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who sang i was kaiser bill's batman | I was Kaiser Bill 's Batman - wikipedia
"I Was Kaiser Bill 's Batman '' was a hit single in 1967 composed by British songwriters Roger Cook and Roger Greenaway. It was a novelty record, being performed mostly by whistling. The name Whistling Jack Smith, credited on the most commercially successful recording, was a play on the name of the baritone singer of the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s, Whispering Jack Smith.
The tune was written by Greenaway and Cook and was originally titled "Too Much Birdseed ''. It was recorded as a single for Deram Records by record producer Noel Walker, using studio musicians together with the Mike Sammes Singers. The whistling on the record was, according to most sources, by John O'Neill, a trumpeter and singer with the Mike Sammes Singers who was also known for his whistling skills, though other sources credit Noel Walker himself. The song is noted for its false ending, where after the song ends its last chorus, a male voice shouts "Oi '' (on the album version) and "Hey '' (on the single version); the tune starts up again with the repeated chorus, and soon fades out.
Credited to Whistling Jack Smith, the record rose up the UK singles chart. When it was featured on Top of the Pops, actor Coby Wells was used to mime the whistling, and later toured as the public face of Whistling Jack Smith. (Wells ' real name was Billy Moeller; he was born in 1946 and was a brother of Tommy Moeller, lead vocalist, guitarist, and pianist with Unit 4 + 2). The recording reached # 5 on the UK singles chart in 1967, staying in the chart for 12 weeks, and peaked at # 20 on the Billboard Hot 100 in the U.S. (The tune 's hit status in America may have been due to the popularity of another Batman).
Pat Boone did a whistling version of the song in 1967. A vocal version of the song, as "Ich war der Putzer vom Kaiser '', was recorded in German by Die Travellers, in the late 1960s. The German lyrics were credited to Fred Oldörp, a member of the group. The lyrics concern the batman, or Putzer ("cleaner '') of the Kaiser, who evades combat because of his position. It has been suggested that the words derive from a First World War marching song, but this is unconfirmed.
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where did don't tase me bro come from | University of Florida Taser incident - wikipedia
On September 17, 2007, U.S. Senator John Kerry addressed a Constitution Day forum at the University of Florida in Gainesville, which was organized by the ACCENT Speakers Bureau, an agency of the university 's student government. Andrew Meyer, a 21 - year - old fourth - year undergraduate mass communication student, had initially been allowed to ask a question after the close of the question period. He asked Kerry whether he was a member of Skull and Bones, as George W. Bush is, implying that Kerry did not contest Bush 's presidency because of their shared affiliation.
Meyer was forcibly pulled away from the microphone. He was immediately restrained and forcibly removed and was subsequently arrested by university police. During his arrest, Meyer struggled and screamed for help. While six officers held Meyer down, one of the officers drive - stunned him with a Taser following Meyer 's shouted plea to the police, "Do n't tase me, bro! ''
Several videos of the episode were posted on the Web, with one version reaching 7 million views on YouTube. The New Oxford American Dictionary listed tase or taze as one of the words of the year for 2007, popularized by the widespread use of the phrase "Do n't tase me, bro! '' Meyer registered the phrase as a trademark in September 2007.
Andrew William Meyer (born September 15, 1986) was, at the time of the incident, an undergraduate student majoring in television journalism at the University of Florida. Born in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, he attended Cypress Bay High School in Weston, Florida, where he worked at the school newspaper, The Circuit, and was a member of the National Honor Society. At the University of Florida, Meyer worked as a columnist for the college paper Independent Florida Alligator. Meyer has stated that he writes "mostly whimsical nonsense columns about nothing in particular, yet occasionally finds (himself) angry enough to rain down fire and brimstone on an unsuspecting politician or celebrity. ''
He received international publicity when videos were posted of police tasering him at the town hall forum featuring Senator Kerry. The Miami Herald stated that "Meyer 's grandmother, Lucy Meyer of Pembroke Pines, Florida, told The Miami Herald that he is a hardworking student with no prior run - ins with the law. '' She also said "He gets very, very overcome with passion for whatever he is feeling. Maybe the passion took over. ''
Today interviewed Meyer a month after the incident, once he had negotiated probation.
As of April 2011, Meyer attends the Florida International University College of Law. Meyer registered "Do n't tase me, bro '' as a trademark in September 2007 and uses the publicity to sell T - shirts on his website. Meyer wrote a book titled Do n't Tase Me Bro! Defending Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness, but he had not found a publisher as of April 2011.
According to reports, Meyer was in line for access to the microphone, when former Ambassador Dennis Jett, a University of Florida political science instructor and the forum 's moderator, announced that one more question would be taken from the microphone on the right as seen from the stage. Meyer grabbed a second microphone which had been shut off, and demanded he be allowed to ask a question, asking, "Why do n't you answer my questions? I have been waiting and listening to you speak in circles for the last two hours. '' He also stated, "These officers are going to arrest me, '' and "You will take my question because I have been listening to your crap for two hours. '' When an officer attempted to cut Meyer off and escort him out of the hall, Meyer broke away and continued to shout. Kerry then intervened and requested that Meyer be allowed to ask a question. Meyer was then brought back to the microphone with police officers on either side of him.
Meyer then handed his camera to the woman who was standing in front of him in line and requested that she record him. Kerry then finished answering a previous question, and Meyer was then recognized by Kerry to ask a question.
At this point, Meyer 's video began. Meyer spoke for approximately 1 minute and 20 seconds, beginning by citing the book Armed Madhouse and its author Greg Palast 's description of the 2004 U.S. presidential election and reports of election irregularities. According to The Washington Post, Meyer 's question turned into "an increasingly agitated three - parter. ''
Meyer questioned Kerry 's concession of the 2004 U.S. presidential election, Kerry 's support or lack of support of the efforts to impeach George W. Bush, and Kerry 's involvement in the Yale University secret society known as Skull and Bones. After Meyer used the term "blowjob '' (in reference to the impeachment of Bill Clinton) and while he was asking about Kerry 's involvement in Skull and Bones, Meyer 's microphone was cut off. Later, Steven Blank, ACCENT chairman, said, "We make it clear that any profanity and vulgarity by anyone asking questions will result in a cutting off of the mic. ''
After Meyer 's microphone was turned off, two University of Florida police officers attempted to take him away and arrest him. Steven Blank, ACCENT chairman, later said "They (the police) acted independently of ACCENT. '' Some members of the crowd began to cheer and applaud. Physical contact by the police occurred right after Meyer remarked, "Thank you for cutting my mic! '' Kerry responded to the police action, "That 's all right, let me answer his question '', but two police officers continued to hold Meyer and attempted to forcibly move him towards the exit. Meyer repeatedly asked why he was being arrested. He struggled for several seconds shouting, "Get off me! What are you doing? What is going on? '' while a third police officer kept a Taser aimed at him. Meyer managed to get back towards the stage and stated, "I want to stand and listen to the answers to my questions! '' A fourth officer joined in, and single - handedly managed to remove Meyer to the back of the auditorium while being escorted by the three other officers. Meyer was carried part of the way by officer King, holding Greg Palast 's book up in the air with his one free arm and shouting, "Why are you arresting me? Help! Help! '' Close to the exit, Meyer broke free for a short moment and then was wrestled to the ground. Two more officers joined in and Meyer was now held down by four officers on the body and two on the legs. The officers managed to handcuff only one hand.
As Meyer requested to be allowed to leave of his own accord, they informed him that he no longer had a say in the matter and threatened several times to taser him if he did not comply. Meyer asked again to leave, and yelled "Do n't tase me, bro! Do n't tase me! '' but was drive stunned (referred to in the police report as a "contact tase '') in the shoulder by an officer with a department - issued X-26 Taser when he failed to comply.
I managed to take control of Meyer 's right hand and restrain it into one side of my handcuffs. Due to Meyer 's erratic flailing, the inability to attain Meyer 's left arm from his resistance, and increased potential for injury with one cuff on, Sgt. King attempted to deploy a contact tase to no avail. He then instructed The officer to apply a contact tase to gain compliance in order to place Meyer 's left hand into the other cuff. The officer gave verbal commands and informed Meyer that he would be tased if he did not comply. Once The officer applied the tase, Wise assisted Meyer 's left arm to where I was able to apply the other cuff. Once he was restrained, he was escorted out of the Auditorium where I checked the fitting and applied the double - locked function on the cuffs.
Meyer continued screaming for help as the officers removed him from the room. During the altercation, Kerry urged everyone to calm down, joked that "Unfortunately, he (Andrew Meyer) is not available to come up here and swear me in as President '' and continued his response to Meyer 's question, which he referred to as "very important ''. Senator Kerry later released a statement saying that he was unaware that any Tasing had occurred until afterwards.
Police (in background): "Get down! ''
Senator Kerry: "Hey officers... could we... Hey folks... I think that if everybody just... ''
Police: "Do it now! ''
Senator Kerry: "... calms down this situation would calm down. (unintelligible)... I 'll answer his question. Unfortunately, he is not available to come up here and swear me in as President. ''
Andrew Meyer: "Why are they arresting me? Did someone do something here? Are they arresting? ''
Meyer was then escorted off the premises, remaining uncooperative with police during questioning. He was detained overnight in the Alachua County Jail. A large gathering of students protested outside the jail that evening.
After the incident, Meyer was arrested for inciting a riot and charged with resisting an officer and disturbing the peace and taken to Alachua County Jail. Meyer spent one night in the jail and was released the following morning. Police recommended charges of resisting arrest with violence, a felony, and disturbing the peace and interfering with school administrative functions, a misdemeanor.
Meyer 's attorney, Robert S. Griscti, stated he would seek to have the charges dismissed. Meyer later issued a public apology for his "failure to act calmly '', stating that he "stepped out of line ''. He initially insisted there was no reason for his arrest and demanded an apology from the Alachua County Police Department, although he sent written letters of apology to the University Police Department, as well as UF President Machen and the Gator Community. The state attorney agreed to drop prosecution of Meyer 's case in return for Meyer serving a voluntary 18 - month probation. If Meyer got into legal trouble during the probationary period, he was to be charged for the September 17 incident with resisting officers without violence and interfering with a school function. According to the University of Florida, Meyer also accepted sanctions from the University for violations of the Student Code of Conduct. The sanctions were not made public because of student privacy laws. He returned as a student in the spring semester of 2008.
CNN.com stated that student opinions on the University of Florida campus were evenly divided as to whether the officers acted properly. About 300 students marched to the steps of campus police headquarters the following day with another 100 marching to Emerson Alumni Hall. They chanted that police used excessive force and waved signs that read "Stop police brutality '', "Taze Pigs '', "Freedom of Speech not a Felony '', "Tasers Kill '', and Meyer 's words, "Do n't Tase me, bro. '' They demanded that Tasers be banned from campus, and that charges be filed against the police officers who restrained and tased Meyer. Four weeks after the incident the university sponsored a panel to discuss appropriate police practices. Fifteen people attended and one signed up to make comments.
Some critics of the actions of the police have suggested that it was not Meyer 's actions which led to his removal, but the content of his remarks. For example, writer Palast said, "When you bring up uncomfortable stuff, it 's going to create discomfort. Obviously, if he was speaking about baseball scores -- if he maybe had a different political viewpoint that was n't seen as combative or outside of what 's permissible -- then the cops ' backs would n't have been up. ''
The American Civil Liberties Union 's Florida chapter released a statement on September 18, 2007 expressing dismay over the incident.
Apart from the taser use issues, one must consider the free speech implications of the police officers ' actions ", said Howard Simon, ACLU of Florida Executive Director. "People have a reasonable expectation to ask questions in a public setting -- even if they are aggressive and some disagree with their position -- that is free speech plain and simple. Similarly -- Kerry had a reasonable expectation to be able to answer those questions. Neither of them was able to exercise their free speech rights due to the police action.
News articles about the incident have reported that Meyer had posted on his website numerous comedy videos. It has also been pointed out that Meyer made arrangements to have himself filmed and have speculated that the incident may have been a stunt by Meyer. The reported behavior of Meyer when no cameras were present is also cited as evidence that the incident was a prank. The police report claimed that "as (Meyer) was escorted down stairs with no cameras in sight, he remained quiet, but once the cameras made their way down stairs he started screaming and yelling again. '' Additionally, the report asserts that Meyer was "laughing and being lighthearted in the car, his demeanor completely changed once the cameras were not in sight. '' The police officers have claimed that during the ride, Meyer said: "I am not mad at you guys, you did n't do anything wrong, you were just trying to do your job. ''
John Levy, a graduate student at the university and a friend of Meyer 's since the second grade, has said that he spoke with Meyer shortly before Meyer entered the Kerry forum. He said that Meyer felt excited, had come up with several questions, and wanted to hear the senator 's responses. Levy also said that Meyer was "really upset that people are more concerned with the police attack and not with the dialogue he was trying to start with Kerry '' and that "What kind of message does that send? He wants to show students it 's okay to ask hard questions, and then he gets tased for doing it. '' In the 2008 film Free For All, filmmaker John Ennis and Greg Palast (the author of the book Meyer was holding during the event) strongly echo this sentiment. When "asked about speculation that Meyer staged the confrontation '', University spokesman Steve Orlando has stated that a member of the Office of Student Affairs told Orlando that Meyer brought a video camera to the forum and gave it to Clarissa Jessup, the young woman who was next in line to ask a question, with whom he was unacquainted, before he spoke. Henry Perlstein, a university senior who has known Meyer since high school, said, "My first impression was that (the video) was a home movie he made for his friends because it was so surreal. Then I heard the screams and he sounded genuinely afraid. '' Amos Eshel, a fellow UF student who has known Meyer since middle school and who attended his arraignment in September 2007, later told reporters that Meyer does "like to speak his mind '' but that Meyer is not the type of person who would attempt to start trouble.
On September 18, in Emerson Alumni Hall, University of Florida President, J. Bernard Machen held a press conference about the incident. He also issued a letter in which he stated that the University Police Chief Linda Stump had requested that the Florida Department of Law Enforcement (FDLE) investigate the arrest. President Machen stated that "We plan to assemble a panel of faculty and students to review our police protocols, our management practices and the FDLE report to come up with a series of recommendations for the university. '' The State Attorney 's Office will review the charges as well.
The Miami Herald has stated that, at the press conference, President Machen called the situation "regretful for us '' and announced that two officers involved in the incident had been placed on paid administrative leave pending the outcome of the probe. University spokesman Steve Orlando said Meyer was asked to leave the microphone after his allotted time was up. However, a transcript of the event shows that this is untrue; he was not told to leave at any point. The university president "would not say whether he thought the latest episode was a prank. ''
On October 24, 2007, the Florida Department of Law Enforcement released a report on its investigation of the incident. The report concluded that Meyer may have planned a ' disruption ' of the forum. It also cleared the police officers involved of any wrongdoing in subduing Meyer, saying that the officer 's actions were justified. University President Bernie Machen stated that "I have full confidence in the police department '' and that the two officers previously placed on paid administrative leave have been fully reinstated.
On the day following the incident, Kerry 's office issued a statement:
In 37 years of public appearances, through wars, protests and highly emotional events, I have never had a dialogue end this way. I believe I could have handled the situation without interruption, but I do not know what warnings or other exchanges transpired between the young man and the police prior to his barging to the front of the line and their intervention. I asked the police to allow me to answer the question and was in the process of responding when he was taken into custody. I was not aware that a taser was used until after I left the building. I hope that neither the student nor any of the police were injured. I regret enormously that a good healthy discussion was interrupted.
The most viewed video of the taser incident, shot by Kyle Mitchell of The Gainesville Sun, has more than 7 million views on YouTube as of January 2015, and the "Do n't tase me bro! '' line has become a catchphrase and Internet meme, spawning various parodies of the incident. The New Oxford American Dictionary listed "tase / taze '' as one of the words of the year for 2007, popularized by the widespread use of the phrase "Do n't tase me, bro! '' The Yale Book of Quotations designated Meyer 's exclamation as the most memorable quote of 2007. Time selected the video as one of YouTube 's 50 Best Videos in March 2010. In addition,
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importance of water and the methods of its storage and conservation | Water conservation - wikipedia
Water conservation includes all the policies, strategies and activities to sustainably manage the natural resource of fresh water, to protect the hydrosphere, and to meet the current and future human demand. Population, household size, and growth and affluence all affect how much water is used. Factors such as climate change have increased pressures on natural water resources especially in manufacturing and agricultural irrigation. Many US cities have already implemented policies aimed at water conservation, with much success.
The goals of water conservation efforts include:
The key activities that benefit water conservation (save water) are as follows:
One strategy in water conservation is rain water harvesting. Digging ponds, lakes, canals, expanding the water reservoir, and installing rain water catching ducts and filtration systems on homes are different methods of harvesting rain water. Harvested and filtered rain water could be used for toilets, home gardening, lawn irrigation, and small scale agriculture.
Another strategy in water conservation is protecting groundwater resources. When precipitation occurs, some infiltrates the soil and goes underground. Water in this saturation zone is called groundwater. Contamination of groundwater causes the groundwater water supply to not be able to be used as resource of fresh drinking water and the natural regeneration of contaminated groundwater can takes years to replenish. Some examples of potential sources of groundwater contamination include storage tanks, septic systems, uncontrolled hazardous waste, landfills, atmospheric contaminants, chemicals, and road salts. Contamination of groundwater decreases the replenishment of available freshwater so taking preventative measures by protecting groundwater resources from contamination is an important aspect of water conservation.
An additional strategy to water conservation is practicing sustainable methods of utilizing groundwater resources. Groundwater flows due to gravity and eventually discharges into streams. Excess pumping of groundwater leads to a decrease in groundwater levels and if continued it can exhaust the resource. Ground and surface waters are connected and overuse of groundwater can reduce and, in extreme examples, diminish the water supply of lakes, rivers, and streams. In coastal regions, over pumping groundwater can increase saltwater intrusion which results in the contamination of groundwater water supply. Sustainable use of groundwater is essential in water conservation.
A fundamental component to water conservation strategy is communication and education outreach of different water programs. Developing communication that educates science to land managers, policy makers, farmers, and the general public is another important strategy utilized in water conservation. Communication of the science of how water systems work is an important aspect when creating a management plan to conserve that system and is often used for ensuring the right management plan to be put into action.
Water conservation programs involved in social solutions are typically initiated at the local level, by either municipal water utilities or regional governments. Common strategies include public outreach campaigns, tiered water rates (charging progressively higher prices as water use increases), or restrictions on outdoor water use such as lawn watering and car washing. Cities in dry climates often require or encourage the installation of xeriscaping or natural landscaping in new homes to reduce outdoor water usage. Most urban outdoor water use in California is residential, illustrating a reason for outreach to households as well as businesses.
One fundamental conservation goal is universal metering. The prevalence of residential water metering varies significantly worldwide. Recent studies have estimated that water supplies are metered in less than 30 % of UK households, and about 61 % of urban Canadian homes (as of 2001). Although individual water meters have often been considered impractical in homes with private wells or in multifamily buildings, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency estimates that metering alone can reduce consumption by 20 to 40 percent. In addition to raising consumer awareness of their water use, metering is also an important way to identify and localize water leakage. Water metering would benefit society, in the long run, it is proven that water metering increases the efficiency of the entire water system, as well as help unnecessary expenses for individuals for years to come. One would be unable to waste water unless they are willing to pay the extra charges, this way the water department would be able to monitor water usage by the public, domestic and manufacturing services.
Some researchers have suggested that water conservation efforts should be primarily directed at farmers, in light of the fact that crop irrigation accounts for 70 % of the world 's fresh water use. The agricultural sector of most countries is important both economically and politically, and water subsidies are common. Conservation advocates have urged removal of all subsidies to force farmers to grow more water - efficient crops and adopt less wasteful irrigation techniques.
New technology poses a few new options for consumers, features such as full flush and half flush when using a toilet are trying to make a difference in water consumption and waste. Also available are modern shower heads that help reduce wasting water: Old shower heads are said to use 5 - 10 gallons per minute, while new fixtures available are said to use 2.5 gallons per minute and offer equal water coverage.
The Home Water Works website contains useful information on household water conservation. Contrary to the popular view that the most effective way to save water is to curtail water - using behavior (e.g., by taking shorter showers), experts suggest the most efficient way is replacing toilets and retrofitting washers; as demonstrated by two household end use logging studies in the U.S.
Water - saving technology for the home includes:
Many water - saving devices (such as low - flush toilets) that are useful in homes can also be useful for business water saving. Other water - saving technology for businesses includes:
For crop irrigation, optimal water efficiency means minimizing losses due to evaporation, runoff or subsurface drainage while maximizing production. An evaporation pan in combination with specific crop correction factors can be used to determine how much water is needed to satisfy plant requirements. Flood irrigation, the oldest and most common type, is often very uneven in distribution, as parts of a field may receive excess water in order to deliver sufficient quantities to other parts. Overhead irrigation, using center - pivot or lateral - moving sprinklers, has the potential for a much more equal and controlled distribution pattern. Drip irrigation is the most expensive and least - used type, but offers the ability to deliver water to plant roots with minimal losses. However, drip irrigation is increasingly affordable, especially for the home gardener and in light of rising water rates. Using drip irrigation methods can save up to 30,000 gallons of water per year when replacing irrigation systems that spray in all directions. There are also cheap effective methods similar to drip irrigation such as the use of soaking hoses that can even be submerged in the growing medium to eliminate evaporation.
As changing irrigation systems can be a costly undertaking, conservation efforts often concentrate on maximizing the efficiency of the existing system. This may include chiseling compacted soils, creating furrow dikes to prevent runoff, and using soil moisture and rainfall sensors to optimize irrigation schedules. Usually large gains in efficiency are possible through measurement and more effective management of the existing irrigation system. The 2011 UNEP Green Economy Report notes that "(i) mproved soil organic matter from the use of green manures, mulching, and recycling of crop residues and animal manure increases the water holding capacity of soils and their ability to absorb water during torrential rains '', which is a way to optimize the use of rainfall and irrigation during dry periods in the season.
Water shortage has become an increasingly difficult problem to manage. More than 40 % of the world 's population live in a region where the demand for water exceeds its supply. The imbalance between supply and demand, along with persisting issues such as climate change and exponential population growth, has made water reuse a necessary method for conserving water. There are a variety of methods used in the treatment of waste water to ensure that it is safe to use for irrigation of food crops and / or drinking water.
Seawater desalination requires more energy than the desalination of fresh water. Despite this, many seawater desalination plants have been built in response to water shortages around the world. This makes it necessary to evaluate the impacts of seawater desalination and to find ways to improve desalination technology. Current research involves the use of experiments to determine the most effective and least energy intensive methods of desalination.
Sand filtration is another method used to treat water. Recent studies show that sand filtration needs further improvements, but it is approaching optimization with its effectiveness at removing pathogens from water. Sand filtration is very effective at removing protozoa and bacteria, but struggles with removing viruses. Large - scale sand filtration facilities also require large surface areas to accommodate them.
The removal of pathogens from recycled water is of high priority because wastewater always contains pathogens capable of infecting humans. The levels of pathogenic viruses have to be reduced to a certain level in order for recycled water to not pose a threat to human populations. Further research is necessary to determine more accurate methods of assessing the level of pathogenic viruses in treated wastewater.
Wasting of water (also called "water waste '' in the U.S.) is the flip side of water conservation and, in household applications, it means causing or permitting discharge of water without any practical purpose. Inefficient water use is also considered wasteful. By EPA estimate, household leaks in the U.S. can waste approximately 900 billion gallons (3.4 billion cubic meters) of water annually nationwide. Generally, water management agencies are reluctant or unwilling to give a concrete definition to the somewhat fuzzy concept of water waste. However, definition of water waste is often given in local drought emergency ordinances. One example refers to any acts or omissions, whether willful or negligent, that are "causing or permitting water to leak, discharge, flow or run to waste into any gutter, sanitary sewer, watercourse or public or private storm drain, or to any adjacent property, from any tap, hose, faucet, pipe, sprinkler, pond, pool, waterway, fountain or nozzle. ''. In this example, the city code also clarifies that "in the case of washing, "discharge, '' "flow '' or "run to waste '' means that water in excess of that necessary to wash, wet or clean the dirty or dusty object, such as an automobile, sidewalk, or parking area, flows to waste. Water utilities (and other media sources) often provide listings of wasteful water - use practices and prohibitions of wasteful uses. Examples include utilities in San Antonio, Texas. Las Vegas, Nevada, California Water Service company in California, and City of San Diego, California. The City of Palo Alto in California enforces permanent water use restrictions on wasteful practices such as leaks, runoff, irrigating during and immediately after rainfall, and use of potable water when non-potable water is available. Similar restrictions are in effect in the State of Victoria, Australia. Temporary water use bans (also known as "hosepipe bans '') are used in England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.
Strictly speaking, water that is discharged into the sewer, or directly to the environment is not wasted or lost. It remains within the hydrologic cycle and returns to the land surface and surface water bodies as precipitation. However, in many cases, the source of the water is at a significant distance from the return point and may be in a different catchment. The separation between extraction point and return point can represent significant environmental degradation in the watercourse and riparian strip. What is "wasted '' is the community 's supply of water that was captured, stored, transported and treated to drinking quality standards. Efficient use of water saves the expense of water supply provision and leaves more fresh water in lakes, rivers and aquifers for other users and also for supporting ecosystems. A concept that is closely related to water wasting is "water - use efficiency. '' Water use is considered inefficient if the same purpose of its use can be accomplished with less water. Technical efficiency derives from engineering practice where it is typically used to describe the ratio of output to input and is useful in comparing various products and processes. For example, one showerhead would be considered more efficient than another if it could accomplish the same purpose (i.e., of showering) by using less water or other inputs (e.g., lower water pressure). However, the technical efficiency concept is not useful in making decisions of investing money (or resources) in water conservation measures unless the inputs and outputs are measured in value terms. This expression of efficiency is referred to as economic efficiency and is incorporated into the concept of water conservation.
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who's won more trophies united or liverpool | Liverpool F.C. -- Manchester United F.C. Rivalry - wikipedia
The Liverpool F.C. -- Manchester United F.C. rivalry, also known as the North West Derby, is a high - profile inter-city rivalry between English professional association football clubs Liverpool and Manchester United. It is considered to be one of the biggest rivalries in the association football world along with the Old Firm derby in Scotland, Superclásico in Argentina, El Clásico in Spain, and Derby della Madonnina in Italy, and is considered the most famous fixture in English football. Players, fans and the media alike often consider games between the two clubs to be their biggest rivalry, above even their own local derby competitions with Everton and Manchester City, respectively.
The rivalry has been fuelled by the proximity of the two major cities that they represent, their historic economic and industrial rivalry, significant periods of domestic footballing dominance and European success, and their popularity at home and abroad, as two of the biggest - earning and widely supported football clubs in the world.
The two clubs are the most successful English teams in both domestic and European competitions; and between them they have won 38 league titles, 8 European Cups, 4 UEFA Cups, 4 UEFA Super Cups, 19 FA Cups, 13 League Cups, 1 FIFA Club World Cup, 1 Intercontinental Cup and 36 FA Community Shields.
