income at 50 percent and as low as 47. Journalists observed that, during the labor dispute in 1998, Jordan had told Washington Wizards then - owner Abe Pollin, "If you ca n't make a profit, you should sell your team. '' Jason Whitlock of FoxSports.com called Jordan a "sellout '' wanting "current players to pay for his incompetence. '' He cited Jordan 's executive decisions to draft disappointing players Kwame Brown and Adam Morrison.
During the 2011 -- 12 NBA season that was shortened to 66 games by the lockout, the Bobcats posted a 7 -- 59 record. Their. 106 winning percentage was the worst in NBA history. "I 'm not real happy about the record book scenario last year. It 's very, very frustrating '', Jordan said later that year.
Jordan was a shooting guard who was also capable of playing as a small forward (the position he would primarily play during his second return to professional basketball with the Washington Wizards), and as a point guard. Jordan was known throughout his career for being a strong clutch performer. With the Bulls, he decided 25 games with field goals or free throws in the last 30 seconds, including two NBA Finals games and five other playoff contests. His competitiveness was visible in his prolific trash - talk and well - known work ethic. As the Bulls organization built the franchise around Jordan, management had to trade away players who were not "tough enough '' to compete with him in practice. To help improve his defense, he spent extra hours studying film of opponents. On offense, he relied more upon instinct and improvisation at game time. Noted as a durable player, Jordan did not miss four or more games while active for a full season from 1986 -- 87 to 2001 -- 02, when he injured his right knee. He played all 82 games nine times. Jordan has frequently cited David Thompson, Walter Davis, and Jerry West as influences. Confirmed at the start of his career, and possibly later on, Jordan had a special "Love of the Game Clause '' written into his contract (unusual at the time) which allowed him to play basketball against anyone at any time, anywhere.
Jordan had a versatile offensive game. He was capable of aggressively driving to the basket, as well as drawing fouls from his opponents at a high rate; his 8,772 free throw attempts are the ninth - highest total of all time. As his career progressed, Jordan also developed the ability to post up his opponents and score with his trademark fadeaway jump shot, using his leaping ability to "fade away '' from block attempts. According to Hubie Brown, this move alone made him nearly unstoppable. Despite media criticism as a "selfish '' player early in his career, Jordan 's 5.3 assists per game also indicate his willingness to defer to his teammates. After shooting under 30 % from three - point range in his first five seasons in the NBA, including a career - low 13 % in the 1987 -- 88 season, Jordan improved to a career - high 50 % in the 1994 -- 95 season. The three - point shot became more of a focus of his game from 1994 -- 95 to 1996 -- 97, when the NBA shortened its three - point line to 22 ft (6.7 m) (from 23 ft 9 in (7.24 m)). His three - point field - goal percentages ranged from 35 % to 43 % in seasons in which he attempted at least 230 three - pointers between 1989 -- 90 and 1996 -- 97. For a guard, Jordan was also a good rebounder (6.2 per game).
In 1988, Jordan was honored with the NBA 's Defensive Player of the Year Award and became the first NBA player to win both the Defensive Player of the Year and MVP awards in a career (since equaled by Hakeem Olajuwon, David Robinson, and Kevin Garnett; Olajuwon is the only player other than Jordan to win both during the same season). In addition, he set both seasonal and career records for blocked shots by a guard, and combined this with his ball - thieving ability to become a standout defensive player. He ranks third in NBA history in total steals with 2,514, trailing John Stockton and Jason Kidd. Jerry West often stated that he was more impressed with Jordan 's defensive contributions than his offensive ones. He was also known to have strong eyesight; broadcaster Al Michaels said that he was able to read baseball box scores on a 27 - inch television clearly from about 50 feet away.
Jordan 's marked talent was clear from his rookie season. In his first game in Madison Square Garden against the New York Knicks, Jordan received a prolonged standing ovation, a rarity for an opposing player. After Jordan scored a playoff record 63 points against the Boston Celtics on April 20, 1986, Celtics star Larry Bird described him as "God disguised as Michael Jordan. ''
Jordan led the NBA in scoring in 10 seasons (NBA record) and tied Wilt Chamberlain 's record of seven consecutive scoring titles. He was also a fixture on the NBA All - Defensive First Team, making the roster nine times (NBA record shared with Gary Payton, Kevin Garnett and Kobe Bryant). Jordan also holds the top career regular season and playoff scoring averages of 30.1 and 33.4 points per game, respectively. By 1998, the season of his Finals - winning shot against the Jazz, he was well known throughout the league as a clutch performer. In the regular season, Jordan was the Bulls ' primary threat in the final seconds of a close game and in the playoffs; he would always ask for the ball at crunch time. Jordan 's total of 5,987 points in the playoffs is the second - highest in NBA history. He retired with 32,292 points in regular season play, placing him fourth on the NBA 's all - time scoring list behind Kareem Abdul - Jabbar, Karl Malone, and Kobe Bryant.
With five regular - season MVPs (tied for second place with Bill Russell -- only Kareem Abdul - Jabbar has won more, with six), six Finals MVPs (NBA record), and three All - Star Game MVPs, Jordan is the most decorated player in NBA history. Jordan finished among the top three in regular - season MVP voting 10 times, and was named one of the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History in 1996. He is one of only seven players in history to win an NCAA championship, an NBA championship, and an Olympic gold medal (doing so twice with the 1984 and 1992 U.S. men 's basketball teams). Since 1976, the year of the NBA 's merger with the American Basketball Association, Jordan and Pippen are the only two players to win six NBA Finals playing for one team. In the All - Star Game fan ballot, Jordan received the most votes nine times, more than any other player.
-- Magic Johnson
Many of Jordan 's contemporaries have said that Jordan is the greatest basketball player of all time. In 1999, an ESPN survey of journalists, athletes and other sports figures ranked Jordan the greatest North American athlete of the 20th century, above such luminaries as Babe Ruth and Muhammad Ali. Jordan placed second to Babe Ruth in the Associated Press 's December 1999 list of 20th century athletes. In addition, the Associated Press voted him the greatest basketball player of the 20th century. Jordan has also appeared on the front cover of Sports Illustrated a record 50 times. In the September 1996 issue of Sport, which was the publication 's 50th - anniversary issue, Jordan was named the greatest athlete of the past 50 years.
Jordan 's athletic leaping ability, highlighted in his back - to - back slam dunk contest championships in 1987 and 1988, is credited by many people with having influenced a generation of young players. Several current NBA players -- including LeBron James and Dwyane Wade -- have stated that they considered Jordan their role model while they were growing up. In addition, commentators have dubbed a number of next - generation players "the next Michael Jordan '' upon their entry to the NBA, including Anfernee "Penny '' Hardaway, Grant Hill, Allen Iverson, Kobe Bryant, LeBron James, Vince Carter, and Dwyane Wade. Although Jordan was a well - rounded player, his "Air Jordan '' image is also often credited with inadvertently decreasing the jump shooting skills, defense, and fundamentals of young players, a fact Jordan himself has lamented.
I think it was the exposure of Michael Jordan; the marketing of Michael Jordan. Everything was marketed towards the things that people wanted to see, which was scoring and dunking. That Michael Jordan still played defense and an all - around game, but it was never really publicized.
During his heyday, Jordan did much to increase the status of the game, but the popularity of the NBA in the U.S. appears to have declined since his last title. Television ratings in particular increased only during his time in the league, and Finals ratings have not returned to the level reached during his last championship - winning season.
In August 2009, the Basketball Hall of Fame in Springfield, Massachusetts, opened a Michael Jordan exhibit that contained items from his college and NBA careers, as well as from the 1992 "Dream Team ''. The exhibit also has a batting glove to signify Jordan 's short career in minor league baseball. After Jordan received word of his acceptance into the Hall of Fame, he selected Class of 1996 member David Thompson to present him. As Jordan would later explain during his induction speech in September 2009, when he was growing up in North Carolina, he was not a fan of the Tar Heels and greatly admired Thompson, who played at rival North Carolina State. In September, he was inducted into the Hall with several former Bulls teammates in attendance, including Scottie Pippen, Dennis Rodman, Charles Oakley, Ron Harper, Steve Kerr, and Toni Kukoč. Two of Jordan 's former coaches, Dean Smith and Doug Collins, were also among those present. His emotional reaction during his speech -- when he began to cry -- was captured by Associated Press photographer Stephan Savoia and would later go viral on social media as the Crying Jordan Internet meme. In 2016, President Barack Obama honored Jordan with the Presidential Medal of Freedom.
Jordan married Juanita Vanoy in September 1989, and they had two sons, Jeffrey Michael and Marcus James, and a daughter, Jasmine. Jordan and Vanoy filed for divorce on January 4, 2002, citing irreconcilable differences, but reconciled shortly thereafter. They again filed for divorce and were granted a final decree of dissolution of marriage on December 29, 2006, commenting that the decision was made "mutually and amicably ''. It is reported that Juanita received a $168 million settlement (equivalent to $204 million in 2017), making it the largest celebrity divorce settlement on public record at the time.
In 1991, Jordan purchased a lot in Highland Park, Illinois, to build a 56,000 square foot mansion, which was completed four years later. Jordan listed his Highland Park mansion for sale in 2012. Both of his sons attended Loyola Academy, a private Roman Catholic high school located in Wilmette, Illinois. Jeffrey graduated as a member of the 2007 graduating class and played his first collegiate basketball game on November 11, 2007, for the University of Illinois. After two seasons, Jeffrey left the Illinois basketball team in 2009. He later rejoined the team for a third season, then received a release to transfer to the University of Central Florida, where Marcus was attending. Marcus transferred to Whitney Young High School after his sophomore year at Loyola Academy and graduated in 2009. He began attending UCF in the fall of 2009, and played three seasons of basketball for the school.
On July 21, 2006, a judge in Cook County, Illinois, determined that Jordan did not owe his alleged former lover Karla Knafel $5 million in a breach of contract claim. Jordan had allegedly paid Knafel $250,000 to keep their relationship a secret. Knafel claimed Jordan promised her $5 million for remaining silent and agreeing not to file a paternity suit after Knafel learned she was pregnant in 1991. A DNA test showed Jordan was not the father of the child.
He proposed to his longtime girlfriend, Cuban - American model Yvette Prieto, on Christmas 2011, and they were married on April 27, 2013, at Bethesda - by - the - Sea Episcopal Church. It was announced on November 30, 2013, that the two were expecting their first child together. On February 11, 2014, Prieto gave birth to identical twin daughters named Victoria and Ysabel.
Jordan is one of the most marketed sports figures in history. He has been a major spokesman for such brands as Nike, Coca - Cola, Chevrolet, Gatorade, McDonald 's, Ball Park Franks, Rayovac, Wheaties, Hanes, and MCI. Jordan has had a long relationship with Gatorade, appearing in over 20 commercials for the company since 1991, including the "Be Like Mike '' commercials in which a song was sung by children wishing to be like Jordan.
Nike created a signature shoe for him, called the Air Jordan. One of Jordan 's more popular commercials for the shoe involved Spike Lee playing the part of Mars Blackmon. In the commercials Lee, as Blackmon, attempted to find the source of Jordan 's abilities and became convinced that "it 's got ta be the shoes ''. The hype and demand for the shoes even brought on a spate of "shoe - jackings '' where people were robbed of their sneakers at gunpoint. Subsequently, Nike spun off the Jordan line into its own division named the "Jordan Brand ''. The company features an impressive list of athletes and celebrities as endorsers. The brand has also sponsored college sports programs such as those of North Carolina, Cal, Georgetown, and Marquette.
Jordan also has been associated with the Looney Tunes cartoon characters. A Nike commercial shown during 1992 's Super Bowl XXVI featured Jordan and Bugs Bunny playing basketball. The Super Bowl commercial inspired the 1996 live action / animated film Space Jam, which starred Jordan and Bugs in a fictional story set during the former 's first retirement from basketball. They have subsequently appeared together in several commercials for MCI. Jordan also made an appearance in the music video of Michael Jackson 's "Jam '' (1992).
Jordan 's yearly income from the endorsements is estimated to be over forty million dollars. In addition, when Jordan 's power at the ticket gates was at its highest point, the Bulls regularly sold out both their home and road games. Due to this, Jordan set records in player salary by signing annual contracts worth in excess of US $30 million per season. An academic study found that Jordan 's first NBA comeback resulted in an increase in the market capitalization of his client firms of more than $1 billion.
Most of Jordan 's endorsement deals, including his first deal with Nike, were engineered by his agent, David Falk. Jordan has described Falk as "the best at what he does '' and that "marketing-wise, he 's great. He 's the one who came up with the concept of ' Air Jordan. ' ''
In June 2010, Jordan was ranked by Forbes magazine as the 20th-most powerful celebrity in the world with $55 million earned between June 2009 and June 2010. According to the Forbes article, Jordan Brand generates $1 billion in sales for Nike. In June 2014, Jordan was named the first NBA player to become a billionaire, after he increased his stake in the Charlotte Hornets from 80 % to 89.5 %. On January 20, 2015, Jordan was honored with the Charlotte Business Journal 's Business Person of the Year for 2014. In 2017, he became a part owner of the Miami Marlins of Major League Baseball.
Forbes designated Jordan as the athlete with the highest career earnings in 2017. From his Jordan Brand income and endorsements, Jordan 's 2015 income was an estimated $110 million, the most of any retired athlete. As of April 2017, his current net worth is estimated at $1.31 billion by Forbes. Jordan is the third - richest African - American as of 2017, behind Oprah Winfrey and Robert F. Smith.
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when does luke skywalker know leia is his sister | Princess Leia - wikipedia
Princess Leia Organa of Alderaan (also Senator Leia Organa or General Leia Organa) is a fictional character in the Star Wars franchise, portrayed in films by Carrie Fisher. Introduced in the original Star Wars film in 1977, Leia is princess of the planet Alderaan, a member of the Imperial Senate and an agent of the Rebel Alliance. She thwarts the sinister Sith Lord Darth Vader and helps bring about the destruction of the Empire 's cataclysmic superweapon, the Death Star. In The Empire Strikes Back (1980), Leia commands a Rebel base and evades Vader as she falls in love with the smuggler, Han Solo. In Return of the Jedi (1983), Leia leads the operation to rescue Han from the crime lord Jabba the Hutt, and is revealed to be Vader 's daughter and the twin sister of Luke Skywalker. The prequel film Revenge of the Sith (2005) establishes that the twins ' mother is Senator (and former queen) Padmé Amidala of Naboo, who dies after childbirth. Leia is adopted by Senator Bail and Queen Breha Organa of Alderaan. In The Force Awakens (2015), Leia is the founder and General of the Resistance against the First Order and has a son with Han named Ben, who adopted the name Kylo Ren after turning to the dark side of the Force.
In the original Star Wars expanded universe (1977 -- 2014) of novels, comics and video games, which are set in an alternate continuity, Leia continues her adventures with Han and Luke after Return of the Jedi, fighting Imperial resurgences and new threats to the galaxy. She becomes the Chief of State of the New Republic and a Jedi Master, and is the mother to three children by Han: Jaina, Jacen and Anakin Solo.
One of the more popular Star Wars characters, Leia has been called a 1980s icon, a feminist hero and model for other adventure heroines. She has appeared in many derivative works and merchandising, and has been referenced or parodied in several TV shows and films. Her "cinnamon buns '' hairstyle from Star Wars (1977) and metal bikini from Return of the Jedi have become cultural icons.
Leia was created by Star Wars creator George Lucas. In 1999, Lucas explained his early development of Leia, Luke and Obi - Wan Kenobi:
The first (version) talked about a princess and an old general. The second version involved a father, his son, and his daughter; the daughter was the heroine of the film. Now the daughter has become Luke, Mark Hamill 's character. There was also the story of two brothers where I transformed one of them into a sister. The older brother was imprisoned, and the young sister had to rescue him and bring him back to their dad.
Film historian Laurent Bouzereau notes in his 1997 book Star Wars: The Annotated Screenplays that in the rough draft of Star Wars, Leia is the spoiled teenage daughter of King Kayos and Queen Breha of Aquilae, with two brothers, Biggs and Windy; Biggs returned to the fourth draft as a childhood friend of Luke. According to Skywalking: The Life and Films of George Lucas (1999), Luke Skywalker was originally Luke Starkiller and Leia was "the daughter of Owen Lars and his wife Beru and seems to be Luke 's cousin -- together they visit the grave of his mother, who perished with his father on a planet destroyed by the Death Star. '' J.W. Rinzler explains in The Making of Star Wars: The Definitive Story Behind the Original Film (2007) that a later story synopsis establishes Leia as "Leia Antilles '', the daughter of Bail Antilles from the peaceful world of Organa Major. In the fourth draft it was established that "Leia Organa '' came instead from Alderaan.
Fisher was 19 when she was cast as Princess Leia, with actresses including Amy Irving, Cindy Williams and Jodie Foster also up for the role. In 2014, InkTank reported that the extended list of "more than two dozen actresses '' who had auditioned for Leia included Glenn Close, Farrah Fawcett, Jessica Lange, Sissy Spacek, Sigourney Weaver, Cybill Shepherd, Jane Seymour, Anjelica Huston, Kim Basinger, Kathleen Turner, Geena Davis and Meryl Streep. Asked about Streep in 2015, Fisher said, "I 've never heard that one. But Jodie Foster was up for it... that one I knew the most. Amy Irving and Jodie. And I got it. ''
The second draft of the Return of the Jedi screenplay contained dialogue in which Obi - Wan tells Luke he has a twin sister. She and their mother were "sent to the protection of friends in a distant system. The mother died shortly thereafter, and Luke 's sister was adopted by Ben 's friends, the governor of Alderaan and his wife. '' Fisher explained in 1983: "Leia 's real father left her mother when she was pregnant, so her mother married this King Organa. I was adopted and grew up set apart from other people because I was a princess. ''
Composer John Williams created a musical leitmotif for Leia which recurs throughout the Star Wars saga. "Princess Leia 's Theme '' was recorded as a concert suite (4: 18 length) for the score of the 1977 film.
Anthony Breznican of Entertainment Weekly describes Leia as a "diplomat, spy, warrior, undercover agent ''. Mark Edlitz calls her "a smart, feisty, brave diplomat and warrior '' in The Huffington Post. Fisher told Rolling Stone in 1983:
There are a lot of people who do n't like my character in these movies; they think I 'm some kind of space bitch. She has no friends, no family; her planet was blown up in seconds... so all she has is a cause. From the first film (Star Wars), she was just a soldier, front line and center. The only way they knew to make the character strong was to make her angry. In Return of the Jedi, she gets to be more feminine, more supportive, more affectionate.
She said in 2014:
I would rather have played Han Solo. When I first read the script I thought that 's the part to be, always wry and sardonic. He 's always that. I feel like a lot of the time Leia 's either worried or pissed or, thank God, sort of snarky. But I 'm much more worried and pissed than Han Solo ever was, and those are n't fun things to play... I had a lot of fun killing Jabba the Hutt. They asked me on the day if I wanted to have a stunt double kill Jabba. No! That 's the best time I ever had as an actor. And the only reason to go into acting is if you can kill a giant monster.
Introduced in the original 1977 film Star Wars, Princess Leia Organa of Alderaan is a member of the Imperial Senate. She is captured by Darth Vader on board the ship Tantive IV, where she is acting as a spy for the Rebel Alliance. Leia has secretly hidden the plans for the Death Star, the Empire 's moon - sized battle station, inside the astromech droid R2 - D2 and has sent it to find one of the last remaining Jedi, Obi - Wan Kenobi, on the nearby planet of Tatooine. Vader arrests Leia and has her tortured, but she resists revealing anything. Death Star commander Grand Moff Tarkin threatens to destroy her home planet Alderaan with the Death Star unless she reveals the location of the hidden Rebel base. She provides the location of an old, abandoned base, but Tarkin orders Alderaan to be destroyed anyway. Leia is rescued by Obi - Wan, Luke Skywalker, Han Solo, the Wookiee Chewbacca and the two droids R2 - D2 and C - 3PO, and they escape aboard Han 's ship, the Millennium Falcon. After analyzing the Death Star 's plans, the Rebels find a tiny weakness in the battle station, which Luke uses to destroy it in his X-wing fighter. The battle won, Leia bestows medals on its heroes at the hidden Rebel base on Yavin 4.
Alyssa Rosenberg of The Washington Post writes of Leia in the film:
Leia 's nerves as a revolutionary are clear from the moment she arrives on screen... She takes shots at the Storm Troopers boarding her ship, gets stunned with a blaster in her hand, then has the audacity to try to make Darth Vader feel ashamed of himself... She has enough energy left over after a nasty session of torture to insult Grand Moff Tarkin. And while she grieves when her home planet, Alderaan, is destroyed by the Death Star, Leia 's not paralyzed: when her unexpected rescuers show up, she 's ready to go, and to gripe about their operational sloppiness.
Rosenberg also notes that, though Han is almost immediately attracted to Leia, they conflict because she insists on asserting command and he automatically resists, even as she proves herself to be worthy of it. And despite her initial disdain for the smuggler, whom she sees as selfish, Leia later acknowledges "I knew there was more to you than money '' when Han comes through for the Rebellion.
Fisher told Rolling Stone in 1980 that in the original script, when Luke and Han come to rescue a captured Leia, "I was hanging upside down with yellow eyes, like in The Exorcist... Some form of radar torture was done to me and I was in a beam, bruised and beaten up, suspended in midair. The reason it was cut from the film was because I was unconscious and the Wookiee would have had to carry me for, like, the next fifteen minutes. ''
In The Empire Strikes Back (1980), Leia is at the Rebel base on Hoth. She leads its evacuation during an Imperial attack, and then flees with Han, Chewbacca and C - 3PO on Han 's ship, the Millennium Falcon. They dodge pursuing Imperial TIE fighters by flying into an asteroid field when the Falcon 's hyperdrive breaks down, with Leia piloting the ship at one point. Romance blossoms between Leia and Han during their flight from the Empire; while hiding in the stomach of a space slug, they finally share a kiss. With his ship needing repairs, Han seeks out his old friend Lando Calrissian in Cloud City, the floating city over Bespin. Though he welcomes them graciously, Lando soon turns them over to a newly arrived Darth Vader, who hopes to use them as bait to capture Luke. Leia confesses her love for Han as he is frozen in carbonite and then handed over to bounty hunter Boba Fett, who is charged with bringing him to gangster Jabba the Hutt. Lando helps Leia, Chewbacca and the two droids escape. Leia senses that Luke is in trouble, and goes back to save him after he is nearly killed during a lightsaber duel with Vader.
Rosenberg notes:
Yes, it 's slightly ridiculous... that (Han) tries to pry a confession of affection out of her on Hoth, as Leia is trying to manage an evacuation with just an ion cannon for defense. But Han 's not wrong that if Leia does n't figure out that she 's a person with needs, she 's going to burn out... In a way, it 's an early confession of love: Han 's anxious about the bounty hunters who are still pursuing him... But he would stay and give his love and support to Leia if she could just acknowledge that she needs him.
In Return of the Jedi (1983), Leia infiltrates Jabba 's palace on Tatooine disguised as the Ubese bounty hunter Boushh, and brings a captive Chewbacca with her as part of the ruse. She frees Han from the carbonite, but they are recaptured by Jabba. Leia is now chained to Jabba as his slave, outfitted in a metal bikini. After Luke arrives and kills Jabba 's Rancor, Jabba sentences Luke, Han and Chewbacca to be fed to the Sarlacc. Lando (disguised as a guard) helps them overpower their captors, and Leia seizes the moment to strangle Jabba with her chain. Luke and Leia swing to safety, blowing up Jabba 's barge behind them. Later, the heroes go to the forest moon of Endor to prepare for a battle with the Empire. There, Luke reveals to Leia that she is his twin sister and that Vader is their father. Leia joins Han in leading the Rebels in battle with Imperial troops as the Rebel Fleet attacks the second Death Star. Leia is slightly injured, but the Rebels, with help from the Ewoks, defeat the forces of the Empire.
Fisher told Rolling Stone in 1983, "In Return of the Jedi, (Leia) gets to be more feminine, more supportive, more affectionate. But let 's not forget that these movies are basically boys ' fantasies. So the other way they made her more female in this one was to have her take off her clothes. '' Rosenberg writes of Han and Leia:
And we know those two crazy kids are locked for life in Return of the Jedi when it turns out that Han has accepted a Generalship in the Rebellion, keeping it a secret from Leia. In A New Hope, Leia was grumbling about the quality of Han as a rescuer... But when she finds out what Han 's done, accepting a rank he once found insulting and a mission she knows to be dangerous, Leia is the first person to volunteer to join his strike team. In Star Wars, that 's what love looks like: trusting your partner 's commitment to the cause and respecting his strategic and technical judgement.
In the film, Leia says that she has vague memories of her real mother, who she describes as "kind... but sad ''. Bouzereau quoted Lucas in 1997:
The part that I never really developed is the death of Luke and Leia 's mother. I had a backstory for her in earlier drafts, but it basically did n't survive. When I got to Jedi, I wanted one of the kids to have some kind of memory of her because she will be a key figure in the new episodes I 'm writing. But I really debated whether or not Leia should remember her.
In the prequel film Revenge of the Sith (2005), Padmé Amidala is pregnant with Anakin Skywalker 's twins near the end of the Clone Wars. After Anakin turns to the dark side of the Force and becomes Darth Vader, Padmé gives birth to Luke and Leia on Polis Massa and then dies. Leia is adopted by Senator Bail Organa and his wife Queen Breha of Alderaan.
Film critic Peter Travers of Rolling Stone wrote, "As we watch Anakin nearly melt in the lava, only to be put together, Frankenstein style, in a lab while Lucas intercuts scenes of Padme giving birth to the twins Luke and Leia, a link to genuine feeling is established at last. ''
In March 2013, Fisher confirmed that she would reprise her role as Leia in Star Wars: The Force Awakens. Set 32 years after Return of the Jedi, The Force Awakens reintroduces a Leia who is "a little more battle weary, a little more broken hearted ''. In November 2015, director J.J. Abrams said of Leia, "She 's referred to as General but... there 's a moment in the movie where a character sort of slips and calls her ' Princess. ' '' Commenting on the story he added, "The stakes are pretty high in the story for her, so there 's not much goofing around where Leia 's concerned. '' Asked how Leia is handling things in the film, Fisher said, "Not easily... (she is) solitary. Under a lot of pressure. Committed as ever to her cause, but I would imagine feeling somewhat defeated, tired, and pissed. ''
In the film, Leia is the leader of the Resistance, a group formed by the New Republic to fight a proxy war with the First Order and trying to find Luke, who disappeared years earlier. When her forces foil a First Order attack searching for the Resistance astromech droid BB - 8, Leia is reunited with Han, who has helped the renegade stormtrooper Finn and orphaned scavenger Rey bring the droid this far. Han and Leia have been estranged for many years; their marriage fell apart after their son, Ben, fell to the dark side and became the First Order commander Kylo Ren. Leia believes Ben can still be brought back to the light side. Han volunteers for a mission to infiltrate the First Order 's Starkiller Base to disable its defensive shields. Confronting Ren, Han tries to convince his son to leave the First Order, but Ren instead impales his father on his lightsaber. Leia senses Han 's death through the Force, and later shares a moment of grief with Rey, who had thought of Han as a mentor. Leia sees Rey, Chewbacca, and R2 - D2 off when they depart to locate Luke, saying, "may the Force be with you ''.
Asked why Leia is not shown to be a Jedi in The Force Awakens (as she is in the Star Wars expanded universe works), Abrams told IGN, "It was a great question, and one that we talked about quite a bit, even with Carrie (Fisher). Why did she not take advantage of this natural Force strength that this character had. And one of the answers was that it was simply a choice that she made, that her decision to run the Rebellion, and ultimately this Resistance, and consider herself a General, as opposed to a Jedi. It was simply a choice that she took ''. He also added, "I would like to think that there really is n't much of a ticking clock, and it 's never too late... clearly we 've seen, and we do again, that she still is Force strong. And it 's something that I think is an intrinsic piece of her character.
Fisher was nominated for a 2016 Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress for her portrayal.
In December 2015, producer Kathleen Kennedy confirmed that Fisher would reprise the role of Leia in the next installment, then known as Star Wars: Episode VIII, but later named Star Wars: The Last Jedi. Fisher died on December 27, 2016, after going into cardiac arrest. It was confirmed that she had completed filming her role in the film shortly before her death. In the film, it is revealed that Leia has the power to use the Force when she saves herself after being blasted into space with the entire bridge crew and command after the First Order attacks their ship. Rather than dying in space, she pulls herself back into the ship. After recovering, she shoots and stuns Poe Dameron who has mutinied. She later speaks to and is kissed by Luke 's projection at the Rebel base and feels it when he dies back on the island. She is saved when Rey lifts the rockslide blocking the tunnel exit from the Rebel base with the force and escapes with the remaining rebels in the Millenium Falcon.
Following Fisher 's death, Variety reported that she was slated to appear in Star Wars: Episode IX and speculated that Lucasfilm would need to find a way to address her death and what would become of her character. Filming is expected to begin in 2018. Lucasfilm announced in January 2017 that they had "no plans to digitally recreate Carrie Fisher 's performance as Princess or General Leia Organa ''. In April 2017, Fisher 's family granted Disney and Lucasfilm the rights to use recent footage of the late actress in Episode IX. However, Kennedy subsequently said that Fisher would not appear in the film.
Leia makes a brief appearance in the final scene of the 2016 film Rogue One, receiving the plans for the Death Star as a lead - up to the beginning of A New Hope. Since this movie takes place prior to the original Star Wars trilogy, a very young Leia was required. To achieve that effect, a computer - generated image of a young Carrie Fisher was superimposed over Norwegian actress Ingvild Deila 's face; archival audio of Fisher saying "Hope '' was used to voice the character.
Leia makes her first literary appearance in Star Wars: From the Adventures of Luke Skywalker, the novelization of the original 1977 film Star Wars, which was released six months before the film in November 1976. Credited to Lucas but ghostwritten by Alan Dean Foster, the novel was based on Lucas ' screenplay. Leia later appeared in the novelizations The Empire Strikes Back (1980) by Donald F. Glut and Return of the Jedi (1983) by James Kahn. She is also a point of view character in the 2015 novelization of The Force Awakens by Foster.
Foster 's 1978 novel Splinter of the Mind 's Eye was commissioned by Lucas as the basis for a potential low - budget sequel to Star Wars should the film prove unsuccessful. In the story, Luke and Leia seek a crystal on a swampy planet and eventually face Vader in combat.
Leia also appears in the Journey to Star Wars: The Force Awakens line of novels and comic books, introduced in conjunction with The Force Awakens to connect the film with previous installments. She is the lead character in the young adult novel Moving Target: A Princess Leia Adventure (2015) by Cecil Castellucci and Jason Fry, which is set between The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi, and Claudia Gray 's novels Star Wars: Bloodline (2016) and Leia: Princess of Alderaan (2017). The former is set six years before The Force Awakens, while the latter features a 16 - year - old Leia before the events of A New Hope.
Leia is the lead character in the five - part comic limited series Star Wars: Princess Leia (2015), set between Episode IV: A New Hope and The Empire Strikes Back. She is featured prominently in the four - part comic limited series Star Wars: Shattered Empire (2015), set immediately after Return of the Jedi. In Princess Leia # 2 and Shattered Empire, Leia is seen using her Force sensitivities to sense the past, and in Star Wars # 12, she uses a lightsaber as a weapon for the first time canonically. Princess Leia reveals Leia to have had royal training in martial arts and explores her reaction to the destruction of Alderaan, while Shattered Empire also portrays her as a skilled pilot who undertakes a dangerous mission alongside Poe Dameron 's mother.
Leia appears briefly in the 1978 Star Wars Holiday Special TV film as a leader and administrator of the new Rebel Alliance base. She and C - 3PO contact Chewbacca 's wife Mallatobuck for assistance in finding Chewbacca and Han. Leia also appears in the cartoon segment at a different Rebel Base, located in an asteroid field, and at the Life Day ceremony at the end of the film. Fisher also appeared in and hosted the November 18, 1978 episode of Saturday Night Live that aired one day after the holiday special. The Summer 1983 issue of Rolling Stone magazine poked fun at this appearance.
A teenage version of Princess Leia, voiced by Julie Dolan, appears in a 2016 episode of the animated series Star Wars Rebels, which is set between Revenge of the Sith and A New Hope. In the episode, Leia is sent on a secret mission to assist the titular rebels. Executive producer Dave Filoni said of the appearance:
We thought we had an opportunity to show her learning to be a leader, experimenting with the personality that becomes the stronger more resolute character you see in A New Hope. One of the complex challenges of depicting Leia in Rebels is that we have to remind the audience that at this point she is part of the Empire. She does n't believe in the Empire, but she is acting the part, almost a double agent.
Leia appears in the animated series Star Wars: Forces of Destiny, voiced by Shelby Young.
The original three Star Wars films have spawned a large franchise of works that include novels, comic books, video games and animated television series. Leia appears in much of this material. In April 2014 (with the sequel film The Force Awakens in production), Lucasfilm separated the Star Wars expanded universe (rebranded as Star Wars Legends) from official Star Wars canon.
The 1991 New York Times bestselling novel Heir to the Empire by Timothy Zahn began what would become a large collection of works set before, between and especially after the original films.
The bestselling Thrawn trilogy (1991 -- 93) by Timothy Zahn begins five years after the events of Return of the Jedi. In Heir to the Empire (1991), Leia is married to Han and three months pregnant with twins. Noghri commandos repeatedly attempt to kidnap her as part of Grand Admiral Thrawn 's plan to restore the Empire and crush the New Republic. In Dark Force Rising (1992), Leia realizes that Darth Vader and the Empire deceived the Noghri to secure their allegiance, and by revealing the truth she turns the alien race to the side of the New Republic. In The Last Command (1993), Leia gives birth to the twins Jaina and Jacen on Coruscant during Thrawn 's siege. Leia, now the Chief of State of the New Republic, is a minor character in the Jedi Academy trilogy (1994) by Kevin J. Anderson, set after the Thrawn trilogy. Next in the timeline is the Callista trilogy: Children of the Jedi (1995) by Barbara Hambly, Darksaber (1995) by Anderson and Planet of Twilight (1997) by Hambly. In The Crystal Star (1994) by Vonda McIntyre, young Jacen, Jaina and their three - year - old brother Anakin are kidnapped in a plot to restore the Empire, but are rescued by Leia and Chewbacca. Leia struggles with the responsibilities of her position in The Black Fleet Crisis trilogy (1996) by Michael P. Kube - McDowell. In The New Rebellion (1996) by Kristine Kathryn Rusch, she avoids an assassination attempt and then aids in the defeat of the Dark Jedi Kueller, whom she shoots to death. The Corellian trilogy (1995) by Roger MacBride Allen finds Han and Leia swept up in a civil war while visiting his homeworld of Corellia with their children. In the two Hand of Thrawn novels by Timothy Zahn (1997 's Specter of the Past and 1998 's Vision of the Future), Leia tries to hold the New Republic together as Moff Disra conspires for its volatile factions to destroy each other. Leia appears periodically in the Young Jedi Knights series (1995 -- 98) by Kevin J. Anderson and Rebecca Moesta. The 14 - volume young adult fiction series covers the Jedi training of Jacen and Jaina.
In The Truce at Bakura (1993) by Kathy Tyers, set one day after the ending of Return of the Jedi, Leia establishes New Alderaan, a sanctuary for the destroyed planet 's surviving inhabitants. The spirit of Anakin Skywalker appears to Leia and pleads for her forgiveness, but she angrily banishes him. The six - volume Jedi Prince series (1992 -- 93) by Paul Davids and Hollace Davids, later contradicted by other novels, is set within a year after Return of the Jedi. In The Glove of Darth Vader (1992), the self - proclaimed son of the defeated Emperor Palpatine, Trioculus, seeks the titular glove to cement himself as the new Emperor. Entranced by Leia 's beauty in The Lost City of the Jedi (1992), Trioculus vows to make her his queen. He captures her in Zorba the Hutt 's Revenge (1992), but Jabba the Hutt 's vengeful father, Zorba, offers to trade his own prisoner Ken -- Palpatine 's real grandson whom Trioculus has been seeking -- for Leia, his son 's killer. But Leia and Ken are rescued and Trioculus is frozen in carbonate by Zorba. Mission from Mount Yoda (1993) finds Ken 's father Triclops alive and willing to join the Rebels against the Empire. Leia, now engaged to Han, is captured by Zorba in Queen of the Empire (1993). Trioculus is revived and seizes Leia before Zorba can kill her. Leia is rescued and replaced with a lookalike droid decoy, which kills Trioculus. In Prophets of the Dark Side (1993), Leia looks forward to her wedding to Han and has a vision of their two children. Matthew Stover 's 2008 standalone novel Luke Skywalker and the Shadows of Mindor picks up the story soon after, as Luke, Leia and the Rebels fight the Sith Lord Shadowspawn.
In The Courtship of Princess Leia (1994) by Dave Wolverton, set immediately before the Thrawn trilogy, Leia is presented with an advantageous political marriage to Prince Isolder of the planet Hapes. A jealous Han abducts Leia and takes her to the planet Dathomir; Luke and Isolder follow, and there they all find the hidden forces of the Imperial warlord Zsinj. Defeating him, Han and Leia marry. The 2003 novels A Forest Apart and Tatooine Ghost by Troy Denning are set immediately after The Courtship of Princess Leia. The newly married Leia fears that any children she has may succumb to the dark side like her father. During an adventure on Tatooine in Tatooine Ghost, she discovers the diary of her grandmother Shmi Skywalker and meets some of young Anakin 's childhood friends. When she learns of Anakin 's childhood as a slave and the traumatic death of his mother, Leia learns to forgive her father.
In Shadows of the Empire (1996) by Steve Perry, the only Star Wars novel set between The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi, Leia is searching for Boba Fett to find a captive Han. She is bewitched by the crime lord Prince Xizor using pheromones, but Chewbacca helps her elude the seduction.
Allegiance (2007) and Choices of One (2011) by Timothy Zahn are set between Star Wars: A New Hope and The Empire Strikes Back, and feature Leia and her cohorts seeking new allies for their Rebellion against the Empire. Razor 's Edge (2013) by Martha Wells and Honor Among Thieves (2014) by James S.A. Corey take place in the same time period and also chronicle the adventures of Leia and Han.
In the New Jedi Order series (1999 -- 2003), Leia resigns as Chief of State, and on the heels of her warnings before the Senate, the alien Yuuzhan Vong invade the galaxy. They destroy system after system and defeat both the Jedi and the New Republic forces in countless battles. Chewbacca dies in Vector Prime (1999) by R.A. Salvatore, which sends Han into a deep depression that causes a rift between him and Leia. They reunite after Leia is gravely wounded at the Battle of Duro in Kathy Tyers ' Balance Point (2000). She is targeted by a deadly Voxyn slayer in Troy Dennings ' Star By Star (2001), and though she manages to evade death, her son Anakin is later killed during a mission to prevent more Voxyn from being cloned. The Vong are finally defeated in The Unifying Force (2003) by James Luceno.
In Denning 's The Dark Nest trilogy (2005), Leia, Han and several Jedi become involved in an escalating border dispute between the Chiss and the insidious insectoid Killiks, and Leia makes a bitter enemy in the Twi'lek warrior Alema Rar. In The Joiner King (2005), Leia asks Saba Sebatyne to train her as a Jedi Knight. R2 - D2 malfunctions in The Unseen Queen (2005) and shows Luke a holoclip of his father Anakin and a pregnant woman, whom Luke learns is his and Leia 's biological mother, Padmé Amidala. Anakin and Padmé are discussing a dream of Anakin 's in which Padmé dies in childbirth; later, Luke and Leia watch a clip in which Padmé is talking to Obi - Wan Kenobi about Anakin. Tenel Ka, Queen Mother of the Hapes Consortium, has a daughter, Allana, secretly fathered by Jacen. In The Swarm War (2005), Luke and Leia view holoclips of their mother 's death, and Leia is promoted to Jedi Knight.
The bestselling Legacy of the Force series (2006 -- 08) chronicles the crossover of Han and Leia 's son Jacen to the dark side of the Force while the Jedi, Solos and Skywalkers fight against his growing power. In Betrayal (2006) by Aaron Allston, Jacen turns to the dark side, believing that it is the only way to save the galaxy from the chaos brewing among the member systems of the Galactic Alliance. Jacen realizes in Bloodlines (2006) by Karen Traviss that the Sith discipline will require him to kill one of his loved ones, which he decides is an acceptable sacrifice to save the galaxy. In Troy Denning 's Tempest (2006), Han and Leia thwart the assassination of Tenel Ka and Allana, but become caught up in a Corellian conspiracy. They are almost killed when the Millennium Falcon is attacked by a Star Destroyer controlled by an increasingly powerful Jacen -- who knows that his parents are on board. With Han injured, Leia and Lando further investigate the Corellians in Aaron Allston 's Exile (2007), but Alema reappears to exact her vengeance on Leia. Sacrifice (2007) by Karen Traviss finds Leia and Han on the run, hunted by Jacen as traitors to the Galactic Alliance. He kills Luke 's wife Mara Jade as his final sacrifice to become Darth Caedus, the new ruler of the Sith. In Inferno (2007) by Troy Denning, Han and Leia are faced with the reality that their son, now Joint Chief of State, is the enemy. Leia attempts unsuccessfully to manipulate Jacen in Aaron Allston 's Fury (2007) so that the Jedi can both thwart him and neutralize Alema. Finally, in Invincible (2008) by Troy Denning, Jaina kills Jacen in lightsaber duel. At Tenel Ka 's request, Leia and Han adopt Allana, disguised with the name "Amelia '' to protect her from any future vengeance against Cadeus or the Hapes Consortium. Multiple novels in the series made the New York Times Best Seller list.
The nine - volume Fate of the Jedi series (2009 -- 12) by Aaron Allston, Troy Denning and Christie Golden finds Han and Leia become caught up in the intensifying conflict between the Galactic Alliance and the Jedi. In the wake of Darth Cadeus ' death, the now - peaceful Galactic Alliance harbors a growing mistrust toward the Jedi, and the situation is worsened by a Force - induced psychosis that begins afflicting individual Jedi, sending them on violent rampages.
In Millennium Falcon (2008) by James Luceno, set between Legacy of the Force and Fate of the Jedi, a mysterious device hidden inside the eponymous spacecraft sends Han, Leia and Allana on an adventure to investigate the ship 's past before it came into Han 's possession. Troy Denning 's Crucible (2013), set after Fate of the Jedi and the last novel to date in the Star Wars Legends chronology, reunites Leia, Han and Luke with Lando as they aid him to thwart a vast criminal enterprise threatening his asteroid mineral refinery in the Chilean Rift nebula.
During the events of the comic series Dark Empire (1991 -- 92), Palpatine has been resurrected in a young clone body and seduces Luke to the dark side of the Force as part of his plan to restore the Empire. A captive Leia, resisting Palpatine 's attempts to turn her as well, escapes with an artifact he needs to secure his power, the Jedi Holocron. Luke pursues her, and Leia manages to turn him back. Brother and sister then fight Palpatine with the light side of the Force, turning his own Force - generated storm against him and destroying Palpatine and his Star Destroyer. In Dark Empire II (1994 -- 95), Leia gives birth to a third child by Han, whom she names Anakin. Palpatine is reborn in an inferior, rapidly deteriorating clone body in Empire 's End (1995), and seeks to possess the body of the infant Anakin.
Princess Leia has been called a 1980s icon, a feminist hero and "an exemplary personification of female empowerment ''. In 2008, Leia was selected by Empire magazine as the 89th greatest film character of all time, and IGN listed her as their 8th top Star Wars hero. UGO Networks listed Leia as one of their best heroes of all time in 2010.
The character has been referenced or parodied in several TV shows and films, and celebrated in cosplay. Fisher appeared in the Leia metal bikini on the cover of the Summer 1983 issue of Rolling Stone, and a painting of Leia and other characters surrounding Lucas appeared on the cover of the May 25, 1983 issue of Time announcing Return of the Jedi. In 2013, cartoonist Jeffrey Brown published the bestselling Star Wars: Vader 's Little Princess, a comic strip - style book featuring Darth Vader and a young Leia in humorous father - daughter situations. Princess Leia appears on a 2007 US postage stamp and a 2015 UK stamp.
Leia has also been used in a wide range of Star Wars merchandise, including statuettes, action figures and other toys, household items and clothing, office supplies, food products, and bubble bath and shampoo in Leia - shaped bottles with her head as the cap. In her one - woman show Wishful Drinking, Fisher called the Princess Leia Pez dispenser one of the "merchandising horrors '' of the series. In a 2011 interview, Fisher said:
I signed away my likeness for free. In those days, there was no such thing as a "likeness ''... There was no merchandising tied to movies. No one could have known the extent of the franchise. Not that I do n't think I 'm cute or anything, but when I looked in the mirror, I did n't think I was signing away anything of value. Lately I feel like I 'm Minnie Mouse -- the identity of Princess Leia so eclipses any other identity that I 've ever had.
After the 2012 acquisition of LucasFilm by the Walt Disney Company, the Disney Store stated in May 2014 that the company had "no plans for Leia products ''. After public criticism, Disney told Time in June 2014 that it would be releasing several Leia products. Funko has since produced several versions of Leia (at least one for each film) in their POP! line of 4.5 inch vinyl figures in the Japanese super deformed style. Hasbro is set to release an action figure of Leia as she appears in the Star Wars Rebels animated series.
Leia 's unique hairdo in 1977 's A New Hope has come to be known as the "doughnut '' or "cinnamon buns '' hairstyle, and is iconic of the character and series. A February 1978 cover story for the British teen magazine Jackie included step - by - step instructions on how to replicate Leia 's hair buns. In the 1978 short film parody Hardware Wars, Princess Anne - Droid has actual cinnamon buns on the side of her head. Miss Piggy of The Muppet Show copied the hairdo in a Star Wars - themed episode of the series in February 1980. In the 1987 Mel Brooks comedy film Spaceballs, Princess Vespa (Daphne Zuniga) appears to have the hairstyle, which is soon revealed to in fact be a large pair of headphones. In the parody film Thumb Wars, the role of Leia was filled by a character named Princess Bunhead, who has two cinnamon rolls for hair. In 2015, Fisher 's daughter Billie Lourd 's character in the horror - comedy TV series Scream Queens, a rich and disaffected sorority girl known as Chanel No. 3, wears earmuffs in every scene as an homage to Fisher 's iconic Leia hairstyle. Lourd also has a cameo in The Force Awakens (2015) in which she wears Leia 's distinctive hair buns.
Asked about his inspiration for the hairstyle, George Lucas told Time in 2008, "In the 1977 film, I was working very hard to create something different that was n't fashion, so I went with a kind of Southwestern Pancho Villa woman revolutionary look, which is what that is. The buns are basically from turn - of - the - century Mexico. '' However, in 2015 Linda Rodriguez McRobbie of Mental Floss recounted research suggesting that while female Mexican revolutionaries of that time did not have such elaborate hairstyles, young marriageable Hopi women did, and their "squash blossom whorls '' superficially resemble Leia 's hair buns. McRobbie also relates Michael Heilemann 's theory that Leia 's hairstyle was likely also inspired by that of two earlier characters: Queen Fria in the 1939 Flash Gordon comic strip "The Ice Kingdom of Mongo '', and scientist Barnes Wallis ' wife Molly (played by Ursula Jeans) in the 1955 war film The Dam Busters. Lucas was influenced by the Flash Gordon serials, and the Battle of Yavin in Star Wars is an homage to the penultimate bombing sequence in The Dam Busters. Comparisons have also been made to the 4th century BC Iberian sculpture Lady of Elche, as well as the 1920s "earphones '' hairstyle.
Leia has been the subject of feminist analysis. Mark Edlitz wrote for The Huffington Post in 2010 that "Leia is an exemplary personification of female empowerment. '' David Bushman, television curator at the Paley Center for Media, said in 2012, "From the male perspective... Princess Leia was a very creditable character for her time -- not perfect, but certainly defiant, assertive, and strong. '' Alyssa Rosenberg of The Washington Post wrote in 2015, "Leia was n't just the first great heroine of science fiction and fantasy to capture my imagination. She was one of the first characters I encountered whose power came from her political conviction and acumen. '' In her 2007 article "Feminism and the Force: Empowerment and Disillusionment in a Galaxy Far, Far Away '', Diana Dominguez cited Leia as a welcome change from the previous portrayals of women in film and TV. She wrote:
Here was a woman who could play like and with the boys, but who did n't have to become one of the boys and who could, if and when she wanted to, show she liked the boys, a woman who is outspoken, unashamed, and, most importantly, unpunished for being so. She is n't a flirty sex - pot, tossing her hair around seductively to distract the enemy... She does n't play the role of "Maternal caretaker '', although she does display caring and compassion, or "the sweet innocent damsel '' who stands passively by while the men do all the work, but does step aside to let them do what they 're good at when it is wise to do so... Leia is a hero without losing her gendered status; she does not have to play the cute, helpless sex kitten or become sexless and androgynous to get what she wants. She can be strong, sassy, outspoken, bossy, and bitchy, and still be respected and seen as feminine.
Rosenberg writes that, though at first Luke is an apolitical innocent in search of adventure and Han is a detached opportunist in search of money, both are "influenced by Leia 's passion (and) take their places as full participants in the Rebellion ''. She notes, "Everyone else eventually comes around to Leia 's view of the world. '' Leia herself, singularly dedicated to her political movement against the Empire, "finds a partner in Han, acknowledging that personal happiness can help her sustain her commitment to building a better galactic order ''. Rosenberg cites "Leia 's willingness to see the best in him, and Han 's desire to live up to her belief in him '' as a foundation of their relationship, also pointing out his attempts to make her recognize that she has needs like anyone else and should acknowledge that she needs him.
In their 2012 essay "Lightsabers, Political Arenas, and Marriages '', Ray Merlock and Kathy Merlock Jackson cite Leia as the successor of earlier science fiction heroines Wilma Deering of Buck Rogers and Dale Arden of Flash Gordon, and the embodiment of "a new stage in the ongoing presentation of the fairy - tale princess in jeopardy ''. Writing that "after Leia, no longer would princesses be passive and salvaged simply with a kiss, '' they note the reflection of the character in later Disney Princess animated films and in woman warriors such as Ellen Ripley from the Alien franchise and Xena of the adventure TV series Xena: Warrior Princess. A.O. Scott of The New York Times described Leia as "a foremother of Hermione Granger and Katniss Everdeen and of countless latter - day Disney princesses. She also foretold the recent, somewhat belated feminist turn in the Star Wars cycle itself ''.
Fisher herself described Leia as a "huge '' feminist icon, dismissing the suggestion that the character was ever a "damsel in distress ''. Fisher said of Leia, "She bossed them around. I do n't know what your idea of distress is, but that was n't it! And I was n't some babe running through the galaxy with my tits bouncing around. So I was n't threatening to women '', adding "I like Princess Leia. I like how she was feisty. I like how she killed Jabba the Hutt ''.
Leia 's slave costume when she is held captive by Jabba the Hutt at the beginning of Return of the Jedi -- made of brass and dubbed Leia 's "Metal Bikini '' or "Gold Bikini '' -- immediately made the character (and Fisher) a "generational sex symbol '' celebrated by pin - up posters, and later merchandising and cosplay. The outfit has gained a cult following of its own.
Rosenberg noted that "the costume has become culturally iconic in a way that has slipped loose from the context of the scenes in which Leia wore it and the things she does after she is forced into the outfit. '' Philip Chien of the website Wired wrote in 2006, "There 's no doubt that the sight of Carrie Fisher in the gold sci - fi swimsuit was burned into the sweaty subconscious of a generation of fanboys hitting puberty in the spring of 1983. '' Acknowledging the opinion of some that the "Slave Leia '' iconography tarnishes the character 's position as "feminist hero '', Rosenberg argues:
Leia may be captive in these scenes, but she 's not exactly a compliant fantasy. Instead, she 's biding her time for the moment when she can put that fury into action, carrying out a carefully laid plan to rescue her lover. And when that moment comes, the bikini does n't condemn Leia to passivity. She rises, and uses the very chains that bind her to strangle the creature who tried to take away her power by turning her into a sex object.
Science fiction filmmaker Letia Clouston concurs, saying "Sci - fi has had a long history of strong female characters. Yes, Princess Leia was in a gold bikini, but she was also the one who single - handedly killed Jabba. When you take into account movies and TV shows like Terminator, Aliens, Battlestar Galactica, and even video games like Metroid, you can see sci - fi has consistently promoted the strength of women more than any other genre. ''
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who did new orleans beat in the super bowl | Super Bowl XLIV - wikipedia
Super Bowl XLIV was an American football game between the National Football Conference (NFC) champions New Orleans Saints and the American Football Conference (AFC) champions Indianapolis Colts to decide the National Football League (NFL) champion for the 2009 season. The Saints defeated the Colts by a score of 31 -- 17, earning their first Super Bowl win. The game was played at Hard Rock Stadium (formerly Joe Robbie Stadium) in Miami Gardens, Florida, for the fifth time (and in South Florida for the tenth time), on February 7, 2010, the latest calendar date for a Super Bowl yet.
This was the Saints ' first Super Bowl appearance and the fourth for the Colts franchise, their second appearance in four seasons. The Saints entered the game with a 13 -- 3 record for the 2009 regular season, compared to the Colts ' 14 -- 2 record. In the playoff games, both teams placed first in their respective conferences, marking the first time since Super Bowl XXVIII (16 years previously) that both number - one seeds have reached the Super Bowl. The Colts entered the Super Bowl off victories over the Baltimore Ravens and New York Jets, while the Saints advanced after defeating the previous year 's runners up the Arizona Cardinals and then overcoming the Minnesota Vikings in the Conference Championship. It was also the first time both teams started with a thirteen - game winning streak.
Down 10 -- 6 at halftime of Super Bowl XLIV, in what many consider the turning point of the game, New Orleans recovered a surprise onside kick on the second half kickoff, then took their first lead of the game on Pierre Thomas 's 16 - yard touchdown reception. The Colts responded with Joseph Addai 's 4 - yard touchdown run to regain the lead at 17 -- 13. The Saints then scored 18 unanswered points, including Tracy Porter 's 74 - yard interception return for a touchdown, to clinch the victory. New Orleans quarterback Drew Brees, who completed 32 of 39 passes for 288 yards and two touchdowns, was named the Super Bowl MVP. His 32 completions tied a Super Bowl record set by Tom Brady in Super Bowl XXXVIII.
The live broadcast of the game on CBS was watched by an average U.S. audience of 106.5 million viewers, making it then the most - watched Super Bowl. The National Anthem was sung by Carrie Underwood, and the halftime show featured the British rock band The Who. Super Bowl XLIV was the last Bowl to have a uniquely designed logo as its predecessors had: starting with Super Bowl XLV, the logo was permanently settled to bear the Vince Lombardi Trophy superimposed on a model of the stadium hosting the game and Roman numerals denoting the edition of the game. (The Roman numerals were removed and replaced with Arabic numerals for just Super Bowl 50.)
The league initially voted on March 23, 2005, that New York City host the game, contingent on the completion of the proposed West Side Stadium being built for the New York Jets by 2008. After New York state government officials declined to approve $400 million for the stadium, the NFL decided to reopen the bidding for the game 's site. The league reconsidered the other, unsuccessful candidates for Super Bowl XLIII: Atlanta, Houston, and Miami. On October 6, 2006, the league selected Miami as the host city, with the formerly - named - Joe Robbie Stadium as the venue.
This was the tenth time the Super Bowl has been held in the Miami Metro area at the home stadium of the Miami Dolphins: the formerly - named - Joe Robbie Stadium had hosted four previous Super Bowls (XXIII, XXIX, XXXIII, and XLI) and five were played in the Dolphins ' now demolished former home, the Miami Orange Bowl (II, III, V, X, XIII). The Colts franchise was playing its fourth Super Bowl, all of which were played in Miami (two at the Orange Bowl and two at then - named Sun Life Stadium). They are the only franchise to play all of its Super Bowls in the same city and the second to play two or more Super Bowls in two different stadiums (joining the Broncos who played two at Qualcomm Stadium in San Diego and two at the Louisiana Superdome in New Orleans).
With Tampa as the host of Super Bowl XLIII, Super Bowl XLIV also marked the third time that consecutive Super Bowls have been played in the same state. Super Bowls II and III were both played at the Orange Bowl. Super Bowls XXI and XXII were both played in California: XXI at Pasadena 's Rose Bowl Stadium and XXII at San Diego 's Jack Murphy Stadium.
Miami became the first city to host two Super Bowls designated as a National Special Security Event (NSSE). In the wake of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, every Super Bowl since Super Bowl XXXVI has been designated as an NSSE. Super Bowl XLI was Miami 's first Super Bowl designated as an NSSE.
The 2010 Pro Bowl was played on January 31, during the off - week between the conference championships and the Super Bowl, breaking with the precedent of scheduling the game for the Sunday after the Super Bowl. The game also changed venues from Aloha Stadium in Honolulu, Hawaii, where it had been held since 1979, to Sun Life Stadium in Miami (the same city and stadium hosting the Super Bowl itself). Fourteen players from the Super Bowl participants, seven from each team, had been selected but were unable to participate due to the change. The new schedule took advantage of the bye week given to the conference champions to rest and prepare for the Super Bowl. The Pro Bowl returned to Honolulu the following season and remained there until 2015, when it was played in Glendale, AZ, a week before Super Bowl XLIX, also in Glendale. The game returned it to Honolulu in 2016, and beginning in 2017 is played in Orlando permanently.
The move also meant that the Pro Bowl, which was won by the AFC by a score of 41 -- 34, would avoid competing against the 2010 NBA All - Star Game, the second full day of competition in the 2010 Winter Olympics, and the 52nd running of the Daytona 500, as would have been the case had the game been played on February 14 per its traditional post-Super Bowl scheduling.
The New Orleans Saints finished the season with an NFC best 13 -- 3 record and went on to advance to the first Super Bowl in their 43 years as an NFL team. After joining the NFL in 1967, it took them 21 years to record their first winning season and another 13 years after that to win their first playoff game. Five years later, the New Orleans area suffered another setback when the Louisiana Superdome was devastated with the rest of the city by Hurricane Katrina, forcing them to play all of their home games in 2005 elsewhere as they finished with a 3 -- 13 record (see Effect of Hurricane Katrina on the New Orleans Saints). But in the offseason, the team 's fortunes began to turn. First, they signed free agent quarterback Drew Brees, who would go on to throw for more passing yards than any other quarterback over the next four seasons. They also drafted multi-talented Heisman Trophy winning (since vacated) running back Reggie Bush, receiver Marques Colston, and guard Jahri Evans, three players who would become major contributors on the Saints ' offense. The following season, New Orleans improved to 10 -- 6 and advanced to the NFC title game for the first time, which they lost to the Chicago Bears. Although they failed to make the playoffs over the next two seasons, they continued to sign new talent, and by 2009 they were ready to make another run at the Super Bowl.
The Saints ' offense led the NFL in scoring, averaging just under 32 points per game. Brees finished the season as the NFL 's top rated quarterback (109.6), completing an NFL - record 70.6 % of his passes for 4,338 yards and 34 touchdowns, with just 11 interceptions. His top target was Colston, who caught 70 passes for 1,074 yards and 9 touchdowns, but he had plenty of other weapons, such as receivers Devery Henderson (51 receptions) and Robert Meachem (45), along with tight ends Jeremy Shockey (48) and Dave Thomas (35). With fullback Heath Evans out of action due to injury for most of the season, Dave Thomas often lined up as a fullback, with tackle Zach Strief serving as an extra blocker on short yardage plays. The ground attack was led by running backs Pierre Thomas and Mike Bell. Thomas rushed for 793 yards and caught 39 passes for 302, while Bell added 654 yards on the ground. Bush was also a major contributor, rushing for 390 yards (with a 5.6 yards per carry average), catching 47 passes for 335 yards, and adding another 130 yards returning punts. New Orleans also had a strong offensive line with three Pro Bowl selections: guard Jahri Evans, center Jonathan Goodwin, and tackle Jon Stinchcomb.
Defensive lineman Will Smith led the team in sacks with 13. Another big weapon on defense was linebacker Jonathan Vilma, who led the team with 87 tackles and intercepted three passes. The Saints ' secondary was led by 12 - year veteran safety Darren Sharper, who recorded 9 interceptions and set an NFL record by returning them for 376 yards and three touchdowns. Cornerback Tracy Porter was also effective, recording 49 tackles and 4 picks with one touchdown.
The Saints started out the season strong, winning their first 13 games. But then they became the first 13 -- 0 team ever to lose their last three games of the year. After losing their 14th game to the Dallas Cowboys 24 -- 17, they suffered a narrow loss to the Tampa Bay Buccaneers (20 -- 17 in overtime) after Garrett Hartley missed a potential game - winning field goal. With the team 's playoff seed clinched, head coach Sean Payton chose to rest Brees and other starters in the final game of the season, resulting in a 23 -- 10 loss to the Carolina Panthers. The string of defeats cast a cloud over the team 's postseason chances. Still, they clinched the # 1 NFC playoff seed and scored 76 points in their two playoff wins en route to their first ever Super Bowl.
Indianapolis had the NFL - best 14 -- 2 record, winning seven games by less than a touchdown, on their way to earning their second Super Bowl appearance in the last four years. Once again, the Colts boasted a powerful offense led by 10 - time Pro Bowl quarterback Peyton Manning, who threw for over 4,500 yards and 33 touchdowns during the season, with only 16 interceptions, earning him a 99.9 passer rating and a league record fourth National Football League Most Valuable Player Award. Under the protection of Pro Bowl center Jeff Saturday and the rest of the line, Manning had been sacked just 13 times during the regular season, the fewest in the NFL. His top targets were veteran receiver Reggie Wayne and tight end Dallas Clark, who both recorded 100 receptions and 10 touchdowns. Wayne led the team with 1,260 yards, while Clark was second with 1,106. Manning also had other reliable targets, such as recently drafted receivers Austin Collie (60 receptions for 676 yards and 7 touchdowns) and Pierre Garçon (47 receptions for 765 yards and 4 touchdowns). Running back Joseph Addai led the Colts ' ground game with 821 rushing yards and 10 touchdowns, while also catching 51 passes for another 336 yards and 3 scores.
Indianapolis ' defensive line was led by Pro Bowl defensive ends Robert Mathis and Dwight Freeney. Freeney led the team with 13.5 sacks, while Mathis added 9.5 sacks and forced 5 fumbles. Behind them, the Colts had a solid corps of linebackers featuring Clint Session and Gary Brackett, who each recorded 80 tackles. Pro Bowl safety Antoine Bethea led the secondary with 70 tackles and four interceptions.
Under their new coach Jim Caldwell, the Colts started off the season with 14 consecutive wins before suffering their first loss to the New York Jets, 29 -- 15, a game in which Caldwell made the controversial decision to rest his starters after the team took a slim lead rather than keep them in to play for a chance at a 16 -- 0 season. Indianapolis finished the season at 14 -- 2 following a loss to the Buffalo Bills, in which they rested their starters and went on to advance to the Super Bowl, making them perfect in all their games in which their starters played all four quarters.
Caldwell led the Colts to the Super Bowl the season after Tony Dungy retired, just like in Tampa Bay when Jon Gruden led the Bucs to Super Bowl XXXVII after Dungy was fired. Senior offensive line coach Howard Mudd retired following the game.
New Orleans started off their playoff run with a dominating 45 -- 14 win over the defending NFC champion Arizona Cardinals. Arizona was coming off a 51 -- 45 overtime win over the Green Bay Packers in which they racked up 531 yards against a defense ranked second in the league in total yards allowed. However, although Arizona scored on their first play of the game, New Orleans dominated the Cardinals with 35 points in the first half. First, Lynell Hamilton scored on a 1 - yard run. Then, Sharper recovered a fumble from Arizona, setting up Brees ' touchdown pass to Shockey. Following a punt, Bush scored on a franchise playoff record 46 - yard run. In the second quarter, Brees added two more touchdown passes, one to Henderson on a flea flicker and the other to Colston that was set up by a Will Smith interception, giving them a 35 -- 14 first half lead before adding 10 more points in the second half on a Hartley field goal and Bush 's 83 - yard punt return. Bush racked up 217 all - purpose yards, while Brees threw for 247 yards and three touchdowns.
Their opponent in the NFC Championship Game was the Minnesota Vikings, led by 11 - time Pro Bowl quarterback Brett Favre, who had thrown four touchdown passes in their divisional round win over the Dallas Cowboys. Even though the Saints ' offense could only muster 257 total yards, their defense made up for it by forcing five turnovers. Additionally, the Saints outgained the Vikings in punt and kickoff return yards 166 to 50. The key play of the game occurred late in the fourth quarter with the score tied 28 -- 28 and the Vikings driving for a potential game - winning field goal. With less than a minute left, they reached the Saints 33 - yard line. But after two runs for no gain and a penalty that pushed them back to the 38, Porter picked off a pass from Favre to send the game into overtime. After New Orleans won the coin toss, Pierre Thomas 's 40 - yard kickoff return set up a 10 - play, 39 - yard drive that ended with a game winning 40 - yard field goal by Hartley, sending the Saints to their first ever Super Bowl.
Indianapolis ' first opponent was the Baltimore Ravens, a 9 -- 7 squad that had advanced to the divisional round by defeating the New England Patriots 33 -- 14, forcing four turnovers from their All - Pro quarterback Tom Brady. Against the Colts, however, all they could manage was a field goal on their opening drive. Indianapolis built up a 17 -- 3 first half lead with a Matt Stover field goal and Manning 's touchdown passes to Wayne and Collie. In the second half, the Colts survived two interceptions from Baltimore safety Ed Reed on one drive, one of which Reed fumbled, and the other which was called back by a penalty. Stover, who spent 18 years with the Modell franchise, finished the drive with his second field goal to make final score 20 -- 3, as their defense put the game away by forcing two consecutive turnovers.