Each club can claim historical supremacy over the other: United for their 20 league titles to Liverpool 's 18 and Liverpool for being European champions five times to United 's three. Manchester United have won more total trophies than Liverpool, and they also lead the Merseysiders in so - called "major '' honours as well.
The cities of Liverpool and Manchester are located in the north west of England, 35 miles (56 km) apart. Since the industrial revolution there has been a consistent theme of rivalry between the two cities based around economic and industrial competition. Manchester through to the 18th century was the far more populous city, and held a position of significance and notability as representative of the north. By the late 18th century, Liverpool had grown as a major sea port -- critical to the growth and success of the northern cotton mills. Over the next century, Liverpool grew to supersede Manchester and throughout the late 19th and early 20th century was often described as the British Empire 's second city. The links between the two cities were strengthened with the construction of the Bridgewater Canal, the Mersey and Irwell Navigation and the Liverpool and Manchester Railway for the transport of raw materials inland.
The construction of the Manchester Ship Canal, funded by Manchester merchants, was opposed by Liverpool politicians and bred resentment between the two cities. Tension between working class Liverpool dockers and labourers in Manchester was heightened after its completion in 1894, just three months prior to the first meeting between Liverpool and Newton Heath in a play - off match that would see Newton Heath relegated to the Second Division.
Today, the crests of both the city of Manchester and Manchester United include stylised ships representing the Manchester Ship Canal and Manchester 's trade roots. The ship is also included on the crest of many other Mancunian institutions such as Manchester City Council and rivals Manchester City F.C.
Post-war shifts in economic ties, reliance on regional coal, and shifts in transatlantic trade patterns caused by the growth of Asian labour markets caused the gradual decline of British manufacturing. While the city of Liverpool suffered the loss of its primary source of income to southern port cities, Manchester maintained some of its manufacturing heritage. This reversal of fortunes happened against the backdrop of shifting political backgrounds and significant events in British culture and society in the second half of the 20th century.
The two cities continue to be strong regional rivals, vying for influence of surrounding areas. Their continued importance to the UK economy has been reflected with the awarding of the 2002 Commonwealth Games to Manchester, while Liverpool was awarded the title of 2008 European Capital of Culture as part of its ongoing regeneration.
More recent projects by Peel Ports have sought to re-establish the economic links between the Port of Liverpool and Port of Manchester, including re-developing trade links via the Manchester Ship Canal.
Manchester United F.C. was formed in Newton Heath in 1878 as Newton Heath LYR F.C., and played their first competitive match in October 1886, when they entered the First Round of the 1886 -- 87 FA Cup.
Liverpool F.C. was formed in 1892 following a disagreement between the board of Everton and club president John Houlding, who owned the club 's ground, Anfield. The disagreement between the two parties over rent resulted in Everton moving to Goodison Park from Anfield, and Houlding founded Liverpool F.C. to play in the vacated stadium.
Liverpool 's first season was in the Second Division in 1893. The team went undefeated all season, winning the title and being put up for election to the First Division, which would see them play a one - off test match against the bottom side of the First Division for their place. The team that Liverpool were to face was Newton Heath, whom they beat 2 -- 0 to take their place in the first tier.
Liverpool won their first Football League Championship trophy in 1901 and followed it up in 1906, the same season that saw the newly renamed Manchester United promoted to the top flight after finishing as Second Division runners - up behind Bristol City. Two seasons later, by which time Liverpool had fallen into mid-table, Manchester United secured their first league title, winning the 1907 -- 08 Football League by nine points from Aston Villa and Manchester City. They followed this up by winning the first ever FA Charity Shield match when they defeated Queens Park Rangers over two legs in 1908. The following season, they won the 1909 FA Cup Final, and followed this up with another league title and Charity Shield in 1911.
The outbreak of the First World War disrupted domestic football, and following the resumption of competitions in 1919 Liverpool asserted themselves on domestic football with a brace of league Championships while United found themselves in steep decline that saw them relegated in 1923. Between 1923 and the outbreak of the Second World War, neither team won any more competitive trophies outside of local regional trophies, with Manchester United spending three separate periods in the Second Division.
After the Second World War, Liverpool again became English champions in 1947 before the clubs ' roles reversed once more, with the Merseysiders dropping into the second tier as Manchester United found stability under the management of former Liverpool captain Matt Busby, winning the FA Cup in 1948 and then three league titles and Charity Shields apiece in the 1950s. During this time, future Liverpool manager Bill Shankly was approached by then Liverpool chairman Tom Williams and asked, "How would you like to manage the best club in the country? ''. "Why? '' Shankly replied. "Is Matt Busby packing it in? ''.
Following Liverpool 's promotion under Shankly in 1962, the two clubs found themselves in direct competition with each other for the first time, sharing four league titles between 1964 and 1967, as well as the 1965 FA Charity Shield. Following this, though, the two sides began to drift in opposite directions once more. United 's title victory of 1967 would be their last for 26 years, while Liverpool would enjoy nearly 20 years of sustained success, winning 11 league titles, 19 domestic cups and seven European trophies from 1972 to 1992. United 's main reprieves during this time came through cup competitions, such as their triumphs over the Merseysiders in the 1977 FA Cup Final and the 1979 FA Cup semi-final replay at Goodison Park. It was during this period, in the late 70s and early 80s, that the modern day rivalry between the two clubs truly began to get heated. According to football sociologist John Williams, United had developed a "glamour and media profile '' but did n't have the success to match it and Liverpool fans felt the Red Devils were "media darlings who got far too much publicity ''. There was a perception in Liverpool that their hugely successful but ' professional ' and ' workmanlike ' teams were always somehow in the shadow of the stars at Old Trafford. This led to a derisory United nickname in Liverpool; "The Glams ''.
Manchester United 's 26 - year spell without a league title has been mirrored by Liverpool since 1990, when the Reds clinched their last league title. Meanwhile, United 's dominance since 1990 has seen them win 13 league titles, 23 domestic cups and seven European trophies. Once again, cup glories such as the 2003 League Cup and 2006 FA Cup allowed Liverpool some retribution against their rivals. Despite their contrasting fortunes, though, only six times since 1972 have neither Liverpool nor United finished in the top two of the league table -- in 1980 -- 81, 2003 -- 04, 2004 -- 05, 2014 -- 15, 2015 -- 16 and 2016 - 17 -- and even during five of those six campaigns, another piece of silverware was still taken home by one of the two clubs; Liverpool paraded the European Cup and League Cup in 1981, while Manchester United lifted the FA Community Shield and FA Cup in the 2004 season and Liverpool claimed the Champions League in 2005. United brought home the FA Cup again in 2016 and they won a treble of trophies consisting of the Community Shield, League Cup and UEFA Europa League in 2016 - 17.
While Liverpool and Manchester United 's successes are almost identical in number, their systems of achieving these successes vary considerably. Liverpool built their dominance on a dynasty known as the Anfield Boot Room. The boot room itself was where strategy for future matches was planned, however, it became a breeding ground for future Liverpool managers following the arrival of Bill Shankly in 1959. The original members were Shankly himself, Bob Paisley, Joe Fagan and Reuben Bennett, although the likes of Kenny Dalglish joined later on.
Following Shankly 's retirement in 1974, having secured eight trophies in 15 years, Bob Paisley stepped into the vacant manager 's position and amassed 20 trophies in 9 seasons. Following his retirement, Joe Fagan took over and in the first of two seasons at the club, won a treble of trophies. Kenny Dalglish, while not an original member, was accepted into the group as the next in line for the role of manager, and he combined it with his playing duties to win Liverpool 10 trophies. The boot room connection was finally broken in 1991, 32 years after Shankly 's arrival, with the appointment of Graeme Souness, who actually demolished the boot room itself to make way for a press room. It did still manage to produce a final Liverpool manager in Roy Evans, who won the League Cup, but upon his resignation in 1998, the era was over.
In contrast, Manchester United have succeeded thanks to the services of three extraordinary men, all decades apart, without the need for continuity and sustained success beyond each man 's departure. Out of the 66 trophies that United have won, 56 have come thanks to the exploits of Ernest Mangnall, Sir Matt Busby and Sir Alex Ferguson. Mangnall was the first great manager of Manchester United, securing five trophies within a three - year time span of 1908 -- 11. Following his departure to local rivals Manchester City a year later, it would not be until Busby 's arrival 33 years later that the club would be on the trophy trail again.
Busby became United 's second most decorated manager of all time (ironically as an ex-Liverpool player and captain), winning 13 trophies at the club including the 1968 European Cup, which saw an English team secure European football 's top prize for the first time. After Busby 's retirement in 1969 though, Manchester United saw their fortunes slip and the club struggled to stay successful until Alex Ferguson 's arrival 17 years later, during which time United only won three FA Cups and two Charity Shields.
It was only under the Scot that United regained their glory days, winning 38 trophies during his 26 - year tenure to scale the pinnacles of both English and European football. However, since Ferguson 's retirement in 2013, the club has gone on the wane again, finishing in the top four of the league just once in four seasons, although there has been frequent success in cup competitions.
The rivalry has extended to the players as well: Wayne Rooney, a product of Liverpool 's city rivals Everton who played for United from 2004 to 2017, described how he grew up hating the Reds (Liverpool), while Liverpool 's Steven Gerrard took a film crew on tour of his home where he showed off a collection of football shirts he had swapped with opposing players as part of the after match routine; he pointed out that there were no Manchester United shirts in there and he would never have one of them in his house. Former Liverpool goalkeeper David James said: "I could never say I hated any United players just for being United players... But the rivalry became a habit, I suppose; on England trips Liverpool lads would eat at one table, United boys at another. There was tension there and we avoided one other ''. Liverpool defender Neil Ruddock once broke both of United forward Andy Cole 's legs in a reserve match, later saying that "I did n't meant to break both legs, I only meant to break one... I absolutely destroyed him... I know it 's not big and it 's not clever but it was great ''. Manchester United 's Gary Neville has been publicly vocal in the past with regards to his dislike of Liverpool. He notably drew the ire of Liverpool fans during the 2006 match at Old Trafford during which he celebrated Rio Ferdinand 's last - gasp winner by running to the stand where the away fans were seated while kissing the crest on his jersey and appearing to shout angrily towards them; he was fined and given a two - match ban by The Football Association but has stated on multiple occasions that he has never regretted his actions. Following a fixture in which John O'Shea scored a stoppage - time winner in front of the Kop in 2007, Neville described O'Shea's achievement as "a lifelong dream '' for himself. Previously in a Manchester derby during the 2003 -- 04 season, Neville was sent off after attempting to headbutt Manchester City 's ex-Liverpool midfielder Steve McManaman: as Paul Scholes commented, "It 's fair to say the pair of them never got on too well together ''. The animosity amongst players has also extended to the fans on a number of occasions, as in the case of Neville, who regularly became the subject of offensive chants from Liverpool supporters after the 2006 badge - kissing incident. In a retrospective special leading up to the January 2017 match up at Old Trafford, Neville and his fellow Monday Night Football pundit and retired Liverpool one - club man Jamie Carragher both acknowledged that it was actually not uncommon for both United and Liverpool players, particularly locally - born youth academy graduates such as Bury - born Neville and Merseyside natives Gerrard and Robbie Fowler, to celebrate in front of rival fans and that "you just got to take it in the chin ''.
In the 2011 -- 12 season, the rivalry was exacerbated by claims that, in the first League meeting of the season at Anfield, Liverpool striker Luis Suárez racially abused United 's Patrice Evra. After considering the evidence, an FA panel found that Suárez had referred to Evra using the term "negrito '' seven times (Suárez himself admitted to having done so once, but denied racism); he was banned for eight games. This included the FA Cup fourth round tie between the two clubs (again at Anfield), which Liverpool won. On 11 February 2012, however, United and Liverpool met again at Old Trafford, and Suárez played for Liverpool for the first time since his ban. Prior to kick - off, the two teams were expected to shake hands, but Suárez ignored Evra 's offered hand and moved onto the next United player in line, David de Gea. As a result, Rio Ferdinand and Danny Welbeck rejected Suárez 's handshake. United went on to win 2 -- 1 and Evra celebrated in front of the home supporters, with Suárez close by. Sir Alex Ferguson declared Suárez to be a "disgrace '' and suggested that he should not be allowed to play for Liverpool again. Kenny Dalglish vehemently denied having seen the missed handshake. The following day, Suárez, Dalglish and Liverpool all issued statements of apology for the handshake incident, which United accepted. The FA decided against any further action against either club or the players involved.
Since the 1964 transfer of Phil Chisnall from United to Liverpool, no player has been transferred directly between the two clubs. Some players, however, have played for both clubs, but having played elsewhere between each tenure, such as Paul Ince (playing for Internazionale in between) and Peter Beardsley (Vancouver Whitecaps and Newcastle United) and more recently Michael Owen (Real Madrid and Newcastle United), although Beardsley only played once for United, but went on to be a key player during his four years at Liverpool.
In 2007, there was a bid from Liverpool to sign Gabriel Heinze from United, but United refused to allow him to join their biggest rivals due to the ongoing feud. United claimed that it was agreed Heinze would only join a foreign club if he chose to leave. Heinze went public with his request to join Liverpool which was seen as the ultimate betrayal by the Manchester United fans. The Manchester United fans who once chanted "Argentina '' in honour of the player then turned their backs on him. Heinze was eventually sold to Real Madrid instead.
Both Manchester United and Liverpool are among the most popular football clubs (and sporting organisations) globally. Both are in the top 25 in Europe with Manchester United considered to have the largest following of all, as well as having one of the highest average home attendances in Europe and boasting a large travelling support. The club states that its worldwide fan base includes more than 200 officially recognised branches of the Manchester United Supporters Club (MUSC), in at least 24 countries. Liverpool states that its worldwide fan base also includes more than 200 officially recognised branches of the LFC Official Supporters Clubs in at least 50 countries. Notable groups include Spirit of Shankly and Reclaim The Kop.
The 2005 leveraged takeover of Manchester United by the Glazer family created a schism amongst Manchester fans, directly causing the creation of F.C. United of Manchester, and the "Love United Hate Glazer '' movement, and subsequently the Red Knights who attempted to buy the Glazers out the club. Two years later, Liverpool went through its own controversial takeover when Chairman David Moores sold the club to American businessmen George Gillett and Tom Hicks. Disagreements between Gillett and Hicks, and the lack of popular support from fans, resulted in the pair looking to sell the club. Martin Broughton was appointed chairman of the club on 16 April 2010 to oversee its sale. Court action finally forced the sale of the club to Fenway Sports Group.
With the rise of football hooliganism across English football during the 1970s and 1980s, matches between the two clubs brought some minor and major incidents of hooliganism. Since then, the modern game has seen a decrease in violence between the rival supporters and incidents are fairly uncommon. This is more likely due to an increase in Police presence and CCTV with huge steps taken to keep the fans separated. To this day, both sets of fans still hold a resentment toward each other. As well as physical violence, sections of the clubs ' fan bases often taunt each other with unsavoury chants about the Munich air disaster and the Hillsborough disaster respectively.
At the 1996 FA Cup Final, an unidentified Liverpool fan spat at Eric Cantona and threw a punch at Alex Ferguson as a victorious Manchester United team walked up the steps at Wembley Stadium to collect the trophy from the Royal Box.
The 2006 FA Cup match at Anfield featured foreign objects thrown at United fans by Liverpool supporters, including human excrement. Liverpool 's FA Cup semi-final game against Chelsea at Old Trafford later that year also resulted in damage to the stadium, including graffiti about serial killer Harold Shipman.
In March 2011, the Daily Mail reported that an FA Youth Cup game between the two clubs was marred because of "sick chants '' about Hillsborough and Heysel coming from the Manchester United fans at Anfield. The article also claims that six Manchester United fans were ejected from the stadium due to bad behaviour. Former Liverpool striker John Aldridge was at the game and told the Liverpool Echo that "the level of abuse was absolutely sickening ''.
In March 2016, before Liverpool 's first leg tie at Anfield against Manchester United, it was reported that a group of Liverpool fans hung a "Manc Bastards '' banner on the M62, as 2,300 Manchester United supporters made the trip to Anfield. It was confiscated by the police, shortly after. Liverpool won the match 2 -- 0.
Before the second leg tie at Old Trafford., Liverpool fans were greeted with a banner on the M62 motorway in Salford that said ' murderers ' and also had the Hillsborough Disaster date on it. UEFA took no disciplinary action against Manchester United. During the same game, there were reported crowd disturbances, coming from the Manchester United end. It was later reported that a Liverpool supporter sneaked a Liverpool banner in the United section, causing to aggravate United supporters in the stand. Liverpool supporters ripped seats, and supporters threw objects at each other, also fighting with United supporters. Liverpool were fined £ 43,577. by UEFA for setting off flares / crowd fireworks & ' illicit chants ', whilst Manchester United were fined £ 44,342 for illicit chants & the throwing of objects. Both clubs ' fines included £ 15,290 suspended for two years. Liverpool drew 1 -- 1, and progressed to the Europa League quarter - finals against Borussia Dortmund.
The first ever meeting between both clubs came in a Football League test match in 1894, a post-season series to determine who will receive First Division membership for 1894 -- 95. As Newton Heath finished bottom of the First Division at the end of 1893 -- 94, they had to play off against the champions of the Second Division, Liverpool. Liverpool won the tie 2 -- 0 at Ewood Park in Blackburn, earning them First Division membership and condemning Newton Heath to the Second Division.
In 1977, the two clubs met in a cup final for the first time, when they reached the final of the FA Cup. The two clubs took to the field at Wembley on 21 May, with Liverpool having just won the league title, knowing that winning this game would put them on course for a unique treble as they had the European Cup final to look forward to four days later. However, United ended Liverpool 's treble dreams with a 2 -- 1 win, with goals from Stuart Pearson and Jimmy Greenhoff, five minutes apart with a Jimmy Case goal for Liverpool in between.
Six years later, on 26 March 1983, the two sides met for the Football League Cup final. Goals from Alan Kennedy and Ronnie Whelan won the game 2 -- 1 for Liverpool, after Norman Whiteside had given United the lead. Liverpool collected the trophy for the third year in succession. It was the last of Liverpool manager Bob Paisley 's nine seasons in charge (during which Liverpool had dominated the English and European scene) before his retirement, and his players allowed him to climb the 39 steps to collect the trophy from the Royal Box.
On 4 April 1988, Liverpool were 11 points ahead at the top of the league and almost certain of winning the First Division title with barely a month of the league season remaining. United, in their first full season under the management of Alex Ferguson, were their nearest rivals. The two sides took to the field for a league encounter at Anfield and with the second half just minutes old the home side had a 3 -- 1 lead with goals from Peter Beardsley, Gary Gillespie and Steve McMahon, with United 's only goal coming from Bryan Robson. Robson then pulled a goal back for United, and with 12 minutes remaining fellow midfielder Gordon Strachan equalised to force a 3 -- 3 draw.
On 4 January 1994, in the second season of the new FA Premier League, United took a 3 -- 0 lead at Anfield in the opening 25 minutes with goals from Steve Bruce, Ryan Giggs and Denis Irwin. Liverpool managed to claw back to draw 3 -- 3 with two goals from Nigel Clough and another from Neil Ruddock. It was one of the last games in charge of Liverpool for manager Graeme Souness, who had resigned by the end of the month.
On 1 October 1995, United 's Eric Cantona made his comeback to the side after serving an eight - month suspension for attacking a spectator in a game against Crystal Palace. His comeback game was against Liverpool in the Premier League at Old Trafford. United took an early lead through Nicky Butt, only for Liverpool 's Robbie Fowler to score twice and give the visitors a 2 -- 1 lead. However, United were awarded a penalty in the 71st minute and Cantona converted it successfully, forcing a 2 -- 2 draw. At the end of the season, the two sides met again at Wembley for the FA Cup Final. The game stayed goalless until the 85th minute, when Liverpool conceded a corner, which David Beckham swung into the box to be cleared by David James, only for Eric Cantona to fire home United 's winner. In March 2003, the two clubs once again met in a cup final, this time in the League Cup, with Liverpool lifting the trophy after goals from Steven Gerrard and Michael Owen gave them a 2 -- 0 win.
On 14 March 2009, the two sides met at Old Trafford in the Premier League. United were ahead at the top of the league and Liverpool were looking to make a late run to the title which had eluded them since 1990. United went ahead in the 23rd minute with a Cristiano Ronaldo penalty, but Fernando Torres equalised five minutes later for Liverpool, and a Steven Gerrard penalty just before half - time put Liverpool in the lead. United had Nemanja Vidić sent off in the 76th minute, and their misery was swiftly compounded by late goals from Fábio Aurélio and finally Andrea Dossena, condemning them to a 4 -- 1 defeat, their heaviest at Old Trafford in any competition for 17 years. Despite the loss, Manchester United were crowned league champions for the third season in succession and equalled Liverpool 's 18 league titles, with Liverpool finishing four points behind in second.
The league fixture on 11 February 2012 was marked by controversy regarding Liverpool striker Luis Suárez refusal to shake hands with Patrice Evra, following an eight - match suspension for racially abusing Evra in the previous meeting between the sides. Following the 2 -- 1 victory for United after a brace from Wayne Rooney, Evra in turn controversially celebrated right in front of Suárez, and was swept aside by opposition players finding the gesture provocative.
The below table demonstrates the competitive results between the two sides (not indicative of titles won).
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who sang the song because i love you | I Love You Because (song) - wikipedia
"I Love You Because '' is a 1949 hit song written and originally recorded by Leon Payne. The song has been covered by several artists throughout the years, including hit cover versions by Al Martino in 1963 and Jim Reeves in 1964.
In 1949, Leon Payne 's original version of the song went to number four on the Billboard Country & Western Best Seller lists and spent two weeks at number one on the Country & Western Disk Jockey List, spending a total of thirty - two weeks on the chart. "I Love You Because '' was Payne 's only song to make the country charts.
"I Love You Because '' was first recorded by on July 4th and 5th, 1954 at SUN Studio. The session started on the 4th and ended early on the morning of the 5th in Memphis, Tenn., the same day he recorded "That 's All Right. '' Producer Sam Phillips did not think "I Love You Because '' was the right song for Elvis ' first single, so it eventually found its way to his first album released in 1956.
In 1963, Al Martino recorded the most successful version of the song peaking at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and number one on the Middle - Road (or Easy Listening) chart for two weeks in May that year.
In 1964, American country singer Jim Reeves recorded the song and took it to number five in the UK. In 1976, the song was the title track of a posthumous Jim Reeves album, which peaked at number 24 on the US Country LP chart. The 45 release reached number 54 in the US Country singles chart that year.
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can you finish on a jack in jack change it | Jack change it - wikipedia
Jack Change It is a simple card game popular among children. It is usually played by two to six players, although theoretically it can be played with up to ten. This game is a shedding - type card game whose purpose is to discard all of your cards before your opponents.
Using one or more decks of cards, seven cards are dealt to each player, and the remaining cards are placed between the players, with the top card turned face up beside the deck, often called the "pile ''. The object of the game is to play all your cards on the pile before your opponent (s), and the game ends when one player wins by playing all of their cards, although some games continue until there is only one player left.
The player to the left of the dealer plays first, choosing a card that matches either the suit or the rank of the card on the pile. If the player can not play a card on this turn, then they lift a card from the deck. When there are no more cards in the deck, the top pile card is removed and placed to the side, and the remaining cards are shuffled and placed face down, and the game resumes.
There are many variations on trick cards, often with different effects and "House Rules ''. Below are some of the more common rules, but some games can be played with less cards taking their effects, or more. Some games also may change a cards effect based on its suit, or what it was played on.
These rules can vary greatly, and should be agreed upon at the start of the game.
There are also differing rules on when a trick card can be played e.g. at any time, or only when it matches the suit or rank of the card on top of the pile.
A player can not start on any of the cards listed below, and a general rule is that a game can not end on a trick card. There are variations on this, e.g. in the case of a Queen, which can be used to finish when only two players are participating, and the 5 of Hearts, which can be used to finish in all games. Some also allow that if you have a pair you can play both at once. Again, these rules tend to change depending on the players, and should be agreed before the game begins.
This is regarded as the most powerful card available in the game. The player immediately on their left will have to pick up five cards from the deck. This can sometimes be blocked by a specific card, e.g. the 5 of Hearts or the Ace of Spades, in which case no cards are picked up. Some games also allow that a 2 of Hearts can be used to pass the effect to the next player, who then has to pick up seven cards.
When a 2 of any Suit is played, the next player in the order has to pick up two cards before they begin their turn. Some games allow that this can be "chained '' by the next player playing another 2, meaning the next player in the order must pick up four cards. This can continue indefinitely.
Games differ on whether a 2 can be used to chain another if it has been used to counter a 5 of Hearts. If this is allowed in a game with a standard deck, it can result in one player picking up a maximum of thirteen cards in one turn.
When an 8 of any Suit is played, the next player misses their turn; play passes to the next player. If player to the left has an 8, the 8 card has been parried and the game continues as normal with the player whom played the first 8 card.
Some games allow that 8s can carry over e.g. if a player places two 8s on the pile, and the next player places another 8 on the pile to block this, then the third player will miss three turns instead of one.
A Jack can be played on any suit of card. When a Jack is played, the player can choose the next suit of card to be played, usually by claiming "Jack change it to... '' This is where the game gets its name. A variation is that a Jack can only be played on a suit that it matches.
When a Queen of any Suit is played, the order of play is reversed. The player to the right will take the next turn, and play continues in this fashion until another Queen is played. In a two player game, the Queen 's effect if usually ignored as the play order can not be changed. A variation is that the Queen acts as another 8 card, causing the other player to miss a turn.
If a player plays a King of any Suit, they can say "King calling on... '' followed by a card rank. The next player must then play that card. If they ca n't play that card, they have to pick up a card from the pile. This continues until a player plays the card, or the turn moves to the person who played the King. No other card can be used to cancel out this, other than the card requested.
The number of starting cards can vary from the normal seven, usually still an odd number such as five or nine. Using five cards allows more players, while nine cards allows two or three players a longer game.
Players try to hold on to the trick cards until needed because if they are used early, the opponent can tell if the player has any trick cards to block any moves. This can be risky, however, as most versions of the rules state that the game can not end on a trick card.
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where does the tibia articulate with the femur | Tibia - wikipedia
The tibia / ˈtɪbiə / (plural tibiae / ˈtɪbii / or tibias), also known as the shinbone or shankbone, is the larger and stronger of the two bones in the leg below the knee in vertebrates (the other being the fibula), and it connects the knee with the ankle bones. The tibia is found on the medial side of the leg next to the fibula and closer to the median plane or centre - line. The tibia is connected to the fibula by the interosseous membrane of the leg, forming a type of fibrous joint called a syndesmosis with very little movement. The tibia is named for the flute tibia. It is the second largest bone in the human body next to the femur. The leg bones are the strongest long bones as they support the rest of the body.
In human anatomy, the tibia is the second largest bone next to the femur. As in other vertebrates the tibia is one of two bones in the lower leg, the other being the fibula, and is a component of the knee and ankle joints. The leg bones (femur, tibia and fibula) are the strongest long bones as they have to support the rest of the body.
The ossification or formation of the bone starts from three centers; one in the shaft and one in each extremity.
The tibia is categorized as a long bone and is as such composed of a diaphysis and two epiphyses. The diaphysis is the midsection of the tibia, also known as the shaft or body. While the epiphyses are the two rounded extremities of the bone; an upper (also known as superior or proximal) closest to the thigh and a lower (also known as inferior or distal) closest to the foot. The tibia is most contracted in the lower third and the distal extremity is smaller than the proximal.
The proximal or upper extremity of the tibia is expanded in the transverse plane with a medial and lateral condyle, which are both flattened in the horizontal plane. The medial condyle is the largest of the two and is better supported over the shaft. The upper surfaces of the condyles articulate with the femur to form the tibiofemoral joint, the weightbearing part of the kneejoint.
The medial and lateral condyle are separated by the intercondylar area, where the cruciate ligaments and the menisci attach. Here the medial and lateral intercondylar tubercle forms the intercondylar eminence. Together with the medial and lateral condyle the intercondylar region forms the tibial plateau, which both articulates with and is anchored to the lower extremity of the femur. The intercondylar eminence divides the intercondylar area into an anterior and posterior part. The anterolateral region of the anterior intercondylar area are perforated by numerous small openings for nutrient arteries. The articular surfaces of both condyles are concave, particularly centrally. The flatter outer margins are in contact with the menisci. The medial condyles superior surface is oval in form and extends laterally onto the side of medial intercondylar tubercle. The lateral condyles superior surface is more circular in form and its medial edge extends onto the side of the lateral intercondylar tubercle. The posterior surface of the medial condyle bears a horizontal groove for part of the attachment of the semimembranosus muscle, whereas the lateral condyle has a circular facet for articulation with the head of the fibula. Beneath the condyles is the tibial tuberosity which serves for attachment of the patellar ligament, a continuation of the quadriceps femoris muscle.
The superior articular surface presents two smooth articular facets.
The central portions of these facets articulate with the condyles of the femur, while their peripheral portions support the menisci of the knee joint, which here intervene between the two bones.
Between the articular facets in the intercondylar area, but nearer the posterior than the anterior aspect of the bone, is the intercondyloid eminence (spine of tibia), surmounted on either side by a prominent tubercle, on to the sides of which the articular facets are prolonged; in front of and behind the intercondyloid eminence are rough depressions for the attachment of the anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments and the menisci.
The anterior surfaces of the condyles are continuous with one another, forming a large somewhat flattened area; this area is triangular, broad above, and perforated by large vascular foramina; narrow below where it ends in a large oblong elevation, the tuberosity of the tibia, which gives attachment to the patellar ligament; a bursa intervenes between the deep surface of the ligament and the part of the bone immediately above the tuberosity.
Posteriorly, the condyles are separated from each other by a shallow depression, the posterior intercondyloid fossa, which gives attachment to part of the posterior cruciate ligament of the knee - joint. The medial condyle presents posteriorly a deep transverse groove, for the insertion of the tendon of the semimembranosus.
Its medial surface is convex, rough, and prominent; it gives attachment to the medial collateral ligament.
The lateral condyle presents posteriorly a flat articular facet, nearly circular in form, directed downward, backward, and lateralward, for articulation with the head of the fibula. Its lateral surface is convex, rough, and prominent in front: on it is an eminence, situated on a level with the upper border of the tuberosity and at the junction of its anterior and lateral surfaces, for the attachment of the iliotibial band. Just below this a part of the extensor digitorum longus takes origin and a slip from the tendon of the biceps femoris is inserted.
The shaft or body of the tibia is triangular in cross-section and forms three borders: An anterior, medial and lateral or interosseous border. These three borders form three surfaces; the medial, lateral and posterior. The forward flat part of the tibia is called the fibia, often confused with the fibula.
The anterior crest or border, the most prominent of the three, commences above at the tuberosity, and ends below at the anterior margin of the medial malleolus. It is sinuous and prominent in the upper two - thirds of its extent, but smooth and rounded below; it gives attachment to the deep fascia of the leg.
The medial border is smooth and rounded above and below, but more prominent in the center; it begins at the back part of the medial condyle, and ends at the posterior border of the medial malleolus; its upper part gives attachment to the tibial collateral ligament of the knee - joint to the extent of about 5 cm., and insertion to some fibers of the popliteus muscle; from its middle third some fibers of the soleus and flexor digitorum longus muscles take origin.
The interosseous crest or lateral border is thin and prominent, especially its central part, and gives attachment to the interosseous membrane; it commences above in front of the fibular articular facet, and bifurcates below, to form the boundaries of a triangular rough surface, for the attachment of the interosseous ligament connecting the tibia and fibula.
The medial surface is smooth, convex, and broader above than below; its upper third, directed forward and medialward, is covered by the aponeurosis derived from the tendon of the sartorius, and by the tendons of the Gracilis and Semitendinosus, all of which are inserted nearly as far forward as the anterior crest; in the rest of its extent it is subcutaneous.
The lateral surface is narrower than the medial; its upper two - thirds present a shallow groove for the origin of the Tibialis anterior; its lower third is smooth, convex, curves gradually forward to the anterior aspect of the bone, and is covered by the tendons of the Tibialis anterior, Extensor hallucis longus, and Extensor digitorum longus, arranged in this order from the medial side.
The posterior surface presents, at its upper part, a prominent ridge, the popliteal line, which extends obliquely downward from the back part of the articular facet for the fibula to the medial border, at the junction of its upper and middle thirds; it marks the lower limit of the insertion of the Popliteus, serves for the attachment of the fascia covering this muscle, and gives origin to part of the Soleus, Flexor digitorum longus, and Tibialis posterior. The triangular area, above this line, gives insertion to the Popliteus. The middle third of the posterior surface is divided by a vertical ridge into two parts; the ridge begins at the popliteal line and is well - marked above, but indistinct below; the medial and broader portion gives origin to the Flexor digitorum longus, the lateral and narrower to part of the Tibialis posterior. The remaining part of the posterior surface is smooth and covered by the Tibialis posterior, Flexor digitorum longus, and Flexor hallucis longus. Immediately below the popliteal line is the nutrient foramen, which is large and directed obliquely downward.
The lower extremity of the tibia is much smaller than the upper extremity and presents five surfaces; it is prolonged downward on its medial side as a strong pyramidal process, the medial malleolus. The lower extremity of the tibia together with the fibula and talus forms the ankle joint.
The inferior articular surface is quadrilateral, and smooth for articulation with the talus. It is concave from before backward, broader in front than behind, and traversed from before backward by a slight elevation, separating two depressions. It is continuous with that on the medial malleolus.
The anterior surface of the lower extremity is smooth and rounded above, and covered by the tendons of the Extensor muscles; its lower margin presents a rough transverse depression for the attachment of the articular capsule of the ankle - joint.
The posterior surface is traversed by a shallow groove directed obliquely downward and medialward, continuous with a similar groove on the posterior surface of the talus and serving for the passage of the tendon of the Flexor hallucis longus.
The lateral surface presents a triangular rough depression for the attachment of the inferior interosseous ligament connecting it with the fibula; the lower part of this depression is smooth, covered with cartilage in the fresh state, and articulates with the fibula. The surface is bounded by two prominent borders (the anterior and posterior colliculi), continuous above with the interosseous crest; they afford attachment to the anterior and posterior ligaments of the lateral malleolus.
The medial surface -- see medial malleolus for details.
Ankle fractures of the tibia have several classification systems based on location or mechanism:
The tibia is supplied with blood from two sources: A nutrient artery, as the main source, and periosteal vessels derived from the anterior tibial artery.
The tibia is a part of four joints; the knee, ankle, superior and inferior tibiofibular joint.
In the knee the tibia forms one of the two articulations with the femur, often referred to as the tibiofemoral components of the knee joint. This is the weightbearing part of the knee joint. The tibiofibular joints are the articulations between the tibia and fibula which allows very little movement. The proximal tibiofibular joint is a small plane joint. The joint is formed between the undersurface of the lateral tibial condyle and the head of fibula. The joint capsule is reinforced by anterior and posterior ligament of the head of the fibula. The distal tibiofibular joint (tibiofibular syndesmosis) is formed by the rough, convex surface of the medial side of the distal end of the fibula, and a rough concave surface on the lateral side of the tibia. The part of the ankle joint known as the talocrural joint, is a synovial hinge joint that connects the distal ends of the tibia and fibula in the lower limb with the proximal end of the talus. The articulation between the tibia and the talus bears more weight than between the smaller fibula and the talus.
The tibia is ossified from three centers; a primary center for the diaphysis (shaft) and a secondary center for each epiphysis (extremity). Ossification begins in the center of the body, about the seventh week of fetal life, and gradually extends toward the extremities.
The center for the upper epiphysis appears before or shortly after birth at close to 34 weeks gestation; it is flattened in form, and has a thin tongue - shaped process in front, which forms the tuberosity; that for the lower epiphysis appears in the second year.
The lower epiphysis fuses with the tibial shaft at about the eighteenth, and the upper one fuses about the twentieth year.
Two additional centers occasionally exist, one for the tongue - shaped process of the upper epiphysis, which forms the tuberosity, and one for the medial malleolus.
The tibia has been modeled as taking an axial force during walking that is up to 4.7 bodyweight. Its bending moment in the sagittal plane in the late stance phase is up to 71.6 bodyweight times millimetre.
Fractures of the tibia can be divided into those that only involve the tibia; bumper fracture, Segond fracture, Gosselin fracture, toddler 's fracture, and those including both the tibia and fibula; trimalleolar fracture, bimalleolar fracture, Pott 's fracture.
In Judaism, the tibia, or shankbone, of a goat is used in the Passover Seder plate.
The structure of the tibia in most other tetrapods is essentially similar to that in humans. The tuberosity of the tibia, a crest to which the patellar ligament attaches in mammals, is instead the point for the tendon of the quadriceps muscle in reptiles, birds, and amphibians, which have no patella.
Shape of right tibia
Longitudinal section of tibia showing interior
Right knee - joint. Anterior view.
Right knee joint from the front, showing interior ligaments
Left knee joint from behind, showing interior ligaments
Left talocrural joint
Coronal section through right talocrural and talocalcaneal joints
Dorsum of Foot. Ankle joint. Deep dissection
Dorsum of Foot. Ankle joint. Deep dissection
Ankle joint. Deep dissection. Anterior view
Bones of the right leg. Anterior surface
Bones of the right leg. Posterior surface
Dorsum of Foot. Ankle joint. Deep dissection.
Ankle joint. Deep dissection.
Ankle joint. Deep dissection.
Ankle joint. Deep dissection.
Ankle joint. Deep dissection.
This article incorporates text in the public domain from the 20th edition of Gray 's Anatomy (1918)
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cities in oklahoma that start with a g | List of towns in Oklahoma - wikipedia
List of towns in Oklahoma, arranged in alphabetical order. Towns, in Oklahoma, are all those incorporated communities which have less than 1000 in population. (1)
Muldrow
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who was involved in the battle of dunkirk | Battle of Dunkirk - wikipedia
German tactical victory
United Kingdom
France
1939
1940
1942 -- 1943
1944 -- 1945
Strategic campaigns
The Battle of Dunkirk was a military operation that took place in Dunkirk (Dunkerque), France, during the Second World War. The battle was fought between the Allies and Nazi Germany. As part of the Battle of France on the Western Front, the Battle of Dunkirk was the defence and evacuation to Britain of British and other Allied forces in Europe from 26 May to 4 June 1940.
After the Phoney War, the Battle of France began in earnest on 10 May 1940. To the east, the German Army Group B invaded the Netherlands and advanced westward. In response, the Supreme Allied Commander -- French General Maurice Gamelin -- initiated "Plan D '' and entered Belgium to engage the Germans in the Netherlands. The plan relied heavily on the Maginot Line fortifications along the German -- French border, but German forces had already crossed through most of the Netherlands before the French forces arrived. Gamelin instead committed the forces under his command, three mechanised armies, the French First and Seventh Armies and the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), to the River Dyle. On 14 May, German Army Group A burst through the Ardennes and advanced rapidly to the west toward Sedan, then turned northward to the English Channel, using Generalfeldmarschall Erich von Manstein 's plan Sichelschnitt under the German strategy Fall Gelb, effectively flanking the Allied forces.
A series of Allied counter-attacks -- including the Battle of Arras -- failed to sever the German spearhead, which reached the coast on 20 May, separating the BEF near Armentières, the French First Army, and the Belgian Army further to the north from the majority of French troops south of the German penetration. After reaching the Channel, the German forces swung north along the coast, threatening to capture the ports and trap the British and French before they could evacuate to Britain.
In one of the most debated decisions of the war, the Germans halted their advance on Dunkirk. Contrary to popular belief, what became known as the "Halt Order '' did not originate with Adolf Hitler. Generalobersten (Colonel - Generals) Gerd von Rundstedt and Günther von Kluge suggested that the German forces around the Dunkirk pocket should cease their advance on the port and consolidate to avoid an Allied breakout. Hitler sanctioned the order on 24 May with the support of the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW). The army was to halt for three days, which gave the Allies sufficient time to organise the Dunkirk evacuation and build a defensive line. Despite the Allies ' gloomy estimates of the situation, with some in Britain even discussing a conditional surrender to Germany, in the end more than 330,000 Allied troops were rescued.
On 10 May 1940, Winston Churchill became Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. By 26 May, the BEF and the French 1st Army were bottled up in a corridor to the sea, about 60 mi (97 km) deep and 15 -- 25 mi (24 -- 40 km) wide. Most of the British forces were still around Lille, over 40 mi (64 km) from Dunkirk, with the French further south. Two massive German armies flanked them. General Fedor von Bock 's Army Group B was to the east, and General Gerd von Rundstedt 's Army Group A to the west. Both officers were later promoted to field marshal.
During the following days... it became known that Hitler 's decision was mainly influenced by Goering. To the dictator the rapid movement of the Army, whose risks and prospects of success he did not understand because of his lack of military schooling, became almost sinister. He was constantly oppressed by a feeling of anxiety that a reversal loomed...
The day 's entry concludes with the remark: "The task of Army Group A can be considered to have been completed in the main '' -- a view which further explains Rundstedt 's reluctance to employ his armoured divisions in the final clearing - up stage of this first phase of the campaign.
"Brauchitsch is angry... The pocket would have been closed at the coast if only our armour had not been held back. The bad weather has grounded the Luftwaffe and we must now stand and watch countless thousands of the enemy get away to England right under our noses. ''
On 24 May, Hitler visited General von Rundstedt 's headquarters at Charleville. The terrain around Dunkirk was thought unsuitable for armour. Von Rundstedt advised him the infantry should attack the British forces at Arras, where the British had proved capable of significant action, while Kleist 's armour held the line west and south of Dunkirk to pounce on the Allied forces retreating before Army Group B. Hitler, who was familiar with Flanders ' marshes from the First World War, agreed. This order allowed the Germans to consolidate their gains and prepare for a southward advance against the remaining French forces.
Luftwaffe commander Hermann Göring asked for the chance to destroy the forces in Dunkirk. The Allied forces ' destruction was thus initially assigned to the air force while the German infantry organised in Army Group B. Von Rundstedt later called this "one of the great turning points of the war. ''
The true reason for the decision to halt the German armour on 24 May is still debated. One theory is that Von Rundstedt and Hitler agreed to conserve the armour for Fall Rot, an operation to the south. It is possible that the Luftwaffe 's closer ties than the army 's to the Nazi Party contributed to Hitler 's approval of Göring 's request. Another theory -- which few historians have given credence -- is that Hitler was still trying to establish diplomatic peace with Britain before Operation Barbarossa (the invasion of the Soviet Union). Although von Rundstedt after the war stated his suspicions that Hitler wanted "to help the British '', based on alleged praise of the British Empire during a visit to his headquarters, little evidence that Hitler wanted to let the Allies escape exists apart from a self - exculpatory statement by Hitler himself in 1945. The historian Brian Bond wrote:
Few historians now accept the view that Hitler 's behaviour was influenced by the desire to let the British off lightly in (the) hope that they would then accept a compromise peace. True, in his political testament dated 26 February 1945 Hitler lamented that Churchill was "quite unable to appreciate the sporting spirit '' in which he had refrained from annihilating (the) British Expeditionary Force, at Dunkirk, but this hardly squares with the contemporary record. Directive No. 13, issued by the Supreme Headquarters on 24 May called specifically for the annihilation of the French, English and Belgian forces in the pocket, while the Luftwaffe was ordered to prevent the escape of the English forces across the channel.
Whatever the reasons for Hitler 's decision, the Germans confidently believed the Allied troops were doomed. American journalist William Shirer reported on 25 May, "German military circles here tonight put it flatly. They said the fate of the great Allied army bottled up in Flanders is sealed. '' BEF commander Lord Gort agreed, writing to Anthony Eden, "I must not conceal from you that a great part of the BEF and its equipment will inevitably be lost in the best of circumstances ''.
Hitler did not rescind the Halt Order until the evening of 26 May. The three days thus gained gave a vital breathing space to the Royal Navy to arrange the evacuation of the British and Allied troops. About 338,000 men were rescued in about 11 days. Of these some 215,000 were British and 123,000 were French, of whom 102,250 escaped in British ships.
On 26 May, Anthony Eden told General Lord Gort, Commander - in - Chief (C - in - C) of the BEF, that he might need to "fight back to the west '', and ordered him to prepare plans for the evacuation, but without telling the French or the Belgians. Gort had foreseen the order and preliminary plans were already in hand. The first such plan, for a defence along the Lys Canal, could not be carried out because of German advances on 26 May, with the 2nd and 50th Divisions pinned down, and the 1st, 5th and 48th Divisions under heavy attack. The 2nd Division took heavy casualties trying to keep a corridor open, being reduced to brigade strength, but they succeeded; the 1st, 3rd, 4th and 42nd Divisions escaped along the corridor that day, as did about one - third of the French First Army. As the Allies fell back, they disabled their artillery and vehicles and destroyed their stores.
On 27 May, the British fought back to the Dunkirk perimeter line. The Le Paradis massacre took place that day, when the 3rd SS Division Totenkopf machine - gunned 97 British and French prisoners near the La Bassée Canal. The British prisoners were from the 2nd Battalion, Royal Norfolk Regiment, part of the 4th Brigade of the 2nd Division. The SS men lined them up against the wall of a barn and shot them all; only two survived. Meanwhile, the Luftwaffe dropped bombs and leaflets on the Allied armies. The leaflets showed a map of the situation. They read, in English and French: "British soldiers! Look at the map: it gives your true situation! Your troops are entirely surrounded -- stop fighting! Put down your arms! '' To the land and air - minded Germans, the sea seemed an impassable barrier, so they believed the Allies were surrounded; but the British saw the sea as a route to safety.
Besides the Luftwaffe 's bombs, German heavy artillery (which had just come within range) also fired high - explosive shells into Dunkirk. By this time, over 1,000 civilians in the town had been killed. This bombardment continued until the evacuation was over.
Gort had sent Lieutenant General Ronald Adam, commanding III Corps, ahead to build the defensive perimeter around Dunkirk. Lieutenant General Alan Brooke, commanding II Corps, was to conduct a holding action with the 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 50th Divisions along the Ypres - Comines canal as far as Yser, while the rest of the BEF fell back. The battle of Wytschaete, over the border in Belgium, was the toughest action Brooke faced in this role.
On 26 May, the Germans made a reconnaissance in force against the British position. At mid-day on 27 May, they launched a full - scale attack with three divisions south of Ypres. A confused battle followed, where visibility was low because of forested or urban terrain, and communications were poor because the British at that time used no radios below battalion level and the telephone wires had been cut. The Germans used infiltration tactics to get among the British, who were beaten back.
The heaviest fighting was in the 5th Division 's sector. Still on 27 May, Brooke ordered the 3rd Division commander, Major - General Bernard Montgomery, to extend his division 's line to the left, thereby freeing the 10th and 11th Brigades, both of the 4th Division, to join the 5th Division at Messines Ridge. The 10th Brigade arrived first, to find the enemy had advanced so far they were closing on the British field artillery. Between them, the 10th and 11th Brigades cleared the ridge of Germans, and by 28 May they were securely dug in east of Wytschaete.
That day, Brooke ordered a counterattack. This was to be spearheaded by two battalions, the 3rd Grenadier Guards and 2nd North Staffordshire Regiment, both of Major - General Harold Alexander 's 1st Division. The North Staffords advanced as far as the Kortekeer River, while the Grenadiers reached the canal itself, but could not hold it. The counterattack disrupted the Germans, holding them back a little longer while the BEF retreated.
The route back from Brooke 's position to Dunkirk passed through the town of Poperinge (known to most British sources as "Poperinghe ''), where there was a bottleneck at a bridge over the Yser canal. Most of the main roads in the area converged on that bridge. On 27 May, the Luftwaffe bombed the resulting traffic jam thoroughly for two hours, destroying or immobilising about 80 percent of the vehicles. Another Luftwaffe raid, on the night of 28 -- 29 May, was illuminated by flares as well as the light from burning vehicles. The British 44th Division in particular had to abandon many guns and lorries, losing almost all of them between Poperinge and the Mont.
The German 6. Panzerdivision could probably have destroyed the 44th Division at Poperinge on 29 May, thereby cutting off the 3rd and 50th Divisions as well. The historian and author Julian Thompson calls it "astonishing '' that they did not, but they were distracted, investing the nearby town of Cassel.
Gort had ordered Lieutenant General Adam, commanding III Corps, and French General Fagalde to prepare a perimeter defence of Dunkirk. The perimeter was semicircular, with French troops manning the western sector and British troops the eastern. It ran along the Belgian coastline from Nieuport in the east via Furnes, Bulskamp and Bergues to Gravelines in the west. The line was made as strong as possible under the circumstances, but on 28 May the Belgian army, who were largely outnumbered by the attacking Germans, and still under the direct command of King Leopold, who had refused to abandon his troops and the Belgian refugees inside the little enclave of what remained of unoccupied Belgium, surrendered. This left a 20 mi (32 km) gap in Gort 's eastern flank between the British and the sea. The British were surprised by the Belgian capitulation, despite King Leopold warning them in advance. As a constitutional monarch, Leopold 's decision to surrender without consulting the Belgian government led to his condemnation by the Belgian and French Prime Ministers, Hubert Pierlot and Paul Reynaud.
King George VI sent Gort a telegram that read:
"All your countrymen have been following with pride and admiration the courageous resistance of the British Expeditionary Force during the continuing fighting of the last fortnight. Faced by circumstances outside their control in a position of extreme difficulty, they are displaying a gallantry which has never been surpassed in the annals of the British Army. The hearts of everyone of us at home are with you and your magnificent troops in this hour of peril. ''
Gort sent the battle - worn 3rd, 4th and 50th Divisions into the line to fill the space the Belgians had held.
While they were still moving into position, they ran headlong into the German 256th Division, who were trying to outflank Gort. Armoured cars of the 12th Lancers stopped the Germans at Nieuport itself. A confused battle raged all along the perimeter throughout 28 May. Command and control on the British side disintegrated, and the perimeter was driven slowly inwards toward Dunkirk.
Meanwhile, Erwin Rommel had surrounded five divisions of the French First Army near Lille. Although completely cut off and heavily outnumbered, the French fought on for four days under General Molinié in the Siege of Lille (1940), thereby keeping seven German divisions from the assault on Dunkirk and saving an estimated 100,000 Allied troops. In recognition of the garrison 's stubborn defence, German general Kurt Waeger granted them the honours of war, saluting the French troops as they marched past in parade formation with rifles shouldered.
The defence of the Dunkirk perimeter held throughout 29 -- 30 May, with the Allies falling back by degrees. On 31 May, the Germans nearly broke through at Nieuport. The situation grew so desperate that two British battalion commanders manned a Bren gun, with one colonel firing and the other loading. A few hours later, the 2nd Battalion, Coldstream Guards of the 3rd Division, rushed to reinforce the line near Furnes, where the British troops had been routed. The Guards restored order by shooting some of the fleeing troops and turning others around at bayonet point. The British troops returned to the line and the German assault was beaten back.
In the afternoon, the Germans breached the perimeter near the canal at Bulskamp but the boggy ground on the far side of the canal and sporadic fire from the Durham Light Infantry, halted them. As night fell, the Germans massed for another attack at Nieuport. Eighteen RAF bombers found the Germans while they were still assembling and scattered them with an accurate bombing run.
Also on 31 May, General Von Kuechler assumed command of all the German forces at Dunkirk. His plan was simple: launch an all - out attack across the whole front at 11: 00 on 1 June. Strangely, Von Kuechler ignored a radio intercept telling him the British were abandoning the eastern end of the line to fall back to Dunkirk itself.
The morning of 1 June was clear -- good flying weather, in contrast to the bad weather that had hindered air operations on 30 and 31 May (there were only two and a half good flying days in the whole operation.) Although Churchill had promised the French that the British would cover their escape, on the ground it was the French who held the line whilst the last remaining British soldiers were evacuated. Enduring concentrated German artillery fire and Luftwaffe strafing and bombs, the French stood their ground. On 2 June (the day the last of the British units embarked onto the ships), the French began to fall back slowly, and by 3 June the Germans were about two miles (3 km) from Dunkirk. The night of 3 June was the last night of evacuations. At 10: 20 on 4 June, the Germans hoisted the swastika over the docks from which so many British and French troops had escaped.
The desperate resistance of Allied forces, especially the French 12th Motorised Infantry Division from the Fort des Dunes, had bought time for the evacuation of the bulk of the troops. The Wehrmacht captured some 35,000 soldiers, almost all of them French. These men had protected the evacuation until the last moment and were unable to embark. The same fate was reserved for the survivors of the French 12th Motorised Infantry Division (composed in particular of the French 150th Infantry Regiment); they were taken prisoner on the morning of 4 June on the beach of Malo - les - Bains. The flag of this regiment was burnt so as not to fall into enemy hands.
The War Office made the decision to evacuate British forces on 25 May. In the nine days from 27 May -- 4 June, 338,226 men escaped, including 139,997 French, Polish, and Belgian troops, together with a small number of Dutch soldiers, aboard 861 vessels (of which 243 were sunk during the operation). B.H. Liddell Hart wrote that Fighter Command lost 106 aircraft over Dunkirk and the Luftwaffe lost about 135, some of which were shot down by the French Navy and the Royal Navy. MacDonald wrote in 1986 that the British losses were 177 aircraft and German losses 240.
The docks at Dunkirk were too badly damaged to be used, but the East and West Moles (sea walls protecting the harbour entrance) were intact. Captain William Tennant -- in charge of the evacuation -- decided to use the beaches and the East Mole to land the ships. This highly successful idea hugely increased the number of troops that could be embarked each day and on 31 May, over 68,000 men were embarked.