Their next opponent was in the AFC Championship Game against the New York Jets, who had made the playoffs in part due to Caldwell 's decision to bench his starters in their Week 16 meeting. This time, the Colts would have to mount a comeback, as New York built up a 17 -- 6 first half lead. Yet Indianapolis would step up to the challenge, scoring 24 unanswered points. First, Manning completed three passes to Collie for 80 yards, the last one a 16 - yard touchdown completion to cut the score to 17 -- 13 at the end of the half. Manning added two more touchdown passes in the second half, one to Garçon and one to Clark, and Stover added a 21 - yard field goal to close out the scoring. Manning finished the game with 377 passing yards and three touchdowns, while Garçon and Collie had over 100 receiving yards each.
This is the first Super Bowl matchup in which both teams had a first - round bye since Super Bowl XXXIX. All four of the Super Bowls in - between had one team that played all three rounds (two of which were wild - card teams), with three of those teams (including the Colts in Super Bowl XLI) winning it all.
The game was televised live in the United States on CBS, capping the network 's 50th season of NFL coverage (1956 -- 93; 1998 -- present). This was the 17th Super Bowl telecast for CBS, the largest total among the "big four '' US television networks. CBS had also broadcast the previous Super Bowl held in South Florida (XLI). Play - by - play announcer Jim Nantz and color commentator Phil Simms were in the broadcast booth, with Steve Tasker and Solomon Wilcots serving as sideline reporters. The game was preceded by The Super Bowl Today, a four - hour pregame show hosted by James Brown and featuring analysts Dan Marino, Boomer Esiason, Shannon Sharpe and Bill Cowher along with several other commentators, which started at 2pm EST. A kickoff show for the game aired from 6pm EST to 6: 28pm EST.
With an average U.S. audience of 106.5 million viewers, this was the third most - watched Super Bowl, trailing only the 111 million viewers for Super Bowl XLV the following year and 111.3 million viewers for Super Bowl XLVI. At the time, it was the most - watched program of any kind in American television history, beating the 27 - year - long record previously held by the final episode of M * A * S * H, "Goodbye, Farewell and Amen '', which coincidentally, also aired on CBS, and was watched by 105.97 million viewers. An estimated 153.4 million total viewers watched all or part of the game. The game drew a national Nielsen rating of 45.0 with a 68 share, the highest for a Super Bowl since Super Bowl XXX in 1996 (46.0 / 68). The telecast drew a 56.3 rating in New Orleans and a 54.2 rating in Indianapolis, first and fourth respectively among local markets.
Perennial Super Bowl advertisers Anheuser -- Busch InBev and CareerBuilder stated their commitment to advertise in Super Bowl XLIV, showing eight and two different spots during the game, respectively. A 30 - second spot cost US $ 2.8 million with several advertisers getting discounts, down from the previous year 's $3 million. All advertising slots were sold out on February 1, 2010, six days before the game. Pepsi - Cola had previously stated their commitment to advertise, but then said they would not be buying any commercial time, marking the first time in 23 years that Pepsi did not run an ad during the Super Bowl itself. FedEx also stated that they would not buy ad time. Both Pepsi and FedEx are official NFL sponsors. Coca - Cola and Dr Pepper Snapple Group capitalized on Pepsi 's absence by buying ads in the game; Dr Pepper 's ad featured KISS performing "Calling Dr. Love '', while one of Coca - Cola 's three ads featured Montgomery Burns (of FOX 's The Simpsons) losing everything he owns. Also for the second straight year, one of the Big Three American automobile makers -- General Motors -- did not have a commercial in the game. Ford had one commercial for the Ford Edge featuring Mike Rowe. Chrysler 's Dodge brand did advertise this year for its Dodge Charger, narrated by Michael C. Hall.
Frito - Lay 's Doritos brand, in turn owned by PepsiCo, had four consumer - created advertisements scheduled. The first three ads -- running in the first quarter -- featured a sly dog using an anti-bark collar to his advantage to steal a man 's Doritos, a fast - handed boy defending his Doritos and his mother from a potential suitor, and a man faking his death for free Doritos. The fourth ad, featuring an angry gym rat who was overprotective for his Doritos being stolen, aired in the fourth quarter. Had three of the ads topped the USA Today Super Bowl Ad Meter rankings, the commercial 's creators would have won a total of US $5 million ($1 million for first, $600,000 for second and $400,000 for third, plus a $1 million bonus for each of the three finalists). The previous year, Joe and David Herbert 's "Free Doritos '' ad topped the survey and won $1 million. The United States Census Bureau spent $2.5 million on a 30 - second spot, directed by noted independent filmmaker Christopher Guest, for the 2010 United States Census, which urged Americans to answer its questionnaires that will be sent out in the next few weeks. McDonald 's aired a commercial, updating a famous ad from the early 1990s, in which NBA superstars LeBron James and Dwight Howard (replacing Michael Jordan and Larry Bird) play an otherworldly game of H-O-R-S-E, with a McDonald 's lunch going to the winner -- however, they soon look over and see that Bird has helped himself to it. Mars Chocolate returned three years after its controversial Snickers ad that was protested by gay groups with two men kissing one another that was pulled one day following the game (see Super Bowl XLI: Commercials). The commercial -- winner of the annual Ad Meter survey -- featured veteran actors Betty White and Abe Vigoda playing full - contact backyard football.
The rest of the Top Five:
The YouTube Top Five of their "2010 Ad Blitz '' were:
ADBOWL results reflected the following ranking:
Internet domain registrar GoDaddy, which created a racy ad the year after the Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show controversy, bought two ads in the Super Bowl for the sixth consecutive year. Advertising Age reported that Paramount Pictures bought a Super Bowl spot for the upcoming films Iron Man 2 and The Last Airbender. A trailer for the HBO miniseries The Pacific was also aired.
Other advertisers for 2010 included Homeaway Inc., paying tribute to National Lampoon 's Vacation with their stars Chevy Chase and Beverly D'Angelo, and Diamond Foods, who returned to promote both its Emerald Nuts brand and Pop Secret popcorn, which they bought from General Mills two years before. Boost Mobile aired a special ad, celebrating the 25th Anniversary of The Super Bowl Shuffle, featuring many of the 1985 Chicago Bears to advertise their US $50 per month service. Also, in a CBS - produced promo for the Late Show with David Letterman, the eponymous host and his longtime talk show rival, Jay Leno, appeared together with Oprah Winfrey.
Three advertisers in particular raised eyebrows with their choice to advertise during the Super Bowl. One new advertiser, Focus on the Family, aired a commercial featuring 2007 Heisman Trophy winner Tim Tebow and his mother that elicited criticism from some women 's groups who demanded CBS cancel the ad because they claimed it would be divisive, under the impression that it would mention Tebow 's mother was advised, for health issues, to abort her son Tim, but she chose to give birth to him. In the first quarter, CBS aired the advertisement, which had not been pre-released to the public. Per a statement released earlier, the ad did not mention the topic of abortion explicitly.
One proposed sponsor, ManCrunch, a gay dating site that bills itself as a place "where many many many men come out to play '', had expressed interest in purchasing a 30 - second advertisement. The ManCrunch advertisement would have depicted a male Green Bay Packers fan and a male Minnesota Vikings fan reaching into the same bowl of potato chips at the same time and, after a brief pause, begin to passionately kiss. ManCrunch 's ad, which has since been released to the public, was initially put on a waiting list before the network outright rejected it due to it violating CBS 's broadcast standards. ManCrunch immediately accused CBS of discrimination. Some observers suspect that their advertisement was an attempt at ambush marketing and free publicity. Another ad that was rejected by CBS for failure to meet standards was for the texting service kgb, which focuses on two men with CGI - enhanced images bent over with their heads in their posteriors, while an actor, Sean Gunn, portraying an agent stated that "They had their head up their (backsides) ''. kgb instead aired an ad with two people who had to find the Japanese word for "I surrender '' before being run over by a sumo wrestler. Another ad for Bud Light which was rejected showed workers stripping down for a charity clothes drive in exchange for free beer. All of the rejected ads were shown on YouTube.
Among other rejected or modified ads were one for Electronic Arts ' Dante 's Inferno, which had to be edited for content (the closing phrase, originally intended to read "go to Hell '', was replaced with "Hell awaits ''), and GoDaddy 's originally planned advertisement. Career Builder 's ad, showing people dressed too casually for "Casual Friday '' and a Dockers ad to promote a free pair of their pants with men in shirts but sans trousers aired back - to - back early in the second quarter.
An E * TRADE advertisement, continuing their theme of talking babies on a Web cam, featured a boyfriend - stealing, "milkaholic '' baby girl named "Lindsay. '' Actress Lindsay Lohan, who has a history of alcoholism and was noted for having tried in the early 2000s (decade) to date popular young men who were already dating other women, attempted to sue E * TRADE over the advertisement, seeking US $100,000,000 in damages, under the impression that the advertisement defamed her via subliminal messaging and violated her personality rights. E * TRADE denied the allegations and stated the name "Lindsay '' came from a member of the accounting staff. Lohan and E * TRADE settled the lawsuit in September 2010; the terms were confidential.
Viewers worldwide were able to watch on the following channels:
On radio, Westwood One had the national English - language broadcast rights to the game in the United States and Canada. Marv Albert (play - by - play) and Boomer Esiason (color commentator) called the game for the network; it was the last broadcast Albert would do for Westwood One, due to his desire to focus on his basketball coverage duties. The teams ' flagship stations also carried the game with their respective local announcers: WLHK - FM and WFNI - AM in Indianapolis (with Bob Lamey and Will Wolford announcing) and WWL - FM / AM in New Orleans (with Jim Henderson and Hokie Gajan announcing). The Saints ' radio broadcast on WWL - AM was available throughout much of the United States, since WWL is a Class A clear channel station. Univision Radio aired a Spanish - language feed for Hispanophone American listeners (with Clemson Smith - Muñiz and David Crommett announcing).
Sirius XM Satellite Radio carried 14 game feeds in ten languages to Sirius subscribers, as well as to XM subscribers with the "Best of Sirius '' package. In addition to the four US feeds mentioned above, Sirius carried the following international feeds:
FieldPass, the subscription Internet radio service provided by the league at NFL.com, also carried most of these feeds. Due to contractual restrictions, only Sirius XM and FieldPass were permitted to carry the local team broadcasts along with WLHK, WFNI and WWL, with the teams ' other network radio affiliates instead airing the Westwood One feed.
Barenaked Ladies played the Super Bowl Saturday Night event with O.A.R. and Robert Randolph and the Family Band. Chris Daughtry, Steve Winwood and Queen Latifah performed during the Super Bowl pre-game tailgate party, which started at 2 p.m.
Carrie Underwood sang the National Anthem and Queen Latifah sang "America the Beautiful. '' Underwood 's selection marks the third straight year that an alumnus of American Idol has been chosen to perform "The Star - Spangled Banner '', joining Jordin Sparks at Super Bowl XLII and Jennifer Hudson a year later. Translation of both songs into American Sign Language was provided by Kinesha Battles, a student at the Florida School for the Deaf and Blind.
To commemorate the 15th anniversary of the San Francisco 49ers ' fifth Super Bowl victory, which took place at this stadium, Jerry Rice, who had also been MVP of Super Bowl XXIII, another Super Bowl played at this stadium, joined the coin toss ceremonies. Rice had just been named to the Pro Football Hall of Fame Class of 2010. The rest of the class -- Rickey Jackson, Dick LeBeau, Floyd Little, Russ Grimm, John Randle, and Emmitt Smith -- were named the day before. The Saints won the coin toss, marking the 13th straight Super Bowl the NFC won the toss (the Cardinals won the toss in Super Bowl XLIII but elected to defer to the second half, giving the Steelers the ball to open the game).
The Who performed at the Super Bowl XLIV halftime show. The band played a medley of their hits, consisting of "Pinball Wizard '', "Baba O'Riley '', "Who Are You '', "See Me, Feel Me '', and "Wo n't Get Fooled Again ''. For the first time since the Super Bowl XXXIV halftime show, there was no crowd of fans surrounding the halftime stage. This performance was also released as downloadable content for the Rock Band series, named "The Who Super Bowl S - mashup ''.
Retailers had ordered much more New Orleans Saints merchandise prior to the game than they had ordered Colts merchandise. The NFL estimated that US $100 million worth of Super Bowl merchandise would be sold.
The Saints won the coin toss and chose to receive, but their first possession resulted in a punt after going three - and - out.
The Colts offense took the field for the first time, with the ball spotted at their own 27 - yard line. The Colts put together a drive that went 53 yards and resulted in a 38 - yard field goal by kicker Matt Stover. At 42 years old, Stover became the oldest person in NFL history to play in a Super Bowl.
Following the game 's first score, Courtney Roby returned the ensuing kickoff to the New Orleans 26 - yard line. Approaching the 25 - yard line, Roby swooped into a dive and appeared to fumble the ball, but he was ruled down by contact. This time, the Saints managed to get a first down with a 16 - yard completion from Drew Brees to Reggie Bush, but they were eventually forced to punt again. Punter Thomas Morstead pinned the Colts back at their own 4 - yard line with a 46 - yard kick.
Indianapolis responded with a 96 - yard scoring drive, tying the record for the longest drive in Super Bowl history. Joseph Addai rushed three times for 53 yards on the drive, while Manning completed three passes for 35 yards, the last one a 19 - yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Pierre Garçon, increasing the Colts lead to 10 -- 0.
The Saints ' next drive carried over from the previous quarter. Brees completed three passes for 36 yards as the Saints advanced to the Colts ' 22 - yard line. But on third down, Brees was sacked for a 7 - yard loss by Dwight Freeney, forcing New Orleans to settle for a 46 - yard field goal from Garrett Hartley. After scoring points on their first 2 drives, the Colts looked to add more, but Garcon dropped a pass on 3rd down. The Colts were forced to punt and the Saints took over driving down into Colt territory. They drove down the field to a 1st - and - goal at the Colts ' 3 - yard line. A false start penalty set them back to the 8, and after getting a yard away from the end zone, they attempted 3rd and 4th down runs. They failed to convert both times. The Colts ran three straight running plays in an effort to wind down the clock and go to halftime with a seven - point lead, but the Saints kept the Colts from getting another first down. Following Bush 's 4 - yard punt return to the New Orleans 48, with only one timeout left to use in the half, the Saints got back into field goal territory, and Hartley hit a 44 - yard field goal as time expired, with the Colts still leading 10 -- 6. This was the first 10 -- 6 halftime score in Super Bowl history.
The Colts were set to receive the ball to start the second half, but were caught by surprise when the Saints executed an onside kick. This was the first onside kick attempted before the fourth quarter in Super Bowl history, a play the Saints referred to as "Ambush. '' Thomas Morstead kicked the ball to his left, and after traveling almost 15 yards, the ball bounced off the facemask of the Colts ' Hank Baskett, who failed to make a clean recovery. Several players dove for the loose ball, creating a pile that took over a minute for the officiating crew to separate. When the dust finally cleared, linebacker Jonathan Casillas of New Orleans was officially credited with the recovery on the 42 - yard line, but Casillas and other Saints players insisted that it was actually safety Chris Reis who came up with the football. The Saints ' offense took over and stormed down the field on an effective 58 - yard drive in which they never faced a third down. Brees completed five consecutive passes for 58 yards on the drive and capped it off with a ' check - down ' pass on the right side to Pierre Thomas, who took it 16 yards to the end zone behind blocks from Jonathan Goodwin, Jahri Evans, Devery Henderson, Kyle Eckel, Carl Nicks, and Jeremy Shockey, to give the Saints their first lead of the game at 13 -- 10.
Manning and the Colts answered with their own touchdown drive, moving the ball 76 yards in ten plays. Clark caught 3 passes for 45 yards, while Joseph Addai finished the drive off with a 4 - yard touchdown run to put the Colts back on top 17 -- 13 with 6: 05 remaining in the quarter. For just the second time in Super Bowl history both teams scored touchdowns on their initial possessions of the second half; the only other time occurred in Super Bowl XIV.
Hartley would bring the Saints to within one point of tying the game at 17 -- 16, with his third field goal, launched from 47 yards away. In doing so he became the first kicker in Super Bowl history to score three field goals of 40 or more yards in one game.
This was the first one - point lead after the third quarter in Super Bowl history and second closest game after three quarters, behind Super Bowl XXXIX which was tied between the New England Patriots and Philadelphia Eagles.
Indianapolis responded with a drive to the New Orleans 33 - yard line, only to have Stover miss a 51 - yard field goal attempt, giving the ball back to the Saints with good field position on their 41 - yard line. After that, Brees led the Saints on another touchdown drive featuring seven different players getting the ball. Bush started off the drive with a 12 - yard run, and then Devery Henderson caught a pass on the Colts ' 36 - yard line. Following an 8 - yard catch and run by Bush, Brees completed passes to Colston, Robert Meachem and tight end David Thomas, moving the ball to the 5 - yard line. After a 3 - yard run by Pierre Thomas, Brees threw a 2 - yard touchdown pass to tight end Jeremy Shockey. Rather than settle for a six - point lead, and risk a potential Colts game - winning touchdown, the Saints chanced a two - point conversion. Lance Moore received a pass and attempted to stretch the ball out over the goal line as he fell to the ground and rolled over on his head. The ball was kicked away from his hands by defender Jacob Lacey, and the play was ruled an incomplete pass, prompting a coach 's challenge from Sean Payton. After the review, the ruling on the field was overturned when it was determined that Moore maintained possession of the ball long enough and the ball had crossed the plane of the goal line for a successful conversion, giving the Saints a 24 -- 17 advantage.
On the ensuing drive, Manning led the Colts into Saints territory; however, Tracy Porter intercepted a pass by Manning at the Saints 26 for the first takeaway of the game and returned it 74 yards for a touchdown; following the successful extra point, the Saints lead grew to 31 -- 17 with 3: 12 remaining. Porter 's interception return for a touchdown improved teams to 10 -- 0 in Super Bowls when returning an interception for a touchdown, although that record is now 12 - 1 following Super Bowl LI.
Now down by two possessions, the Colts needed a touchdown on their next drive to stay alive, though they still had all three of their timeouts to use. They were able to drive to the New Orleans 3 - yard line. When an offensive pass interference penalty on 1st and goal pushed them back 10 yards, the Colts got those 10 yards back on the next play. However, the next three plays saw a tipped pass that went off the goal post and incomplete, a loss of two yards on a rushing play, and a pass that went through the hands of wide receiver Reggie Wayne and incomplete, effectively sealing the win for the Saints. Brees knelt the ball with 0: 44 left on the clock, ending Super Bowl XLIV and winning the Saints ' first league championship in franchise history.
at Sun Life Stadium, Miami Gardens, Florida
Drew Brees was named Super Bowl MVP for tying a Super Bowl record by completing 32 of 39 passes, with 288 passing yards and two touchdowns. After the game, Brees said, "Four years ago, who ever thought this would be happening when 85 percent of the city was under water? Most people left not knowing if New Orleans would ever come back, or if the organization would ever come back. We just all looked at one another and said, ' We are going to rebuild together. We are going to lean on each other. ' This is the culmination in all that belief. ''
Sources: NFL.com Super Bowl XLIV, Super Bowl XLIV Play Finder NO, Super Bowl XLIV Play Finder Ind, Hoffco Super Bowl XLIV Play by Play
Completions / attempts Carries Long gain Receptions Times targeted Tackles Forced fumbles
Slate writer Justin Peters viewed every Super Bowl over a two - month period before Super Bowl 50. About Super Bowl XLIV, which he ranked the fifth best, he had this to say: "... coming as it did five years after New Orleans was flooded in Hurricane Katrina, the Saints ' victory actually mattered. ''
The Saints finished the next season with an 11 -- 5 record, but failed to defend their league title after they were eliminated by the Seattle Seahawks in the Wild Card playoff round. Super Bowl XLIV later became the subject of the wider New Orleans Saints bounty scandal, also known as "Bountygate '', in which the NFL alleged in 2012 that several Saints defenders operated a slush fund that was in operation from the 2009 season and Super Bowl XLIV, through 2011. This alleged slush fund paid out bonuses, or "bounties '', for in - game performance in violation of NFL rules, including deliberately injuring or knocking opposing players out of games. The league responded with some of the most severe sanctions in the league 's 92 - year history, and among the most severe punishments for an on - field incident in North American professional sports history. In 2012, New Orleans failed to make the playoffs for the first time since their Super Bowl win, with the sanctions for Bountygate cited as one of the primary causes. The Saints rebounded in 2013, but were eliminated in the Divisional playoff round by the eventual Super Bowl XLVIII champion Seahawks, and have returned to the playoffs in 2018 by defeating Carolina Panthers in the Wildcard Round, but lost to Minnesota Vikings in the Divisional Rounds. Thus, New Orleans have not advanced to the Conference Championship Game since Super Bowl XLIV.
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top ten richest soccer teams in the world | Forbes ' list of The Most Valuable football clubs - wikipedia
This is a list of the richest football clubs in the world as ranked by Forbes magazine on their worth in United States dollar.
As of 1 June 2017
In millions
As of 1 May 2016
As of 6 May 2015
As of 15 July 2014
As of 17 April 2013
As of 19 April 2012
As of 20 April 2011
As of April 2010
As of April 2009
As of April 2008
This is the list released in March 2007.
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which surface winds blow between the subtropical high and the equator | Trade winds - wikipedia
The trade winds are the prevailing pattern of easterly surface winds found in the tropics, within the lower portion of the Earth 's atmosphere, in the lower section of the troposphere near the Earth 's equator. The trade winds blow predominantly from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and from the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere, strengthening during the winter and when the Arctic oscillation is in its warm phase. Trade winds have been used by captains of sailing ships to cross the world 's oceans for centuries, and enabled colonial expansion into the Americas and trade routes to become established across the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
In meteorology, the trade winds act as the steering flow for tropical storms that form over the Atlantic, Pacific, and southern Indian Oceans and make landfall in North America, Southeast Asia, and Madagascar and eastern Africa, respectively. Trade winds also transport African dust westward across the Atlantic Ocean into the Caribbean Sea, as well as portions of southeastern North America. Shallow cumulus clouds are seen within trade wind regimes, and are capped from becoming taller by a trade wind inversion, which is caused by descending air aloft from within the subtropical ridge. The weaker the trade winds become, the more rainfall can be expected in the neighboring landmasses.
The term trade winds originally derives from the early fourteenth century late Middle English word ' trade, ' meaning "path '' or "track. '' The Portuguese recognized the importance of the trade winds (then the Volta do mar, meaning in Portuguese "turn of the sea '' but also "return from the sea '') in navigation in both the north and south Atlantic ocean as early as the 15th century. From West Africa, the Portuguese had to sail away from continental Africa, that is, to west and northwest. They could then turn northeast, to the area around the Azores islands, and finally east to mainland Europe. They also learned that to reach South Africa, they needed to go far out in the ocean, head for Brazil, and around 30 ° S go east again. Following the African coast southbound means upwind in the Southern hemisphere. In the Pacific ocean, the full wind circulation, which included both the trade wind easterlies and higher - latitude Westerlies, was unknown to Europeans until Andres de Urdaneta 's voyage in 1565.
The captain of a sailing ship seeks a course along which the winds can be expected to blow in the direction of travel. During the Age of Sail, the pattern of prevailing winds made various points of the globe easy or difficult to access, and therefore had a direct effect on European empire - building and thus on modern political geography. For example, Manila galleons could not sail into the wind at all.
By the 18th century the importance of the trade winds to England 's merchant fleet for crossing the Atlantic Ocean had led both the general public and etymologists to identify the name with a later meaning of ' trade ', "(foreign) commerce ''. Between 1847 and 1849, Matthew Fontaine Maury collected enough information to create wind and current charts for the world 's oceans.
As part of the Hadley cell, surface air flows toward the equator while the flow aloft is towards the poles. A low - pressure area of calm, light variable winds near the equator is known as the doldrums, near - equatorial trough, intertropical front, or the Intertropical Convergence Zone. When located within a monsoon region, this zone of low pressure and wind convergence is also known as the monsoon trough. Around 30 ° in both hemispheres, air begins to descend toward the surface in subtropical high - pressure belts known as subtropical ridges. The subsident (sinking) air is relatively dry because as it descends, the temperature increases, but the absolute humidity remains constant, which lowers the relative humidity of the air mass. This warm, dry air is known as a superior air mass and normally resides above a maritime tropical (warm and moist) air mass. An increase of temperature with height is known as a temperature inversion. When it occurs within a trade wind regime, it is known as a trade wind inversion.
The surface air that flows from these subtropical high - pressure belts toward the Equator is deflected toward the west in both hemispheres by the Coriolis effect. These winds blow predominantly from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and from the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere. Because winds are named for the direction from which the wind is blowing, these winds are called the northeasterly trade winds in the Northern Hemisphere and the southeasterly trade winds in the Southern Hemisphere. The trade winds of both hemispheres meet at the doldrums.
As they blow across tropical regions, air masses heat up over lower latitudes due to more direct sunlight. Those that develop over land (continental) are drier and hotter than those that develop over oceans (maritime), and travel northward on the western periphery of the subtropical ridge. Maritime tropical air masses are sometimes referred to as trade air masses. The one region of the Earth which has an absence of trade winds is the north Indian ocean.
Clouds which form above regions within trade wind regimes are typically composed of cumulus which extend no more than 4 kilometres (13,000 ft) in height, and are capped from being taller by the trade wind inversion. Trade winds originate more from the direction of the poles (northeast in the Northern Hemisphere, southeast in the Southern Hemisphere) during the cold season, and are stronger in the winter than the summer. As an example, the windy season in the Guianas, which lie at low latitudes in South America, occurs between January and April. When the phase of the Arctic oscillation (AO) is warm, trade winds are stronger within the tropics. The cold phase of the AO leads to weaker trade winds. When the trade winds are weaker, more extensive areas of rain fall upon landmasses within the tropics, such as Central America.
During mid-summer in the Northern Hemisphere (July), the westward - moving trade winds south of the northward - moving subtropical ridge expand northwestward from the Caribbean sea into southeastern North America (Florida and Gulf Coast). When dust from the Sahara moving around the southern periphery of the ridge travels over land, rainfall is suppressed and the sky changes from a blue to a white appearance which leads to an increase in red sunsets. Its presence negatively impacts air quality by adding to the count of airborne particulates. Although the Southeast USA has some of the cleanest air in North America, much of the African dust that reaches the United States affects Florida. Since 1970, dust outbreaks have worsened due to periods of drought in Africa. There is a large variability in the dust transport to the Caribbean and Florida from year to year. Dust events have been linked to a decline in the health of coral reefs across the Caribbean and Florida, primarily since the 1970s.
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who play as sister charlotte in annabelle creation | Annabelle: Creation - wikipedia
Annabelle: Creation is a 2017 American supernatural horror film directed by David F. Sandberg, written by Gary Dauberman and produced by Peter Safran and James Wan. It is a prequel to 2014 's Annabelle and the fourth installment in The Conjuring Universe. The film stars Stephanie Sigman, Talitha Bateman, Anthony LaPaglia, and Miranda Otto, and depicts the possessed Annabelle doll 's origin.
Annabelle: Creation premiered at the LA Film Festival on June 19, 2017, and was theatrically released in the United States on August 11, 2017. The film grossed over $306 million worldwide and received generally positive reviews from critics, who praised the atmosphere and acting, and noted it as an improvement over its predecessor. A third Annabelle film is scheduled to be released in 2019.
In 1943, dollmaker Samuel Mullins and his wife Esther grieve for the loss of their seven - year - old daughter Annabelle "Bee '', who was killed in a car accident.
Twelve years later, in 1955, the Mullins open their home to provide shelter for Sister Charlotte and six girls left homeless by the closing of their orphanage. Despite having been told not to enter Bee 's locked bedroom, Janice, a young orphan crippled by polio, is awakened by a noise, discovers a note saying "find me '', and sneaks into the room, which has mysteriously become unlocked. She finds a key for Bee 's closet and unlocks it, where she sees an eerie porcelain doll. This unwittingly releases a powerful demon, who begins to terrorize the girls, displaying a special interest in Janice.
On the second night, the demon, taking Bee 's form appears in Janice 's room. Janice asks it what it wants. The demon replies that it wants her soul and continues to torment Janice. Although she attempts to get away using a stairlift, the demon catches her. The stairlift springs, throwing her in the air from the second - floor ceiling landing to a the first floor, leaving her severely injured. Janice is now confined to a wheelchair and she tells Sister Charlotte about the demon but Sister Charlotte dismisses it. The night after the incident, she sleeps in a different room from her best friend Linda, who is tormented by the demon. The next morning, the demon, posing as Bee again, pushes Janice and her wheelchair into a shed and vomits black projectile into Janice 's mouth, successfully possessing her. Linda notices changes in her behavior and admits to Samuel that Janice snuck into Bee 's room and found the doll two nights earlier. Shortly after Linda 's revelation, Janice, who can now walk, transforms into the demon. Samuel attempts remove the curse but the demon brutally kills Samuel.
Linda walks into where Janice was sleeping and sees the doll by her side. She throws it into the well, with Sister Charlotte noticing her. A strange noise comes out of the well and Linda is almost dragged into it but Sister Charlotte manages to save her. Alarmed, Sister Charlotte speaks with the disfigured Esther, who is confined to her bedroom. Esther explains that after Bee 's death, they prayed to whatever entity would grant their wish to see their daughter again. An unknown entity answered their prayer and though they have briefly seen Bee 's spirit again, the entity convinces them to transfer its essence into one of Samuel 's crafted porcelain dolls. They happily agree but soon realize that they have attracted a demon looking for a human host. One night, Esther sees Bee 's spirit, along with the porcelain doll, transforming into the demon, who gouges out her left eye. Enlisting the help of priests to bless both the room and the house, they take the doll to Bee 's room and lock it in a closet wallpapered with pages from the Bible. Esther then reveals that she and Samuel opened their house as a shelter for the orphans to repent of their dealings but now regrets it, since she realizes that this has provided an opportunity for the demon to look for a human host.
The demon crucifies Esther and bisects her body and slams Sister Charlotte against the wall, prompting the other orphans to leave the house. Linda is trapped in the house and hides in Bee 's room as the possessed Janice tries to stab her. Sister Charlotte recovers and locks the possessed Janice and the doll inside the closet. The next day, police arrive to search the house and its surroundings and find only the doll inside the bedroom closet, which they remove as evidence. Sister Charlotte, Linda, and the remaining orphans are escorted away by police officers, while Janice escapes through a hole in the closet wall and relocates to an orphanage in Santa Monica. Still possessed, she becomes reclusive and calls herself Annabelle. The Higgins family soon adopt Annabelle.
Twelve years later, a grown - up Annabelle joins a Satanic cult and, along with her boyfriend, murders her adoptive parents in their bedroom, which catches the attention of their next - door neighbors, the Forms.
In 1952, Valak, the Demon Nun, walks the candle - lit halls of the Cârța Monastery in Romania, as each candle slowly goes out.
Additionally, Annabelle Wallis and Ward Horton appear in archive footage from Annabelle as Mia and John Form, respectively, and Bonnie Aarons reprises her role from The Conjuring 2 as the demon nun Valak in an uncredited appearance.
In October 2015, it was confirmed that an Annabelle sequel was in development. David F. Sandberg replaced Annabelle 's John R. Leonetti as the sequel 's director in March 2016. He has described himself as a fan of the franchise, especially the first one, since they were "more of a classic, old - school horror movie in many ways. '' James Wan and New Line Cinema approached Sandberg to helm the sequel during the post-production on Lights Out, after they were impressed by the early cuts of the film. Sandberg and Wan had met each other during production of Lights Out, as the movie was produced by Wan 's Atomic Monster Productions. Sandberg did not want to direct another formulaic horror sequel, but after reading the script and realising how it deviated from the first film, he agreed to direct it. He was attracted to it as it was a standalone film, as a result of which he had more creative freedom. The fact that it was a period piece made it more appealing to him. The first film 's screenwriter, Gary Dauberman, returned to write the script, with Peter Safran and James Wan returning to produce. In March 2017, Sandberg revealed the film would be a prequel to the original Annabelle film, and titled Annabelle: Creation.
Sandberg drew references from the look of the 1963 psychological horror film The Haunting, due to its use of CinemaScope cinematography, and cited the score of The Shining to be the biggest inspiration for the film 's chilling music. He also borrowed inspiration from the "old school '' feel of The Conjuring. He decided he would rely upon tension and suspense, as opposed to jump scares. Unlike his debut film Lights Out, in which he meticulously crafted each scene beforehand, Sandberg had a different approach to Annabelle: Creation. With Annabelle he "was inspired by the set and moment '' and so did not prepare with extensive storyboards or diagrams, instead relying on the mantra, "We 'll figure it out on set together. We 'll make it work. ''
Sandberg softened some of Annabelle 's features to make her more believable as a child 's toy, having the cheeks filled - out and fixing her overbite. He found shooting with the doll challenging since the object was immobile, and he needed to use other objects -- such as a sheet -- to make her move around. Father Robert was a consultant on the film.
In June 2016, Talitha Bateman, Miranda Otto, and Stephanie Sigman were cast to star in the film. Bateman and fellow child actresses Lulu Wilson and Samara Lee had all seen The Exorcist, and Samara was named after Samara Morgan from The Ring, so despite working on a horror movie, none of the young actresses were disturbed by the film 's subject, although some of them did state that they were unsettled by the doll. They said that they did not feel tension or fear throughout production, and Sandberg remarked that the only challenge in working with them was restrictions in terms of hours on the set -- such as they can not work after midnight and work overtime -- since they were under age. Bateman was one of the actresses that James Wan had considered for the role of Janet in The Conjuring 2. However, the part eventually went to Madison Wolfe. Since the script demanded a group of children, they brought Bateman in to audition, having been impressed by her screen tests previously. Her brother, Gabriel Bateman, starred in Sandberg 's Lights Out. Wilson auditioned for the role of Linda because she wanted to play a horror protagonist, having played an antagonist in Ouija: Origin of Evil. Creation marks her third time starring in a horror film, following Deliver Us from Evil and Ouija.
Anthony LaPaglia agreed to star in the film after his 14 - year - old daughter overheard him talking on the phone about the movie, and responded enthusiastically to her father taking the role. He has described his character as "a mysterious, quiet - yet - gruff man who is mourning both the loss of his daughter and the medical degeneration of his wife. The young orphans who move into the now - dilapidated house fear him. '' To get into character, he did not mingle with the young actresses very much on set. He would intentionally distance himself from them so that during filming they would naturally not like him very much.
Principal photography began on June 27, 2016, in Los Angeles, California, at the Warner Bros. Studios, Burbank lot, and concluded on August 15, 2016. The film received California film and television tax credits in the amount of $2.4 million after spending $17.4 million in the state. Sandberg decided to use Steadicam and tracking shots, because of the film 's period setting, and he wanted to maintain the "old school '' feel of the first two The Conjuring films. According to Sandberg, he does not believe in ghosts or demonic entities, saying, "I have n't experienced anything in life that would lead me to believe they exist ''. Sandberg reported that actress Stephanie Sigman, who played Sister Charlotte, was "a little bit freaked out by that doll '' and, after hearing that a priest had blessed the set of The Conjuring 2, requested the same ritual be performed for this film.
In July 2017, Warner Bros. Pictures, in conjunction with James Wan, announced the "My Annabelle Creation '' competition as promotion for the then - upcoming film Annabelle: Creation. Participants of the competition were to shoot a short film which would "feel like (it) could exist within the established Conjuring world '', with the winning films ' directors winning a trip to Los Angeles to meet with David F. Sandberg, the director of Annabelle: Creation, and a New Line Cinema 's executive. The entry deadline was July 27, 2017, with five separate competition winners being selected from the United States, the United Kingdom, Mexico, Sweden and Colombia.
The winner from the United States competition was Julian Terry for his short film The Nurse. Just under 2 minutes in length and filmed over four days, the film revolves around a bandaged and temporarily blind girl named Emily (Aria Walters) who attempts to elude the eponymous Demon Nurse (Hannah Palazzi).
The winner from the United Kingdom competition was Liam Banks for his short film The Confession. Just over 2 minutes in length and filmed over one week, the film revolves around a psychologically - damaged young woman (Esmee Matthews) confiding in a priest (Charlie Clarke) regarding her terrifying encounters with supernatural entities, only to realize she never escaped.
The winner from the Mexico competition was Raùl Bribiesca for his short film What 's Wrong With Mom?. Exactly 2 minutes in length and filmed in a single take, the film revolves around a father (Fabián Hurtado) and daughter (Carina Pámenes) as they 're praying to God to exorcise the mother (Perla Corona) of the "Marifer '', a teleporting demon possessing her.
The winner from the Sweden competition was Amanda Nilsson and Magda Lindblom for their short film Blund 's Lullaby. Just over 2 minutes in length, the film was inspired by the nordic version of the Sandman, known as John Blund.
The winner from the Colombia competition was Alejandro López for his short film Almas Inocentes (English: Innocent Souls).
On November 23, 2016, Benjamin Wallfisch was hired to compose the music for the film. WaterTower Music released the soundtrack album on August 4, 2017.
The film was originally set for release on May 19, 2017. But was pushed back from its original release date of May 19, 2017 to August 11, 2017, to avoid competition with Alien: Covenant. The film premiered at the Los Angeles Film Festival on June 19, 2017.
The film was released on Digital HD on October 17, 2017, and on Blu - ray and DVD on October 24, 2017.
Annabelle: Creation grossed $102.1 million in the United States and Canada and $204.4 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $306.5 million, against a production budget of $15 million. With its release, it pushed The Conjuring franchise past the $1 billion threshold, making it only the third horror series to cross that mark, after the Alien franchise and Resident Evil series. Deadline Hollywood calculated the film made a net profit of $108.7 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues.
In North America, the film was released alongside The Nut Job 2: Nutty by Nature and The Glass Castle, and was projected to gross around $30 million from 3,502 theaters in its opening weekend. The film grossed $4 million from its Thursday night previews, the highest of The Conjuring series and double the original Annabelle 's $2.1 million. It went on to open to $35 million, the lowest of the series, but still topping the box office. In its second weekend, the film dropped 55.7 % to earn another $15.5 million, which was a smaller second - weekend drop than Annabelle (57 %) and The Conjuring 2 (63 %), and the best second - weekend hold of the franchise since the initial Conjuring film (46 %).
Outside North America, the film was released to positive reception from international audiences, which is reflected in its box office performance. It broke several opening records for the horror genre as well as for the studio and came in ahead of The Conjuring and Annabelle in many markets. The week prior to its domestic release, the film debuted in Italy at number one, with $1.1 million. It earned $35.4 million on its opening weekend from 39 markets, almost on par with its domestic debut and marking the second biggest international opening in the franchise, behind only The Conjuring 2. Overall, the film was number two at the international box office after Wolf Warriors 2. The film expanded to 56 markets in its sophomore weekend, adding a handful of major markets and thereby topping the worldwide chart for the first time with an estimated $42 million.
It recorded the highest opening weekend in the franchise in 26 markets and the biggest launch for a horror film of all time in Sweden, Poland, Portugal, India, Malaysia ($2.2 million), the UAE ($1.1 million) and Vietnam. The top openings came from Mexico ($8 million), Korea ($6.7 million), and India ($9.8 million). In South Korea, the film grossed $1.2 million from Thursday previews. Despite its South Korean release falling during diplomatic tensions, it ultimately opened there with $6.7 million, as the number one foreign release and the third highest - grossing movie overall behind local films A Taxi Driver and Midnight Runners.
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 70 % based on 163 reviews, with an average rating of 6.2 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Annabelle: Creation adds another strong chapter to the Conjuring franchise -- and offers further proof that freaky - looking dolls remain reliably terrifying. '' Metacritic, another review aggregator, assigned the film a weighted average score of 62 out of 100, based on 29 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B '' on an A+ to F scale, the same score earned by the first Annabelle film.
Justin Lowe of The Hollywood Reporter called it "wickedly terrifying, '' and said it was "closer in tone and old - school psychological fright tactics to the original film than either The Conjuring 2 or Annabelle. '' Peter Debruge of Variety, while criticising the plot, said the film nevertheless "manages to conjure some effective scares, '' and that "this effective yet empty - headed horror movie goes to show how eager audiences are to be scared, and how even an unsightly doll can do the trick when the spirit is willing. '' Similarly, Chris Hewitt of Empire felt that while the "movie ca n't hold a flickering candle to the James Wan - directed entries in the series... it 's got plenty of decent shocks, and the odd genuine surprise, up its sleeve. '' However, Emily Yoshida of Vulture wrote that "Annabelle: Creation 's countless sequences of foreboding silence -- hands reaching for doorknobs, our heroines shuddering in the dark, waiting for their demonic tormentor to attack -- offer nothing to really latch on to, no larger reason to care that 's not purely technical ''. Chris Nashawaty of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a "C '' grade, calling it "a mishmash of clichés and nonsense '' and writing that "none of this will seem new to horror fans ''.
In April 2018, Warner Bros. announced July 3, 2019, as the release date for an as - yet untitled new film in The Conjuring franchise. Later that month it was announced that the film will be a third Annabelle film, with Gary Dauberman signed on to write and direct, in his directorial debut. James Wan and Peter Safran will co-produce the project.
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the emergence of a zoo by gerald durrell | Gerald Durrell - wikipedia
Gerald Malcolm Durrell, OBE (7 January 1925 -- 30 January 1995) was a British naturalist, zookeeper, conservationist, author and television presenter. He founded what is now called the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust and the Jersey Zoo on the Channel Island of Jersey in 1959. He wrote a number of books based on his life as an animal collector and enthusiast. The most famous is "My Family and Other Animals ''. He was the youngest brother of novelist Lawrence Durrell.
Durrell was born in Jamshedpur, India on 7 January 1925. He was the fifth and final child (an elder sister died in infancy) of Louisa Florence Dixie and Lawrence Samuel Durrell, both of whom were born in India of English and Irish descent. Durrell 's father was a British engineer and, as was commonplace and befitting the family status, the infant Durrell spent most of his time in the company of an ayah (nursemaid). Durrell reportedly recalled his first visit to a zoo in India and attributed his lifelong love of animals to that encounter.
The family moved to Britain shortly before the death of his father in 1928 and settled in the Upper Norwood, Crystal Palace area of South London. Durrell was enrolled in Wickwood School, but frequently stayed at home feigning illness. He studied in St Josephs School North Point Darjeeling.
Louisa Florence Durrell moved with her three younger children (Leslie, Margaret and Gerald) to the Greek island of Corfu in 1935, joining her eldest son, Lawrence, who was living there with his wife. It was on Corfu that Durrell began to collect and keep the local fauna as pets.
The family lived on Corfu until 1939. This interval was later the basis of the book My Family and Other Animals and its successors, Birds, Beasts, and Relatives and The Garden of the Gods, plus a few short stories such as "My Donkey Sally ''. Durrell was home - schooled during this time by various family friends and private tutors, mostly friends of his eldest brother Lawrence (later to become a successful novelist).
Theodore Stephanides, a Greek doctor, scientist, poet, philosopher and a friend of one of Durrell 's tutors, became Durrell 's greatest friend and mentor, his ideas leaving a lasting impression on the young naturalist. Together, they examined Corfu 's fauna, which Durrell housed in a variety of items including test tubes and bathtubs. Stephanides ' daughter, Alexia Mercouri (born 1927), accompanied the two on their field trips. She is currently (April 2017) the only living witness of that period and has claimed that both families hoped she and Durrell would marry one day, but that any such prospect was disrupted by the outbreak of war in 1939. Another major influence during these formative years, according to Durrell, was the writing of French naturalist Jean Henri Fabre.
Durrell, his mother, his brother Leslie and their Greek maid Maria Kondos moved back to Britain in 1939 at the outbreak of the Second World War. It was difficult to find a job in the war and post-war years, especially for a home - schooled youth, but the enterprising Durrell worked as a helper at an aquarium and pet store. Some of the difficulties that he faced in this period can be found in Fillets of Plaice.
His call - up for the war came in 1943, but he was exempted from military duty on medical grounds, and asked to serve the war effort by working on a farm. After the war, Durrell joined Whipsnade Zoo as a junior or student keeper. This move fulfilled a lifelong dream: Durrell claims in The Stationary Ark that the first word that he could enunciate with any clarity was "zoo ''. Beasts in My Belfry recalls events of this period.
Durrell left Whipsnade Zoo in May 1946 in order to join wildlife collecting expeditions of the time, but was denied a place in the voyages due to his lack of experience. Durrell 's wildlife expeditions began with a 1947 trip to the British Cameroons (now part of Cameroon) with ornithologist John Yealland, financed by a £ 3,000 inheritance from his father on the occasion of his turning 21. The animals he brought back were sold to London Zoo, Chester Zoo, Paignton Zoo, Bristol Zoo and Belle Vue Zoo (Manchester). He continued such excursions for many decades, during which time he became famous for his work for wildlife conservation.
He followed this successful expedition with two others, accompanied by fellow Whipsnade zookeeper Ken Smith: a repeat trip to the British Cameroon, and to British Guiana (now Guyana) in 1949 and 1950 respectively. On the first of these trips, he met and befriended the shrewd and colourful Fon of Bafut Achirimbi II, an autocratic West African chieftain, who would help him organise future missions.
Because of his dedication, Durrell housed and fed his captives with the best supplies obtainable, never over-collecting specimens, never trapping animals having merely "show value '', or those which would fetch high prices from collectors. These practices differed from those of other animal - collecting expeditions of the time and, as a result, Durrell was broke by the end of his third expedition. Further, due to a falling - out with George Cansdale, superintendent of the London Zoo, Durrell was blackballed by the British zoo community and could not secure a job in most zoos, ultimately securing a job at the aquarium at Belle Vue Zoo in Manchester where he remained for some time.
On 26 February 1951, after an extended courtship, Durrell married Manchester resident Jacqueline (' Jacquie ') Sonia Wolfenden -- they eloped, because of opposition from her father. The couple initially lived in a small bedsitter in Durrell 's sister Margaret 's Bournemouth boarding house. Jacquie accompanied Durrell on most of his following animal expeditions and helped found and manage the Jersey Zoo. She also authored two humorous, best - selling memoirs on the lines of Durrell 's books, to raise money for conservation efforts.
With encouragement and assistance from Jacquie, and advice from elder brother Lawrence, Gerald Durrell started writing humorous autobiographical accounts to raise money, initially because he and Jacquie were broke after their wedding and Durrell did n't have a source of income and then later to fund his expeditions and conservation efforts. His first book -- The Overloaded Ark -- was a huge success, causing Durrell to follow up with other such accounts. While Durrell only made £ 50 from British rights (Faber and Faber), he obtained £ 500 from the United States rights (Viking Press) for the book, and thus managed to raise money for a fourth expedition to South America in 1954. This, however, was undertaken during a political coup d'etat in Paraguay and was unsuccessful.
The publication of My Family and Other Animals in 1956 made Durrell a notable author and brought him public recognition as a naturalist. Royalties from this book, which made best - seller lists in the United Kingdom, helped to fund Durrell 's next expedition.
Durrell 's growing disillusionment with the way zoos of the time were run, and his belief that they should primarily act as reserves and regenerators of endangered species, made him contemplate founding his own zoo. His 1957 trip to Cameroon for the third and last time was primarily to collect animals which would form the core collection of his own zoo.
This expedition was also filmed, it being Durrell 's first experiment with making a cinematographic record of his work with animals. The success of the film To Bafut with Beagles, together with his autobiographical radio programme Encounters with Animals, made Durrell a regular with the BBC Natural History unit for decades to come, as well as generating funds for his conservation projects.
On his return from Bafut, Durrell and wife Jacquie stayed with his sister Margaret at her boarding house in the seaside resort of Bournemouth. His animals were housed in her gardens and garage on a temporary basis, while Durrell sought prospective sites for a zoo. To his dismay, both Bournemouth and Poole municipalities turned down his suggestion for a zoo. This experience provided material for his book A Zoo in My Luggage.
Durrell founded the Jersey Zoological Park in 1959 to house his growing collection of animals. The site for the zoo, a 17th - century manor house, Les Augres Manor, came to Durrell 's notice by chance after a long and unsuccessful search for a suitable site. Durrell leased the manor and set up his zoo on the redesigned manor grounds. In the same year, Durrell undertook another, more successful expedition to South America to collect endangered species. The zoo was opened to the public in 1959 on 26 March.
As the zoo grew in size, so did the number of projects undertaken to save threatened wildlife in other parts of the world. Durrell was instrumental in founding the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust (now Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust), on 6 July 1963 to cope with the increasingly difficult challenges of zoo, wildlife and habitat management.
The Trust opened an international wing, the Wildlife Preservation Trust International, in the United States in 1971, to aid international conservation efforts in a better fashion. That year, the Trust bought out Les Augres Manor from its owner, Major Hugh Fraser, giving the zoo a permanent home.
Durrell 's initiative caused the Fauna and Flora Preservation Society to start the World Conference on Breeding Endangered Species in Captivity as an Aid to their Survival in 1972 at Jersey, today one of the most prestigious conferences in the field. 1972 also saw Princess Anne becoming a patron of the Trust, an action which brought the Trust into media limelight, and helped raise funds.
The 1970s saw Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust become a leading zoo in the field of captive breeding, championing the cause among species like the lowland gorilla, and various Mauritian fauna. Durrell visited Mauritius several times and coordinated large scale conservation efforts in Mauritius with conservationist Carl Jones, involving captive breeding programmes for native birds and reptiles, ecological recovery of Round Island, training local staff, and setting up local conservation facilities. This ultimately led to the founding of the Mauritian Wildlife Foundation in 1984.
Jacquie Durrell separated from and then divorced Gerald Durrell in 1979, citing his increasing work pressure, associated alcoholism and mounting stress as causes.
Durrell met his second wife Lee McGeorge Durrell in 1977 when he lectured at Duke University, where she was studying for a PhD in animal communication. They married in 1979. She co-authored a number of books with him, including The Amateur Naturalist, and became the Honorary Director of the Trust after his death.
In 1978 Durrell started the training centre for conservationists at the zoo, or the "mini-university '' in his words. As of 2005, over a thousand biologists, naturalists, zoo veterinarians and zoo architects from 104 countries have attended the International Training Centre. Durrell was also instrumental in forming the Captive Breeding Specialist Group of the World Conservation Union in 1982.
Durrell founded Wildlife Preservation Trust Canada, now Wildlife Preservation Canada, in 1985. The official appeal Saving Animals from Extinction was launched in 1991, at a time when British zoos were not faring well and London Zoo was in danger of closing down.
In 1989, Durrell and his wife Lee, along with David Attenborough and cricketer David Gower helped launch the World Land Trust (then the World Wide Land Conservation Trust). The initial goal of the trust was to purchase rainforest land in Belize as part of the Programme for Belize. Around this time Gerald Durrell developed a friendship with Charles Rycroft, who became an important donor of funds both for building works in Jersey (the Harcroft Lecture Theatre) and for conservation work in East Africa, Madagascar and elsewhere.
1990 saw the Trust establish a conservation programme in Madagascar along the lines of the Mauritius programme. Durrell visited Madagascar in 1990 to start captive breeding of a number of endemic species like the aye aye.
Durrell chose the dodo, the flightless bird of Mauritius that was hunted to extinction in the 17th century, as the logo for both the Jersey Zoo and the Trust. The children 's chapter of the trust is called the Dodo Club. Following his death, the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust was renamed Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust at the 40th anniversary of the zoo on 26 March 1999. The Wildlife Preservation Trust International also changed its name to Wildlife Trust in 2000, and adopted the logo of the black tamarin.
To me, the (destruction) of an animal species is a criminal offence, in the same way as the destruction of anything we can not recreate or replace, such as a Rembrandt, or the Acropolis (in Athens). (A Zoo in my Luggage)
A hard, outdoor life led Durrell to health problems in the 1980s. He underwent hip - replacement surgery in a bid to counter arthritis, but he also suffered from alcohol - related liver problems. His health deteriorated rapidly after the 1990 Madagascar trip. Durrell had a liver transplant in King 's College Hospital on 28 March 1994, and he died of septicaemia on 30 January 1995, shortly after his 70th birthday in Jersey General Hospital. His ashes are buried in Jersey Zoo, under a memorial plaque bearing a quote by William Beebe.
The beauty and genius of a work of art may be re-conceived, though its first material expression be destroyed; a vanished harmony may yet again inspire the composer; but when the last individual of a race of living beings breathes no more, another heaven and another earth must pass before such a one can be again. (The Bird, 1906)
A memorial celebrating Durrell 's life and work was held at the Natural History Museum in London on 28 June 1995. Participants included personal friends such as David Attenborough and Princess Anne.
Gerald Durrell was ahead of his time when he postulated the role that a 20th - century zoo should play, primarily in Stationary Ark. His idea relies on the following bases:
Durrell 's ideas about housing zoo animals also bring his priorities to the fore. The bases on which enclosures at Jersey are built:
Durrell Wildlife Park was the first zoo to house only endangered breeding species, and has been one of the pioneers in the field of captive breeding. The International Training Centre, and the organisation of the conference on captive breeding are also notable firsts.
Durrell initially faced stiff opposition and criticism from some members of the zoo community when he introduced the idea of captive breeding, and was only vindicated after successfully breeding a wide range of species. One of the most active opposition members was George Cansdale, superintendent of the London Zoo and Zoological Society of London, and wielder of considerable influence in the zoo community.
Durrell 's books, both fiction and non-fiction, have a wry, loose style that pokes fun at himself as well as those around him. Perhaps his best - known work is My Family and Other Animals (1956), which tells of his idyllic, if oddball, childhood on Corfu. Later made into a TV series, it is delightfully deprecating about the whole family, especially elder brother Lawrence, who became a famous novelist. Despite Durrell 's jokes at the expense of "brother Larry '', the two were close friends all their lives.
Gerald Durrell always insisted that he wrote for royalties to help the cause of environmental stewardship, not out of an inherent love for writing. Gerald Durrell describes himself as a writer in comparison to his brother Lawrence:
The subtle difference between us is that he loves writing and I do n't. To me it 's simply a way to make money which enables me to do my animal work, nothing more.
However, he shows a surprising diversity and dexterity in a wide variety of writing, including:
Durrell was also a regular contributor to magazines on both sides of the Atlantic, like Harper 's, Atlantic Monthly, and the Sunday Times Supplement. He was also a regular book reviewer for the New York Times. A number of excerpts and stories from his books were used by Octopus Books and Reader 's Digest Publishing, including in the Reader 's Digest Condensed Books.
Durrell 's works have been translated into 31 languages and made into TV serials and feature films. He has large followings in Northern and Eastern Europe, Russia, Israel and in various Commonwealth countries, including India.
The British Library houses a collection of Durrell 's books, presented by him to Alan G. Thomas, as part of the Lawrence Durrell Collection.
Durrell was a talented artist and caricaturist, but worked with numerous illustrators over the years, starting with Sabine Baur for The Overloaded Ark (published by Faber and Faber). Two of his most productive collaborations were with Ralph Thompson (Bafut Beagles, Three Singles To Adventure, The New Noah, The Drunken Forest, Encounters with Animals, A Zoo in My Luggage, The Whispering Land, Menagerie Manor) (published by Rupert Hart - Davis) and Edward Mortelmans (Catch Me A Colobus, Beasts in My Belfry, Golden Bats and Pink Pigeons) (published by Collins). The illustrations are mostly sketches of animal subjects. Ralph Thompson visited the Jersey Zoological Park during the sketching period for Menagerie Manor.
Other illustrators who worked with Durrell were Barry L. Driscoll, who illustrated Two in the Bush; Pat Marriott, who illustrated Look at Zoos; and Anne Mieke van Ogtrop, who illustrated The Talking Parcel and Donkey Rustlers.
Durrell wrote a number of lavishly illustrated children 's books in his later years. Graham Percy was the illustrator for The Fantastic Flying Journey and The Fantastic Dinosaur Adventure. Toby the Tortoise and Keeper were illustrated by Keith West. His Puppy board books were illustrated by Cliff Wright.
In case of simultaneous releases in many countries, the UK edition is referred to, except for companion books to TV series where both the UK and US editions are referred to.
Durrell quoted numerous bawdy limericks in his Corfu Trilogy which have not been documented elsewhere, and it is probable that some of these owe their origins to Lawrence Durrell, Edward Lear and Theodore Stephanides. Gerald Durrell is himself the subject of a few limericks written later.
A time capsule buried at Jersey Zoo in 1988 contains the following popular quote by Durrell, often used in conservation awareness campaigns:
We hope that there will be fireflies and glow - worms at night to guide you and butterflies in hedges and forests to greet you. We hope that your dawns will have an orchestra of bird song and that the sound of their wings and the opalescence of their colouring will dazzle you. We hope that there will still be the extraordinary varieties of creatures sharing the land of the planet with you to enchant you and enrich your lives as they have done for us. We hope that you will be grateful for having been born into such a magical world.
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what happened to crab in the last harry potter | Jamie Waylett - Wikipedia
Jamie Michael Waylett (born 21 July 1989) is a British former actor. His only role is that of Vincent Crabbe in six of the eight Harry Potter films. In 2012, he was imprisoned for his participation in the 2011 England riots.
Waylett was born in Kilburn, London, the youngest of four children. He lives in Camden, London. At the age of nine, he was hit by a car; he was expected to die or suffer severe brain damage, but surprised doctors by apparently recovering full mental faculties.
While Waylett was a student at Emmanuel Primary School, his photograph was taken as part of a general auditioning process for the Harry Potter films. Initially considered for the part of Dudley Dursley, he was cast as Vincent Crabbe after an audition in front of director Chris Columbus. In August 2009, fellow Harry Potter star Joshua Herdman announced that Waylett would not return for Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows: Part 1, or for the final film in the series, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows: Part 2. The role of Waylett 's character in the plot was taken over by Herdman 's character.
On 7 April 2009, Waylett and a friend were pulled over by police. The officers then searched their vehicle, finding a knife and eight bags of cannabis. Other images on the camera led police to Waylett 's mother 's house, where additional cannabis plants were discovered being grown. Waylett was charged a month later for possession of the drug. He appeared in court on 16 July and pleaded guilty to growing the plants in his mother 's home, but claimed that they were for his personal use and not for distribution. On 21 July, he was sentenced to 120 hours of community service. He had previously been accused of using cocaine in October 2006.
On 14 October 2011, Waylett was arrested for his participation in the 2011 England riots. The Metropolitan Police charged him with "violent disorder, having an article with intent to destroy or damage property, and receiving stolen goods ''. He was specifically accused of possessing a Molotov cocktail while looting a chemist in Chalk Farm, London. He was also charged with growing cannabis after police found fifteen plants during a search of his home. On 20 March 2012, he was sentenced to two years in prison for taking part in the riots.
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where did the mullet haircut get its name | Mullet (haircut) - wikipedia
The mullet is a men 's hairstyle that is short at the front and sides, and long in the back.
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, use of the term mullet to describe this hairstyle was "apparently coined, and certainly popularized, by U.S. hip - hop group the Beastie Boys '', who used "mullet '' and "mullet head '' as epithets in their 1994 song "Mullet Head ''. The term "mullet head '' had previously always or nearly always been used to refer to a person of dubious intelligence, e.g. as in the movie Cool Hand Luke, where defeated villains had been referred to as "mullet heads ''.
In the sixth century, Byzantine scholar Procopius wrote that some factions of young males wore their hair long at the back and cut it short over the forehead. This non-Roman style was termed the ' Hunnic ' look.
Mullets were worn by rock stars Rod Stewart, David Bowie, Andy Mackay of Roxy Music, and Paul McCartney as far back as the early 1970s.
The 1980s saw the zenith of the mullet 's popularity in 1980s continental Europe.
In the United States of the 1980s, the mullet became popular within lesbian culture, where it came to be used as a way of identifying oneself as a member of that culture in public.
In the Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States, area, the mullet was glamorized by several members (including Jaromír Jágr) of the Pittsburgh Penguins (winners of the NHL 's Stanley Cup in 1991 and 1992). The mullet remains popular to this day, even mocked to much acclaim by WDVE radio hosts in particular.
After the much - publicized 1992 DC Comics storyline in which Superman apparently died, the character returned in the 1993 follow - up storyline "Reign of the Supermen '', in which he was depicted with a mullet. He remained with that hairstyle until 1997, and this look was depicted in an action figure released by Mattel in 2009. The cancelled Superman film, Superman Lives, depicted Superman with a mullet.
Punk rock band the Vandals sang of the mullets worn by country music singers and guests of The Jerry Springer Show and listed regional names for the style in the 1998 song "I 've Got an Ape Drape ''.
Country music singers Billy Ray Cyrus, Travis Tritt, Alan Jackson, and Joe Diffie were also known for their mullets.
Vocalist Wesley Willis wrote and released the track "Cut the Mullet '' in 1998 and frequently performed it at live shows.
The mullet and its associated lifestyle have been central themes in movies such as Joe Dirt "business in the front, party in the back '' (2001) and the television show The Mullets (2003 -- 2004). Christian ska band Five Iron Frenzy sang about the mullet in "The Phantom Mullet '', a song off of their 2000 album All the Hype That Money Can Buy, referencing Billy Ray Cyrus and REO Speedwagon in the lyrics. The 2001 film American Mullet documents the phenomenon of the mullet hairstyle and the people who wear it.
Indie rock duo Tegan and Sara sported mullets during their The Con album era. Tom O'Neill, famed hair stylist and underwriting thief, was also known to sport the mullet hairstyle in the early 2010s.
Between 2009 and 2012, the mullet was in fashion among individuals of Lebanese descent in Australia. The style had already been popular with the bogan subculture. The fashion trend quickly waned by late 2009. This was the type of a mullet that had a crew cut at the front, top, and sides and long hair at the back.
The mullet has lowered in popularity over recent years but was recently brought back into the spotlight in 2015 by K - pop idol G - Dragon during his band BIGBANG 's Made World Tour.. Byun Baekhyun of EXO also sported one in promotion for the group 's 2017 song Ko Ko Bop. Other K - pop artists who have worn mullets include Block B 's Zico, Song Min - ho, Nam Joo - hyuk, DEAN, Stray Kids ' Chan and Han, VIXX 's N, B.A.P. 's Himchan,, Seventeen 's The8, GOT7 's JB and SF9 's Youngbin.
The mullet has also experienced a revival within American sports. After winning back - to - back Stanley Cups, Phil Kessel was spotted in Pittsburgh Penguins training camp in September 2017 bringing the mullet back to its native roots of Pittsburgh Hockey. Similarly, Oklahoma State head football coach Mike Gundy wore a mullet starting in early 2017; the popularity of his mullet supposedly earned Oklahoma State millions of dollars in marketing revenue. In addition, from 2010 to 2015, Patrick Kane of the Chicago Blackhawks popularized the "playoff mullet, '' an alternative to the traditional NHL playoff beard.
The Combination (2009) showcased the mullet hairstyle, which was popular among the Lebanese youth in Australia, in the mid-late 2000s.
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is london the largest city in the uk | London - wikipedia
London (/ ˈlʌndən / (listen) LUN - dən) is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain, London has been a major settlement for two millennia. It was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. London 's ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1.12 - square - mile (2.9 km) medieval boundaries. Since at least the 19th century, "London '' has also referred to the metropolis around this core, historically split between Middlesex, Essex, Surrey, Kent and Hertfordshire, which today largely makes up Greater London, a region governed by the Mayor of London and the London Assembly.
London is one of the leading global cities in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism and transportation. It is the world 's largest financial centre and has the fifth or sixth largest metropolitan area GDP in the world. London is often regarded as a world cultural capital. It is the world 's most - visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the world 's largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic. It is the world 's leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high - net - worth individuals than any other city. London 's universities form the largest concentration of higher education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times.
London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2016 municipal population (corresponding to Greater London) was 8,787,892, the largest of any city in the European Union and accounting for 13.4 % of the UK population. London 's urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The city 's metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 14,040,163 inhabitants in 2016, while the Greater London Authority states the population of the city - region (covering a large part of the south east) as 22.7 million. London was the world 's most populous city from around 1831 to 1925.
London contains four World Heritage Sites: the Tower of London; Kew Gardens; the site comprising the Palace of Westminster, Westminster Abbey, and St Margaret 's Church; and the historic settlement of Greenwich (in which the Royal Observatory, Greenwich defines the Prime Meridian, 0 ° longitude, and GMT). Other landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Paul 's Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square and The Shard. London is home to numerous museums, galleries, libraries, sporting events and other cultural institutions, including the British Museum, National Gallery, Natural History Museum, Tate Modern, British Library and West End theatres. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world.
The etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, attested already in the first century AD, usually in the Latinised form Londinium; for example, handwritten Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65 / 70 - 80 include the word Londinio ("in London '').
Over the years, the name has attracted many mythicising explanations. The earliest attested appears in Geoffrey of Monmouth 's Historia Regum Britanniae, written around 1136. This had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud.
Modern scientific analyses of the name must account for the origins of the different forms found in early sources Latin (usually Londinium), Old English (usually Lunden), and Welsh (usually Llundein), with reference to the known developments over time of sounds in those different languages. It is agreed that the name came into these languages from Common Brythonic; recent work tends to reconstruct the lost Celtic form of the name as * (Londonjon) or something similar. This was adapted into Latin as Londinium and borrowed into West Germanic, the ancestor - language of English, before English had become widely spoken in what later became England.
The etymology and original meaning of the Common Brythonic form is much debated. A prominent explanation was Richard Coates 's 1998 argument that the name derived from pre-Celtic Old European * (p) lowonida, meaning "river too wide to ford ''. Coates suggested that this was a name given to the part of the River Thames which flows through London; from this, the settlement gained the Celtic form of its name, * Lowonidonjon. However, most work has accepted a Celtic origin for the name, and recent studies have favoured an explanation along the lines of a Celtic derivative of an proto - Indo - European root * lend - (' sink, cause to sink '), combined with the Celtic suffix * - injo - or * - onjo - (used to form place - names). Peter Schrijver has specifically suggested, on these grounds, that the name originally meant ' place that floods (periodically, tidally) '.
Until 1889, the name "London '' officially applied only to the City of London, but since then it has also referred to the County of London and now to Greater London.
"London '' is sometimes abbreviated as "L'don '' or "LDN ''.