The last of the British Army left on 3 June, and at 10: 50, Tennant signalled Ramsay to say "Operation completed. Returning to Dover ''. Churchill insisted on coming back for the French and the Royal Navy returned on 4 June, to rescue as many as possible of the French rearguard. Over 26,000 French soldiers were evacuated on that last day, but between 30,000 and 40,000 more were left behind and forced to surrender to the Germans.
Following the events at Dunkirk, the German forces regrouped before commencing an operation called Fall Rot ("Case Red ''), a renewed assault southward, starting on 5 June. Although two fresh British divisions had begun moving to France in an attempt to form a Second BEF, the decision was taken on 14 June to withdraw all the remaining British troops; an evacuation called Operation Ariel. By 25 June, almost 192,000 Allied personnel, 144,000 of them British, had been evacuated through various French ports. Although the French Army fought on, German troops entered Paris on 14 June. The French government was forced to negotiate an armistice at Compiègne on 22 June.
The loss of materiel on the beaches was huge. The British Army left enough equipment behind to fit out about eight to ten divisions. Discarded in France were, among other things, huge supplies of ammunition, 880 field guns, 310 guns of large calibre, some 500 anti-aircraft guns, about 850 anti-tank guns, 11,000 machine guns, nearly 700 tanks, 20,000 motorcycles and 45,000 motor cars and lorries. Army equipment available at home was only just sufficient to equip two divisions. The British Army needed months to re-supply properly and some planned introductions of new equipment were halted while industrial resources concentrated on making good the losses. Officers told troops falling back from Dunkirk to burn or otherwise disable their trucks (so as not to let them benefit the advancing German forces). The shortage of army vehicles after Dunkirk was so severe that the Royal Army Service Corps (RASC) was reduced to retrieving and refurbishing obsolete buses and coaches from British scrapyards to press them into use as troop transports. Some of these antique workhorses were still in use as late as the North African campaign of 1942.
On 2 June, the Dean of St Paul 's, Walter Matthews, was the first to call the evacuation the "Miracle of Dunkirk ''.
It was remembered that the Archbishop of Canterbury had announced that the Day of National Prayer might well be a turning point, and it was obvious to many that God had answered the nation 's collective prayer with the ' miracle of Dunkirk '. The evidence of God 's intervention was clear for those who wished to see it; papers had written of calm seas and the high mist which interfered with the accuracy of German bombers.
A marble memorial to the battle stands at Dunkirk. The French inscription is translated as: "To the glorious memory of the pilots, mariners, and soldiers of the French and Allied armies who sacrificed themselves in the Battle of Dunkirk, May -- June 1940. ''
The missing dead of the BEF are commemorated on the Dunkirk Memorial.
British press later exploited the successful evacuation of Dunkirk in 1940, and particularly the role of the "Dunkirk little ships '', very effectively. Many of them were private vessels such as fishing boats and pleasure cruisers, but commercial vessels such as ferries also contributed to the force, including a number from as far away as the Isle of Man and Glasgow. These smaller vessels -- guided by naval craft across the Channel from the Thames Estuary and from Dover -- assisted in the official evacuation. Being able to move closer into the beachfront shallows than larger craft, the "little ships '' acted as shuttles to and from the larger ships, lifting troops who were queuing in the water, many waiting shoulder - deep in water for hours. The term "Dunkirk Spirit '' refers to the solidarity of the British people in times of adversity.
A commemorative medal was established in 1960 by the French National Association of Veterans of the Fortified Sector of Flanders and Dunkirk on behalf of the town of Dunkirk. The medal was initially awarded only to the French defenders of Dunkirk but in 1970 the qualification was expanded to include British forces who served in the Dunkirk sector and their rescue forces, including the civilians who volunteered to man the "little ships ''.
The design of the bronze medal included the arms of the town of Dunkirk on one side, and "Dunkerque 1940 '' on the reverse side.
Coordinates: 51 ° 02 ′ 03 '' N 2 ° 22 ′ 37 '' E / 51.0343 ° N 2.37682 ° E / 51.0343; 2.37682
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b) are consumers in australia protected from misleading information | Misleading or deceptive conduct - wikipedia
Misleading or deceptive conduct (often referred to as just misleading conduct) is a doctrine of Australian law.
Section 18 of the Australian Consumer Law, which is found in schedule 2 of the Competition and Consumer Act 2010, prohibits conduct by corporations in trade or commerce which is misleading or deceptive or is likely to mislead or deceive. The states and territories of Australia each have Fair Trading Legislation either containing similar provisions in relation to misleading or deceptive conduct by individuals, or simply applies the federal law to the state or territory. Section 12DA of the Australian Securities and Investment Commission Act 2001 prohibits misleading or deceptive conduct in financial services.
The doctrine aims primarily to provide consumer protection by preventing businesses from misleading their customers. However, it extends to all situations in the course of trade or commerce. A range of remedies are available in the event of misleading or deceptive conduct.
The prohibition on misleading conduct is set out in section 18 (1) of the Australian Consumer Law:
The Australian Consumer Law defines conduct as:
Section 18 of the Australian Consumer Law essentially mirrors the previous ban on misleading or deceptive conduct in section 52 of the Trade Practices Act.
The elements required to establish misleading or deceptive conduct are:
"Trade or commerce '' is given its ordinary construction, and applies not only to transactions between corporations and consumers, but to anyone providing or acquiring goods or services. However, purely private or domestic transactions will not be captured within the ambit of section 18.
Unlike related doctrines in contract or tort law, such as the tort of deceit and misrepresentation, misleading or deceptive conduct applies to any conduct that is, or is likely to be, misleading or deceptive, and does not require the making of a representation.
Conduct is likely to mislead or deceive where there is a "real and not remote '' chance that it will mislead or deceive, which can be true even where the probability of misleading or deceiving is less than 50 %. When the allegedly misleading or deceptive conduct is directed towards the public at large, the relevant reaction is that of the ordinary or reasonable members of the class of prospective purchasers. If the conduct is directed at specific individuals, the conduct as a whole is relevant, considering the nature of the parties and transaction.
Misleading or deceptive conduct is a "strict liability '' offence, in that it does not matter whether the conduct was intended to mislead or deceive, or even whether the claimant could reasonably have protected its interests. This means that so long as there is an element of reliance on the part of the claimant, a respondent could be found to have engaged in misleading or deceptive conduct even if they had every reason to believe that their representations were true.
The reason for strict liability in this instance that a person making a representation is always better placed to know about whether or not it is true than the person relying on the representation, so the law is constructed to shift the onus of ensuring that the representation is true onto the person making it. This is in contrast to the traditional common law principle of "caveat emptor '' or "let the buyer beware ''.
As a tort - style offence applying to cases of "pure economic loss '' (as opposed to physical harm), a cause of action in misleading or deceptive conduct will only accrue from the time that any loss is suffered -- i.e. conduct could be misleading and deceptive, and a person could rely on it and still have no claim. There would only be a claim when that person suffers a loss as a result of the conduct.
Individuals may be ancillary liable for breaches of s18 if they are "knowingly concerned '' in the breach.
Where conduct is a representation about the future (as opposed to a representation about present facts), then that conduct will be taken to be misleading if the person making it can not show they made the representation on reasonable grounds. In these situations, representations about the future are presumed to be misleading, and the burden of proof is on the person making the representation to produce evidence to show that they had reasonable grounds.
Parties to a contract can not exclude liability for misleading or deceptive conduct under section 18 of the Australian Consumer Law. Terms that purport to do so will be unenforceable to protect the public interest in ensuring that statutory remedies are available to persons who are misled or deceived into entering an agreement. As was stated in reference to section 52 of the Trade Practices Act 1974 (Cth), the modern equivalent of which is section 18 of the Australian Consumer Law:
49. Irrespective of the construction of these two special conditions it does not matter ultimately whether the impugned conduct with which this case is concerned falls literally within them or not. Section 52 is a section in the consumer protection provisions of an Act concerned to protect the public from misleading or deceptive conduct and unfair trade practices which may result in contravention of the Act. It has been held that exclusion clauses, of which special conditions 6 and 7 are examples, can not operate to defeat claims under s. 52. It may be... that such exclusion clauses will generally be ineffective because they can not break the nexus between the conduct in contravention of s. 52 and the making of the agreement in issue...
50. There are wider objections to allowing effect to such clauses. Otherwise the operation of the Act, a public policy statute, could be ousted by private agreement. Parliament passed the Act to stamp out unfair or improper conduct in trade or in commerce; it would be contrary to public policy for special conditions such as those with which this contract was concerned to deny or prohibit a statutory remedy for offending conduct under the Act.
Despite the strict liability nature of the offence, a person will not be deemed to have engaged in misleading or deceptive conduct where:
There are no pecuniary penalties available for a breach of section 18. However, for a breach of many of the related provisions in the Australian Consumer Law, the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC) can seek pecuniary penalties of up to $1.1 million from corporations and $220,000 from individuals.
A victim of misleading or deceptive conduct is only entitled to damages (i.e., monetary compensation) if they have suffered loss or damage as a result of the conduct. The measure of loss or damage here is generally the same as it is in contract law or tort law. Since 2004, if a victim contributed to the loss or damage that they suffered, then the court can reduce the amount of damages that they are awarded, in a similar fashion to the reduction of damages in a negligence claim if the plaintiff is guilty of contributory negligence. However, if the person engaging in the conduct intended to mislead or deceive, or was fraudulent in their conduct, then the courts can not reduce the damages.
There is a limitation period of six years on actions for damages.
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how many words in indian constitution in hindi version | Constitution of India - Wikipedia
The Constitution of India (IAST: Bhāratīya Saṃvidhāna) is the supreme law of India. The document lays down the framework demarcating fundamental political code, structure, procedures, powers, and duties of government institutions and sets out fundamental rights, directive principles, and the duties of citizens. It is the longest written constitution of any country on earth. B.R. Ambedkar, chairman of the drafting committee, is widely considered to be its chief architect.
It imparts constitutional supremacy (not parliamentary supremacy, since it was created by a constituent assembly rather than Parliament) and was adopted by its people with a declaration in its preamble. Parliament can not override the constitution.
It was adopted by the Constituent Assembly of India on 26 November 1949 and became effective on 26 January 1950. The constitution replaced the Government of India Act, 1935 as the country 's fundamental governing document, and the Dominion of India became the Republic of India. To ensure constitutional autochthony, its framers repealed prior acts of the British parliament in Article 395. India celebrates its constitution on 26 January as Republic Day.
The constitution declares India a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic, assuring its citizens justice, equality and liberty, and endeavours to promote fraternity.
Most of the Indian subcontinent was under British rule from 1857 to 1947. The constitution of India repealed the Indian Independence Act 1947 and Government of India Act, 1935 when it became effective on 26 January 1950. India ceased to be a dominion of the British Crown and became a sovereign democratic republic with the constitution. Articles 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 60, 324, 366, 367, 379, 380, 388, 391, 392, 393, and 394 of the constitution came into force on 26 November 1949, and the remaining articles became effective on 26 January 1950.
The constitution was drawn from a number of sources. Mindful of India 's needs and conditions, its framers borrowed features of previous legislation such as the Government of India Act 1858, the Indian Councils Acts of 1861, 1892 and 1909, the Government of India Acts of 1919 and 1935, and the Indian Independence Act 1947. The latter, which led to the creation of India and Pakistan, divided the former Constituent Assembly in two. Each new assembly had sovereign power to draft and enact a new constitution for the separate states.
The constitution was drafted by the Constituent Assembly, which was elected by elected members of the provincial assemblies. The 389 - member assembly (reduced to 299 after the partition of India) took almost three years to draft the constitution holding eleven sessions over a 165 - day period.
B.R. Ambedkar, Sanjay Phakey, Jawaharlal Nehru, C. Rajagopalachari, Rajendra Prasad, Vallabhbhai Patel, Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi, Ganesh Vasudev Mavalankar, Sandipkumar Patel, Abul Kalam Azad, Shyama Prasad Mukherjee, Nalini Ranjan Ghosh, and Balwantrai Mehta were key figures in the assembly, which had over 30 representatives of the scheduled classes. Frank Anthony represented the Anglo - Indian community, and the Parsis were represented by H.P. Modi. Harendra Coomar Mookerjee, a Christian assembly vice-president, chaired the minorities committee and represented non-Anglo - Indian Christians. Ari Bahadur Gurung represented the Gorkha community. Judges, such as Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer, Benegal Narsing Rau, K.M. Munshi and Ganesh Mavlankar were members of the assembly. Female members included Sarojini Naidu, Hansa Mehta, Durgabai Deshmukh, Amrit Kaur and Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit.
The first, two - day president of the assembly was Sachchidananda Sinha; Rajendra Prasad was later elected president. It met for the first time on 9 December 1946.
Benegal Narsing Rau, a civil servant who became the first Indian judge in the International Court of Justice and was president of the United Nations Security Council, was appointed as the assembly 's constitutional adviser in 1946. Responsible for the constitution 's general structure, Rau prepared its initial draft in February 1948.
At 14 August 1947 meeting of the assembly, committees were proposed. Rau 's draft was considered, debated and amended by the eight - person drafting committee, which was appointed on 29 August 1947 with B.R. Ambedkar as chair. A revised draft constitution was prepared by the committee and submitted to the assembly on 4 November 1947.
While deliberating the revised draft constitution, the assembly moved, discussed and disposed off 2,473 amendments out of a total of 7,635. Before adopting the constitution, the assembly held eleven sessions in 165 days. On 26 November 1949 it adopted the constitution, which was signed by 284 members. The day is celebrated as National Law Day, or Constitution Day.
The assembly 's final session convened on 24 January 1950. Each member signed two copies of the constitution, one in Hindi and the other in English. The original constitution is hand - written, with each page decorated by artists from Shantiniketan including Beohar Rammanohar Sinha and Nandalal Bose. Its calligrapher was Prem Behari Narain Raizada. The constitution was published in Dehradun and photolithographed by the Survey of India. Production of the original constitution took nearly five years. Two days later, on 26 January 1950, it became the law of India. The estimated cost of the Constituent Assembly was ₹ 6.3 crore (₹ 63 million). The constitution has had a number of amendments since it was enacted. The original 1950 constitution is preserved in a helium - filled case at the Parliament House in New Delhi.
The Indian constitution is the world 's longest for a sovereign nation. At its enactment, it had 395 articles in 22 parts and 8 schedules. At about 145,000 words, it is the second - longest active constitution -- after the Constitution of Alabama -- in the world.
The constitution has a preamble and 448 articles, which are grouped into 25 parts. With 12 schedules and five appendices, it has been amended 101 times; the latest amendment became effective on 1 July 2017.
The constitution 's articles are grouped into the following parts:
Schedules are lists in the constitution which categorise and tabulate bureaucratic activity and government policy.
The executive, legislative and judicial branches of government receive their power from the constitution and are bound by it. With the aid of its constitution, India is governed by a parliamentary system of government with the executive directly accountable to the legislature. The President of India is head of the executive branch, under Articles 52 and 53, with the duty of preserving, protecting and defending the constitution and the law under Article 60. Article 74 provides for a Prime Minister as head of the Council of Ministers, which aids and advises the president in the performance of their constitutional duties. The council is answerable to the lower house under Article 75 (3).
The constitution is considered federal in nature, and unitary in spirit. It has features of a federation (a codified, supreme constitution, a three - tier governmental structure (central, state and local), division of powers, bicameralism and an independent judiciary) and unitary features such as a single constitution, single citizenship, an integrated judiciary, a flexible constitution, a strong central government, appointment of state governors by the central government, All India Services (the IAS, IFS and IPS) and emergency provisions. This unique combination makes it quasi-federal in form.
Each state and union territory has its own government. Analogous to the president and prime minister, each has a governor or (in union territories) a lieutenant governor and a chief minister. Article 356 permits the president to dismiss a state government and assume direct authority if a situation arises in which state government can not be conducted in accordance with constitution. This power, known as president 's rule, was abused as state governments came to be dismissed on flimsy grounds for political reasons. After the S.R. Bommai v. Union of India decision, such a course of action is more difficult since the courts have asserted their right of review.
The 73rd and 74th Amendment Acts introduced the system of panchayati raj in rural areas and Nagar Palikas in urban areas. Article 370 gives special status to the state of Jammu and Kashmir.
Amendments are additions, variations or repeal of any part of the constitution by Parliament. The procedure is detailed in Article 368. An amendment bill must be passed by each house of Parliament by a with a two - thirds majority of its total membership when at least two - thirds are present and vote. Certain amendments pertaining to the constitution 's federal nature must also be ratified by a majority of state legislatures. Unlike ordinary bills in accordance with Article 245 (except for money bills), there is no provision for a joint session of the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha to pass a constitutional amendment. During a parliamentary recess, the president can not promulgate ordinances under his legislative powers under Article 123, Chapter III. Deemed amendments to the constitution which can be passed under the legislative powers of parliament were invalidated by Article 368 (1) in the Twenty - fourth Amendment.
By July 2018, 124 amendment bills had been presented in Parliament; of these, 101 became Amendment Acts. Despite the supermajority requirement for amendments to pass, the Indian constitution is the world 's most frequently - amended national governing document. The constitution is so specific in spelling out government powers that many amendments address issues dealt with by statute in other democracies.
In 2000, the Justice Manepalli Narayana Rao Venkatachaliah Commission was formed to examine a constitutional update. The government of India establishes term - based law commissions to recommend legal reforms, facilitating the rule of law.
In Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala, the Supreme Court ruled that an amendment can not destroy what it seeks to modify; it can not tinker with the constitution 's basic structure or framework, which are immutable. Such an amendment will be declared invalid, although no part of the constitution is protected from amendment; the basic structure doctrine does not protect any one provision of the constitution. According to the doctrine, the constitution 's basic features (when "read as a whole '') can not be abridged or abolished. These "basic features '' have not been fully defined, and whether a particular provision of the constitution is a "basic feature '' is decided by the courts.
The Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala decision laid down the constitution 's basic structure:
This implies that Parliament can only amend the constitution to the limit of its basic structure. The Supreme Court or a high court may declare the amendment null and void if this is violated, after a judicial review. This is typical of parliamentary governments, where the judiciary checks parliamentary power.
In its 1967 Golak Nath v. State of Punjab decision, the Supreme Court ruled that the state of Punjab could not restrict any fundamental rights protected by the basic structure doctrine. The extent of land ownership and practice of a profession, in this case, were considered fundamental rights. The ruling was overturned with the ratification of the 24th Amendment in 1971.
The judiciary is the final arbiter of the constitution. Its duty (mandated by the constitution) is to act as a watchdog, preventing any legislative or executive act from overstepping constitutional bounds. The judiciary protects the fundamental rights of the people (enshrined in the constitution) from infringement by any state body, and balances the conflicting exercise of power between the central government and a state (or states).
The courts are expected to remain unaffected by pressure exerted by other branches of the state, citizens or interest groups. An independent judiciary has been held as a basic feature of the constitution, which can not be changed by the legislature or the executive.
Judicial review was adopted by the constitution of India from judicial review in the United States. In the Indian constitution, judicial review is dealt with in Article 13. The constitution is the supreme power of the nation, and governs all laws. According to Article 13,
Due to the adoption of the Thirty - eighth Amendment, the Supreme Court was not allowed to preside over any laws adopted during a state of emergency which infringe fundamental rights under article 32 (the right to constitutional remedies). The Forty - second Amendment widened Article 31C and added Articles 368 (4) and 368 (5), stating that any law passed by Parliament could not be challenged in court. The Supreme Court ruled in Minerva Mills v. Union of India that judicial review is a basic characteristic of the constitution, overturning Articles 368 (4), 368 (5) and 31C.
According to Granville Austin, "The Indian constitution is first and foremost a social document, and is aided by its Parts III & IV (Fundamental Rights & Directive Principles of State Policy, respectively) acting together, as its chief instruments and its conscience, in realising the goals set by it for all the people. '' The constitution has deliberately been worded in generalities (not in vague terms) to ensure its flexibility. John Marshall, the fourth Chief Justice of the United States, said that a constitution 's "great outlines should be marked, its important objects designated, and the minor ingredients which compose those objects be deduced from the nature of the objects themselves. '' A document "intended to endure for ages to come '', it must be interpreted not only based on the intention and understanding of its framers, but in the existing social and political context.
The "right to life '' guaranteed under Article 21 has been expanded to include a number of human rights, including the right to a speedy trial,; the right to water; the right to earn a livelihood, the right to health, and the right to education.
At the conclusion of his book, Making of India 's Constitution, retired Supreme Court of India justice Hans Raj Khanna wrote:
If the Indian constitution is our heritage bequeathed to us by our founding fathers, no less are we, the people of India, the trustees and custodians of the values which pulsate within its provisions! A constitution is not a parchment of paper, it is a way of life and has to be lived up to. Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty and in the final analysis, its only keepers are the people. ''
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how often does it rain in forks washington | Forks, Washington - wikipedia
Forks is a city in Clallam County, Washington, United States. The population was 3,558 at the 2010 census. The population was 3,783 at 2016 Estimate from Office of Financial Management. It is named after the forks in the nearby Quillayute, Bogachiel, Calawah, and Sol Duc rivers.
For many years, the city 's economy was fueled by the local timber industry. More recently it has drawn tourism related to the novel series Twilight and movies of the same name, set in Forks. With recent declines in the timber industry, Forks has relied on the nearby Clallam Bay Corrections Center and Olympic Corrections Center as sources of jobs. Forks is a popular destination for sport fishers who fish for salmon and rainbow trout in nearby rivers. It is also supported by visitors to Olympic National Park.
Forks was officially incorporated on August 28, 1945, following an election of the constituents who would become its first town members.
The city gained popularity for being a key setting in Stephenie Meyer 's Twilight series (2005 to 2008) and related film adaptations. The city 's atmosphere and idyllic Pacific Northwest setting has inspired its being featured in film, literature, and video games.
As of the census of 2010, there were 3,532 people, 1,264 households, and 849 families residing in the city. The population density was 967.7 inhabitants per square mile (373.6 / km). There were 1,374 housing units at an average density of 376.4 per square mile (145.3 / km). The racial makeup of the city was 67.7 % White, 0.5 % African American, 6.6 % Native American, 1.2 % Asian, 0.1 % Pacific Islander, 18.1 % from other races, and 5.9 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 25.9 % of the population.
There were 1,264 households of which 40.9 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.0 % were married couples living together, 13.5 % had a female householder with no husband present, 7.7 % had a male householder with no wife present, and 32.8 % were non-families. 25.3 % of all households were made up of individuals and 8.2 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.72 and the average family size was 3.16.
The median age in the city was 31.3 years. 29.2 % of residents were under the age of 18; 10.3 % were between the ages of 18 and 24; 27.6 % were from 25 to 44; 23.2 % were from 45 to 64; and 9.7 % were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 51.5 % male and 48.5 % female.
As of the census of 2000, there were 3,120 people, 1,169 households, and 792 families residing in the city. The population density was 854.8 people per square mile (330.2 / km). There were 1,361 housing units at an average density of 435.6 per square mile (168.4 / km). The racial makeup of the city was 81.47 % White, 0.42 % African American, 5.03 % Native American, 1.51 % Asian, 0.16 % Pacific Islander, 8.49 % from other races, and 2.92 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.54 % of the population.
There were 1,169 households out of which 36.9 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49.4 % were married couples living together, 11.4 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 32.2 % were non-families. 24.6 % of all households were made up of individuals and 7.4 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.65 and the average family size was 3.15.
In the city, the age distribution of the population shows 30.4 % under the age of 18, 11.1 % from 18 to 24, 27.2 % from 25 to 44, 22.1 % from 45 to 64, and 9.1 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females, there were 111.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 108.9 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $34,280, and the median income for a family was $38,844. Males had a median income of $35,718 versus $23,690 for females. The per capita income for the city was $13,686. About 14.6 % of families and 20.5 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 25.7 % of those under age 18 and 12.4 % of those age 65 or over.
Forks has an oceanic climate in a temperate rainforest with very high rainfall. Although there is a drying trend in summer, rain is still abundant, just not as wet as the rest of the year. Forks averages 212 days per year with measurable precipitation. The Olympic rainforest surrounds the town.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 3.65 square miles (9.45 km), all of it land.
The City is organized under Washington State law as a Non-charter Code City. Its structure is that of an elected Mayor and a five - member elected City Council. Unlike other cities on the Olympic Peninsula, Forks operates under what is called a "strong Mayor '' form of government with the Mayor being the Chief Executive Officer overseeing four department heads (Clerk / Treasurer, Public Works, Police, and Legal / Planning).
Forks Municipal Airport (IATA: S18, ICAO: KS18, FAA LID: S18) is located in Clallam County, 1 mile (1.6 km) southwest of Forks. The Airport has six based aircraft, including 3 single - engine aircraft and 3 helicopters. The latest available data indicate that the Airport had a total of 13,550 annual operations.
Runway 4 - 22 is Forks Municipal Airport 's sole runway. This runway is 2,400 feet (730 m) long, 75 feet (23 m) wide, is equipped with medium intensity runway lighting, and has an asphalt surface. Approaches to both ends of this runway are visual.
Forks is served by two public transit agencies. Clallam Transit route 17 provides local service in Forks, while three other routes provide connections to Port Angeles (14), La Push (15), and Clallam Bay and Neah Bay (16). Jefferson Transit runs an "Olympic Connection '' bus that provides service on Highway 101 south of Forks as far as Lake Quinault. From there, transfers to Aberdeen are available via Grays Harbor transit. All five of these bus routes serve Forks six days a week, with no service on Sundays.
KFKB 1490 and KBDB - FM 96.7 are the two local commercial stations serving the area. Both are owned by Forks Broadcasting.
KNWU 91.5 is the public radio station serving the area. It is a satellite station of Washington State University 's statewide Northwest Public Radio network.
Forks is a part of the Quillayute Valley School District, with Forks High School being the community 's high school. Forks is home to the University of Washington 's Olympic Natural Resources Center.
On the south end of town is the Forks Timber Museum. Constructed in 1989 by the Forks High School carpentry class, the 3,200 - square - foot (300 m) building provides a look into the local history of the timber industry, loggers of the past, and their tools of the trade. The museum has exhibits depicting local history dating to the 1870s.
Forks serves as the hub for numerous day excursions to the Hoh Rainforest, the Pacific Beaches, and various wilderness trails.
Another source of tourism is Stephenie Meyer 's Twilight series, which is set in the town. Tours are available of locations that resemble the places described in Meyer 's books. The films were not shot in Forks.
The average annual number of tourists visiting the town rose from 10,000 before Twilight to 19,000 in 2008, the year of the first film, and 73,000 by 2010.
Forks is well known for its winter steelhead fishing with the Quillayute river system - the Hoh, Sol Duc, Bogachiel and Calawah rivers. Other nearby Clallam, Sekiu and Hoko rivers are also good for king salmon fishing and steelheading as well. Local guides are available for both native and hatchery runs and for float trips. Fishing gear and clothing is available at local stores.
Forks displays one of a few Shay engines remaining in Washington. Shay locomotives are unusual in that they have a crank shaft running down the side, powering all wheels. They were designed to be used to transport lumber out of forests. Rayonier # 10 (c / n 3348) was built for stock by Lima in 1930. It has three cylinders and three trucks. The Ozette Timber Company bought it 11 years later. In 1945 it was acquired by Rayonier for their lumber operation near Forks. It was retired near the north end of Forks in Tillicum Park in 1959.
The Forks Lions Club erected an attractive shelter over the # 10 in 1999. It has also built and maintained most of the structures in the Shay Tillicum Park over the last 40 years.
Rainfest, a celebration of the arts sponsored by the West Olympic Council for the Arts, occurs in April. It includes a combination of arts and craft related events. In recent years quilt classes and a quilt show have been sponsored by the Piece Makers Quilt Club.
In March of every year, the Quillayute Valley Scholarship Auction occurs. This annual fundraising event raises tens of thousands of dollars for scholarships. Since the first scholarship award in 1964, to Robert Henry (now D.D.S.), the Committee has awarded over US $1 m in scholarships to Forks students.
In the summer, Forks hosts its traditional "Old Fashioned Fourth of July '' celebration with a Grand Fourth of July Parade. The numerous events include a demolition derby and fireworks display. July is also the month for Quileute Days at La Push with its parade, traditional salmon bake, bone games, softball tournament, canoe races, and street fair. In August, the Forks Family Festival combines arts and crafts vendors with children activities.
In late September, the Forks Chamber of Commerce partners with the Quileute Tribe and the City of Forks to host the Last Chance Fishing Derby at La Push; cash prizes are offered to those wanting to fish for salmon on the Pacific Ocean. The first week in October is when the community celebrates its heritage during Heritage Days. One of the more celebrated events during this week - long festival is the "Old Timers Round Table; '' this is a moderated conversation broadcast live via the local radio station, featuring longtime residents of the region talking about days long past.
The Forks City Council passed a resolution in 2007 celebrating "Stephenie Meyer Day '' in honor of the Twilight young adult novels and film series, set for September 13, the day before the fictional Bella 's birthday. In 2015 the event was still driving tourism, with visitor numbers peaking in 2010, then settling to 50 % more than before the Twilight phenomenon. "Stephanie Meyer Day '' has been replaced with the title "Forever Twilight in Forks Festival '' which is still celebrated annually on the week of September 13th. The festival includes activities such as a movie marathon, a blood drive, dance lessons, and more. The upcoming dates for Forever Twilight in Forks 2018 are from September 13th to September 16th.
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shake it baby shake it all you can tonight | Shake It (Iain Matthews song) - wikipedia
"Shake It '' is the title of a hit single by Ian Matthews: released in November 1978 the track would reach the Top 20 of the Billboard Hot 100 in February 1979.
The song 's composer Terence Boylan had introduced "Shake It '' on his 1977 self - titled album on which Timothy B. Schmit sang background on eight of the nine tracks including "Shake It '' which track also featured guitarist Al Kooper. Not chosen for US single release, Boylan 's "Shake It '' was given a 4 November 1977 single release in Ian Matthews ' native UK: however Matthews had been living in the US since 1973, and it was on an FM radio station in Seattle that he first heard Boylan 's "Shake It ''. After Matthews phoned the radio station for info on the track the disc jockey sent him a copy of the Terence Boylan album from which Matthews would "cover '' two songs: "Shake It '' and "Do n't Hang Up Your Dancing Shoes '', for his album Stealin ' Home, recorded in the summer of 1978. Concurrent with his Top 40 success with "Shake It '', Matthews would tell Rolling Stone: "I do n't think I did anything different (to record a hit single). I guess it 's my reward. After all, I 've been doing exactly what I want for 14 or 15 years. '' However Matthews would later acknowledge that on Stealin ' Home "I tried to add just a couple of songs that had Top 40 potential, without compromising the rest of the material (and the album) did precisely what it was supposed to do: it raised my profile, without lowering my credibility. ''
Recorded at Chipping Norton Recording Studios in the West Oxfordshire town of Chipping Norton, Stealin ' Home was the result of Matthews ' first UK recording sessions since 1973 but in the opinion of Mark Deming of AMG, Matthews on Stealin ' Home "dove headfirst into a polished pop sound that made the one - time British folkie sound like a member of the LA Mellow Mafia. (Though) recorded in Oxfordshire, ' Stealin ' Home ' re-created the meticulously crafted sound of West Coast pop with impressive accuracy. '' Alan Mckay of MusicRiot.co.uk concurs that "with great session players, tasteful (bordering on minimal) FM radio - friendly arrangements and lyrics dealing with American themes (plus) a singer with a plaintive high tenor voice '' it 's obvious that "the album was aimed squarely at the American market ''. McKay further opines: "The theme running through the album was the failure of the American dream... Matthews picked out songs about the party set, car fanatics and sports groupies to form the backbone of this album. It 's a melancholy album because it looks back at the unfulfilled promise of American lives in the same way that Bob Seger did with songs like ' Hollywood Nights '' and ' Night Moves ' and Jackson Browne did with ' The Pretender '. ''
One of two tracks on Stealin ' Home to feature Mel Collins on sax, "Shake It '' was issued as the album 's lead single to become Matthews ' first Top 40 hit reaching a Hot 100 peak of # 13 within a 19 - week Hot 100 tenure. "Shake It '' was especially popular in New England, reaching # 2 in Springfield, Massachusetts (WAQY) and # 3 in Bangor, Maine (WLBZ). The year - end tally for Hot 100 hits of 1979 would rank "Shake It '' at # 73. Matthews ' only previous Hot 100 ranking had been a 1972 remake of "Da Doo Ron Ron '' (# 96) but he had become well known as the frontman for the band Matthews Southern Comfort who in 1971 had reached # 23 on the Hot 100 with their version of "Woodstock '': "Shake It '' would remain Matthews ' only Top 40 hit as a solo act, the second single from the Stealin ' Home album: the Robert Palmer composition "Give Me an Inch '', peaking at # 67 and proving Matthews final Hot 100 entry. (The Boylan composition "Do n't Hang Up Your Dancing Shoes '', the third single release off Stealin ' Home afforded Matthews ' his final appearance on a Billboard chart, peaking at # 42 on the magazine 's Easy Listening hit ranking, where "Shake It '' had reached # 21 and "Give Me an Inch # 43).
Although "Woodstock '' had afforded Matthews Southern Comfort a three - week tenure at # 1 in the UK in 1970 Matthews would never appear on the UK chart as a solo act despite a string of UK single releases, including "Shake It '' in February 1979. "Shake It '' would afford Matthews a Top Ten hit in Canada, peaking at # 6: the track had been especially popular in New Brunswick, reaching # 1 on CIHI in Fredericton. "Shake It '' would also a Top 20 hit in New Zealand, and would chart in Australia with a # 65 peak.
"Shake It '' is heard at the beginning of the 1980 movie Little Darlings: (Ian Matthews quote:) "The first I knew about the song being in the movie was when it came out and a friend called to ask if I 'd heard it. '' The song can also be heard on the radio in the game The Warriors from Rockstar Games.
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the ghost of greville lodge where was it filmed | Chavenage house - wikipedia
Chavenage House is an Elizabethan era house 2.4 kilometres (1.5 mi) northwest of Tetbury, in the Cotswolds area of Gloucestershire, England. The house was built in 1576 and is constructed of Cotswold stone, with a Cotswold stone tiled roof.
The estate of Chavenage was sold to Edward Stephens of Eastington in Gloucestershire in 1564. He built the house in the Elizabethan style, adding large windows to the south of the porch, much of the glass being obtained from redundant churches and monasteries in the area. On Edward 's death, the estate passed to his son Richard and, on his death, to his second wife Anne, before his eldest son Nathaniel Stephens inherited it.
During the Civil War, Nathaniel Stephens raised troops and supported the Roundheads, and later became a member of Cromwell 's parliament. Cromwell visited Chavenage House, and Stephens supported his planned regicide, and although he was not one of the signatories of Charles I 's death warrant, he is nevertheless said to have died of remorse soon afterwards. It is also recounted that on the day of the Nathaniel 's death, his ghost was seen leaving the house in a coach driven by a headless coachman dressed like the hapless king. The house is reputed to be one of the nation 's most haunted homes.
In 1944, the house was requisitioned and housed American troops prior to the Normandy landings in France.
The house is an Elizabethan house and is a Grade I listed building. It was built originally in 1576 by Edward Stephens. It has an E-shaped plan with a porch at the centre of the east side. It is constructed of rubble stone with a stone slate roof and has two storeys and attics. It was enlarged in the seventeenth century and further extended in the eighteenth century by the Rev Richard Stephens, then again at the start of the 20th century. As these additions are in keeping with the original style and materials, they appear as one consistent building and the new areas are not obvious.
The interior has a former open great hall, but this has now had a ceiling installed, with an altered minstrels ' gallery over a screen. This is sixteenth century as is the Renaissance style fireplace and the panelling and Gothic fireplace in the dining room. Other notable features of the house are the two tapestry rooms Cromwell 's and Ireton 's Room; the stained glass windows in the Great Hall; the Oak Room which has elaborate 1590 panelling. Additionally, there is an Edwardian wing, featuring a sprung - floored ballroom.
Close to the house is the family chapel which is included in the Grade I listing. It has a tower, built as a folly in the seventeenth century, with two stages, stepped diagonal buttresses and a parapet with embattlements. The main fabric of the chapel is eighteenth century and it has an undercover link to the house.
The house is open to the public on a limited basis. It is also available for use for conferences and functions and as a wedding venue.
Chavenage has been used in films and for television programmes, including Barry Lyndon, The Ghost of Greville Lodge, the first Hercule Poirot story The Mysterious Affair at Styles; a ' Gotcha ' for Noel 's House Party, The Barchester Chronicles; Berkeley Square; Cider with Rosie; Grace & Favour; The House of Eliott; Casualty and Dracula. From 2008 the house featured as Candleford Manor in the BBC 's Lark Rise to Candleford. Scenes from Bonekickers, Tess of the D'Urbervilles, starring Eddie Redmayne and In Love with Barbara were shot at Chavenage in 2008.
Recent credits include Rosamunde Pilcher 's The Four Seasons, the BBC 's Nightwatch and the CBBC 's series Sparticles. Two productions were shot at Chavenage in 2013, The Unknown Heart, based on an idea by Rosamunde Pilcher as well the historical drama New Worlds (Channel 4), starring Jamie Dornan. Chavenage is Trenwith House in the new adaption of Winston Graham 's Poldark (2015 TV series), starring Aidan Turner.
Coordinates: 51 ° 39 ′ 23 '' N 2 ° 11 ′ 12 '' W / 51.6563 ° N 2.1866 ° W / 51.6563; - 2.1866
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who is the man that played jesus in the passion of christ | Jim Caviezel - wikipedia
James Patrick Caviezel (born September 26, 1968) is an American actor, best known for portraying Jesus Christ in the 2004 film The Passion of the Christ. Other notable roles include Private Witt in The Thin Red Line (1998), Detective John Sullivan in Frequency (2000), Jim McCormick in Madison, Catch in Angel Eyes (2001), Johannes in I Am David, Edmond Dantès in The Count of Monte Cristo (2002), golfer Bobby Jones in Bobby Jones: Stroke of Genius (2004), and Carroll Oerstadt in Déjà Vu (2006). From 2011 until 2016, he starred as John Reese on the CBS science - fiction crime drama series Person of Interest.
Caviezel was born in Mount Vernon, Washington, the son of Margaret (née Lavery), a former stage actress and housewife, and James Caviezel, a chiropractor. He has a younger brother, Timothy, and three sisters, Ann, Amy, and Erin. He was raised in a tightly - knit Catholic family in Conway, Washington. His surname is of Romansh origin. His father is of Slovak and Swiss descent, while his mother is of Irish descent. His father attended UCLA and played basketball for coach John Wooden, prompting all the Caviezel siblings to play the sport.
Caviezel attended Mount Vernon High School for two years before moving to Seattle, Washington, where he lived with family friends in order to play basketball at O'Dea High School, a Catholic all boys high school. The following spring, he transferred from O'Dea to another Catholic school, John F. Kennedy Memorial High School in Burien, Washington, where he played basketball and graduated in 1987. He then enrolled at Bellevue College, where he played college basketball. A foot injury in his second year put an end to his dream of becoming an NBA player, and he transferred to the University of Washington, where he turned his focus to acting and became a member of the Sigma Chi fraternity.
Caviezel began acting in plays in Seattle. He earned his Screen Actors Guild card with a minor role in the 1991 film My Own Private Idaho. He then moved to Los Angeles to pursue a career in acting. He was offered a scholarship to study acting at New York 's Juilliard School in 1993, but he turned it down to portray Warren Earp in the 1994 film Wyatt Earp. He later appeared in an episode of Murder, She Wrote and The Wonder Years. After appearing in G.I. Jane (1997), he had a breakthrough performance in the 1998 Terence Malick - directed World War II film The Thin Red Line. He played Black John, a Missouri bushwhacker, in Ride with the Devil (1999), an American Civil War film.
Caviezel was originally cast to play Scott Summers / Cyclops in X-Men (2000), but dropped out because of a scheduling conflict with the film Frequency (2000). He starred in mainstream films such as Pay It Forward (2000), The Count of Monte Cristo (2002), and Bobby Jones: Stroke of Genius (2004). In 2000, he played the lead role in Madison, a film about hydroplane racing in Madison, Indiana. The film was completed in 2001, but it sat on the shelf for several years and did not appear in theaters until a limited release in 2005. In 2002, he played a pivotal role in the film I Am David.
Caviezel portrayed Jesus Christ in Mel Gibson 's 2004 film The Passion of the Christ. During filming, he was struck by lightning, accidentally scourged, had his shoulder dislocated, and suffered from pneumonia and hypothermia. Prior to filming, Gibson reportedly warned Caviezel that playing Jesus would hurt his acting career. In 2011, he admitted that good roles had been hard to come by since, but stated he had no regrets about taking the role.
He had leading roles in the 2006 films Unknown and Déjà Vu. He played Kainan in Outlander (2008) and provided the voice of Jesus on the 2007 New Testament audio dramatization The Word of Promise. In 2008, he starred in Long Weekend.
In 2009, Caviezel played French - Iranian journalist Freidoune Sahebjam in The Stoning of Soraya M., a drama set in 1986 Iran about the execution of a young mother. When asked about how his Catholic faith was affected by this story, he said, "you do n't have to go any further than the gospels to figure out what the right thing to do is, whether you should be more concerned helping someone regardless of their religion or where they 're from ''. That same year, he reprised the role of Jesus in the latest installment of The Word of Promise.
Caviezel starred in The Prisoner, a remake of the British science fiction series The Prisoner, in November 2009. From 2011 to 2016, he starred in the CBS drama series Person of Interest as John Reese, a former CIA agent who now works for a mysterious billionaire as a vigilante. The show received the highest ratings in the past 15 years for a series pilot and consistently garnered over 10 million weekly viewers.
Caviezel starred in the 2014 football film When the Game Stands Tall as De La Salle High School coach Bob Ladouceur, whose Concord, California Spartans prep team had a 151 - game winning streak from 1992 to 2003, surpassing all records for consecutive victories in any American sport. He appeared in the 2013 film Escape Plan, playing a warden who maintains order in the world 's most secret and secure prison.
Caviezel is the narrator for the 2016 documentary Liberating a Continent: John Paul II and the Fall of Communism, stating that "A single Polish crushed the communism... With love '', in an interview.
In 1996, Caviezel married Kerri Browitt, a high school English teacher. They have adopted three children from China who had cancer, saying, "They are people, just like we. '' They are both devout Catholics, who oppose abortion. Caviezel has been a featured public speaker at religious venues since the release of The Passion of the Christ. On March 19, 2005, he was the spokesman for the first Catholic Men 's Conference in Boston. Caviezel 's wife is the sister - in - law of Dallas Cowboys coordinator Scott Linehan. She and Linehan 's wife, Kristen, are sisters. In 2006, Caviezel enrolled in at least one class as a part - time student at the University of Notre Dame.
On October 24, 2006, Caviezel was featured with Patricia Heaton, Kurt Warner, and Mike Sweeney in an advertisement opposing Missouri Constitutional Amendment 2, which allowed any form of embryonic stem cell research and therapy in Missouri that is otherwise legal under federal law. He began the advertisement by saying "Le - bar nash be-neshak '' (Aramaic for "You betray the Son of Man with a kiss ''), a reference to Judas ' betrayal of Jesus Christ and a phrase used in the Greek version of the Gospel of Luke. (The line did not include a translation into English.) Caviezel closed the commercial with the line, "You know now. Do n't do it. Vote no on Amendment 2. '' The advertisement was a response to a commercial featuring Michael J. Fox, who favored embryonic stem cell research.
Showing respect to his wife and his faith, Caviezel refused to do a love scene with Jennifer Lopez in Angel Eyes since she was naked, and he refused to strip off in a love scene with Ashley Judd in High Crimes. He said, "I do love scenes -- but not ones with gratuitous sex... And it 's not just about my wife, although that 's important. It 's sin, pure and simple. I mean, it 's wrong... It 's awkward. ''
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who led the eastern bloc in the cold war | Eastern Bloc - wikipedia
The Eastern Bloc was the group of socialist states of Central and Eastern Europe, generally the Soviet Union and the countries of the Warsaw Pact. The terms Communist Bloc and Soviet Bloc were also used to denote groupings of states aligned with the Soviet Union, although these terms might include states outside.
Use of the term "Eastern Bloc '' generally refers to the states forming the Warsaw Pact. Some define it simply as "communist states of eastern Europe. '' Sometimes, more generally, they are referred to as "the countries of Eastern Europe under communism ''.
Even though Yugoslavia was a socialist country, it was not a member of COMECON or the Warsaw Pact. Parting with the USSR in 1948, Yugoslavia did not belong to the East, but also did not belong to the West, because of its socialist system and its status as a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement. However, many sources consider Yugoslavia to be a member of the Eastern Bloc. Others consider Yugoslavia not to be a member after it broke with Soviet policy in the 1948 Tito -- Stalin split.
The term "Eastern Bloc '' was sometimes used interchangeably with the term Second World, being considered one of the two main blocs of the Cold War, opposed by the Western Bloc. The Soviet - aligned members of the Eastern Bloc besides the Soviet Union are often referred to as "satellite states '' of the Soviet Union.
Prior to this use of the term, in the 1920s, "Eastern bloc '' was used to refer to a loose alliance of eastern and central European countries.
Other countries that were not Soviet Socialist Republics, not Soviet Satellite States or not in Europe were sometimes referred to as being part of the Eastern Bloc, Soviet Bloc, or Communist Bloc, including:
In 1922, the RSFSR, the Ukrainian SSR, the Byelorussian SSR and the Transcaucasian SFSR, approved the Treaty of Creation of the USSR and the Declaration of the Creation of the USSR, forming the Soviet Union. Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, who viewed the Soviet Union as a "socialist island '', stated that the Soviet Union must see that "the present capitalist encirclement is replaced by a socialist encirclement. ''
In 1939, the USSR entered into the Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact with Nazi Germany that contained a secret protocol that divided Romania, Poland, Lithuania, Estonia and Finland into German and Soviet spheres of influence. Eastern Poland, Latvia, Estonia, Finland and Bessarabia in northern Romania were recognized as parts of the Soviet sphere of influence. Lithuania was added in a second secret protocol in September 1939.
The Soviet Union had invaded the portions of eastern Poland assigned to it by the Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact two weeks after the German invasion of western Poland, followed by co-ordination with German forces in Poland. During the Occupation of East Poland by the Soviet Union, the Soviets liquidated the Polish state, and a German - Soviet meeting addressed the future structure of the "Polish region. '' Soviet authorities immediately started a campaign of sovietization of the newly Soviet - annexed areas. Soviet authorities collectivized agriculture, and nationalized and redistributed private and state - owned Polish property.
Initial Soviet occupations of the Baltic countries had occurred in mid-June 1940, when Soviet NKVD troops raided border posts in Lithuania, Estonia and Latvia, followed by the liquidation of state administrations and replacement by Soviet cadres. Elections for parliament and other offices were held with single candidates listed and the official results fabricated, purporting pro-Soviet candidates ' approval by 92.8 percent of the voters in Estonia, 97.6 percent in Latvia, and 99.2 percent in Lithuania. The fraudulently installed peoples assemblies immediately requested admission into the USSR, which was granted by the Soviet Union, with the annexations resulting in the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic, Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic, and Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic. The international community condemned this initial annexation of the Baltic states and deemed it illegal.
In 1939, the Soviet Union unsuccessfully attempted an invasion of Finland, subsequent to which the parties entered into an interim peace treaty granting the Soviet Union the eastern region of Karelia (10 % of Finnish territory), and the Karelo - Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic was established by merging the ceded territories with the KASSR. After a June 1940 Soviet Ultimatum demanding Bessarabia, Bukovina, and the Hertza region from Romania, the Soviets entered these areas, Romania caved to Soviet demands and the Soviets occupied the territories.
In June 1941, Germany broke the Molotov - Ribbentrop pact by invading the Soviet Union. From the time of this invasion to 1944, the areas annexed by the Soviet Union were part of Germany 's Ostland (except for the Moldavian SSR). Thereafter, the Soviet Union began to push German forces westward through a series of battles on the Eastern Front.
In the aftermath of World War II on the Soviet - Finnish border, the parties signed another peace treaty ceding to the Soviet Union in 1944, followed by a Soviet annexation of roughly the same eastern Finnish territories as those of the prior interim peace treaty as part of the Karelo - Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic.
From 1943 to 1945, several conferences regarding Post-War Europe occurred that, in part, addressed the potential Soviet annexation and control of countries in Central Europe. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill 's Soviet policy regarding Central Europe differed vastly from that of American President Franklin D. Roosevelt, with the former believing Soviet leader Joseph Stalin to be a "devil '' - like tyrant leading a vile system.
When warned of potential domination by a Stalin dictatorship over part of Europe, Roosevelt responded with a statement summarizing his rationale for relations with Stalin: "I just have a hunch that Stalin is not that kind of a man... I think that if I give him everything I possibly can and ask for nothing from him in return, noblesse oblige, he wo n't try to annex anything and will work with me for a world of democracy and peace. '' While meeting with Stalin and Roosevelt in Tehran in 1943, Churchill stated that Britain was vitally interested in restoring Poland as an independent country. Britain did not press the matter for fear that it would become a source of inter-allied friction.
In February 1945, at the conference at Yalta, Stalin demanded a Soviet sphere of political influence in Central Europe. Stalin eventually was convinced by Churchill and Roosevelt not to dismember Germany. Stalin stated that the Soviet Union would keep the territory of eastern Poland they had already taken via invasion in 1939, and wanted a pro-Soviet Polish government in power in what would remain of Poland. After resistance by Churchill and Roosevelt, Stalin promised a re-organization of the current pro-Soviet government on a broader democratic basis in Poland. He stated that the new government 's primary task would be to prepare elections.
The parties at Yalta further agreed that the countries of liberated Europe and former Axis satellites would be allowed to "create democratic institutions of their own choice '', pursuant to "the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they will live. '' The parties also agreed to help those countries form interim governments "pledged to the earliest possible establishment through free elections '' and "facilitate where necessary the holding of such elections. ''
At the beginning of the July -- August 1945 Potsdam Conference after Germany 's unconditional surrender, Stalin repeated previous promises to Churchill that he would refrain from a "sovietization '' of Central Europe. In addition to reparations, Stalin pushed for "war booty '', which would permit the Soviet Union to directly seize property from conquered nations without quantitative or qualitative limitation. A clause was added permitting this to occur with some limitations.
At first, the Soviets concealed their role in other Eastern Bloc politics, with the transformation appearing as a modification of western "bourgeois democracy ''. As a young communist was told in East Germany: "it 's got to look democratic, but we must have everything in our control. '' Stalin felt that socioeconomic transformation was indispensable to establish Soviet control, reflecting the Marxist - Leninist view that material bases, the distribution of the means of production, shaped social and political relations.
Moscow - trained cadres were put into crucial power positions to fulfill orders regarding sociopolitical transformation. Elimination of the bourgeoisie 's social and financial power by expropriation of landed and industrial property was accorded absolute priority. These measures were publicly billed as "reforms '' rather than socioeconomic transformations. Except for initially in Czechoslovakia, activities by political parties had to adhere to "Bloc politics '', with parties eventually having to accept membership in an "antifascist '' "bloc '' obliging them to act only by mutual "consensus ''. The bloc system permitted the Soviet Union to exercise domestic control indirectly.
Crucial departments such as those responsible for personnel, general police, secret police and youth, were strictly communist run. Moscow cadres distinguished "progressive forces '' from "reactionary elements '', and rendered both powerless. Such procedures were repeated until communists had gained unlimited power, and only politicians who were unconditionally supportive of Soviet policy remained.
In June 1947, after the Soviets had refused to negotiate a potential lightening of restrictions on German development, the United States announced the Marshall Plan, a comprehensive program of American assistance to all European countries wanting to participate, including the Soviet Union and those of Eastern Europe. The Soviets rejected the Plan and took a hard line position against the United States and non-communist European nations. However, Czechoslovakia was eager to accept the US aid; the Polish government had a similar attitude, and this was of great concern to the Soviets.
In one of the clearest signs of Soviet control over the region up to that point, the Czechoslovakian foreign minister, Jan Masaryk, was summoned to Moscow and berated by Stalin for considering joining the Marshall Plan. Polish Prime minister Józef Cyrankiewicz was rewarded for the Polish rejection of the Plan with a huge 5 year trade agreement, including $450 million in credit, 200,000 tons of grain, heavy machinery and factories.
In July 1947, Stalin ordered these countries to pull out of the Paris Conference on the European Recovery Programme, which has been described as "the moment of truth '' in the post -- World War II division of Europe. Thereafter, Stalin sought stronger control over other Eastern Bloc countries, abandoning the prior appearance of democratic institutions. When it appeared that, in spite of heavy pressure, non-communist parties might receive in excess of 40 % of the vote in the August 1947 Hungarian elections, repressions were instituted to liquidate any independent political forces.
In that same month, annihilation of the opposition in Bulgaria began on the basis of continuing instructions by Soviet cadres. At a late September 1947 meeting of all communist parties in Szklarska Poręba, Eastern Bloc communist parties were blamed for permitting even minor influence by non-communists in their respective countries during the run up to the Marshall Plan.
In former German capital Berlin, surrounded by Soviet - occupied Germany, Stalin instituted the Berlin Blockade on June 24, 1948, preventing food, materials and supplies from arriving in West Berlin. The blockade was caused, in part, by early local elections of October 1946 in which the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED) was rejected in favor of the Social Democratic Party, which had gained two and a half times more votes than the SED. The United States, Britain, France, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and several other countries began a massive "Berlin airlift '', supplying West Berlin with food and other supplies.
The Soviets mounted a public relations campaign against the western policy change and communists attempted to disrupt the elections of 1948 preceding large losses therein, while 300,000 Berliners demonstrated and urged the international airlift to continue. In May 1949, Stalin lifted the blockade, permitting the resumption of Western shipments to Berlin.