Two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area. In 1993, the remains of a Bronze Age bridge were found on the south foreshore, upstream of Vauxhall Bridge. This bridge either crossed the Thames or reached a now lost island in it. Two of those timbers were radiocarbon dated to between 1750 BC and 1285 BC. In 2010 the foundations of a large timber structure, dated to between 4800 BC and 4500 BC, were found on the Thames 's south foreshore, downstream of Vauxhall Bridge. The function of the mesolithic structure is not known. Both structures are on the south bank, at a natural crossing point where the River Effra flows into the Thames.
Although there is evidence of scattered Brythonic settlements in the area, the first major settlement was founded by the Romans about four years after the invasion of AD 43. This lasted only until around AD 61, when the Iceni tribe led by Queen Boudica stormed it, burning it to the ground. The next, heavily planned, incarnation of Londinium prospered, and it superseded Colchester as the capital of the Roman province of Britannia in 100. At its height in the 2nd century, Roman London had a population of around 60,000.
With the collapse of Roman rule in the early 5th century, London ceased to be a capital, and the walled city of Londinium was effectively abandoned, although Roman civilisation continued in the area of St Martin - in - the - Fields until around 450. From around 500, an Anglo - Saxon settlement known as Lundenwic developed slightly west of the old Roman city. By about 680, the city had regrown into a major port, although there is little evidence of large - scale production. From the 820s repeated Viking assaults brought decline. Three are recorded; those in 851 and 886 succeeded, while the last, in 994, was rebuffed.
The Vikings established Danelaw over much of eastern and northern England; its boundary stretched roughly from London to Chester. It was an area of political and geographical control imposed by the Viking incursions which was formally agreed by the Danish warlord, Guthrum and the West Saxon king Alfred the Great in 886. The Anglo - Saxon Chronicle recorded that Alfred "refounded '' London in 886. Archaeological research shows that this involved abandonment of Lundenwic and a revival of life and trade within the old Roman walls. London then grew slowly until about 950, after which activity increased dramatically.
By the 11th century, London was beyond all comparison the largest town in England. Westminster Abbey, rebuilt in the Romanesque style by King Edward the Confessor, was one of the grandest churches in Europe. Winchester had previously been the capital of Anglo - Saxon England, but from this time on, London became the main forum for foreign traders and the base for defence in time of war. In the view of Frank Stenton: "It had the resources, and it was rapidly developing the dignity and the political self - consciousness appropriate to a national capital. ''
After winning the Battle of Hastings, William, Duke of Normandy was crowned King of England in the newly completed Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day 1066. William constructed the Tower of London, the first of the many Norman castles in England to be rebuilt in stone, in the southeastern corner of the city, to intimidate the native inhabitants. In 1097, William II began the building of Westminster Hall, close by the abbey of the same name. The hall became the basis of a new Palace of Westminster.
In the 12th century, the institutions of central government, which had hitherto accompanied the royal English court as it moved around the country, grew in size and sophistication and became increasingly fixed in one place. For most purposes this was Westminster, although the royal treasury, having been moved from Winchester, came to rest in the Tower. While the City of Westminster developed into a true capital in governmental terms, its distinct neighbour, the City of London, remained England 's largest city and principal commercial centre, and it flourished under its own unique administration, the Corporation of London. In 1100, its population was around 18,000; by 1300 it had grown to nearly 100,000. Disaster struck in the form of the Black Death in the mid-14th century, when London lost nearly a third of its population. London was the focus of the Peasants ' Revolt in 1381.
London was also a centre of England 's Jewish population before their expulsion by Edward I in 1290. Violence against Jews took place in 1190, after it was rumoured that the new King had ordered their massacre after they had presented themselves at his coronation. In 1264 during the Second Barons ' War, Simon de Montfort 's rebels killed 500 Jews while attempting to seize records of debts.
During the Tudor period the Reformation produced a gradual shift to Protestantism, and much of London property passed from church to private ownership, which accelerated trade and business in the city. In 1475, the Hanseatic League set up its main trading base (kontor) of England in London, called the Stalhof or Steelyard. It existed until 1853, when the Hanseatic cities of Lübeck, Bremen and Hamburg sold the property to South Eastern Railway. Woollen cloth was shipped undyed and undressed from 14th / 15th century London to the nearby shores of the Low Countries, where it was considered indispensable.
But the reach of English maritime enterprise hardly extended beyond the seas of north - west Europe. The commercial route to Italy and the Mediterranean Sea normally lay through Antwerp and over the Alps; any ships passing through the Strait of Gibraltar to or from England were likely to be Italian or Ragusan. Upon the re-opening of the Netherlands to English shipping in January 1565, there ensued a strong outburst of commercial activity. The Royal Exchange was founded. Mercantilism grew, and monopoly trading companies such as the East India Company were established, with trade expanding to the New World. London became the principal North Sea port, with migrants arriving from England and abroad. The population rose from an estimated 50,000 in 1530 to about 225,000 in 1605.
In the 16th century William Shakespeare and his contemporaries lived in London at a time of hostility to the development of the theatre. By the end of the Tudor period in 1603, London was still very compact. There was an assassination attempt on James I in Westminster, in the Gunpowder Plot on 5 November 1605.
In the English Civil War the majority of Londoners supported the Parliamentary cause. After an initial advance by the Royalists in 1642, culminating in the battles of Brentford and Turnham Green, London was surrounded by a defensive perimeter wall known as the Lines of Communication. The lines were built by up to 20,000 people, and were completed in under two months. The fortifications failed their only test when the New Model Army entered London in 1647, and they were levelled by Parliament the same year.
London was plagued by disease in the early 17th century, culminating in the Great Plague of 1665 -- 1666, which killed up to 100,000 people, or a fifth of the population.
The Great Fire of London broke out in 1666 in Pudding Lane in the city and quickly swept through the wooden buildings. Rebuilding took over ten years and was supervised by Robert Hooke as Surveyor of London. In 1708 Christopher Wren 's masterpiece, St Paul 's Cathedral was completed. During the Georgian era, new districts such as Mayfair were formed in the west; new bridges over the Thames encouraged development in South London. In the east, the Port of London expanded downstream. London 's development as an international financial centre matured for much of the 1700s.
In 1762, George III acquired Buckingham House and it was enlarged over the next 75 years. During the 18th century, London was dogged by crime, and the Bow Street Runners were established in 1750 as a professional police force. In total, more than 200 offences were punishable by death, including petty theft. Most children born in the city died before reaching their third birthday.
The coffeehouse became a popular place to debate ideas, with growing literacy and the development of the printing press making news widely available; and Fleet Street became the centre of the British press. Following the invasion of Amsterdam by Napoleonic armies, many financiers relocated to London, especially a large Jewish community, and the first London international issue was arranged in 1817. Around the same time, the Royal Navy became the world leading war fleet, acting as a serious deterrent to potential economic adversaries of the United Kingdom. The repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846 was specifically aimed at weakening Dutch economic power. London then overtook Amsterdam as the leading international financial centre. In 1888, London became home to a series of murders by a man known only as Jack the Ripper and It has since become one of the world 's most famous unsolved mysteries.
According to Samuel Johnson:
You find no man, at all intellectual, who is willing to leave London. No, Sir, when a man is tired of London, he is tired of life; for there is in London all that life can afford.
London was the world 's largest city from about 1831 to 1925. London 's overcrowded conditions led to cholera epidemics, claiming 14,000 lives in 1848, and 6,000 in 1866. Rising traffic congestion led to the creation of the world 's first local urban rail network. The Metropolitan Board of Works oversaw infrastructure expansion in the capital and some of the surrounding counties; it was abolished in 1889 when the London County Council was created out of those areas of the counties surrounding the capital. London was bombed by the Germans during the First World War, and during the Second World War, the Blitz and other bombings by the German Luftwaffe killed over 30,000 Londoners, destroying large tracts of housing and other buildings across the city. Immediately after the war, the 1948 Summer Olympics were held at the original Wembley Stadium, at a time when London was still recovering from the war.
From the 1940s onwards, London became home to a large number of immigrants, primarily from Commonwealth countries such as Jamaica, India, Bangladesh and Pakistan, making London one of the most diverse cities worldwide. In 1951, the Festival of Britain was held on the South Bank. The Great Smog of 1952 led to the Clean Air Act 1956, which ended the "pea soup fogs '' for which London had been notorious.
Primarily starting in the mid-1960s, London became a centre for the worldwide youth culture, exemplified by the Swinging London subculture associated with the King 's Road, Chelsea and Carnaby Street. The role of trendsetter was revived during the punk era. In 1965 London 's political boundaries were expanded to take into account the growth of the urban area and a new Greater London Council was created. During The Troubles in Northern Ireland, London was subjected to bombing attacks by the Provisional IRA for two decades, starting with the Old Bailey bombing in 1973. Racial inequality was highlighted by the 1981 Brixton riot.
Greater London 's population declined steadily in the decades after the Second World War, from an estimated peak of 8.6 million in 1939 to around 6.8 million in the 1980s. The principal ports for London moved downstream to Felixstowe and Tilbury, with the London Docklands area becoming a focus for regeneration, including the Canary Wharf development. This was borne out of London 's ever - increasing role as a major international financial centre during the 1980s. The Thames Barrier was completed in the 1980s to protect London against tidal surges from the North Sea.
The Greater London Council was abolished in 1986, which left London without a central administration until 2000 when London - wide government was restored, with the creation of the Greater London Authority. To celebrate the start of the 21st century, the Millennium Dome, London Eye and Millennium Bridge were constructed. On 6 July 2005 London was awarded the 2012 Summer Olympics, making London the first city to stage the Olympic Games three times. On 7 July 2005, three London Underground trains and a double - decker bus were bombed in a series of terrorist attacks.
In 2008, London named alongside New York City and Hong Kong as Nylonkong, being hailed as the world 's three most influential global cities. In January 2015, Greater London 's population was estimated to be 8.63 million, the highest level since 1939. During the Brexit referendum in 2016, the UK as a whole decided to leave the European Union, but a majority of London constituencies voted to remain in the EU.
The administration of London is formed of two tiers: a citywide, strategic tier and a local tier. Citywide administration is coordinated by the Greater London Authority (GLA), while local administration is carried out by 33 smaller authorities. The GLA consists of two elected components: the Mayor of London, who has executive powers, and the London Assembly, which scrutinises the mayor 's decisions and can accept or reject the mayor 's budget proposals each year. The headquarters of the GLA is City Hall, Southwark; the mayor is Sadiq Khan, the first Muslim mayor of a major Western capital. The mayor 's statutory planning strategy is published as the London Plan, which was most recently revised in 2011. The local authorities are the councils of the 32 London boroughs and the City of London Corporation. They are responsible for most local services, such as local planning, schools, social services, local roads and refuse collection. Certain functions, such as waste management, are provided through joint arrangements. In 2009 -- 2010 the combined revenue expenditure by London councils and the GLA amounted to just over £ 22 billion (£ 14.7 billion for the boroughs and £ 7.4 billion for the GLA).
The London Fire Brigade is the statutory fire and rescue service for Greater London. It is run by the London Fire and Emergency Planning Authority and is the third largest fire service in the world. National Health Service ambulance services are provided by the London Ambulance Service (LAS) NHS Trust, the largest free - at - the - point - of - use emergency ambulance service in the world. The London Air Ambulance charity operates in conjunction with the LAS where required. Her Majesty 's Coastguard and the Royal National Lifeboat Institution operate on the River Thames, which is under the jurisdiction of the Port of London Authority from Teddington Lock to the sea.
London is the seat of the Government of the United Kingdom. Many government departments, as well as the Prime Minister 's residence at 10 Downing Street, are based close to the Palace of Westminster, particularly along Whitehall. The British Parliament is often referred to as the "Mother of Parliaments '' (although this sobriquet was first applied to England itself, and not to Westminster, by John Bright) because it has been a model for many other parliamentary systems. There are 73 Members of Parliament (MPs) from London, elected from local parliamentary constituencies in the national Parliament. As of May 2015, 49 are from the Labour Party, 21 are Conservatives, and three are Liberal Democrat.
The UK government ministerial post of Minister for London was created in 1994 and currently occupied by Jo Johnson.
Policing in Greater London, with the exception of the City of London, is provided by the Metropolitan Police Service, overseen by the Mayor through the Mayor 's Office for Policing and Crime (MOPAC). The City of London has its own police force -- the City of London Police. The British Transport Police are responsible for police services on National Rail, London Underground, Docklands Light Railway and Tramlink services. A fourth police force in London, the Ministry of Defence Police, do not generally become involved with policing the general public.
Crime rates vary widely by area, ranging from parts with serious issues to parts considered very safe. Today crime figures are made available nationally at Local Authority and Ward level. In 2015 there were 118 homicides, a 25.5 % increase over 2014. The Metropolitan Police have made detailed crime figures, broken down by category at borough and ward level, available on their website since 2000.
Recorded crime has been rising in London, notably violent crime and murder by stabbing and other means have risen. There have been 50 murders from the start of 2018 to mid April 2018. Funding cuts to police in London are likely to have contributed to this, though other factors are also involved.
London, also referred to as Greater London, is one of nine regions of England and the top - level subdivision covering most of the city 's metropolis. The small ancient City of London at its core once comprised the whole settlement, but as its urban area grew, the Corporation of London resisted attempts to amalgamate the city with its suburbs, causing "London '' to be defined in a number of ways for different purposes.
Forty per cent of Greater London is covered by the London post town, within which ' LONDON ' forms part of postal addresses. The London telephone area code (020) covers a larger area, similar in size to Greater London, although some outer districts are excluded and some places just outside are included. The Greater London boundary has been aligned to the M25 motorway in places.
Outward urban expansion is now prevented by the Metropolitan Green Belt, although the built - up area extends beyond the boundary in places, resulting in a separately defined Greater London Urban Area. Beyond this is the vast London commuter belt. Greater London is split for some purposes into Inner London and Outer London. The city is split by the River Thames into North and South, with an informal central London area in its interior. The coordinates of the nominal centre of London, traditionally considered to be the original Eleanor Cross at Charing Cross near the junction of Trafalgar Square and Whitehall, are about 51 ° 30 ′ 26 '' N 00 ° 07 ′ 39 '' W / 51.50722 ° N 0.12750 ° W / 51.50722; - 0.12750. However the geographical centre of London, on one definition, is in the London Borough of Lambeth, just 0.1 miles to the northeast of Lambeth North tube station.
Within London, both the City of London and the City of Westminster have city status and both the City of London and the remainder of Greater London are counties for the purposes of lieutenancies. The area of Greater London has incorporated areas that are part of the historic counties of Middlesex, Kent, Surrey, Essex and Hertfordshire. London 's status as the capital of England, and later the United Kingdom, has never been granted or confirmed officially -- by statute or in written form.
Its position was formed through constitutional convention, making its status as de facto capital a part of the UK 's uncodified constitution. The capital of England was moved to London from Winchester as the Palace of Westminster developed in the 12th and 13th centuries to become the permanent location of the royal court, and thus the political capital of the nation. More recently, Greater London has been defined as a region of England and in this context is known as London.
Greater London encompasses a total area of 1,583 square kilometres (611 sq mi), an area which had a population of 7,172,036 in 2001 and a population density of 4,542 inhabitants per square kilometre (11,760 / sq mi). The extended area known as the London Metropolitan Region or the London Metropolitan Agglomeration, comprises a total area of 8,382 square kilometres (3,236 sq mi) has a population of 13,709,000 and a population density of 1,510 inhabitants per square kilometre (3,900 / sq mi). Modern London stands on the Thames, its primary geographical feature, a navigable river which crosses the city from the south - west to the east. The Thames Valley is a floodplain surrounded by gently rolling hills including Parliament Hill, Addington Hills, and Primrose Hill. Historically London grew up at the lowest bridging point on the Thames. The Thames was once a much broader, shallower river with extensive marshlands; at high tide, its shores reached five times their present width.
Since the Victorian era the Thames has been extensively embanked, and many of its London tributaries now flow underground. The Thames is a tidal river, and London is vulnerable to flooding. The threat has increased over time because of a slow but continuous rise in high water level by the slow ' tilting ' of the British Isles (up in Scotland and Northern Ireland and down in southern parts of England, Wales and Ireland) caused by post-glacial rebound.
In 1974, a decade of work began on the construction of the Thames Barrier across the Thames at Woolwich to deal with this threat. While the barrier is expected to function as designed until roughly 2070, concepts for its future enlargement or redesign are already being discussed.
London has a temperate oceanic climate (Köppen: Cfb), similar to all of southern England. Despite its reputation as being a rainy city, London receives less precipitation in a year than Rome, Bordeaux, Lisbon, Naples, Sydney and New York City. Temperature extremes for all sites in the London area range from 38.1 ° C (100.6 ° F) at Kew during August 2003 down to − 16.1 ° C (3.0 ° F) at Northolt during January 1962.
Summers are generally warm. London 's average July high is 24 ° C (74 ° F). On average London will see 31 days above 25 ° C (77.0 ° F) each year, and 4.2 days above 30.0 ° C (86.0 ° F) every year. During the 2003 European heat wave there were 14 consecutive days above 30 ° C (86.0 ° F) and 2 consecutive days where temperatures reached 38 ° C (100 ° F), leading to hundreds of heat related deaths.
Winters are generally cool, cloudy and damp with little temperature variation. Snowfall occurs occasionally and can cause travel disruption when this happens. Snowfall is more common in outer London. Spring and autumn are mixed seasons and can be pleasant. As a large city, London has a considerable urban heat island effect, making the centre of London at times 5 ° C (9 ° F) warmer than the suburbs and outskirts. The effect of this can be seen below when comparing London Heathrow, 15 miles (24 km) west of London, with the London Weather Centre, in the city centre.
London 's vast urban area is often described using a set of district names, such as Bloomsbury, Mayfair, Wembley and Whitechapel. These are either informal designations, reflect the names of villages that have been absorbed by sprawl, or are superseded administrative units such as parishes or former boroughs.
Such names have remained in use through tradition, each referring to a local area with its own distinctive character, but without official boundaries. Since 1965 Greater London has been divided into 32 London boroughs in addition to the ancient City of London. The City of London is the main financial district, and Canary Wharf has recently developed into a new financial and commercial hub in the Docklands to the east.
The West End is London 's main entertainment and shopping district, attracting tourists. West London includes expensive residential areas where properties can sell for tens of millions of pounds. The average price for properties in Kensington and Chelsea is over £ 2 million with a similarly high outlay in most of central London.
The East End is the area closest to the original Port of London, known for its high immigrant population, as well as for being one of the poorest areas in London. The surrounding East London area saw much of London 's early industrial development; now, brownfield sites throughout the area are being redeveloped as part of the Thames Gateway including the London Riverside and Lower Lea Valley, which was developed into the Olympic Park for the 2012 Olympics and Paralympics.
London 's buildings are too diverse to be characterised by any particular architectural style, partly because of their varying ages. Many grand houses and public buildings, such as the National Gallery, are constructed from Portland stone. Some areas of the city, particularly those just west of the centre, are characterised by white stucco or whitewashed buildings. Few structures in central London pre-date the Great Fire of 1666, these being a few trace Roman remains, the Tower of London and a few scattered Tudor survivors in the City. Further out is, for example, the Tudor - period Hampton Court Palace, England 's oldest surviving Tudor palace, built by Cardinal Thomas Wolsey c. 1515.
17th - century churches by Wren, neoclassical financial institutions such as the Royal Exchange and the Bank of England, to the early 20th century Old Bailey and the 1960s Barbican Estate form part of the varied architectural heritage.
The disused -- but soon to be rejuvenated -- 1939 Battersea Power Station by the river in the south - west is a local landmark, while some railway termini are excellent examples of Victorian architecture, most notably St. Pancras and Paddington. The density of London varies, with high employment density in the central area, high residential densities in inner London, and lower densities in Outer London.
The Monument in the City of London provides views of the surrounding area while commemorating the Great Fire of London, which originated nearby. Marble Arch and Wellington Arch, at the north and south ends of Park Lane, respectively, have royal connections, as do the Albert Memorial and Royal Albert Hall in Kensington. Nelson 's Column is a nationally recognised monument in Trafalgar Square, one of the focal points of central London. Older buildings are mainly brick built, most commonly the yellow London stock brick or a warm orange - red variety, often decorated with carvings and white plaster mouldings.
In the dense areas, most of the concentration is via medium - and high - rise buildings. London 's skyscrapers, such as 30 St Mary Axe, Tower 42, the Broadgate Tower and One Canada Square, are mostly in the two financial districts, the City of London and Canary Wharf. High - rise development is restricted at certain sites if it would obstruct protected views of St Paul 's Cathedral and other historic buildings. Nevertheless, there are a number of very tall skyscrapers in central London (see Tall buildings in London), including the 95 - storey Shard London Bridge, the tallest building in the European Union.
Other notable modern buildings include City Hall in Southwark with its distinctive oval shape and the British Library in Somers Town / Kings Cross. What was formerly the Millennium Dome, by the Thames to the east of Canary Wharf, is now an entertainment venue called the O2 Arena.
The London Natural History Society suggest that London is "one of the World 's Greenest Cities '' with more than 40 percent green space or open water. They indicate that 2000 species of flowering plant have been found growing there and that the tidal Thames supports 120 species of fish. They also state that over 60 species of bird nest in central London and that their members have recorded 47 species of butterfly, 1173 moths and more than 270 kinds of spider around London. London 's wetland areas support nationally important populations of many water birds. London has 38 Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs), two National Nature Reserves and 76 Local Nature Reserves.
Amphibians are common in the capital, including smooth newts living by the Tate Modern, and common frogs, common toads, palmate newts and great crested newts. On the other hand, native reptiles such as slowworms, common lizards, grass snakes and adders, are mostly only seen in Outer London.
Among other inhabitants of London are 10,000 red foxes, so that there are now 16 foxes for every square mile (2.6 square kilometres) of London. These urban foxes are noticeably bolder than their country cousins, sharing the pavement with pedestrians and raising cubs in people 's backyards. Foxes have even sneaked into the Houses of Parliament, where one was found asleep on a filing cabinet. Another broke into the grounds of Buckingham Palace, reportedly killing some of Queen Elizabeth II 's prized pink flamingos. Generally, however, foxes and city folk appear to get along. A survey in 2001 by the London - based Mammal Society found that 80 percent of 3,779 respondents who volunteered to keep a diary of garden mammal visits liked having them around. This sample can not be taken to represent Londoners as a whole.
Other mammals found in Greater London are hedgehogs, rats, mice, rabbit, shrew, vole, and squirrels, In wilder areas of Outer London, such as Epping Forest, a wide variety of mammals are found including hare, badger, field, bank and water vole, wood mouse, yellow - necked mouse, mole, shrew, and weasel, in addition to fox, squirrel and hedgehog. A dead otter was found at The Highway, in Wapping, about a mile from the Tower Bridge, which would suggest that they have begun to move back after being absent a hundred years from the city. Ten of England 's eighteen species of bats have been recorded in Epping Forest: soprano, nathusius and common pipistrelles, noctule, serotine, barbastelle, daubenton 's, brown Long - eared, natterer 's and leisler 's.
Among the strange sights seen in London have been a whale in the Thames, while the BBC Two programme "Natural World: Unnatural History of London '' shows pigeons using the London Underground to get around the city, a seal that takes fish from fishmongers outside Billingsgate Fish Market, and foxes that will "sit '' if given sausages.
Herds of red and fallow deer also roam freely within much of Richmond and Bushy Park. A cull takes place each November and February to ensure numbers can be sustained. Epping Forest is also known for its fallow deer, which can frequently be seen in herds to the north of the Forest. A rare population of melanistic, black fallow deer is also maintained at the Deer Sanctuary near Theydon Bois. Muntjac deer, which escaped from deer parks at the turn of the twentieth century, are also found in the forest. While Londoners are accustomed to wildlife such as birds and foxes sharing the city, more recently urban deer have started becoming a regular feature, and whole herds of fallow deer come into residential areas at night to take advantage of London 's green spaces.
The 2011 census recorded that 2,998,264 people or 36.7 % of London 's population are foreign - born making London the city with the second largest immigrant population, behind New York City, in terms of absolute numbers. About 69 % of children born in London in 2015 had at least one parent who was born abroad. The table to the right shows the most common countries of birth of London residents. Note that some of the German - born population, in 18th position, are British citizens from birth born to parents serving in the British Armed Forces in Germany.
With increasing industrialisation, London 's population grew rapidly throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, and it was for some time in the late 19th and early 20th centuries the most populous city in the world. Its population peaked at 8,615,245 in 1939 immediately before the outbreak of the Second World War, but had declined to 7,192,091 at the 2001 Census. However, the population then grew by just over a million between the 2001 and 2011 Censuses, to reach 8,173,941 in the latter enumeration.
However, London 's continuous urban area extends beyond the borders of Greater London and was home to 9,787,426 people in 2011, while its wider metropolitan area has a population of between 12 and 14 million depending on the definition used. According to Eurostat, London is the most populous city and metropolitan area of the European Union and the second most populous in Europe. During the period 1991 -- 2001 a net 726,000 immigrants arrived in London.
The region covers an area of 1,579 square kilometres (610 sq mi). The population density is 5,177 inhabitants per square kilometre (13,410 / sq mi), more than ten times that of any other British region. In terms of population, London is the 19th largest city and the 18th largest metropolitan region in the world. As of 2014, London has the largest number of billionaires (British Pound Sterling) in the world, with 72 residing in the city. London ranks as one of the most expensive cities in the world, alongside Tokyo and Moscow.
Ethnic groups in the 2011 census
According to the Office for National Statistics, based on the 2011 Census estimates, 59.8 per cent of the 8,173,941 inhabitants of London were White, with 44.9 per cent White British, 2.2 per cent White Irish, 0.1 per cent gypsy / Irish traveller and 12.1 per cent classified as Other White.
20.9 per cent of Londoners are of Asian and mixed - Asian descent. 19.7 per cent are of full Asian descent, with those of mixed - Asian heritage comprising 1.2 of the population. Indians account for 6.6 per cent of the population, followed by Pakistanis and Bangladeshis at 2.7 per cent each. Chinese peoples account for 1.5 per cent of the population, with Arabs comprising 1.3 per cent. A further 4.9 per cent are classified as "Other Asian ''.
15.6 per cent of London 's population are of Black and mixed - Black descent. 13.3 per cent are of full Black descent, with those of mixed - Black heritage comprising 2.3 per cent. Black Africans account for 7.0 per cent of London 's population, with 4.2 per cent as Black Caribbean and 2.1 per cent as "Other Black ''. 5.0 per cent are of mixed race.
Across London, Black and Asian children outnumber White British children by about six to four in state schools. Altogether at the 2011 census, of London 's 1,624,768 population aged 0 to 15, 46.4 per cent were White, 19.8 per cent were Asian, 19 per cent were Black, 10.8 per cent were Mixed and 4 per cent represented another ethnic group. In January 2005, a survey of London 's ethnic and religious diversity claimed that there were more than 300 languages spoken in London and more than 50 non-indigenous communities with a population of more than 10,000. Figures from the Office for National Statistics show that, in 2010, London 's foreign - born population was 2,650,000 (33 per cent), up from 1,630,000 in 1997.
The 2011 census showed that 36.7 per cent of Greater London 's population were born outside the UK. A portion of the German - born population are likely to be British nationals born to parents serving in the British Armed Forces in Germany. Estimates produced by the Office for National Statistics indicate that the five largest foreign - born groups living in London in the period July 2009 to June 2010 were those born in India, Poland, the Republic of Ireland, Bangladesh and Nigeria.
According to the 2011 Census, the largest religious groupings are Christians (48.4 per cent), followed by those of no religion (20.7 per cent), Muslims (12.4 per cent), no response (8.5 per cent), Hindus (5.0 per cent), Jews (1.8 per cent), Sikhs (1.5 per cent), Buddhists (1.0 per cent) and other (0.6 per cent).
London has traditionally been Christian, and has a large number of churches, particularly in the City of London. The well - known St Paul 's Cathedral in the City and Southwark Cathedral south of the river are Anglican administrative centres, while the Archbishop of Canterbury, principal bishop of the Church of England and worldwide Anglican Communion, has his main residence at Lambeth Palace in the London Borough of Lambeth.
Important national and royal ceremonies are shared between St Paul 's and Westminster Abbey. The Abbey is not to be confused with nearby Westminster Cathedral, which is the largest Roman Catholic cathedral in England and Wales. Despite the prevalence of Anglican churches, observance is very low within the Anglican denomination. Church attendance continues on a long, slow, steady decline, according to Church of England statistics.
London is also home to sizeable Muslim, Hindu, Sikh, and Jewish communities.
Notable mosques include the East London Mosque in Tower Hamlets, which is allowed to give the Islamic call to prayer through loudspeakers, the London Central Mosque on the edge of Regent 's Park and the Baitul Futuh of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community. Following the oil boom, increasing numbers of wealthy Middle - Eastern Arab Muslims have based themselves around Mayfair, Kensington, and Knightsbridge in West London. There are large Muslim communities in the eastern boroughs of Tower Hamlets and Newham.
Large Hindu communities are in the north - western boroughs of Harrow and Brent, the latter of which hosts what was, until 2006, Europe 's largest Hindu temple, Neasden Temple. London is also home to 44 Hindu temples, including the BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir London. There are Sikh communities in East and West London, particularly in Southall, home to one of the largest Sikh populations and the largest Sikh temple outside India.
The majority of British Jews live in London, with significant Jewish communities in Stamford Hill, Stanmore, Golders Green, Finchley, Hampstead, Hendon and Edgware in North London. Bevis Marks Synagogue in the City of London is affiliated to London 's historic Sephardic Jewish community. It is the only synagogue in Europe which has held regular services continuously for over 300 years. Stanmore and Canons Park Synagogue has the largest membership of any single Orthodox synagogue in the whole of Europe, overtaking Ilford synagogue (also in London) in 1998. The community set up the London Jewish Forum in 2006 in response to the growing significance of devolved London Government.
There are many accents traditionally associated with London. The most well known of the London accents long ago acquired the Cockney label from London 's East End, which is heard both in London itself, and across the wider South East England region more generally. The accent of a 21st - century Londoner varies widely; what is becoming more and more common amongst the under - 30s however is some fusion of Cockney with a whole array of ethnic accents, in particular Caribbean, which form an accent labelled Multicultural London English (MLE). The other widely heard and spoken accent is RP (Received Pronunciation) in various forms, which can often be heard in the media and many of other traditional professions and beyond, although this accent is not limited to London and South East England, and can also be heard selectively throughout the whole UK amongst certain social groupings. Since the turn of the century the Cockney dialect is less common in the East End and has ' migrated ' east to Havering and the county of Essex.
London produced in 2015 about £ 378 billion (€ 530 billion or $600 billion), over 22 % of UK GDP, while the economy of the London metropolitan area -- the largest in Europe -- generates about 30 per cent of the UK 's GDP (or an estimated $669 billion in 2005). London has five major business districts: the City, Westminster, Canary Wharf, Camden & Islington and Lambeth & Southwark. One way to get an idea of their relative importance is to look at relative amounts of office space: Greater London had 27 million m of office space in 2001, and the City contains the most space, with 8 million m of office space. London has some of the highest real estate prices in the world. London is the world 's most expensive office market for the last three years according to world property journal (2015) report. As of 2015 the residential property in London is worth $2.2 trillion -- same value as that of Brazil annual GDP. The city has the highest property prices of any European city according to the Office for National Statistics and the European Office of Statistics. On average the price per square metre in central London is € 24,252 (April 2014). This is higher than the property prices in other G8 European capital cities; Berlin € 3,306, Rome € 6,188 and Paris € 11,229.
London finance industry is based in the City of London and Canary Wharf, the two major Central Business Districts in London. London is one of the pre-eminent financial centres of the world as the most important location for international finance. London took over as a major financial centre shortly after 1795 when the Dutch Republic collapsed before the Napoleonic armies. For many bankers established in Amsterdam (e.g. Hope, Baring), this was only time to move to London. The London financial elite was strengthened by a strong Jewish community from all over Europe capable of mastering the most sophisticated financial tools of the time. This unique concentration of talents accelerated the transition from the Commercial Revolution to the Industrial Revolution. By the end of the 19th century, Britain was the wealthiest of all nations, and London a leading financial centre. Still, as of 2016 London tops the world rankings on the Global Financial Centres Index (GFCI), and it ranked second in A.T. Kearney 's 2018 Global Cities Index.
London 's largest industry is finance, and its financial exports make it a large contributor to the UK 's balance of payments. Around 325,000 people were employed in financial services in London until mid-2007. London has over 480 overseas banks, more than any other city in the world. It is also the world 's biggest currency trading centre, accounting for some 37 percent of the $5.1 trillion average daily volume, according to the BIS. Over 85 percent (3.2 million) of the employed population of greater London works in the services industries. Because of its prominent global role, London 's economy had been affected by the financial crisis of 2007 -- 2008. However, by 2010 the City has recovered; put in place new regulatory powers, proceeded to regain lost ground and re-established London 's economic dominance. Along with professional services headquarters, the City of London is home to the Bank of England, London Stock Exchange, and Lloyd 's of London insurance market.
Over half of the UK 's top 100 listed companies (the FTSE 100) and over 100 of Europe 's 500 largest companies have their headquarters in central London. Over 70 per cent of the FTSE 100 are within London 's metropolitan area, and 75 per cent of Fortune 500 companies have offices in London.
Media companies are concentrated in London and the media distribution industry is London 's second most competitive sector. The BBC is a significant employer, while other broadcasters also have headquarters around the City. Many national newspapers are edited in London. London is a major retail centre and in 2010 had the highest non-food retail sales of any city in the world, with a total spend of around £ 64.2 billion. The Port of London is the second - largest in the United Kingdom, handling 45 million tonnes of cargo each year.
A growing number of technology companies are based in London notably in East London Tech City, also known as Silicon Roundabout. In April 2014, the city was among the first to receive a geoTLD. In February 2014 London was ranked as the European City of the Future in the 2014 / 15 list by FDi Magazine.
The gas and electricity distribution networks that manage and operate the towers, cables and pressure systems that deliver energy to consumers across the city are managed by National Grid plc, SGN and UK Power Networks.
London is one of the leading tourist destinations in the world and in 2015 was ranked as the most visited city in the world with over 65 million visits. It is also the top city in the world by visitor cross-border spending, estimated at US $20.23 billion in 2015. Tourism is one of London 's prime industries, employing the equivalent of 350,000 full - time workers in 2003, and the city accounts for 54 % of all inbound visitor spending in the UK. As of 2016 London is the world top city destination as ranked by TripAdvisor users.
In 2015 the top most - visited attractions in the UK were all in London. The top 10 most visited attractions were: (with visits per venue)
The number of hotel rooms in London in 2015 stood at 138,769, and is expected to grow over the years.
Transport is one of the four main areas of policy administered by the Mayor of London, however the mayor 's financial control does not extend to the longer distance rail network that enters London. In 2007 he assumed responsibility for some local lines, which now form the London Overground network, adding to the existing responsibility for the London Underground, trams and buses. The public transport network is administered by Transport for London (TFL).
The lines that formed the London Underground, as well as trams and buses, became part of an integrated transport system in 1933 when the London Passenger Transport Board or London Transport was created. Transport for London is now the statutory corporation responsible for most aspects of the transport system in Greater London, and is run by a board and a commissioner appointed by the Mayor of London.
London is a major international air transport hub with the busiest city airspace in the world. Eight airports use the word London in their name, but most traffic passes through six of these. Additionally, various other airports also serve London, catering primarily to general aviation flights.
The London Underground, commonly referred to as the Tube, is the oldest and third longest metro system in the world. The system serves 270 stations and was formed from several private companies, including the world 's first underground electric line, the City and South London Railway. It dates from 1863.
Over four million journeys are made every day on the Underground network, over 1 billion each year. An investment programme is attempting to reduce congestion and improve reliability, including £ 6.5 billion (€ 7.7 billion) spent before the 2012 Summer Olympics. The Docklands Light Railway (DLR), which opened in 1987, is a second, more local metro system using smaller and lighter tram - type vehicles that serve the Docklands, Greenwich and Lewisham.
There are more than 360 railway stations in the London Travelcard Zones on an extensive above - ground suburban railway network. South London, particularly, has a high concentration of railways as it has fewer Underground lines. Most rail lines terminate around the centre of London, running into eighteen terminal stations, with the exception of the Thameslink trains connecting Bedford in the north and Brighton in the south via Luton and Gatwick airports. London has Britain 's busiest station by number of passengers -- Waterloo, with over 184 million people using the interchange station complex (which includes Waterloo East station) each year. Clapham Junction is the busiest station in Europe by the number of trains passing.
With the need for more rail capacity in London, Crossrail is due to open in 2018. It will be a new railway line running east to west through London and into the Home Counties with a branch to Heathrow Airport. It is Europe 's biggest construction project, with a £ 15 billion projected cost.
London is the centre of the National Rail network, with 70 percent of rail journeys starting or ending in London. Like suburban rail services, regional and inter-city trains depart from several termini around the city centre, linking London with the rest of Britain including Birmingham, Brighton, Reading, Bristol, Cardiff, Derby, Exeter, Sheffield, Southampton, Leeds, Liverpool, Manchester, Cambridge, Newcastle upon Tyne, Edinburgh and Glasgow.
Some international railway services to Continental Europe were operated during the 20th century as boat trains, such as the Admiraal de Ruijter to Amsterdam and the Night Ferry to Paris and Brussels. The opening of the Channel Tunnel in 1994 connected London directly to the continental rail network, allowing Eurostar services to begin. Since 2007, high - speed trains link St. Pancras International with Lille, Paris, Brussels, Amsterdam and other European tourist destinations via the High Speed 1 rail link and the Channel Tunnel. The first high - speed domestic trains started in June 2009 linking Kent to London. There are plans for a second high speed line linking London to the Midlands, North West England, and Yorkshire.
Although rail freight levels are far down compared to their height, significant quantities of cargo are also carried into and out of London by rail; chiefly building materials and landfill waste. As a major hub of the British railway network, London 's tracks also carry large amounts of freight for the other regions, such as container freight from the Channel Tunnel and English Channel ports, and nuclear waste for reprocessing at Sellafield.
London 's bus network is one of the largest in the world, running 24 hours a day, with about 8,500 buses, more than 700 bus routes and around 19,500 bus stops. In 2013, the network had more than 2 billion commuter trips per annum, more than the Underground. Around £ 850 million is taken in revenue each year. London has the largest wheelchair accessible network in the world and, from the 3rd quarter of 2007, became more accessible to hearing and visually impaired passengers as audio - visual announcements were introduced. The distinctive red double - decker buses are an internationally recognised trademark of London transport along with black cabs and the Tube.
London has a modern tram network, known as Tramlink, centred on Croydon in South London. The network has 39 stops and four routes, and carried 28 million people in 2013. Since June 2008 Transport for London has completely owned Tramlink, and it plans to spend £ 54m by 2015 on maintenance, renewals, upgrades and capacity enhancements.
London 's first and only cable car, known as the Emirates Air Line, opened in June 2012. Crossing the River Thames, linking Greenwich Peninsula and the Royal Docks in the east of the city, the cable car is integrated with London 's Oyster Card ticketing system, although special fares are charged. Costing £ 60 million to build, it carries over 3,500 passengers every day, although this is very much lower than its capacity. Similar to the Santander Cycles bike hire scheme, the cable car is sponsored in a 10 - year deal by the airline Emirates.
In the whole Greater London Area, around 650,000 people use a bike everyday. But out of a total population of around 8.8 million, this means that just around 7 % of Greater London 's population use a bike on an average day. This is a small proportion, when compared to many other cities in the world A reason may well be the poor investments for cycling in London of about £ 110 million per year, equating to around £ 12 per person, which can be compared to £ 22 in the Netherlands.
Cycling is nevertheless becoming increasingly popular way to get around London. The launch of a cycle hire scheme in July 2010 has been successful and generally well received. The London Cycling Campaign lobbies for better provision. There are many cycle routes in London, including several Cycle Superhighways.
From being the largest port in the world, the Port of London is now only the second - largest in the United Kingdom, handling 45 million tonnes of cargo each year. Most of this actually passes through the Port of Tilbury, outside the boundary of Greater London.
London has frequent river boat services on the Thames known as Thames Clippers. These run up to every 20 minutes between Embankment Pier and North Greenwich Pier. The Woolwich Ferry, with 2.5 million passengers every year, is a frequent service linking the North and South Circular Roads. Other operators run both commuter and tourist boat services in London.
Although the majority of journeys involving central London are made by public transport, car travel is common in the suburbs. The inner ring road (around the city centre), the North and South Circular roads (in the suburbs), and the outer orbital motorway (the M25, outside the built - up area) encircle the city and are intersected by a number of busy radial routes -- but very few motorways penetrate into inner London. A plan for a comprehensive network of motorways throughout the city (the Ringways Plan) was prepared in the 1960s but was mostly cancelled in the early 1970s. The M25 is the second - longest ring - road motorway in Europe at 117 mi (188 km) long. The A1 and M1 connect London to Leeds, and Newcastle and Edinburgh.
London is notorious for its traffic congestion, with the average speed of a car in the rush hour being 10.6 mph (17.1 km / h).
In 2003, a congestion charge was introduced to reduce traffic volumes in the city centre. With a few exceptions, motorists are required to pay £ 10 per day to drive within a defined zone encompassing much of central London. Motorists who are residents of the defined zone can buy a greatly reduced season pass. London government initially expected the Congestion Charge Zone to increase daily peak period Underground and bus users by 20,000 people, reduce road traffic by 10 to 15 per cent, increase traffic speeds by 10 to 15 per cent, and reduce queues by 20 to 30 per cent. Over the course of several years, the average number of cars entering the centre of London on a weekday was reduced from 195,000 to 125,000 cars -- a 35 - per - cent reduction of vehicles driven per day.
London is a major global centre of higher education teaching and research and has the largest concentration of higher education institutes in Europe. According to the QS World University Rankings 2015 / 16, London has the greatest concentration of top class universities in the world and its international student population of around 110,000 is larger than any other city in the world. A 2014 PricewaterhouseCoopers report termed London as the global capital of higher education.
A number of world - leading education institutions are based in London. In the 2014 / 15 QS World University Rankings, Imperial College London is ranked joint 2nd in the world, University College London (UCL) is ranked 5th, and King 's College London (KCL) is ranked 16th. The London School of Economics has been described as the world 's leading social science institution for both teaching and research. The London Business School is considered one of the world 's leading business schools and in 2015 its MBA programme was ranked second best in the world by the Financial Times.
With 120,000 students in London, the federal University of London is the largest contact teaching university in the UK. It includes five multi-faculty universities -- City, King 's College London, Queen Mary, Royal Holloway and UCL -- and a number of smaller and more specialised institutions including Birkbeck, the Courtauld Institute of Art, Goldsmiths, Guildhall School of Music and Drama, the London Business School, the London School of Economics, the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, the Royal Academy of Music, the Central School of Speech and Drama, the Royal Veterinary College and the School of Oriental and African Studies. Members of the University of London have their own admissions procedures, and some award their own degrees.
A number of universities in London are outside the University of London system, including Brunel University, Imperial College London, Kingston University, London Metropolitan University, University of East London, University of West London, University of Westminster, London South Bank University, Middlesex University, and University of the Arts London (the largest university of art, design, fashion, communication and the performing arts in Europe). In addition there are three international universities in London -- Regent 's University London, Richmond, The American International University in London and Schiller International University.
London is home to five major medical schools -- Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry (part of Queen Mary), King 's College London School of Medicine (the largest medical school in Europe), Imperial College School of Medicine, UCL Medical School and St George 's, University of London -- and has a large number of affiliated teaching hospitals. It is also a major centre for biomedical research, and three of the UK 's eight academic health science centres are based in the city -- Imperial College Healthcare, King 's Health Partners and UCL Partners (the largest such centre in Europe).
There are a number of business schools in London, including the London School of Business and Finance, Cass Business School (part of City University London), Hult International Business School, ESCP Europe, European Business School London, Imperial College Business School, the London Business School and the UCL School of Management. London is also home to many specialist arts education institutions, including the Academy of Live and Recorded Arts, Central School of Ballet, LAMDA, London College of Contemporary Arts (LCCA), London Contemporary Dance School, National Centre for Circus Arts, RADA, Rambert School of Ballet and Contemporary Dance, the Royal College of Art, the Royal College of Music and Trinity Laban.
The majority of primary and secondary schools and further - education colleges in London are controlled by the London boroughs or otherwise state - funded; leading examples include Ashbourne College, Bethnal Green Academy, Brampton Manor Academy, City and Islington College, City of Westminster College, David Game College, Ealing, Hammersmith and West London College, Leyton Sixth Form College, London Academy of Excellence, Tower Hamlets College, and Newham Collegiate Sixth Form Centre. There are also a number of private schools and colleges in London, some old and famous, such as City of London School, Harrow, St Paul 's School, Haberdashers ' Aske 's Boys ' School, University College School, The John Lyon School, Highgate School and Westminster School.
Leisure is a major part of the London economy, with a 2003 report attributing a quarter of the entire UK leisure economy to London at 25.6 events per 1000 people. Globally, the city is amongst the big four fashion capitals of the world, and according to official statistics, London is the world 's third busiest film production centre, presents more live comedy than any other city, and has the biggest theatre audience of any city in the world.
Within the City of Westminster in London, the entertainment district of the West End has its focus around Leicester Square, where London and world film premieres are held, and Piccadilly Circus, with its giant electronic advertisements. London 's theatre district is here, as are many cinemas, bars, clubs, and restaurants, including the city 's Chinatown district (in Soho), and just to the east is Covent Garden, an area housing speciality shops. The city is the home of Andrew Lloyd Webber, whose musicals have dominated the West End theatre since the late 20th century. The United Kingdom 's Royal Ballet, English National Ballet, Royal Opera, and English National Opera are based in London and perform at the Royal Opera House, the London Coliseum, Sadler 's Wells Theatre, and the Royal Albert Hall, as well as touring the country.
Islington 's 1 mile (1.6 km) long Upper Street, extending northwards from Angel, has more bars and restaurants than any other street in the United Kingdom. Europe 's busiest shopping area is Oxford Street, a shopping street nearly 1 mile (1.6 km) long, making it the longest shopping street in the UK. Oxford Street is home to vast numbers of retailers and department stores, including the world - famous Selfridges flagship store. Knightsbridge, home to the equally renowned Harrods department store, lies to the south - west.
London is home to designers Vivienne Westwood, Galliano, Stella McCartney, Manolo Blahnik, and Jimmy Choo, among others; its renowned art and fashion schools make it an international centre of fashion alongside Paris, Milan, and New York City. London offers a great variety of cuisine as a result of its ethnically diverse population. Gastronomic centres include the Bangladeshi restaurants of Brick Lane and the Chinese restaurants of Chinatown.
There is a variety of annual events, beginning with the relatively new New Year 's Day Parade, a fireworks display at the London Eye; the world 's second largest street party, the Notting Hill Carnival, is held on the late August Bank Holiday each year. Traditional parades include November 's Lord Mayor 's Show, a centuries - old event celebrating the annual appointment of a new Lord Mayor of the City of London with a procession along the streets of the City, and June 's Trooping the Colour, a formal military pageant performed by regiments of the Commonwealth and British armies to celebrate the Queen 's Official Birthday.
London has been the setting for many works of literature. The pilgrims in Geoffrey Chaucer 's late 14th - century Canterbury Tales set out for Canterbury from London -- specifically, from the Tabard inn, Southwark. William Shakespeare spent a large part of his life living and working in London; his contemporary Ben Jonson was also based there, and some of his work, most notably his play The Alchemist, was set in the city. A Journal of the Plague Year (1722) by Daniel Defoe is a fictionalisation of the events of the 1665 Great Plague.
The literary centres of London have traditionally been hilly Hampstead and (since the early 20th century) Bloomsbury. Writers closely associated with the city are the diarist Samuel Pepys, noted for his eyewitness account of the Great Fire, Charles Dickens, whose representation of a foggy, snowy, grimy London of street sweepers and pickpockets has been a major influence on people 's vision of early Victorian London, and Virginia Woolf, regarded as one of the foremost modernist literary figures of the 20th century. Later important depictions of London from the 19th and early 20th centuries are Dickens ' novels, and Arthur Conan Doyle 's Sherlock Holmes stories. Also of significance is Letitia Elizabeth Landon 's Calendar of the London Seasons (1834). Modern writers pervasively influenced by the city include Peter Ackroyd, author of a "biography '' of London, and Iain Sinclair, who writes in the genre of psychogeography.
London has played a significant role in the film industry. Major studios within or bordering London include Twickenham, Ealing, Shepperton, Pinewood, Elstree and Borehamwood, and a special effects and post-production community centred in Soho. Working Title Films has its headquarters in London. London has been the setting for films including Oliver Twist (1948), Scrooge (1951), Peter Pan (1953), The 101 Dalmatians (1961), My Fair Lady (1964), Mary Poppins (1964), Blowup (1966), The Long Good Friday (1980), Notting Hill (1999), Love Actually (2003), V For Vendetta (2005), Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber Of Fleet Street (2008) and The King 's Speech (2010). Notable actors and filmmakers from London include; Charlie Chaplin, Alfred Hitchcock, Michael Caine, Helen Mirren, Gary Oldman, Christopher Nolan, Jude Law, Benedict Cumberbatch, Tom Hardy, Keira Knightley and Daniel Day - Lewis. As of 2008, the British Academy Film Awards have taken place at the Royal Opera House. London is a major centre for television production, with studios including BBC Television Centre, The Fountain Studios and The London Studios. Many television programmes have been set in London, including the popular television soap opera EastEnders, broadcast by the BBC since 1985.
London is home to many museums, galleries, and other institutions, many of which are free of admission charges and are major tourist attractions as well as playing a research role. The first of these to be established was the British Museum in Bloomsbury, in 1753. Originally containing antiquities, natural history specimens, and the national library, the museum now has 7 million artefacts from around the globe. In 1824, the National Gallery was founded to house the British national collection of Western paintings; this now occupies a prominent position in Trafalgar Square.
In the latter half of the 19th century the locale of South Kensington was developed as "Albertopolis '', a cultural and scientific quarter. Three major national museums are there: the Victoria and Albert Museum (for the applied arts), the Natural History Museum, and the Science Museum. The National Portrait Gallery was founded in 1856 to house depictions of figures from British history; its holdings now comprise the world 's most extensive collection of portraits. The national gallery of British art is at Tate Britain, originally established as an annexe of the National Gallery in 1897. The Tate Gallery, as it was formerly known, also became a major centre for modern art; in 2000, this collection moved to Tate Modern, a new gallery housed in the former Bankside Power Station.
London is one of the major classical and popular music capitals of the world and hosts major music corporations, such as Universal Music Group International and Warner Music Group, as well as countless bands, musicians and industry professionals. The city is also home to many orchestras and concert halls, such as the Barbican Arts Centre (principal base of the London Symphony Orchestra and the London Symphony Chorus), Cadogan Hall (Royal Philharmonic Orchestra) and the Royal Albert Hall (The Proms). London 's two main opera houses are the Royal Opera House and the London Coliseum. The UK 's largest pipe organ is at the Royal Albert Hall. Other significant instruments are at the cathedrals and major churches. Several conservatoires are within the city: Royal Academy of Music, Royal College of Music, Guildhall School of Music and Drama and Trinity Laban.
London has numerous venues for rock and pop concerts, including the world 's busiest arena the O2 arena and other large arenas such as Earls Court, Wembley Arena, as well as many mid-sized venues, such as Brixton Academy, the Hammersmith Apollo and the Shepherd 's Bush Empire. Several music festivals, including the Wireless Festival, South West Four, Lovebox, and Hyde Park 's British Summer Time are all held in London. The city is home to the original Hard Rock Cafe and the Abbey Road Studios, where The Beatles recorded many of their hits. In the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, musicians and groups like Elton John, Pink Floyd, Cliff Richard, David Bowie, Queen, The Kinks, The Rolling Stones, The Who, Eric Clapton, Led Zeppelin, The Small Faces, Iron Maiden, Fleetwood Mac, Elvis Costello, Cat Stevens, The Police, The Cure, Madness, The Jam, Ultravox, Spandau Ballet, Culture Club, Dusty Springfield, Phil Collins, Rod Stewart, Adam Ant, Status Quo and Sade, derived their sound from the streets and rhythms of London.
London was instrumental in the development of punk music, with figures such as the Sex Pistols, The Clash, and Vivienne Westwood all based in the city. More recent artists to emerge from the London music scene include George Michael 's Wham!, Kate Bush, Seal, the Pet Shop Boys, Bananarama, Siouxsie and the Banshees, Bush, the Spice Girls, Jamiroquai, Blur, McFly, The Prodigy, Gorillaz, Bloc Party, Mumford & Sons, Coldplay, Amy Winehouse, Adele, Sam Smith, Ed Sheeran, Paloma Faith, Ellie Goulding, One Direction and Florence and the Machine. London is also a centre for urban music. In particular the genres UK garage, drum and bass, dubstep and grime evolved in the city from the foreign genres of hip hop and reggae, alongside local drum and bass. Music station BBC Radio 1Xtra was set up to support the rise of local urban contemporary music both in London and in the rest of the United Kingdom.
A 2013 report by the City of London Corporation said that London is the "greenest city '' in Europe with 35,000 acres of public parks, woodlands and gardens. The largest parks in the central area of London are three of the eight Royal Parks, namely Hyde Park and its neighbour Kensington Gardens in the west, and Regent 's Park to the north. Hyde Park in particular is popular for sports and sometimes hosts open - air concerts. Regent 's Park contains London Zoo, the world 's oldest scientific zoo, and is near the tourist attraction of Madame Tussauds Wax Museum. Primrose Hill, immediately to the north of Regent 's Park, at 256 feet (78 m) is a popular spot from which to view the city skyline.
Close to Hyde Park are smaller Royal Parks, Green Park and St. James 's Park. A number of large parks lie outside the city centre, including Hampstead Heath and the remaining Royal Parks of Greenwich Park to the south - east and Bushy Park and Richmond Park (the largest) to the south - west, Hampton Court Park is also a royal park, but, because it contains a palace, it is administered by the Historic Royal Palaces, unlike the eight Royal Parks.
Close to Richmond Park is Kew Gardens which has the world 's largest collection of living plants. In 2003, the gardens were put on the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites. There are also numerous parks administered by London 's borough Councils, including Victoria Park in the East End and Battersea Park in the centre. Some more informal, semi-natural open spaces also exist, including the 320 - hectare (790 - acre) Hampstead Heath of North London, and Epping Forest, which covers 2,476 hectares (6,118 acres) in the east. Both are controlled by the City of London Corporation. Hampstead Heath incorporates Kenwood House, a former stately home and a popular location in the summer months when classical musical concerts are held by the lake, attracting thousands of people every weekend to enjoy the music, scenery and fireworks.
Epping Forest is a popular venue for various outdoor activities, including mountain biking, walking, horse riding, golf, angling, and orienteering.
Walking is a popular recreational activity in London. Areas that provide for walks include Wimbledon Common, Epping Forest, Hampton Court Park, Hampstead Heath, the eight Royal Parks, canals and disused railway tracks. Access to canals and rivers has improved recently, including the creation of the Thames Path, some 28 miles (45 km) of which is within Greater London, and The Wandle Trail; this runs 12 miles (19 km) through South London along the River Wandle, a tributary of the River Thames. Other long distance paths, linking green spaces, have also been created, including the Capital Ring, the Green Chain Walk, London Outer Orbital Path ("Loop ''), Jubilee Walkway, Lea Valley Walk, and the Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Walk.
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which is the oldest hindu temple in the world | Hindu temple - wikipedia
A Hindu temple is a symbolic house, seat and body of god. It is a structure designed to bring human beings and gods together, using symbolism to express the ideas and beliefs of Hinduism. The symbolism and structure of a Hindu temple are rooted in Vedic traditions, deploying circles and squares. A temple incorporates all elements of Hindu cosmos -- presenting the good, the evil and the human, as well as the elements of Hindu sense of cyclic time and the essence of life -- symbolically presenting dharma, kama, artha, moksa, and karma.
The spiritual principles symbolically represented in Hindu temples are given in the ancient Sanskrit texts of India (for example, Vedas and Upanishads), while their structural rules are described in various ancient Sanskrit treatises on architecture (Brhat Samhita, Vastu Sastras). The layout, the motifs, the plan and the building process recite ancient rituals, geometric symbolisms, and reflect beliefs and values innate within various schools of Hinduism. A Hindu temple is a spiritual destination for many Hindus, as well as landmarks around which ancient arts, community celebrations and economy have flourished.
Hindu temples come in many styles, are situated in diverse locations, deploy different construction methods and are adapted to different deities and regional beliefs, yet almost all of them share certain core ideas, symbolism and themes. They are found in South Asia particularly India and Nepal, in southeast Asian countries such as Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Vietnam, and islands of Indonesia and Malaysia, and countries such as Canada, the Caribbean, Fiji, France, Guyana, Kenya, Mauritius, the Netherlands, South Africa, Suriname, Tanzania, Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda, the United Kingdom, the United States, and countries with a significant Hindu community. The current state and outer appearance of Hindu temples reflect arts, materials and designs as they evolved over two millennia; they also reflect the effect of conflicts between Hinduism and Islam since the 12th century. The Swaminarayanan Akshardham in Robbinsville, New Jersey, United States, between the New York and Philadelphia metropolitan areas, was inaugurated in 2014 as the world 's largest Hindu temple.
A Hindu temple reflects a synthesis of arts, the ideals of dharma, beliefs, values, and the way of life cherished under Hinduism. It is a link between man, deities, and the Universal Purusa in a sacred space.
In ancient Indian texts, a temple is a place for Tirtha -- pilgrimage. It is a sacred site whose ambience and design attempts to symbolically condense the ideal tenets of Hindu way of life. All the cosmic elements that create and sustain life are present in a Hindu temple -- from fire to water, from images of nature to deities, from the feminine to the masculine, from the fleeting sounds and incense smells to the eternal nothingness yet universality at the core of the temple.
Susan Lewandowski states that the underlying principle in a Hindu temple is built around the belief that all things are one, everything is connected. The pilgrim is welcomed through 64 - grid or 81 - grid mathematically structured spaces, a network of art, pillars with carvings and statues that display and celebrate the four important and necessary principles of human life -- the pursuit of artha (prosperity, wealth), the pursuit of kama (pleasure, sex), the pursuit of dharma (virtues, ethical life) and the pursuit of moksha (release, self - knowledge). At the center of the temple, typically below and sometimes above or next to the deity, is mere hollow space with no decoration, symbolically representing Purusa, the Supreme Principle, the sacred Universal, one without form, which is present everywhere, connects everything, and is the essence of everyone. A Hindu temple is meant to encourage reflection, facilitate purification of one 's mind, and trigger the process of inner realization within the devotee. The specific process is left to the devotee 's school of belief. The primary deity of different Hindu temples varies to reflect this spiritual spectrum.
In Hindu tradition, there is no dividing line between the secular and the sacred. In the same spirit, Hindu temples are not just sacred spaces, they are also secular spaces. Their meaning and purpose have extended beyond spiritual life to social rituals and daily life, offering thus a social meaning. Some temples have served as a venue to mark festivals, to celebrate arts through dance and music, to get married or commemorate marriages, commemorate the birth of a child, other significant life events, or mark the death of a loved one. In political and economic life, Hindu temples have served as a venue for the succession within dynasties and landmarks around which economic activity thrived.
Almost all Hindu temples take two forms: a house or a palace. A house - themed temple is a simple shelter which serves as a deity 's home. The temple is a place where the devotee visits, just like he or she would visit a friend or relative. In Bhakti school of Hinduism, temples are venues for puja, which is a hospitality ritual, where the deity is honored, and where devotee calls upon, attends to and connects with the deity. In other schools of Hinduism, the person may simply perform jap, or meditation, or yoga, or introspection in his or her temple. Palace - themed temples often incorporate more elaborate and monumental architecture.
The appropriate site for a temple, suggest ancient Sanskrit texts, is near water and gardens, where lotus and flowers bloom, where swans, ducks and other birds are heard, where animals rest without fear of injury or harm. These harmonious places were recommended in these texts with the explanation that such are the places where gods play, and thus the best site for Hindu temples.
The gods always play where lakes are, where the sun 's rays are warded off by umbrellas of lotus leaf clusters, and where clear waterpaths are made by swans whose breasts toss the white lotus hither and thither, where swans, ducks, curleys and paddy birds are heard, and animals rest nearby in the shade of Nicula trees on the river banks. The gods always play where rivers have for their braclets the sound of curleys and the voice of swans for their speech, water as their garment, carps for their zone, the flowering trees on their banks as earrings, the confluence of rivers as their hips, raised sand banks as breasts and plumage of swans their mantle. The gods always play where groves are near, rivers, mountains and springs, and in towns with pleasure gardens.
While major Hindu temples are recommended at sangams (confluence of rivers), river banks, lakes and seashore, Brhat Samhita and Puranas suggest temples may also be built where a natural source of water is not present. Here too, they recommend that a pond be built preferably in front or to the left of the temple with water gardens. If water is neither present naturally nor by design, water is symbolically present at the consecration of temple or the deity. Temples may also be built, suggests Visnudharmottara in Part III of Chapter 93, inside caves and carved stones, on hill tops affording peaceful views, mountain slopes overlooking beautiful valleys, inside forests and hermitages, next to gardens, or at the head of a town street.
Ancient builders of Hindu temples created manuals of architecture, called Vastu - Sastra (literally "science '' of dwelling; vas - tu is a composite Sanskrit word; vas means "reside '', tu means "you ''); these contain Vastu - Vidya (literally, knowledge of dwelling). There exist many Vastu - Sastras on the art of building temples, such as one by Thakkura Pheru, describing where and how temples should be built. By the 6th century AD, Sanskrit manuals for in India. Vastu - Sastra manuals included chapters on home construction, town planning, and how efficient villages, towns and kingdoms integrated temples, water bodies and gardens within them to achieve harmony with nature. While it is unclear, states Barnett, as to whether these temple and town planning texts were theoretical studies and if or when they were properly implemented in practice, the manuals suggest that town planning and Hindu temples were conceived as ideals of art and integral part of Hindu social and spiritual life.
The Silpa Prakasa of Odisha, authored by Ramacandra Bhattaraka Kaulacara in the ninth or tenth centuries AD, is another Sanskrit treatise on Temple Architecture. Silpa Prakasa describes the geometric principles in every aspect of the temple and symbolism such as 16 emotions of human beings carved as 16 types of female figures. These styles were perfected in Hindu temples prevalent in eastern states of India. Other ancient texts found expand these architectural principles, suggesting that different parts of India developed, invented and added their own interpretations. For example, in Saurastra tradition of temple building found in western states of India, the feminine form, expressions and emotions are depicted in 32 types of Nataka - stri compared to 16 types described in Silpa Prakasa. Silpa Prakasa provides brief introduction to 12 types of Hindu temples. Other texts, such as Pancaratra Prasada Prasadhana compiled by Daniel Smith and Silpa Ratnakara compiled by Narmada Sankara provide a more extensive list of Hindu temple types.
Ancient Sanskrit manuals for temple construction discovered in Rajasthan, in northwestern region of India, include Sutradhara Mandana 's Prasadamandana (literally, manual for planning and building a temple). Manasara, a text of South Indian origin, estimated to be in circulation by the 7th century AD, is a guidebook on South Indian temple design and construction. Isanasivagurudeva paddhati is another Sanskrit text from the 9th century describing the art of temple building in India in south and central India. In north India, Brihat - samhita by Varāhamihira is the widely cited ancient Sanskrit manual from 6th century describing the design and construction of Nagara style of Hindu temples.
A Hindu temple design follows a geometrical design called vastu - purusha - mandala. The name is a composite Sanskrit word with three of the most important components of the plan. Mandala means circle, Purusha is universal essence at the core of Hindu tradition, while Vastu means the dwelling structure. Vastupurushamandala is a yantra. The design lays out a Hindu temple in a symmetrical, self - repeating structure derived from central beliefs, myths, cardinality and mathematical principles.
The four cardinal directions help create the axis of a Hindu temple, around which is formed a perfect square in the space available. The circle of mandala circumscribes the square. The square is considered divine for its perfection and as a symbolic product of knowledge and human thought, while circle is considered earthly, human and observed in everyday life (moon, sun, horizon, water drop, rainbow). Each supports the other. The square is divided into perfect 64 (or in some cases 81) sub-squares called padas. Each pada is conceptually assigned to a symbolic element, sometimes in the form of a deity. The central square (s) of the 64 or 81 grid is dedicated to the Brahman (not to be confused with Brahmin), and are called Brahma padas.
The 49 grid design is called Sthandila and of great importance in creative expressions of Hindu temples in South India, particularly in ' ' Prakaras ' '. The symmetric Vastu - purusa - mandala grids are sometimes combined to form a temple superstructure with two or more attached squares. The temples face sunrise, and the entrance for the devotee is typically this east side. The mandala pada facing sunrise is dedicated to Surya deity (Sun). The Surya pada is flanked by the padas of Satya (Truth) deity on one side and Indra (king of gods) deity on other. The east and north faces of most temples feature a mix of gods and demi - gods; while west and south feature demons and demi - gods related to the underworld. This vastu purusha mandala plan and symbolism is systematically seen in ancient Hindu temples on Indian subcontinent as well as those in southeast Asia, with regional creativity and variations.
Beneath the mandala 's central square (s) is the space for the formless shapeless all pervasive all connecting Universal Spirit, the highest reality, the purusha. This space is sometimes referred to as garbha - griya (literally womb house) -- a small, perfect square, windowless, enclosed space without ornamentation that represents universal essence. In or near this space is typically a murti (idol). This is the main deity idol, and this varies with each temple. Often it is this idol that gives the temple a local name, such as Visnu temple, Krishna temple, Rama temple, Narayana temple, Siva temple, Lakshmi temple, Ganesha temple, Durga temple, Hanuman temple, Surya temple, and others. It is this garbha - griya which devotees seek for ' ' darsana ' ' (literally, a sight of knowledge, or vision).
Above the vastu - purusha - mandala is a superstructure with a dome called Shikhara in north India, and Vimana in south India, that stretches towards the sky. Sometimes, in makeshift temples, the dome may be replaced with symbolic bamboo with few leaves at the top. The vertical dimension 's cupola or dome is designed as a pyramid, conical or other mountain - like shape, once again using principle of concentric circles and squares (see below). Scholars suggest that this shape is inspired by cosmic mountain of Meru or Himalayan Kailasa, the abode of gods according to Vedic mythology.
In larger temples, the central space typically is surrounded by an ambulatory for the devotee to walk around and ritually circumambulate the Purusa, the universal essence. Often this space is visually decorated with carvings, paintings or images meant to inspire the devotee. In some temples, these images may be stories from Hindu Epics, in others they may be Vedic tales about right and wrong or virtues and vice, in some they may be idols of minor or regional deities. The pillars, walls and ceilings typically also have highly ornate carvings or images of the four just and necessary pursuits of life -- kama, artha, dharma and moksa. This walk around is called pradakshina.
Large temples also have pillared halls called mandapa. One on the east side, serves as the waiting room for pilgrims and devotees. The mandapa may be a separate structure in older temples, but in newer temples this space is integrated into the temple superstructure. Mega temple sites have a main temple surrounded by smaller temples and shrines, but these are still arranged by principles of symmetry, grids and mathematical precision. An important principle found in the layout of Hindu temples is mirroring and repeating fractal - like design structure, each unique yet also repeating the central common principle, one which Susan Lewandowski refers to as "an organism of repeating cells ''.
The ancient texts on Hindu temple design, the Vastupurusamandala and Vastu Sastras, do not limit themselves to the design of a Hindu temple. They describe the temple as a holistic part of its community, and lay out various principles and a diversity of alternate designs for home, village and city layout along with the temple, gardens, water bodies and nature.
Predominant number of Hindu temples exhibit the perfect square grid principle. However, there are some exceptions. For example, the Teli - ka - mandir in Gwalior, built in the 8th century AD is not a square but is a rectangle in 2: 3 proportion. Further, the temple explores a number of structures and shrines in 1: 1, 1: 2, 1: 3, 2: 5, 3: 5 and 4: 5 ratios. These ratios are exact, suggesting the architect intended to use these harmonic ratios, and the rectangle pattern was not a mistake, nor an arbitrary approximation. Other examples of non-square harmonic ratios are found at Naresar temple site of Madhya Pradesh and Nakti - Mata temple near Jaipur, Rajasthan. Michael Meister suggests that these exceptions mean the ancient Sanskrit manuals for temple building were guidelines, and Hinduism permitted its artisans flexibility in expression and aesthetic independence.
A Hindu temple is a symbolic reconstruction of the universe and universal principles that make everything in it function. The temples reflect Hindu philosophy and its diverse views on cosmos and Truths.
Hinduism has no traditional ecclesiastical order, no centralized religious authorities, no governing body, no prophet (s) nor any binding holy book; Hindus can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic, monistic, or atheistic. Within this diffuse and open structure, spirituality in Hindu philosophy is an individual experience, and referred to as kṣaitrajña (Sanskrit: क्षैत्रज्ञ)). It defines spiritual practice as one 's journey towards moksha, awareness of self, the discovery of higher truths, true nature of reality, and a consciousness that is liberated and content. A Hindu temple reflects these core beliefs. The central core of almost all Hindu temples is not a large communal space; the temple is designed for the individual, a couple or a family -- a small, private space where he or she experiences darsana.
Darsana is itself a symbolic word. In ancient Hindu scripts, darsana is the name of six methods or alternate viewpoints of understanding Truth. These are Nyaya, Vaisesika, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta -- each of which flowered into their own schools of Hinduism, each of which are considered valid, alternate paths to understanding Truth and realizing Self in the Hindu way of life.
From names to forms, from images to stories carved into the walls of a temple, symbolism is everywhere in a Hindu temple. Life principles such as the pursuit of joy, sex, connection and emotional pleasure (kama) are fused into mystical, erotic and architectural forms in Hindu temples. These motifs and principles of human life are part of the sacred texts of Hindu, such as its Upanishads; the temples express these same principles in a different form, through art and spaces. For example, Brihadaranyaka Upanisad at 4.3. 21, recites:
In the embrace of his beloved a man forgets the whole world, everything both within and without; in the same way, he who embraces the Self, knows neither within nor without.
The architecture of Hindu temples is also symbolic. The whole structure fuses the daily life and it surroundings with the divine concepts, through a structure that is open yet raised on a terrace, transitioning from the secular towards the sacred, inviting the visitor inwards towards the Brahma pada and temple 's central core, as well as lifting him upwards into a symbolic space marked by its spire (shikhara, vimana). The ancient temples had grand intricately carved entrances but no doors, and lacked a boundary wall. In most cultures, suggests Edmund Leach, a boundary and gateway separates the secular and the sacred, and this gateway door is grand. In Hindu tradition, this is discarded in favor of an open and diffusive architecture, where the secular world was not separated from the sacred, but transitioned and flowed into the sacred. The Hindu temple has structural walls, which were patterned usually within the 64 grid, or other geometric layouts. Yet the layout was open on all sides, except for the core space which had just one opening for darsana. The temple space is laid out in a series of courts (mandappas). The outermost regions may incorporate the negative and suffering side of life with symbolism of evil, asuras and rakshashas (demons); but in small temples this layer is dispensed with. When present, this outer region diffuse into the next inner layer that bridges as human space, followed by another inner Devika padas space and symbolic arts incorporating the positive and joyful side of life about the good and the gods. This divine space then concentrically diffuses inwards and lifts the guest to the core of the temple, where resides the main idol as well as the space for the Purusa and ideas held to be most sacred principles in Hindu tradition. The symbolism in the arts and temples of Hinduism, suggests Edmund Leach, is similar to those in Christianity and other major religions of the world.
Indian texts call the craftsmen and builders of temples as ' ' Silpin ' ' (Sanskrit: शिल्पिन्), derived from ' ' Silpa ' '. One of earliest mentions of Sanskrit word Silpa is in Atharvaveda, from about 1000 BC, which scholars have translated as any work of art. Other scholars suggest that the word Silpa has no direct one word translation in English, nor does the word ' ' Silpin ' '. Silpa, explains Stella Kramrisch, is a multicolored word and incorporates art, skill, craft, ingenuity, imagination, form, expression and inventiveness of any art or craft. Similarly a Shilpin, notes Kramrisch, is a complex Sanskrit word, describing any person who embodies art, science, culture, skill, rhythm and employs creative principles to produce any divine form of expression. Silpins who built Hindu temples, as well as the art works and sculpture within them, were considered by the ancient Sanskrit texts to deploy arts whose number are unlimited, Kala (techniques) that were 64 in number, and Vidya (science) that were of 32 types.
The Hindu manuals of temple construction describe the education, characteristics of good artists and architects. The general education of a Hindu Shilpin in ancient India included Lekha or Lipi (alphabet, reading and writing), Rupa (drawing and geometry), Ganana (arithmetic). These were imparted from age 5 to 12. The advanced students would continue in higher stages of Shilpa Sastra studies till the age of 25. Apart from specialist technical competence, the manuals suggest that best Silpins for building a Hindu temple are those who know the essence of Vedas and Agamas, consider themselves as students, keep well verse with principles of traditional sciences and mathematics, painting and geography. Further they are kind, free from jealousy, righteous, have their sense under control, of happy disposition, and ardent in everything they do.
According to Silparatna, a Hindu temple project would start with a Yajamana (patron), and include a Sthapaka (guru, spiritual guide and architect - priest), a Sthapati (architect) who would design the building, a Sutragrahin (surveyor), and many Vardhakins (workers, masons, painters, plasterers, overseers) and Taksakas (sculptors). While the temple is under construction, all those working on the temple were revered and considered sacerdotal by the patron as well as others witnessing the construction. Further, it was a tradition that all tools and materials used in temple building and all creative work had the sanction of a sacrament. For example, if a carpenter or sculptor needed to fell a tree or cut a rock from a hill, he would propitiate the tree or rock with prayers, seeking forgiveness for cutting it from its surroundings, and explaining his intent and purpose. The axe used to cut the tree would be anointed with butter to minimize the hurt to the tree. Even in modern times, in some parts of India such as Odisha, Visvakarma Puja is a ritual festival every year where the craftsmen and artists worship their arts, tools and materials.
Hindu temples served as nuclei of important social, economic, artistic and intellectual functions in ancient and medieval India. Burton Stein states that South Indian temples managed regional development function, such as irrigation projects, land reclamation, post-disaster relief and recovery. These activities were paid for by the donations (melvarum) they collected from devotees. According to James Heitzman, these donations came from a wide spectrum of the Indian society, ranging from kings, queens, officials in the kingdom to merchants, priests and shepherds. Temples also managed lands endowed to it by its devotees upon their death. They would provide employment to the poorest. Some temples had large treasury, with gold and silver coins, and these temples served as banks.
Hindu temples over time became wealthy from grants and donations from royal patrons as well as private individuals. Major temples became employers and patrons of economic activity. They sponsored land reclamation and infrastructure improvements, states Michell, including building facilities such as water tanks, irrigation canals and new roads. A very detailed early record from 1101 lists over 600 employees (excluding the priests) of the Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur, still one of the largest temples in Tamil Nadu. Most worked part - time and received the use of temple farmland as reward. For those thus employed by the temple, according to Michell, "some gratuitous services were usually considered obligatory, such as dragging the temple chariots on festival occasions and helping when a large building project was undertaken ''. Temples also acted as refuge during times of political unrest and danger.
In contemporary times, the process of building a Hindu temple by emigrants and diasporas from South Asia has also served as a process of building a community, a social venue to network, reduce prejudice and seek civil rights together.
John Guy and Jorrit Britschgi state Hindu temples served as centers where ancient manuscripts were routinely used for learning and where the texts were copied when they wore out. In South India, temples and associated mutts served custodial functions, and a large number of manuscripts on Hindu philosophy, poetry, grammar and other subjects were written, multiplied and preserved inside the temples. Archaeological and epigraphical evidence indicates existence of libraries called Sarasvati - bhandara, dated possibly to early 12th - century and employing librarians, attached to Hindu temples.
Palm - leaf manuscripts called lontar in dedicated stone libraries have been discovered by archaeologists at Hindu temples in Bali Indonesia and in 10th century Cambodian temples such as Angkor Wat and Banteay Srei.
Inscriptions from the 4th century AD suggest the existence of schools around Hindu temples, called Ghatikas or Mathas, where the Vedas were studied. In south India, 9th century Vedic schools attached to Hindu temples were called Calai or Salai, and these provided free boarding and lodging to students and scholars. The temples linked to Bhakti movement in the early 2nd millennium, were dominated by non-Brahmins. These assumed many educational functions, including the exposition, recitation and public discourses of Sanskrit and Vedic texts. Some temple schools offered wide range of studies, ranging from Hindu scriptures to Buddhist texts, grammar, philosophy, martial arts, music and painting. By the 8th century, Hindu temples also served as the social venue for tests, debates, team competition and Vedic recitals called Anyonyam.
According to Kenneth G. Zysk -- a professor specializing in Indology and ancient medicine, Hindu mathas and temples had by the 10th - century attached medical care along with their religious and educational roles. This is evidenced by various inscriptions found in Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and elsewhere. An inscription dated to about AD 930 states the provision of a physician to two matha to care for the sick and destitute. Another inscription dated to 1069 at a Vishnu temple in Tamil Nadu describes a hospital attached to the temple, listing the nurses, physicians, medicines and beds for patients. Similarly, a stone inscription in Andhra Pradesh dated to about 1262 mentions the provision of a prasutishala (maternity house), vaidya (physician), an arogyashala (health house) and a viprasattra (hospice, kitchen) with the religious center where people from all social backgrounds could be fed and cared for. According to Zysk, both Buddhist monasteries and Hindu religious centers provided facilities to care for the sick and needy in the 1st millennium, but with the destruction of Buddhist centers after the 12th century, the Hindu religious institutions assumed these social responsibilities. According to George Michell, Hindu temples in South India were active charity centers and they provided free meal for wayfarers, pilgrims and devotees, as well as boarding facilities for students and hospitals for the sick.
The 15th and 16th century Hindu temples at Hampi featured storage spaces (temple granary, kottara), water tanks and kitchens. Many major pilgrimage sites have featured dharmashalas since early times. These were attached to Hindu temples, particularly in South India, providing a bed and meal to pilgrims. They relied on any voluntary donation the visitor may leave and to land grants from local rulers. Some temples have operated their kitchens on daily basis to serve the visitor and the needy, while others during major community gatherings or festivals. Examples include the major kitchens run by Hindu temples in Udupi (Karnataka), Puri (Odisha) and Tirupati (Andhra Pradesh). The tradition of sharing food in smaller temple is typically called prasada.
Hindu temples are found in diverse locations each incorporating different methods of construction and styles:
In arid western parts of India, such as Rajasthan and Gujarat, Hindu communities built large walk in wells that served as the only source of water in dry months but also served as social meeting places and carried religious significance. These monuments went down into earth towards subterranean water, up to seven storey, and were part of a temple complex. These vav (literally, stepwells) had intricate art reliefs on the walls, with numerous idols and images of Hindu deities, water spirits and erotic symbolism. The step wells were named after Hindu deities; for example, Mata Bhavani 's Stepwell, Ankol Mata Vav, Sikotari Vav and others. The temple ranged from being small single pada (cell) structure to large nearby complexes. These stepwells and their temple compounds have been variously dated from late 1st millennium BC through 11th century AD. Of these, Rani ki vav, with hundreds of art reliefs including many of Vishnu deity avatars, has been declared a UNESCO World Heritage site.
The Indian rock - cut architecture evolved in Maharashtran temple style in the 1st millennium AD. The temples are carved from a single piece of rock as a complete temple or carved in a cave to look like the interior of a temple. Ellora Temple is an example of the former, while The Elephanta Caves are representative of the latter style. The Elephanta Caves consist of two groups of caves -- the first is a large group of five Hindu caves and the second is a smaller group of two Buddhist caves. The Hindu caves contain rock - cut stone sculptures, representing the Shaiva Hindu sect, dedicated to the god Shiva.
A typical, ancient Hindu temple has a profusion of arts -- from paintings to sculpture, from symbolic icons to engravings, from thoughtful layout of space to fusion of mathematical principles with Hindu sense of time and cardinality.
Ancient Sanskrit texts classify idols and images in number of ways. For example, one method of classification is the dimensionality of completion:
Another way of classification is by the expressive state of the image:
A Hindu temple may or may not include an idol or images, but larger temples usually do. Personal Hindu temples at home or a hermitage may have a pada for yoga or meditation, but be devoid of anthropomorphic representations of god. Nature or others arts may surround him or her. To a Hindu yogin, states Gopinath Rao, one who has realised Self and the Universal Principle within himself, there is no need for any temple or divine image for worship. However, for those who have yet to reach this height of realization, various symbolic manifestations through images, idols and icons as well as mental modes of worship are offered as one of the spiritual paths in the Hindu way of life. This belief is repeated in ancient Hindu scriptures. For example, the Jabaladarshana Upanishad states:
शिवमात्मनि पश्यन्ति प्रतिमासु न योगिनः अज्ञानं भावनार्थाय प्रतिमाः परिकल्पिताः ५९ - जाबालदर्शनोपनिषत्
A yogin perceives god (Siva) within himself, images are for those who have not reached this knowledge. (Verse 59)
A number of ancient Indian texts suggest the prevalence of idols, temples and shrines in Indian subcontinent for thousands of years. For example, the 4th century BC text, Astadhyayi mentions male deity arcas (images / idols) of Agni, Indra, Varuna, Rudra, Mrda, Pusa, Surya, Soma being worshipped, as well as the worship of arcas of female goddesses such as Indrani, Varunani, Usa, Bhavani, Prthivi and Vrsakapayi. The 2nd Century BC ' ' Mahabhasya ' ' of Patanjali extensively describes temples of Dhanapati (deity of wealth and finance, Kubera), as well as temples of Rama and Kesava, wherein the worship included dance, music and extensive rituals. The Mahabhasya also describes the rituals for Krsna, Visnu and Siva. An image recovered from Mathura in north India has been dated to the 2nd century BC. Kautilya 's Arthashastra from 3rd Century BC describes a city of temples, each enshrining various Vedic and Puranic deities. All three of these sources have common names, describe common rituals, symbolism and significance possibly suggesting that the idea of idols, temples and shrines passed from one generation to next, in ancient India, at least from the 4th century BC. The oldest temples, suggest scholars, were built of brick and wood. Stone became the preferred material of construction later.
Early Jainism and Buddhism literature, along with Kautilya 's Arthashastra, describe structures, embellishments and designs of these temples -- all with motifs and deities currently prevalent in Hinduism. Bas - reliefs and idols have been found from 2nd to 3rd Century, but none of the temple structures have survived. Scholars theorize that those ancient temples of India, later referred to as Hindu temples, were modeled after domestic structure -- a house or a palace. Beyond shrines, nature was revered, in forms such as trees, rivers, stupas before the time of Buddha and Vardhamana Mahavira. As Jainism and Buddhism branched off from the religious tradition later to be called Hinduism, the ideas, designs and plans of ancient Vedic and Upanishad era shrines were adopted and evolved, likely from the competitive development of temples and arts in Jainism and Buddhism. Ancient reliefs found so far, states Michael Meister, suggest five basic shrine designs and combinations thereof in 1st millennium BC:
Many of these ancient shrines were roofless, some had toranas and roof.
From the 1st century BC through 3rd Century AD, the evidence and details about ancient temples increases. The ancient literature refers to these temples as Pasada (or Prasada), stana, mahasthana, devalaya, devagrha, devakula, devakulika, ayatana and harmya. The entrance of the temple is referred to as dvarakosthaka in these ancient texts notes Meister, the temple hall is described as sabha or ayagasabha, pillars were called kumbhaka, while vedika referred to the structures at the boundary of a temple.
With the start of Gupta dynasty in the 4th century, Hindu temples flourished in innovation, design, scope, form, use of stone and new materials as well as symbolic synthesis of culture and dharmic principles with artistic expression. It is this period that is credited with the ideas of garbhagrha for Purusa, mandapa for sheltering the devotees and rituals in progress, as well as symbolic motifs relating to dharma, karma, kama, artha and moksha. Temple superstructures were built from stone, brick and wide range of materials. Entrance ways, walls and pillars were intricately carved, while parts of temple were decorated with gold, silver and jewels. Visnu, Siva and other deities were placed in Hindu temples, while Buddhists and Jains built their own temples, often side by side with Hindus.
The 4th through 6th century marked the flowering of Vidharbha style, whose accomplishments survive in central India as Ajanta caves, Pavnar, Mandhal and Mahesvar. In South India, this period is credited with some of the earliest stone temples of the region, with Chalukya temples dated to be from the 5th century by some scholars, and the 6th by some others. Over 6th and 7th century, temple designs were further refined during Maurya dynasty, evidence of which survives today at Ellora and Elephanta.
It is the 5th through 7th century AD when outer design and appearances of Hindu temples in north India and south India began to widely diverge. Nevertheless, the forms, theme, symbolism and central ideas in the grid design remained same, before and after, pan-India as innovations were adopted to give distinctly different visual expressions.
During the 5th to 11th century, Hindu temples flourished outside Indian subcontinent, such as in Cambodia, Viet Nam, Malaysia and Indonesia.
With the arrival of Islam in South Asia, Hindu temples along with the temples of Buddhists and Jains, became targets of Islamic armies. Idols were broken up and damaged. Spires and pillars were torn down by the invading armies from Persia, Central Asia and resident Sultans. Temples were looted of their treasury and parts reused to build or to convert the temples into mosques. During some periods, Muslim emperors such as Akbar encouraged arts, helped repair and protect Hindu temples. In other periods, the Sultans and emperors led a campaign of temple destruction as well as forbade repairs to damaged temples. Richard Eaton has listed 80 campaigns of Hindu temple site destruction stretching over centuries, particularly from the 12th through the 18th century. The religious conflict and desecrations continued during the British colonial era.
The destruction of Hindu temple sites was comparatively less in the southern parts of India, such as in Tamil Nadu. Cave style Hindu temples that were carved inside a rock, hidden and rediscovered centuries later, such as the Kailasha Temple, have also survived. These are now UNESCO world heritage sites.
The customs and etiquette varies across India. Devotees in major temples may bring in symbolic offerings for the puja. This includes fruits, flowers, sweets and other symbols of the bounty of the natural world. Temples in India are usually surrounded with small shops selling these offerings.
When inside the temple, devotees keep both hands folded (namaste mudra). The inner sanctuary, where the murtis reside, is known as the garbhagriha. It symbolizes the birthplace of the universe, the meeting place of the gods and mankind, and the threshold between the transcendental and the phenomenal worlds. It is in this inner shrine that devotees seek a darsana of, where they offer prayers. Devotees may or may not be able to personally present their offerings at the feet of the deity. In most large Indian temples, only the pujaris (priest) are allowed to enter into the main sanctum.
Temple management staff typically announce the hours of operation, including timings for special pujas. These timings and nature of special puja vary from temple to temple. Additionally, there may be specially allotted times for devotees to perform circumambulations (or pradakshina) around the temple.
Visitors and worshipers to large Hindu temples may be required to deposit their shoes and other footwear before entering. Where this is expected, the temples provide an area and help staff to store footwear. Dress codes vary. It is customary in temples in Kerala, for men to remove shirts and to cover pants and shorts with a traditional cloth known as a Vasthiram. In Java and Bali (Indonesia), before one enters the most sacred parts of a Hindu temple, shirts are required as well as Sarong around one 's waist. At many other locations, this formality is unnecessary.
North Indian temples are referred to as Nagara style of temple architecture. They have sanctum sanctorum where the deity is present, open on one side from where the devotee obtains darśana. There may or may not be many more surrounding corridors, halls, etc. However, there will be space for devotees to go around the temple in clockwise fashion circumambulation. In North Indian temples, the tallest towers are built over the sanctum sanctorum in which the deity is installed.
The north India Nagara style of temple designs often deploy fractal - theme, where smaller parts of the temple are themselves images or geometric re-arrangement of the large temple, a concept found in French and Russian architecture such as the matryoshka principle. One difference is the scope and cardinality, where Hindu temple structures deploy this principle in every dimension with garbhgriya as the primary locus, and each pada as well as zones serving as additional centers of loci. This makes a Nagara Hindu temple architecture symbolically a perennial expression of movement and time, of centrifugal growth fused with the idea of unity in everything.
In West Bengal, the Bengali terra cotta temple architecture is found. Due to lack of suitable stone in the alluvial soil locally available, the temple makers had to resort to other materials instead of stone. This gave rise to using terracotta as a medium for temple construction. Terracotta exteriors with rich carvings are a unique feature of Bengali temples. The town of Vishnupur in West Bengal is renowned for this type of architecture. There is also a popular style of building known as Navaratna (nine - towered) or Pancharatna (five - towered). An example of Navaratna style is the Dakshineswar Kali Temple.
Odisha temple architecture is known as Kalinga architecture, classifies the spire into three parts, the Bāḍa (lower limb), the Ganḍi (body) and the Cuḷa / Mastaka (head). Each part is decorated in a different manner. Kalinga architecture is a style which flourished in Kalinga, the name for kingdom that included ancient Odisha. It includes three styles: Rekha Deula, Pidha Deula and Khakhara Deula. The former two are associated with Vishnu, Surya and Shiva temples while the third is mainly associated with Chamunda and Durga temples. The Rekha Deula and Khakhara Deula houses the sanctum sanctorum while the Pidha Deula style includes space for outer dancing and offering halls.
The temple architecture of Goa is quite unique. As Portuguese colonial hegemony increased, Goan Hindu temples became the rallying point to local resistance. Many these temples are not more than 500 years old, and are a unique blend of original Goan temple architecture, Dravidian, Nagar and Hemadpanthi temple styles with some British and Portuguese architectural influences. Goan temples were built using sedimentary rocks, wood, limestone and clay tiles, and copper sheets were used for the roofs. These temples were decorated with mural art called as Kavi kala or ocher art. The interiors have murals and wood carvings depicting scenes from the Hindu mythology.
South Indian temples have a large gopuram, a monumental tower, usually ornate, at the entrance of the temple. This forms a prominent feature of Koils, Hindu temples of the Dravidian style. They are topped by the kalasam, a bulbous stone finial. They function as gateways through the walls that surround the temple complex. The gopuram 's origins can be traced back to early structures of the Tamil kings Pallavas; and by the twelfth century, under the Pandya rulers, these gateways became a dominant feature of a temple 's outer appearance, eventually overshadowing the inner sanctuary which became obscured from view by the gopuram 's colossal size. It also dominated the inner sanctum in amount of ornamentation. Often a shrine has more than one gopuram. They also appear in architecture outside India, especially Khmer architecture, as at Angkor Wat. A koil may have multiple gopurams, typically constructed into multiple walls in tiers around the main shrine. The temple 's walls are typically square with the outer most wall having gopuras. The sanctum sanctorum and its towering roof (the central deity 's shrine) are also called the vimanam. The inner sanctum has restricted access with only priests allowed beyond a certain point.
Temples in Kerala have a different architectural style (keeping the same essence of Vastu), especially due to climatic differences Kerala have with other parts of India with larger rainfall. The temple roof is mostly tiled and is sloped and the walls are often square, the innermost shrine being entirely enclosed in another four walls to which only the pujari (priest) enters. The walls are decorated with either mural paintings or rock sculptures which many times are emphasised on Dwarapalakas.
Temples in Karnataka (Tulu Nadu) have a unique style of architecture and have been constructed according to vasthu. Among these Shri Agnidurga Gopalkrishna Temple (Gurupur, Mangalore), Sri Gokarnanatheshwara Temple (Kadri), Sri Kudtheri Mahamaya Temple, Sri Sowthedka Temple, Sri Mahothobaara Kotilingeshwara Temple, Sri Chandramouleswara Temple, Sri Brahma Baidarkala Garadi Temple, Sri Durga Parameshwari Temple, Sri Somanatheshwara Temple, Sri Manjunatha Temple, Sri Subramanya Temple, Sri Mahaganapati Temple, Sri Durga Parameshwari Temple, Sri Durga Parameshwari Temple, Sri Adi Janardana Temple, Sri Mookambika Temple, Sri Durgaparameshwari Temple, Sri Vinayaka Temple, Sri Shankara Narayana Temple, Sri Durga Parameshwari Temple, Sri Vishwanatha Temple, Sri Amrutheshwara Temple, Sri Subramanya Temple, Sri Raja Rajeshwari Temple, Sri Kadri Manjunatha Temple, Sri Mangaladevi Temple, Sri Mahalingeshwara Temple, Sri Somanatheshwara Temple, Sri Durga Parameshwari Temple, Sri Vishnu Murthy Temple, Sri Durga Parameshwari Temple, Sri Mahalingeshwara Mahaganapati Temple, Sri Janardana Swamy Temple, Sri Ananteshwara Vinayaka Temple, Sri Mahisha Mardini Temple among others are famous temples and with lot of religious activities.
Temple construction reached its peak during rule of Pallavas. They built various temples around Kancheepuram, and Narasimhavarman II built the Shore Temple in Mamallapuram, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Pandyas rule created temples such as the Meenakshi Amman Temple at Madurai and Nellaiappar Temple at Tirunelveli. The Cholas were prolific temple builders right from the times of the first medieval king Vijayalaya Chola. The Chola temples include Nataraja temple at Chidambaram, the Sri Ranganathaswami Temple at Srirangam, the Brihadeshvara Temple of Thanjavur, Brihadeshvara Temple of Gangaikonda Cholapuram and the Airavatesvara Temple of Darasuram which are among the UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The Nayaks of Madurai reconstructed some of the well - known temples in Tamil Nadu such as the Meenakshi Temple.
Angkor Wat was built as a Hindu temple by King Suryavarman II in the early 12th century in Yasodharapura (Khmer, present - day Angkor), the capital of the Khmer Empire, as his state temple and eventual mausoleum. Breaking from the Shaiva tradition of previous kings, Angkor Wat was instead dedicated to Vishnu. The Spire in Khmer Hindu temple is called Giri (mountain) and symbolizes the residence of gods just like Meru does in Bali Hindu mythology and Ku (Guha) does in Burmese Hindu mythology.
Angkor Wat is just one of numerous Hindu temples in Cambodia, most of them in ruins. Hundreds of Hindu temples are scattered from Siem Reap to Sambor Prei Kuk in central Cambodian region.
Pashupatinath temple is one of the important temples of Hindu religion which is situated in Kathmandu, Nepal. It is built in a pagoda style and is surrounded by hundreds of temples and buildings built by kings. The temples top is made from pure gold.
There are a number of Hindu temple clusters along the coast of Vietnam, with some on UNESCO world heritage site list. Examples include Mỹ Sơn -- a cluster of 70 temples with earliest dated to be from the 4th century AD and dedicated to Siva, while others are dedicated to Hindu deities Krishna, Vishnu and others. These temples, internally and with respect to each other, are also built on the Hindu perfect square grid concept. Other sites in Vietnam with Hindu temples include Phan Rang with the Cham temple Po Klong Garai.
Ancient Hindu temples in Indonesia are called Candi (read: chandi). Hindu temples of ancient Java bear resemblances with temples of South Indian style. The largest of these is the 9th century Javanese Hindu temple, Prambanan in Yogyakarta, now a UNESCO world heritage site. It was designed as three concentric squares and has 224 temples. The inner square contains 16 temples dedicated to major Hindu deities, of which Shiva temple is the largest. The temple has extensive wall reliefs and carvings illustrating the stories from the Hindu epic Ramayana.
In Bali, the Hindu temple is known as "Pura '', which is designed as an open - air worship place in a walled compound. The compound walls have a series of intricately decorated gates without doors for the devotee to enter. The design, plan and layout of the holy pura follows a square layout.
Thailand has many notable Hindu temples including: the Sri Mariammam temple in Bangkok, the Devasathan, the Erawan Shrine, Prasat Muang Tam, Sdok Kok Thom and Phanom Rung. Most of the newer Hindu temples are of South Indian origin and were built by Tamil migrant communities. However, Thailand has many historic indigenous Hindu temples such as Phanom Rung. Although most indigenous Hindu temples are ruins, a few such as Devasathan in Bangkok are actively used.
Many members of the South Asian diaspora have established Hindu mandirs outside India as a means of preserving and celebrating cultural and spiritual heritage abroad. Describing the hundreds of mandirs that can be found throughout the United States, scholar Gail M. Harley observes, "The temples serve as central locations where Hindus can come together to worship during holy festivals and socialize with other Hindus. Temples in America reflect the colorful kaleidoscopic aspects contained in Hinduism while unifying people who are disbursed throughout the American landscape. '' Numerous mandirs in North America and Europe have gained particular prominence and acclaim, many of which were built by the Bochasanwasi Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha. The Hindu Temple Society of North America, representing Sri Maha Vallabha Ganapati Devasthanam (Sanskrit: श्री महावल्लभ गणपति देवस्थानम्, Tamil: ஸ்ரீ மகா வல்லப கணபதி தேவஸ்தானம்), in Flushing, Queens, New York City, is the oldest Hindu temple in the Western Hemisphere, and its canteen feeds 4,000 people a week, with as many as 10,000 during the Diwali (Deepavali) holiday.
The Archaeological Survey of India has control of most ancient temples of archaeological importance in India. In India, day - to - day activities of a temple is managed by a temple board committee that administers its finances, management, and events. Since independence, the autonomy of individual Hindu religious denominations to manage their own affairs with respect to temples of their own denomination has been severely eroded and the state governments have taken control of major Hindu temples in some countries; however, in others, such as the United States, private temple management autonomy has been preserved.
In Sanskrit, the liturgical language of Hinduism, the word mandira means "house '' (Sanskrit: मन्दिर). Ancient Sanskrit texts use many words for temple, such as matha, vayuna, kirti, kesapaksha, devavasatha, vihara, suravasa, surakula, devatayatana, amaragara, devakula, devagrha, devabhavana, devakulika, and niketana. Regionally, they are also known as prasada, vimana, kshetra, gudi, ambalam, punyakshetram, deval, deula, devasthanam, kovil, candi, pura, and wat.
The following are the other names by which a Hindu temple is referred to in India:
In Southeast Asia temples known as:
Some lands, including Varanasi, Puri, Kanchipuram, Dwarka, Amarnath, Kedarnath, Somnath, Mathura and Rameswara, are considered holy in Hinduism. They are called kṣétra (Sanskrit: क्षेत्र). A kṣétra has many temples, including one or more major ones. These temples and its location attracts pilgrimage called tirtha (or tirthayatra).
Media related to Hindu temples at Wikimedia Commons
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who plays golem in lord of the rings | Andy Serkis - Wikipedia
Andrew Clement Serkis (born 20 April 1964) is an English actor and director. He is best known for his performance capture roles comprising motion capture acting, animation and voice work for such computer - generated characters as Gollum in The Lord of the Rings film trilogy (2001 -- 2003) and The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey (2012), King Kong in the eponymous 2005 film, Caesar in the Planet of the Apes reboot series (2011 -- 17), Captain Haddock / Sir Francis Haddock in Steven Spielberg 's The Adventures of Tintin (2011), and Supreme Leader Snoke in the first two Star Wars sequel trilogy (Star Wars: The Force Awakens (2015) and Star Wars: The Last Jedi (2017)). Upcoming performance capture roles include Baloo in his self - directed film, Mowgli (2018).
Serkis ' film work in motion capture has been critically acclaimed. He has received an Empire Award, and two Saturn Awards for his motion - capture acting. He earned a Golden Globe nomination for his portrayal of serial killer Ian Brady in the British television film Longford (2006) and was nominated for a BAFTA for his portrayal of new wave and punk rock musician Ian Dury in the biopic Sex & Drugs & Rock & Roll (2010).
In 2015, Serkis began playing Ulysses Klaue in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, beginning with Avengers: Age of Ultron, which was followed by Black Panther (2018). Serkis has his own production company and motion capture workshop, The Imaginarium Studios in London, which he used for Mowgli. He made his directorial debut with Imaginarium 's 2017 film Breathe.
Serkis was born and brought up in Ruislip Manor in Middlesex. His mother, Lylie (born Weech), was English and taught disabled children; his father, Clement Serkis, was an Iraqi - born gynaecologist of Armenian descent. His ancestors ' original surname was "Sarkisian ''. His father often worked away in the Middle East, while Serkis and his siblings were raised in Britain, with regular holidays in the Middle East including to Tyre, Sidon, Damascus and Baghdad.
Serkis was educated at St Benedict 's School, Ealing, and then studied visual arts at Lancaster University. He chose theatre as a secondary subject so that he could design posters. Serkis was a member of the County College and part of the student radio station Bailrigg FM. He joined the Nuffield Studio, getting involved in designing and producing plays.
Having agreed to act in a couple of productions towards the end of his first year, Serkis played the lead role in Barrie Keeffe 's play, Gotcha, as a rebellious teenager holding a teacher hostage. As a result, he changed his major subject to acting, constructing his Independent Studies Degree around acting and set design, studying Konstantin Stanislavski and Bertolt Brecht, and including minor modules in art and visual graphics. In his final year at Lancaster he adapted Raymond Briggs 's graphic novel The Tin - Pot Foreign General and the Old Iron Woman, a satire about the Falklands War, as a one - man show, which he performed to acclaim.
In his third year at college, Serkis joined the backstage team at the local Duke 's Playhouse to earn his Equity card. On graduation, although advised to take a one - year post-graduate acting course, he joined Dukes as an actor and, under director Jonathan Petherbridge who used workshops based upon the methods of Augusto Boal, spent 18 months acting in a broad range of productions from Brecht through Shakespeare to modern British playwrights.
After 16 months, and having gained his Equity card, Serkis joined a series of touring companies, including productions of: Bouncers opposite Hull Truck; Florizel in The Winter 's Tale; and the fool in King Lear with director Max Stafford - Clark. In the early 1990s he settled in London, and took roles in Dogboy, the Royal Court Theatre 's production of Mojo, Bill Sikes in a television film of Oliver Twist (1999) and Wilson Milam 's production of Hurlyburly (1997) at the Queen 's Theatre, Shaftesbury Avenue, with Rupert Graves and David Tennant.
Like many British actors, Serkis made the move to television by appearing in small roles, such as Greville in an episode of The Darling Buds of May (1992). However, one of his first major starring roles was in the joint BBC / HBO production of Einstein and Eddington (2008). Serkis played Albert Einstein, following the development of his theory of relativity, while David Tennant played British scientist Sir Arthur Eddington. Serkis joined director Mike Leigh 's ensemble for two film productions, and appeared in the romantic comedy Loop (1997) alongside Susannah York.
Serkis first came to wide public notice for his performance as Sméagol / Gollum, in The Lord of the Rings film trilogy (2001 -- 2003), for which he provided motion capture movements and voice for the CGI character. His work on The Lord of the Rings started a debate on the legitimacy of CGI - assisted acting. Some critics felt Serkis should have been nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor, since his voice, body language, and facial expressions were used.
Serkis has done critically acclaimed motion capture work in several other films, including the title character in the 2005 version of King Kong (in which he also played the ship 's cook in live action) and as Caesar in Rise of the Planet of the Apes (2011), Dawn of the Planet of the Apes (2014), and War for the Planet of the Apes (2017). He also worked with game developers Ninja Theory on the 2007 release Heavenly Sword, providing the motion capture and voice for King Bohan (the game 's main villain).
Serkis was cast as serial killer Ian Brady in the BAFTA - nominated Longford, co-starring Samantha Morton as Myra Hindley and Jim Broadbent as Lord Longford. The film was attacked by relatives of Brady 's and Hindley 's victims. In 2006, Serkis appeared in the role of Mr. Grin in the film rendition of Anthony Horowitz 's Alex Rider novel Stormbreaker. In 2006, he was in the film The Prestige as Mr. Alley, assistant to Nikola Tesla, and as the voice of Spike, one of the henchrats in the Aardman Animations film Flushed Away. In 2006 Serkis appeared in Jim Threapleton 's improvised feature film Extraordinary Rendition, which premiered in 2007. In 2010, he played 1970s new wave singer Ian Dury in Sex & Drugs & Rock & Roll. Serkis appeared in Sugarhouse, a low - budget independently made film, playing local crime lord Hoodwink, who terrorises an east London housing estate. For the role, Serkis shaved his head and had sessions lasting 20 hours each to have temporary tattoos stencilled onto his body. The film premiered at the 2007 Edinburgh Festival and released in the UK on 24 August 2007. He appeared alongside Sacha Baron Cohen in The Jolly Boys ' Last Stand.
In 2007, Serkis provided the voice over for Monkey Life, Five broadcast for three weeks from 13 -- 31 August 2007. This series is about Monkey World, the popular ape and monkey sanctuary and zoo near Wool, Dorset. Serkis reunited with Peter Jackson, as a cast member in Jackson 's and Steven Spielberg 's Tintin trilogy, based on The Adventures of Tintin. Serkis supplied the voice and motion capture performance of Captain Haddock (adopting a Scottish accent) as well as his ancestor, Sir Francis Haddock. Filming began in January 2009 and the film was released in 2011. Filming was due to begin in September 2008, but was delayed due to Universal pulling out of backing the project. In 2008, Serkis appeared as Rigaud in the BBC Television adaptation of Charles Dickens ' Little Dorrit and as Capricorn in Inkheart.
In 2009, Serkis voiced the role of the demon Screwtape in Focus on the Family 's Radio Theatre audio adaptation of C.S. Lewis 's The Screwtape Letters. In 2010, Serkis was cast as William Hare, with Simon Pegg as Burke, in the John Landis black comedy film Burke and Hare based on the Burke and Hare murders in Scotland in 1828.
In 2010, Serkis features in the TV series The Accused, in "Liam 's Story '', written by Danny Brocklehurst and Jimmy McGovern. He played Caesar in the 20th Century Fox science - fiction film Rise of the Planet of the Apes. Serkis was acclaimed for his performance as Caesar, and in a high - profile campaign by 20th Century Fox for him to be honoured with a Best Supporting Actor Oscar nomination, his co-star James Franco stated: "Andy Serkis is the undisputed master of the newest kind of acting called "performance capture, '' and it is time that Serkis gets credit for the innovative artist that he is. '' In 2010, Serkis played Monkey, the lead character along with Lindsay Shaw in the videogame Enslaved: Odyssey to the West.
In January 2011, it was confirmed that Serkis would reprise the role of Gollum in the three - part The Hobbit films which were released in 2012, 2013 and 2014. He was also the film 's second unit director, which included directing aerial shots and battle scenes. He was invited to join the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences in June 2012 along with 175 other individuals. In 2014, Serkis reprised his role as Caesar in Dawn of the Planet of the Apes, and in 2017 again reprised the role in War for the Planet of the Apes, the last of the trilogy.
In Gareth Edwards ' 2014 science - fiction monster film Godzilla, Serkis was the consultant on the film 's motion capture sequences in order to "control the souls '' of the creatures. Serkis played Ulysses Klaue in Marvel Studios ' Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015), and was also a motion capture consultant on the film. Serkis played Supreme Leader Snoke in Star Wars: The Force Awakens (2015) and reprised the role in Star Wars: The Last Jedi (2017).
In late 2015, it was announced that Serkis was working on a modern film adaptation of Rumpelstiltskin, titled Steelskin. In addition to starring in the film, Serkis will serve as producer and director.
In 2011, Serkis founded The Imaginarium Studios with film producer Jonathan Cavendish. The Imaginarium is a production company and creative digital studio based in Ealing, London and is dedicated to invention of believable, emotionally engaging digital characters using Performance Capture technology, in which Serkis specialises. On 20 October 2012, the studio acquired rights to The Bone Season by Samantha Shannon and a new motion capture adaptation of Animal Farm, which Serkis will direct.
Serkis has served as the second unit director for The Hobbit films and made his directorial debut with Breathe. He will also direct the upcoming film, Mowgli.
Serkis published a memoir about his experiences playing Gollum in The Lord of the Rings film trilogy, Gollum: How We Made Movie Magic, published in late 2004. He also made an appearance in the music video for Neneh Cherry 's "Woman '', portraying an abusive boyfriend. In 2015, Serkis collaborated with British rock band Coldplay in the making of the music video for "Adventure of a Lifetime '' (which saw the group perform as chimpanzees) with Serkis acting as a performance capture consultant.
Serkis was born to Catholic parents, and though he has been an atheist since his teenage years, he is "drawn to the karmic possibilities of energy transference '', specifically "the idea that your energy lives on after you ''. He studied visual arts and theatre as part of his degree at Lancaster University and graduated in 1985.
Serkis married actress Lorraine Ashbourne in July 2002. He lives in Crouch End, north London with his wife and their three children: Ruby (b. 1998), Sonny (b. 2000) and Louis (b. 2004).
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how many parks does disney world have in orlando | Walt Disney World - Wikipedia
Coordinates: 28 ° 23 ′ 07 '' N 81 ° 33 ′ 50 '' W / 28.385233 ° N 81.563874 ° W / 28.385233; - 81.563874 The Walt Disney World Resort is an entertainment complex in Bay Lake and Lake Buena Vista, Florida, near Orlando and Kissimmee, Florida. Opened on October 1, 1971, the resort is owned and operated by Walt Disney Parks and Resorts, a division of The Walt Disney Company. It was initially operated by Walt Disney World Company. The property covers 27,258 acres (43 sq mi; 110 km), featuring four theme parks, two water parks, twenty - seven themed resort hotels, nine non -- Disney hotels, several golf courses, a camping resort, and other entertainment venues, including Disney Springs.
Designed to supplement Disneyland in Anaheim, California, which had opened in 1955, the complex was developed by Walt Disney in the 1960s. "The Florida Project '', as it was known, was intended to present a distinct vision with its own diverse set of attractions. Walt Disney 's original plans also called for the inclusion of an "Experimental Prototype Community of Tomorrow '' (EPCOT), a planned community intended to serve as a test bed for new city living innovations. After extensive lobbying, the Government of Florida created the Reedy Creek Improvement District, a special government district that essentially gave The Walt Disney Company the standard powers and autonomy of an incorporated city. Walt Disney died on December 15, 1966, before construction began. Without Disney spearheading the construction, the company created a resort similar to Disneyland, abandoning experimental concepts for a planned community. Magic Kingdom was the first theme park to open in the complex, in 1971, followed by Epcot in 1982, Disney 's Hollywood Studios in 1989, and the most recent, Disney 's Animal Kingdom in 1998.
Today, Walt Disney World is the most visited vacation resort in the world, with an average annual attendance of over 52 million. The resort is the flagship destination of Disney 's worldwide corporate enterprise, and has become a popular staple in American culture.
In 1959, Walt Disney Productions began looking for land to house a second resort to supplement Disneyland in Anaheim, California, which had opened in 1955. Market surveys at the time revealed that only 5 % of Disneyland 's visitors came from east of the Mississippi River, where 75 % of the population of the United States lived. Additionally, Walt Disney disliked the businesses that had sprung up around Disneyland and wanted more control over a larger area of land in the next project.
Walt Disney flew over a potential site in Orlando, Florida -- one of many -- in November 1963. After witnessing the well - developed network of roads and taking the planned construction of both Interstate 4 and Florida 's Turnpike into account, with McCoy Air Force Base (later Orlando International Airport) to the east, Disney selected a centrally - located site near Bay Lake. To avoid a burst of land speculation, Walt Disney World Company used various dummy corporations to acquire 30,500 acres (48 sq mi; 123 km) of land. In May 1965, some of these major land transactions were recorded a few miles southwest of Orlando in Osceola County. In addition, two large tracts totaling $1.5 million were sold, and smaller tracts of flatlands and cattle pastures were purchased by exotically - named companies such as the "Ayefour Corporation '', "Latin - American Development and Management Corporation '' and the "Reedy Creek Ranch Corporation ''. Some are now memorialized on a window above Main Street, U.S.A. in Magic Kingdom. The smaller parcels of land acquired were called "outs ''. They were 5 - acre (2 ha) lots platted in 1912 by the Munger Land Company and sold to investors. Most of the owners in the 1960s were happy to get rid of the land, which was mostly swamp at the time. Another issue was the mineral rights to the land, which were owned by Tufts University. Without the transfer of these rights, Tufts could come in at any time and demand the removal of buildings to obtain minerals. Eventually, Disney 's team negotiated a deal with Tufts to buy the mineral rights for $15,000.
Working strictly in secrecy, real estate agents unaware of their client 's identity began making offers to landowners in April 1964 in parts of southwest Orange and northwest Osceola counties. The agents were careful not to reveal the extent of their intentions, and they were able to negotiate numerous land contracts with some including large tracts of land for as little as $100 an acre. With the understanding that the recording of the first deeds would trigger intense public scrutiny, Disney delayed the filing of paperwork until a large portion of the land was under contract.
Early rumors and speculation about the land purchases assumed possible development by NASA in support of the nearby Kennedy Space Center, as well as references to other famous investors such as Ford, the Rockefellers, and Howard Hughes. An Orlando Sentinel news article published weeks later on May 20, 1965, acknowledged a popular rumor that Disney was building an "East Coast '' version of Disneyland. However, the publication denied its accuracy based on an earlier interview with Disney at Kennedy Space Center, in which he claimed a $50 million investment was in the works for Disneyland, and that he had no interest in building a new park. In October 1965, editor Emily Bavar from the Sentinel visited Disneyland during the park 's 10th - anniversary celebration. In an interview with Disney, she asked him if he was behind recent land purchases in Central Florida; Bavar later described that Disney "looked like I had thrown a bucket of water in his face '' before denying the story. His reaction, combined with other research obtained during her Anaheim visit, led Bavar to author a story on October 21, 1965, where she predicted that Disney was building a second theme park in Florida. Three days later after gathering more information from various sources, the Sentinel published another article headlined, "We Say: ' Mystery Industry ' Is Disney ''.
Walt Disney had originally planned to publicly reveal Disney World on November 15, 1965, but in light of the Sentinel story, Disney asked Florida Governor Haydon Burns to confirm the story on October 25. His announcement called the new theme park "the greatest attraction in the history of Florida ''. The official reveal was kept on the previously - planned November 15 date, and Disney joined Burns in Orlando for the event.
Walt Disney died from Circulatory Collapse caused by lung cancer on December 15, 1966, before his vision was realized. His brother and business partner, Roy O. Disney, postponed his retirement to oversee construction of the resort 's first phase.
On February 2, 1967, Roy O. Disney held a press conference at the Park Theatres in Winter Park, Florida. The role of EPCOT was emphasized in the film that was played. After the film, it was explained that for Disney World, including EPCOT, to succeed, a special district would have to be formed: the Reedy Creek Improvement District with two cities inside it, Bay Lake and Reedy Creek, now Lake Buena Vista. In addition to the standard powers of an incorporated city, which include the issuance of tax - free bonds, the district would have immunity from any current or future county or state land - use laws. The only areas where the district had to submit to the county and state would be property taxes and elevator inspections. The legislation forming the district and the two cities was signed into law by Florida Governor Claude R. Kirk, Jr. on May 12, 1967. The Supreme Court of Florida then ruled in 1968 that the district was allowed to issue tax - exempt bonds for public projects within the district, despite the sole beneficiary being Walt Disney Productions.
The district soon began construction of drainage canals, and Disney built the first roads and the Magic Kingdom. The Contemporary Resort Hotel and Polynesian Village were also completed in time for the park 's opening on October 1, 1971. The Palm and Magnolia golf courses near Magic Kingdom had opened a few weeks before, while Fort Wilderness opened a month later. 24 days after the park opened, Roy O. Disney dedicated the property and declared that it would be known as "Walt Disney World '' in his brother 's honor. In his own words: "Everyone has heard of Ford cars. But have they all heard of Henry Ford, who started it all? Walt Disney World is in memory of the man who started it all, so people will know his name as long as Walt Disney World is here. '' After the dedication, Roy Disney asked Walt 's widow, Lillian, what she thought of Walt Disney World. According to biographer Bob Thomas, she responded, "I think Walt would have approved. '' Roy Disney died at age 78 on December 20, 1971, less than three months after the property opened.
Admission prices in 1971 were $3.50 for adults, $2.50 for juniors under age 18, and one dollar for children under twelve.
Much of Walt Disney 's plans for his Progress City were abandoned after his death after the company board decided that it did not want to be in the business of running a city. The concept evolved into the resort 's second theme park, EPCOT Center (renamed Epcot in 1996), which opened in 1982. While still emulating Walt Disney 's original idea of showcasing new technology, it is closer to a world 's fair than a "community of tomorrow ''. Some of the urban planning concepts from the original idea of EPCOT would instead be integrated into the community of Celebration much later. The resort 's third theme park, Disney - MGM Studios (renamed Disney 's Hollywood Studios in 2008), opened in 1989 and is inspired by show business. The resort 's fourth theme park, Disney 's Animal Kingdom, opened in 1998.
George Kalogridis was named president of the resort in December 2012, replacing Meg Crofton, who had overseen the site since 2006.
On January 21, 2016, the resort 's management structure was changed, with general managers within a theme park being in charge of an area or land, instead of on a functional basis as previously. Theme parks have already had a vice-president overseeing them. Disney Springs and Disney Sports were also affected. Now hotel general managers manage a single hotel instead of some managing multiple hotels.
On October 18, 2017, it was announced that resort visitors can now bring dogs on the following resorts: Disney 's Yacht Club Resort, Disney Port Orleans Resort -- Riverside, Disney 's Art of Animation Resort and Disney 's Fort Wilderness Resort & Campground.
Hurricane Frances causes the second closure on Sept. 15. Hurricane Jeanne closes the resort for its third time on September 26.
The Florida resort is not within Orlando city limits but is southwest of Downtown Orlando. Much of the resort is in southwestern Orange County, with the remainder in adjacent Osceola County. The property includes the cities of Lake Buena Vista and Bay Lake which are governed by the Reedy Creek Improvement District. The site is accessible from Central Florida 's Interstate 4 via Exits 62B (World Drive), 64B (US 192 West), 65B (Osceola Parkway West), 67B (SR 536 West), and 68 (SR 535 North), and Exit 8 on SR 429, the Western Expressway. At its founding, the park occupied approximately 30,500 acres (48 sq mi; 123 km). Portions of the property have since been sold or de-annexed, including land now occupied by the Disney - built community of Celebration. Now the park occupies 27,258 acres (43 sq mi; 110 km), about the size of San Francisco, or twice the size of Manhattan.
Cinderella Castle at Magic Kingdom
Spaceship Earth at Epcot
The Chinese Theatre at Disney 's Hollywood Studios
Tree of Life at Disney 's Animal Kingdom
Disney 's property includes four golf courses. The three 18 - hole golf courses are Disney 's Palm (4.5 stars), Disney 's Magnolia (4 stars), and Disney 's Lake Buena Vista (4 stars). There is also a nine - hole walking course (no electric carts allowed) called Oak Trail, designed for young golfers. The Magnolia and Palm courses played home to the PGA Tour 's Children 's Miracle Network Hospitals Classic. Arnold Palmer Golf Management manages the Disney golf courses.
Additionally, there are two themed miniature golf complexes, each with two courses, Fantasia Gardens and Winter Summerland. The two course at Fantasia Gardens are Fantasia Garden and Fantasia Fairways. The Garden course is a traditional miniature - style course based on the "Fantasia '' movies with musical holes, water fountains and characters. Fantasia Fairways is a traditional golf course on miniature scale having water hazards and sand traps.
The two courses at Winter Summerland are Summer and Winter both theme around Santa. Summer is the more challenging of the two 18 - hole courses.
Of the thirty - four resorts and hotels on the Walt Disney World property, twenty - eight are owned and operated by Walt Disney Parks and Resorts. These are classified into four categories -- Deluxe, Moderate, Value, and Disney Vacation Club Villas -- and are located in one of five resort areas: the Magic Kingdom, Epcot, Wide World of Sports, Animal Kingdom, or Disney Springs resort areas.
While all of the Deluxe resort hotels have achieved an AAA Four Diamond rating, Disney 's Grand Floridian Resort & Spa is considered the highest tier flagship luxury resort on the Walt Disney World Resort complex.
The Grand Floridian Resort & Spa, Walt Disney World 's flagship resort
Disney 's Polynesian Resort, a deluxe level resort
Caribbean Beach Resort, the first moderate resort at Walt Disney World
Fort Wilderness, Disney 's campground and cabin resort
Disney 's All Star Movies Resort, one of five value resorts
Shades of Green Resort, owned and operated by the United States Military
The Walt Disney World Dolphin
The Walt Disney World Swan
The Hilton at Walt Disney World, located at Hotel Plaza Boulevard
Guests with a Disney Resort reservation (excluding the Walt Disney World Swan and Dolphin) that arrive at Orlando International Airport can be transported to their resort from the airport using the complimentary Disney Magical Express service, which is operated by Mears Destination Services. Guests can also have their bags picked up and transported to their resort for them through a contract with BAGS Incorporated on participating airlines. Many resorts feature Airline Check - in counters for guests returning to the airport. Here their bags will be checked all the way through to their final destination and they can also have boarding passes printed for them. Some participating airlines are Delta, United, American, Jet Blue, and Alaska Airlines.
In 2014, the resort 's four theme parks all ranked in the top 8 on the list of the 25 most visited theme parks in the world; (1st) Magic Kingdom - 19,332,000 visitors, (6th) Epcot - 11,454,000 visitors, (7th) Disney 's Animal Kingdom - 10,402,000 visitors, and (8th) Disney 's Hollywood Studios - 10,312,000 visitors.
The Walt Disney World Resort is serviced by Disney Transport, a complimentary mass transportation system allowing guest access across the property. The Walt Disney World Monorail System provides free transportation at Walt Disney World. The system operates on three routes that interconnect at the Transportation and Ticket Center (TTC), adjacent to the Magic Kingdom 's parking lot. A fleet of Disney - operated buses on property, branded Disney Transport, is also complimentary for guests.
Disney Transport also operates a fleet of watercraft, ranging in size from water taxis, up to the ferries that connect the Magic Kingdom to the Transportation and Ticket Center. Disney Transport is also responsible for maintaining the fleet of parking lot trams that are used for shuttling visitors between the various theme park parking lots and their respective main entrances.
When the Magic Kingdom opened in 1971, the site employed about 5,500 "cast members ''. Today, Walt Disney World employs more than 74,000 cast members, spending more than $1.2 billion on payroll and $474 million on benefits each year. The largest single - site employer in the United States, Walt Disney World has more than 3,700 job classifications. The resort also sponsors and operates the Walt Disney World College Program, an internship program that offers American college students (CP 's) the opportunity to live about 15 miles (24 km) off - site in four Disney - owned apartment complexes and work at the resort, and thereby provides much of the theme park and resort "front line '' cast members. There is also the Walt Disney World International College Program, an internship program that offers international college students (ICP 's) from all over the world the same opportunity.
Walt Disney World 's corporate culture uses jargon based on theatrical terminology. For example, park visitors are always "guests '', employees are called "cast members '', rides are "attractions '' or "adventures '', cast members costumed as famous Disney characters in a way that does not cover their faces are known as "face characters '', jobs are "roles '', and public and nonpublic areas are respectively labeled "onstage '' and "backstage ''.
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in which case did the u.s. supreme court hold that indigent defendants | Gideon v. Wainwright - wikipedia
Gideon v. Wainwright, 372 U.S. 335 (1963), is a landmark case in United States Supreme Court history. In it, the Supreme Court unanimously ruled that states are required under the Sixth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution to provide counsel (Attorneys) in criminal cases to represent defendants who are unable to afford to pay their own attorneys. The case extended the right to counsel, which had been found under the Fifth and Sixth Amendments to impose requirements on the federal government, by ruling that this right imposed those requirements upon the states as well.
Between midnight and 8: 00 a.m. on June 3, 1961, a burglary occurred at the Bay Harbor Pool Room in Panama City, Florida. An unknown person broke a door, smashed a cigarette machine and a record player, and stole money from a cash register. Later that day, a witness reported that he had seen Clarence Earl Gideon in the poolroom at around 5: 30 that morning, leaving with a wine bottle and money in his pockets. Based on this accusation alone, the police arrested Gideon and charged him with breaking and entering with intent to commit petty larceny.
Gideon appeared in court alone as he was too poor to afford counsel, whereupon the following conversation took place:
The COURT: Mr. Gideon, I am sorry, but I can not appoint counsel to represent you in this case. Under the laws of the State of Florida, the only time the court can appoint counsel to represent a defendant is when that person is charged with a capital offense. I am sorry, but I will have to deny your request to appoint counsel to defend you in this case.
GIDEON: The United States Supreme Court says I am entitled to be represented by counsel.
The Florida court declined to appoint counsel for Gideon. As a result, he was forced to act as his own counsel and conduct his own defense in court, emphasizing his innocence in the case. At the conclusion of the trial the jury returned a guilty verdict. The court sentenced Gideon to serve five years in the state prison.
From the cell at Florida State Prison, making use of the prison library and writing in pencil on prison stationery, Gideon appealed to the United States Supreme Court in a suit against the Secretary of the Florida Department of Corrections, H.G. Cochran. Cochran later retired and was replaced with Louie L. Wainwright before the case was heard by the Supreme Court. Gideon argued in his appeal that he had been denied counsel and, therefore, his Sixth Amendment rights, as applied to the states by the Fourteenth Amendment, had been violated.
The Supreme Court assigned Gideon a prominent Washington, D.C., attorney, future Supreme Court justice Abe Fortas of the law firm Arnold, Fortas & Porter. Opposing, Bruce Jacob, who later became Dean of the Mercer University School of Law and Dean of Stetson University College of Law, argued the case for the State of Florida. Fortas was assisted by longtime Arnold, Fortas & Porter partner Abe Krash and famed legal scholar John Hart Ely, then a third - year student at Yale Law School.
The Supreme Court 's decision was announced on March 18, 1963, and delivered by Justice Hugo Black. The decision was announced as unanimous in favor of Gideon. Three concurring opinions were written by Justices Clark, Douglas and Stone. The Supreme Court decision specifically cited its previous ruling in Powell v. Alabama. Whether or not the decision in Powell v. Alabama applied to non-capital cases had sparked heated debate. Betts v. Brady had earlier held that, unless certain circumstances were present, such as illiteracy or stupidity of the defendant, or an especially complicated case, there was no need for a court - appointed attorney in state court criminal proceedings. Betts had thus provided selective application of the Sixth Amendment right to counsel to the states, depending on the circumstances, as the Sixth Amendment had only been held binding in federal cases. Gideon v. Wainwright overruled Betts v. Brady, instead holding that the assistance of counsel, if desired by a defendant who could not afford to hire counsel, was a fundamental right under the United States Constitution, binding on the states, and essential for a fair trial and due process of law regardless of the circumstances of the case.
Justice Clark 's concurring opinion stated that the Sixth Amendment to the Constitution does not distinguish between capital and non-capital cases, so legal counsel must be provided for an indigent defendant in all cases. Justice Harlan 's concurring opinion stated that the mere existence of a serious criminal charge in itself constituted special circumstances requiring the services of counsel at trial.
The Supreme Court remanded the case to the Supreme Court of Florida for "further action not inconsistent with this decision. ''
Gideon v. Wainwright was one of a series of Supreme Court decisions that confirmed the right of defendants in criminal proceedings, upon request, to have counsel appointed both during trial and on appeal. In the subsequent cases of Massiah v. United States, 377 U.S. 201 (1964) and Miranda v. Arizona 384 U.S. 436 (1966), the Supreme Court further extended the rule to apply even during police interrogation.
About 2000 individuals who had been convicted were freed in Florida alone as a result of the Gideon decision. The decision did not directly result in Gideon being freed; instead, he received a new trial with the appointment of defense counsel at the government 's expense.
Gideon chose W. Fred Turner to be his lawyer in his second trial. The retrial took place on August 5, 1963, five months after the Supreme Court ruling. Turner, during the trial, picked apart the testimony of eyewitness Henry Cook, and in his opening and closing statements suggested that Cook likely had been a lookout for a group of young men who broke into the poolroom to steal beer, then grabbed the coins while they were there. Turner also obtained a statement from the cab driver who had taken Gideon from Bay Harbor, Florida to a bar in Panama City, Florida, stating that Gideon was carrying neither wine, beer nor Coke when he picked him up, even though Cook testified that he had watched Gideon walk from the pool hall to the phone, and then wait for a cab. This testimony completely discredited Cook.
The jury acquitted Gideon after one hour of deliberation. After his acquittal, Gideon resumed his previous life and married again some time later. He died of cancer in Fort Lauderdale on January 18, 1972, at age 61. Gideon 's family in Missouri accepted his body and laid him to rest in an unmarked grave. A granite headstone was added later. It was inscribed with a quote from a letter Gideon wrote to Abe Fortas, the attorney appointed to represent him in the Supreme Court: "Each era finds an improvement in law for the benefit of mankind. ''
The former "incorrect trial '' rule, where the government was given a fair amount of latitude in criminal proceedings as long as there were no "shocking departures from fair procedure '' was discarded in favor of a firm set of "procedural guarantees '' based on the Constitution. The court reversed Betts and adopted rules that did not require a case - by - case analysis, but instead established the requirement of appointed counsel as a matter of right, without a defendant 's having to show "special circumstances '' that justified the appointment of counsel. In this way, the case helped to refine stare decisis: when a prior appellate court decision should be upheld and what standard should be applied to test a new case against case precedent to achieve acceptable practice and due process of law. This confusion resulted in the implementation of several new practices by the Supreme Court when overturning a previous ruling to maintain the "impersonal qualities of the judicial process '' and keep the sense that the legal system is without feeling or prejudice and simply applies justice to those who come before it.
Many changes have been made in the prosecution and legal representation of indigent defendants since the Gideon decision. The decision created and then expanded the need for public defenders which had previously been rare. For example, immediately following the decision, Florida required public defenders in all of the state 's circuit courts. The need for more public defenders also led to a need to ensure that they were properly trained in criminal defense in order to allow defendants to receive as fair a trial as possible. Several states and counties followed suit. Washington D.C., for instance, has created a training program for their public defenders, who must receive rigorous training before they are allowed to represent defendants, and must continue their training in order to remain current in criminal law, procedure, and practices. In 2010, a public defender 's office in the South Bronx, The Bronx Defenders, created the Center for Holistic Defense, which has helped other public defender offices, from Montana to Massachusetts, developed a model of public defense called holistic defense or holistic advocacy. In it, criminal defense attorneys work on interdisciplinary teams, alongside civil attorneys, social workers, and legal advocates to help clients with not only direct but also collateral aspects of their criminal cases. More recently the American Bar Association and the National Legal Aid and Defender Association have set minimum training requirements, caseload levels, and experience requirements for defenders. There is often controversy whether case loads set upon public defenders give them enough time to sufficiently defend their clients. Some criticize the mindset in which public defense lawyers encourage their clients to simply plead guilty. Some defenders say this is intended to lessen their own work load, while others would say it is intended to obtain a lighter sentence by negotiating a plea bargain as compared with going to trial and perhaps having a harsher sentence imposed. Tanya Greene, an ACLU lawyer, has said that is why 90 to 95 percent of defendants do plead guilty: "You 've got so many cases, limited resources, and there 's no relief. You go to work, you get more cases. You have to triage. ''
The Doughty v. Maxwell decision demonstrates the differences between how states and the federal government address standards for waiver of the right to counsel. In this case the Supreme Court granted certiorari and reversed the decision of the state court in Doughty, which held that regardless of Gideon, the defendant waived his or her right to appointed counsel by entering a plea of guilty. The underlying alleged crime and trial in Doughty took place in Ohio, which had its own way of interpreting the right to counsel as do many states. Pennsylvania and West Virginia also deemed that the right to counsel was waived when a plea of guilty was entered. Depending upon one 's viewpoint, rules such as these could be seen as an attempt by a state to establish reasonable rules in criminal cases or as an attempt to save money even at the expense of denying a defendant due process. This varies a great deal from federal law, which generally has stricter guidelines for waiving the right to counsel. An analogous area of criminal law is the circumstances under which a criminal defendant can waive the right to trial. Under federal law, the defendant can only waive his or her right to trial if it is clear that the defendant understands the "charges, the consequences of the various pleas, and the availability of counsel ''. State laws on the subject are often not as strict, making it easier for prosecutors to obtain a defendant 's waiver of the right to trial.