After disagreements between Yugoslav leader Josip Broz Tito and the Soviet Union regarding Greece and Albania, a Tito -- Stalin split occurred, followed by Yugoslavia being expelled from the Cominform in June 1948 and a brief failed Soviet putsch in Belgrade. The split created two separate communist forces in Europe. A vehement campaign against Titoism was immediately started in the Eastern Bloc, describing agents of both the West and Tito in all places engaging in subversive activity.
Stalin ordered the conversion of the Cominform into an instrument to monitor and control internal affairs of other Eastern Bloc parties. He briefly considered also converting the Cominform into an instrument for sentencing high - ranking deviators, but dropped the idea as impractical. Instead, a move to weaken communist party leaders through conflict was started. Soviet cadres in communist party and state positions in the Bloc were instructed to foster intra-leadership conflict and to transmit information against each other. This accompanied a continuous stream of accusations of "nationalistic deviations '', "insufficient appreciation of the USSR 's role '', links with Tito and "espionage for Yugoslavia. '' This resulted in the persecution of many major party cadres, including those in East Germany.
The first country experiencing this approach was Albania, where leader Enver Hoxha immediately changed course from favoring Yugoslavia to opposing it. In Poland, leader Władysław Gomułka, who had previously made pro-Yugoslav statements, was deposed as party secretary - general in early September 1948 and subsequently jailed. In Bulgaria, when it appeared that Traicho Kostov, who was not a Moscow cadre, was next in line for leadership, in June 1949, Stalin ordered Kostov 's arrest, followed soon thereafter by a death sentence and execution. A number of other high ranking Bulgarian officials were also jailed. Stalin and Hungarian leader Mátyás Rákosi met in Moscow to orchestrate a show trial of Rákosi opponent László Rajk, who was thereafter executed.
Despite the initial institutional design of communism implemented by Joseph Stalin in the Eastern Bloc, subsequent development varied across countries. In satellite states, after peace treaties were initially concluded, opposition was essentially liquidated, fundamental steps towards socialism were enforced and Kremlin leaders sought to strengthen control therein. Right from the beginning, Stalin directed systems that rejected Western institutional characteristics of market economies, capitalist parliamentary democracy (dubbed "bourgeois democracy '' in Soviet parlance) and the rule of law subduing discretional intervention by the state. The resulting states aspired to total control of a political center backed by an extensive and active repressive apparatus, and a central role of Marxist - Leninist ideology.
However, the vestiges of democratic institutions were never entirely destroyed, resulting in the façade of Western style institutions such as parliaments, which effectively just rubber - stamped decisions made by rulers, and constitutions, to which adherence by authorities was limited or non-existent. Parliaments were still elected, but their meetings occurred only a few days per year, only to legitimize politburo decisions, and so little attention was paid to them that some of those serving were actually dead, and officials would openly state that they would seat members who had lost elections.
The first or General Secretary of the central committee in each communist party was the most powerful figure in each regime. The party over which the politburo held sway was not a mass party but, conforming with Leninist tradition, a smaller selective party of between three and fourteen percent of the country 's population who had accepted total obedience. Those who secured membership in this selective party received considerable rewards, such as access to special lower priced shops with a greater selection of goods, special schools, holiday facilities, homes, furniture, works of art and official cars with special white license plates so that police and others could identify these members from a distance.
In addition to emigration restrictions, civil society, defined as a domain of political action outside the party 's state control, was not allowed to firmly take root, with the possible exception of Poland in the 1980s. While the institutional design on the communist systems were based on the rejection of rule of law, the legal infrastructure was not immune to change reflecting decaying ideology and the substitution of autonomous law. Initially, communist parties were small in all countries except Czechoslovakia, such that there existed an acute shortage of politically "trustworthy '' persons for administration, police and other professions. Thus, "politically unreliable '' non-communists initially had to fill such roles. Those not obedient to communist authorities were ousted, while Moscow cadres started a large - scale party programs to train personnel who would meet political requirements.
Communist regimes in the Eastern Bloc viewed marginal groups of opposition intellectuals as a potential threat because of the bases underlying Communist power therein. The suppression of dissidence and opposition was considered a central prerequisite to retain power, though the enormous expense at which the population in certain countries were kept under secret surveillance may not have been rational. Following a totalitarian initial phase, a post-totalitarian period followed the death of Stalin in which the primary method of Communist rule shifted from mass terror to selective repression, along with ideological and sociopolitical strategies of legitimation and the securing of loyalty. Juries were replaced by a tribunal of a professional judges and two lay assessors that were dependable party actors.
The police deterred and contained opposition to party directives. The political police served as the core of the system, with their names becoming synonymous with raw power and the threat of violent retribution should an individual become active against the collective. Several state police and secret police organizations enforced communist party rule, including:
The press in the communist period was an organ of the state, completely reliant on and subservient to the communist party. Before the late 1980s, Eastern Bloc radio and television organizations were state - owned, while print media was usually owned by political organizations, mostly by the local communist party. Youth newspapers and magazines were owned by youth organizations affiliated with communist parties.
The control of the media was exercised directly by the communist party itself, and by state censorship, which was also controlled by the party. Media served as an important form of control over information and society. The dissemination and portrayal of knowledge were considered by authorities to be vital to communism 's survival by stifling alternative concepts and critiques. Several state Communist Party newspapers were published, including:
The Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union (TASS) served as the central agency for collection and distribution of internal and international news for all Soviet newspapers, radio and television stations. It was frequently infiltrated by Soviet intelligence and security agencies, such as the NKVD and GRU. TASS had affiliates in 14 Soviet republics, including the Lithuanian SSR, Latvian SSR, Estonian SSR, Moldavian SSR. Ukrainian SSR and Byelorussian SSR.
Western countries invested heavily in powerful transmitters which enabled services such as the BBC, VOA and Radio Free Europe (RFE) to be heard in the Eastern Bloc, despite attempts by authorities to jam the airways.
Under the state atheism of many Eastern Bloc nations, religion was actively suppressed. Since some of these states tied their ethnic heritage to their national churches, both the peoples and their churches were targeted by the Soviets.
In 1949, the Soviet Union, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, and Romania founded the Comecon in accordance with Stalin 's desire to enforce Soviet domination of the lesser states of Central Europe and to mollify some states that had expressed interest in the Marshall Plan, and which were now, increasingly, cut off from their traditional markets and suppliers in Western Europe. The Comecon 's role became ambiguous because Stalin preferred more direct links with other party chiefs than the Comecon 's indirect sophistication; it played no significant role in the 1950s in economic planning. Initially, the Comecon served as cover for the Soviet taking of materials and equipment from the rest of the Eastern Bloc, but the balance changed when the Soviets became net subsidizers of the rest of the Bloc by the 1970s via an exchange of low cost raw materials in return for shoddily manufactured finished goods.
In 1955, the Warsaw Pact was formed partly in response to NATO 's inclusion of West Germany and partly because the Soviets needed an excuse to retain Red Army units in Hungary. For 35 years, the Pact perpetuated the Stalinist concept of Soviet national security based on imperial expansion and control over satellite regimes in Eastern Europe. This Soviet formalization of their security relationships in the Eastern Bloc reflected Moscow 's basic security policy principle that continued presence in East Central Europe was a foundation of its defense against the West. Through its institutional structures, the Pact also compensated in part for the absence of Joseph Stalin 's personal leadership since his death in 1953. The Pact consolidated the other Bloc members ' armies in which Soviet officers and security agents served under a unified Soviet command structure.
Beginning in 1964, Romania took a more independent course. While it did not repudiate either Comecon or the Warsaw Pact, it ceased to play a significant role in either. Nicolae Ceaușescu 's assumption of leadership one year later pushed Romania even further in the direction of separateness. Albania, which had become increasingly isolated under Stalinist leader Enver Hoxha following de-Stalinization, withdrew from the Warsaw Pact in 1968 following the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia.
In 1917, Russia restricted emigration by instituting passport controls and forbidding the exit of belligerent nationals. In 1922, after the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR, both the Ukrainian SSR and the Russian SFSR issued general rules for travel that foreclosed virtually all departures, making legal emigration impossible. Border controls thereafter strengthened such that, by 1928, even illegal departure was effectively impossible. This later included internal passport controls, which when combined with individual city Propiska ("place of residence '') permits, and internal freedom of movement restrictions often called the 101st kilometre, greatly restricted mobility within even small areas of the Soviet Union.
After the creation of the Eastern Bloc, emigration out of the newly occupied countries, except under limited circumstances, was effectively halted in the early 1950s, with the Soviet approach to controlling national movement emulated by most of the rest of the Eastern Bloc. However, in East Germany, taking advantage of the Inner German border between occupied zones, hundreds of thousands fled to West Germany, with figures totaling 197,000 in 1950, 165,000 in 1951, 182,000 in 1952 and 331,000 in 1953. One reason for the sharp 1953 increase was fear of potential further Sovietization with the increasingly paranoid actions of Joseph Stalin in late 1952 and early 1953. 226,000 had fled in the just the first six months of 1953.
With the closing of the Inner German border officially in 1952, the Berlin city sector borders remained considerably more accessible than the rest of the border because of their administration by all four occupying powers. Accordingly, it effectively comprised a "loophole '' through which Eastern Bloc citizens could still move west. The 3.5 million East Germans that had left by 1961, called Republikflucht, totaled approximately 20 % of the entire East German population. In August 1961, East Germany erected a barbed - wire barrier that would eventually be expanded through construction into the Berlin Wall, effectively closing the loophole.
With virtually non-existent conventional emigration, more than 75 % of those emigrating from Eastern Bloc countries between 1950 and 1990 did so under bilateral agreements for "ethnic migration. '' About 10 % were refugee migrants under the Geneva Convention of 1951. Most Soviets allowed to leave during this time period were ethnic Jews permitted to emigrate to Israel after a series of embarrassing defections in 1970 caused the Soviets to open very limited ethnic emigrations. The fall of the Iron Curtain was accompanied by a massive rise in European East - West migration. Famous Eastern Bloc defectors included Joseph Stalin 's daughter Svetlana Alliluyeva, who denounced Stalin after her 1967 defection.
Eastern Bloc countries such as the Soviet Union had high rates of population growth. In 1917, the population of Russia in its present borders was 91 million. Despite the destruction in the Russian Civil War, the population grew to 92.7 million in 1926. In 1939, the population increased by 17 percent to 108. million. Despite more than 20 million deaths suffered throughout World War II, Russia 's population grew to 117.2 million in 1959. The Soviet census of 1989 showed Russia 's population at 147 million people.
The Soviet economical and political system produced further consequences such as, for example, in Baltic states, where the population was approximately half of what it should have been compared with similar countries such as Denmark, Finland and Norway over the years 1939 -- 1990. Poor housing was one factor leading to severely declining birth rates throughout the Eastern Bloc. However, birth rates were still higher than in Western European countries. A reliance upon abortion, in part because periodic shortages of birth control pills and intrauterine devices made these systems unreliable, also depressed the birth rate and forced a shift to pro-natalist policies by the late 1960s, including severe checks on abortion and propagandist exhortations like the ' heroine mother ' distinction bestowed on those Romanian women who bore ten or more children.
In October 1966, artificial birth control was proscribed in Romania and regular pregnancy tests were mandated for women of child - bearing age, with severe penalties for anyone who was found to have terminated a pregnancy. Despite such restrictions, birth rates continued to lag, in part, because of unskilled induced abortions. Population in Eastern Bloc countries was as follows:
A housing shortage existed throughout the Eastern Bloc, especially after a severe cutback in state resources available for housing starting in 1975. Cities became filled with large system - built apartment blocks Western visitors from places like West Germany expressed surprise at the perceived shoddiness of new, box - like concrete structures across the border in East Germany, along with a relative greyness of the physical environment and the often joyless appearance of people on the street or in stores. Housing construction policy suffered from considerable organisational problems. Moreover, completed houses possessed noticeably poor quality finishes.
The near - total emphasis on large apartment blocks was a common feature of Eastern Bloc cities in the 1970s and 1980s. East German authorities viewed large cost advantages in the construction of Plattenbau apartment blocks such that the building of such architecture on the edge of large cities continued until the dissolution of the Eastern Bloc. These buildings, such as the Paneláks of Czechoslovakia and Panelház of Hungary, contained cramped concrete apartments that broadly lined Eastern Bloc streets, leaving the visitor with a "cold and grey '' impression. Wishing to reinforce the role of the state in the 1970s and 1980s, Nicolae Ceaușescu enacted the systematization programme, which consisted of the demolition and reconstruction of existing villages, towns, and cities, in whole or in part, in order to make place to standardized apartment blocks across the country (blocuri). Under this ideology, Ceaușescu built Centrul Civic of Bucharest in the 1980s, which contains the Palace of the Parliament, in the place of the former historic center.
Even by the late 1980s, sanitary conditions in most Eastern Bloc countries were generally far from adequate. For all countries for which data existed, 60 % of dwellings had a density of greater than one person per room between 1966 and 1975. The average in western countries for which data was available approximated 0.5 persons per room. Problems were aggravated by poor quality finishes on new dwellings often causing occupants to undergo a certain amount of finishing work and additional repairs. Housing quality figures for the Eastern Bloc are as follows:
The worsening shortages of the 1970s and 1980s occurred during an increase in the quantity of dwelling stock relative to population from 1970 to 1986. Even for new dwellings, average dwelling size was only 61.3 square metres (660 sq ft) in the Eastern Bloc compared with 113.5 square metres (1,222 sq ft) in ten western countries for which comparable data was available. Space standards varied considerably, with the average new dwelling in the Soviet Union in 1986 being only 68 % the size of its equivalent in Hungary. Apart from exceptional cases, such as East Germany in 1980 -- 1986 and Bulgaria in 1970 -- 1980, space standards in newly built dwellings rose before the dissolution of the Eastern Bloc. Housing size varied considerably across time, especially after the oil crisis in the Eastern Bloc; for instance, 1990 - era West German homes had an average floor space of 83 square metres (890 sq ft), compared to an average dwelling size in the GDR of 67 square metres (720 sq ft) in 1967. The figures are as follows:
Poor housing was one of four factors, others being high female employment and education levels and abortion access, which led to severely declining birth rates throughout the Eastern Bloc. Homelessness was the most obvious effect of the housing shortage, though it was hard to define and measure in the Eastern Bloc.
As with the economy of the Soviet Union, planners in the Eastern Bloc were directed by the resulting Five Year Plans which followed paths of extensive rather than intensive development, focusing upon heavy industry as the Soviet Union had done, leading to inefficiencies and shortage economies.
The Eastern Bloc countries achieved high rates of economic and technical progress, promoted industrialisation, and ensured steady growth rates of labor productivity and rises in the standard of living. However, because of the lack of market signals, Eastern Bloc economies experienced mis - development by central planners. The Eastern Bloc also depended upon the Soviet Union for significant amounts of materials.
Technological backwardness resulted in dependency on imports from Western countries and this, in turn, in demand for Western currency. Eastern Bloc countries were heavily borrowing from Club de Paris (central banks) and London Club (private banks) and most of them by early 80 's were forced to notify the creditors of their insolvency.
As a consequence of the Germans and World War II in Eastern Europe, much of the region had been subjected to enormous destruction of industry, infrastructure and loss of civilian life. In Poland alone the policy of plunder and exploitation inflicted enormous material losses to Polish industry (62 % of which was destroyed), agriculture, infrastructure and cultural landmarks, the cost of which has been estimated as approximately € 525 billion or $640 billion in 2004 exchange values
Throughout the Eastern Bloc, both in the USSR and the rest of the Bloc, Russia was given prominence, and referred to as the naiboleye vydayushchayasya natsiya (the most prominent nation) and the rukovodyashchiy narod (the leading people). The Soviets promoted the reverence of Russian actions and characteristics, and the construction of Soviet structural hierarchies in the other countries of the Eastern Bloc.
The defining characteristic of Stalinist totalitarianism was the unique symbiosis of the state with society and the economy, resulting in politics and economics losing their distinctive features as autonomous and distinguishable spheres. Initially, Stalin directed systems that rejected Western institutional characteristics of market economies, democratic governance (dubbed "bourgeois democracy '' in Soviet parlance) and the rule of law subduing discretional intervention by the state.
The Soviets mandated expropriation and etatisation of private property. The Soviet - style "replica regimes '' that arose in the Bloc not only reproduced Soviet command economies, but also adopted the brutal methods employed by Joseph Stalin and Soviet - style secret police to suppress real and potential opposition.
Stalinist regimes in the Eastern Bloc saw even marginal groups of opposition intellectuals as a potential threat because of the bases underlying Stalinist power therein. The suppression of dissent and opposition was a central prerequisite for the security of Stalinist power within the Eastern Bloc, though the degree of opposition and dissident suppression varied by country and time throughout the Eastern Bloc.
In addition, media in the Eastern Bloc were organs of the state, completely reliant on and subservient to the government of the USSR with radio and television organisations being state - owned, while print media was usually owned by political organisations, mostly by the local party. While over 15 million Eastern Bloc residents migrated westward from 1945 to 1949, emigration was effectively halted in the early 1950s, with the Soviet approach to controlling national movement emulated by most of the rest of the Eastern Bloc.
In the USSR, because of strict Soviet secrecy under Joseph Stalin, for many years after World War II, even the best informed foreigners did not effectively know about the operations of the Soviet economy. Stalin had sealed off outside access to the Soviet Union since 1935 (and until his death), effectively permitting no foreign travel inside the Soviet Union such that outsiders did not know of the political processes that had taken place therein. During this period, and even for 25 years after Stalin 's death, the few diplomats and foreign correspondents permitted inside the Soviet Union were usually restricted to within a few kilometres of Moscow, their phones were tapped, their residences were restricted to foreigner - only locations and they were constantly followed by Soviet authorities.
The Soviets also modeled economies in the rest of Eastern Bloc outside the Soviet Union along Soviet command economy lines. Before World War II, the Soviet Union used draconian procedures to ensure compliance with directives to invest all assets in state planned manners, including the collectivisation of agriculture and utilising a sizeable labor army collected in the gulag system. This system was largely imposed on other Eastern Bloc countries after World War II. While propaganda of proletarian improvements accompanied systemic changes, terror and intimidation of the consequent ruthless Stalinism obfuscated feelings of any purported benefits.
Stalin felt that socioeconomic transformation was indispensable to establish Soviet control, reflecting the Marxist - Leninist view that material bases, the distribution of the means of production, shaped social and political relations. Moscow trained cadres were put into crucial power positions to fulfill orders regarding sociopolitical transformation. Elimination of the bourgeoisie 's social and financial power by expropriation of landed and industrial property was accorded absolute priority.
These measures were publicly billed as reforms rather than socioeconomic transformations. Throughout the Eastern Bloc, except for Czechoslovakia, "societal organisations '' such as trade unions and associations representing various social, professional and other groups, were erected with only one organisation for each category, with competition excluded. Those organisations were managed by Stalinist cadres, though during the initial period, they allowed for some diversity.
At the same time, at the war 's end, the Soviet Union adopted a "plunder policy '' of physically transporting and relocating east European industrial assets to the Soviet Union. Eastern Bloc states were required to provide coal, industrial equipment, technology, rolling stock and other resources to reconstruct the Soviet Union. Between 1945 and 1953, the Soviets received a net transfer of resources from the rest of the Eastern Bloc under this policy of roughly $14 billion, an amount comparable to the net transfer from the United States to western Europe in the Marshall Plan. "Reparations '' included the dismantling of railways in Poland and Romanian reparations to the Soviets between 1944 and 1948 valued at $1.8 billion concurrent with the domination of SovRoms.
In addition, the Soviets re-organised enterprises as joint - stock companies in which the Soviets possessed the controlling interest. Using that control vehicle, several enterprises were required to sell products at below world prices to the Soviets, such as uranium mines in Czechoslovakia and East Germany, coal mines in Poland, and oil wells in Romania.
The trading pattern of the Eastern Bloc countries was severely modified. Before World War II, no greater than 1 % -- 2 % of those countries ' trade was with the Soviet Union. By 1953, the share of such trade had jumped to 37 %. In 1947, Stalin had also denounced the Marshall Plan and forbade all Eastern Bloc countries from participating in it.
Soviet dominance further tied other Eastern Bloc economies, except for Yugoslavia, to Moscow via the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) or COMECON, which determined countries ' investment allocations and the products that would be traded within Eastern Bloc. Although COMECON was initiated in 1949, its role became ambiguous because Stalin preferred more direct links with other party chiefs than the indirect sophistication of the Council; it played no significant role in the 1950s in economic planning.
Initially, COMECON served as cover for the Soviet taking of materials and equipment from the rest of the Eastern Bloc, but the balance changed when the Soviets became net subsidisers of the rest of the Bloc by the 1970s via an exchange of low cost raw materials in return for shoddily manufactured finished goods. While resources such as oil, timber and uranium initially made gaining access to other Eastern Bloc economies attractive, the Soviets soon had to export Soviet raw materials to those countries to maintain cohesion therein. Following resistance to COMECON plans to extract Romania 's mineral resources and heavily utilise its agricultural production, in 1964 Romania began to take a more independent stance. While it did not repudiate COMECON, it took no significant role in its operation, especially after the rise to power of Nicolae Ceauşescu.
Economic activity was governed by Five year plans, divided into monthly segments, with government planners frequently attempting to meet plan targets regardless of whether a market existed for the goods being produced. Little coordination existed between departments such that cars could be produced before filling stations or roads were built, or a new hospital in Warsaw in the 1980s could stand empty for four years waiting for the production of equipment to fill it. Nevertheless, if such political objectives had been met, propagandists could boast of increased vehicle production and the completion of another new hospital.
Inefficient bureaucracies were frequently created, with for instance, Bulgarian farms having to meet at least six hundred different plan fulfillment figures. Socialist product requirements produced distorted black market consequences, such that broken light bulbs possessed significant market values in Eastern Bloc offices because a broken light bulb was required to be submitted before a new light bulb would be issued.
Factory managers and foremen could hold their posts only if they were cleared under the nomenklatura list system of party - approved cadres. All decisions were constrained by the party politics of what was considered good management. For laborers, work was assigned on the pattern of "norms '', with sanctions for non-fulfillment. However, the system really served to increase inefficiency, because if the norms were met, management would merely increase them. The stakhanovite system was employed to highlight the achievements of successful work brigades, and "shock brigades '' were introduced into plants to show the others how much could be accomplished.
Also, "Lenin shifts '' or "Lenin Saturdays '' were introduced, requiring extra work time for no pay. However, the emphasis on the construction of heavy industry provided full employment and social mobility through the recruitment of young rural workers and women. While blue - collar workers enjoyed that they earned as much or more than many professionals, the standard of living did not match the pace of improvement in Western Europe.
Only Yugoslavia (and later Romania and Albania) engaged in their own industrial planning, though they enjoyed little more success than that of the rest of the Bloc. Albania, which had remained strongly Stalinist in ideology well after de-Stalinisation, was politically and commercially isolated from the other Eastern Bloc countries and the west. By the late 1980s, it was the poorest country in Europe, and still lacked sewerage, piped water, and piped gas.
In the Soviet Union, there was unprecedented affordability of housing, health care, and education. Apartment rent on average amounted to only 1 percent of the family budget, a figure which reached 4 percent when municipal services are factored in. Tram tickets were 20 kopecki, and a loaf of bread was 15 kopecki. The average salary of an engineer was 140 - 160 rubles.
The Soviet Union made major progress in developing the country 's consumer goods sector. In 1970, the USSR produced 679 million pairs of leather footwear, compared to 534 million for the United States. Czechoslovakia, which had the world 's highest per - capita production of shoes, exported a significant portion of its shoe production to other countries.
The rising standard of living under socialism led to a steady decrease in the workday and an increase in leisure. In 1974, the average workweek for Soviet industrial workers was 40 hours. Paid vacations in 1968 reached a minimum of 15 workdays. In the mid-1970s the number of free days per year - days off, holidays and vacations was 128 - 130, almost double the figure from the previous ten years.
Because of the lack of market signals in such economies, they experienced mis - development by central planners resulting in those countries following a path of extensive (large mobilisation of inefficiently used capital, labor, energy and raw material inputs) rather than intensive (efficient resource use) development to attempt to achieve quick growth. The Eastern Bloc countries were required to follow the Soviet model over-emphasising heavy industry at the expense of light industry and other sectors.
Since that model involved the prodigal exploitation of natural and other resources, it has been described as a kind of "slash and burn '' modality. While the Soviet system strove for a dictatorship of the proletariat, there was little existing proletariat in many eastern European countries, such that to create one, heavy industry needed to be built. Each system shared the distinctive themes of state - oriented economies, including poorly defined property rights, a lack of market clearing prices and overblown or distorted productive capacities in relation to analogous market economies.
Major errors and waste occurred in the resource allocation and distribution systems. Because of the party - run monolithic state organs, these systems provided no effective mechanisms or incentives to control costs, profligacy, inefficiency and waste. Heavy industry was given priority because of its importance for the military - industrial establishment and for the engineering sector.
Factories were sometimes inefficiently located, incurring high transport costs, while poor plant - organisation sometimes resulted in production hold ups and knock - on effects in other industries dependent on monopoly suppliers of intermediates. For example, each country, including Albania, built steel mills regardless of whether they lacked the requisite resource of energy and mineral ores. A massive metallurgical plant was built in Bulgaria despite the fact that its ores had to be imported from the Soviet Union and carried for 320 kilometres from the port at Burgas. A Warsaw tractor factory in 1980 had a 52 - page list of unused rusting, then useless, equipment.
The emphasis on heavy industry diverted investment from the more practical production of chemicals and plastics. In addition, the plans ' emphasis on quantity rather than quality made Eastern Bloc products less competitive in the world market. High costs passed through the product chain boosted the ' value ' of production on which wage increases were based, but made exports less competitive. Planners rarely closed old factories even when new capacities opened elsewhere.
For example, the Polish steel industry retained a plant in Upper Silesia despite the opening of modern integrated units on the periphery while the last old Siemens - Martin process furnace installed in the 19th century was not closed down immediately.
There were claims that producer goods were favoured over consumer goods, causing consumer goods to be lacking in quantity and quality in the shortage economies that resulted. However, this is disputed. An article in "Russian Life '' writes, "Today the Soviet reality is discussed, there are stories about food shortages. This is one of the most persistent, propagandistic cliches... It is necessary to say that in reality, nothing of the sort happened. Starting in 1979, when I was seven, my mother regularly took me to the farm market in Butyrsky. The abundance of groceries at the market left me with a strong impression. I remember fresh meat for 3 - 5 rubles per kg, potatoes at 20 kopecki, and pineapples and watermelons in mid-winter. ''
By the mid-1970s, budget deficits rose considerably and domestic prices widely diverged from the world prices, while production prices averaged 2 % higher than consumer prices. Many premium goods could be bought only in special stores using foreign currency generally inaccessible to most Eastern Bloc citizens, such as Intershop in East Germany, Beryozka in the Soviet Union, Pewex in Poland, Tuzex in Czechoslovakia and Corecom in Bulgaria. Much of what was produced for the local population never reached its intended user, while many perishable products became unfit for consumption before reaching their consumers.