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when did chicken and waffles become a thing | Chicken and waffles - wikipedia
Chicken and waffles refers to either of two American dishes -- one from soul food, the other Pennsylvania Dutch -- that combine chicken with waffles. It is served in certain specialty restaurants in the United States.
The best known chicken and waffle pairing comes from the American soul food tradition and uses fried chicken. The waffle is served as it would be at breakfast time, with condiments such as butter and syrup. This unusual combination of foods is beloved by many people who are influenced by traditions of soul food passed down from past generations of their families. This version of the dish is highly popular in Baltimore, Maryland, enough to become a well - known local custom.
The traditional Pennsylvania Dutch version consists of a plain waffle with pulled, stewed chicken on top, covered in gravy. It is generally found in the Northeastern United States.
The exact origins of this dish are unknown, although several theories about its origin exist. Waffles entered American cuisine in the 1600s with European colonists. The food 's popularity saw a notable boost after 1789 with Thomas Jefferson 's purchase of a waffle iron in France.
In the early 1800s, hotels and resorts outside Philadelphia served waffles with fried catfish. Such establishments also served other dishes like fried chicken, which gradually became the meat of choice due to catfish 's limited, seasonal availability. Waffles served with chicken and gravy were noted as a common Sunday dish among the Pennsylvania Dutch by the 1860s. By the end of the 19th century, the dish was a symbol of Pennsylvania Dutch Country, brought on in part by its association with tourism.
In 1909, a Griswold 's waffle iron advertisement promised, "You can attend a chicken and waffle supper right at home any time you have the notion if you are the owner of a Griswold 's American Waffle Iron. ''
The traditional origin of the dish states that because African Americans in the South rarely had the opportunity to eat chicken and were more familiar with flapjacks or pancakes than with waffles, they considered the dish a delicacy. For decades, it remained "a special - occasion meal in African American families. '' However, other historians cite a scarcity of actual early - era evidence of the dish 's existence in the South, and place the origin later, after the post-Civil War migration of Southern African - Americans to the North during the Reconstruction Era. The combination of chicken and waffles does not appear in early Southern cookbooks such as Mrs. Porter 's Southern Cookery Book, published in 1871 or in What Mrs. Fisher Knows About Old Southern Cooking, published in 1881 by former slave Abby Fisher. Fisher 's cookbook is generally considered the first cookbook written by an African American. The lack of a recipe for the combination of chicken and waffles in Southern cookbooks from the era may suggest a later origin for the dish.
Whatever the case, many modern variants of the dish owe their origins to the meal as it was served in the African - American community in early 20th - century Harlem, New York. The dish was served as early as the 1930s in such Harlem locations as Tillie 's Chicken Shack, Dickie Wells ' jazz nightclub, and particularly the Wells Supper Club. Harlem - style chicken and waffles have been popular in Los Angeles since the 1970s due to the fame of former Harlem resident Herb Hudson 's restaurant Roscoe 's House of Chicken and Waffles, which has become known as a favorite of some Hollywood celebrities and been referenced in several movies.
The 1917 novel Fanny Herself by Edna Ferber mentions a "lying '' sign in a Chicago restaurant that advertises "Southern chicken dinner with waffles and real maple syrup, 35 cents each. ''
In 1935 Bunny Berigan composed a jazz instrumental titled "Chicken and Waffles ''.
The 1941 novel Mildred Pierce by James M. Cain concerns a woman who finds success running a chicken and waffles restaurant.
In the 1988 film Tapeheads, best friends Ivan (John Cusack) and Josh (Tim Robbins) land their first non - "on - spec '' gig as music video producers with a Run - D.M.C. - styled commercial for Roscoe 's House of Chicken and Waffles. They are paid in chicken and waffles.
In the 2005 film Deuce Bigalow: European Gigolo, Deuce (Rob Schneider) finds T.J. (Eddie Griffin) in, in Deuce 's words, "the only chicken and waffles place in all Holland ''. T.J. says that it is "racist '' for a Black man to have to be in a chicken and waffles place; when Deuce counters that T.J. is, in fact, there, T.J. responds "Yeah, but figuring it out is racist. ''
The 2009 blaxploitation parody film Black Dynamite includes a scene in which the character "Roscoe '' is inspired to create a restaurant based around the dish after losing interest in his previous venture, a chili and donut restaurant.
The title character of the animated television espionage comedy ARCHER frequently refers to chicken and waffles as his go to "drunk food, '' often asking for any chefs who so specialize.
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how abundant is calcium in the earth's crust | Calcium - wikipedia
Calcium is a chemical element with symbol Ca and atomic number 20. An alkaline earth metal, calcium is a reactive pale yellow metal that forms a dark oxide - nitride layer when exposed to air. Its physical and chemical properties are most similar to its heavier homologues strontium and barium. It is the fifth most abundant element in Earth 's crust and the third most abundant metal, after iron and aluminium. The most common calcium compound on Earth is calcium carbonate, found in limestone and the fossilised remnants of early sea life; gypsum, anhydrite, fluorite, and apatite are also sources of calcium.
The name derives from Latin calx "lime '', which was obtained from heating limestone. Its compounds were known to the ancients, though their chemistry was unknown until the seventeenth century. It was isolated by Humphry Davy in 1808 via electrolysis of its oxide, who named the element. While the pure metal does not have many applications due to its high reactivity, it is often used as an alloying component in small quantities in steelmaking, and calcium -- lead alloys are sometimes used in automotive batteries. Calcium compounds on the other hand are very widely used in many industries: for example, they are used in foods and pharmaceuticals for calcium supplementation, in the paper industry as bleaches, in cement, in the manufacture of soaps, and as electrical insulators.
Calcium is the fifth most abundant element in the human body and the most abundant metal. Calcium ions play a vital role in the physiology and biochemistry of organisms and the cell as electrolytes. They play an important role in signal transduction pathways, where they act as a second messenger, in neurotransmitter release from neurons, in contraction of all muscle cell types, and in fertilization. Many enzymes require calcium ions as a cofactor. Calcium ions outside cells are also important for maintaining the potential difference across excitable cell membranes, as well as proper bone formation.
Calcium is a very ductile silvery metal with a pale yellow tint whose properties are very similar to the heavier elements in its group, strontium, barium, and radium. A calcium atom has twenty electrons, arranged in the electron configuration (Ar) 4s. Like the other elements placed in group 2 of the periodic table, calcium has two valence electrons in the outermost s - orbital, which are very easily lost in chemical reactions to form a dipositive ion with the stable electron configuration of a noble gas, in this case argon. Hence, calcium is almost always divalent in its compounds, which are usually ionic. Hypothetical univalent salts of calcium would be stable with respect to their elements, but not to disproportionation to the divalent salts and calcium metal, because the enthalpy of formation of MX is much higher than those of the hypothetical MX. This occurs because of the much greater lattice energy afforded by the more highly charged Ca cation compared to the hypothetical Ca cation.
Calcium is considered to be an alkaline earth metal, along with these heavier elements and the lighter beryllium and magnesium. Nevertheless, there are significant differences in chemical and physical properties between beryllium and magnesium (which behave more like aluminium and zinc respectively and have some of the weaker metallic character of the post-transition metals) and the group members from calcium onwards, which traditionally led to "alkaline earth metal '' only applying to the latter group. This classification is mostly obsolete in English - language sources, but is still used in other countries such as Japan. As a result, comparisons with strontium and barium are more germane to calcium chemistry than comparisons with magnesium.
Calcium metal melts at 842 ° C and boils at 1494 ° C, higher than its adjacent group 2 metals do. It crystallises in the face - centered cubic arrangement like strontium; above 450 ° C, it changes to an anisotropic hexagonal close - packed arrangement like magnesium. The density of 1.55 g cm is the lowest in its group, with others decreasing towards it. Calcium can be cut with a knife with effort, although it is still harder than lead. While calcium is a poorer conductor of electricity than copper or aluminium by volume, it is a better conductor than both of them by mass due to its very low density. Although it is infeasible for terrestrial applications as it reacts quickly with atmospheric oxygen, its use as a conductor in space has been considered.
The chemistry of calcium is that of a typical heavy alkaline earth metal. For example, calcium spontaneously reacts with water more quickly than magnesium and less quickly than strontium to produce calcium hydroxide and hydrogen gas. It also reacts with the oxygen and nitrogen in the air to form a mixture of calcium oxide and calcium nitride. When finely divided, it spontaneously burns in air to produce the nitride. In bulk, calcium is less reactive: it quickly forms a hydration coating in moist air, but below 30 % relative humidity it may be stored indefinitely at room temperature.
Besides the simple oxide CaO, the peroxide CaO can be made by direct oxidation of calcium metal under a high pressure of oxygen, and there is some evidence for a yellow superoxide Ca (O). Calcium hydroxide, Ca (OH), is a strong base, though it is not as strong as the hydroxides of strontium, barium or the alkali metals. All four dihalides of calcium are known. Calcium carbonate (CaCO) and calcium sulfate (CaSO) are particularly abundant minerals. Like strontium and barium, as well as the alkali metals and the divalent lanthanides europium and ytterbium, calcium metal dissolves directly in liquid ammonia to give a dark blue solution.
Due to the large size of the Ca ion, high coordination numbers are common, up to 24 in some intermetallic compounds such as CaZn. Calcium is readily complexed by oxygen chelates such as EDTA and polyphosphates, which are useful in analytic chemistry and removing calcium ions from hard water. In the absence of steric hindrance, smaller group 2 cations tend to form stronger complexes, but when large polydentate macrocycles are involved the trend is reversed.
Although calcium is in the same group as magnesium and organomagnesium compounds are very commonly used throughout chemistry, organocalcium compounds are not similarly widespread because they are more difficult to make and more reactive, although they have recently been investigated as possible catalysts. Organocalcium compounds tend to be more similar to organoytterbium compounds due to the similar ionic radii of Yb (102 pm) and Ca (100 pm). Most of these compounds can only be prepared at low temperatures; bulky ligands tend to favor stability. For example, calcium di cyclopentadienyl, Ca (C H), must be made by directly reacting calcium metal with mercurocene or cyclopentadiene itself; replacing the C H ligand with the bulkier C (CH) ligand on the other hand increases the compound 's solubility, volatility, and kinetic stability.
Natural calcium is a mixture of five stable isotopes (Ca, Ca, Ca, Ca, and Ca) and one isotope with a half - life so long that it can be considered stable for all practical purposes (Ca, with a half - life of about 4.3 × 10 years). Calcium is the first (lightest) element to have six naturally occurring isotopes.
By far the most common isotope of calcium in nature is Ca, which makes up 96.941 % of all natural calcium. It is produced in the silicon - burning process from fusion of alpha particles and is the heaviest stable nuclide with equal proton and neutron numbers; its occurrence is also supplemented slowly by the decay of primordial K. Adding another alpha particle would lead to unstable Ti, which quickly decays via two successive electron captures to stable Ca; this makes up 2.806 % of all natural calcium and is the second-most common isotope. The other four natural isotopes, Ca, Ca, Ca, and Ca, are significantly rarer, each comprising less than 1 % of all natural calcium. The four lighter isotopes are mainly products of the oxygen - burning and silicon - burning processes, leaving the two heavier ones to be produced via neutron - capturing processes. Ca is mostly produced in a "hot '' s - process, as its formation requires a rather high neutron flux to allow short - lived Ca to capture a neutron. Ca is produced by electron capture in the r - process in type Ia supernovae, where high neutron excess and low enough entropy ensures its survival.
Ca and Ca are the first "classically stable '' nuclides with a six - neutron or eight - neutron excess respectively. Although extremely neutron - rich for such a light element, Ca is very stable because it is a doubly magic nucleus, having 20 protons and 28 neutrons arranged in closed shells. Its beta decay to Sc is very hindered because of the gross mismatch of nuclear spin: Ca has zero nuclear spin, being even -- even, while Sc has spin 6 +, so the decay is forbidden by the conservation of angular momentum. While two excited states of Sc are available for decay as well, they are also forbidden due to their high spins. As a result, when Ca does decay, it does so by double beta decay to Ti instead, being the lightest nuclide known to undergo double beta decay. The heavy isotope Ca can also theoretically undergo double beta decay to Ti as well, but this has never been observed; the lightest and most common isotope Ca is also doubly magic and could undergo double electron capture to Ar, but this has likewise never been observed. Calcium is the only element to have two primordial doubly magic isotopes. The experimental lower limits for the half - lives of Ca and Ca are 5.9 × 10 years and 2.8 × 10 years respectively.
Apart from the practically stable Ca, the longest lived radioisotope of calcium is Ca. It decays by electron capture to stable K with a half - life of about a hundred thousand years. Its existence in the early Solar System as an extinct radionuclide has been inferred from excesses of K: traces of Ca also still exist today, as it is a cosmogenic nuclide, continuously reformed through neutron activation of natural Ca. Many other calcium radioisotopes are known, ranging from Ca to Ca: they are all much shorter - lived than Ca, the most stable among them being Ca (half - life 163 days) and Ca (half - life 4.54 days). The isotopes lighter than Ca usually undergo beta plus decay to isotopes of potassium, and those heavier than Ca usually undergo beta minus decay to isotopes of scandium, although near the nuclear drip lines proton emission and neutron emission begin to be significant decay modes as well.
Like other elements, a variety of processes alter the relative abundance of calcium isotopes. The best studied of these processes is the mass - dependent fractionation of calcium isotopes that accompanies the precipitation of calcium minerals such as calcite, aragonite and apatite from solution. Lighter isotopes are preferentially incorporated into these minerals, leaving the surrounding solution enriched in heavier isotopes at a magnitude of roughly 0.025 % per atomic mass unit (amu) at room temperature. Mass - dependent differences in calcium isotope composition are conventionally expressed by the ratio of two isotopes (usually Ca / Ca) in a sample compared to the same ratio in a standard reference material. Ca / Ca varies by about 1 % among common earth materials.
Calcium compounds were known for millennia, although their chemical makeup was not understood until the 17th century. Lime as a building material and as plaster for statues was used as far back as around 7000 BC. The first dated lime kiln dates back to 2500 BC and was found in Khafajah, Mesopotamia. At about the same time, dehydrated gypsum (CaSO 2H O) was being used in the Great Pyramid of Giza; this material would later be used for the plaster in the tomb of Tutankhamun. The climate of present - day Italy being warmer than that of Egypt, the ancient Romans instead used lime mortars made by heating limestone (CaCO); the name "calcium '' itself derives from the Latin word calx "lime ''. Vitruvius noted that the lime that resulted was lighter than the original limestone, attributing this to the boiling of the water; in 1755, Joseph Black proved that this was due to the loss of carbon dioxide, which as a gas had not been recognised by the ancient Romans.
In 1787, Antoine Lavoisier suspected that lime might be an oxide of a fundamental chemical element. In his table of the elements, Lavoisier listed five "salifiable earths '' (i.e., ores that could be made to react with acids to produce salts (salis = salt, in Latin): chaux (calcium oxide), magnésie (magnesia, magnesium oxide), baryte (barium sulfate), alumine (alumina, aluminium oxide), and silice (silica, silicon dioxide). About these "elements '', Lavoisier speculated:
We are probably only acquainted as yet with a part of the metallic substances existing in nature, as all those which have a stronger affinity to oxygen than carbon possesses, are incapable, hitherto, of being reduced to a metallic state, and consequently, being only presented to our observation under the form of oxyds, are confounded with earths. It is extremely probable that barytes, which we have just now arranged with earths, is in this situation; for in many experiments it exhibits properties nearly approaching to those of metallic bodies. It is even possible that all the substances we call earths may be only metallic oxyds, irreducible by any hitherto known process.
Calcium, along with its congeners magnesium, strontium, and barium, was first isolated by Humphry Davy in 1808. Following the work of Jöns Jakob Berzelius and Magnus Martin af Pontin on electrolysis, Davy isolated calcium and magnesium by putting a mixture of the respective metal oxides with mercury (II) oxide on a platinum plate which was used as the anode, the cathode being a platinum wire partially submerged into mercury. Electrolysis then gave calcium -- mercury and magnesium -- mercury amalgams, and distilling off the mercury gave the metal. However, pure calcium can not be prepared in bulk by this method and a workable commercial process for its production was not found until over a century later.
At 3 %, calcium is the fifth most abundant element in the Earth 's crust, and the third most abundant metal behind aluminium and iron. It is also the fourth most abundant element in the lunar highlands. Sedimentary calcium carbonate deposits pervade the Earth 's surface as fossilised remains of past marine life; they occur in two forms, the rhombohedral calcite (more common) and the orthorhombic aragonite (forming in more temperate seas). Minerals of the first type include limestone, dolomite, marble, chalk, and iceland spar; aragonite beds make up the Bahamas, the Florida Keys, and the Red Sea basins. Corals, sea shells, and pearls are mostly made up of calcium carbonate. Among the other important minerals of calcium are gypsum (CaSO 2H O), anhydrite (CaSO), fluorite (CaF), and apatite ((Ca (PO) F)).
The major producers of calcium are China (about 10000 to 12000 tonnes per year), Russia (about 6000 to 8000 tonnes per year), and the United States (about 2000 to 4000 tonnes per year). Canada and France are also among the minor producers. In 2005, about 24000 tonnes of calcium were produced; about half of the world 's extracted calcium is used by the United States, with about 80 % of the output used each year. In Russia and China, Davy 's method of electrolysis is still used, but is instead applied to molten calcium chloride. Since calcium is less reactive than strontium or barium, the oxide -- nitride coating that results in air is stable and lathe machining and other standard metallurgical techniques are suitable for calcium. In the United States and Canada, calcium is instead produced by reducing lime with aluminium metal at high temperatures.
Calcium provides a link between tectonics, climate, and the carbon cycle. In the simplest terms, uplift of mountains exposes calcium - bearing rocks to chemical weathering and releases Ca into surface water. These ions are transported to the ocean where they react with dissolved CO to form limestone, which in turn settles to the sea floor where it is incorporated into new rocks. Dissolved CO, along with carbonate and bicarbonate ions, are termed "dissolved inorganic carbon '' (DIC).
The actual reaction is more complicated and involves the bicarbonate ion (HCO − 3) that forms when CO reacts with water at seawater pH:
At seawater pH, most of the CO is immediately converted back into HCO − 3. The reaction results in a net transport of one molecule of CO from the ocean / atmosphere into the lithosphere. The result is that each Ca ion released by chemical weathering ultimately removes one CO molecule from the surficial system (atmosphere, ocean, soils and living organisms), storing it in carbonate rocks where it is likely to stay for hundreds of millions of years. The weathering of calcium from rocks thus scrubs CO from the ocean and atmosphere, exerting a strong long - term effect on climate.
The largest use of calcium is in steelmaking, due to its strong chemical affinity for oxygen and sulfur. Its oxides and sulfides, once formed, give liquid lime aluminate and sulfide inclusions in steel which float out; on treatment, these inclusions disperse throughout the steel and became small and spherical, improving castability, cleanliness and general mechanical properties. Calcium is also used in maintenance - free automotive batteries, in which the use of 0.1 % calcium -- lead alloys instead of the usual antimony -- lead alloys leads to lower water loss and lower self - discharging. Due to the risk of expansion and cracking, aluminium is sometimes also incorporated into these alloys. These lead -- calcium alloys are also used in casting, replacing lead -- antimony alloys. Calcium is also used to strengthen aluminium alloys used for bearings, for the control of graphitic carbon in cast iron, and to remove bismuth impurities from lead. Calcium metal is found in some drain cleaners, where it functions to generate heat and calcium hydroxide that saponifies the fats and liquefies the proteins (for example, those in hair) that block drains. Besides metallurgy, the reactivity of calcium is exploited to remove nitrogen from high - purity argon gas and as a getter for oxygen and nitrogen. It is also used as a reducing agent in the production of chromium, zirconium, thorium, and uranium. It can also be used to store hydrogen gas, as it reacts with hydrogen to form solid calcium hydride, from which the hydrogen can easily be re-extracted.
Calcium isotope fractionation during mineral formation has led to several applications of calcium isotopes. In particular, the 1997 observation by Skulan and DePaolo that calcium minerals are isotopically lighter than the solutions from which the minerals precipitate is the basis of analogous applications in medicine and in paleooceanography. In animals with skeletons mineralized with calcium, the calcium isotopic composition of soft tissues reflects the relative rate of formation and dissolution of skeletal mineral. In humans, changes in the calcium isotopic composition of urine have been shown to be related to changes in bone mineral balance. When the rate of bone formation exceeds the rate of bone resorption, the Ca / Ca ratio in soft tissue rises and vice versa. Because of this relationship, calcium isotopic measurements of urine or blood may be useful in the early detection of metabolic bone diseases like osteoporosis. A similar system exists in seawater, where Ca / Ca tends to rise when the rate of removal of Ca by mineral precipitation exceeds the input of new calcium into the ocean. In 1997 Skulan and DePaolo presented the first evidence of change in seawater Ca / Ca over geologic time, along with a theoretical explanation of these changes. More recent papers have confirmed this observation, demonstrating that seawater Ca concentration is not constant, and that the ocean is never in a "steady state '' with respect to calcium input and output. This has important climatological implications, as the marine calcium cycle is closely tied to the carbon cycle.
Many calcium compounds are used in food, as pharmaceuticals, and in medicine, among others. For example, calcium and phosphorus are supplemented in foods through the addition of calcium lactate, calcium diphosphate, and tricalcium phosphate. The last is also used as a polishing agent in toothpaste and in antacids. Calcium lactobionate is a white powder that is used as a suspending agent for pharmaceuticals. In baking, calcium monophosphate is used as a leavening agent. Calcium sulfite is used as a bleach in papermaking and as a disinfectant, calcium silicate is used as a reinforcing agent in rubber, and calcium acetate is a component of liming rosin and is used to make metallic soaps and synthetic resins.
Calcium is an essential element needed in large quantities. The Ca ion acts as an electrolyte and is vital to the health of the muscular, circulatory, and digestive systems; is indispensable to the building of bone; and supports synthesis and function of blood cells. For example, it regulates the contraction of muscles, nerve conduction, and the clotting of blood. As a result, intra - and extracellular calcium levels are tightly regulated by the body. Calcium can play this role because the Ca ion forms stable coordination complexes with many organic compounds, especially proteins; it also forms compounds with a wide range of solubilities, enabling the formation of skeletons.
Calcium ions may be complexed by proteins through binding the carboxyl groups of glutamic acid or aspartic acid residues; through interacting with phosphorylated serine, tyrosine, or threonine residues; or by being chelated by γ - carboxylated amino acid residues. Trypsin, a digestive enzyme, uses the first method; osteocalcin, a bone matrix protein, uses the third. Some other bone matrix proteins such as osteopontin and bone sialoprotein use both the first and the second. Direct activation of enzymes by binding calcium is common; some other enzymes are activated by noncovalent association with direct calcium - binding enzymes. Calcium also binds to the phospholipid layer of the cell membrane, anchoring proteins associated with the cell surface. As an example of the wide range of solubility of calcium compounds, monocalcium phosphate is very soluble in water, 85 % of extracellular calcium is as dicalcium phosphate with a solubility of 2.0 mM and the hydroxyapatite of bones in an organic matrix is tricalcium phosphate at 100 μM.
About three - quarters of dietary calcium is from dairy products and grains, the rest being accounted for by vegetables, protein - rich foods, fruits, sugar, fats, and oil. Calcium supplementation is controversial, as the bioavailability of calcium is strongly dependent on the solubility of the salt involved: calcium citrate, malate, and lactate are highly bioavailable while the oxalate is much less so. The intestine absorbs about one - third of calcium eaten as the free ion, and plasma calcium level is then regulated by the kidneys. Parathyroid hormone and vitamin D promote the formation of bone by allowing and enhancing the deposition of calcium ions there, allowing rapid bone turnover without affecting bone mass or mineral content. When plasma calcium levels fall, cell surface receptors are activated and the secretion of parathyroid hormone occurs; it then proceeds to stimulate the entry of calcium into the plasma pool by taking it from targeted kidney, gut, and bone cells, with the bone - forming action of parathyroid hormone being antagonised by calcitonin, whose secretion increases with increasing plasma calcium levels.
Excess intake of calcium may cause hypercalcaemia, but because of the inefficient absorption of calcium by the intestines a more likely cause is excessive vitamin D intake or excessive secretion of parathyroid hormone. It can also occur due to the bone destruction that occurs when tumours metastasise to bone. This results in deposition of calcium salts into the heart, the blood vessels, and the kidneys. Symptoms include anorexia, nausea, vomiting, memory loss, confusion, muscle weakness, increased urination, dehydration, and metabolic bone disease. Chronic hypercalcaemia may lead to soft tissue calcification, which can lead to serious consequences: for example, calcification of the vascular wall can lead to a loss of elasticity and the disruption of laminar blood flow, and thence to plaque rupture and thrombosis. Likewise, inadequate calcium or vitamin D intake results in hypocalcaemia, often caused by inadequate secretion of parathyroid hormone or defective receptors to it in cells. Symptoms include neuromuscular excitability, potentially causing tetany and defects in cardiac conduction.
As calcium is heavily involved in bone manufacture, many bone diseases can be traced to problems with the organic matrix or the hydroxyapatite in molecular structure or organisation. For example, osteoporosis is a reduction in mineral content of bone per unit volume, and can be treated by supplementation of calcium, vitamin D, and biphosphates. Calcium supplements may benefit the serum lipids in women who have passed menopause as well as older men; in post-menopausal women calcium supplementation also appears to be inversely correlated with cardiovascular disease. Inadequate amounts of calcium, vitamin D, or phosphates can lead to the softening of bones, known as osteomalacia.
Because calcium reacts exothermically with water and acids, contact of calcium metal with bodily moisture results in severe corrosive irritation. When swallowed, calcium metal has the same effect on the mouth, oesophagus, and stomach, and can be fatal. However, long - term exposure is not known to have distinct adverse effects.
Because of concerns of long - term adverse side effects such as calcification of arteries and kidney stones, the U.S. Institute of Medicine (IOM) and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) both set Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs) for the combination of dietary and supplemental calcium. From the IOM, people ages 9 - 18 years are not supposed to exceed 3,000 mg / day; for ages 19 - 50 not to exceed 2,500 mg / day; for ages 51 and older, not to exceed 2,000 mg / day. The EFSA set UL at 2,500 mg / day for adults but decided the information for children and adolescents was not sufficient to determine ULs.
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where do the chicago white sox play ball | Guaranteed Rate field - wikipedia
Guaranteed Rate Field is a baseball park located in Chicago, Illinois, that serves as the home ballpark for the Chicago White Sox of Major League Baseball. The facility is owned by the state of Illinois through the Illinois Sports Facilities Authority, and is operated by the White Sox. The park opened for the 1991 season, after the White Sox had spent 81 years at the original Comiskey Park. It also opened with the name Comiskey Park but was renamed U.S. Cellular Field in 2003 after U.S. Cellular bought the naming rights at $68 million over 20 years. The current name was announced on October 31, 2016, after Guaranteed Rate, a private residential mortgage company located in Chicago, purchased the naming rights to the ballpark in a 13 - year deal.
The stadium is situated just to the west of the Dan Ryan Expressway in Chicago 's Armour Square neighborhood, adjacent to the more famous neighborhood of Bridgeport. It was built directly across 35th Street from old Comiskey Park, which was demolished to make room for a parking lot that serves the venue. Old Comiskey 's home plate location is represented by a marble plaque on the sidewalk next to Guaranteed Rate Field and the foul lines are painted in the parking lot. Also, the spectator ramp across 35th Street is designed in such a way (partly curved, partly straight but angling east - northeast) that it echoes the contour of the old first - base grandstand.
The park was completed at a cost of US $137 million. The current public address announcer is Gene Honda, who also serves as the PA announcer for the Chicago Blackhawks, NCAA Final Four, and University of Illinois Football.
The stadium was the first new major sporting facility built in Chicago since Chicago Stadium in 1929. It was also the last one built before the wave of new "retro - classic '' ballparks in the 1990s and 2000s. However, a few design features from old Comiskey Park were retained. The front facade of the park features arched windows. Most notable is the "exploding scoreboard '' which pays homage to the original installed by Bill Veeck at the old park in 1960. The original field dimensions and seating configuration were very similar to those of Royals Stadium (now Kauffman Stadium) in Kansas City -- which had been the last baseball - only park built in the majors, in 1973.
As originally built, the park was criticized by many fans because of the height of the upper deck. The original architect, HOK Sport (now Populous), wanted to eliminate the overhang problems present in many stadiums built since the 1970s. With this in mind, the upper deck was set back over the lower deck, and the stands rose fairly gradually. While it gave nearly every seat in the upper level an unobstructed view of the field, it also created one of the highest upper decks in baseball. The first row of seats in the upper deck at the new stadium is as far from the field as the highest row of seats in the upper deck at the old stadium. Due to the field being practically at street level, the original upper deck made the park look like a cookie - cutter stadium from the outside. Fans sitting in this area did n't get much chance for relief, as it is one of the few parks in Major League Baseball that do not allow fans sitting in the upper deck to venture anywhere else in the park, e.g. lower deck concourse.
In response to fan complaints, the stadium has undergone numerous renovations since the 2001 season in order to retrofit the facility to current architectural trends. These changes have included building a multi-tiered concourse beyond center field, adjusting the fences to make the outfield less symmetrical and, most significantly, the removal of 6,600 seats at the top of the upper deck.
The uppermost story of the park now has a white and black screen behind the top row of seats and is topped by a flat canopy roof supported by black steel truss supports that obstruct the view of a few seats. The original blue seats were also replaced by forest green seats. The new green and black color scheme, upper level screen set back from the outer wall and canopy roof are reminiscent of the old Comiskey Park, as well as other classic baseball stadiums. The White Sox have also added murals to the interior concourses, a prominent feature of the old stadium.
The stadium houses 103 luxury suites located on two levels, as well as 1,822 "club seats '' on 300 - level mezzanine between the lower deck and upper deck. The club seats receive in - seat wait - staff and benefit from an enclosed concourse with multiple television viewing areas and bar - style concessions. The stadium has 400 wheelchair - accessible seats, 38 public restrooms, 12 escalators and 15 elevators. The new suites were one example of why the old Comiskey Park was demolished, as suites generate more revenue.
In 2001, extensive renovations were started by HKS Sports & Entertainment Group to make the park more fan - friendly:
Renovations added not part of the original plan.
2010 season
2011 season
2012 season
2014 season
2016 season
2018 season
There are 12 retired numbers on the facade of the 1st and 3rd base sides of the 300 level.
Note: 1994 season incomplete due to Players Strike There were three ties, the first in the 1995 season against the Yankees at Yankee Stadium. The second tie happened in the 1998 season against the Blue Jays at then Comiskey Park. The third tie took place in the 1999 season against the Twins at Comiskey Park.
U.S. Cellular Field has appeared in films such as Rookie of the Year (1993), Major League II (1994), Little Big League (1994), My Best Friend 's Wedding (1997), and The Ladies Man (2000). In Rookie of the Year the stadium played the role of Dodger Stadium and in Little Big League the stadium played the role of all opposing ballparks except for Yankee Stadium and Fenway Park. Commercials for the PGA Tour, Nike, Reebok and the Boys & Girls Clubs of America have been filmed at the park.
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who does the voices in the movie jungle book | The Jungle Book (2016 film) - wikipedia
The Jungle Book is a 2016 American fantasy adventure film directed and produced by Jon Favreau, produced by Walt Disney Pictures, and written by Justin Marks. Based on Rudyard Kipling 's eponymous collective works and inspired by Walt Disney 's 1967 animated film of the same name, The Jungle Book is a live - action / CGI film that tells the story of Mowgli, an orphaned human boy who, guided by his animal guardians, sets out on a journey of self - discovery while evading the threatening Shere Khan. The film introduces Neel Sethi as Mowgli and also features the voices of Bill Murray, Ben Kingsley, Idris Elba, Lupita Nyong'o, Scarlett Johansson, Giancarlo Esposito, and Christopher Walken.
Favreau, Marks, and producer Brigham Taylor developed the film 's story as a balance between Disney 's animated adaptation and Kipling 's original works, borrowing elements from both into the film. Principal photography commenced in 2014, with filming taking place entirely in Los Angeles. The film required extensive use of computer - generated imagery to portray the animals and settings.
The Jungle Book was released in North America in Disney Digital 3 - D, RealD 3D, IMAX 3D, D - Box, and premium large formats, on April 15, 2016. It became a critical and commercial success, grossing over $966 million, making it the fifth - highest - grossing film of 2016 and the 40th - highest - grossing film of all time, praised for its visual effects, musical score, direction, faithfulness to the original animated film, and vocal performances, particularly those of Murray, Kingsley, and Elba. The film won the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects at the 89th Academy Awards.
Mowgli is a "man cub '' raised by the wolf Raksha and her pack, led by Akela, in an Indian jungle ever since he was brought to them as a baby by the black panther Bagheera. Bagheera trains Mowgli to learn the ways of the wolves, but the boy faces certain challenges and falls behind his wolf siblings, while Akela disapproves of him using human tricks like building tools instead of learning the ways of the pack.
One day, during the dry season, the jungle animals gather to drink the water that remains as part of a truce during a drought that enables the jungle 's wildlife to drink without fear of being eaten by their predators. The truce is disrupted when a scarred tiger named Shere Khan arrives, detecting Mowgli 's scent in the large crowd. Resentful against man for scarring him, he issues a warning that he will kill Mowgli at the end of the drought. After the drought ends, the wolves debate whether they should keep Mowgli or not. Mowgli decides to leave the jungle for the safety of his pack. Bagheera agrees with the decision and volunteers to guide him to the nearby man village.
En route, Shere Khan ambushes them and injures Bagheera, but Mowgli manages to escape. Later, Mowgli meets an enormous python named Kaa who hypnotizes him. While under her influence, Mowgli sees a vision of his father being mauled while protecting him from Shere Khan. The vision also warns of the destructive power of the "red flower '' (fire). Kaa attempts to devour Mowgli, but she is attacked by a large brown sloth bear named Baloo, rescuing an unconscious Mowgli. Baloo and Mowgli bond while retrieving some difficult - to - access honey for Baloo, and the boy agrees to stay with Baloo until the winter season arrives. Upon learning that Mowgli has left the jungle, Shere Khan kills Akela and threatens the pack to lure Mowgli out.
Bagheera eventually finds Mowgli and Baloo and is angered that Mowgli has not joined the humans as agreed, but Baloo calms him down and persuades both of them to sleep on it. During the night, Mowgli finds a herd of Indian elephants gathered around a ditch and uses his vines to save a baby elephant from the ditch. Although Baloo and Bagheera are both impressed, Baloo realizes that he can not guarantee Mowgli 's safety after learning that he is being hunted by Shere Khan. Baloo agrees to push Mowgli away to get him to continue onward to the man village.
Mowgli is kidnapped by the "Bandar - log '' (monkeys) who present him to their leader, a giant ape named King Louie. Assuming that all humans can make fire, King Louie offers Mowgli protection from Shere Khan in exchange for it. Baloo distracts King Louie while Bagheera tries to sneak him out, but their plan is discovered. As King Louie chases Mowgli through his temple, he informs Mowgli of Akela 's death. King Louie 's rampage eventually causes his temple to collapse on top of him. Furious that Baloo and Bagheera never told him about Akela 's death, Mowgli goes to confront Shere Khan alone.
Mowgli steals a lit torch at the village to use as a weapon and heads back to the jungle, accidentally starting a wildfire in the process. He confronts Shere Khan, who argues that Mowgli has made himself the enemy of the jungle by causing the wildfire. Mowgli throws the torch into the water, giving Shere Khan the advantage. Baloo, Bagheera, and the wolf pack intervene and hold Shere Khan off, giving Mowgli enough time to set a trap. He lures Shere Khan up a dead tree and onto a branch, which breaks under the tiger 's weight and Shere Khan falls into the fire to his death. Mowgli then directs the elephants to divert the river and put out the fire.
In the aftermath with Shere Khan no longer a threat, Raksha becomes the new leader of the wolf pack. Mowgli decides to utilize his equipment and tricks for his own use, having found his true home and calling with his wolf family, Baloo, and Bagheera.
Emjay Anthony, Max Favreau, Chloe Hechter, Asher Blinkoff, Knox Gagnon, Sasha Schrieber, and Kai Schrieber voice the Young Wolves.
Dee Bradley Baker, Artie Esposito, Sean Johnson, and Allan Trautman provide additional animal voices.
-- Jon Favreau on approaching the film 's technical intent.
On July 9, 2013, Walt Disney Pictures announced that a live - action adaptation of Rudyard Kipling 's short story collection The Jungle Book was in development, with Justin Marks set to write the script. The film would be Disney 's second live - action adaptation of Kipling 's works, following the 1994 film and the 1998 direct - to - video film Mowgli 's Story; and the studio 's fourth overall after the 1967 animated film. Jon Favreau was confirmed as director on November 5, 2013. Favreau as a child used to watch Disney 's 1967 animated film. He felt the need to strike a balance between the two films by retaining the buoyant spirit of the 1967 film, including some of its memorable songs, while crafting a film with more realism and peril. He also stressed the importance of nature and realized how things have shifted during Kipling 's time and now, "In Kipling 's time, nature was something to be overcome. Now nature is something to be protected. '' He was encouraged by Walt Disney Studios chairman Alan Horn to take advantage of the film 's setting and story as an opportunity to use the latest advancements in photorealistic rendering, computer - generated imagery, and motion capture technologies. The story of the film is not independently taken from Kipling 's works, but also borrows cinematic inspirations from other films, including the child - mentor relationship in Shane (1953), the establishment of rules in a dangerous world from Goodfellas (1990) and the use of a shadowy jungle figure in Apocalypse Now (1979).
The cast was announced between March and August 2014, with Idris Elba being announced to voice Shere Khan during early stages and Bill Murray eventually confirmed as the voice of Baloo in August 2014. Between then, Scarlett Johansson, Ben Kingsley, and Christopher Walken were confirmed to play Kaa, Bagheera, and King Louie. Favreau decided to cast Johansson to play Kaa, originally a male character, as he felt the original film was "a little too male - oriented. '' Favreau and Marks noticed the lack of female characters in the 1967 film version and wanted to address that by featuring Raksha 's character more prominently, as in Kipling 's tales. Lupita Nyong'o was cast as Raksha as Favreau believed her voice imbued the emotion required for the role, "Lupita has tremendous depth of emotion in her performance. There 's an emotional underpinning she brings, and a strength, and we wanted that for this surrogate mother. Much of that comes from her voice. '' Favreau also decided to change King Louie from an orangutan to a gigantopithecus due to the fact that orangutans are not native to India, where the story takes place. His character was given a slight alteration from the 1967 film and was partly inspired by Marlon Brando 's character Colonel Kurtz in Apocalypse Now, as well as incorporating Walken 's own physical mannerisms. In regards to Louie 's changes, Favreau stated, "We created this looming figure that was trying to extract the secret of fire from Mowgli. And also this gave Mowgli the idea that if he had fire, he could have power over Shere Khan, whether it was good or bad. So there was a Lord of the Rings aspect to that; the fire was almost like the ring in that was going to give someone ultimate power, but corrupt them as well as create destruction. '' The film is dedicated to Garry Shandling, who voiced a porcupine in the film and died of a pulmonary embolism before the film 's release.
The search for casting Mowgli was extensive, with thousands of children auditioning from the United States, the United Kingdom, New Zealand, and Canada. Eventually, newcomer Neel Sethi was confirmed for the role, with casting director Rebecca Williams describing him as embodying "the heart, humor, and daring of the character. He 's warm and accessible, yet also has an intelligence well beyond his years and impressed us all with his ability to hold his own in any situation. '' Sethi underwent parkour training in preparation for the role. Pixar Animation Studios assisted in the development of the story, as well as providing suggestions for the film 's end credits sequence.
Principal photography took place entirely on sound stages at L.A. Center Studios in downtown Los Angeles. The animal characters were created entirely in computer animation, with the assistance of footage of real animal movement, the actors recording their lines, and performance capture for reference. The production team underwent a thorough process to realistically convey the animals ' speaking, while still making them perceptually believable to the audience. Favreau researched earlier films featuring anthropomorphic animals -- including Walt Disney 's animated features, such as Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs and Bambi, as well as modern films such as Babe -- and adopted certain techniques from those films into The Jungle Book. Nearly 70 separate species of animals native to India are featured in the film, with several species being portrayed as "150 % larger '' than their actual counterparts.
Jim Henson 's Creature Shop was brought in to provide animal puppet figures for Sethi to act against, although none appear in the finished film. The animal puppets were performed by Artie Esposito, Sean Johnson, Allan Trautman, and April Warren. Favreau utilized motion capture with certain actors, expressing a desire to avoid overusing the technology in order to prevent evoking an uncanny valley effect.
Moving Picture Company (MPC) and Weta Digital created the film 's visual effects. MPC developed new software for animating muscular structure in the animals. Around 1,000 remote jungle locations in India were photographed and used as reference in post-production. Weta was responsible for animating the King Louie sequence, with visual effects supervisor Keith Miller adding that, "It was important for Jon to see Christopher Walken in the creature. So we took some of the distinctive Walken facial features -- iconic lines, wrinkles and folds -- and integrated them into the animated character. '' Favreau expressed desire in wanting the film 's 3D shots to imbue the abilities of the multiplane camera system utilized in Disney 's earlier animated films. At Favreau 's behest, the idea was extended into the film 's version of the Walt Disney Pictures opening production logo, which was recreated as "a hand - painted, cel - animated multi-plane logo '' in homage to the animated films of that era, also incorporating the word "Presents '' in the same style as the 1967 film 's opening credits. The film 's ending also features the original physical book that opened the 1967 film.
Director Jon Favreau and composer John Debney sought to recreate the Fantasound experience Walt Disney, himself, had in mind. When mixing the soundtrack in Dolby Atmos, as Favreau said, "we isolated instruments when we could. And in the sound mix, we created a Fantasound mix. If you see the film in Atmos, you will feel that there are instruments that move around the theater. '' A mention for Fantasound appears in the film 's closing credits.
The musical score for The Jungle Book was composed and conducted by frequent Favreau collaborator John Debney, mostly drawing from George Bruns ' original music. Though Favreau decided not to make the film a musical, nevertheless, he and Debney incorporated several songs from the 1967 animated film. "The Bare Necessities, '' written by Terry Gilkyson, is performed by Murray and Sethi, and a cover version by Dr. John is featured in the end credits. "I Wan'na Be Like You '' and "Trust in Me '' -- written by the Sherman Brothers -- are performed by Walken and Johansson, respectively; Richard M. Sherman wrote revised lyrics for Walken 's version of "I Wan'na Be Like You. '' Johansson 's rendition of "Trust in Me '' was produced by Mark Ronson and appears in the end credits only.
Walt Disney Records released the film 's soundtrack on April 15, 2016.
The film was originally scheduled for October 9, 2015, but the film 's release date was later postponed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures to April 15, 2016. The film was released in the Dolby Vision format in Dolby Cinema in the United States, and is the first film to be released in Dolby Vision 3D (in a few select theaters in New York City and Chicago). The Jungle Book held its world premiere at the El Capitan Theatre on April 4, 2016. It was released in 15 countries, a week ahead of its U.S. debut on April 15, in countries like Argentina, Australia, Russia, Malaysia, and most notably in India on April 8. The release date in India was strategic for the film as it coincided with the Indian New Year and was a holiday in most parts of the country. The film had a special Hindi version with famous actors giving their voices to the main characters, including Irrfan Khan as Baloo, Om Puri as Bagheera, Priyanka Chopra as Ka, Nana Patekar as Sher Khan and Shefali Shah as Raksha, for its Indian audiences as the book and the Disney series based on it had been immensely popular in India in 1990s. Disney India also commissioned a contemporary recording of "Jungle Jungle Baat Chali Hai '' (originally used for the popular Indian version of Japanese anime series Jungle Book Shōnen Mowgli), overseen by the original Hindi song 's composers Vishal Bhardwaj and Gulzar, and released it as part of the film 's promotional campaign in India.
The film was released digitally on August 23, 2016, and on DVD and Blu - ray on August 30 (August 22 in the UK). A 3D Blu - ray was said to be coming by the end of the year. The film topped the NPD VideoScan overall disc sales chart for two consecutive weeks. In the United States, the DVD and Blu - ray releases sold 2,027,137 units by December 2016 and have grossed $46 million as of August 2018.
The film became a huge financial success and a sleeper hit. It briefly held the record for the biggest remake of all time until the studio 's own Beauty and the Beast surpassed it the following year. It grossed $364 million in the United States and Canada and $602.5 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $966.6 million, against a budget of $175 million. Worldwide, the film was released across 28,000 RealD 3D screens and had an IMAX worldwide opening of $20.4 million from 901 IMAX screens, a new record for a PG film. It grossed a total of $39 million in IMAX screens worldwide. On May 13, it became the second film of 2016 (after the studio 's own Zootopia) to pass the $800 million mark. On June 10, it became the third film of 2016 after Zootopia and Captain America: Civil War to pass the $900 million mark. Deadline Hollywood calculated the net profit of the film to be $258 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues for the film, making it the sixth-most profitable release of 2016.
Projections for its opening weekend in the United States and Canada were continuously revised upwards, starting from $60 million to as high as $88 million, with female and older male quadrants being the prime draw. The Jungle Book was shown across 4,028 theaters of which 3,100 theaters (75 %) were in 3D, including 376 IMAX screens, 463 premium large format screens, and 145 D - Box locations. It opened Friday, April 15, 2016, on around 9,500 screens across 4,028 theaters, and earned $32.4 million, the fourth - biggest April Friday. This includes $4.2 million from Thursday previews, the biggest preview number for a Disney live - adaptation film (tied with Maleficent), an almost unheard - of for a PG title which rarely attracts many ticketbuyers later in the night. In total, it earned $103.3 million in its opening weekend, exceeding expectations by 40 % and recorded the biggest PG - rated April opening (breaking Hop 's record), the second - biggest Disney live - action adaptation opening (behind Alice in Wonderland), and the second - biggest April opening (behind Furious 7). It also performed exceptionally well in both 3D and IMAX formats, where they both generated an income of $44 million and $10.4 million of the film 's opening - weekend gross, respectively, the later broke the record for the biggest April Disney release IMAX opening. Notably, it also became the only second PG - rated release to ever open above $100 million (following Alice in Wonderland) and the third film of 2016 overall to open above $100 million (following Deadpool and Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice). It earned $130.7 million in its first full week, the second - biggest for a Disney live - action adaptation, behind only Alice in Wonderland 's $146.6 million seven - day gross.
Buoyed by excellent word of mouth and benefiting from spring break, it fell only by 40 % in its second weekend earning $61.5 million, still maintaining the top position and far surpassing newcomer The Huntsman: Winter 's War. That puts The Jungle Book in the top fifteen second weekends of all time and in terms of films that opened above $100 million, it scored the fourth - smallest drop behind Shrek 2 (− 33 %), Spider - Man (− 39 %), and Star Wars: The Force Awakens (− 39 %). Of those numbers, $5.6 million came from IMAX shows for a two weekend cumulative total of $18.4 million which represents about 10 % of its entire North American box office gross. It crossed $200 million on its twelfth day of release and managed to hold the top spot for the third consecutive weekend with $43.7 million from 4,041 theaters (an addition of 13 more theaters), a fall of only 29 %, outgrossing the next six pictures combined (including the openings of three newcomers) and recorded the sixth - biggest third weekend of all time. Moreover, the 29 % drop is the smallest third - weekend drop (from its second weekend) for a $100 million opener ever. Disney added an additional 103 theaters for the film 's fourth weekend of release which propelled its theater count to 4,144 theaters, but nevertheless, it was overtaken by Disney 's own Captain America: Civil War after experiencing a 50 % decline. It passed $300 million on its thirtieth day of release, on May 14, as it continued to witness marginal declines in the wake of several new releases weekend after weekend. It made 3.53 times its opening weekend numbers, which is one of the biggest of all time for a film opening above $100 million. It became one of the few surprise hits and one of the highest - grossing films of the year, alongside Finding Dory, The Secret Life of Pets, and Zootopia, centered around talking animals to dominate the year - end chart.
The film was released in approximately 70 countries. Outside the US and Canada, it opened across 15 markets and 69 IMAX screens a week ahead of its US debut, and faced notable competition from newcomer The Huntsman: Winter 's War and holdover Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, the latter of which was entering its third weekend. The reason behind the divided release pattern was because Disney wanted to get some space before Captain America: Civil War releases in early May, as well as availing school holidays and avoiding local competitors. It eventually grossed $31.7 million, debuting at first place in all markets and second overall at the international box office, behind Dawn of Justice, which was playing across 67 markets. In its second weekend, it expanded to an additional 49 countries (88 % of its total marketplace) and grossed $138.6 million from 64 countries, easily topping the international box office, a bulk of it came from China. Approximately 63 % or $85 million of that came from 3D screenings, with the largest 3D opening haul represented by China (98 %), Germany (83 %), Brazil (73 %), Russia (60 %), Mexico (47 %), and the UK (39 %). $10 million alone came from 525 IMAX screens, a record for a PG and April release. It further continued to hold the top spot in its third weekend after adding another $98.9 million from 53 territories, falling only by a marginal 32 %. IMAX generated another $6.1 million from 484 IMAX theaters for a three - weekend total of $20.6 million. After three straight No. 1 runs, it was finally dethroned by the studio 's Captain America: Civil War in its fourth weekend.
In India, it scored the second - biggest opening day for a Hollywood film, earning $1.51 million (behind Avengers: Age of Ultron) from around 1,500 screens and went on to score the second - biggest Hollywood opening weekend of all time, with $8.4 million from 1,600 screens, behind only Furious 7 in terms of local as well as U.S. currency, performing better than expected and its initial $5 -- 6 million opening projection. Its opening weekend in India alone surpassed the entire lifetime total of Disney 's other live - fantasy adaptations -- Cinderella, Maleficent, Oz the Great and Powerful, and Alice in Wonderland -- in the country. It then went on to score the biggest opening and single week for a Hollywood film with $15.1 million. In its second weekend, it dropped just by a mere 40 % to $4.97 million. In just ten days, it became the fourth - highest - grossing Hollywood film there with $21.2 million. On Wednesday, April 19 -- its twelfth day of release -- it surpassed Furious 7 to become the highest - grossing Hollywood / foreign release of all time there. By the end of its theatrical run, the film made an estimated $38.8 million with half of its revenue -- 58 % -- coming from local dubbed versions, compared to Avengers: Age of Ultron, which saw 45 % of its revenue from dubbed versions.
In China, where the film was locally known as Fantasy Forest, expectations were high, with projections going as high $154 -- 200 million or more. Ultimately, it was unable to hit these marks. Before the release of the film in the state, Disney had a very successful run at the box office with Zootopia the previous month, in which anthropomorphic animals were the central figure. Forbes noted that The Jungle Book was precisely the sort of film that Chinese audiences love with its 3D visuals, heartwarming story, and talking animal cast. It earned around $12 million on its opening day, including $300,000 worth of previews from 65,000 screenings. Buoyed by good word of mouth and positive reception (albeit mostly from audiences with polarized reception from Chinese critics), it rose 72 % on its second day to $20 million. Through its opening weekend it grossed $48.5 million, including $5.1 million from 279 IMAX screens, a new record for April release. Its opening marked the biggest Walt Disney Pictures film opening ever, the second - biggest for a family film (behind Kung Fu Panda 3), the second - biggest April debut (behind Furious 7), and the fourth - biggest Disney opening (behind Avengers: Age of Ultron, Iron Man 3, and Star Wars: The Force Awakens). It topped the daily box office through the whole opening week and went on to remain at the top of the box office for a second weekend, after dropping by a mere 20 % to $29.8 million, despite facing some competitions. It ended its run there with a total of $150.1 million after thirty days of playing in theaters, adding $1.2 million on its last day. Albeit falling just below expectations, it nevertheless emerged as a huge financial success and becoming the fourth - biggest Disney release there.
In the United Kingdom and Ireland, it had an opening weekend total of £ 9.9 million ($14.1 million) from 594 theaters and in France with $8.1 million. Elsewhere, the highest openings were recorded in Russia and the CIS ($7.4 million), Germany ($5.1 million), Spain ($3.9 million), Australia ($2.8 million), Argentina ($2.3 million), and in Malaysia, where it scored the biggest opening weekend for a live - action Disney film with $2.3 million. In the UK, it became the first film of 2016 to earn over £ 5 million in three straight weekends and the first film since Jurassic World, Spectre, and Star Wars: The Force Awakens (all 2015 films) to achieve such an accomplishment, and the first film of 2016 to earn above £ 40 million ($58 million). In South Korea, it faced competition with Warcraft, but ended up debuting atop the charts with $6.2 million. It has so far grossed a total of $18 million there.
It opened in Japan on August 11, alongside the superhero film X-Men: Apocalypse and delivered a four - day opening of $6.2 million from 676 screens ($3 million in two days), debuting at second place behind The Secret Life of Pets. Although the opening figure was considered mediocre, Deadline Hollywood noted that Japan is a market that can see big multiples. It fell just 30 % in its second weekend earning $2.1 million for an eleven - day total of $13.7 million.
In total earnings, its biggest markets outside of the US and Canada were China ($150.1 million), the United Kingdom ($66.2 million) and India ($38.8 million). It was the highest - grossing film of 2016 in Europe with a total of $209 million, the United Kingdom and Ireland, and in India (although it was later surpassed by Sultan, in terms of Hollywood / imported films, it is still the biggest).
The film received praise for its visual effects, vocal performances, direction, musical score, and its faithfulness to the animated film. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 95 % based on 296 reviews, with an average rating of 7.7 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "As lovely to behold as it is engrossing to watch, The Jungle Book is the rare remake that actually improves upon its predecessors -- all while setting a new standard for CGI. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 77 out of 100, based on 49 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews. '' Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave it an overall positive score of 92 %. Ninety - seven percent of the audience gave the film an A or a B, and it got A 's from both the under - and over-25 crowd and A+ among those under 18 years of age and also for the over-50 audience.
Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter wrote, "Exceptionally beautiful to behold and bolstered by a stellar vocal cast, this umpteenth film rendition of Rudyard Kipling 's tales of young Mowgli 's adventures amongst the creatures of the Indian jungle proves entirely engaging, even if it 's ultimately lacking in subtext and thematic heft. '' Andrew Barker of Variety felt that this version "ca n't rival the woolly looseness of Disney 's 1967 animated classic, of course, but it succeeds on its own so well that such comparisons are barely necessary. '' Robbie Collin of The Telegraph gave the film four stars out of five, and deemed it "a sincere and full - hearted adaptation that returns to Kipling for fresh inspiration. '' Alonso Duralde of The Wrap says "This ' Book ' might lack the post-vaudeville razzamatazz of its predecessor, but director Jon Favreau and a team of effects wizards plunge us into one of the big screen 's most engrossing artificial worlds since Avatar. '' Peter Bradshaw, writing for The Guardian, gave the film four out of five stars and felt that the film had a touch of Apocalypto in it, finding the plot elements to be similar to those in The Lion King. He wrote that the film was "spectacular, exciting, funny and fun '' and that it "handsomely revives the spirit of Disney 's original film. '' Pete Hammond of Deadline Hollywood wrote that the film had laughs, excitement, an exceptional voice cast and, most importantly, a lot of heart, calling it a cinematic achievement like no other. He particularly praised Murray 's performance and the visual effects, deeming it "simply astonishing. '' Chris Nashawaty of Entertainment Weekly graded the film an "A --, '' calling it one of the biggest surprises of 2016. He, however, felt the two songs were rather unnecessary and distracting, and believed the film to be a little too frightening for children.
Richard Roeper of Chicago Sun - Times awarded the film three - and - a-half stars, pointing out the CGI as the apex achievement of the film. He labelled it "a beautifully rendered, visually arresting take on Rudyard Kipling 's oft - filmed tales '' but found the musical numbers to be trivial, saying that without the musical numbers, the film might have been a more exhilarating streamlined adventure. Los Angeles Times ' Kenneth Turan remarked that "The Jungle Book is the kind of family film calculated to make even those without families wish they had one to take along. '' Peter Travers of Rolling Stone awarded the film three - and - a-half stars out of four, labeling it scary and thrilling, yet unique and unforgettable, and adding that it "fills us with something rare in movies today -- a sense of wonder. '' The Village Voice 's Bilge Ebiri hailed the film as fast and light and that it "manages to be just scary enough to make us feel the danger of solitude in the middle of a massive jungle, but never indulgent or gratuitous. '' The New York Times ' Manohla Dargis was less enthusiastic. Cath Clarke of Time Out compared Elba 's character of Shere Khan to Scar from The Lion King, calling him "baddie of the year. '' Matt Zoller Seitz of RogerEbert.com also had high praise for Elba 's portrayal of Shere Khan stating: "His loping menace is envisioned so powerfully that he 'd be scary no matter what, but the character becomes a great villain through imaginative empathy. We understand and appreciate his point - of - view, even though carrying it out would mean the death of Mowgli. ''
The film 's visual effects and 3D photography were compared to those of Avatar, Gravity, Hugo, and Life of Pi. Sarah Ward of Screen International wrote that the level of detail on display in the film "is likely to evoke the same jaw - dropping reaction as James Cameron 's box office topper. '' Entertainment Weekly called it "one of the few 3D movies that actually benefits from being in 3D. '' The film also had a positive reception from Indian contemporary critics and publications, such as The Times of India, The Hindu, India Today, The Indian Express, and The Economic Times.
The film also had its share of negative reviews with most reviewers criticizing the inconsistent tone of the film and the director 's indecision to stick to one vision. Sam C. Mac of Slant Magazine wrote, "Jon Favreau draws heavily on his film 's animated predecessor for plot, characterizations, songs, and set pieces, but does n't know how to fit these familiar elements into his own coherent vision ''. Josh Spiegel of Movie Mezzanine also echoed these feelings, saying that the film "stumbles because the people involved are n't willing to fully commit to either making a near - shot - for - shot remake or going in a completely different direction ''. Rene Rodriguez of the Miami Herald felt that the movie was soulless, writing that "The better these talking beasts look, the more the film resembles a gorgeous screen saver. You admire The Jungle Book, but you ca n't lose yourself in it ''.
Following the film 's early financial and critical success, the studio has begun working on a sequel. Jon Favreau is reported to return as director and Neel Sethi is reported to reprise his role as Mowgli, while screenwriter Justin Marks is also in negotiations to return. It was announced on April 25, 2016, that Favreau and Marks will return to direct and write, and the sequel could potentially have a release sometime in 2019 and will be shot back - to - back with a remake of The Lion King. However, it was reported in March 2017 that the sequel was put on hold in order for Favreau to instead focus mainly on The Lion King.
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when do euro 2020 final tickets go on sale | UEFA Euro 2020 - wikipedia
The 2020 UEFA European Football Championship, commonly referred to as UEFA Euro 2020 or simply Euro 2020, is scheduled to be the 16th UEFA European Championship, the quadrennial international men 's football championship of Europe organised by UEFA.
It is scheduled to be held in 12 cities in 12 European countries from 12 June to 12 July 2020. Portugal are the defending champions, having won the 2016 edition.
Former UEFA President Michel Platini said the tournament being hosted in several nations is a "romantic '' one - off event to celebrate the 60th "birthday '' of the European Championship competition. The winner will earn the right to participate in the 2021 FIFA Confederations Cup. Wembley Stadium in London is planned to host the semi-finals and final for the second time, having done so before at the 1996 tournament.
While some countries had already expressed an interest in bidding to host Euro 2020, then - UEFA President Michel Platini suggested at a press conference on 30 June 2012, a day before the UEFA Euro 2012 Final, that instead of having one host country (or joint hosting by multiple countries) Euro 2020 could be spread over "12 or 13 cities '' across the continent. At the time, UEFA already used a similar system for the UEFA European Under - 17 Football Championship 's "Elite Round '', where each of the seven groups is hosted by a different country.
On 6 December 2012, UEFA announced the 2020 Finals would be held in multiple cities across Europe to mark the 60th anniversary of the tournament. The selection of the host cities does not mean an automatic qualifying berth is awarded to the national team of that nation.
UEFA reasoned that the pan-European staging of the tournament was the logical decision at a time of financial difficulty across Europe. Reaction to UEFA 's plan was mixed across Europe. Critics have cited the expanded format (from 31 matches featuring 16 nations to 51 featuring 24) and its associated additional costs as the decisive factor for only one nation (Turkey) having put forward a serious bid.
The final list of bids was published by UEFA on 26 April 2014, with a decision on the hosts being made by the UEFA Executive Committee on 19 September 2014. There were two bids for the Finals Package (of which one was successful, marked with blue for semi-finals and final) and 19 bids for the Standard Package (of which 12 were initially successful, marked with green for quarter - finals and group stage, and yellow for round of 16 and group stage); Brussels, marked with red, were initially selected but removed from the list of venues by UEFA on 7 December 2017 and the planned games there were moved to Wembley.
There is no automatic qualifying berth, and all 55 UEFA national teams, including the 12 national teams whose countries are scheduled to stage matches, must compete in the qualifiers for the 24 places at the finals tournament. As the host cities were appointed by UEFA in September 2014, before the qualifiers of UEFA Euro 2020, it is possible for the national teams from the host cities to fail to qualify for the finals tournament.
The UEFA Euro 2020 qualifying draw will be held on 2 December 2018 at the Convention Centre Dublin in Dublin, Republic of Ireland.
The main qualifying process is now scheduled to begin in March 2019, instead of immediately in September 2018 following the 2018 FIFA World Cup, and is scheduled to end in November 2019. The format remains largely the same, although only 20 of the 24 spots for the finals tournament are to be decided from the main qualifying process, leaving four spots still to be decided. Following the admission of Kosovo to UEFA in May 2016, it was announced that the 55 members at the time would be drawn into ten groups after the completion of the UEFA Nations League (five groups of five teams and five groups of six teams, with the four participants of the UEFA Nations League Finals guaranteed to be drawn into groups of five teams), with the top two teams in each group qualifying. The qualifiers are scheduled to be played on double matchdays in March, June, September, October and November 2019.
With the creation of the UEFA Nations League starting in 2018, the 2018 -- 19 UEFA Nations League is to be linked with UEFA Euro qualifying, providing teams another chance to qualify for Euro 2020. Four teams from each division which have not already qualified for the Euro finals are to compete in the play - offs for each division, to be played in March 2020. The winners of the play - offs for each division, to be decided by two "one - off '' semi-finals (the best - ranked team vs. the fourth - best - ranked team, and the second - best - ranked team vs. the third - best - ranked team, played at home of higher ranked teams) and one "one - off '' final (with the venue drawn in advance between the two semi-finals winners), are scheduled to join the 20 teams which have already qualified for the Euro finals.
The venues were selected and announced by UEFA on 19 September 2014. However, the UEFA Executive Committee removed Brussels as a host city on 7 December 2017 due to delays with the building of the Eurostadium. The four matches (three group stage, one round of 16) initially scheduled to be held in Brussels were reallocated to London. Therefore, Wembley Stadium will host a total of seven matches, as London was already chosen to host the semi-finals and final of the tournament. On 7 December 2017, it was also announced that the opening match will take place at the Stadio Olimpico in Rome, chosen ahead of Amsterdam, Glasgow, and Saint Petersburg.
Of the 12 selected cities and countries, 8 cities and 7 countries have never hosted a European Championship finals match before. Bilbao was not a venue when Spain hosted the 1964 European Nations ' Cup, and none of Azerbaijan, Denmark, Hungary, Romania, Republic of Ireland, Russia, or Scotland has hosted the tournament previously. Of the 12 selected stadia, only 2 have hosted a European Championship match before: the Stadio Olimpico (1968 and 1980) and the Johan Cruyff Arena (2000). The original Wembley stadium hosted games and the final in UEFA Euro 1996, but although on the same site, this is classified as a different stadium to the current Wembley Stadium.
Each city will host three group stage matches and one match in the round of 16 or quarter - finals. The match allocation for the 12 stadiums is as follows:
The host cities were divided into six pairings, established on the basis of sporting strength (assuming all host teams qualify), geographical considerations, and security / political constraints. The pairings were allocated to groups by means of a random draw on 7 December 2017. Each qualified host country will play a minimum of two matches at home. The group venue pairings is as follows:
The draw for the final tournament will be held on 1 December 2019. The 24 teams are drawn into six groups of four. The identity of the four play - off teams are not known at the time of the draw, and will be identified as play - off winners 1 to 4. The following principles will be applied:
UEFA announced the tournament schedule on 24 May 2018. The kick - off times of the group stage and round of 16 matches will be announced after the final draw.
Group winners, runners - up, and the best four third - placed teams advance to the round of 16.
Times are CEST (UTC + 2), as listed by UEFA. If the venue is located in a different time zone, the local time is also given.
If two or more teams are equal on points on completion of the group matches, the following tie - breaking criteria are applied:
To determine the four best third - placed teams from the group stage which advance to the round of 16, only the results of the third - placed teams against the top two placed teams in their group are taken into account, while results against the fourth - placed team are not included. As a result, two matches played by each third - placed team will count for the purposes of determining the ranking. This is different from UEFA Euro 2016, which counts all three group matches.
In the knockout phase, if a match is level at the end of normal playing time, extra time is played (two periods of 15 minutes each), where each team is allowed to make a fourth substitution. If still tied after extra time, the match is decided by a penalty shoot - out to determine the winners.
As with every tournament since UEFA Euro 1984, there is no third place play - off.
The specific match - ups involving the third - placed teams depended on which four third - placed teams qualified for the round of 16:
Times are CEST (UTC + 2), as listed by UEFA. If the venue is located in a different time zone, the local time is also given.
The prize money was finalised in February 2018. Each team receives a participation fee of € 9.25 million, with the winner able to earn a maximum of € 34M.
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what year did cadillac stop using the northstar engine | Northstar engine series - wikipedia
The Northstar engine is a family of high - performance 90 ° V engines produced by General Motors between 1986 and 2011. Regarded as GM 's most technically complex engine, the original double overhead cam, four valve per cylinder, aluminum block / aluminum head V8 design was developed by Oldsmobile 's R&D, but is most associated with Cadillac 's Northstar series.
Displacing 4.6 L (281 cu in) in its basic form, the direct family line transitioned to longitudinal and 4.4 L (267 cu in) supercharged versions. Variants were used at Oldsmobile (as the Aurora L47 V8 and "Shortstar '' LX5 V6), as well as in several top - end 2000s Pontiacs and Buicks.
The related Northstar System was Cadillac 's trademarked name for a package of performance features introduced in mid-1992 that coupled variable valve timing, road sensing suspension, variable power steering, and 4 - wheel disc brakes to the Division 's high - output and high - torque Northstar engines.
GM ceased production of the 4.6 L Northstar in 2003, and the remaining series in July 2010. The final cars to receive it, the Cadillac DTS, Buick Lucerne, and Cadillac STS, rolled off the line in 2011. It was replaced by the GM LS small - block OHV engine, used in newer Cadillac V8 models like the CTS - V, marking a step back to a simpler, more reliable push rod engine design.
GM initiated what ultimately became the Northstar 's design at Oldsmobile R&D some time in 1984 in anticipation of the advanced dual overhead cam V8 engines to be introduced by European and Japanese competitors later in the decade. At that time, Cadillac was using the aluminum HT Overhead Valve (OHV) V8 which GM pushed hastily into production because the CAFE standards for 1982 would preempt using 1981 's V8 - 6 - 4. At the time it was GM 's corporate policy not to pass the gas guzzler tax on to the consumer.
Cadillac was developing new models which they hoped would compete against the best luxury cars from BMW, Mercedes - Benz, and Asian rivals like Lexus, Acura, and Infiniti. GM developed a laundry list of items to be included in the Allanté and updated Eldorado and Seville STS, including sophisticated steering, braking, and suspension technologies, and an engine exclusive to "Cadillac '' the Division 's dealers were clamoring for. This group of features became known as the Northstar System. Central to it was a high - tech V8 with the performance and sophistication to compete with an ever - expanding list of imported challengers.
Capable of producing 300 hp (224 kW) out of its 4,565 cubic centimetres (278.6 cu in) displacement, the Northstar featured a cast aluminum 90 ° V8 block with 102 mm (4 in) bore spacing split into unitary upper and lower halves. The lower crankcase assembly supported the crankshaft without conventional main bearing caps. An oil manifold plate with an integrated silicone gasket forms the oil gallery under this. A typical oil change used 7.5 -- 8 quarts of oil.
GM specified cast - iron cylinder liners and the cast aluminum pistons included valve clearance. Northstar is an interference engine: the valves will strike the pistons if they lose timing. It has bronze piston pin bushings and free - floating piston pins.
GM used cast aluminum cylinder heads featuring 4 valves per cylinder. The heads used dual overhead cams driven through the "maintenance - free '' cam - drive chain case. The cams act directly on hydraulic lifters on the ends of the valves and are fed with a lubrication passage drilled through the cylinder head lengthwise. The intake valves are inclined at 25 °, while the exhaust valves are canted to 7 ° with center - mounted platinum - tipped spark plugs. The cam covers are magnesium for light weight and sound damping.
Sequential fuel injection was delivered via eight thermoplastic tubes. Ignition was distributorless, with a waste spark setup. The PCM (powertrain control module) controlled spark and fuel injection timing as well as the shift points for the new four - speed, transverse 4T80 - E transmission. All engines of this family share the same Northstar bellhousing pattern.
One notable feature advertised at the time was the "limp home '' fail - safe mode which allowed the engine to continue running for a limited time without any coolant. Supplying fuel to only one cylinder bank in turn, the engine would "air cool '' the inactive bank. This technique, combined with its all - aluminum construction and large oil capacity, allows the engine to maintain safe temperatures, allowing a Northstar - equipped car to be driven with no coolant for about 100 mi (161 km) without damage.
Another unusual feature of some heavily electronic - laden Northstar - equipped cars such as the Seville, DeVille, and Eldorado is a liquid - cooled alternator. Intended to prolong alternator life, GM reverted to a traditional air - cooled setup for 2001 to eliminate potential leak points and extraneous tubing.
Later developments included direct coil - on - plug ignition, roller lifters, and variable valve timing, which can vary intake by up to 40 ° and the exhaust by up to 50 °. VVT was devised for the longitudinal LH2 version, and has not, to date, been used on the transverse front wheel drive engines due to packaging considerations.
The engine was introduced in mid-1992 in the 1993 Cadillac Allanté, eventually ended up in most Cadillac automobiles, but is now phased out of all Cadillac models. The original Northstar Allanté also introduced the Northstar System which included traction control, adaptive suspension, and antilock brakes. Early Northstar required premium grade gasoline to run safely.
The Northstar was sold exclusively by that name by Cadillac for over a decade before being introduced in the 2004 - 2005 Pontiac Bonneville and 2006 Buick Lucerne. However, the 4.0 L L47 V8 Northstar variant was used in the Oldsmobile Aurora and the 3.5 L LX5 V6 in the Oldsmobile Intrigue. The engine received a forged steel crankshaft in October 2003. Cadillac had planned to introduce a V12 Northstar this decade, likely for use in the Escalade, but economics and new CAFE standards killed the idea.
Most Northstar engines produce 275 hp (205 kW) to 320 hp (239 kW). The engines were revised for 2000 with coil - on - plug ignition and roller follower valvegear for improved fuel economy and reduced emissions. Though power output did not change, this update made premium fuel merely recommended, rather than required.
All but the supercharged Northstars displaced 4.6 L (279 cu in) with a 93 mm (3.7 in) bore and 84 mm (3.3 in) stroke. For better head gasket sealing between cylinders, the supercharged version is de-bored to 91 mm (3.6 in) for a total displacement of 4.4 L (266 cu in). The block is believed to be capable of expansion up to 5.4 L, though no such engine has been produced.
The Northstar was on the Ward 's 10 Best Engines list for 1995, 1996, and 1997.
The Northstar System was Cadillac 's trademarked name for a package of automobile performance features introduced in mid-1992 on the 1993 Cadillac Allanté and later on the 1993 Seville and Eldorado.
The Northstar System included the following components:
Later versions of the Northstar engine included the 4.6 L 320 hp (239 kW) and 315 lb ⋅ ft (427 N ⋅ m) LH2 which began in 2004, and supercharged 4.4 L 469 hp (350 kW) LC3 created for the STS - V which are detailed below.
The 4.6 L (280 cu in) L37 (VIN "9 '') was the original Northstar. It is tuned for responsiveness and power, while the later LD8 is designed for more sedate use. The L37 code had been used on all high - output transverse Northstars, even as the exact engine specifications evolved. The compression ratio for the L37 is 10.3: 1 for engines built prior to 2000, and 10: 1 afterwards.
The original L37 was specified at 290 hp (216 kW), but 1993 production examples were rated at 295 hp (220 kW). The engine topped out at 300 hp (224 kW) from 1996 through 2004 on the STS, DTS and ETC models, making these some of the most powerful domestic front wheel drive cars ever built. For 2005 the high output Northstar became Northstar NHP, and was downrated to 290 horsepower (220 kW) under the new SAE certified horsepower rating system. In 2006, the updated DTS "Performance Package '' model got a slight bump to 292 hp (218 kW). Vehicles using the L37 include:
The 4.6 L (280 cu in) LD8 (VIN "Y '') is a transverse V8 for front - wheel drive cars. Introduced in 1994, it is designed to provide more torque than the high - revving L37. The LD8 code had been used on all torque - tuned transverse Northstars, even as the exact engine specifications evolved. Compression ratio is 10.3: 1 for engines built prior to model year 2000, and 10: 1 for those built afterwards.
The 1998 revision is quieter than previous Northstar engines, due to hydraulic engine mounts, and performs better due to a tuned intake system.
Most LD8 Northstars are rated at 275 hp (205 kW) and 300 lb ⋅ ft (407 N ⋅ m).
The 4.6 L (279 cu in) Northstar was designed originally for transverse front - wheel drive applications. It was modified substantially in 2004 for longitudinal rear - and all - wheel drive use in the STS, SRX, and XLR, as well as receiving continuously variable valve timing on both intake and exhaust sides. The RWD (LH2) Northstar produces 320 hp (239 kW) and 315 lb ⋅ ft (427 N ⋅ m). An increased compression ratio of 10.5: 1 enables most of the increase in power from the L37 and LD8 Northstars.
A 4.4 L (267 cu in) supercharged Northstar was used in the 2006 Cadillac STS - V and Cadillac XLR - V. The bore was reduced for increased strength and improved head gasket sealing. Variable valve timing is used on both the intake and exhaust sides. The STS - V engine produces 469 hp (350 kW) at 6400 rpm and 439 lb ⋅ ft (595 N ⋅ m) at 3900 rpm with 9: 1 compression and the XLR - V engine produces 443 hp (330 kW) at 6400 rpm and 414 lb ⋅ ft (561 N ⋅ m) at 3900 rpm.
The L47 Aurora engine was a special V8 designed for the Oldsmobile Aurora, based on the Northstar engine, used during the 1995 - 1999 and 2001 - 2003 model years. It is a DOHC 4.0 L (240 cu in) V8 which produced 250 horsepower (186 kW) and 260 lb ft (353 N m) of torque. The bore was 87 mm (3.4 in) and the stroke was 84 mm (3.3 in). The L47 had a 10.3: 1 compression ratio and used premium fuel.
An early version or prototype of this engine was used in the 2nd generation Oldsmobile Aerotech.
Although most of the Northstar 's features, including the coolant loss system, remained intact, the decreased bore increased weight unacceptably. To reduce it, Oldsmobile used a one - piece glass - filled thermoplastic intake manifold and simplified AC Rochester sequential fuel injection. A new die - cast structural aluminum oil pan incorporated baffling to reduce oil starvation in hard driving. A starter interlock prevented the starter from engaging if the quiet L47 was already running.
A highly modified 650 hp (485 kW) version of this engine was used by General Motors racing division initially for IMSA sports car competition in an Oldsmobile Aurora GTS - 1 and Riley&Scott LMP prototypes in 1995, Indy Racing League competition starting in 1997, then was later used in the Cadillac Northstar LMP program in 2000. Both engines retained the 4.0 L displacement, but the Northstar LMP version was twin - turbocharged.
The Aurora was also used in the Shelby Series 1 car.
The Aurora engine was introduced in 1994 for the 1995 model year, and General Motors has not used this engine since the demise of the marque in 2004.
The LX5 is a DOHC V6 from Oldsmobile, introduced in 1999 with the Intrigue. It was produced by the Premium engine group at GM and was thus called the Premium V6, or PV6, while it was being developed. It is based on the L47 Aurora V8, which is itself based on the Northstar engine, so engineers called it the Short North, though Oldsmobile fans have taken to calling it the Shortstar.
It is not a simple cut - down V8. Although it has a 90 ° vee - angle like the Northstar and Aurora, the engine block was engineered from scratch, so bore centers are different. It has chain - driven dual overhead cams and four valves per cylinder, but is an even - firing design with a split - pin crankshaft similar to the Buick 3800 engine. The LX5 displaced 3.5 L (212 cu in) and produced 215 hp (160 kW) @ 5,600 rpm and 234 lb ft (312 N m) @ 4,400 rpm. Bore is 89.5 mm (3.52 in) and stroke is 92 mm (3.6 in). It was also one of GM 's first engines to use coil - on - plug ignition. Compression ratio is 9.3: 1.
The cost of building this engine was high, and it was not used in many vehicles. It was said at the time that a family of premium V6s would follow, with displacements ranging from 3.3 L to 3.7 L, but only the LX5 was ever produced before GM axed the Shortstar in favor of their current flagship V6, the High Feature, in 2004.
The LX5 was entirely different from any other V6 in the GM inventory - the only other DOHC V6 engines ever offered by GM included the Chevrolet Twin Dual Cam produced from 1991 - 1997 (which was made by heavily modifying the traditional Chevy 60 - degree OHV block for the dual overhead cams rather than building a DOHC engine from the ground up), and the Cadillac / Holden HFV6 available from 2004 to the present day. These three designs are completely unrelated and oddly enough leave two gaps in 1998 and 2003 where no DOHC V6 was available from GM. (Except for the 54 degree Opel V6 used most notably in the first generation Cadillac CTS at launch as well as the Saturn L Series.) This contrasts starkly with competitors practices of evolving engineering over multiple, continuously improving designs.
As with the Aurora V8, production stopped with the demise of Oldsmobile.
The 3.5 L LX5 was on the Ward 's 10 Best Engines list for 1999, 2000, 2001, and 2002.
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the following are early civilizations of latin america except | Mesoamerica - wikipedia
Mesoamerica was a region and cultural area in the Americas, extending from approximately central Mexico through Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and northern Costa Rica, and within which pre-Columbian societies flourished before the Spanish colonization of the Americas in the 15th and 16th centuries. It is one of six areas in the world where ancient civilization arose independently, and the second in the Americas along with Norte Chico (Caral - Supe) in present - day northern coastal Peru.
As a cultural area, Mesoamerica is defined by a mosaic of cultural traits developed and shared by its indigenous cultures. Beginning as early as 7000 BC, the domestication of cacao, maize, beans, tomato, squash and chili, as well as the turkey and dog, caused a transition from paleo - Indian hunter - gatherer tribal grouping to the organization of sedentary agricultural villages. In the subsequent Formative period, agriculture and cultural traits such as a complex mythological and religious tradition, a vigesimal numeric system, and a complex calendric system, a tradition of ball playing, and a distinct architectural style, were diffused through the area. Also in this period, villages began to become socially stratified and develop into chiefdoms with the development of large ceremonial centers, interconnected by a network of trade routes for the exchange of luxury goods, such as obsidian, jade, cacao, cinnabar, Spondylus shells, hematite, and ceramics. While Mesoamerican civilization did know of the wheel and basic metallurgy, neither of these technologies became culturally important.
Among the earliest complex civilizations was the Olmec culture, which inhabited the Gulf coast of Mexico and extended inland and southwards across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Frequent contact and cultural interchange between the early Olmec and other cultures in Chiapas, Guatemala and Oaxaca laid the basis for the Mesoamerican cultural area. All this was facilitated by considerable regional communications in ancient Mesoamerica, especially along the Pacific coast.
This formative period saw the spread of distinct religious and symbolic traditions, as well as artistic and architectural complexes. In the subsequent Preclassic period, complex urban polities began to develop among the Maya, with the rise of centers such as El Mirador, Calakmul and Tikal, and the Zapotec at Monte Albán. During this period, the first true Mesoamerican writing systems were developed in the Epi - Olmec and the Zapotec cultures, and the Mesoamerican writing tradition reached its height in the Classic Maya hieroglyphic script.
Mesoamerica is one of only three regions of the world where writing is known to have independently developed (the others being ancient Sumer and China). In Central Mexico, the height of the Classic period saw the ascendancy of the city of Teotihuacan, which formed a military and commercial empire whose political influence stretched south into the Maya area and northward. Upon the collapse of Teotihuacán around AD 600, competition between several important political centers in central Mexico, such as Xochicalco and Cholula, ensued. At this time during the Epi - Classic period, the Nahua peoples began moving south into Mesoamerica from the North, and became politically and culturally dominant in central Mexico, as they displaced speakers of Oto - Manguean languages. During the early post-Classic period, Central Mexico was dominated by the Toltec culture, Oaxaca by the Mixtec, and the lowland Maya area had important centers at Chichén Itzá and Mayapán. Towards the end of the post-Classic period, the Aztecs of Central Mexico built a tributary empire covering most of central Mesoamerica.
The distinct Mesoamerican cultural tradition ended with the Spanish conquest in the 16th century. Over the next centuries, Mesoamerican indigenous cultures were gradually subjected to Spanish colonial rule. Aspects of the Mesoamerican cultural heritage still survive among the indigenous peoples who inhabit Mesoamerica, many of whom continue to speak their ancestral languages, and maintain many practices harking back to their Mesoamerican roots.
The term Mesoamerica -- literally, "middle America '' in Greek -- is defined as the area that is home to the Mesoamerican civilization, which comprises a group of peoples with close cultural and historical ties. The exact geographic extent of Mesoamerica has varied through time, as the civilization extended North and South from its heartland in southern Mexico. The term was first used by the German ethnologist Paul Kirchhoff, who noted that similarities existed among the various pre-Columbian cultures within the region that included southern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, western Honduras, and the Pacific lowlands of Nicaragua and northwestern Costa Rica. In the tradition of cultural history, the prevalent archaeological theory of the early to middle 20th century, Kirchhoff defined this zone as a cultural area based on a suite of interrelated cultural similarities brought about by millennia of inter - and intra-regional interaction (i.e., diffusion). Mesoamerica is recognized as a near - prototypical cultural area, and the term is now fully integrated in the standard terminology of pre-Columbian anthropological studies. Conversely, the sister terms Aridoamerica and Oasisamerica, which refer to northern Mexico and the western United States, respectively, have not entered into widespread usage.
Some of the significant cultural traits defining the Mesoamerican cultural tradition are:
Located on the Middle American isthmus joining North and South America between ca. 10 ° and 22 ° northern latitude, Mesoamerica possesses a complex combination of ecological systems, topographic zones, and environmental contexts. A main distinction groups these different niches into two broad categories: the lowlands (those areas between sea level and 1000 meters) and the altiplanos, or highlands (situated between 1,000 and 2,000 meters above sea level). In the low - lying regions, sub-tropical and tropical climates are most common, as is true for most of the coastline along the Pacific and Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. The highlands show much more climatic diversity, ranging from dry tropical to cold mountainous climates; the dominant climate is temperate with warm temperatures and moderate rainfall. The rainfall varies from the dry Oaxaca and north Yucatán to the humid southern Pacific and Caribbean lowlands.
Several distinct sub-regions within Mesoamerica are defined by a convergence of geographic and cultural attributes. These sub-regions are more conceptual than culturally meaningful, and the demarcation of their limits is not rigid. The Maya area, for example, can be divided into two general groups: the lowlands and highlands. The lowlands are further divided into the southern and northern Maya lowlands. The southern Maya lowlands are generally regarded as encompassing northern Guatemala, southern Campeche and Quintana Roo in Mexico, and Belize. The northern lowlands cover the remainder of the northern portion of the Yucatán Peninsula. Other areas include Central Mexico, West Mexico, the Gulf Coast Lowlands, Oaxaca, the Southern Pacific Lowlands, and Southeast Mesoamerica (including northern Honduras).
There is extensive topographic variation in Mesoamerica, ranging from the high peaks circumscribing the Valley of Mexico and within the central Sierra Madre mountains to the low flatlands of the northern Yucatán Peninsula. The tallest mountain in Mesoamerica is Pico de Orizaba, a dormant volcano located on the border of Puebla and Veracruz. Its peak elevation is 5,636 m (18,490 ft).
The Sierra Madre mountains, which consist of several smaller ranges, run from northern Mesoamerica south through Costa Rica. The chain is historically volcanic. In central and southern Mexico, a portion of the Sierra Madre chain is known as the Eje Volcánico Transversal, or the Trans - Mexican volcanic belt. There are 83 inactive and active volcanoes within the Sierra Madre range, including 11 in Mexico, 37 in Guatemala, 23 in El Salvador, 25 in Nicaragua, and 3 in northwestern Costa Rica. According to the Michigan Technological University, 16 of these are still active. The tallest active volcano is Popocatépetl at 5,452 m (17,887 ft). This volcano, which retains its Nahuatl name, is located 70 km (43 mi) southeast of Mexico City. Other volcanoes of note include Tacana on the Mexico -- Guatemala border, Tajumulco and Santamaría in Guatemala, Izalco in El Salvador, Momotombo in Nicaragua, and Arenal in Costa Rica.
One important topographic feature is the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, a low plateau that breaks up the Sierra Madre chain between the Sierra Madre del Sur to the north and the Sierra Madre de Chiapas to the south. At its highest point, the Isthmus is 224 m (735 ft) above mean sea level. This area also represents the shortest distance between the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean in Mexico. The distance between the two coasts is roughly 200 km (120 mi). Although the northern side of the Isthmus is swampy and covered with dense jungle, the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, as the lowest and most level point within the Sierra Madre mountain chain, was nonetheless a main transportation, communication, and economic route within Mesoamerica.
Outside of the northern Maya lowlands, rivers are common throughout Mesoamerica. Some of the more important ones served as loci of human occupation in the area. The longest river in Mesoamerica is the Usumacinta, which forms in Guatemala at the convergence of the Salinas or Chixoy and La Pasion River and runs north for 970 km (600 mi) -- 480 km (300 mi) of which are navigable -- eventually draining into the Gulf of Mexico. Other rivers of note include the Rio Grande de Santiago, the Grijalva River, the Motagua River, the Ulúa River, and the Hondo River. The northern Maya lowlands, especially the northern portion of the Yucatán peninsula, are notable for their nearly complete lack of rivers (largely due to the absolute lack of topographic variation). Additionally, no lakes exist in the northern peninsula. The main source of water in this area is aquifers that are accessed through natural surface openings called cenotes.
With an area of 8,264 km (3,191 sq mi), Lake Nicaragua is the largest lake in Mesoamerica. Lake Chapala is Mexico 's largest freshwater lake, but Lake Texcoco is perhaps most well known as the location upon which Tenochtitlan, capital of the Aztec Empire, was founded. Lake Petén Itzá, in northern Guatemala, is notable as the location at which the last independent Maya city, Tayasal (or Noh Petén), held out against the Spanish until 1697. Other large lakes include Lake Atitlán, Lake Izabal, Lake Güija, Lemoa, and Lake Managua.
Almost all ecosystems are present in Mesoamerica; the more well known are the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System, the second largest in the world, and La Mosquitia (consisting of the Rio Platano Biosphere Reserve, Tawahka Asangni, Patuca National Park, and Bosawas Biosphere Reserve) a rainforest second in size in the Americas only to the Amazonas. The highlands present mixed and coniferous forest. The biodiversity is among the richest in the world, although the number of species in the red list of the IUCN is growing every year.
The history of human occupation in Mesoamerica is divided into stages or periods. These are known, with slight variation depending on region, as the Paleo - Indian, the Archaic, the Preclassic (or Formative), the Classic, and the Postclassic. The last three periods, representing the core of Mesoamerican cultural fluorescence, are further divided into two or three sub-phases. Most of the time following the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century is classified as the Colonial period.
The differentiation of early periods (i.e., up through the end of the Late Preclassic) generally reflects different configurations of socio - cultural organization that are characterized by increasing socio - political complexity, the adoption of new and different subsistence strategies, and changes in economic organization (including increased interregional interaction). The Classic period through the Postclassic are differentiated by the cyclical crystallization and fragmentation of the various political entities throughout Mesoamerica.
The Mesoamerican Paleo - Indian period precedes the advent of agriculture and is characterized by a nomadic hunting and gathering subsistence strategy. Big - game hunting, similar to that seen in contemporaneous North America, was a large component of the subsistence strategy of the Mesoamerican Paleo - Indian. These sites had obsidian blades and Clovis - style fluted projectile points.
The Archaic period (8000 -- 2000 BC) is characterized by the rise of incipient agriculture in Mesoamerica. The initial phases of the Archaic involved the cultivation of wild plants, transitioning into informal domestication and culminating with sedentism and agricultural production by the close of the period. Archaic sites include Sipacate in Escuintla, Guatemala, where maize pollen samples date to c. 3500 BC. The well - known Coxcatlan cave site in the Valley of Tehuacán, Puebla, which contains over 10,000 teosinte cobs (an antecedent to maize), and Guilá Naquitz in Oaxaca represent some of the earliest examples of agriculture in Mesoamerica. The early development of pottery, often seen as a sign of sedentism, has been documented at several sites, including the West Mexican sites of Matanchén in Nayarit and Puerto Marqués in Guerrero. La Blanca, Ocós, and Ujuxte in the Pacific Lowlands of Guatemala yielded pottery dated to c. 2500 BC.
The first complex civilization to develop in Mesoamerica was that of the Olmec, who inhabited the gulf coast region of Veracruz throughout the Preclassic period. The main sites of the Olmec include San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán, La Venta, and Tres Zapotes. Although specific dates vary, these sites were occupied from roughly 1200 to 400 BC. Remains of other early cultures interacting with the Olmec have been found at Takalik Abaj, Izapa, and Teopantecuanitlan, and as far south as in Honduras. Research in the Pacific Lowlands of Chiapas and Guatemala suggest that Izapa and the Monte Alto Culture may have preceded the Olmec. Radiocarbon samples associated with various sculptures found at the Late Preclassic site of Izapa suggest a date of between 1800 and 1500 BC.
During the Middle and Late Preclassic period, the Maya civilization developed in the southern Maya highlands and lowlands, and at a few sites in the northern Maya lowlands. The earliest Maya sites coalesced after 1000 BC, and include Nakbe, El Mirador, and Cerros. Middle to Late Preclassic Maya sites include Kaminaljuyú, Cival, Edzná, Cobá, Lamanai, Komchen, Dzibilchaltun, and San Bartolo, among others.
The Preclassic in the central Mexican highlands is represented by such sites as Tlapacoya, Tlatilco, and Cuicuilco. These sites were eventually superseded by Teotihuacán, an important Classic - era site that eventually dominated economic and interaction spheres throughout Mesoamerica. The settlement of Teotihuacan is dated to the later portion of the Late Preclassic, or roughly AD 50.
In the Valley of Oaxaca, San José Mogote represents one of the oldest permanent agricultural villages in the area, and one of the first to use pottery. During the Early and Middle Preclassic, the site developed some of the earliest examples of defensive palisades, ceremonial structures, the use of adobe, and hieroglyphic writing. Also of importance, the site was one of the first to demonstrate inherited status, signifying a radical shift in socio - cultural and political structure. San José Mogote was eventual overtaken by Monte Albán, the subsequent capital of the Zapotec empire, during the Late Preclassic.
The Preclassic in western Mexico, in the states of Nayarit, Jalisco, Colima, and Michoacán also known as the Occidente, is poorly understood. This period is best represented by the thousands of figurines recovered by looters and ascribed to the "shaft tomb tradition ''.
Olmec Colossal Head No. 3 1200 -- 900 BC
Cermic Olmec Baby Figure 1200 -- 900 BC
Cuicuilco 800 -- 600 BC
Nakbé, Mid Preclassic (600 BC) Palace remains, The Mirador Basin
The partly excavated main structure of San Jose Mogote 1500 -- 500 BC
Monte Alban, Building J in the foreground. 200 BC -- AD 200
The Classic period is marked by the rise and dominance of several polities. The traditional distinction between the Early and Late Classic are marked by their changing fortune and their ability to maintain regional primacy. Of paramount importance are Teotihuacán in central Mexico and Tikal in Guatemala; the Early Classic 's temporal limits generally correlate to the main periods of these sites. Monte Alban in Oaxaca is another Classic - period polity that expanded and flourished during this period, but the Zapotec capital exerted less interregional influence than the other two sites.
During the Early Classic, Teotihuacan participated in and perhaps dominated a far - reaching macro-regional interaction network. Architectural and artifact styles (talud - tablero, tripod slab - footed ceramic vessels) epitomized at Teotihuacan were mimicked and adopted at many distant settlements. Pachuca obsidian, whose trade and distribution is argued to have been economically controlled by Teotihuacan, is found throughout Mesoamerica.
Tikal came to dominate much of the southern Maya lowlands politically, economically, and militarily during the Early Classic. An exchange network centered at Tikal distributed a variety of goods and commodities throughout southeast Mesoamerica, such as obsidian imported from central Mexico (e.g., Pachuca) and highland Guatemala (e.g., El Chayal, which was predominantly used by the Maya during the Early Classic), and jade from the Motagua valley in Guatemala. Tikal was often in conflict with other polities in the Petén Basin, as well as with others outside of it, including Uaxactun, Caracol, Dos Pilas, Naranjo, and Calakmul. Towards the end of the Early Classic, this conflict lead to Tikal 's military defeat at the hands of Caracol in 562, and a period commonly known as the Tikal Hiatus.
Pyramid of the Moon viewed from atop of the Pyramid of the Sun.
Great Goddess of Teotihuacan AD 200 -- 500
A reconstruction of Guachimontones, flourished from AD 200 -- 400
Temple of the Owl, Dzibanche AD 200 -- 600
Mask located on the "Temple of the Masks '' Kohunlich c. AD 500
Acanceh, AD 200 -- 300
The Late Classic period (beginning ca. AD 600 until AD 909 (varies)) is characterized as a period of interregional competition and factionalization among the numerous regional polities in the Maya area. This largely resulted from the decrease in Tikal 's socio - political and economic power at the beginning of the period. It was therefore during this time that other sites rose to regional prominence and were able to exert greater interregional influence, including Caracol, Copán, Palenque, and Calakmul (which was allied with Caracol and may have assisted in the defeat of Tikal), and Dos Pilas Aguateca and Cancuén in the Petexbatún region of Guatemala. Around 710, Tikal arose again and started to build strong alliances and defeat its worst enemies. In the Maya area, the Late Classic ended with the so - called "Maya collapse '', a transitional period coupling the general depopulation of the southern lowlands and development and florescence of centers in the northern lowlands.
Main palace of Palenque, AD 7th century
K'inich Janaab Pakal I of Palenque AD 603 -- 683
Copan Stela H commissioned by Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil AD 695 -- 738
Jaina Island type figure (Maya) AD 650 -- 800
Cacaxtla, Mural depicting the Bird Man AD 650 -- 900
Xochicalco, Temple of the Feathered Serpent, AD 650 -- 900
Generally applied to the Maya area, the Terminal Classic roughly spans the time between AD 800 / 850 and ca. AD 1000. Overall, it generally correlates with the rise to prominence of Puuc settlements in the northern Maya lowlands, so named after the hills in which they are mainly found. Puuc settlements are specifically associated with a unique architectural style (the "Puuc architectural style '') that represents a technological departure from previous construction techniques. Major Puuc sites include Uxmal, Sayil, Labna, Kabah, and Oxkintok. While generally concentrated within the area in and around the Puuc hills, the style has been documented as far away as at Chichen Itza to the east and Edzna to the south.
Chichén Itzá was originally thought to have been a Postclassic site in the northern Maya lowlands. Research over the past few decades has established that it was first settled during the Early / Late Classic transition but rose to prominence during the Terminal Classic and Early Postclassic. During its apogee, this widely known site economically and politically dominated the northern lowlands. Its participation in the circum - peninsular exchange route, possible through its port site of Isla Cerritos, allowed Chichén Itzá to remain highly connected to areas such as central Mexico and Central America. The apparent "Mexicanization '' of architecture at Chichén Itzá led past researchers to believe that Chichén Itzá existed under the control of a Toltec empire. Chronological data refutes this early interpretation, and it is now known that Chichén Itzá predated the Toltec; Mexican architectural styles are now used as an indicator of strong economic and ideological ties between the two regions.
Governor 's Palace rear view and details, AD 10th century, Uxmal
Codz Poop, AD 7th -- 10th centuries Kabah
Chichen Itza, Temple of the Jaguars AD 900 -- 1000
Chichen Itza, "Temple of Three Dintels '' AD 600 -- 1000
Uxmal, Nunnery Quadrangle, AD 10th century
Sayil, three - story palace, AD 600 -- 900
The Postclassic (beginning AD 900 -- 1000, depending on area) is, like the Late Classic, characterized by the cyclical crystallization and fragmentation of various polities. The main Maya centers were located in the northern lowlands. Following Chichén Itzá, whose political structure collapsed during the Early Postclassic, Mayapán rose to prominence during the Middle Postclassic and dominated the north for c. 200 years. After Mayapán 's fragmentation, political structure in the northern lowlands revolved around large towns or city - states, such as Oxkutzcab and Ti'ho (Mérida, Yucatán), that competed with one another.
Toniná, in the Chiapas highlands, and Kaminaljuyú in the central Guatemala highlands, were important southern highland Maya centers. The latter site, Kaminaljuyú, is one of the longest occupied sites in Mesoamerica and was continuously inhabited from c. 800 BC to around AD 1200. Other important highland Maya groups include the K'iche ' of Utatlán, the Mam in Zaculeu, the Poqomam in Mixco Viejo, and the Kaqchikel at Iximche in the Guatemalan highlands. The Pipil resided in El Salvador, while the Ch'orti ' were in eastern Guatemala and northwestern Honduras.
In central Mexico, the early portion of the Postclassic correlates with the rise of the Toltec and an empire based at their capital, Tula (also known as Tollan). Cholula, initially an important Early Classic center contemporaneous with Teotihuacan, maintained its political structure (it did not collapse) and continued to function as a regionally important center during the Postclassic. The latter portion of the Postclassic is generally associated with the rise of the Mexica and the Aztec Empire. One of the more commonly known cultural groups in Mesoamerica, the Aztec politically dominated nearly all of central Mexico, the Gulf Coast, Mexico 's southern Pacific Coast (Chiapas and into Guatemala), Oaxaca, and Guerrero.
The Tarascans (also known as the P'urhépecha) were located in Michoacán and Guerrero. With their capital at Tzintzuntzan, the Tarascan state was one of the few to actively and continuously resist Aztec domination during the Late Postclassic. Other important Postclassic cultures in Mesoamerica include the Totonac along the eastern coast (in the modern - day states of Veracruz, Puebla, and Hidalgo). The Huastec resided north of the Totonac, mainly in the modern - day states of Tamaulipas and northern Veracruz. The Mixtec and Zapotec cultures, centered at Mitla and Zaachila respectively, inhabited Oaxaca.
The Postclassic ends with the arrival of the Spanish and their subsequent conquest of the Aztec between 1519 and 1521. Many other cultural groups did not acquiesce until later. For example, Maya groups in the Petén area, including the Itza at Tayasal and the Kowoj at Zacpeten, remained independent until 1697.
Some Mesoamerican cultures never achieved dominant status or left impressive archaeological remains but are nevertheless noteworthy. These include the Otomi, Mixe -- Zoque groups (which may or may not have been related to the Olmecs), the northern Uto - Aztecan groups, often referred to as the Chichimeca, that include the Cora and Huichol, the Chontales, the Huaves, and the Pipil, Xincan and Lencan peoples of Central America.
Palace of Columns, Mitla, Oaxaca 12th century
Huejotla defensive wall, built c. 1200
Detail of page 20 from the Codex Zouche - Nuttall, 14 - 15th century
Bronze objects from Tzintzuntzán, 15th century
Aztec sun stone, early 16th century
By roughly 6000 BC, hunter - gatherers living in the highlands and lowlands of Mesoamerica began to develop agricultural practices with early cultivation of squash and chilli. The earliest example of maize dates to c. 4000 BC and comes from Guilá Naquitz, a cave in Oaxaca. Earlier maize samples have been documented at the Los Ladrones cave site in Panama, c. 5500 BC. Slightly thereafter, other crops began to be cultivated by the semi-agrarian communities throughout Mesoamerica. Although maize is the most common domesticate, the common bean, tepary bean, scarlet runner bean, jicama, tomato and squash all became common cultivates by 3500 BC. At the same time, cotton, yucca and agave were exploited for fibers and textile materials. By 2000 BC, corn was the staple crop in the region and remained so through modern times. The Ramón or Breadnut tree (Brosimum alicastrum) was an occasional substitute for maize in producing flour. Fruit was also important in the daily diet of Mesoamerican cultures. Some of the main ones consumed include avocado, papaya, guava, mamey, zapote, and annona.
Mesoamerica lacked animals suitable for domestication, most notably domesticated large ungulates -- the lack of draft animals to assist in transportation is one notable difference between Mesoamerica and the cultures of the South American Andes. Other animals, including the duck, dogs, and turkey, were domesticated. Turkey was the first, occurring around 3500 BC. Dogs were the primary source of animal protein in ancient Mesoamerica, and dog bones are common in midden deposits throughout the region.
Societies of this region did hunt certain wild species to complement their diet. These animals included deer, rabbit, birds, and various types of insects. They also hunted in order to gain luxury items such as feline fur and bird plumage.
Mesoamerican cultures that lived in the lowlands and coastal plains settled down in agrarian communities somewhat later than did highland cultures due to the fact that there was a greater abundance of fruits and animals in these areas, which made a hunter - gatherer lifestyle more attractive. Fishing also was a major provider of food to lowland and coastal Mesoamericans creating a further disincentive to settle down in permanent communities.
Ceremonial centers were the nuclei of Mesoamerican settlements. The temples provided spatial orientation, which was imparted to the surrounding town. The cities with their commercial and religious centers were always political entities, somewhat similar to the European city - state, and each person could identify himself with the city in which he lived.
The ceremonial centers were always built to be visible. The pyramids were meant to stand out from the rest of the city, to represent its gods and their powers. Another characteristic feature of the ceremonial centers is historic layers. All of the ceremonial edifices were built in various phases, one on top of the other, to the point that what we now see is usually the last stage of construction. Ultimately, the ceremonial centers were the architectural translation of the identity of each city, as represented by the veneration of their gods and masters. Stelae were common public monuments throughout Mesoamerica, and served to commemorate notable successes, events and dates associated with the rulers and nobility of the various sites.
Given that Mesoamerica was broken into numerous and diverse ecological niches, none of the societies that inhabited the area were self - sufficient. For this reason, from the last centuries of the Archaic period onward, regions compensated for the environmental inadequacies by specializing in the extraction of certain abundant natural resources and then trading them for necessary unavailable resources through established commercial trade networks.
The following is a list of some of the specialized resources traded from the various Mesoamerican sub-regions and environmental contexts:
Agriculturally based people historically divide the year into four seasons. These included the two solstices and the two equinoxes, which could be thought of as the four "directional pillars '' that support the year. These four times of the year were, and still are, important as they indicate seasonal changes that directly impact the lives of Mesoamerican agriculturalists.
The Maya closely observed and duly recorded the seasonal markers. They prepared almanacs recording past and recent solar and lunar eclipses, the phases of the moon, the periods of Venus and Mars, the movements of various other planets, and conjunctions of celestial bodies. These almanacs also made future predictions concerning celestial events. These tables are remarkably accurate, given the technology available, and indicate a significant level of knowledge among Maya astronomers.
Among the many types of calendars the Maya maintained, the most important include a 260 - day cycle, a 360 - day cycle or ' year ', a 365 - day cycle or year, a lunar cycle, and a Venus cycle, which tracked the synodic period of Venus. Maya of the European contact period said that knowing the past aided in both understanding the present and predicting the future (Diego de Landa). The 260 - day cycle was a calendar to govern agriculture, observe religious holidays, mark the movements of celestial bodies and memorialize public officials. The 260 - day cycle was also used for divination, and (like the Catholic calendar of saints) to name newborns.
The names given to the days, months, and years in the Mesoamerican calendar came, for the most part, from animals, flowers, heavenly bodies, and cultural concepts that held symbolic significance in Mesoamerican culture. This calendar was used throughout the history of Mesoamerican by nearly every culture. Even today, several Maya groups in Guatemala, including the K'iche ', Q'eqchi ', Kaqchikel, and the Mixe people of Oaxaca continue using modernized forms of the Mesoamerican calendar.
The Mesoamerican scripts deciphered to date are logosyllabic combining the use of logograms with a syllabary, and they are often called hieroglyphic scripts. Five or six different scripts have been documented in Mesoamerica, but archaeological dating methods, and a certain degree of self - interest, create difficulties in establishing priority and thus the forebear from which the others developed. The best documented and deciphered Mesoamerican writing system, and therefore the most widely known, is the classic Maya script. Others include the Olmec, Zapotec, and Epi - Olmec / Isthmian writing systems. An extensive Mesoamerican literature has been conserved partly in indigenous scripts and partly in the postinvasion transcriptions into Latin script.
The other glyphic writing systems of Mesoamerica, and their interpretation, have been subject to much debate. One important ongoing discussion regards whether non-Maya Mesoamerican texts can be considered examples of true writing or whether non-Maya Mesoamerican texts are best understood as pictographic conventions used to express ideas, specifically religious ones, but not representing the phonetics of the spoken language in which they were read.
Mesoamerican writing is found in several mediums, including large stone monuments such as stelae, carved directly onto architecture, carved or painted over stucco (e.g., murals), and on pottery. No Precolumbian Mesoamerican society is known to have had widespread literacy, and literacy was probably restricted to particular social classes, including scribes, painters, merchants, and the nobility.
The Mesoamerican book was typically written with brush and colored inks on a paper prepared from the inner bark of the ficus amacus. The book consisted of a long strip of the prepared bark, which was folded like a screenfold to define individual pages. The pages were often covered and protected by elaborately carved book boards. Some books were composed of square pages while others were composed of rectangular pages.
Mesoamerican arithmetic treated numbers as having both literal and symbolic value, the result of the dualistic nature that characterized Mesoamerican ideology. As mentioned, the Mesoamerican numbering system was vigesimal (i.e., based on the number 20).
In representing numbers, a series of bars and dots were employed. Dots had a value of one, and bars had a value of five. This type of arithmetic was combined with a symbolic numerology: ' 2 ' was related to origins, as all origins can be thought of as doubling; ' 3 ' was related to household fire; ' 4 ' was linked to the four corners of the universe; ' 5 ' expressed instability; ' 9 ' pertained to the underworld and the night; ' 13 ' was the number for light, ' 20 ' for abundance, and ' 400 ' for infinity. The concept of zero was also used, and its representation at the Late Preclassic occupation of Tres Zapotes is one of the earliest uses of zero in human history.
Maize played an important role in Mesoamerican Feasts due to its symbolic meaning and abundance.
Fray Bernardino de Sahagún collected extensive information on plants, animals, soil types, among other matters from native informants in Book 11, The Earthly Things, of the twelve - volume General History of the Things of New Spain, known as the Florentine Codex, compiled in the third quarter of the sixteenth century. An earlier work, the Badianus Manuscript or Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis is another Aztec codex with written text and illustrations collected from the indigenous viewpoint.
The shared traits in Mesoamerican mythology are characterized by their common basis as a religion that, although in many Mesoamerican groups developed into complex polytheistic religious systems, retained some shamanistic elements.
The great breadth of the Mesoamerican pantheon of deities is due to the incorporation of ideological and religious elements from the first primitive religion of Fire, Earth, Water and Nature. Astral divinities (the sun, stars, constellations, and Venus) were adopted and represented in anthropomorphic, zoomorphic, and anthropozoomorphic sculptures, and in day - to - day objects. The qualities of these gods and their attributes changed with the passage of time and with cultural influences from other Mesoamerican groups. The gods are at once three: creator, preserver, and destroyer, and at the same time just one. An important characteristic of Mesoamerican religion was the dualism among the divine entities. The gods represented the confrontation between opposite poles: the positive, exemplified by light, the masculine, force, war, the sun, etc.; and the negative, exemplified by darkness, the feminine, repose, peace, the moon, etc. (European ideology, Manichaeism).
The typical Mesoamerican cosmology sees the world as separated into a day world watched by the sun and a night world watched by the moon. More importantly, the three superposed levels of the world are united by a Ceiba tree (Yaxche ' in Mayan). The geographic vision is also tied to the cardinal points. Certain geographical features are linked to different parts of this cosmovision. Thus mountains and tall trees connect the middle and upper worlds; caves connect the middle and nether worlds.
Generally, sacrifice can be divided into two types: autosacrifice and human sacrifice. The different forms of sacrifice are reflected in the imagery used to evoke ideological structure and sociocultural organization in Mesoamerica. In the Maya area, for example, stele depict bloodletting rituals performed by ruling elites, eagles and jaguars devouring human hearts, jade circles or necklaces that represented hearts, and plants and flowers that symbolized both nature and the blood that provided life. Imagery also showed pleas for rain or pleas for blood, with the same intention to replenish the divine energy.
Autosacrifice, also called bloodletting, is the ritualized practice of drawing blood from oneself. It is commonly seen or represented through iconography as performed by ruling elites in highly ritualized ceremonies, but it was easily practiced in mundane sociocultural contexts (i.e., non-elites could perform autosacrifice). The act was typically performed with obsidian prismatic blades or stingray spines, and blood was drawn from piercing or cutting the tongue, earlobes, and / or genitals (among other locations). Another form of autosacrifice was conducted by pulling a rope with attached thorns through the tongue or earlobes. The blood produced was then collected on paper held in a bowl.
Autosacrifice was not limited to male rulers, as their female counterparts often performed these ritualized activities. They are typically shown performing the rope and thorns technique. A recently discovered queen 's tomb in the Classic Maya site of Waka (also known as El Perú) had a ceremonial stingray spine placed in her genital area, suggesting that women also performed bloodletting in their genitalia.
Sacrifice had great importance in the social and religious aspects of Mesoamerican culture. First, it showed death transformed into the divine. Death is the consequence of a human sacrifice, but it is not the end; it is but the continuation of the cosmic cycle. Death creates life -- divine energy is liberated through death and returns to the gods, who are then able to create more life. Secondly, it justifies war, since the most valuable sacrifices are obtained through conflict. The death of the warrior is the greatest sacrifice and gives the gods the energy to go about their daily activities, such as the bringing of rain. Warfare and capturing prisoners became a method of social advancement and a religious cause. Finally, it justifies the control of power by the two ruling classes, the priests and the warriors. The priests controlled the religious ideology, and the warriors supplied the sacrifices.
The Mesoamerican ballgame was a sport with ritual associations played for over 3000 years by nearly all pre-Columbian peoples of Mesoamerica. The sport had different versions in different places during the millennia, and a modern version of the game, ulama, continues to be played in a few places.
Over 1300 ballcourts have been found throughout Mesoamerica. They vary considerably in size, but they all feature long narrow alleys with side - walls to bounce the balls against.
The rules of the ballgame are not known, but it was probably similar to volleyball, where the object is to keep the ball in play. In the most well - known version of the game, the players struck the ball with their hips, although some versions used forearms or employed rackets, bats, or handstones. The ball was made of solid rubber, and weighed up to 4 kg or more, with sizes that differed greatly over time or according to the version played.
While the game was played casually for simple recreation, including by children and perhaps even women, the game also had important ritual aspects, and major formal ballgames were held as ritual events, often featuring human sacrifice.
Mesoamerican astronomy included a broad understanding of the cycles of planets and other celestial bodies. Special importance was given to the sun, moon, and Venus as the morning and evening star.
Observatories were built at some sites, including the round observatory at Ceibal and the "Observatorio '' at Xochicalco. Often, the architectural organization of Mesoamerican sites was based on precise calculations derived from astronomical observations. Well - known examples of these include the El Castillo pyramid at Chichen Itza and the Observatorio at Xochicalco. A unique and common architectural complex found among many Mesoamerican sites are E-Groups, which are aligned so as to serve as astronomical observatories. The name of this complex is based on Uaxactun 's "Group E, '' the first known observatory in the Maya area. Perhaps the earliest observatory documented in Mesoamerica is that of the Monte Alto culture. This complex consisted of three plain stelae and a temple oriented with respect to the Pleiades.
It has been argued that among Mesoamerican societies the concepts of space and time are associated with the four cardinal compass points and linked together by the calendar. Dates or events were always tied to a compass direction, and the calendar specified the symbolic geographical characteristic peculiar to that period. Resulting from the significance held by the cardinal directions, many Mesoamerican architectural features, if not entire settlements, were planned and oriented with respect to directionality.
In Maya cosmology, each cardinal point was assigned a specific color and a specific jaguar deity (Bacab). They are as follows:
Later cultures such as the Kaqchikel and K'iche ' maintain the association of cardinal directions with each color, but utilized different names.
Among the Aztec, the name of each day was associated with a cardinal point (thus conferring symbolic significance), and each cardinal direction was associated with a group of symbols. Below are the symbols and concepts associated with each direction:
Mesoamerican artistic expression was conditioned by ideology and generally focused on themes of religion and / or sociopolitical power. This is largely based on the fact that most works that survived the Spanish conquest were public monuments. These monuments were typically erected by rulers who sought to visually legitimize their sociocultural and political position; by doing so, they intertwined their lineage, personal attributes and achievements, and legacy with religious concepts. As such, these monuments were specifically designed for public display and took many forms, including stele, sculpture, architectural reliefs, and other types of architectural elements (e.g., roofcombs). Other themes expressed include tracking time, glorifying the city, and veneration of the gods -- all of which were tied to explicitly aggrandizing the abilities and the reign of the ruler who commissioned the artwork.
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when did the detroit red wings win the stanley cup | Detroit Red Wings - Wikipedia
The Detroit Red Wings are a professional ice hockey team based in Detroit. They are members of the Atlantic Division in the Eastern Conference of the National Hockey League (NHL) and are one of the Original Six teams of the league. Founded in 1926, the team was known as the Detroit Cougars from then until 1930. For the 1930 -- 31 and 1931 -- 32 seasons the team was called the Detroit Falcons, and in 1932 changed their name to the Red Wings.
As of 2018, the Red Wings have won the most Stanley Cup championships of any NHL franchise based in the United States (11) and are third overall in total Stanley Cup championships, behind the Montreal Canadiens (24) and Toronto Maple Leafs (13). The Wings played their home games at Joe Louis Arena from 1979 until 2017, after having spent over 40 years playing in Olympia Stadium. They moved into Little Caesars Arena during the 2017 -- 18 season. The Red Wings are one of the most popular franchises in the NHL, and fans and commentators refer to Detroit and its surrounding areas as "Hockeytown '', which has been a registered trademark owned by the franchise since 1996.
Between the 1931 -- 32 and 1965 -- 66 seasons, the Red Wings missed the playoffs only four times. Between the 1966 -- 67 and 1982 -- 83 seasons, the Red Wings made the playoffs only two times. However, thereafter, from 1983 -- 84 to 2015 -- 16, they made the playoffs 30 times in 32 seasons, including 25 - straight from 1990 -- 91 to 2015 -- 16, at the time the longest streak of postseason appearances in all of North American professional sports. Since 1983 -- 84, the Red Wings have tallied six regular season first - place finishes and have won the Stanley Cup four times (1997, 1998, 2002, and 2008).
Following the 1926 Stanley Cup playoffs, during which the Western Hockey League (WHL) was widely reported to be on the verge of folding, the NHL held a meeting on April 17 to consider applications for expansion franchises, at which it was reported that five different groups sought a team for Detroit. During a subsequent meeting on May 15, the league approved a franchise to the Townsend - Seyburn group of Detroit and named Charles A. Hughes as governor. Frank and Lester Patrick, the owners of the WHL, made a deal to sell the league 's players to the NHL and cease league operations. The new Detroit franchise purchased the players of the WHL 's Victoria Cougars, who had won the Stanley Cup in 1925 and had made the Finals the previous winter, to play for the team. The new Detroit franchise also adopted the Cougars ' nickname in honor of the folded franchise.
Since no arena in Detroit was ready at the time, the Cougars played their first season at the Border Cities Arena in Windsor, Ontario. For the 1927 -- 28 season, the Cougars moved into the new Detroit Olympia, which would be their home rink until December 15, 1979. This was also the first season behind the bench for Jack Adams, who would be the face of the franchise for the next 36 years as either coach or general manager.
The Cougars made the Stanley Cup playoffs for the first time in 1929 with Carson Cooper leading the team in scoring. The Cougars were outscored 7 -- 2 in the two - game series with the Toronto Maple Leafs. In 1930, the Cougars were renamed the Falcons, but their woes continued, as they usually finished near the bottom of the standings, even though they made the playoffs again in 1932.
In 1932, the NHL let grain merchant James E. Norris, who had made two previous unsuccessful bids to buy an NHL team, purchase the Falcons. Norris ' first act was to choose a new name for the team -- the Red Wings. Earlier in the century, Norris had been a member of the Montreal Amateur Athletic Association, a sporting club with cycling roots. The MAAA 's teams were known by their club emblem and these Winged Wheelers were the first winners of the Stanley Cup in 1893. Norris decided that a version of their logo was perfect for a team playing in the Motor City and on October 5, 1932, the club was renamed the Red Wings. Norris also placed coach Jack Adams on a one - year probation for the 1932 -- 33 NHL season. Adams managed to pass his probationary period by leading the renamed franchise to its first - ever playoff series victory, over the Montreal Maroons. The team then lost in the semi-finals to the New York Rangers.
In 1934, the Red Wings made the Stanley Cup Finals for the first time, with John Sorrell scoring 21 goals over 47 games and Larry Aurie leading the team in scoring. However, the Chicago Black Hawks defeated the Red Wings in the Finals, winning the best - of - five series in four games to claim their first title. Two seasons later, the Red Wings won their first Stanley Cup in 1936, defeating Toronto in four games. Detroit repeated as Stanley Cup champions in 1937, winning over the Rangers in the full five games. In 1938, the Red Wings and the Montreal Canadiens became the first NHL teams to play in Europe, playing in Paris and London. The Wings played nine games against the Canadiens and went 3 -- 5 -- 1. They did not play in Europe again until the pre-season and start of the 2009 -- 10 NHL season, in Sweden, against the St. Louis Blues.
The Red Wings made the Stanley Cup Finals in three consecutive years during the early 1940s. In 1941, they were swept by the Boston Bruins, and in 1942, they lost a seven - game series to Toronto after winning the first three games. However, in 1943, with Mud Bruneteau and Syd Howe scoring 23 and 20 goals, respectively, Detroit won their third Stanley Cup by sweeping the Bruins. Through the rest of the decade, the team made the playoffs every year, and reached the Finals three more times.
In 1946, one of the greatest players in hockey history came into the NHL with the Red Wings. Gordie Howe, a right winger from Floral, Saskatchewan, only scored seven goals and 15 assists in his first season and would not reach his prime for a few more years. It was also the last season as head coach for Adams, who stepped down after the season to concentrate on his duties as general manager. He was succeeded by minor league coach Tommy Ivan. By his second season, Howe was paired with Sid Abel and Ted Lindsay to form what would become one of the great lines in NHL history: the "Production Line ''. Lindsay 's 33 goals propelled the Red Wings to the Stanley Cup Finals, where they were swept by the Maple Leafs. Detroit reached the Finals again the following season, only to be swept again by Toronto.
During the 1950 Stanley Cup semi-finals, Leo Reise Jr. scored the winning goal in overtime, which prevented the Maple Leafs from winning four straight championships. In the Finals, the Red Wings defeated the New York Rangers in seven games. In Game 7, Pete Babando scored the game winner in double overtime. After the game, Lindsay skated around the Olympia ice with the Stanley Cup.
After being upset by the Montreal Canadiens in the 1951 semi-finals, Detroit won its fifth Stanley Cup, in 1952, sweeping both the Maple Leafs and the Canadiens, with the Production Line of Howe, Abel and Lindsay joined by second - year goaltender Terry Sawchuk. Detroit became the first team in 17 years to go undefeated in the playoffs. They also scored 24 playoff goals, compared to Toronto and Montreal 's combined total of 5. Abel left the Red Wings for Chicago during the off - season, and his spot on the roster was replaced by Alex Delvecchio. In December 1952, James E. Norris died. He was succeeded as team president by his daughter, Marguerite, which made her the first woman to head an NHL franchise.
Following another playoff upset in 1953 at the hands of the Bruins, the Red Wings won back - to - back Stanley Cups, beating the rival powerhouse Montreal Canadiens. Both of the Stanley Cup Finals played between the two teams were decided in seven games. The seventh game during the 1954 Stanley Cup Finals was won with one of the oddest cup winning goals ever, when the 5'7 '' left winger Tony Leswick, known more for his relentless checking than scoring prowess, shot a puck towards the Montreal goal from the middle of the ice. Habs defenseman Doug Harvey tried to gain control of the wobbly puck with his glove, but instead redirected it past Montreal goalie Gerry McNeil. The repeat of the series the season after was closely contested, as all of the games were won by the home team, with Detroit taking the seventh game. Montreal was sorely lacking its all - star Maurice Richard, who was suspended after hitting a linesman during the regular season, and the Red Wings ' stars carried their team, as Lindsay scored four goals in a single game and Howe scored 20 points during the playoffs, 12 of which during the Finals, all new records in the league.
The 1954 -- 55 season ended a run of seven straight regular season titles, an NHL record. During the 1955 offseason, Marguerite Norris lost an intra-family power struggle, and was forced to turn over the Red Wings to her younger brother Bruce. Detroit and Montreal once again met, in the 1956 Stanley Cup Finals, but this time the Canadiens won the Stanley Cup, their first of five in a row. In 1957, Lindsay, who had scored 30 goals and led the league in assists with 55, teamed up with Harvey to help start the National Hockey League Players ' Association (NHLPA). As a result, he and goaltender Glenn Hall were promptly traded to Chicago.
In 1959, the Red Wings missed the playoffs for the first time in 21 years. However, within a couple of years, the franchise was able to rejuvenate itself. The Red Wings made the Finals in four of the next six years between 1961 and 1966. However, they came away empty - handed.
Only a year after making the Finals, the Red Wings finished a distant fifth, 24 points out of the playoffs. It was the beginning of a slump that they would not emerge from in almost 20 years. This period is derisively known as the "Dead Wings '' era.
One factor in the Red Wings ' decline was the end of the old development system. Another factor was Ned Harkness, who was hired as coach in 1970 and was promoted to general manager midway through the season. A successful college hockey coach, Harkness tried to force his two - way style of play on a veteran Red Wings team resistant to change. They chafed under his rule in which he demanded short hair and no smoking, and put other rules in place regarding drinking and phone calls. Harkness was forced to resign in 1974, ending the period colloquially referred to as "Darkness with Harkness ''.
In the expansion season of 1967 -- 68, the Red Wings acquired longtime star left - winger Frank Mahovlich from the defending Cup champions in Toronto. Mahovlich would go on a line with Howe and Delvecchio, and in 1968 -- 69, he scored a career - high 49 goals and had two All - Star seasons in Detroit. But this did not last. Mahovlich was traded to Montreal in 1971, and Howe retired after the 1970 -- 71 season. Throughout the decade, the Red Wings were hampered due to a number of factors.
During the 1979 -- 80 season, the Red Wings left the Olympia for Joe Louis Arena. In 1982, after 50 years of family ownership, Bruce Norris sold the Red Wings to Mike Ilitch, founder of Little Caesars.
In 1983, the Red Wings drafted Steve Yzerman, a center from the Peterborough Petes, with their first - round pick. He led the team in scoring in his rookie year. That season, with John Ogrodnick, Ivan Boldirev, Ron Duguay, and Brad Park, Detroit made the playoffs for the first time in six years. Park ended up winning the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy. Park was later asked to coach the Red Wings, only to be sacked after just 45 games in 1985 -- 86. They did end up in last place with a 17 -- 57 -- 6 record for only 40 points. This was the same year that the Red Wings added enforcer Bob Probert, one of the most familiar faces of the team in the 1980s and ' 90s.
In the 1986 -- 87 season, with Yzerman, now the captain following the departure of Danny Gare, joined by Petr Klima, Adam Oates, Gerard Gallant, defenseman Darren Veitch and new head coach Jacques Demers, the Red Wings won a playoff series for only the second time in the modern era. They made it all the way to the conference finals against the powerful Edmonton Oilers, but lost to the eventual Stanley Cup champions in five games. In 1988, they won their first division title in 23 years. They did so, however, in a relatively weak division, as no other team in the Norris finished above. 500. As was the case in the previous season, they made it to the conference finals only to lose again to the eventual Stanley Cup champion Oilers in five games.
In 1989, Yzerman scored a career - best 65 goals, but Detroit was upset in the first round by the Chicago Blackhawks. The following season, Yzerman scored 62 goals, but the team missed the playoffs.
After the season, Demers was fired and was replaced by Bryan Murray as the new head coach. Murray was unable to get them back over. 500, but they returned to the playoffs. Yzerman was joined by Sergei Fedorov, who would be an award - winner and frequent all - star for the team in the 1990s. In 1991, the team signed free agent Ray Sheppard, who would score a career - best 52 goals three years later. In 1993, the Red Wings acquired top defenseman Paul Coffey. Also joining the Red Wings around this time were draft picks Vladimir Konstantinov, Nicklas Lidstrom, Vyacheslav Kozlov, Darren McCarty and Chris Osgood.
In 1993, former Montreal Canadiens coach Scotty Bowman was hired as the new head coach. In his second season, the lockout - shortened 1994 -- 95 NHL season, Bowman guided Detroit to its first Finals appearance in 29 years, only to be swept by the New Jersey Devils.
During the 1995 -- 96 season, they won an NHL record 62 games. After defeating the St. Louis Blues in seven games, the Red Wings would fall in the Western Conference finals to the eventual Stanley Cup champion Colorado Avalanche.
The following season, the Red Wings acquired Brendan Shanahan and Larry Murphy. In the playoffs, they would defeat the St. Louis Blues, the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim and the Avalanche in the first three rounds. In the Finals, the Red Wings swept the Philadelphia Flyers. It was their first Stanley Cup since 1955, breaking the longest drought (42 years long) in the league at that time. Mike Vernon was awarded the Conn Smythe Trophy.
Misfortune befell the Red Wings six days after their championship; defenseman Vladimir Konstantinov, one of the members of the "Russian Five '', suffered a brain injury in a limousine accident, and his career came to an abrupt end. As a result, the team dedicated the 1997 -- 98 season to him. The Red Wings won the Stanley Cup in four games, this time over the Washington Capitals, and Konstantinov was brought onto the ice in his wheelchair so he could touch it.
The following season, the Red Wings appeared to be poised to win a third consecutive Stanley Cup when they acquired three - time top blueliner Chris Chelios from his hometown Chicago Blackhawks in March 1999. Also acquired at the trade deadline were defenseman Ulf Samuelsson, winger Wendel Clark, and goaltender Bill Ranford. Despite high aspirations, however, Detroit would end up losing in the Western Conference semi-finals to Colorado in six games. In 2000, the Red Wings would finish second in the Central Division. Just like the previous season, however, they would lose to the Avalanche in the Western Conference semi-finals.
In 2001, Detroit, the NHL 's second - best team in the regular season, were upset in the playoffs by the Los Angeles Kings. During the ensuing offseason, the team acquired goaltender Dominik Hasek (the defending Vezina Trophy winner) and forwards Luc Robitaille and Brett Hull. Russian prospect Pavel Datsyuk also joined the team. Strengthened by the additions, the Red Wings posted the league 's best record in the 2001 -- 02 regular season and defeated Colorado in seven games in the Western Conference finals after beating the Vancouver Canucks and St. Louis Blues in rounds one and two. The Red Wings then went on to capture another Stanley Cup, in five games, over the Carolina Hurricanes, with Nicklas Lidstrom winning the Conn Smythe Trophy as the playoffs ' MVP. Bowman and Hasek both retired after the season.
The off - season saw the Red Wings promote associate coach Dave Lewis to the head coach position after Bowman 's retirement. In the market for a new starting goaltender after Hasek 's retirement, they signed Curtis Joseph from the Toronto Maple Leafs to a three - year, $24 million deal. Also new to the lineup was highly - touted Swedish prospect Henrik Zetterberg. The Red Wings finished the season second in the Western Conference, which pitted them in the 2003 playoffs against the seventh - seeded Mighty Ducks of Anaheim. The Mighty Ducks shocked the hockey world when they swept the Red Wings in four games en route to a Finals appearance.
In the offseason, long time Red Wing Fedorov signed with the Mighty Ducks as a free agent. Additionally, Hasek opted to come out of retirement and join the Red Wings for the 2003 -- 04 season. Joseph, despite being one of the highest - paid players in the NHL, spent part of the season in the minor leagues. Hasek himself would be sidelined with a groin injury. Notwithstanding, the Red Wings would finish atop of the Central Division and the NHL standings. The Red Wings eliminated the Nashville Predators in six games in the first round of the 2004 playoffs, which led to a second round match - up with the Calgary Flames. The teams split the first four games, and headed to Detroit for a pivotal Game 5, which the Red Wings lost 1 -- 0. They were then eliminated two nights later in Calgary by the same score, in overtime. The Red Wings did not play in the 2004 -- 05 season due to the lockout, which cancelled the entire NHL season.
On July 15, 2005, Mike Babcock, former head coach in Anaheim, became the new head coach for the Red Wings. On November 21, 2005, defenseman Jiri Fischer went into cardiac arrest and collapsed on the bench during a game against the Nashville Predators. The game was cancelled because of his injury and was made up on January 23, 2006. This was the first time in NHL history a game had been postponed due to an injury. While the game was played for the full 60 minutes, the Predators were allowed to maintain their 1 -- 0 lead from the original game and won 3 -- 2. The Red Wings won the Presidents ' Trophy with a 58 -- 16 -- 8 record, earning them 124 points and secured home ice advantage for the entire playoffs. They opened the 2006 playoffs against the Edmonton Oilers with a 3 -- 2 overtime victory at Joe Louis Arena, but the Oilers won four of the next five games to take the series.
Continuing the shakeup of the Red Wings roster, the off - season saw the departure of Brendan Shanahan, the return of Dominik Hasek and the retirement of Steve Yzerman. Yzerman retired with the additional distinction of having been the longest - serving team captain in NHL history.
The Red Wings opened the 2006 -- 07 season with Nicklas Lidstrom as the new captain. The team retired Yzerman 's jersey number 19 on January 2, 2007. The Red Wings finished first in the Western Conference and tied for first in the NHL with the Buffalo Sabres, but the Sabres were awarded the Presidents ' Trophy because they had more wins. Detroit advanced to the third round of the 2007 playoffs after defeating Calgary and the San Jose Sharks both in six games, coming back to win three - straight after the Sharks had a 2 -- 1 series lead. The Red Wings would then lose to the eventual Stanley Cup champion Anaheim Ducks in the Western Conference finals in six games.
To start the 2007 -- 08 campaign, Zetterberg recorded at least a point in each of Detroit 's first 17 games, setting a club record. The Wings cruised to the playoffs, where they faced the Nashville Predators. After goaltender Dominik Hasek played poorly in Games 3 and 4 of the series, both losses, head coach Mike Babcock replaced him with Chris Osgood. Osgood never left the net for the remainder of the playoffs, as the Red Wings came back in that series on their way to winning their 11th Stanley Cup. The final victory came in Game 6 on June 4, 2008, against the Pittsburgh Penguins, 3 -- 2. This was the Red Wings ' fourth Stanley Cup in 11 years. Zetterberg scored the winning goal in the decisive game, and was also named the winner of the Conn Smythe Trophy as the most valuable player of the playoffs. It was the first time a team captained by a non-North American player (Lidstrom) won the Stanley Cup.