As a result of the deficiencies of the official economy, black markets were created that were often supplied by goods stolen from the public sector. The second, "parallel economy '' flourished throughout the Bloc because of rising unmet state consumer needs. Black and gray markets for foodstuffs, goods, and cash arose. Goods included household goods, medical supplies, clothes, furniture, cosmetics, and toiletries in chronically short supply through official outlets.
Many farmers concealed actual output from purchasing agencies to sell it illicitly to urban consumers. Hard foreign currencies were highly sought after, while highly valued Western items functioned as a medium of exchange or bribery in Stalinist countries, such as in Romania, where Kent cigarettes served as an unofficial extensively used currency to buy goods and services. Some service workers moonlighted illegally providing services directly to customers for payment.
This created a particular petty theft mentality. A saying in Czechoslovakia was "if you do not steal from the state, you are robbing your own family. ''
The extensive production industrialization that resulted was not responsive to consumer needs and caused a neglect in the service sector, unprecedented rapid urbanization, acute urban overcrowding, chronic shortages and massive recruitment of women into mostly menial and / or low - paid occupations. The consequent strains resulted in the widespread used of coercion, repression, show trials, purges and intimidation. By 1960, massive urbanisation occurred in Poland (48 % urban) and Bulgaria (38 %), which increased employment for peasants, but also caused illiteracy to skyrocket when children left school for work.
Cities became massive building sites, resulting in the reconstruction of some war - torn buildings but also the construction of drab dilapidated system - built apartment blocks. Urban living standards plummeted because resources were tied up in huge long - term building projects, while industrialization forced millions of former peasants to live in hut camps or grim apartment blocks close to massive polluting industrial complexes.
Collectivization is a process pioneered by Joseph Stalin in the late 1920s by which Marxist - Leninist regimes in the Eastern Bloc and elsewhere attempted to establish an ordered socialist system in rural agriculture. It required the forced consolidation of small - scale peasant farms and larger holdings belonging to the landed classes for the purpose of creating larger modern "collective farms '' owned, in theory, by the workers therein. In reality, such farms were owned by the state.
In addition to eradicating the perceived inefficiencies associated with small - scale farming on discontiguous land holdings, collectivization also purported to achieve the political goal of removing the rural basis for resistance to Stalinist regimes. A further justification given was the need to promote industrial development by facilitating the state 's procurement of agricultural products and transferring "surplus labor '' from rural to urban areas. In short, agriculture was reorganized in order to proletarianize the peasantry and control production at prices determined by the state.
The Eastern Bloc possesses substantial agricultural resources, especially in southern areas, such as Hungary 's Great Plain, which offered good soils and a warm climate during the growing season. Rural collectivization proceeded differently in non-Soviet Eastern Bloc countries than it did in the Soviet Union in the 1920s and 1930s. Because of the need to conceal of the assumption of control and the realities of an initial lack of control, no Soviet dekulakisation - style liquidation of rich peasants could be carried out in the non-Soviet Eastern Bloc countries.
Nor could they risk mass starvation or agricultural sabotage (e.g., holodomor) with a rapid collectivization through massive state farms and agricultural producers ' cooperatives (APCs). Instead, collectivization proceeded more slowly and in stages from 1948 to 1960 in Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and East Germany, and from 1955 to 1964 in Albania. Collectivization in the Baltic republics of the Lithuanian SSR, Estonian SSR and Latvian SSR took place between 1947 and 1952.
Unlike Soviet collectivization, neither massive destruction of livestock nor errors causing distorted output or distribution occurred in the other Eastern Bloc countries. More widespread use of transitional forms occurred, with differential compensation payments for peasants that contributed more land to APCs. Because Czechoslovakia and East Germany were more industrialized than the Soviet Union, they were in a position to furnish most of the equipment and fertilizer inputs needed to ease the transition to collectivized agriculture. Instead of liquidating large farmers or barring them from joining APCs as Stalin had done through dekulakisation, those farmers were utilised in the non-Soviet Eastern Bloc collectivizations, sometimes even being named farm chairman or managers. Massive industrialization eventually caused young men to move to urban centres, depressing agricultural productivity.
Collectivisation often met with strong rural resistance, including peasants frequently destroying property rather than surrendering it to the collectives. Strong peasant links with the land through private ownership were broken and many young people left for careers in industry. In Poland and Yugoslavia, fierce resistance from peasants, many of whom had resisted the Axis, led to the abandonment of wholesale rural collectivisation in the early 1950s. In part because of the problems created by collectivisation, agriculture was largely de-collectivised in Poland in 1957.
The fact that Poland nevertheless managed to carry out large - scale centrally planned industrialisation with no more difficulty than its collectivised Eastern Bloc neighbours further called into question the need for collectivisation in such planned economies. Only Poland 's "western territories '', those eastwardly adjacent to the Oder - Neisse line that were annexed from Germany, were substantially collectivised, largely in order to settle large numbers of Poles on good farmland which had been taken from German farmers.
There was significant progress made in the economy in countries such as the Soviet Union. In 1980, the Soviet Union took first place in Europe and second worldwide in terms of industrial and agricultural production, respectively. In 1960, the USSR 's industrial output was only 55 % that of America, but this increased to 80 % in 1980.
With the change of the Soviet leadership in 1964, there were significant changes made to economic policy. The Government on 30 September 1965 issued a decree "On improving the management of industry '' and the 4 October 1965 resolution "On improving and strengthening the economic incentives for industrial production ''. The main initiator of these reforms was Premier A. Kosygin. Kosygin 's reforms on agriculture gave considerable autonomy to the collective farms, giving them the right to the contents of private farming. During this period, there was the large - scale land reclamation program, the construction of irrigation channels, and other measures. In the period 1966 -- 70, the gross national product grew by over 350 %. The country produced 4 times more than the previous five - year period. Industrial output increased by 485 % and agriculture by 171 %. In the eighth Five - Year Plan, the national income grew at an average rate of 7.8 %. In the ninth Five - Year Plan (1971 -- 1975), the national income grew at an annual rate of 5.7 %. In the 10th Five - Year Plan (1976 -- 1981), the national income grew at an annual rate of 4.3 %.
The Soviet Union made noteworthy scientific and technological progress. Unlike capitalist countries, scientific and technological potential in the USSR was used in accordance with a plan on the scale of society as a whole.
In 1980, the number of scientific personnel in the USSR was 1.4 million. The number of engineers employed in the national economy was 4.7 million. Between 1960 and 1980, the number of scientific personnel increased by a factor of 4. In 1975, the number of scientific personnel in the USSR amounted to one - fourth of the total number of scientific personnel in the world. In 1980, as compared with 1940, the number of invention proposals submitted was more than 5 million. In 1980, there were 10 all - Union research institutes, 85 specialised central agencies, and 93 regional information centres.
The world 's first nuclear power plant was commissioned on June 27, 1954 in Obninsk. Soviet scientists made a major contribution to the development of computer technology. The first major achievements in the field were associated with the building of analog computers. In the USSR, principles for the construction of network analysers were developed by S. Gershgorin in 1927 and the concept of the electrodynamic analog computer was proposed by N. Minorsky in 1936. In the 1940s, the development of AC electronic antiaircraft directors and the first vacuum - tube integrators was begun by L. Gutenmakher. In the 1960s, important developments in modern computer equipment were the BESM - 6 system built under the direction of S.A. Lebedev, the MIR series of small digital computers, and the Minsk series of digital computers developed by G. Lopato and V. Przhyalkovsky.
The Moscow Metro has 180 stations used by around 7 million passengers per day. It is one of the world 's busiest undergrounds and considered to be the most beautiful. In the Soviet period, the fare was 5 kopeks which permitted the rider to ride everywhere on the system.
Author Turnock claims that transport in the Eastern Bloc was characterised by poor infrastructural maintenance. The road network suffered from inadequate load capacity, poor surfacing and deficient roadside servicing. While roads were resurfaced, few new roads were built and there were very few divided highway roads, urban ring roads or bypasses. Private car ownership remained low by Western standards.
Vehicle ownership increased in the 1970s and 1980s with the production of inexpensive cars in East Germany such as Trabants and the Wartburgs. However, the wait list for the distribution of Trabants was ten years in 1987 and up to fifteen years for Soviet Lada and Czechoslovakian Škoda cars. Soviet - built aircraft exhibited deficient technology, with high fuel consumption and heavy maintenance demands. Telecommunications networks were overloaded.
Adding to mobility constraints from the inadequate transport systems were bureaucratic mobility restrictions. While outside of Albania, domestic travel eventually became largely regulation - free, stringent controls on the issue of passports, visas and foreign currency made foreign travel difficult inside the Eastern Bloc. Countries were inured to isolation and initial post-war autarky, with each country effectively restricting bureaucrats to viewing issues from a domestic perspective shaped by that country 's specific propaganda.
Severe environmental problems arose through urban traffic congestion, which was aggravated by pollution generated by poorly maintained vehicles. Large thermal power stations burning lignite and other items became notorious polluters, while some hydro - electric systems performed inefficiently because of dry seasons and silt accumulation in reservoirs. Kraków, Poland was covered by smog 135 days per year, while Wrocław was covered by a fog of chrome gas.
Several villages were evacuated because of copper smelting at Głogów. Further rural problems arose from piped water construction being given precedence over building sewerage systems, leaving many houses with only inbound piped water delivery and not enough sewage tank trucks to carry away sewage. The resulting drinking water became so polluted in Hungary that over 700 villages had to be supplied by tanks, bottles and plastic bags. Nuclear power projects were prone to long commissioning delays.
The catastrophe at the Chernobyl nuclear plant in the Ukrainian SSR was caused by an irresponsible safety test on a reactor design that is normally safe, some operators lacking an even basic understanding of the reactor 's processes and authoritarian Soviet bureaucracy, valuing party loyalty over competence, that kept promoting incompetent personnel and choosing cheapness over safety. The consequent release of fallout resulted in the evacuation and resettlement of over 336,000 people leaving a massive desolate Zone of alienation containing extensive still - standing abandoned urban development.
Tourism from outside the Eastern Bloc was neglected, while tourism from other Stalinist countries grew within the Eastern Bloc. Tourism drew investment, relying upon tourism and recreation opportunities existing before World War II. By 1945, most hotels were run - down, while many which escaped conversion to other uses by central planners were slated to meet domestic demands. Authorities created state companies to arrange travel and accommodation. In the 1970s, investments were made to attempt to attract western travelers, though momentum for this waned in the 1980s when no long - term plan arose to procure improvements in the tourist environment, such as an assurance of freedom of movement, free and efficient money exchange and the provision of higher quality products with which these tourists were familiar. However, western tourists were generally free to move about in Hungary, Poland and Yugoslavia and go where they wished. It was more difficult or even impossible to go as an individual tourist to East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Bulgaria and Albania. It was generally possible in all cases, save Albania, for relatives from the west to visit and stay with family in the Eastern Bloc countries, except for Albania. In these cases, permission had to be sought, precise times, length of stay, location and movements had to be known in advance.
Catering to western visitors required creating an environment of an entirely different standard than that used for the domestic populace, which required concentration of travel spots including the building of relatively high - quality infrastructure in travel complexes, which could not easily be replicated elsewhere. In Albania, because of a desire to preserve ideological discipline and the fear of the presence of wealthier foreigners engaging in differing lifestyles, Albania segregated travelers. Because of the worry of the subversive effect of the tourist industry, travel was restricted to 6,000 visitors per year.
Growth rates in the Eastern Bloc were initially high in the 1950s and 1960s. During this first period, progress was rapid by European standards, and per capita growth within the Eastern Bloc increased by 2.4 times the European average. Eastern Europe accounted for 12.3 percent of European production in 1950 but 14.4 in 1970. However, the system was resistant to change, and did not easily adapt to new conditions. For political reasons, old factories were rarely closed, even when new technologies became available. As a result, after the 1970s, growth rates within the bloc experienced relative decline. Meanwhile, West Germany, Austria, France and other Western European nations experienced increased economic growth in the Wirtschaftswunder ("economic miracle ''), Trente Glorieuses ("thirty glorious years '') and the post-World War II boom. After the fall of USSR in the 1990s, growth plummeted, living standards declined, drug use, homelessness and poverty skyrocketed, and suicides increased dramatically. Growth did not begin to return to pre-reform era levels for approximately 15 years.
From the end of the World War II to the mid-1970s, the economy of the Eastern Bloc steadily increased at the same rate as the economy in Western Europe, with the least none - reforming Stalinist nations of the Eastern Bloc having a stronger economy then the reformist - Stalinist states. While most western European economies essentially began to approach the per capita Gross Domestic Product (GDP) levels of the United States during the late 1970s and early 1980s, the Eastern Bloc countries did not, with per capita GDPs trailing significantly behind their comparable western European counterparts.
The following table displays a set of estimated growth rates of GDP from 1951 onward, for the countries of the Eastern Bloc as well as those of Western Europe, as reported by The Conference Board as part of its Total Economy Database. Note that in some cases, data availability does not go all the way back to 1951.
The United Nations Statistics Division also calculates growth rates, using a different methodology, but only reports the figures starting in 1971 (note: for Slovakia and the constituent republics of the USSR, data availability begins later). Thus, according to the U.N., growth rates in Europe were as follows:
While, arguably the World Bank estimates of GDP used for 1990 figures underestimate Eastern Bloc GDP because of undervalued local currencies, per capita incomes are undoubtedly lower than in their counterparts. East Germany was the most advanced industrial nation of the Eastern Bloc. Until the building of the Berlin Wall in 1961, East Germany was considered a weak state, hemorrhaging skilled labor to the West such that it was referred to as "the disappearing satellite. '' Only after the wall sealed in skilled labor was East Germany able to ascend to the top economic spot in the Eastern Bloc. Thereafter, its citizens enjoyed a higher quality of life and fewer shortages in the supply of goods than those in the Soviet Union, Poland or Romania. However, many citizens in East Germany enjoyed one particular advantage over their counterparts in other Eastern Bloc countries, in that they were often supported by relatives and friends in West Germany who would bring goods from the West on visits or even send goods or money. The West German government and many organisations in West Germany supported projects in East Germany, such as rebuilding and restoration or making good some shortages in times of need (e.g. toothbrushes) from which East German citizens again benefited. The two Germanies, divided politically, remained however united by language (although with two political systems, some terms had different meanings in East and West). West German television reached East Germany, which many East Germans watched and from which they obtained information about their own state in short supply at home. Being part of a divided country, East Germany occupied a unique position therefore in the Eastern Bloc unlike, for example, Hungary in relation to Austria, which had previously been under one monarch but which were already divided by language and culture.
While official statistics painted a relatively rosy picture, the East German economy had eroded because of increased central planning, economic autarky, the use of coal over oil, investment concentration in a few selected technology - intensive areas and labor market regulation. As a result, a large productivity gap of nearly 50 % per worker existed between East and West Germany. However, that gap does not measure the quality of design of goods or service such that the actual per capita rate may be as low as 14 to 20 per cent. Average gross monthly wages in East Germany were around 30 % of those in West Germany, though after accounting for taxation, the figures approached 60 %.
Moreover, the purchasing power of wages differed greatly, with only about half of East German households owning either a car or a color television set as late as 1990, both of which had been standard possessions in West German households. The Ostmark was only valid for transactions inside East Germany, could not be legally exported or imported and could not be used in the East German Intershops which sold premium goods. In 1989, 11 % of the East German labor force remained in agriculture, 47 % was in the secondary sector and only 42 % in services.
Once installed, the economic system was difficult to change given the importance of politically reliable management and the prestige value placed on large enterprises. Performance declined during the 1970s and 1980s due to inefficiency when industrial input costs, such as energy prices, increased. Though growth lagged behind the west, it did occur. Consumer goods started to become more available by the 1960s.
Before the Eastern Bloc 's dissolution, some major sectors of industry were operating at such a loss that they exported products to the West at prices below the real value of the raw materials. Hungarian steel costs doubled those of western Europe. In 1985, a quarter of Hungary 's state budget was spent on supporting inefficient enterprises. Tight planning in Bulgaria industry meant continuing shortages in other parts of its economy.
In social terms, the 18 years (1964 -- 1982) of Brezhnev 's leadership saw real incomes grow more than 1.5 times. More than 1.6 thousand million square metres of living space were commissioned and provided to over 160 million people. At the same time, the average rent for families did not exceed 3 % of the family income. There was unprecedented affordability of housing, health care, and education.
In a survey by the Sociological Research Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences in 1986, 75 % of those surveyed said that they were better off than the previous ten years. Over 95 % of Soviet adults considered themselves "fairly well off ''. 55 % of those surveyed felt that medical services improved, 46 % believed public transportation had improved, and 48 % said that the standard of services provided public service establishments had risen.
During the years 1957 -- 65 housing policy underwent several institutional changes with industrialisation and urbanisation had not been matched by an increase in housing after World War II. Housing shortages in the Soviet Union were worse than in the rest of the Eastern Bloc due to a larger migration to the towns and more wartime devastation, and were worsened by Stalin 's pre-war refusals to invest properly in housing. Because such investment was generally not enough to sustain the existing population, apartments had to be subdivided into increasingly smaller units, resulting in several families sharing an apartment previously meant for one family.
The prewar norm became one Soviet family per room, with the toilets and kitchen shared. The amount of living space in urban areas fell from 5.7 square metres per person in 1926 to 4.5 square metres in 1940. In the rest of the Eastern Bloc during this time period, the average number of people per room was 1.8 in Bulgaria (1956), 2.0 in Czechoslovakia (1961), 1.5 in Hungary (1963), 1.7 in Poland (1960), 1.4 in Romania (1966), 2.4 in Yugoslavia (1961), and 0.9 in 1961 in East Germany.
After Stalin 's death in 1953, forms of an economic "New Course '' brought a revival of private house construction. Private construction peaked in 1957 -- 1960 in many Eastern Bloc countries and then declined simultaneously along with a steep increase in state and co-operative housing. By 1960, the rate of house - building per head had picked up in all countries in the Eastern Bloc. Between 1950 and 1975, worsening shortages were generally caused by a fall in the proportion of all investment made housing. However, during that period the total number of dwellings increased.
During the last fifteen years of this period (1960 to 1975), an emphasis was made for a supply side solution, which assumed that industrialised building methods and high rise housing would be cheaper and quicker than traditional brick - built, low - rise housing. Such methods required manufacturing organisations to produce the prefabricated components and organisations to assemble them on site, both of which planners assumed would employ large numbers of unskilled workers - with powerful political contacts. The lack of participation of eventual customers, the residents, constituted one factor in escalating construction costs and poor quality work. This led to higher demolition rates and higher costs to repair poorly constructed dwellings. In addition, because of poor quality work, a black market arose for building services and materials that could not be procured from state monopolies.
In most countries, completions (new dwellings constructed) rose to a high point between 1975 and 1980 and then fell, as a result presumably of worsening international economic conditions. This occurred in Bulgaria, Hungary, East Germany, Poland, Romania (with an earlier peak in 1960 also), Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia, while the Soviet Union peaked in 1960 and 1970. While between 1975 and 1986, the proportion of investment devoted to housing actually rose in most of the Eastern Bloc, general economic conditions resulted in total investment amounts falling or becoming stagnant.
The employment of socialist ideology in housing policy declined in the 1980s, which accompanied a shift in authorities looking at the need of residents to an examination of potential residents ' ability to pay. Yugoslavia was unique in that it continuously mixed private and state sources of housing finance, stressed self - managed building co-operatives along with central government controls.
The initial year that shortages were effectively measured and shortages in 1986 were as follows:
These are official housing figures and may be low. For example, in the Soviet Union, the figure of 26,662,400 in 1986 almost certainly underestimates shortages for the reason that it does not count shortages from large Soviet rural - urban migration; another calculation estimates shortages to be 59,917,900. By the late 1980s, Poland had an average 20 - year wait time for housing, while Warsaw had between a 26 - and 50 - year wait time. In the Soviet Union, widespread illegal subletting occurred at exorbitant rates. Toward the end of the Eastern Bloc allegations of misallocations and illegal distribution of housing were raised in Soviet CPSU Central Committee meetings.
In Poland, housing problems were caused by slow rates of construction, poor home quality (which was even more pronounced in villages), and a large black market. In Romania, social engineering policy and concern about the use of agricultural land forced high densities and high - rise housing designs. In Bulgaria, a prior emphasis on monolithic high - rise housing lessened somewhat in the 1970s and 1980s. In the Soviet Union, housing was perhaps the primary social problem. While Soviet housing construction rates were high, quality was poor and demolition rates were high, in part because of an inefficient building industry and lack of both quality and quantity of construction materials.
East German housing suffered from a lack of quality and a lack of skilled labor, with a shortage of materials, plot and permits. In staunchly Stalinist Albania, housing blocks (panelka) were spartan, with six story walk - ups being the most frequent design. Housing was allocated by workplace trade unions and built by voluntary labor organised into brigades within the workplace. Yugoslavia suffered from fast urbanisation, uncoordinated development and poor organisation resulting from a lack of hierarchical structure and clear accountability, low building productivity, the monopoly position of building enterprises, and irrational credit policies.
Three months after the death of Joseph Stalin, a dramatic increase of emigration (Republikflucht, brain drain) occurred from East Germany in the first half - year of 1953. Large numbers of East Germans traveled west through the only "loophole '' left in the Eastern Bloc emigration restrictions, the Berlin sector border. The East German government then raised "norms '' -- the amount each worker was required to produce -- by 10 %. Already disaffected East Germans, who could see the relative economic successes of West Germany within Berlin, became enraged. Angry building workers initiated street protests, and were soon joined by others in a march to the Berlin trade union headquarters.
While no official spoke to them at that location, by 2: 00 pm, the East German government agreed to withdraw the "norm '' increases. However, the crisis had already escalated such that the demands were now political, including free elections, disbanding the army and resignation of the government. By 17 June, strikes were recorded in 317 locations involving approximately 400,000 workers. When strikers set ruling SED party buildings aflame and tore the flag from the Brandenburg Gate, SED General Secretary Walter Ulbricht left Berlin.
A major emergency was declared and the Soviet Red Army stormed some important buildings. With hours, Soviet tanks arrived, but they did not immediately fire upon all workers. Rather, a gradual pressure was applied. Approximately 16 Soviet divisions with 20,000 soldiers from the Group of Soviet Forces in Germany using tanks, as well as 8,000 Kasernierte Volkspolizei members, were employed. Bloodshed could not be entirely avoided, with the official death toll standing at 21, while the actual casualty toll may have been much higher. Thereafter, 20,000 arrests took place along with 40 executions.
After Stalin 's 1953 death, a period of de-Stalinization followed, with reformist Imre Nagy replacing Hungarian Stalinist dictator Mátyás Rákosi. Responding to popular demand, in October 1956, the Polish government appointed the recently rehabilitated reformist Władysław Gomułka as First Secretary of the Polish United Workers ' Party, with a mandate to negotiate trade concessions and troop reductions with the Soviet government. After a few tense days of negotiations, on 19 October, the Soviets finally gave in to Gomułka 's reformist requests.
The revolution began after students of the Technical University compiled a list of Demands of Hungarian Revolutionaries of 1956 and conducted protests in support of the demands on 22 October. Protests of support swelled to 200,000 by 6 pm the following day, The demands included free secret ballot elections, independent tribunals, inquiries into Stalin and Rákosi Hungarian activities and that "the statue of Stalin, symbol of Stalinist tyranny and political oppression, be removed as quickly as possible. '' By 9: 30 pm the statue was toppled (see photo to the right) and jubilant crowds celebrated by placing Hungarian flags in Stalin 's boots, which was all that remained the statue. The ÁVH was called, Hungarian soldiers sided with the crowd over the ÁVH and shots were fired on the crowd.
By 2 am on 24 October, under orders of Soviet defense minister Georgy Zhukov, Soviet tanks entered Budapest. Protester attacks at the Parliament forced the dissolution of the government. A ceasefire was arranged on 28 October, and by 30 October most Soviet troops had withdrawn from Budapest to garrisons in the Hungarian countryside. Fighting had virtually ceased between 28 October and 4 November, while many Hungarians believed that Soviet military units were indeed withdrawing from Hungary.
The new government that came to power during the revolution formally disbanded ÁVH, declared its intention to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact and pledged to re-establish free elections. The Soviet Politburo thereafter moved to crush the revolution. On 4 November, a large Soviet force invaded Budapest and other regions of the country. The last pocket of resistance called for ceasefire on 10 November. Over 2,500 Hungarians and 722 Soviet troops were killed and thousands more were wounded.
Thousands of Hungarians were arrested, imprisoned and deported to the Soviet Union, many without evidence. Approximately 200,000 Hungarians fled Hungary, some 26,000 Hungarians were put on trial by the new Soviet - installed János Kádár government, and of those, 13,000 were imprisoned. Imre Nagy was executed, along with Pál Maléter and Miklós Gimes, after secret trials in June 1958. Their bodies were placed in unmarked graves in the Municipal Cemetery outside Budapest. By January 1957, the new Soviet - installed government had suppressed all public opposition.
A period of political liberalization in Czechoslovakia called the Prague Spring took place in 1968. The event was spurred by several events, including economic reforms that addressed an early 1960s economic downturn. The event began on 5 January 1968, when reformist Slovak Alexander Dubček came to power. In April, Dubček launched an "Action Program '' of liberalizations, which included increasing freedom of the press, freedom of speech and freedom of movement, along with an economic emphasis on consumer goods, the possibility of a multiparty government and limiting the power of the secret police.
Initial reaction within the Eastern Bloc was mixed, with Hungary 's János Kádár expressing support, while Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev and others grew concerned about Dubček 's reforms, which they feared might weaken the Eastern Bloc 's position during the Cold War. On 3 August, representatives from the Soviet Union, East Germany, Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Czechoslovakia met in Bratislava and signed the Bratislava Declaration, which affirmed unshakable fidelity to Marxism -- Leninism and proletarian internationalism and declared an implacable struggle against "bourgeois '' ideology and all "anti-socialist '' forces.
On the night of 20 -- 21 August 1968, Eastern Bloc armies from five Warsaw Pact countries -- the Soviet Union, Poland, East Germany, Hungary and Bulgaria -- invaded Czechoslovakia. The invasion comported with the Brezhnev Doctrine, a policy of compelling Eastern Bloc states to subordinate national interests to those of the Bloc as a whole and the exercise of a Soviet right to intervene if an Eastern Bloc country appeared to shift towards capitalism. The invasion was followed by a wave of emigration, including an estimated 70,000 Czechoslovaks initially fleeing, with the total eventually reaching 300,000.
In April 1969, Dubček was replaced as first secretary by Gustáv Husák, and a period of "normalization '' began. Husák reversed Dubček 's reforms, purged the party of liberal members, dismissed opponents from public office, reinstated the power of the police authorities, sought to re-centralize the economy and re-instated the disallowance of political commentary in mainstream media and by persons not considered to have "full political trust ''.
During the late 1980s, the weakened Soviet Union gradually stopped interfering in the internal affairs of Eastern Bloc nations and numerous independence movements took place.