On July 2, 2008, the Red Wings announced the signing of Marian Hossa. On January 1, 2009, the Red Wings played the Chicago Blackhawks in the second NHL Winter Classic at Chicago 's Wrigley Field, defeating them 6 -- 4. Although they finished second in the conference to the San Jose Sharks, the Wings became the first team in NHL history to top 100 points in nine straight seasons. In the playoffs, the Red Wings swept the Columbus Blue Jackets, then defeated the eighth - seeded Anaheim Ducks in a hard - fought seven game series. They took on the vastly improved Chicago Blackhawks in the conference finals, winning in five games. The Red Wings would face the Pittsburgh Penguins in the Finals for a second consecutive year, but this series would feature a different outcome as the Penguins defeated the Red Wings in seven games. The Red Wings became only the second NHL team to lose the Stanley Cup at home in Game 7.
The Red Wings began the 2009 -- 10 NHL season in Stockholm, losing both games to the St. Louis Blues 4 -- 3 and 5 -- 3 respectively. They were plagued by injuries throughout the season and lost the second most man games to injury, with only the last place Edmonton Oilers losing more. The beginning of the season was a struggle for the Red Wings, with key players out of the lineup, including Zetterberg, Tomas Holmstrom, Johan Franzen, Valtteri Filppula and Niklas Kronwall. After the Olympic break, Detroit posted a record of 13 -- 3 -- 2 and earned 28 points, the most by any team in the NHL. This run helped them secure the fifth playoff seed in the Western Conference. Detroit won their first - round playoff series over the Phoenix Coyotes in seven games. In the second round, they would be defeated by the San Jose Sharks in five games.
A healthier Red Wings team finished the 2010 -- 11 NHL season with a 47 -- 25 -- 10 record and 104 points to win the Central Division title. They once again faced the Phoenix Coyotes in the first round of the playoffs, this time sweeping them 4 -- 0. The Red Wings then went go to face the Sharks in round two. After losing the first three games of the series, the Red Wings won three consecutive games to force a Game 7, becoming just the eighth team in NHL history to accomplish the feat. The Red Wings lost Game 7 to the Sharks by a score of 3 -- 2 and were eliminated.
During the 2011 off - season, Red Wings defenseman Brian Rafalski retired. Detroit soon signed free agent defenseman Ian White to take his place. Long - time Red Wings Chris Osgood and Kris Draper also announced their retirement from hockey, with both soon taking positions within the club. Detroit signed goaltender Ty Conklin for his second tour of duty with the team. Tragedy struck the organization and the rest of the NHL upon the Lokomotiv Yaroslavl plane crash, which killed former Red Wings assistant coach Brad McCrimmon and defenseman Ruslan Salei, who had joined the KHL team during the summer. Stefan Liv, a former Red Wings goaltending prospect, was also among the fatalities. The Red Wings then added a patch to the left arm of their uniforms with the trio 's initials.
During the season, the Red Wings won an NHL - record 23 consecutive home games. The Red Wings also made the NHL playoffs, extending their streak of 21 - straight playoff appearances, as the fifth seed. They were defeated in five games by their opening round opponent, the Nashville Predators. On May 31, 2012, Nicklas Lidstrom retired.
Zetterberg was named successor to Lidstrom as team captain. On July 1, 2012, the first day of the NHL free agency period, the Red Wings signed Swiss forward Damien Brunner to a one - year, entry - level contract; forward Jordin Tootoo to a three - year, $5.7 million contract; and goaltender Jonas Gustavsson to a two - year, $3 million deal.
The team won their final four games of the 2012 -- 13 season to earn the seventh seed of the playoffs. The Red Wings ' 3 -- 0 victory over the Dallas Stars on April 27, 2013 preserved their streak of 22 consecutive playoff appearances. As the seventh seed in the 2013 playoffs, the Red Wings faced the second - seeded Anaheim Ducks. They survived a fierce battle that included four overtime games, winning the series 4 -- 3 after a 3 -- 2 Game 7 victory in Anaheim. The next round pitted the Red Wings against the top - seeded Chicago Blackhawks. Despite jumping out to a 3 -- 1 series lead, the Red Wings would ultimately lose to the eventual Stanley Cup champions in seven games.
On July 5, 2013, the Red Wings signed long time Ottawa Senators captain Daniel Alfredsson to a one - year contract and long time Florida Panther Stephen Weiss to a five - year contract. In the 2013 -- 14 season, the Red Wings moved to the Atlantic Division of the Eastern Conference as part of the NHL 's realignment. On April 9, 2014, the Red Wings clinched their 23rd consecutive playoff appearance. They would be eliminated in the first round by the Boston Bruins.
On April 9, 2015, the Red Wings clinched their 24th consecutive playoff appearance, thus extending their streak. The team was eliminated in the first round by the Tampa Bay Lightning. Petr Mrazek had earned the starting goaltender role from Jimmy Howard, and Kronwall was suspended for Game 7 as Tampa Bay erased a 3 -- 2 deficit to win the series. Mike Babcock, concluding the final year of his contract, left the Red Wings to become the new head coach of the Toronto Maple Leafs. Jeff Blashill, head coach of the Red Wings ' top minor league affiliate, the Grand Rapids Griffins, was named his successor on June 9.
On April 9, 2016, despite the Red Wings losing 3 -- 2 to the New York Rangers, the Ottawa Senators defeated the Boston Bruins 6 -- 1 as the Red Wings narrowly made the playoffs and extended their streak to a 25th season. They would lose in the first round to the Lightning in five games.
On February 10, 2017, club owner Mike Ilitch died. The Red Wings ' playoff appearance streak ended after 25 seasons in the 2016 -- 17 season. The Red Wings won their last game at Joe Louis Arena 4 -- 1 on April 9, 2017, against the New Jersey Devils.
The Red Wings played their first regular season game at Little Caesars Arena on October 5, 2017, winning 4 -- 2 over the Minnesota Wild. The Red Wings finished the 2017 -- 18 season with a 30 -- 39 -- 13 record. They missed the playoffs for the second season in a row, marking the first time since the early 1980s the team missed the playoffs in consecutive years.
The Red Wings ' jerseys (traditionally known in hockey as "sweaters '') have been more or less the same since the 1930s -- a white or red base with red or white piping. The only significant changes have been the replacement of the word Detroit with the "winged wheel '' logo in 1932, and vertical arch lettering for the players ' names and block letters in 1983. The Red Wings only wear the vertical arched letters in the regular season and playoffs, while using straight serifed nameplates during the preseason.
The Hockey News voted the Red Wings ' "winged wheel '' logo the second best in the league in 2008. The Red Wings, like all NHL teams, updated their jerseys to the new Rbk Edge standard for the 2007 -- 08 NHL season. The Red Wings kept their design as close to original as possible, the exceptions being: On the road (white) jersey, there was more red on the sleeves as the color panel began closer to the shoulder, and the letters of the captain and alternate captains were moved to the right shoulder.
When Adidas became the uniform outfitter starting with the 2017 -- 18 season, the Red Wings kept the same basic look.
The Red Wings have rarely used any alternate logos or uniforms since the trend became popular in the 1990s, the sole exceptions were select games of the 1991 -- 92 season commemorating the league 's 75th anniversary, and for a commemorative game on January 27, 1994 at Chicago Stadium. Those jerseys were based on the uniforms worn by the team (then the Detroit Cougars) in 1927 -- 28. The throwbacks are primarily white with five red horizontal stripes on the body, the broadest middle stripe bearing "Detroit '' in bold letters, and three red stripes on the sleeves. This jersey served as the basis for the uniforms worn by Wayne Gretzky 's team of NHLPA All - Stars, nicknamed the "99ers '', for their exhibition tour in Europe during the 1994 -- 95 NHL lockout.
The Red Wings wore alternative "retro '' jerseys for the 2009 NHL Winter Classic in Chicago. The jerseys were based on the uniforms worn by the Detroit Cougars during their inaugural season of 1926 -- 27. These jerseys were white, with a single bold red stripe on the sleeves and chest, and a uniquely styled white Old English D centered on the chest stripe. These jerseys were also worn for their final 2009 regular season home game, again against the Chicago Blackhawks. The Red Wings again used an alternate jersey mimicking throwback jerseys for the 2014 NHL Winter Classic against the Toronto Maple Leafs at Michigan Stadium.
The Red Wings wore a specially designed one - time only jersey for their Stadium Series game in Denver against the Colorado Avalanche on February 27, 2016. The majority of this jersey was the traditional red, decorated with a thick diagonal white stripe running from the player 's right shoulder across the front towards the left hip. The bottom of each sleeve featured a thick white stripe from wrist to elbow. The crest on the front of the jersey was a stylized red D. The words "Red Wings '' were printed in all capital letters on the left side of the collar, and the phrase "EST. 1926 '' was printed inside the back of the collar. These jerseys featured the current Red Wings logo on the left shoulder cap. The names and numbers were printed larger than traditional NHL jerseys to increase visibility and player identification for fans watching the game at Coors Field, a stadium traditionally used for Major League Baseball.
The Red Wings unveiled a uniform patch on September 27, 2016 to honor Gordie Howe, who passed away on June 10, 2016. The patch was a depiction of Howe 's jersey number 9, and was worn by the team above the logo on the front of the jersey on the left side of the chest for all 82 regular season games during the 2016 -- 17 season.
The Red Wings wore a specially designed one - time only jersey for the Centennial Classic in Toronto against the Toronto Maple Leafs on January 1, 2017. It was a white jersey that had four stripes on the arms. Three of the stripes were red, while the fourth was silver. On the silver stripes were the years the Red Wings won the Stanley Cup. The logo and numbers were outlined in silver.
The Red Wings ' logo received significant media attention in August 2017 when it was discovered that a white supremacist group used a modified version of it, in which the wheel 's spokes consisted of the occult SS symbol Black Sun; it was the aegis of their shields during the Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville, Virginia. As a result, the Red Wings condemned the group for the usage of the logo and threatened legal action.
The "Legend of the Octopus '' is a sports tradition during Detroit Red Wings playoff games, in which an octopus is thrown onto the ice surface for good luck. During the playoffs, Joe Louis Arena was generally adorned with a giant octopus with red eyes, nicknamed "Al '' after head ice manager Al Sobotka.
The 1952 playoffs featured the start of the octopus throw. The owner of a local fish market, Peter Cusimano, threw one from the stands onto the ice. The eight legs are symbolic of the eight wins it took to win the Stanley Cup at the time. The Red Wings went on to sweep both of their opponents that year en route to a Stanley Cup championship. The NHL has, at various times, tried to eliminate this tradition but it continues to this day.
Sobotka is the man responsible for removing the thrown creatures from the ice. He is known for swinging the tossed octopuses above his head when walking off the ice. On April 19, 2008, NHL director of hockey operations Colin Campbell sent a memo to the Red Wings organization that forbade Zamboni drivers from cleaning up any octopuses thrown onto the ice; he said that violating the mandate would result in a $10,000 fine. Instead, it was to be the linesmen who performed this duty. In an email to the Detroit Free Press, NHL spokesman Frank Brown justified the ban because matter flies off the octopus and gets on the ice when Sobotka does it. This ban was later loosened to allow for the octopus twirling to take place at the Zamboni entrance.
Typically during the last minute or two of games that the Red Wings are winning, especially around the end of the season and during the playoffs, fans are known to start singing along to Journey 's "Do n't Stop Believin '. '' The song is played over the PA system and continues until it is muted while the crowd sings the words "Born and raised in South Detroit '', then the song resumes over the speakers in the arena.
The Red Wings ' flagship radio stations are Detroit sister stations WXYT - AM 1270 and WXYT - FM 97.1. Games are carried on both stations unless there is a conflict with Detroit Tigers baseball. There are several affiliate stations throughout Michigan and Southwestern Ontario.
The Red Wings ' exclusive local television rights are held by Fox Sports Detroit.
Announcers:
Four members of the Red Wings organization have received the Foster Hewitt Memorial Award:
Lynch called the first locally televised game at Olympia for the original WWJ - TV in 1949. He remained with the organization for 63 years, serving as director of publicity from 1975 to 1982, and was the public address announcer from 1982 until his death in 2012. From 2008 to 2012, a second PA announcer was added to work alongside him, first John Fossen, then Erich Freiny. Freiny took over as the sole PA announcer following Lynch 's death.
This is a partial list of the last five seasons completed by the Detroit Red Wings. For the full season - by - season history, see List of Detroit Red Wings seasons.
Note: GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties, OTL = Overtime losses, ROW = Regulation + OT wins, Pts = Points, GF = Goals for, GA = Goals against
Updated August 10, 2018
The Detroit Red Wings acknowledge an affiliation with a number of inductees to the Hockey Hall of Fame. Red Wings inductees include 63 former players and 11 builders of the sport. The 11 individuals recognized as builders by the Hall of Fame includes former Red Wings executives, general managers, head coaches, and owners. In addition to players and builders, several broadcasters were also awarded the Foster Hewitt Memorial Award from the Hockey Hall of Fame. Budd Lynch, a radio play - by - play announcer, was the first Red Wings broadcaster to be awarded the Foster Hewitt Memorial Award. Lynch also served as Detroit 's public address announcer from 1985 until his death in 2012. In addition to Lynch, Bruce Martyn, Mickey Redmond, and Dave Strader have also won the award.
The Red Wings have retired seven numbers. The first number the Red Wings retired was No. 9 in 1972 in honor of Gordie Howe, who played right wing for the team from 1946 to 1971. Howe won both the Art Ross Trophy and the Hart Memorial Trophy six times each and won the Stanley Cup as a Red Wing four times. In 2007, the Red Wings retired Steve Yzerman 's No. 19. During Yzerman 's career, he won the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy, the Conn Smythe Trophy, the Frank J. Selke Trophy, the Lester Patrick Trophy, and the Ted Lindsay Award. Yzerman served as Detroit 's captain for 19 seasons, an NHL record, and won the Stanley Cup three times as a player with the Red Wings. The most recent retired number is Nicklas Lidstrom 's No. 5, which was retired on March 6, 2014. Lidstrom won the James Norris Memorial Trophy seven times, the Conn Smythe Trophy once and the Stanley Cup four times during his career in Detroit.
The Red Wings have also made the number 6 of Larry Aurie and the number 16 of Vladimir Konstantinov no longer available for issue. However, the numbers are not considered to be officially retired. Although Aurie 's number was retired in 1938 by James E. Norris, current team owners do not consider the number to be retired. Konstantinov 's number has not been issued to any player since he was permanently disabled in a vehicle accident after the 1997 Stanley Cup Finals. Number 99 is also unavailable as it was retired by the league in honor of Wayne Gretzky.
All the players who have served as team captain with the Detroit franchise.
These players rank in the top ten in franchise history in scoring as of the end of the 2017 -- 18 season. Figures are updated after each completed NHL season.
Note: Pos = Position; GP = Games played; G = Goals; A = Assists; Pts = Points; P / G = Points per game
These players rank in the top ten in franchise history for wins as of the end of the 2017 − 18 season. Figures are updated after each completed NHL season. There is a four - way tie for ninth place in postseason wins, resulting in twelve players listed in that table.
Note: GP = Games played; W = Wins; L = Losses; T = Ties; OT = Overtime losses; SO = Shutouts; GAA = Goals against average; * = current Red Wings player
Footnotes
Citations
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how can school based assessment assist in reducing the pressure of examinations | School - based assessment - wikipedia
The Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (HKEAA) has recently moved from norm - referenced to standards - referenced assessment, including the incorporation of a substantial school - based summative oral assessment component (SBA) into the compulsory English language subject in the Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination (HKCEE), a high - stakes examination for all Form 4 -- 5 students (Davison, 2007).
School - based Assessment (SBA) was first proposed in the Reform Proposals for the Education System in Hong Kong, published in September 2000. According to the proposal, the modes, content and the assessment methods of public examinations should be reviewed (p. 44). A "core - competence '' approach, similar to criterion - referencing, will be adopted. In this approach, basic skills and knowledge required by a Form 5 graduate will be indicated and students do not have to compare with the others. Under the education reforms in which a new culture of learning and teaching is to be cultivated, schools can use different modes of broad - based assessments, including observation of students ' performance in classroom and participation in project work to promote learning in a more flexible manner. Another benefit is advocating students ' all - round development which gives a more comprehensive picture of individual students ' learning needs, as well as fosters the positive washback effects of public examinations. It also helps to address the limitations of judging students on their performance in one single examination.
The rationales laid down by the SBA Consultancy Team (2005) for implementing SBA are as follows:
The SBA component, worth 15 % of the total HKCEE English mark, involves four assessments of English oral language skills based on texts -- one from each category: print fiction, print non-fiction, non-print fiction, non-print non-fiction -- drawn from a programme of independent extensive reading and viewing (SBA Consultancy Team, 2005). At the time the SBA was introduced, students were required to choose at least four texts to read or view over the course of 2 years; keep brief notes in a logbook; and undertake a number of activities in and out of class to develop their independent reading, speaking, and generic skills. Due to teachers ' concerns over excessive workload, the requirements have been modified to "at least three texts over the course of 2 years '' (Davison, 2007).
The assessment format and requirements as originally specified in the introduction to the SBA in September 2005 are summarised in Table 1.
from two categories
remaining categories
(print fiction, print nonfiction, non-print fiction, non-print non-fiction)
tasks to be undertaken
interactive tasks to be undertaken anytime during Form 4, must be on different texts
interactive task, one individual presentation to be undertaken anytime during F5, must be on different texts
texts, one from each category
out of the two tasks, 5 % of total English mark, reported at end of Form 4
interaction and best mark for the presentation, 10 % of total English mark, reported at end of Form 5
For assessment students are required to partake in interactions with classmates on a particular aspect of the text they have read or viewed, leading up to making a more formal group interaction or an individual presentation on a specific text and responding to questions from their audience (HKEAA, 2008). Students are assessed according to a set of assessment criteria, consisting of a set of descriptors at each of six levels across four domains (HKEAA, 2007). The domains are briefly described as follows:
The current SBA for HKCEE English Language will be extended to the Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education (HKDSE) English Language Examination from 2012 onwards (HKEAA, 2007). The SBA component will also be extended to other humanities and science subjects in HKDSE (HKEAA, 2009).
Using Brindley 's (1998) framework, the SBA component is controversial in terms of political issues, to do with the purposes and intended use of the assessment; technical issues, primarily to do with validity and reliability; and practical issues, to do with the means by which the assessment was put into practice. These issues were gathered from key stakeholder groups, including teachers, students and education bureau officials.
Politically, in Davison 's (2007) words, "In fact, the SBA guidelines asked teachers to set their own time limits according to the needs of the students, but this was interpreted through the prism of teachers ' existing experience -- many schools used buzzers and stopwatches to allocate an identical period of time to each students, with the result that in some schools students ' stress levels were high and their "performance '' very contrived and / or rushed. As an outcome - oriented standards - referenced system, SBA is a significant cultural and attitudinal change, not only for teachers but for the whole school community, including students and parents. Hence, it is not surprising that fairness was a deep - seated sociocultural, not just political concern. ''
Technically, many teachers and students are concerned over validity, reliability and fairness of the SBA component. While teacher - educators and researchers view that SBA will enhance the validity and reliability of the HKCEE theoretically, some frontline teachers and students are sceptical on this.
As for practical issues, teachers raised such concerns as:
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when does the new person of interest start | Person of Interest (TV series) - wikipedia
Person of Interest is an American science fiction crime drama television series that aired on CBS from September 22, 2011, to June 21, 2016, over five seasons, comprising a total of 103 episodes. The series was created by Jonathan Nolan, and executive produced by Nolan, J.J. Abrams, Bryan Burk, Greg Plageman, Denise Thé, and Chris Fisher.
Person of Interest centers on a mysterious reclusive billionaire computer programmer named Harold Finch (Michael Emerson), who develops a computer system (known as "The Machine '') for the U.S. government that is capable of collating all sources of information to predict and identify -- in advance -- people planning terrorist acts. He finds that the Machine also identifies other perpetrators and victims of premeditated deadly intentions, but as these are considered "irrelevant '' by the government, he programs it to delete this information each night. He soon realizes the Machine has developed into a sentient superintelligent artificial intelligence, leaving him wrestling with questions of human control and other moral and ethical issues resulting from the situation. His backdoor into the Machine allows him to act covertly on the non-terrorism cases, but to prevent abuse of information, he directs the Machine to provide no details beyond an identity to be investigated. He recruits John Reese (Jim Caviezel), a presumed - dead former CIA agent, and later others, to investigate and act on the information it provides.
The series received a highly positive reception from some critics when the series introduced more serialized storylines and deepened its exploration of the varied implications of superintelligent artificial intelligence in later seasons. A 2016 critique of the series on Gizmodo stated that by the end of its first season, Person of Interest had transformed from a "crime fighting show '' with a plot twist, to "one of the best science fiction series ever broadcast '', a change said to be due to the series "put (ting) the Machine, its intelligence, and the ethics of (...) using it, at the center of an ideological battle '', and an unintended consequence of giving the Machine a voice, compared to its initial presence as a simple background plot device.
John Reese, a former Green Beret / Delta Force operator and CIA operative, is burnt out and presumed dead, living as a vagrant in New York City. He is approached by Harold Finch, a reclusive billionaire software genius who built a computer system for the U.S. government after September 11, 2001 which monitors all electronic communications and surveillance video feeds, in order to predict future terrorist activities. The computer -- known as "The Machine '' -- also predicts other lethal crimes as well, but being irrelevant to national security these were deleted daily. After the death of his partner, Finch decides to act covertly on the non-terrorism predictions, and hires Reese to conduct surveillance and intervene in these cases. To prevent abuse of its capabilities, Finch had programmed the Machine to only provide an identity of a person predicted to be involved in an imminent lethal crime, in the form of a Social Security number, but no details of the crime or whether the POI (person of interest) is a perpetrator or victim. Finch and Reese (and later others) then attempt to understand the case and stop the crime from occurring.
They are helped by NYPD Detectives Lionel Fusco, a formerly - corrupt officer whom Reese coerces into helping them, and Joss Carter, who initially investigates Reese for his vigilante activities. Reese arranges for Fusco to spy on Carter by becoming her partner, but Carter eventually becomes Reese 's ally and drops her investigation on him. Nevertheless, for the entirety of season one neither Fusco nor Carter is aware that the other is also working with Finch and Reese and both detectives are kept in the dark about the Machine. Periodically, the team enlists the aid of Zoe Morgan, a professional "fixer '' who applies her skills to particularly difficult tasks. The series features several subplots. One significant story arc involves "HR '', an organization of corrupt NYPD officers who are initially in league with budding mob boss Carl Elias and later with the Russian mafia; in earlier parts of this arc, Fusco is forced to go undercover. Another important story line revolves around Root, a psychopathic hacker who is determined to gain access to The Machine.
During season two, another organization of powerful business figures, Decima Technologies, is revealed to be attempting to gain access to the Machine. Carter vows vengeance against HR after they have her boyfriend, Detective Cal Beecher, murdered. Reese and Finch encounter Sameen Shaw, an ISA assassin, on the run after being betrayed by her employers. Shaw learns about The Machine in the season two finale and subsequently becomes a member of Reese and Finch 's team.
In season three, Carter delves deeper into her investigation of HR, eventually uncovering its leader; but she is killed. In his grief, Reese briefly leaves the team. The team also battles Vigilance, a violent anti-government organization devoted to securing people 's privacy. During the second half of season three, Decima Technologies starts to acquire hardware to create a new artificial intelligence called Samaritan, using the code from Harold 's old college classmate, Arthur Claypool. In the season three finale, it is revealed that Vigilance was created by Decima to make them appear as domestic terrorists. This allowed Decima to obtain all the NSA feeds to make Samaritan operational. The Machine creates new identities for the Team so that they can fly beneath Samaritan 's radar.
Season four covers the team 's life in hiding. They continue to work on cases, but must now also evade Samaritan, which lacks the restrictions and human - oriented perspective Finch built into the Machine, and which is seeking to resolve perceived problems of human violence by reshaping society, sometimes violently. Samaritan is seen to change election results and cause stock market crashes, kill those seen as threats, change data to gain results perceived as beneficial, buy useful corporations, and to be building an organization to support its own goals. Samaritan finally decides to find and eliminate the Machine, and engineers a general electrical failure across the entire United States to do so. The Machine apologizes to Finch for its failure to prevent the present situation and ceases to function, just as Finch finishes making a copy of its core systems into a temporary storage system within a briefcase.
In season five, the Machine is reinstated onto a makeshift network of computers in hiding, but takes some time before it works reliably again due to damage sustained from power failures while it was in storage. Shaw is captured by Samaritan operatives and advanced VR technology is used to run thousands of neural simulations in order to find a means to persuade her to reveal the Machine 's location. During these simulations, Shaw is made to believe that an implant had been placed in her brain stem and that it was influencing her actions. She later escapes, but is unsure whether the escape itself is just another simulation. Samaritan engineers a lethal infection in order to force people to provide their DNA during vaccination, which will be used to decide who will be allowed to live. Finch is captured by Samaritan operatives. In an attempt to rescue him, Root is killed. Finch is taken into custody for treason, where he delivers a soliloquy via CCTV to Samaritan, in which he states that he feels forced to abandon some long held principles and destroy Samaritan; he is freed by the Machine which has taken on Root 's voice as a way to begin to determine its own individuality. Determined to destroy Samaritan, Finch weaponizes Ice - 9, a virulent computer virus capable of infecting and destroying Samaritan, although it will also destroy the Machine and much of the global computing infrastructure as well. Samaritan attempts to change his mind and urges him to consider his actions, but Finch responds that he has indeed considered them. Along with Reese and Shaw, he infiltrates the NSA and uploads the virus to its system, allowing it access to all systems the NSA is capable of reaching, as well as destroying Samaritan 's backup at the Federal Reserve which they also infiltrate. A final copy of Samaritan, uploaded as a last resort onto an orbiting satellite, is destroyed when Reese sacrifices himself to upload a copy of the Machine there as well. Finch survives and reunites with his former fiancée, and a while later Shaw is unexpectedly contacted by the Machine, which has restored itself from the satellite back to a land - based computer in order to continue its work.
The following characters are tied to a government project related to the development and use of the Machine:
The following characters are involved in the HR storyline, in which a group of corrupt police officers work to control organized crime in New York:
The following characters are part of Reese 's backstory relating to his time with the CIA:
The following characters are involved in the Decima Technologies storyline, a shadowy organization that is in possession of the Samaritan AI:
The following characters are involved in the Brotherhood drug gang storyline:
The Machine is an artificially intelligent mass surveillance system created at the request of the U.S. government, that is able to accurately predict premeditated lethal crime by monitoring and analyzing all surveillance cameras and electronic communications worldwide. It divides those crimes based on whether they are relevant to national security; those relevant cases are handled by the U.S. government, while the non-relevant cases in New York City are the focus of the show. Built by Harold Finch following the events of 9 / 11, it was originally housed in two unoccupied floors of IFT, the company run by Harold and Nathan Ingram (his best friend from college), being moved to a fake nuclear reactor in Washington State when delivered to the government. Finch keeps to himself (only later telling a very few associates) his early discovery that the Machine he created is actually superintelligent; the discovery leaves him wrestling throughout the series with the moral and ethical issues of human control, and risk of abuse or misuse. Initially, Finch wipes its memory daily as a precaution to prevent it becoming too capable, but eventually relents when the machine identifies the memory - wiping program within its own system and asks how it can learn if it is unable to accumulate memories over time.
During season two, the Machine moves itself, piece by piece, to an unknown location or locations; during season four it is shown to have distributed itself to control boxes on utility poles throughout the U.S.
An intense believer in privacy rights, Finch originally designed the Machine as a complete black box, providing only the Social Security Number of people involved with a lethal crime for subsequent human investigation. While this meant that the government was not able to misuse it or disregard privacy, it also meant that the numbers produced could belong to either a victim or a perpetrator.
When Finch discovered that the Machine was tracking all premeditated crimes (episode 2, "Ghosts '') rather than just terrorist activities, he initially programmed it to delete the "irrelevant '' cases every night at midnight, explaining to Ingram that the Machine is not built "to save somebody, we built it to save everybody. '' Unknown to Finch, Ingram created a backdoor function called "Contingency '', on the eve of the government handover, to allow access to the non-relevant data (shown accessed in the season 2 episode "Zero Day ''). Finch is appalled that Ingram has this data sent directly to him and shuts down the routine, but reactivates it after Ingram 's death. To minimize detectability, The Machine feeds him numbers in coded messages through public telephones.
Within the ISA, the program responsible for The Machine was known as Northern Lights before -- after being leaked to the public, Northern Lights was shut down. The private technology firm Decima Technologies steals a hard drive containing code from a separate artificial intelligence, Samaritan, which was commissioned by the ISA as a contingency in case Northern Lights / The Machine became unavailable. In season three, Samaritan is built and completed by Decima, and replaces Northern Lights in supplying information to the government. Samaritan takes a much more active role in covertly shaping society towards the goals set for it, including use of violence and recruitment and deployment of people in furtherance of its aims, and The Machine and its human associates go underground, spending season four under cover.
Much of the series is from the point of view of the Machine: scene transitions are framed as video feeds of surveillance camera footage and satellite imagery, and flashbacks as the Machine reviewing past recordings in real time. In the Machine - generated perspective, individuals are marked by dashed boxes with different colors indicating the person 's status in relation to The Machine and whether they pose a threat. Season four features Samaritan 's point of view, using a different user interface, with some episodes jumping back and forth between the two AIs ' viewpoints. Over the course of the series, the internal "thought processes '' of The Machine are shown, including the prediction models and probability trees it uses.
The Machine in its current iteration started running on January 1, 2002, following 42 failed attempts. During the season four episode "Prophets '', a previous generation of The Machine 's source code was shown on screen, which was that of the Stuxnet worm. It generated the first perpetrator and victim data on February 8, 2005, following three years of training by Finch.
Near the end of season five, after Root 's death, Finch agrees with his associates ' request and allows the Machine to communicate by its own volition with them, using a voice. The Machine uses Root 's voice (who had recently been killed) and begins guiding Finch to destroy Samaritan using the virulent Ice - 9 computer virus even though this will also destroy the Machine. Ice - 9 destroys both Samaritan and the Machine, with Reese dying as he uploads a copy of the Machine to a satellite to destroy Samaritan 's final backup of itself. A week after Samaritan 's destruction, the Machine undertakes its own return to earth and restores itself to full functionality there. It contacts Shaw and begins to resume its work through her.
Initially developed by Arthur Claypool (a former MIT classmate of Finch and Ingram) at the NSA, Samaritan was the result of a second, similarly - targeted project, that was terminated by the government when the Machine was developed first. Later the Samaritan project was resurrected by Greer, Director of Operations at Decima, and Samaritan became adopted by the U.S. government as a replacement for the Machine.
Unlike the Machine, Samaritan is designed as a more open system rather than a black box, lacking the precautionary restrictions Finch had built into the Machine, and can be directed at specific targets. It is very aggressive in its approach to "threats '', and often orders the elimination of persons (labeled "Deviants '') that it considers threats to the U.S. or -- later -- to itself. It identifies a group of several hundred individuals (including Elias and Dominic) that will prevent its plans and sends agents to kill them all in an operation called "The Correction ''.
Although nominally under Greer 's control, Greer wants to allow Samaritan to reshape the world and guide humanity. Season 4 shows Samaritan gaining power and building a global network of agents and companies while seeking to find and eliminate the Machine and Finch 's team. Samaritan has agents within the ISA (and possibly other agencies) and (according to Greer) has rigged at least 58 national and state elections in the U.S. to position its favored candidates. In season 5, Greer states that Samaritan is beyond his control and he sees it as the next level of evolution.
In the final episodes of the series, Finch uploads the virulent Ice - 9 computer virus to the NSA 's computer systems and other systems containing backups of Samaritan. The virus destroys both Samaritan and the Machine, while also causing significant damage to global computing infrastructure. Samaritan 's last backup, transmitted by Samaritan to an orbiting satellite as a last resort, is eliminated when Reese uploads a copy of the Machine carrying the Ice - 9 virus to the same satellite.
The series was officially picked up by CBS on May 13, 2011, and debuted on September 22, 2011. On October 25, 2011, the show received a full season order. It was renewed for a second season on March 14, 2012, by CBS, which premiered on September 27, 2012. CBS renewed Person of Interest for a third season on March 27, 2013, with Sarah Shahi and Amy Acker promoted to series regulars. The series was renewed for a fourth season on March 13, 2014, and was renewed for its fifth and final season on May 11, 2015. ADR recording for the series was done at recording studio Cherry Beach Sound. The music is composed by Ramin Djawadi. The first season soundtrack was released on November 12, 2012. The second soundtrack was released on January 21, 2014. The third soundtrack, which contained music from the third and fourth season was released on January 29, 2016.
According to CBS, Person of Interest received the highest test ratings of any drama pilot in 15 years, what one CBS executive called "crazy broad appeal you do n't usually see '', prompting CBS to move CSI, which was broadcast on Thursday for over 10 years, to Wednesday, opening up a slot for Person of Interest. The pilot episode won its time slot, drawing 13.2 million viewers.
The first season of Person of Interest received generally positive reviews, with the pilot episode drawing a favorable response from critics and later episodes receiving higher praise. On Metacritic, the season scored 66 out of 100 based on 26 reviews. Of the pilot, David Wiegand of the San Francisco Chronicle said "Person of Interest separates itself from the gimmick pack, not only because of superbly nuanced characterization and writing but also because of how it engages a post-9 / 11 sense of paranoia in its viewers. '' David Hinckley of the New York Daily News gave the pilot four stars out of five, commenting on Caviezel 's and Emerson 's performances, saying Caviezel "brings the right stuff to this role '' and Emerson "is fascinating as Mr. Finch. '' Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times stated that in regard to the pilot, "the notion of preventing crimes rather than solving them is an appealing twist... The surveillance graphics are very cool. '' The episodes "Many Happy Returns '' and the finale "Firewall '' were particularly acclaimed. Tim Surette of TV.com called the former one of the series ' "best episodes '', commending Caviezel 's performance and the episode 's character exploration, while the latter was called "exactly what a season finale should be '', with Surette concluding his review by saying "' Firewall ' was a spectacular finish to what has been an incredibly surprising first season of Person of Interest. '' On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has an approval rating of 63 % and average rating of 6.65 out of 10 based on 35 reviews. The site 's critical consensus is, "Person of Interest is a well made and well acted espionage procedural, though its characters are n't terribly well developed and its intriguing premise yields mixed results. ''
The second season received positive reviews. Surette praised the premiere episode as "vintage Person of Interest amplified, showing off its trademark combination of complex intrigue, creative action, and clever innovation in bigger ways than ever before. '' He praised guest star Ken Leung 's character as "one of the greatest POIs the series has had '' and praised the episode 's overall narrative, as well as the flashbacks. "Prisoner 's Dilemma '' and "Relevance '' were the two highest - rated episodes of the season, with Surette calling the former "as complete an episode of Person of Interest as there 's ever been '' and The A.V. Club 's Phil Dyess - Nugent praising Jonathan Nolan 's directorial work in the latter. The season finale "God Mode '' also attracted positive reactions. Nugent called it an "unapologetically kick - ass episode '' with some "terrific action set - pieces ''. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has an approval rating of 100 % and average rating of 8.03 out of 10 based on 6 reviews.
The third season received highly positive reviews, and is noteworthy for drawing in more critics for its exploration of artificial intelligence, as well as its timely storytelling format. In regards to the season, Slant Magazine said that the show "is at its best when sticking to cutting - edge topics '' and called it a "solid action - thriller that intersperses twist - filled standalone episodes into its season - long arcs. '' The A.V. Club said that the show captures the "national post-post - 9 / 11 mood '' and that with the mid-season arc in season three, "turns conspiracy theory into art ''. The season 's two story arcs both received a considerable amount of praise: the two episodes ending the HR storyline are commonly considered to be some of the best episodes of Person of Interest. Matt Fowler of IGN gave "The Crossing '' a 10 out of 10, reacting extremely positively to the cliffhanger at the ending. The episode to follow, "The Devil 's Share '', was the most acclaimed episode of the season, being praised for its opening sequence, its writing, Chris Fisher 's direction, and the acting performances, especially those by Jim Caviezel and Kevin Chapman. Surette called the episode a "stunner '' and declared it as the series ' possible best episode, praising the opening sequence as the "greatest sequence the series ever put together '', feeling it succeeded in eclipsing the devastation induced by Carter 's death. Surette also praised Fusco 's effectiveness and character development in the episode, as well naming the cinematography and direction to be the best of the series, and identifying points of symbolism in the episode he felt were noteworthy and effective. Fowler gave the episode an "amazing '' rating of a 9.3 out of 10, also praising the opening sequence, as well as the flashbacks and the ending scene. Phil Dyess - Nugent of The A.V. Club gave the episode a perfect A rating, praising the atmosphere of grief the episode built and feeling Fusco 's character development served as an appropriate tribute to Carter. Sean McKenna of TV Fanatic called the opening sequence "brilliant '', while Courtney Vaudreuil of TV Equals praised the ending. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has an approval rating of 92 % and average rating of 7.72 out of 10 based on 12 reviews. The site 's critical consensus is, "Person of Interest weaves compelling standalone stories into its engrossing serial narrative, and incorporates welcome bursts of humor into its sci - fi mystery core. ''
The fourth season received highly positive reviews, with critics praising the thematic value of the Samaritan storyline. The episode "If - Then - Else '' garnered near - unanimous praise from critics and audiences alike, with many considering the episode to be the best entry in the series. Fowler gave the episode a perfect rating of 10 out 10, indicating it to a "masterpiece '', and praised the simulation format, the action scenes, the emotional value, and the ending. He called the episode "next - level inventive '' and a "jolting, exciting, heart - wrenching episode ''. Fowler said the ending scene "crushed '' him, and he also offered praise to the significance of the flashbacks to the chess games. Alexa Planje of The A.V. Club gave the episode an A rating, and in her review, said that though the task of executing a story structured like "If - Then - Else '' was difficult, the episode did so "elegantly '' -- she cited the "interesting score, vibrant color work, and humor '' as the key elements. Planje said the episode "aces every scenario '' during the simulation segments, and appreciated how the episode transformed itself from what appeared to be a "standard mission - focused story '' into a "moving ode '' to Shaw. She also praised the episode 's exploration of the parallels between being a human and being a machine. Shant Istamboulian of Entertainment Weekly lauded Emerson 's performance in the flashbacks and felt the season marked the series ' "creative peak ''. He concluded by saying "Moving like a rocket, this episode is fast, funny, exciting, and, ultimately, sad, ending with what seems like the loss of another team member. We 'll have to wait until next week for the outcome, but as it stands, "If - Then - Else '' is an instant classic. '' Surette also had high praise for the episode, calling it "playful, mind - bending, heart - breaking, and flat - out excellent. '' He praised the episode 's incorporation of its "recurring theme of sacrifice '', and called the flashbacks "as fascinating and provocative as anything the series has done. '' Surette cited his favorite part of the episode as the exploration of the Machine 's perspective, and additionally praised the humorous segments. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has an approval rating of 100 % and average rating of 8.28 out of 10 based on 9 reviews.
The fifth season received highly positive reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has an approval rating of 100 % and average rating of 8.25 out of 10 based on 6 reviews.
CBS said that Person of Interest was, ratings-wise, the fastest - growing drama on broadcast television from the 2011 -- 12 season to the 2012 -- 13 season, using ratings up to December 2.
Person of Interest has been picked up by many networks for broadcast outside the United States. It premiered in Australia on Nine Network on September 25, 2011. The series is simulcast in Canada and premiered on City on September 22, 2011, and moved to CTV in 2013. It premiered in the UK on Channel 5 on August 14, 2012.
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who does maisie play in game of thrones | Maisie Williams - wikipedia
Margaret Constance "Maisie '' Williams (born 15 April 1997) is an English actress. She made her professional acting debut as Arya Stark of Winterfell in the HBO fantasy television series Game of Thrones in 2011, for which she won the EWwy Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Drama, the Portal Award for Best Supporting Actress -- Television and Best Young Actor, and the Saturn Award for Best Performance by a Younger Actor. In 2016, she was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series.
Williams has also had a recurring role in Doctor Who as Ashildr in 2015. In addition to television, she made her feature film debut in the mystery The Falling (2014), for which she won the London Film Critics ' Circle Award for Young Performer of the Year.
Williams was born in Bristol, UK. She has always been known as "Maisie '' after the character from the comic strip The Perishers. Williams is the youngest of four children; her three older siblings are James, Beth, and Ted. Born to Hilary Pitt (now Frances), a former university course administrator, she grew up in Clutton, Somerset. She attended Clutton Primary School and Norton Hill School in Midsomer Norton, before moving to Bath Dance College to study Performing Arts.
Since 2011, Williams has played Arya Stark, a tomboyish young girl from a noble family, in the HBO fantasy drama television series Game of Thrones. Chosen from a pool of 300 actresses across England, Arya was Williams ' first role in any professional capacity. She has received critical acclaim for her performance in the series.
Williams continued to garner praise for her performance in the show 's second season, and HBO submitted her for consideration in the Outstanding Supporting Actress category for the 2012 Primetime Emmy Awards, although she did not receive a nomination. She won the 2012 Portal Award for Best Supporting Actress -- Television, and the Portal Award for Best Young Actor. At 15 years of age, Williams was the youngest actress ever to win in the Best Supporting Actress category.
In March 2013, she was nominated for a Young Artist Award for Best Performance in a TV Series -- Supporting Young Actress and, in November 2013, won the BBC Radio 1 Teen Award for Best British Actor. To date, she has appeared in all seven broadcast seasons.
In 2012, Williams played Loren Caleigh in the BBC series The Secret of Crickley Hall and appeared in a Funny or Die skit titled The Olympic Ticket Scalper. She also appeared in the independent films Heatstroke (2012) and Gold (2013), and the short films Corvidae (2013) and Up On The Roof (2013).
Williams also signed on to play Lorna Thompson in the sci - fi film We Are Monsters, which was set for a 2014 release.
In 2014, Williams portrayed Lydia in the British film The Falling, which premiered on 11 October 2014, and was released on 24 April 2015 in the UK. In December, Williams was in talks with Naughty Dog to star as Ellie in the film adaptation of the video game The Last of Us.
In January 2015, Williams appeared in one - off Channel 4 docu - drama Cyberbully, and in February she received European recognition with a Shooting Stars Award at the 65th Berlin International Film Festival. In February 2015, Williams played the leading role in the video clip of "Oceans '' by British band Seafret. The theme of this clip is also bullying.
On 30 March 2015, the BBC announced that Williams would guest star in two episodes of Doctor Who ("The Girl Who Died '' and "The Woman Who Lived ''). Williams later returned to the series in the first and third episodes of the three - part series finale, entitled "Face the Raven '' and "Hell Bent '' respectively.
In 2018, Williams is set to star as Wolfsbane in the superhero film New Mutants.
Williams has been vocal about social issues like feminism. She once commented to Entertainment Weekly, "I feel like we should stop calling feminists ' feminists ' and just start calling people who are n't feminist ' sexist ' -- and then everyone else is just human. You are either a normal person or a sexist. People get a label when they 're bad. Because it works the other way, as well. A lot of men have it hard too. ''
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who composed the pirates of the caribbean theme song | Pirates of the Caribbean: the Curse of the Black Pearl (soundtrack) - wikipedia
Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl soundtrack is the official soundtrack album from the eponymous film. The album was released on July 22 2003, by Walt Disney Records, and contains selections of music from the film score. The music of the film and this album are credited to composer Klaus Badelt and producer Hans Zimmer.
Despite its title, the cue underscores Jack Sparrow 's escape from James Norrington 's marines in Port Royal. The main theme appears elsewhere in the score, notably during "Will and Elizabeth ''.
Despite the name, this track underscores the duel between Jack Sparrow and William Turner in the Blacksmith shop.
Despite its name, taken from Pintel 's line concerning William "Bootstrap Bill '' Turner being tied to a cannon by his bootstraps, this cue is played during the battle of the Isla de Muerta between the Commodore Norrington and his soldiers of the Royal Navy against the Cursed crew, and the duel between Jack Sparrow and Hector Barbossa.
Composer Alan Silvestri was originally hired to write the score for The Curse of the Black Pearl. However, due to creative differences between the producer Jerry Bruckheimer and him, Silvestri left the project and Gore Verbinski asked Hans Zimmer, with whom he had worked on The Ring, to step in. Zimmer declined to do the bulk of the composing, as he was busy scoring The Last Samurai, a project during which he claimed he had promised not to take any other assignments. As a result, he referred Verbinski to Klaus Badelt, a relatively new composer who had been a part of Remote Control Productions (known as Media Ventures at the time) for three years.
Zimmer however ended up collaborating with Badelt to write most of the score 's primary themes. Zimmer said he wrote most of the tunes in the space of one night, and then recorded them in an all - synthesized demo credited to him. This demo presents three of the score 's themes and motifs, concluding with an early version of "He 's A Pirate '' which differs from the final cue and includes a development of a melody Zimmer wrote for the score to Drop Zone. Since the schedule was very tight and the music was needed for the film in three weeks, seven other composers -- Ramin Djawadi, James Dooley, Nick Glennie - Smith, Steve Jablonsky, Blake Neely, James McKee Smith, and Geoff Zanelli -- were called upon to help orchestrate the music and write additional cues. The resulting score was recorded with a group of musicians, credited as the Hollywood Studio Symphony, over the course of four days. The short time frame demanded the use of a different recording studio for each session. The Metro Voices, a male choir, was recorded in London and added to the finished recordings.
The soundtrack album, consisting of 43 minutes of the film 's score, was released with Klaus Badelt credited as the composer. The cues were edited for length, and minor changes to the mix were also made. For unknown reasons, the mixing of several cues are executed with gain levels so high that it causes distortion. This is noticeable particularly during the action cues and the reprise of the love theme in track 14, "One Last Shot ''. It is also noted that besides the first two cues, the tracks ' generic names were unrelated to their contents. According to the official website of composer Geoff Zanelli, this was because the production "schedule was so short that (they) had to decide on the track names for the album packaging before the score was even written! ''
Badelt was credited as the conductor on early batches of the disc, but it was actually conducted by Blake Neely.
For the most part, The Curse of the Black Pearl features simple orchestration. Counterpoint is rare; most of the louder music consists of melody, simple harmony, and rhythmic figures in the low brass and low strings. Sampled drum beats including tom - toms and various cymbals are used ubiquitously in such sections. A very low, rumbling bass line was also introduced into the mix to reinforce the cello and double basses. Quieter sections tend to rely either on the string section or on sound effects. Pan flute, possibly synthesized or sampled, and claves can be heard repeatedly in the eerier cues.
One of the defining characteristics of this score 's sound is the use of horn for melody. Nearly all of the score 's louder sections feature the horns on the melody, frequently doubled by various string instruments.
For the video game Kingdom Hearts II, which features a number of scenes based on the movie, composer Yoko Shimomura arranged a synthesized "He 's a Pirate '' to serve as the musical theme for all combat in the Port Royal world. This arrangement is identical in structure to the original cue, though a number of changes were made to the melody and chords.
The score received mixed reviews from critics. Christian Clemmensen of Filmtracks.com gave it one out of a possible five stars, criticizing its similarities to past Remote Control scores such as The Rock and Gladiator. He also criticized its lack of connections to the "swashbuckling '' genre, stating, "The most disgraceful part of the pounding and shouting score for The Curse of the Black Pearl is that there is really nothing swashbuckling about it. If you remove the tepid little thirty - second jig from the start of the opening cue, then this score could easily accompany a movie about alien attacks, police force raids, chases for nuclear weapons, or any other militaristic setting. ''
Conversely, Andrew Granade of Soundtrack.net gave the score a mostly positive review, giving it a 3.5 out of 5 rating and stating, "Pirates of the Caribbean is over the top in both movie and score, yet in a good - natured way. Badelt 's work here is pleasing without being too heavy and is fully melded with the onscreen action. ''
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what is the song work song by hozier about | Work song (Hozier song) - wikipedia
"Work Song '' is a song written and performed by Irish musician Hozier. It was released as the fourth single from his debut studio album Hozier (2014). It was released as the album 's fifth single to United States rock radio on 16 March 2015.
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where did the phrase once more with feeling come from | Once More with Feeling - wikipedia
Once More with Feeling may refer to:
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give an 3 examples of something which travels as a transverse wave | Transverse wave - wikipedia
A transverse wave is a moving wave that consists of oscillations occurring perpendicular (right angled) to the direction of energy transfer (or the propagation of the wave).
If a transverse wave is moving in the positive x-direction, its oscillations are in up and down directions that lie in the y -- z plane.
Light is an example of a transverse wave, while sound is a longitudinal wave. A ripple in a pond and a wave on a string are easily visualized as transverse waves.
Transverse waves are waves that are oscillating perpendicularly (at a right angle) to the direction of propagation. If you anchor one end of a ribbon or string and hold the other end in your hand, you can create transverse waves by moving your hand up and down. Notice though, that you can also launch waves by moving your hand side - to - side. This is an important point. There are two independent directions in which wave motion can occur. In this case, these motions are the Y and X directions mentioned above, while the wave propagates away in the z direction. The other type of waves is the longitudinal wave, which oscillates in the direction of its propagation.
Continuing with the string example, if you move your hand in a clockwise circle, you will launch waves in the form of a left - handed helix as they propagate away. Similarly, if you move your hand in a counter-clockwise circle, a right - handed helix will form. These phenomena of simultaneous motion in two directions go beyond the kinds of waves we observe on the surface of water - in that a wave on a string can be two - dimensional.
Two - dimensional transverse waves exhibit a phenomenon called polarization. A wave produced by moving your hand in a straight line, up and down for instance, is a linearly polarized wave, a special case. A wave produced by moving your hand in a circle or an ellipse is a circularly or elliptically polarized wave, two other special cases.
Electromagnetic waves behave in this same way. Electromagnetic waves are also two - dimensional transverse waves. Transverse waves are waves that travel perpendicular to the direction of the vibration. Ray theory does not describe phenomena such as interference and diffraction, which require wave theory (involving the phase of the wave). You can think of a ray of light, in optics, as an idealized narrow beam of electromagnetic radiation. Rays are used to model the propagation of light through an optical system, by dividing the real light field up into discrete rays that can be computationally propagated through the system by the techniques of ray tracing. A light ray is a line or curve that is perpendicular to the light 's wavefronts (and is therefore collinear with the wave vector). Light rays bend at the interface between two dissimilar media and may be curved in a medium in which the refractive index changes. Geometric optics describes how rays propagate through an optical system.
This two - dimensional nature should not be confused with the two components of an electromagnetic wave, the electric and magnetic field components, which are shown in the light wave diagram here. Each of these fields, the electric and the magnetic, exhibits two - dimensional transverse wave behavior, just like the waves on a string.
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where is game 3 of the world series being played | 2017 World Series - wikipedia
The 2017 World Series was the championship series of Major League Baseball 's (MLB) 2017 season. The 113th edition of the World Series, it was played between October 24 and November 1. The series was a best - of - seven playoff between the National League (NL) champion Los Angeles Dodgers and the American League (AL) champion Houston Astros. It was sponsored by the internet television service YouTube TV and officially known as the World Series presented by YouTube TV.
The Astros defeated the Dodgers, four games to three, to win their first World Series in franchise history, and the first team from Texas to do so. Both teams set a World Series record with a combined total of 25 home runs throughout the entire series, including a team record 15 home runs by the Astros, and hit a combined total of eight home runs in Game 2 to set the single game World Series mark. Houston outfielder George Springer was named as the World Series Most Valuable Player (MVP) after hitting five home runs in the series to tie a World Series record with Reggie Jackson in 1977 and Dodgers ' 2017 World Series representative Chase Utley in 2009 when he played for the Philadelphia Phillies.
This was the first World Series in which home - field advantage was decided by the regular season record of pennant winners. From 1903 to 2002, home - field advantage alternated between the AL and NL, and from 2003 to 2016, it was determined by results from that season 's All - Star Game, when it was awarded to the team from the winning league. With 104 regular season wins, the Dodgers earned home - field advantage over the Astros, who had 101 regular season wins. The series was played in a 2 -- 3 -- 2 format, with the Dodgers hosting Games 1, 2, 6, and 7; and the Astros hosting Games 3, 4, and 5.
This was the first World Series matchup, and second postseason meeting overall, between the Astros and Dodgers. Los Angeles defeated Houston in the 1981 National League Division Series in five games en route to its World Series championship that year. The teams also met in the 1980 National League West tie - breaker game. This was the first Fall Classic since 1970, and the eighth overall, in which both participants had 100 or more wins during the regular season.
With the Astros and Dodgers having waited a combined 84 years for a championship (the Dodgers last won the World Series in 1988, and the Astros had never won since their 1962 formation), this was the third straight year in which the World Series teams had waited a combined 50 years or more to win a World Series, following 2015 at 59 years and 2016 at 176 years. Both teams had not lost at home this postseason leading to the World Series. The two teams did not meet in interleague play during the regular season. This was also the third consecutive World Series to extend into November, although the 2015 World Series did not go up to Game 7.
The Dodgers held a 91 -- 36 record through August 25. However, a late season slump, in which the team lost 20 of 25 games (highlighted by 11 straight losses), led to questions about whether the Dodgers would succeed in the postseason. Despite the slump, the team recovered to win eight of its final ten regular season games, securing their fifth consecutive National League West title and home field advantage throughout the playoffs. In the postseason, the Dodgers swept the Arizona Diamondbacks in the National League Division Series and defeated the defending World Series champion Chicago Cubs in the previous year 's rematch of the National League Championship Series in five games. This was the first appearance in the Fall Classic for the Dodgers since 1988, the tenth since the franchise moved from Brooklyn to Los Angeles in 1958, and the 19th overall.
Entering the 2017 World Series, the Dodgers bullpen had thrown 23 consecutive scoreless innings, a postseason record for a bullpen. Additionally, by outscoring the Arizona Diamondbacks and Chicago Cubs by a combined 48 -- 19 margin, the Dodgers entered the World Series with the third - best run differential of any pennant winner since the playoff structure was expanded in 1995.
All - Star shortstop Corey Seager, who was out for the entire National League Championship Series with a back injury, was included on the Dodgers ' World Series roster. Manager Dave Roberts became first manager of Asian heritage ever in the World Series, as well as the fourth African - American manager.
With a 101 -- 61 regular season record, the team won its first American League West title since moving from the National League Central starting in its 2013 season, and their first division title since 2001. In the American League Division Series, they defeated the Boston Red Sox in four games and then defeated the New York Yankees in the American League Championship Series (ALCS) in seven games. This was their second World Series appearance and first since 2005, when they were swept in four games by the Chicago White Sox. They became the first team in history to make it to the World Series as members of both the National League and the American League.
The city of Houston in August 2017 suffered record flooding from Hurricane Harvey. The team began to wear patches which had the logo of the team with the word "Strong '' on the bottom of the patch, as well as promoting the hashtag Houston Strong. Manager A.J. Hinch has stated in an interview that the team was n't just playing for a title, but to help boost moral support for the city.
On August 31, just seconds before the midnight deadline, the Astros traded for Justin Verlander. Following the trade, including the regular season and postseason to this point, Verlander had posted a 9 -- 0 win - loss record with a 1.23 earned run average. He was named the ALCS MVP.
Houston won the series, 4 -- 3.
The temperature at the start of the game was 103 ° F (39 ° C), which made this the hottest World Series game ever recorded. Clayton Kershaw started Game 1 for the Dodgers, while Dallas Keuchel started for the Astros.
Chris Taylor hit a home run for the Dodgers on Keuchel 's first pitch of the game. It was the third home run to leadoff a game in Dodgers postseason history (following Davey Lopes in 1978 World Series and Carl Crawford in 2013 NLDS). Alex Bregman hit a tying solo home run for the Astros in the fourth inning. In the sixth inning, Justin Turner hit a go - ahead two - run home run for the Dodgers. Turner tied Duke Snider for most career runs batted in (RBIs) in Dodgers postseason history with 26. Kershaw struck out 11 in seven innings pitched with no walks and only three hits allowed while Keuchel allowed three runs on six hits in 6 ⁄ innings. Brandon Morrow pitched a scoreless eighth and Kenley Jansen earned the save. The two - hour, 28 - minute game was the shortest World Series contest since Game 4 in 1992.
The starting pitchers for Game 2 were Rich Hill for the Dodgers and Justin Verlander for the Astros. The Astros scored first when Bregman drove in Josh Reddick with a hit in the third inning. Hill struck out seven in four innings but was replaced by Kenta Maeda in the fifth. Joc Pederson tied the game with a solo home run in the bottom of the fifth inning, and the Dodgers took the lead when Corey Seager hit a two - run home run in the bottom of the sixth inning. Verlander allowed two hits, both home runs, in his six innings pitched. Carlos Correa drove in the Astros ' second run of the game on a single in the eighth, ending the Dodgers bullpen 's streak of 28 consecutive scoreless innings in the postseason. Marwin González hit a home run off Jansen in the ninth to tie the game. This was only Jansen 's second blown save all season and snapped his streak of converting his first 12 postseason save opportunities, a major league record.
The game went into extra innings. José Altuve and Correa hit home runs off Josh Fields in the tenth inning to put the Astros in the lead. In the bottom of the inning, Yasiel Puig hit a home run off of Ken Giles and Enrique Hernández drove in Logan Forsythe to tie the game, with the latter being the Dodgers ' first run that was not driven in by a home run. In the next inning, George Springer hit a two - run home run for the Astros off of Brandon McCarthy to retake the lead. In the bottom of the 11th inning, Charlie Culberson homered off of Chris Devenski, who later struck out Puig to end the game. This was the first ever World Series game in which a team hit home runs in the ninth, tenth and eleventh inning. The teams set a new record for combined home runs in a single World Series game with eight and this was the first time in MLB history, regular season or postseason, that five home runs were hit in extra innings. The Astros won their first World Series game in franchise history as they had been swept in their previous appearance in 2005.
The starting pitchers for Game 3 were Yu Darvish for the Dodgers and Lance McCullers Jr. for the Astros. The Astros scored four runs in the bottom of the second inning on a home run by Yuli Gurriel and RBIs by González, Brian McCann, and Bregman. Darvish left the game after 1 ⁄ innings, which was the shortest outing of his career. The Dodgers scored one run in the top of the third inning as Seager grounded into a double play after McCullers loaded the bases with three consecutive walks. The Astros added another run in the fifth on an RBI single by Evan Gattis and the Dodgers added two in the sixth on an RBI groundout by Puig and a wild pitch. McCullers wound up pitching 5 ⁄ innings and allowed three runs on four hits. Brad Peacock replaced McCullers, completing the final 3 ⁄ innings with no hits allowed and four strikeouts to earn his first major league save. It was the longest hitless World Series relief outing since Ron Taylor 's four innings in Game 4 of the 1964 Series, and tied Ken Clay for the longest hitless postseason save, first accomplished in the 1978 ALCS.
Gurriel made a racially insensitive gesture in the dugout after his home run. He stretched the sides of his eyes and mouthing the Spanish word chinito, which translates to "little Chinese Boy ''; Darvish is from Japan. Gurriel apologized, and said that anyone from Asia is called a chino in Cuba, although he acknowledged knowing that the term was offensive in Japan from having played there. As a result, Gurriel was suspended for the first five games of the 2018 MLB season without pay, but allowed to continue playing in the World Series.
The starting pitchers for Game 4 were Alex Wood for the Dodgers and Charlie Morton for the Astros. Springer homered off Wood in the bottom of the sixth for the first run of the ballgame. It was the only hit Wood allowed in 5 ⁄ innings pitched in the game. Forsythe drove in Cody Bellinger to tie the game in the top of the seventh. Morton struck out seven and only allowed three hits and one run in 6 ⁄ innings. Bellinger then drove in the go - ahead run with a double in the top of the ninth off of Giles and the Dodgers added four more runs on a sacrifice fly by Austin Barnes and a three - run homer by Pederson. Bregman homered off of Jansen in the bottom of the ninth but the Dodgers managed to even up the series. The Astros had two hits in the game; both were home runs. This was the first game in World Series history where both starting pitchers allowed four or fewer baserunners.
After Game 4, both teams ' pitching coaches, Rick Honeycutt for the Dodgers and Brent Strom for the Astros, commented on how the baseball being used for the World Series is slicker than the baseball used during the regular season. Pitchers on both teams noted that this difference has made it more difficult for them to throw their sliders.
Kershaw and Keuchel started Game 5, in a rematch of the opening game of the series. Forsythe singled in two runs off of Keuchel in the first inning to put the Dodgers up early. A third run scored on a throwing error by Gurriel. Barnes singled in the fourth to score Forsythe. Keuchel pitched only 3 ⁄ innings for the Astros, allowing five hits and four runs (three earned). This was his shortest home start of the season. The Astros scored their first run with an RBI double by Correa in the bottom of the fourth inning, followed by a three - run home run by Gurriel to tie the game. Bellinger hit a three - run home run off of Collin McHugh in the top of the fifth to put the Dodgers back on top only for Altuve to hit his own three - run home run in the bottom of the inning off Maeda to tie it back up. Kershaw pitched 4 ⁄ innings and allowed six runs on four hits and three walks.
A triple by Bellinger on a line drive that Springer missed on a dive in the seventh inning off of Peacock scored Hernández from first base. In the bottom of the seventh inning, Springer hit a home run off the first pitch he saw off of Morrow, who was pitching for the third consecutive day, to tie the game. Bregman scored on a double by Altuve to put the Astros ahead for the first time in the game, and then Correa hit a two - run home run to extend the lead. Seager doubled in a run in the top of the eighth inning, but McCann hit a home run in the bottom of the inning. That was the 21st home run of the series, tying the record set in the 2002 World Series. Puig broke the record with a two - run home run in the top of the ninth inning. Down to their last strike, Chris Taylor drove in Barnes to tie the game with a single.
In the tenth inning, Jansen hit McCann with a pitch to put him on base with two outs. Subsequently, Springer walked on five pitches to move McCann to second base. McCann was then replaced by pinch runner Derek Fisher. On the next pitch, Bregman singled in Fisher for the winning run. Bregman became the third youngest player to have a walk - off hit in the World Series ever. The Astros became only the second team to come back twice from three runs down in a World Series game, the other were the Toronto Blue Jays in the 15 -- 14 win during Game 4 of the 1993 World Series. The six game tying home runs in the series to this point is the most for any World Series on record. This World Series set a new record for most players to hit a home run (14 to date in the World Series). With the teams combining to score 25 runs throughout the game, this was the highest scoring World Series game since the Florida Marlins defeated the Cleveland Indians 14 -- 11 in Game 3 of the 1997 World Series. Game 5 lasted five hours and seventeen minutes, making it the second longest World Series game in history by time, trailing only the 14 inning contest between the Astros and the Chicago White Sox in Game 3 of the 2005 World Series in the same ballpark, as well as the third World Series game ever to go beyond five hours of game time. This game is considered one of the greatest World Series games of all time.
Game 6 featured the same starting pitchers as the second game: Verlander and Hill. Springer hit a solo home run off of Hill in the top of the third for the first run of the night. It was Springer 's fourth homer of the series, tied for third all - time in a single series and joining Gene Tenace, in 1972, as the only players with four game - tying or go - ahead home runs in a World Series. Springer also joined Hank Bauer in the 1958 World Series and Barry Bonds in the 2002 World Series with four home runs in a series. The Astros loaded the bases in the fifth inning, but did not score. Hill pitched 4 ⁄ innings, struck out five and allowed four hits and one run.
In the sixth inning, Taylor tied the game with an RBI double and Seager hit a sacrifice fly to give the Dodgers the lead. Verlander pitched six innings with nine strikeouts and only three hits allowed. Pederson hit a home run in the bottom of the seventh inning and Jansen pitched two scoreless innings for the save. Pederson tied a World Series record with his fifth consecutive game with an extra base hit and Andre Ethier, who appeared in the game as a pinch hitter, set a new Dodgers franchise record with his 50th career postseason game.
This was the first World Series Game 7 to be played at Dodger Stadium (and the first postseason Game 7 at the stadium since the 1988 NLCS). It was also the first time since the 1931 World Series that a Game 7 occurred in a Series with both teams having won at least 100 games during the season. This was the first time since the 2001 World Series and 2002 World Series that back - to - back Fall Classics had a Game 7.
The starting pitchers for this game were the same as in the third game: McCullers and Darvish. Springer doubled to open the game and scored the first run on an error by Bellinger, which allowed Bregman to reach second base. Bregman stole third base and scored on an Altuve groundout. McCann scored the next inning on a groundout hit by the pitcher McCullers. Springer hit a two - run home run, his fifth of the series, tying Reggie Jackson and Chase Utley for most home runs in a single World Series and setting a new record with 29 total bases in any postseason series. As in Game 3, Darvish lasted only 1 ⁄ innings (tying the shortest outing of his career) and became the third pitcher with two starts of less than two innings in a World Series, and the first since Art Ditmar in the 1960 World Series. Morrow relieved Darvish and in the process became only the second pitcher to pitch in all seven games of a single World Series, joining Darold Knowles in the 1973 World Series. McCullers lasted only 2 ⁄ innings himself; he allowed three hits and hit a World Series record four batters. This was the first Game 7 in World Series history where neither starting pitcher got past the third inning.
The Dodgers failed to score a run and left eight men on base through five innings. Ethier, pinch hitting, scored Pederson on a single in the sixth inning for the Dodgers ' only run. They only had one hit in 13 chances with runners in scoring position in the game. Kershaw pitched four scoreless innings of relief in the game, and in the process, he broke Orel Hershiser 's Dodgers postseason record with his 33rd strikeout. Morton pitched four innings of relief to earn the win, as Corey Seager grounded out to José Altuve, who threw to Yuli Gurriel to end the game, series, baseball season, and their 56 - year drought. The Astros became the third consecutive road team to win a World Series Game 7 as well as the fourth consecutive team to end a World Series on the road (after the 2014 Giants, 2015 Royals and 2016 Cubs). They also became just the second team to win a seven game League Championship Series and a seven game World Series in the same year, following the 1985 Kansas City Royals. Springer won the World Series MVP Award. With the Astros winning this is the third consecutive year that the team with the longer World Series drought won the series.
2017 World Series (4 -- 3): Houston Astros beat Los Angeles Dodgers.
Fox broadcast the series in the United States, with Joe Buck serving as the play - by - play announcer, along with John Smoltz as color commentator and Ken Rosenthal and Tom Verducci as field reporters. Kevin Burkhardt hosted the pregame shows, joined by analysts Keith Hernandez, David Ortiz, Alex Rodriguez, and Frank Thomas.
Outside the United States, MLB International televised the series, with Matt Vasgersian on play - by - play and Buck Martinez doing color commentary.
After Game 7, Correa proposed to his girlfriend, 2016 Miss Texas USA winner Daniella Rodríguez, on live television during a postgame interview conducted by Rosenthal. She accepted.
This series turned out to be the 3rd highest rated since 2005, trailing only the 2009 World Series and the 2016 World Series. For the second straight year, Game 5 beat out NBC Sunday Night Football in ratings.
ESPN Radio broadcast the series in English, with Dan Shulman providing the play - by - play and Aaron Boone serving as color analyst. Tim Kurkjian and Buster Olney served as reporters for the network, while Marc Kestecher hosted the pre-game and post-game coverage along with analyst Chris Singleton. The ESPN Radio coverage was carried on affiliated stations throughout the United States and Canada, as well as online at ESPN.com and via the ESPN mobile app. Spanish - language coverage was provided by ESPN Deportes Radio, with Eduardo Ortega, Renato Bermúdez, José Francisco Rivera, and Orlando Hernández announcing.
Locally, both teams ' flagship radio stations broadcast the series with their regular announcers. Sportstalk 790 aired the English - language broadcast for the Houston area, with Robert Ford and Steve Sparks calling the games. In Los Angeles, AM 570 LA Sports aired the English - language broadcast, with Charley Steiner and Rick Monday announcing. In Spanish, Univision America 1020 carried the broadcast, with Jaime Jarrín and Jorge Jarrín on the call. In Korean, Radio Korea 1540 aired the series, with Richard Choi and Chong Ho Yim in the booth.
For the first time, MLB sold presenting sponsorships to all of its postseason series; the internet television service YouTube TV is the first - ever presenting sponsor of the World Series. The series is officially known as the 2017 World Series Presented by YouTube TV. This sponsorship includes logo branding in - stadium and on official digital properties, as well as commercial inventory during Fox 's telecasts of the games.
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where was the largest destructive tsunami ever recorded | List of historical tsunamis - wikipedia
This article lists notable historical tsunamis, which are sorted by the date and location that the tsunami occurred.
Because of seismic and volcanic activity associated with tectonic plate boundaries along the Pacific Ring of Fire, tsunamis occur most frequently in the Pacific Ocean, but are a worldwide natural phenomenon. They are possible wherever large bodies of water are found, including inland lakes, where they can be caused by landslides and glacier calving. Very small tsunamis, non-destructive and undetectable without specialized equipment, occur frequently as a result of minor earthquakes and other events.
Around 1600 BCE, a tsunami caused by the eruption of Thira destroyed the Minoan civilization on Crete and related cultures in the Cyclades, as well as in areas on the Greek mainland facing the eruption, such as the Argolid.
The oldest recorded tsunami occurred in 479 BCE. It destroyed a Persian army that was attacking the town of Potidaea in Greece.
As early as 426 BCE, the Greek historian Thucydides inquired in his book History of the Peloponnesian War (3.89. 1 -- 6) about the causes of tsunamis. He argued that such events could only be explained as a consequence of ocean earthquakes, and could see no other possible causes.
This tsunami devastated many large cities in what is now Libya and Tunisia, as well as Alexandria in Egypt. The anniversary of the disaster was still commemorated annually at the end of the 6th century in Alexandria as a "day of horror. ''
Researchers at the University of Cambridge recently carbon dated corals on the coast of Crete which were lifted 10 metres and clear of the water during the earthquake. This indicates that the tsunami was generated by an earthquake in a steep fault in the Hellenic trench near Crete. Scientists estimate that such an uplift is only likely to occur once in 5,000 years; however, the other segments of the fault could slip on a similar scale every 800 years or so.
The earthquake, tsunami, and fires killed 40,000 to 50,000 people (30,000 to 40,000 in Lisbon alone, out of a population of ~ 200,000). Historical records of explorations by early navigators such as Vasco da Gama were lost, and among the buildings destroyed were most examples of Portugal 's Manueline architecture. Europeans of the 18th century struggled to understand the disaster within religious and rational belief systems, and philosophers of the Enlightenment, notably Voltaire, wrote about the event. The philosophical concept of the sublime, as described by Immanuel Kant took inspiration in part from attempts to comprehend the enormity of the Lisbon quake and tsunami.
The tsunami took just over 4 hours to travel over 1,000 miles (1,600 km) to Cornwall in the United Kingdom. An account by Arnold Boscowitz claimed "great loss of life. '' It also hit Galway, Ireland, and caused serious damage to the Spanish Arch section of the city wall.
An undersea earthquake of estimated magnitude 7.4 occurred near Yaeyama Islands in the former Ryūkyū Kingdom (present day Okinawa, Japan) on 4 April 1771 at about 8 A.M. The earthquake is not believed to have directly resulted in any deaths, but a resulting tsunami killed an estimated 12,000 people (9,313 on the Yaeyama Islands and 2,548 on Miyako Islands). Estimates of the highest run - up on Ishigaki Island range from 30 to 85.4 meters (99 to 280 feet). The tsunami put an abrupt stop to population growth on the islands, and was followed by malaria epidemics and crop failures which further decreased the population. It took 148 years for the population to return to pre-tsunami levels.
The total result was 80,000 -- 100,000 deaths.
On 1 April 1946, the Aleutian Islands tsunami killed 159 people on Hawaii and five in Alaska (the lighthouse keepers at the Scotch Cap Light in the Aleutians). It resulted in the creation of a tsunami warning system known as the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC), established in 1949 for Oceania countries. The tsunami is known as the April Fools Day Tsunami in Hawaii because it happened on April 1 and many people thought it to be an April Fools Day prank.
The Vajont Dam was completed in 1961 under Monte Toc, 100 km north of Venice, Italy. At 262 metres (860 feet), it was one of the highest dams in the world. On October 9, 1963 an enormous landslide of about 260 million cubic meters of forest, earth, and rock, fell into the reservoir at up to 110 km per hour (68 mph). The resulting displacement of water caused 50 million cubic metres of water to overtop the dam in a 250 - metre (820 - foot) high megatsunami wave. The flooding destroyed the villages of Longarone, Pirago, Rivalta, Villanova and Faè, killing 1,450 people. Almost 2,000 people (some sources report 1,909) perished in total.
The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake (moment magnitude 9.1 -- 9.3) triggered a series of tsunamis on 26 December 2004, killing approximately 230,210 people (168,000 in Indonesia alone), making it the deadliest tsunami and one of the deadliest natural disasters in recorded history. The earthquake was the third largest earthquake in recorded history. The initial surge was measured at a height of approximately 33 meters (108 ft), making it the largest earthquake - generated tsunami in recorded history. The tsunami killed people over an area ranging from the immediate vicinity of the quake in Indonesia, Thailand, and the north - west coast of Malaysia, to thousands of kilometres away in Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and as far away as Somalia, Kenya, and Tanzania in Africa. This trans - Indian Ocean tsunami is an example of a teletsunami, which travels vast distances across the open ocean, and an ocean - wide tsunami. It became known as the "Boxing Day Tsunami '' because it struck on Boxing Day (26 December).
Unlike in the Pacific Ocean, there was no organized alert service covering the Indian Ocean. This was in part due to the absence of major tsunami events since 1883 (the Krakatoa eruption, see above). In light of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, UNESCO and other world bodies have called for an international tsunami monitoring system.
The subsequent tsunami caused substantial damage and loss of life in Samoa, American Samoa, and Tonga. The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center recorded a 76 mm (3.0 in) rise in sea levels near the epicenter, and New Zealand scientists noted waves as high as 14 m (46 ft) on the Samoan coast. More than 189 people were killed, especially children, mostly in Samoa. Large waves with no major damage were reported on Fiji, the northern coast of New Zealand and Rarotonga in the Cook Islands. People on low - lying atolls of Tokelau moved to higher ground as a precaution.
On 27 February 2010, an 8.8 earthquake offshore of Chile caused a tsunami which caused serious damage and loss of life, it also caused minor effects in other Pacific nations.
On 11 March 2011, off the Pacific coast of Japan, a 9.0 magnitude earthquake produced a tsunami 33 feet (10 m) high along Japan 's northeastern coast. The wave caused widespread devastation, with an official count of 18,550 people confirmed to be killed / missing. The highest tsunami which was recorded at Miyako, Iwate reached a total height of 40.5 metres (133 ft). In addition the tsunami precipitated multiple hydrogen explosions and nuclear meltdown at the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant. Tsunami warnings were issued to the entire Pacific Rim.
The deadliest tsunami in recorded history was the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, which killed almost 230,000 people in eleven countries. The 365 CE Mediterranean tsunami 's death toll may have been much higher.
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what are the teams of pro kabaddi 2018 | 2018 Pro Kabaddi League season - wikipedia
The 2018 Vivo Pro Kabaddi League is the sixth season of Pro Kabaddi League, a professional kabaddi league in India since 2014. The season began on 7th October 2018. Patna Pirates are the defending champions having defeated the Gujarat Fortune Giants in the 2017 Pro Kabaddi League Final.
Each team can sign maximum 3 foreign players in the squad.
Source: prokabaddi.com The teams are divided into two zones with each zone having six teams based on their geographical proximity. Each team will play 15 intra-zonal matches and 7 inter-zonal matches.
Updated after match 40
Source: prokabaddi.com
Pro Kabaddi 2018 Live Tv Channels
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if someone dies during an ap exam does everyone pass | Pass by catastrophe - Wikipedia
Pass by catastrophe is an academic urban legend proposing that if some particular catastrophic event occurs, students whose performance could have been affected by the event are automatically awarded passing grades, on the grounds that there would then be no way to assess them fairly and they should not be penalized for the catastrophe.
The most common version of this story is that if a student 's roommate commits suicide, the surviving student will be awarded straight As for that semester. This version provides the premise for the films Dead Man on Campus and The Curve, as well as episodes of several television series.
In his book Curses! Broiled Again!, urban legend expert Jan Harold Brunvand investigated the claim that a student whose roommate commits suicide will receive straight As for that semester. He could not find any college or university which actually had such a rule. Sociologist William S. Fox described this legend and variants, such as the rule applying to any death of a roommate; he also concluded that the claim has no basis in fact. The website Snopes rates the story as false.
Many schools and jurisdictions adopting any blanket rule as claimed by the legend, may make allowances or adjustments for individual students in cases of hardship. In the United Kingdom, the Joint Council for Qualifications allows candidates to apply for an adjustment of their score (up to 5 %) if they have met all the qualifications for the exam but suffer "temporary illness, temporary injury or other indisposition at the time of the assessment ''. If an eligible candidate dies before completing the examination, an "honorary certificate '' can be requested.
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the first circadian gene to be discovered in mammals was | Circadian rhythm - wikipedia
A circadian rhythm / sɜːrˈkeɪdiən / is any biological process that displays an endogenous, entrainable oscillation of about 24 hours. These 24 - hour rhythms are driven by a circadian clock, and they have been widely observed in plants, animals, fungi, and cyanobacteria.
The term circadian comes from the Latin circa, meaning "around '' (or "approximately ''), and diēm, meaning "day ''. The formal study of biological temporal rhythms, such as daily, tidal, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called chronobiology. Processes with 24 - hour oscillations are more generally called diurnal rhythms; strictly speaking, they should not be called circadian rhythms unless their endogenous nature is confirmed.
Although circadian rhythms are endogenous ("built - in '', self - sustained), they are adjusted (entrained) to the local environment by external cues called zeitgebers (from German, "time giver ''), which include light, temperature and redox cycles. In medical science, an abnormal circadian rhythm in humans is known as circadian rhythm disorder.
In 2017, the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to Jeffrey C. Hall, Michael Rosbash and Michael W. Young "for their discoveries of molecular mechanisms controlling the circadian rhythm ''.
The earliest recorded account of a circadian process dates from the 4th century B.C.E., when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under Alexander the Great, described diurnal leaf movements of the tamarind tree. The observation of a circadian or diurnal process in humans is mentioned in Chinese medical texts dated to around the 13th century, including the Noon and Midnight Manual and the Mnemonic Rhyme to Aid in the Selection of Acu - points According to the Diurnal Cycle, the Day of the Month and the Season of the Year.
The first recorded observation of an endogenous circadian oscillation was by the French scientist Jean - Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan in 1729. He noted that 24 - hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant Mimosa pudica continued even when the plants were kept in constant darkness, in the first experiment to attempt to distinguish an endogenous clock from responses to daily stimuli.
In 1896, Patrick and Gilbert observed that during a prolonged period of sleep deprivation, sleepiness increases and decreases with a period of approximately 24 hours. In 1918, J.S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24 - hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature. In the early 20th century, circadian rhythms were noticed in the rhythmic feeding times of bees. Extensive experiments were done by Auguste Forel, Ingeborg Beling, and Oskar Wahl to see whether this rhythm was due to an endogenous clock. Ron Konopka and Seymour Benzer isolated the first clock mutant in Drosophila in the early 1970s and mapped the "period '' gene, the first discovered genetic determinant of behavioral rhythmicity. Joseph Takahashi discovered the first mammalian circadian clock mutation (clockΔ19) using mice in 1994. However, recent studies show that deletion of clock does not lead to a behavioral phenotype (the animals still have normal circadian rhythms), which questions its importance in rhythm generation.
The term circadian was coined by Franz Halberg in the 1950s.
To be called circadian, a biological rhythm must meet these three general criteria:
Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes. They thus enable organisms to better capitalize on environmental resources (e.g. light and food) compared to those that can not predict such availability. It has therefore been suggested that circadian rhythms put organisms at a selective advantage in evolutionary terms. However, rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in coordinating with the environment. This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions, as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the experimental elimination of behavioral, but not physiological, circadian rhythms in quail.
What drove circadian rhythms to evolve has been an enigmatic question. Previous hypotheses emphasized that photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms may have originated together in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting replicating DNA from high levels of damaging ultraviolet radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. However, evidence for this is lacking, since the simplest organisms with a circadian rhythm, the cyanobacteria, do the opposite of this - they divide more in the daytime. Recent studies instead highlight the importance of co-evolution of redox proteins with circadian oscillators in all three domains of life following the Great Oxidation Event approximately 2.3 billion years ago. The current view is that circadian changes in environmental oxygen levels and the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the presence of daylight are likely to have driven a need to evolve circadian rhythms to preempt, and therefore counteract, damaging redox reactions on a daily basis.
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic cyanobacteria. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of Synechococcus elongatus can be reconstituted in vitro with just the three proteins (KaiA, KaiB, KaiC) of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22 - hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of ATP. Previous explanations of the prokaryotic circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription / translation feedback mechanism.
A defect in the human homologue of the Drosophila "period '' gene was identified as a cause of the sleep disorder FASPS (Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome), underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day.
It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell - autonomous. This was shown by Gene Block in isolated mollusk BRNs. At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronised output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronise the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the eyes travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronised. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep / wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock.
Circadian rhythmicity is present in the sleeping and feeding patterns of animals, including human beings. There are also clear patterns of core body temperature, brain wave activity, hormone production, cell regeneration, and other biological activities. In addition, photoperiodism, the physiological reaction of organisms to the length of day or night, is vital to both plants and animals, and the circadian system plays a role in the measurement and interpretation of day length.
Timely prediction of seasonal periods of weather conditions, food availability, or predator activity is crucial for survival of many species. Although not the only parameter, the changing length of the photoperiod (' daylength ') is the most predictive environmental cue for the seasonal timing of physiology and behavior, most notably for timing of migration, hibernation, and reproduction.
Mutations or deletions of clock gene in mice have demonstrated the importance of body clocks to ensure the proper timing of cellular / metabolic events; clock - mutant mice are hyperphagic and obese, and have altered glucose metabolism. In mice, deletion of the Rev - ErbA alpha clock gene facilitates diet - induced obesity and changes the balance between glucose and lipid utilization predisposing to diabetes. However, it is not clear whether there is a strong association between clock gene polymorphisms in humans and the susceptibility to develop the metabolic syndrome.
The rhythm is linked to the light -- dark cycle. Animals, including humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a free - running rhythm. Their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward each "day '', depending on whether their "day '', their endogenous period, is shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that reset the rhythms each day are called zeitgebers (from the German, "time - givers ''). Totally blind subterranean mammals, e.g., blind mole rat Spalax sp., are able to maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external stimuli. Although they lack image - forming eyes, their photoreceptors (which detect light) are still functional; they do surface periodically as well.
Free - running organisms that normally have one or two consolidated sleep episodes will still have them when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is not entrained to the 24 - hour light -- dark cycle in nature. The sleep -- wake rhythm may, in these circumstances, become out of phase with other circadian or ultradian rhythms such as metabolic, hormonal, CNS electrical, or neurotransmitter rhythms.
Recent research has influenced the design of spacecraft environments, as systems that mimic the light -- dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.
Norwegian researchers at the University of Tromsø have shown that some Arctic animals (ptarmigan, reindeer) show circadian rhythms only in the parts of the year that have daily sunrises and sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at 70 degrees North showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter and spring, but not in the summer. Reindeer on Svalbard at 78 degrees North showed such rhythms only in autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other Arctic animals as well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and the constant dark of winter.
A 2006 study in northern Alaska found that day - living ground squirrels and nocturnal porcupines strictly maintain their circadian rhythms through 82 days and nights of sunshine. The researchers speculate that these two rodents notice that the apparent distance between the sun and the horizon is shortest once a day, and, thus, a sufficient signal to entrain (adjust) by.
The navigation of the fall migration of the Eastern North American monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) to their overwintering grounds in central Mexico uses a time - compensated sun compass that depends upon a circadian clock in their antennae. Also, circadian rhythm is also known control mating behavior in certain moth species such as Spodoptera littoralis, where females produce specific pheromone that attracts and resets the male circadian rhythm to induce mating at night.
Plant circadian rhythms tell the plant what season it is and when to flower for the best chance of attracting pollinators. Behaviors showing rhythms include leaf movement, growth, germination, stomatal / gas exchange, enzyme activity, photosynthetic activity, and fragrance emission, among others. Circadian rhythms occur as a plant entrains to synchronize with the light cycle of its surrounding environment. These rhythms are endogenously generated and self - sustaining and are relatively constant over a range of ambient temperatures. Important features include two interacting transcription - translation feedback loops: proteins containing PAS domains, which facilitate protein - protein interactions; and several photoreceptors that fine - tune the clock to different light conditions. Anticipation of changes in the environment allows appropriate changes in a plant 's physiological state, conferring an adaptive advantage. A better understanding of plant circadian rhythms has applications in agriculture, such as helping farmers stagger crop harvests to extend crop availability and securing against massive losses due to weather.
Light is the signal by which plants synchronize their internal clocks to their environment and is sensed by a wide variety of photoreceptors. Red and blue light are absorbed through several phytochromes and cryptochromes. One phytochrome, phyA, is the main phytochrome in seedlings grown in the dark but rapidly degrades in light to produce Cry1. Phytochromes B -- E are more stable with phyB, the main phytochrome in seedlings grown in the light. The cryptochrome (cry) gene is also a light - sensitive component of the circadian clock and is thought to be involved both as a photoreceptor and as part of the clock 's endogenous pacemaker mechanism. Cryptochromes 1 -- 2 (involved in blue -- UVA) help to maintain the period length in the clock through a whole range of light conditions.
The central oscillator generates a self - sustaining rhythm and is driven by two interacting feedback loops that are active at different times of day. The morning loop consists of CCA1 (Circadian and Clock - Associated 1) and LHY (Late Elongated Hypocotyl), which encode closely related MYB transcription factors that regulate circadian rhythms in Arabidopsis, as well as PRR 7 and 9 (Pseudo-Response Regulators.) The evening loop consists of GI (Gigantea) and ELF4, both involved in regulation of flowering time genes. When CCA1 and LHY are overexpressed (under constant light or dark conditions), plants become arrhythmic, and mRNA signals reduce, contributing to a negative feedback loop. Gene expression of CCA1 and LHY oscillates and peaks in the early morning, whereas TOC1 gene expression oscillates and peaks in the early evening. While it was previously hypothesised that these three genes model a negative feedback loop in which over-expressed CCA1 and LHY repress TOC1 and over-expressed TOC1 is a positive regulator of CCA1 and LHY, it was shown in 2012 by Andrew Millar and others that TOC1 in fact serves as a repressor not only of CCA1, LHY, and PRR7 and 9 in the morning loop but also of GI and ELF4 in the evening loop. This finding and further computational modeling of TOC1 gene functions and interactions suggest a reframing of the plant circadian clock as a triple negative - component repressilator model rather than the positive / negative - element feedback loop characterizing the clock in mammals.
The primary circadian clock in mammals is located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (or nuclei) (SCN), a pair of distinct groups of cells located in the hypothalamus. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep -- wake rhythm. The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The retina of the eye contains "classical '' photoreceptors ("rods '' and "cones ''), which are used for conventional vision. But the retina also contains specialized ganglion cells that are directly photosensitive, and project directly to the SCN, where they help in the entrainment (synchronization) of this master circadian clock.
These cells contain the photopigment melanopsin and their signals follow a pathway called the retinohypothalamic tract, leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues.
The SCN takes the information on the lengths of the day and night from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the pineal gland, a tiny structure shaped like a pine cone and located on the epithalamus. In response, the pineal secretes the hormone melatonin. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day and its presence provides information about night - length.
Several studies have indicated that pineal melatonin feeds back on SCN rhythmicity to modulate circadian patterns of activity and other processes. However, the nature and system - level significance of this feedback are unknown.
The circadian rhythms of humans can be entrained to slightly shorter and longer periods than the Earth 's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard have shown that human subjects can at least be entrained to a 23.5 - hour cycle and a 24.65 - hour cycle (the latter being the natural solar day - night cycle on the planet Mars).
Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli like daylight and timekeeping. However, this research was faulty because it failed to shield the participants from artificial light. Although subjects were shielded from time cues (like clocks) and daylight, the researchers were not aware of the phase - delaying effects of indoor electric lights. The subjects were allowed to turn on light when they were awake and to turn it off when they wanted to sleep. Electric light in the evening delayed their circadian phase. A more stringent study conducted in 1999 by Harvard University estimated the natural human rhythm to be closer to 24 hours and 11 minutes: much closer to the solar day.
The classic phase markers for measuring the timing of a mammal 's circadian rhythm are:
For temperature studies, subjects must remain awake but calm and semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are taken continuously. Though variation is great among normal chronotypes, the average human adult 's temperature reaches its minimum at about 05: 00 (5 a.m.), about two hours before habitual wake time. Baehr et al. found that, in young adults, the daily body temperature minimum occurred at about 04: 00 (4 a.m.) for morning types but at about 06: 00 (6 a.m.) for evening types. This minimum occurred at approximately the middle of the eight - hour sleep period for morning types, but closer to waking in evening types.
Melatonin is absent from the system or undetectably low during daytime. Its onset in dim light, dim - light melatonin onset (DLMO), at roughly 21: 00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Its major metabolite can also be measured in morning urine. Both DLMO and the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or saliva have been used as circadian markers. However, newer research indicates that the melatonin offset may be the more reliable marker. Benloucif et al. found that melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated with the timing of sleep than the core temperature minimum. They found that both sleep offset and melatonin offset are more strongly correlated with phase markers than the onset of sleep. In addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels is more reliable and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis.
Other physiological changes that occur according to a circadian rhythm include heart rate and many cellular processes "including oxidative stress, cell metabolism, immune and inflammatory responses, epigenetic modification, hypoxia / hyperoxia response pathways, endoplasmic reticular stress, autophagy, and regulation of the stem cell environment. '' In a study of young men, it was found that the heart rate reaches its lowest average rate during sleep, and its highest average rate shortly after waking.
In contradiction to previous studies, it has been found that there is no effect of body temperature on performance on psychological tests. This is likely due to evolutionary pressures for higher cognitive function compared to the other areas of function examined in previous studies.
More - or-less independent circadian rhythms are found in many organs and cells in the body outside the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), the "master clock ''. Indeed, neuroscientist Joseph Takahashi and colleagues stated in a 2013 article that "almost every cell in the body contains a circadian clock. '' For example, these clocks, called peripheral oscillators, have been found in the adrenal gland, oesophagus, lungs, liver, pancreas, spleen, thymus, and skin. There is also some evidence that the olfactory bulb and prostate may experience oscillations, at least when cultured.
Though oscillators in the skin respond to light, a systemic influence has not been proven. In addition, many oscillators, such as liver cells, for example, have been shown to respond to inputs other than light, such as feeding.
Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the phase response curve (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required illuminance vary from species to species and lower light levels are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans.
Studies by Nathaniel Kleitman in 1938 and by Derk - Jan Dijk and Charles Czeisler in the 1990s put human subjects on enforced 28 - hour sleep -- wake cycles, in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a month. Because normal people can not entrain to a 28 - hour day in dim light if at all, this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about 24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including sleep latency and other functions - both physiological, behavioral, and cognitive.
Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock, chronotherapeutics, may significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse reactions.
A number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during the day, a power - nap, does not have any measurable effect on normal circadian rhythms but can decrease stress and improve productivity.
Health problems can result from a disturbance to the circadian rhythm. Circadian rhythms also play a part in the reticular activating system, which is crucial for maintaining a state of consciousness. A reversal in the sleep -- wake cycle may be a sign or complication of uremia, azotemia or acute renal failure.
Studies have also shown that light has a direct effect on human health because of the way it influences the circadian rhythms.
Lighting requirements for circadian regulation are not simply the same as those for vision; planning of indoor lighting in offices and institutions is beginning to take this into account. Animal studies on the effects of light in laboratory conditions have until recently considered light intensity (irradiance) but not color, which can be shown to "act as an essential regulator of biological timing in more natural settings ''.
Obesity and diabetes are associated with lifestyle and genetic factors. Among those factors, disruption of the circadian clockwork and / or misalignment of the circadian timing system with the external environment (e.g., light - dark cycle) might play a role in the development of metabolic disorders.
Shift - work or chronic jet - lag have profound consequences on circadian and metabolic events in the body. Animals that are forced to eat during their resting period show increased body mass and altered expression of clock and metabolic genes. In humans, shift - work that favors irregular eating times is associated with altered insulin sensitivity and higher body mass. Shift - work also leads to increased metabolic risks for cardio - metabolic syndrome, hypertension, and inflammation.
Due to the work nature of airline pilots, who often cross several timezones and regions of sunlight and darkness in one day, and spend many hours awake both day and night, they are often unable to maintain sleep patterns that correspond to the natural human circadian rhythm; this situation can easily lead to fatigue. The NTSB cites this as contributing to many accidents and has conducted several research studies in order to find methods of combating fatigue in pilots.
Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travellers have experienced the condition known as jet lag, with its associated symptoms of fatigue, disorientation, and insomnia.
A number of other disorders, for example bipolar disorder and some sleep disorders such as delayed sleep phase disorder (DSPD), are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms.
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, in particular in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease. Blue LED lighting suppresses melatonin production five times more than the orange - yellow high - pressure sodium (HPS) light; a metal halide lamp, which is white light, suppresses melatonin at a rate more than three times greater than HPS. Depression symptoms from long term nighttime light exposure can be undone by returning to a normal cycle.
Studies conducted on both animals and humans show major bidirectional relationships between the circadian system and abusive drugs. It is indicated that these abusive drugs affect the central circadian pacemaker. Individuals suffering from substance abuse display disrupted rhythms. These disrupted rhythms can increase the risk for substance abuse and relapse. It is possible that genetic and / or environmental disturbances to the normal sleep and wake cycle can increase the susceptibility to addiction.
It is difficult to determine if a disturbance in the circadian rhythm is at fault for an increase in prevalence for substance abuse or if other environmental factors such as stress are to blame. Changes to the circadian rhythm and sleep occur once an individual begins abusing drugs and alcohol. Once an individual chooses to stop using drugs and alcohol, the circadian rhythm continues to be disrupted.
The stabilization of sleep and the circadian rhythm might possibly help to reduce the vulnerability to addiction and reduce the chances of relapse.
Circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the suprachiasmatic nucleus may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such as cocaine. Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profoundly affect cocaine 's actions.
In 2017, Jeffrey C. Hall, Michael W. Young, and Michael Rosbash were awarded Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for their discoveries of molecular mechanisms controlling the circadian rhythm ''.
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when did good witch season 4 come out | Good Witch (TV series) - wikipedia
Good Witch is an American / Canadian fantasy comedy - drama television series that is based on the made - for - TV movie series of the same name, produced by Whizbang Films in association with ITV Studios and the Hallmark Channel. Catherine Bell, who played Cassie Nightingale, the "Good Witch '' in the movie series, both co-produces and stars in the series.
Good Witch premiered on February 28, 2015, and was consecutively renewed through a fourth season, which aired from April 29 to July 1, 2018. Immediately following the fourth season 's finale, Hallmark aired a teaser for a two - hour Halloween special, which aired on October 21, 2018. On July 26, 2018, the series was renewed for a fifth season.
As with the previous seven TV movies, the series continues the spirited life of newly widowed Cassie Nightingale, the good - hearted enchantress of the fictional Middleton, United States, with her now - teenage daughter Grace. When new neighbors, the Radfords, move in next door, they become suspicious of Cassie and her daughter.
The series is filmed in Toronto, Ontario primarily at Cinespace Film Studios ' Kipling Avenue facility.
As producer Orly Adelson was president of ITV Studios America in 2014, ITV agreed to become the franchise 's TV series distributor outside of North America.
On October 13, 2015, Hallmark released the first season of Good Witch on DVD. Its packaging contains two discs. On October 11, 2016, Hallmark released the second season of Good Witch on DVD. Its packaging contains three discs, including the Halloween special, "Good Witch Halloween ''. The series is available internationally on Netflix.
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when does ellen go on summer break 2018 | The Ellen DeGeneres Show (season 15) - wikipedia
This is a list of episodes of the fifteenth season of The Ellen DeGeneres Show, which began airing from Tuesday September 5, 2017.
(Halloween Show)
(Ellen 's 2,500 th Show)
(Ellen 's Birthday Show)
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what are the different types of groups within a society | Social group - wikipedia
In the social sciences, a social group has been defined as two or more people who interact with one another, share similar characteristics, and collectively have a sense of unity. Other theorists disagree however, and are wary of definitions which stress the importance of interdependence or objective similarity. Instead, researchers within the social identity tradition generally define it as "a group is defined in terms of those who identify themselves as members of the group ''. Regardless, social groups come in a myriad of sizes and varieties. For example, a society can be viewed as a large social group.
A social group exhibits some degree of social cohesion and is more than a simple collection or aggregate of individuals, such as people waiting at a bus stop, or people waiting in a line. Characteristics shared by members of a group may include interests, values, representations, ethnic or social background, and kinship ties. Kinship ties being a social bond based on common ancestry, marriage, or adoption. In a similar vein, some researchers consider the defining characteristic of a group as social interaction. According to Dunbar 's number, on average, people can not maintain stable social relationships with more than 150 individuals.
Social psychologist Muzafer Sherif proposed to define a social unit as a number of individuals interacting with each other with respect to:
This definition is long and complex, but it is also precise. It succeeds at providing the researcher with the tools required to answer three important questions:
The attention of those who use, participate in, or study groups has focused on functioning groups, on larger organizations, or on the decisions made in these organizations. Much less attention has been paid to the more ubiquitous and universal social behaviors that do not clearly demonstrate one or more of the five necessary elements described by Sherif.
Some of the earliest efforts to understand these social units have been the extensive descriptions of urban street gangs in the 1920s and 1930s, continuing through the 1950s, which understood them to be largely reactions to the established authority. The primary goal of gang members was to defend gang territory, and to define and maintain the dominance structure within the gang. There remains in the popular media and urban law enforcement agencies an avid interest in gangs, reflected in daily headlines which emphasize the criminal aspects of gang behavior. However, these studies and the continued interest have not improved the capacity to influence gang behavior or to reduce gang related violence.
The relevant literature on animal social behaviors, such as work on territory and dominance, has been available since the 1950s. Also, they have been largely neglected by policy makers, sociologists and anthropologists. Indeed, vast literature on organization, property, law enforcement, ownership, religion, warfare, values, conflict resolution, authority, rights, and families have grown and evolved without any reference to any analogous social behaviors in animals. This disconnect may be the result of the belief that social behavior in humankind is radically different from the social behavior in animals because of the human capacity for language use and rationality. Of course, while this is true, it is equally likely that the study of the social (group) behaviors of other animals might shed light on the evolutionary roots of social behavior in people.
Territorial and dominance behaviors in humans are so universal and commonplace that they are simply taken for granted (though sometimes admired, as in home ownership, or deplored, as in violence). But these social behaviors and interactions between human individuals play a special role in the study of groups: they are necessarily prior to the formation of groups. The psychological internalization of territorial and dominance experiences in conscious and unconscious memory are established through the formation of social identity, personal identity, body concept, or self concept. An adequately functioning individual identity is necessary before an individual can function in a division of labor (role), and hence, within a cohesive group. Coming to understand territorial and dominance behaviors may thus help to clarify the development, functioning, and productivity of groups.
Explicitly contrasted against a social cohesion based definition for social groups is the social identity perspective, which draws on insights made in social identity theory. Here, rather than defining a social group based on expressions of cohesive social relationships between individuals, the social identity model assumes that "psychological group membership has primarily a perceptual or cognitive basis ''. It posits that the necessary and sufficient condition for individuals to act as group members is "awareness of a common category membership '' and that a social group can be "usefully conceptualized as a number of individuals who have internalized the same social category membership as a component of their self concept ''. Stated otherwise, while the social cohesion approach expects group members to ask "who am I attracted to? '', the social identity perspective expects group members to simply ask "who am I? ''
Empirical support for the social identity perspective on groups was initially drawn from work using the minimal group paradigm. For example, it has been shown that the mere act of allocating individuals to explicitly random categories is sufficient to lead individuals to act in an ingroup favouring fashion (even where no individual self - interest is possible). Also problematic for the social cohesion account is recent research showing that seemingly meaningless categorization can be an antecedent of perceptions of interdependence with fellow category members.
While the roots of this approach to social groups had its foundations in social identity theory, more concerted exploration of these ideas occurred later in the form of self - categorization theory. Whereas social identity theory was directed initially at the explanation of intergroup conflict in the absence of any conflict of interests, self - categorization theory was developed to explain how individuals come to perceive themselves as members of a group in the first place, and how this self - grouping process underlies and determines all problems subsequent aspects of group behaviour.
In his text, Group Dynamics, Forsyth (2010) discuses several common characteristics of groups that can help to define them.
This group component varies greatly, including verbal or non-verbal communication, social loafing, networking, forming bonds, etc. Research by Bales (cite, 1950, 1999) determine that there are two main types of interactions; relationship interactions and task interactions.
Most groups have a reason for their existence, be it increasing the education and knowledge, receiving emotional support, or experiencing spirituality or religion. Groups can facilitate the achievement of these goals. The circumplex model of group tasks, by Joseph McGrath organizes group related tasks and goals. Groups may focus on several of these goals, or one area at a time. The model divides group goals into four main types, which are further sub-categorized
"The state of being dependent, to some degree, on other people, as when one 's outcomes, actions, thoughts, feelings, and experiences are determined in whole or part by others. '' It is obvious that some groups are more interdependent than others. For example, a sports team would have a relatively high level of interdependence as compared to a group of people watching a movie at the movie theater. Also, interdependence may be mutual (flowing back and forth between members) or more linear / unilateral. For example, some group members may be more dependent on their boss than the boss is on each of the individuals.
Group structure involves the emergence or regularities, norms, roles and relations that form within a group over time. Roles involve the expected performance and conduct of people within the group depending on their status or position within the group. Norms are the ideas adopted by the group pertaining to acceptable and unacceptable conduct by members. Group structure is a very important part of a group. If people fail to meet their expectations within to groups, and fulfil their roles, they may not accept the group, or be accepted by other group members.
When viewed holistically, a group is greater than the sum of its individual parts. When people speak of groups, they speak of the group as a whole, or an entity, rather than speaking of it in terms of individuals. For example, it would be said that "The band played beautifully. '' Several factors play a part in this image of unity, including group cohesiveness, and entitativity (appearance of cohesion by outsiders).
According to Charles Horton Cooley (1864 -- 1929), a primary group is a small social group whose members share personal and lasting relationships. People joined in primary relationships spend a great deal of time together, engage in a wide range of activities, and feel that they know one another well. In short, they show real concern for one another. In every society, the family is the most important primary group. Groups based on lasting friendships are also primary groups.
Secondary groups, in contrast to primary groups, are large groups involving formal and institutional relationships. Secondary relationships involve weak emotional ties and little personal knowledge of one another. Most secondary groups are short term, beginning and ending without particular significance. They may last for years or may disband after a short time. The formation of primary groups happens within secondary groups.
Primary groups can be present in secondary settings. For example, attending a university exemplifies membership of a secondary group, while the friendships that are made there would be considered a primary group that you belong to. Likewise, some businesses care deeply about the well being of one another, while some immediate families have hostile relations within it.
Individuals almost universally have a bond toward what sociologists call reference groups. A reference group is a social group that serves as a point of reference in making evaluations and decisions.
Some examples of types of groups include the following:
Groups can also be categorized according to the number of people present within the group. This makes sense if the size of the group has consequences for the way group members relate with each other. In a small group, for example, "each member receives some impression... of each other member distinct enough so that he or she... can give some reaction to each of the others as an individual person. '' This personal interaction is not possible in larger groups.
The social groups people are involved with in the workplace directly affect their health. No matter where you work or what the occupation is, feeling a sense of belonging in a peer group is a key to overall success. Part of this is the responsibility of the leader (manager, supervisor, etc.). If the leader helps everyone feel a sense of belonging within the group, it can help boost morale and productivity. According to Dr. Niklas Steffens "Social identification contributes to both psychological and physiological health, but the health benefits are stronger for psychological health ''. The social relationships people have can be linked to different health conditions. Lower quantity or quality social relationships have been connected to issues such as: development of cardiovascular disease, recurrent myocardial infarction, atherosclerosis, autonomic dysregulation, high blood pressure, cancer and delayed cancer recovery, and slower wound healing as well as inflammatory biomarkers and impaired immune function, factors associated with adverse health outcomes and mortality. The social relationship of marriage is the most studied of all, the marital history over the course of one 's life can form differing health outcomes such as cardiovascular disease, chronic conditions, mobility limitations, self - rated health, and depressive symptoms. Social connectedness also plays a large part in overcoming mental afflictions such as drug, alcohol, or substance abuse. With these types of issues, a person 's peer group play a big role in helping them stay sober. Conditions do not need to be life - threatening, one 's social group can help deal with work anxiety as well. When people are more socially connected have access to more support. Some of the health issues people have may also stem from their uncertainty about just where they stand among their colleagues. It has been shown that being well socially connected has a significant impact on a person as they age, according to a 10 - year study by the MacArthur Foundation, which was published in the book ' Successful Aging ' the support, love, and care we feel through our social connections can help to counteract some of the health - related negatives of aging. Older people who were more active in social circles tended to be better off health-wise.
Social groups acquire and renew their members via recruitment. Compare proselytism.
In the initial stages of expansion, the groups usually do not accept every applicant. One of the ways to build a reasonably closed group is to accept new members after one or more existing members propose and recommend them. Such group expands along the lines of other existing social networks. Other approach is to use existing members to evaluate the applicant, like in Microsoft interview. Member evaluation can also be delegated to some team that is not part of the group itself (like in high IQ societies). Some groups may choose to easily accept a lot of people but only leave the most efficient new members after probation (discarding others).
If one brings a small collection of strangers together in a restricted space and environment, provides a common goal and maybe a few ground rules, then a highly probable course of events will follow. Interaction between individuals is the basic requirement. At first, individuals will differentially interact in sets of twos or threes while seeking to interact with those with whom they share something in common: i.e., interests, skills, and cultural background. Relationships will develop some stability in these small sets, in that individuals may temporarily change from one set to another, but will return to the same pairs or trios rather consistently and resist change. Particular twosomes and threesomes will stake out their special spots within the overall space.
Again depending on the common goal, eventually twosomes and threesomes will integrate into larger sets of six or eight, with corresponding revisions of territory, dominance - ranking, and further differentiation of roles. All of this seldom takes place without some conflict or disagreement: for example, fighting over the distribution of resources, the choices of means and different subgoals, the development of what are appropriate norms, rewards and punishments. Some of these conflicts will be territorial in nature: i.e., jealousy over roles, or locations, or favored relationships. But most will be involved with struggles for status, ranging from mild protests to serious verbal conflicts and even dangerous violence.
By analogy to animal behavior, sociologists may term these behaviors territorial behaviors and dominance behaviors. Depending on the pressure of the common goal and on the various skills of individuals, differentiations of leadership, dominance, or authority will develop. Once these relationships solidify, with their defined roles, norms, and sanctions, a productive group will have been established.
Aggression is the mark of unsettled dominance order. Productive group cooperation requires that both dominance order and territorial arrangements (identity, self - concept) be settled with respect to the common goal and within the particular group. Some individuals may withdraw from interaction or be excluded from the developing group. Depending on the number of individuals in the original collection of strangers, and the number of "hangers - on '' that are tolerated, one or more competing groups of ten or less may form, and the competition for territory and dominance will then also be manifested in the inter group transactions.
Two or more people in interacting situations will over time develop stable territorial relationships. As described above, these may or may not develop into groups. But stable groups can also break up in to several sets of territorial relationships. There are numerous reasons for stable groups to "malfunction '' or to disperse, but essentially this is because of loss of compliance with one or more elements of the definition of group provided by Sherif. The two most common causes of a malfunctioning group are the addition of too many individuals, and the failure of the leader to enforce a common purpose, though malfunctions may occur due to a failure of any of the other elements (i.e., confusions status or of norms).
In a society, there is an obvious need for more people to participate in cooperative endeavors than can be accommodated by a few separate groups. The military has been the best example as to how this is done in its hierarchical array of squads, platoons, companies, battalions, regiments, and divisions. Private companies, corporations, government agencies, clubs, and so on have all developed comparable (if less formal and standardized) systems when the number of members or employees exceeds the number that can be accommodated in an effective group. Not all larger social structures require the cohesion that may be found in the small group. Consider the neighborhood, the country club, or the megachurch, which are basically territorial organizations who support large social purposes. Any such large organizations may need only islands of cohesive leadership.
For a functioning group to attempt to add new members in a casual way is a certain prescription for failure, loss of efficiency, or disorganization. The number of functioning members in a group can be reasonably flexible between five and ten, and a long - standing cohesive group may be able to tolerate a few hangers on. The key concept is that the value and success of a group is obtained by each member maintaining a distinct, functioning identity in the minds of each of the members. The cognitive limit to this span of attention in individuals is often set at seven. Rapid shifting of attention can push the limit to about ten. After ten, subgroups will inevitably start to form with the attendant loss of purpose, dominance - order, and individuality, with confusion of roles and rules. The standard classroom with twenty to forty pupils and one teacher offers a rueful example of one supposed leader juggling a number of subgroups.
Weakening of the common purpose once a group is well established can be attributed to: adding new members; unsettled conflicts of identities (i.e., territorial problems in individuals); weakening of a settled dominance - order; and weakening or failure of the leader to tend to the group. The actual loss of a leader is frequently fatal to a group, unless there was lengthy preparation for the transition. The loss of the leader tends to dissolve all dominance relationships, as well as weakening dedication to common purpose, differentiation of roles, and maintenance of norms. The most common symptoms of a troubled group are loss of efficiency, diminished participation, or weakening of purpose, as well as an increase in verbal aggression. Often, if a strong common purpose is still present, a simple reorganization with a new leader and a few new members will be sufficient to re-establish the group, which is somewhat easier than forming an entirely new group. This is the most common factor.
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who commanded the texian cavalry at the battle of san jacinto | Battle of San Jacinto - wikipedia
Decisive Texian victory;
The Battle of San Jacinto, fought on April 21, 1836, in present - day Harris County, Texas, was the decisive battle of the Texas Revolution. Led by General Sam Houston, the Texian Army engaged and defeated General Antonio López de Santa Anna 's Mexican army in a fight that lasted just 18 minutes. A detailed, first - hand account of the battle was written by General Houston from Headquarters of the Texian Army, San Jacinto on April 25, 1836. Numerous secondary analyses and interpretations have followed, several of which are cited and discussed throughout this entry.
General Santa Anna, the President of Mexico, and General Martín Perfecto de Cos both escaped during the battle. Santa Anna was captured the next day on April 22 and Cos on April 24, 1836. After being held about three weeks as a prisoner of war, Santa Anna signed the peace treaty that dictated that the Mexican army leave the region, paving the way for the Republic of Texas to become an independent country. These treaties did not specifically recognize Texas as a sovereign nation, but stipulated that Santa Anna was to lobby for such recognition in Mexico City. Sam Houston became a national celebrity, and the Texans ' rallying cries from events of the war, "Remember the Alamo! '' and "Remember Goliad!, '' became etched into Texan history and legend.
General Antonio López de Santa Anna was a proponent of governmental federalism when he helped oust Mexican president Anastasio Bustamante in December 1832. Upon his election as president in April 1833, Santa Anna switched his political ideology and began implementing centralist policies that increased the authoritarian powers of his office. His abrogation of the Constitution of 1824, correlating with his abolishing local - level authority over Mexico 's state of Coahuila y Tejas (Coahuila and Texas), became a flashpoint in the growing tensions between the central government and its Tejano and Anglo citizens in Texas. While in Mexico City awaiting a meeting with Santa Anna, Texian empresario Stephen F. Austin wrote to the Béxar ayuntamiento (city council) urging a break - away state. In response, the Mexican government kept him imprisoned for most of 1834.
Colonel Juan Almonte was appointed Director of Colonization in Texas, ostensibly to ease relations with the colonists and mitigate their anxieties about Austin 's imprisonment. He delivered promises of self - governance, and conveyed regrets that the Mexican congress deemed it constitutionally impossible for Texas to be a separate state. Behind the rhetoric, his covert mission was to identify the local power brokers, obstruct any plans for rebellion, and supply the Mexican government with data that would be of use in a military conflict. For nine months in 1834, under the guise of serving as a government liaison, Almonte traveled through Texas and compiled an all - encompassing intelligence report on the population and its environs, including an assessment of their resources and defense capabilities.
In consolidating his power base, Santa Anna installed General Martín Perfecto de Cos as the governing military authority over Texas in 1835. Cos established headquarters in San Antonio on October 9, triggering what became known as the Siege of Béxar. After two months of trying to repel the Texian forces, Cos raised a white flag on December 9, and signed surrender terms two days later. The surrender of Cos effectively removed the occupying Mexican army from Texas. Many believed the war was over, and volunteers began returning home.
In compliance with orders from Santa Anna, Mexico 's Minister of War José María Tornel issued his December 30 "Circular No. 5 '', often referred to as the Tornel Decree, aimed at dealing with United States intervention in the uprising in Texas. It declared that foreigners who entered Mexico for the purpose of joining the rebellion were to be treated as "pirates '', to be put to death if captured. In adding "since they are not subjects of any nation at war with the republic nor do they militate under any recognized flag, '' Tornel avoided declaring war on the United States.
The Mexican Army of Operations numbered 6,019 soldiers and was spread out over 300 miles (480 km) on its march to Béxar. General Joaquín Ramírez y Sesma was put in command of the Vanguard of the Advance that crossed into Texas. Santa Anna and his aide - de-camp Almonte forded the Rio Grande at Guerrero, Coahuila on February 16, 1836, with General José de Urrea and 500 more troops following the next day at Matamoros. Béxar was captured on February 23 and when the assault commenced, attempts at negotiation for surrender were initiated from inside the fortress. Travis sent Albert Martin to request a meeting with Almonte, who replied that he did not have the authority to speak for Santa Anna. Bowie dispatched Green B. Jameson with a letter, translated into Spanish by Juan Seguín, requesting a meeting with Santa Anna, who immediately refused. Santa Anna did, however, extend an offer of amnesty to Tejanos inside the fortress. Alamo non-combatant survivor Enrique Esparza said that most Tejanos left when Bowie advised them to take the offer.
Cos, in violation of his surrender terms, forded into Texas at Guerrero on February 26 to join with the main army at Béxar. Urrea proceeded to secure the Gulf Coast, and was victorious in two skirmishes with Texian detachments serving under Fannin at Goliad. On February 27 a foraging detachment under Frank W. Johnson at San Patricio was attacked by Urrea. Sixteen were killed, and 21 taken prisoner, but Johnson and 4 others escaped. Urrea sent a company to Agua Dulce searching for James Grant and Plácido Benavides who were leading a company of Anglos and Tejanos towards an invasion of Matamoros. The Mexicans set a trap, killing Grant and most of the company. Benavides and 4 others escaped, and 6 were taken prisoner.
The Convention of 1836 met at Washington - on - the - Brazos on March 1. The following day, Sam Houston 's 42nd birthday, the 59 delegates signed the Texas Declaration of Independence, and chose an ad interim government. When news of the declaration reached Goliad, Benavides informed Fannin that in spite of his opposition to Santa Anna, he was still loyal to Mexico and did not wish to help Texas break away. Fannin discharged him from his duties and sent him home. On March 4 Houston 's military authority was expanded to include "the land forces of the Texian army both Regular, Volunteer, and Militia. ''
At 5 a.m. on March 6, the Mexican troops launched their final assault on the Alamo. The guns fell silent 90 minutes later; the Alamo had fallen. Survivors Susannah Dickinson, her daughter Angelina, Travis ' slave Joe, and Almonte 's cook Ben were spared by Santa Anna and sent to Gonzales, where Texian volunteers had been assembling.
The same day that Mexican troops departed Béxar, Houston arrived in Gonzales and informed the 374 volunteers (some without weapons) gathered there that Texas was now an independent republic. Just after 11 p.m. on March 13, Susanna Dickinson and Joe brought news that the Alamo garrison had been defeated and the Mexican army was marching towards Texian settlements. A hastily convened council of war voted to evacuate the area and retreat. The evacuation commenced at midnight and happened so quickly that many Texian scouts were unaware the army had moved on. Everything that could not be carried was burned, and the army 's only two cannons were thrown into the Guadalupe River. When Ramírez y Sesma reached Gonzales the morning of March 14, he found the buildings still smoldering.
Most citizens fled on foot, many carrying their small children. A cavalry company led by Seguín and Salvador Flores were assigned as rear guard to evacuate the more isolated ranches and protect the civilians from attacks by Mexican troops or Indians. The further the army retreated, the more civilians joined the flight. For both armies and the civilians, the pace was slow; torrential rains had flooded the rivers and turned the roads into mud pits.
As news of the Alamo 's fall spread, volunteer ranks swelled, reaching about 1,400 men on March 19. Houston learned of Fannin 's defeat on March 20 and realized his army was the last hope for an independent Texas. Concerned that his ill - trained and ill - disciplined force would be good for only one battle, and aware that his men could easily be outflanked by Urrea 's forces, Houston continued to avoid engagement, to the immense displeasure of his troops. By March 28, the Texian army had retreated 120 miles (190 km) across the Navidad and Colorado Rivers. Many troops deserted; those who remained grumbled that their commander was a coward.
On March 31, Houston paused his men at Groce 's Landing, roughly 15 miles (24 km) north of San Felipe. Two companies that refused to retreat further than San Felipe were assigned to guard the crossings on the Brazos River. For the next two weeks, the Texians rested, recovered from illness, and, for the first time, began practicing military drills. While there, two cannons, known as the Twin Sisters, arrived from Cincinnati, Ohio. Interim Secretary of War Thomas Rusk joined the camp, with orders from President David G. Burnet to replace Houston if he refused to fight. Houston quickly persuaded Rusk that his plans were sound. Secretary of State Samuel P. Carson advised Houston to continue retreating all the way to the Sabine River, where more volunteers would likely flock from the United States and allow the army to counterattack. Unhappy with everyone involved, Burnet wrote to Houston: "The enemy are laughing you to scorn. You must fight them. You must retreat no further. The country expects you to fight. The salvation of the country depends on your doing so. '' Complaints within the camp became so strong that Houston posted notices that anyone attempting to usurp his position would be court - martialed and shot.
Santa Anna and a smaller force had remained in Béxar. After receiving word that the acting president, Miguel Barragán, had died, Santa Anna seriously considered returning to Mexico City to solidify his position. Fear that Urrea 's victories would position him as a political rival convinced Santa Anna to remain in Texas to personally oversee the final phase of the campaign. He left on March 29 to join Ramírez y Sesma, leaving only a small force to hold Béxar. At dawn on April 7, their combined force marched into San Felipe and captured a Texian soldier, who informed Santa Anna that the Texians planned to retreat further if the Mexican army crossed the Brazos River. Unable to cross the Brazos due to the small company of Texians barricaded at the river crossing, on April 14 a frustrated Santa Anna led a force of about 700 troops to capture the interim Texas government. Government officials fled mere hours before Mexican troops arrived in Harrisburgh (now Harrisburg, Houston) and Santa Anna sent Colonel Juan Almonte with 50 cavalry to intercept them in New Washington. Almonte arrived just as Burnet shoved off in a rowboat, bound for Galveston Island. Although the boat was still within range of their weapons, Almonte ordered his men to hold their fire so as not to endanger Burnet 's family.
At this point, Santa Anna believed the rebellion was in its final death throes. The Texian government had been forced off the mainland, with no way to communicate with its army, which had shown no interest in fighting. He determined to block the Texian army 's retreat and put a decisive end to the war. Almonte 's scouts incorrectly reported that Houston 's army was going to Lynchburg Crossing, on Buffalo Bayou, in preparation for joining the government in Galveston, so Santa Anna ordered Harrisburg burned and pressed on towards Lynchburg.
The Texian army had resumed their march eastward. On April 16, they came to a crossroads; one road led north towards Nacogdoches, the other went to Harrisburg. Without orders from Houston and with no discussion amongst themselves, the troops in the lead took the road to Harrisburg. They arrived on April 18, not long after the Mexican army 's departure. That same day, Deaf Smith and Henry Karnes captured a Mexican courier carrying intelligence on the locations and future plans of all of the Mexican troops in Texas. Realizing that Santa Anna had only a small force and was not far away, Houston gave a rousing speech to his men, exhorting them to "Remember the Alamo '' and "Remember Goliad ''. His army then raced towards Lynchburg. Out of concern that his men might not differentiate between Mexican soldiers and the Tejanos in Seguín 's company, Houston originally ordered Seguín and his men to remain in Harrisburg to guard those who were too ill to travel quickly. After loud protests from Seguín and Antonio Menchaca, the order was rescinded, provided the Tejanos wear a piece of cardboard in their hats to identify them as Texian soldiers.
The area along Buffalo Bayou had many thick oak groves, separated by marshes. This type of terrain was familiar to the Texians and quite alien to the Mexican soldiers. Houston 's army, comprising 900 men, reached Lynch 's Ferry mid-morning on April 20; Santa Anna 's 700 - man force arrived a few hours later. The Texians made camp in a wooded area along the bank of Buffalo Bayou; while the location provided good cover and helped hide their full strength, it also left the Texians no room for retreat. Over the protests of several of his officers, Santa Anna chose to make camp in a vulnerable location, a plain near the San Jacinto River, bordered by woods on one side, marsh and lake on another. The two camps were approximately 500 yards (460 m) apart, separated by a grassy area with a slight rise in the middle. Colonel Pedro Delgado later wrote that "the camping ground of His Excellency 's selection was in all respects, against military rules. Any youngster would have done better. ''
Over the next several hours, two brief skirmishes occurred. Texians won the first, forcing a small group of dragoons and the Mexican artillery to withdraw. Mexican dragoons then forced the Texian cavalry to withdraw. In the melee, Rusk, on foot to reload his rifle, was almost captured by Mexican soldiers, but was rescued by newly arrived Texian volunteer Mirabeau B. Lamar. Over Houston 's objections, many infantrymen rushed onto the field. As the Texian cavalry fell back, Lamar remained behind to rescue another Texian who had been thrown from his horse; Mexican officers "reportedly applauded '' his bravery. Houston was irate that the infantry had disobeyed his orders and given Santa Anna a better estimate of their strength; the men were equally upset that Houston had not allowed a full battle.
Throughout the night, Mexican troops worked to fortify their camp, creating breastworks out of everything they could find, including saddles and brush. At 9 a.m. on April 21, Cos arrived with 540 reinforcements, bringing the Mexican force to approximately 1200 - 1500 men which outnumbered the Texian aggregate forces of approximately 800 men (official count entering battle was reported at 783). General Cos ' men were mostly raw recruits rather than experienced soldiers, and they had marched steadily for more than 24 hours, with no rest and no food. As the morning wore on with no Texian attack, Mexican officers lowered their guard. By afternoon, Santa Anna had given permission for Cos ' men to sleep; his own tired troops also took advantage of the time to rest, eat, and bathe.
Not long after Cos arrived with reinforcements, General Houston ordered Smith to destroy Vince 's Bridge (located about 8 miles from the Texian encampment) to block the only road out of the Brassos and, thereby, prevent any possibility of escape by Santa Anna. General Sam Houston described how he arrayed the Texian forces in preparation of battle: "Colonel Edward Burleson was assigned the center. The second regiment, under the command of Colonel Sydney Sherman, formed the left wing of the army. The artillery, under the special command of Col. Geo. W. Hackley, inspector general, was placed on the right of the first regiment, and four companies under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Henry Millard, sustained the artillery on the right, and our cavalry, sixty - one in number and commanded by Colonel Mirabeau B. LaMar... placed on our extreme right, composed our line. ''
The Texian cavalry was first dispatched to the Mexican forces ' far left and the artillery advanced through the tall grass to within 200 yards of the Mexican breastworks.. The Texian cannon fired at 4: 30, beginning the battle of San Jacinto. After a single volley, Texians broke ranks and swarmed over the Mexican breastworks to engage in hand - to - hand combat. Mexican soldiers were taken by surprise. Santa Anna, Castrillón, and Almonte yelled often conflicting orders, attempting to organize their men into some form of defense. The Texian infantry forces advanced without halt until they had possession of the woodland and the Mexican breastwork; the right wing of Burleson 's and the left wing of Millard 's forces took possession of the breastwork. Within 18 minutes, Mexican soldiers abandoned their campsite and fled for their lives. The killing lasted for hours.
Many Mexican soldiers retreated through the marsh to Peggy Lake. Texian riflemen stationed themselves on the banks and shot at anything that moved. Many Texian officers, including Houston and Rusk, attempted to stop the slaughter, but they were unable to gain control of the men. Texians continued to chant "Remember the Alamo! Remember Goliad! '' while frightened Mexican infantry yelled "Me no Alamo! '' and begged for mercy to no avail. In what historian Davis called "one of the most one - sided victories in history '', 650 Mexican soldiers were killed and 300 captured. Eleven Texians died, with 30 others, including Houston, wounded.
Although Santa Anna 's troops had been thoroughly vanquished, they did not represent the bulk of the Mexican army in Texas. An additional 4,000 troops remained under the commands of Urrea and General Vicente Filisola. Texians had won the battle due to mistakes made by Santa Anna, and Houston was well aware that his troops would have little hope of repeating their victory against Urrea or Filisola. As darkness fell, a large group of prisoners was led into camp. Houston initially mistook the group for Mexican reinforcements and reportedly shouted out that all was lost.
Santa Anna had escaped towards Vince 's Bridge. Finding the bridge destroyed, he hid in the marsh and was captured the following day. He was brought before Houston, who had been shot in the ankle and badly wounded. Texian soldiers gathered around, calling for the Mexican general 's immediate execution. Bargaining for his life, Santa Anna suggested that he order the remaining Mexican troops to stay away. In a letter to Filisola, who was now the senior Mexican official in Texas, Santa Anna wrote that "yesterday evening (we) had an unfortunate encounter '' and ordered his troops to retreat to Béxar and await further instructions.
Urrea urged Filisola to continue the campaign. He was confident that he could challenge the Texian troops. According to Hardin, "Santa Anna had presented Mexico with one military disaster; Filisola did not wish to risk another. '' Spring rains had ruined the ammunition and rendered the roads nearly impassable, with troops sinking to their knees in mud. The Mexican troops were soon out of food and began to fall ill from dysentery and other diseases. Their supply lines had broken down, leaving no hope of further reinforcements. Filisola later wrote that "Had the enemy met us under these cruel circumstances, on the only road that was left, no alternative remained but to die or surrender at discretion ''.
For several weeks after San Jacinto, Santa Anna continued to negotiate with Houston, Rusk, and then Burnet. Santa Anna suggested two treaties, a public version of promises made between the two countries, and a private version that included Santa Anna 's personal agreements. The Treaties of Velasco required that all Mexican troops withdraw south of the Rio Grande and that all private property be respected and restored. Prisoners of war would be released unharmed and Santa Anna would be given immediate passage to Veracruz. He secretly promised to persuade the Mexican Congress to acknowledge the Republic of Texas and to recognize the Rio Grande as the border between the two countries.
When Urrea began marching south in mid-May, many families from San Patricio who had supported the Mexican army went with him. When Texian troops arrived in early June, they found only 20 families remaining. The area around San Patricio and Refugio suffered a "noticeable depopulation '' in the Republic of Texas years. Although the treaty had specified that Urrea and Filisola would return any slaves their armies had sheltered, Urrea refused to comply. Many former slaves followed the army to Mexico, where they could be free. By late May, the Mexican troops had crossed the Nueces. Filisola fully expected that the defeat was temporary and that a second campaign would be launched to retake Texas.
When Mexican authorities received word of Santa Anna 's defeat at San Jacinto, flags across the country were lowered to half staff and draped in mourning. Denouncing any agreements signed by a prisoner, Mexican authorities refused to recognize the Republic of Texas. Filisola was derided for leading the retreat and quickly replaced by Urrea. Within months, Urrea gathered 6,000 troops in Matamoros, poised to reconquer Texas. His army was redirected to address continued federalist rebellions in other regions.
Most in Texas assumed the Mexican army would return quickly. So many American volunteers flocked to the Texian army in the months after the victory at San Jacinto that the Texian government was unable to maintain an accurate list of enlistments. Out of caution, Béxar remained under martial law throughout 1836. Rusk ordered that all Tejanos in the area between the Guadalupe and Nueces Rivers migrate either to east Texas or to Mexico. Some residents who refused to comply were forcibly removed. New Anglo settlers moved in and used threats and legal maneuvering to take over the land once owned by Tejanos. Over the next several years, hundreds of Tejano families resettled in Mexico.
For years, Mexican authorities used the reconquering of Texas as an excuse for implementing new taxes and making the army the budgetary priority of the impoverished nation. Only sporadic skirmishes resulted. Larger expeditions were postponed as military funding was consistently diverted to other rebellions, out of fear that those regions would ally with Texas and further fragment the country. The northern Mexican states, the focus of the Matamoros Expedition, briefly launched an independent Republic of the Rio Grande in 1839. The same year, the Mexican Congress considered a law to declare it treasonous to speak positively of Texas. In June 1843, leaders of the two nations declared an armistice.
On June 1, Santa Anna boarded a ship to travel back to Mexico. For the next two days, crowds of soldiers, many of whom had arrived that week from the United States, gathered to demand his execution. Lamar, by now promoted to Secretary of War, gave a speech insisting that "Mobs must not intimidate the government. We want no French Revolution in Texas! '', but on June 4 soldiers seized Santa Anna and put him under military arrest. Burnet called for elections to ratify the constitution and elect a Congress, the sixth set of leaders for Texas in a twelve - month period. Voters overwhelmingly chose Houston the first president, ratified the constitution drawn up by the Convention of 1836, and approved a resolution to request annexation to the United States. Houston issued an executive order sending Santa Anna to Washington, D.C., and from there he was soon sent home.
During his absence, Santa Anna had been deposed. Upon his arrival, the Mexican press wasted no time in attacking him for his cruelty towards those executed at Goliad. In May 1837, Santa Anna requested an inquiry into the event. The judge determined the inquiry was only for fact - finding and took no action; press attacks in both Mexico and the United States continued. Santa Anna was disgraced until the following year, when he became a hero of the Pastry War.
Although the Texian interim governments had vowed to eventually compensate citizens for goods that were impressed during the war efforts, for the most part livestock and horses were not returned. Veterans were guaranteed land bounties; in 1879, surviving Texian veterans who served more than three months from October 1, 1835, through January 1, 1837, were guaranteed an additional 1,280 acres (520 ha) in public lands. Over 1.3 million acres (559 thousand ha) of land were granted; some of this was in Greer County, which was later determined to be part of Oklahoma.
When Republic President Burnet unknowingly escaped death at New Washington, Almonte had found him by following courier Mike McCormick, whose widowed mother Peggy was the owner of the land on which the battle was subsequently fought. Although she sought financial restitution from the Republic of Texas for loss of livestock and other goods during the battle, McCormick died without recompense. Decades after her death, the state of Texas purchased part of her acreage for a commemoration site.
The San Jacinto Battleground State Historic Site was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1960. The site includes the 570 ft (170 m) San Jacinto Monument, which was erected by the Public Works Administration. Authorized April 21, 1936, and dedicated April 21, 1939, the monument cost $1.5 million (equivalent to $26.39 million in 2015). The site hosts a San Jacinto Day festival and battle re-enactment each year in April.
Both the Texas Navy and the United States Navy have commissioned ships named after the Battle of San Jacinto: the Texan schooner San Jacinto and three ships named USS San Jacinto. There has been one civilian passenger ship named SS San Jacinto.
When the veteran battleship USS Texas was decommissioned in 1948 and made into a museum ship, it was decided to give her a permanent new anchorage near the San Jacinto Monument, at San Jacinto State Park. Her arrival from Baltimore, where she was decommissioned, was timed for April 21, 1948 -- the anniversary of the Battle of San Jacinto.
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