Following the Brezhnev stagnation, the reform - minded Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev in 1985 signaled the trend towards greater liberalization. Gorbachev rejected the Brezhnev Doctrine, which held that Moscow would intervene if socialism were threatened in any state. He announced what was jokingly called the "Sinatra Doctrine '' after the singer 's "My Way '', to allow the countries of Central and Eastern Europe to determine their own internal affairs during this period.
Gorbachev initiated a policy of glasnost (openness) in the Soviet Union, and emphasized the need for perestroika (economic restructuring). The Soviet Union was struggling economically after the long war in Afghanistan and did not have the resources to control Central and Eastern Europe.
In 1989, a wave of revolutions, sometimes called the "Autumn of Nations '', swept across the Eastern Bloc.
Major reforms occurred in Hungary following the replacement of János Kádár as General Secretary of the Communist Party in 1988. In Poland in April 1989, the Solidarity organization was legalized and allowed to participate in parliamentary elections. It captured 99 % of available parliamentary seats.
On 9 November 1989, following mass protests in East Germany and the relaxing of border restrictions in Czechoslovakia, tens of thousands of Eastern Berliners flooded checkpoints along the Berlin Wall and crossed into West Berlin. The wall was torn down and Germany was eventually reunified. In Bulgaria, the day after the mass crossings through the Berlin Wall, the leader Todor Zhivkov was ousted by his Politburo and replaced with Petar Mladenov.
In Czechoslovakia, following protests of an estimated half - million Czechs and Slovaks demanding freedoms and a general strike, the authorities, which had allowed travel to the West, abolished provisions guaranteeing the ruling Communist party its leading role. President Gustáv Husák appointed the first largely non-Communist government in Czechoslovakia since 1948, and resigned, in what was called the Velvet Revolution.
Romania had not had any de-Stalinization. Following growing public protests, president Nicolae Ceaușescu ordered a mass rally in his support outside Communist Party headquarters in Bucharest. But mass protests against Ceauşescu proceeded. The Romanian military sided with protesters and turned on Ceauşescu. They executed him after a brief trial three days later.
Even before the Bloc 's last years, all of the countries in the Warsaw Pact did not always act as a unified bloc. For instance, the 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia was condemned by Romania, which refused to take part in it.
A 2009 Pew Research Center poll showed that 72 % of Hungarians and 62 % of both Ukrainians and Bulgarians felt that their lives were worse off after 1989, when free markets were made dominant. A follow - up poll by Pew Research Center in 2011 showed that 45 % of Lithuanians, 42 % of Russians, and 34 % of Ukrainians approved of the change to a market economy.
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star trek the next generation season 4 episode 6 | Legacy (Star Trek: the Next Generation) - wikipedia
"Legacy '' is the 80th episode of the syndicated American science fiction television series Star Trek: The Next Generation, the sixth episode of the fourth season. It marked the point at which the series surpassed the number of episodes in the original series.
The Enterprise crew is caught in the midst of a civil war on Turkana IV, former crew member Tasha Yar 's homeworld. While negotiating with one of the factions, they discover that the faction 's representative is Tasha 's younger sister, Ishara Yar.
The Enterprise, under the command of Captain Jean - Luc Picard (Patrick Stewart), responds to a distress call from the Federation freighter Arcos which has suffered from engine failure and taken emergency orbit around the colonized planet Turkana IV, the birthplace of the Enterprise 's former chief of security, Tasha Yar. The Enterprise arrives just as the Arcos explodes, but find a trail left behind by the freighter 's escape pod leading to the colony. Turkana IV 's government collapsed 15 years before, and the last Federation ship to visit six years earlier was warned by the colony 's warring factions that any trespassers transporting down to the planet would be executed. As the freighter crew 's lives are in danger, Picard decides a rescue must be attempted.
Commander Riker (Jonathan Frakes) leads an away team to the surface, where they find the colonists initially unperturbed by their presence, but soon end up in a standoff with one of the colony 's two remaining warring factions, the Coalition. Their leader Hayne (Don Mirault) reveals that the other faction, the Alliance, holds the Arcos survivors hostage, and offers the Enterprise their support in exchange for Federation weapons, which Riker rejects. However, Hayne, after learning of Tasha Yar 's service aboard the Enterprise, instead offers Ishara Yar (Beth Toussaint), claiming she is Tasha 's sister, as a liaison. Picard accepts Ishara aboard, and while the crew is initially skeptical, DNA tests support her claims, and she gradually gains the crew 's trust. Commander Data (Brent Spiner), who was especially close to Tasha, develops a friendship with Ishara, while Ishara seems prepared to leave her life on the colony behind.
In order to locate the hostages, Chief Engineer Geordi La Forge (LeVar Burton) suggests they use the crashed escape pod 's instruments; Ishara recommends that she beam separately to a nearby location as a distraction, as her implanted proximity device will set off the Alliance 's alarms. The crew executes the plan, but Ishara is wounded in the attempt. Riker rescues her, and is impressed by her bravery; later, Ishara informs Hayne "It 's working. ''
When the Enterprise receives a message from the Alliance announcing they are preparing to execute the Arcos crew, they decide to execute Ishara 's proposed rescue plan: Dr. Crusher (Gates McFadden) removes her proximity device, which Ishara gives Data as a memento. Riker leads an away team to the planet where they rescue the hostages, but Ishara disappears in the confusion. Data finds her attempting to disable the Alliance security grid; Ishara reveals that a large Coalition force is just outside the Alliance perimeter waiting to attack. Data determines that her entire interaction with the crew was a ploy. Riker arrives to distract Ishara just as she fires at Data and Data dodges, and Data stuns her and reverses her attempted sabotage. Riker notes that her phaser was set to kill.
With the away team and Ishara Back aboard the Enterprise, Hayne demands Picard return Ishara and challenges his jurisdiction. While Picard argues he has cause to hold her for firing upon two Starfleet officers, he decides to allow her to leave. As Data escorts her to the transporter room, Ishara claims he was the closest thing she had to a friend. Data considers his relationships with both Ishara and Tasha as the Enterprise departs.
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who used to be on the daily show | List of the Daily show correspondents - wikipedia
This article is a list of the correspondents and on - screen contributors who have appeared on the satirical television program The Daily Show. Correspondents, collectively known as "The Best F#@king News Team Ever '', normally have two roles: "experts '' with satirical "senior '' titles who the host interviews about certain issues, or hosts of original reporting segments, which often showcase interviews of serious political figures. During Jon Stewart 's tenure, the show 's contributors often had their own unique recurring segment on the show and tended to appear less frequently; current host Trevor Noah is a former correspondent and contributor who was featured during the Stewart era.
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who has the most steals in nba history | List of National Basketball Association career steals leaders - wikipedia
This article provides two lists:
This is a progressive list of steals recorded leaders showing how the record increased through the years.
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who developed the concept of the three rhetorical appeals | Modes of persuasion - wikipedia
The modes of persuasion, often referred to as ethical strategies or rhetorical appeals, are devices in rhetoric that classify the speaker 's appeal to the audience. They are: ethos, pathos, and logos, and the less used kairos.
Aristotle 's Rhetoric describes the modes of persuasion thus:
Ethos (plural: ethea) is an appeal to the authority or credibility of the presenter. It is how well the presenter convinces the audience that the presenter is qualified to speak on the subject. This can be done by:
Pathos (plural: pathea) is an appeal to the audience 's emotions. The terms sympathy, pathetic, and empathy are derived from it. It can be in the form of metaphor, simile, a passionate delivery, or even a simple claim that a matter is unjust. Pathos can be particularly powerful if used well, but most speeches do not solely rely on pathos. Pathos is most effective when the author or speaker demonstrates agreement with an underlying value of the reader or listener.
In addition, the speaker may use pathos and fear to sway the audience. Pathos may also include appeals to audience imagination and hopes; done when the speaker paints a scenario of positive future results of following the course of action proposed.
In some cases, downplaying the ethos can be done while emphasizing pathos, for example as William Jennings Bryan did in his Cross of Gold speech:
I would be presumptuous, indeed, to present myself against the distinguished gentlemen to whom you have listened if this were but a measuring of ability; but this is not a contest among persons. The humblest citizen in all the land when clad in the armor of a righteous cause is stronger than all the whole hosts of error that they can bring. I come to speak to you in defense of a cause as holy as the cause of liberty -- the cause of humanity.
Logos (plural: logoi) is logical appeal or the simulation of it, and the term logic is derived from it. It is normally used to describe facts and figures that support the speaker 's claims or thesis. Having a logos appeal also enhances ethos because information makes the speaker look knowledgeable and prepared to his or her audience. However, the data can be confusing and thus confuse the audience. Logos can also be misleading or inaccurate, however meaningful it may seem to the subject at hand. In some cases, inaccurate, falsified, or miscontextualized data can even be used to enact a pathos effect. Such is the case with casualty numbers, which, while not necessarily falsified, may include minor casualties (injuries) that are equated with deaths in the mind of an audience and therefore can evoke the same effect as a death toll.
In simple words this is the time and place. A orator uses this to their advantage to persuade the audience to act now at the time being.
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7 deadly sins revival of the commandments episodes | List of the Seven Deadly Sins episodes - wikipedia
The Seven Deadly Sins is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Nakaba Suzuki. The series follows Elizabeth, the third princess of the Kingdom of Liones, who is in search of the Seven Deadly Sins, a group of former Holy Knights who were disbanded after the kingdom was overthrown. She enlists the help of Meliodas and Hawk, the captain of the Seven Deadly Sins and his talking pet pig, to assemble the remaining members of the Seven Deadly Sins and take back the kingdom from the Holy Knights. The series debuted on MBS and other Japan News Network stations on October 5, 2014. A second season of the anime series was confirmed on September 27, 2015, and aired on January 13, 2018.
An original video animation (OVA) titled "Ban 's Additional Chapter '' (バン の 番外 編, Ban no Bangai - hen) was included with the limited edition of volume 15 of the manga, released on June 17, 2015. A second OVA composed of nine humorous shorts was shipped with the limited edition of the sixteenth volume of the manga, released on August 12, 2015.
The first The Seven Deadly Sins anime series was licensed for English release by Netflix as its second exclusive anime, following their acquisition of Knights of Sidonia. All 24 episodes were released on November 1, 2015 in both subtitled or English dub formats. The Signs of Holy War arc of the series, labeled as Season 2, was added to the service on February 17, 2017.
The show 's first opening theme song is "Netsujō no Spectrum '' (熱情 の スペクトラム, Netsujō no Supekutoramu, "Spectrum of Passion '') performed by Ikimono - gakari for the first twelve episodes and the second opening theme is "Seven Deadly Sins '' performed by Man with a Mission, while the first ending theme titled "7 - Seven '' is a collaboration between Flow and Granrodeo, the second ending theme from episode thirteen onwards is "Season '' the major label debut of Alisa Takigawa.
The Seven Deadly Sins: Revival of The Commandments first opening theme song titled "Howling '' is a collaboration between Flow and Granrodeo, and first ending theme song is "Beautiful '' performed by Anly. The second opening theme titled "Ame ga Furu kara, Niji ga Deru '' (雨 が 降る から 虹 が 出る) by Sky Peace and second ending theme titled "Chikai '' (誓い) by Sora Amamiya.
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who sings in lucy in the sky with diamonds | Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds - wikipedia
"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds '' is a song by the English rock band the Beatles from their 1967 album Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band. It was written primarily by John Lennon and credited to the Lennon -- McCartney songwriting partnership. Lennon 's son Julian allegedly inspired the song with a nursery school drawing that he called "Lucy -- in the sky with diamonds ''. Shortly after the song 's release, speculation arose that the first letter of each of the title nouns intentionally spelled "LSD ''. Lennon repeatedly denied that he had intended it as a drug song, insisting that its fantastical imagery was inspired by Lewis Carroll 's Alice in Wonderland books, a claim that has been confirmed by Paul McCartney.
Most of the song is in simple triple metre (time), but the chorus is in time. The song modulates between musical keys, using the key of A major for verses, B ♭ major for the pre-chorus, and G major for the chorus. It is sung by Lennon over an increasingly complicated underlying arrangement which features a tamboura, played by George Harrison, lead electric guitar put through a Leslie speaker, played by Harrison, and a counter melody on Lowrey organ played by McCartney and taped with a special organ stop sounding "not unlike a celeste ''. Session tapes from the initial 1 March 1967 recording of this song reveal Lennon originally sang the line "Cellophane flowers of yellow and green '' as a broken phrase, but McCartney suggested that he sing it more fluidly to improve the song.
The recording of "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds '' began with rehearsals in Studio 2 at Abbey Road on 28 February 1967. The instrumental backing was finished the following evening. On the first take, track one of the four - track tape contained acoustic guitar and piano, track two McCartney 's Lowrey organ, track three Starr 's drums, and track four a guide vocal by Lennon during the verses. Take eight replaced the guide vocal with Harrison 's tamboura. The four tracks of this take were then mixed together and recorded on the first track of a second four - track tape. On 2 March, Lennon 's double - tracked vocals, accompanied by McCartney on the choruses, were recorded to tracks two and three. McCartney 's bass and Harrison 's lead guitar occupied track four. Eleven mono mixes of the song were made at the 2 March session, but they were rejected in favour of the final mono mix created on 3 March. A stereo mix was made on 7 April.
Outtakes from the recording sessions have been officially released. The Beatles ' Anthology 2, released in 1996, contained a composite remix, with ingredients from takes six, seven, and eight, while the first take of the song was featured on the two - disc and six - disc versions of the 50th - anniversary edition of Sgt. Pepper in 2017. The six - disc collection also included take five and the last of the eleven mono mixes made on 2 March 1967.
Lennon claimed that his inspiration for the song came when his son Julian showed him a nursery school drawing which he called "Lucy -- in the Sky with Diamonds '', depicting his classmate Lucy O'Donnell. Julian said, "I do n't know why I called it that or why it stood out from all my other drawings, but I obviously had an affection for Lucy at that age. I used to show Dad everything I 'd built or painted at school, and this one sparked off the idea. '' Ringo Starr witnessed the moment and said that Julian first uttered the song 's title upon returning home from nursery school. Lennon later said, "I thought that beautiful. I immediately wrote a song about it. ''
Rumours of the connection between the title of "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds '' and the initialism "LSD '' began circulating shortly after the release of the Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band LP in June 1967. Paul McCartney gave two interviews that same month admitting to having taken the drug. Lennon later said he was surprised at the idea the song title was a hidden reference to LSD, countering the song "was n't about that at all '', and it "was purely unconscious that it came out to be LSD. Until someone pointed it out, I never even thought of it. I mean, who would ever bother to look at initials of a title?... It 's not an acid song. ''
Paul McCartney confirmed Lennon 's claim on several occasions, the earliest in 1968:
When you write a song and you mean it one way, and someone comes up and says something about it that you did n't think of -- you ca n't deny it. Like "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds, '' people came up and said, cunningly, "Right, I get it. L-S-D, '' and it was when (news) papers were talking about LSD, but we never thought about it.
McCartney further rebuffed the claims in a 1997 BBC Radio interview with Michael Parkinson by saying, "It was n't about LSD. Because otherwise it would have been called ' LITSWD. ' Because the initials are n't ' LSD. ' Lucy in the sky with diamonds is more like that. ''
In a 2004 interview with Uncut magazine, McCartney confirmed it was "pretty obvious '' drugs did influence some of the group 's compositions at that time, including "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds '', though he tempered this analysis by adding, "(I) t 's easy to overestimate the influence of drugs on the Beatles ' music. ''
In 2017, the first take of the song was issued leading up to the release of the 50th anniversary special edition of Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band; the story about Julian 's painting was confirmed as the inspiration of the song, as opposed to the LSD reference.
According to both Lennon and McCartney, the lyrics were largely derived from the literary style of Alice In Wonderland. Lennon had read and admired the works of Lewis Carroll, and the title of Julian 's drawing reminded him of the "Which Dreamed it? '' chapter of Through the Looking Glass in which Alice floats in a "boat beneath a sunny sky '':
It was Alice in the boat. She is buying an egg and it turns into Humpty - Dumpty. The woman serving in the shop turns into a sheep and the next minute they are rowing in a rowing boat somewhere and I was visualizing that.
McCartney remembered of the song 's composition, "We did the whole thing like an Alice In Wonderland idea, being in a boat on the river... Every so often it broke off and you saw Lucy in the sky with diamonds all over the sky. This Lucy was God, the Big Figure, the White Rabbit. '' He later recalled helping Lennon finish the song at Lennon 's Kenwood home, specifically claiming he contributed the "newspaper taxis '' and "cellophane flowers '' lyrics; Lennon 's 1968 interview with Rolling Stone magazine confirmed McCartney 's contribution.
Lennon 's original handwritten lyrics sold at auction in 2011 for $230,000.
Rolling Stone magazine described the song as "Lennon 's lavish daydream '' and music critic Richie Unterberger said "' Lucy in the Sky With Diamonds ' was one of the best songs on the Beatles ' famous Sgt. Pepper album, and one of the classic songs of psychedelia as a whole. There are few other songs that so successfully evoke a dream world, in both the sonic textures and words. '' In a review for the BBC, Chris Jones described the track as "nursery rhyme surrealism '' that contributed to Sgt. Pepper 's "revolutionary... sonic carpet that enveloped the ears and sent the listener spinning into other realms. '' Hilary Saunders of Paste called the song "a perfectly indulgent introduction to psych - rock ''.
In later interviews, Lennon expressed disappointment with the Beatles ' arrangement of the recording, complaining inadequate time was taken to fully develop his initial idea for the song. He also said he had not sung it very well. "I was so nervous I could n't sing, '' he told journalist Ray Connolly, "but I like the lyrics. ''
The song was banned from the BBC for references to drugs in 1967.
According to authors Kevin Ryan and Brian Kehew, and John Winn:
Lennon mentioned "Lucy in the Sky '' in the Beatles ' song "I Am the Walrus ''.
A 3.2 - million - year - old, 40 % complete fossil skeleton of an Australopithecus afarensis specimen discovered in 1974 was named "Lucy '' because the Beatles song was being played loudly and repeatedly on a tape recorder in the camp. The phrase "Lucy in the sky '' became "Lucy in disguise '' to the anthropologists, because they initially did not understand the impact of their discovery.
In 1974, Elton John released a cover version as a single. Recorded at the Caribou Ranch, it featured backing vocals and guitar by John Lennon under the pseudonym Dr. Winston O'Boogie (Winston being Lennon 's middle name). The single topped the US Billboard pop charts for two weeks in January 1975 as well as the Canadian RPM national singles chart for four weeks spanning January and February, eventually. The B - side of the single was also a John Lennon composition, "One Day (At a Time) '', from Lennon 's 1973 album Mind Games. As with the A-side, Lennon appears on the B - side, playing guitar.
In the US it was certified Gold on 29 January 1975 by the RIAA. During their collaboration, Elton John appeared on John Lennon 's song "Whatever Gets You Thru the Night ''. Lennon promised to appear live with Elton at Madison Square Garden if "Whatever Gets You Thru the Night '' became a # 1 single. It did, and on Thanksgiving Night, 28 November 1974, Lennon kept his promise. They performed "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds '', "Whatever Gets You thru the Night '', and "I Saw Her Standing There ''.
In introducing "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds '', Elton John said he believed it to be "one of the best songs ever written. '' The Lennon - sung "I Saw Her Standing There '' (credited to the Elton John Band featuring John Lennon) was originally released in 1975 on the B - side of Elton John 's "Philadelphia Freedom '' single. In 1981, all three live songs were issued on 28th November 1974, an Elton John EP. In 1990, the three songs were made available on the Lennon box set. In 1996, they were also included on the remastered edition of Elton John 's Here and There album. Elton John once stated that "' Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds ' is a song that I never do in a set at a concert simply because it reminds me too much of John Lennon. This is the same with ' Empty Garden '. '' It was a part of his standard repertoire from 1974 until 1976, and sporadically until 1998. It also appeared in the 1976 musical documentary All This and World War II.
A cover version by the Flaming Lips was included on their album With a Little Help from My Fwends, released on Warner Bros. The song, featuring vocals from Miley Cyrus and Moby, was released as official single on 18 May 2014. All proceeds from record sales go to the Bella Foundation, an organisation in Oklahoma City that helps provide veterinary care to needy pet owners.
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d i u r e t i c | Diuretic - wikipedia
A diuretic is any substance that promotes diuresis, the increased production of urine. This includes forced diuresis. There are several categories of diuretics. All diuretics increase the excretion of water from bodies, although each class does so in a distinct way. Alternatively, an antidiuretic, such as vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone), is an agent or drug which reduces the excretion of water in urine.
In medicine, diuretics are used to treat heart failure, liver cirrhosis, hypertension, influenza, water poisoning, and certain kidney diseases. Some diuretics, such as acetazolamide, help to make the urine more alkaline and are helpful in increasing excretion of substances such as aspirin in cases of overdose or poisoning. Diuretics are often abused by people with an eating disorder, especially people with bulimia nervosa, with the goal of losing weight.
The antihypertensive actions of some diuretics (thiazides and loop diuretics in particular) are independent of their diuretic effect. That is, the reduction in blood pressure is not due to decreased blood volume resulting from increased urine production, but occurs through other mechanisms and at lower doses than that required to produce diuresis. Indapamide was specifically designed with this in mind, and has a larger therapeutic window for hypertension (without pronounced diuresis) than most other diuretics.
High ceiling diuretics may cause a substantial diuresis -- up to 20 % of the filtered load of NaCl (salt) and water. This is large in comparison to normal renal sodium reabsorption which leaves only about 0.4 % of filtered sodium in the urine. Loop diuretics have this ability, and are therefore often synonymous with high ceiling diuretics. Loop diuretics, such as furosemide, inhibit the body 's ability to reabsorb sodium at the ascending loop in the nephron, which leads to an excretion of water in the urine, whereas water normally follows sodium back into the extracellular fluid. Other examples of high ceiling loop diuretics include ethacrynic acid and torasemide.
Thiazide - type diuretics such as hydrochlorothiazide act on the distal convoluted tubule and inhibit the sodium - chloride symporter leading to a retention of water in the urine, as water normally follows penetrating solutes. Frequent urination is due to the increased loss of water that has not been retained from the body as a result of a concomitant relationship with sodium loss from the convoluted tubule. The short - term anti-hypertensive action is based on the fact that thiazides decrease preload, decreasing blood pressure. On the other hand, the long - term effect is due to an unknown vasodilator effect that decreases blood pressure by decreasing resistance.
Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors inhibit the enzyme carbonic anhydrase which is found in the proximal convoluted tubule. This results in several effects including bicarbonate accumulation in the urine and decreased sodium absorption. Drugs in this class include acetazolamide and methazolamide.
These are diuretics which do not promote the secretion of potassium into the urine; thus, potassium is retained and not lost as much as with other diuretics. The term "potassium - sparing '' refers to an effect rather than a mechanism or location; nonetheless, the term almost always refers to two specific classes that have their effect at similar locations:
The term "calcium - sparing diuretic '' is sometimes used to identify agents that result in a relatively low rate of excretion of calcium.
The reduced concentration of calcium in the urine can lead to an increased rate of calcium in serum. The sparing effect on calcium can be beneficial in hypocalcemia, or unwanted in hypercalcemia.
The thiazides and potassium - sparing diuretics are considered to be calcium - sparing diuretics.
By contrast, loop diuretics promote a significant increase in calcium excretion. This can increase risk of reduced bone density.
Osmotic diuretics (e.g. mannitol) are substances that increase osmolarity but have limited tubular epithelial cell permeability. They work primarily by expanding extracellular fluid and plasma volume, therefore increasing blood flow to the kidney, particularly the peritubular capillaries. This reduces medullary osmolality and thus impairs the concentration of urine in the loop of Henle (which usually uses the high osmotic and solute gradient to transport solutes and water). Furthermore, the limited tubular epithelial cell permeability increases osmolality and thus water retention in the filtrate.
It was previously believed that the primary mechanism of osmotic diuretics such as mannitol is that they are filtered in the glomerulus, but can not be reabsorbed. Thus their presence leads to an increase in the osmolarity of the filtrate and to maintain osmotic balance, water is retained in the urine.
Glucose, like mannitol, is a sugar that can behave as an osmotic diuretic. Unlike mannitol, glucose is commonly found in the blood. However, in certain conditions, such as diabetes mellitus, the concentration of glucose in the blood (hyperglycemia) exceeds the maximum reabsorption capacity of the kidney. When this happens, glucose remains in the filtrate, leading to the osmotic retention of water in the urine. Glucosuria causes a loss of hypotonic water and Na, leading to a hypertonic state with signs of volume depletion, such as dry mucosa, hypotension, tachycardia, and decreased turgor of the skin. Use of some drugs, especially stimulants, may also increase blood glucose and thus increase urination.
The term "low ceiling diuretic '' is used to indicate a diuretic has a rapidly flattening dose effect curve (in contrast to "high ceiling '', where the relationship is close to linear). Certain classes of diuretic are in this category, such as the thiazides.
Diuretics are tools of considerable therapeutic importance. First, they effectively reduce blood pressure. Loop and thiazide diuretics are secreted from the proximal tubule via the organic anion transporter - 1 and exert their diuretic action by binding to the Na (+) - K (+) - 2Cl (-) co-transporter type 2 in the thick ascending limb and the Na (+) - Cl (-) co-transporter in the distal convoluted tubule, respectively. Classification of common diuretics and their mechanisms of action.
Chemically, diuretics are a diverse group of compounds that either stimulate or inhibit various hormones that naturally occur in the body to regulate urine production by the kidneys.
As a diuretic is any substance that promotes the production of urine, aquaretics that cause the excretion of free water are a sub-class. This includes all the hypotonic aqueous preparations, including pure water, black and green teas, and teas prepared from herbal medications. Any given herbal medication will include a vast range of plant - derived compounds, some of which will be active drugs that may also have independent diuretic action.
The main adverse effects of diuretics are hypovolemia, hypokalemia, hyperkalemia, hyponatremia, metabolic alkalosis, metabolic acidosis, and hyperuricemia.
A common application of diuretics is for the purposes of invalidating drug tests. Diuretics increase the urine volume and dilute doping agents and their metabolites. Another use is to rapidly lose weight to meet a weight category in sports like boxing and wrestling.
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what happens in season one of game of thrones | Game of Thrones (season 1) - Wikipedia
The first season of the fantasy drama television series Game of Thrones premiered on HBO on April 17, 2011, at 9.00 pm in the U.S., and concluded on June 19, 2011. It consists of ten episodes, each of approximately 55 minutes. The series is based on A Game of Thrones, the first novel in the A Song of Ice and Fire series by George R.R. Martin, adapted for television by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss. HBO had ordered a television pilot in November 2008; filming began the following year. However, it was deemed unsatisfactory and later reshot with some roles being recast. In March 2010, HBO ordered the first season, which began filming in July 2010, primarily in Belfast, Northern Ireland, with additional filming in Malta.
The story takes place in a fictional world, primarily upon a continent called Westeros, with one storyline occurring on another continent to the east known as Essos. Like the novel, the season initially focuses on the family of nobleman Eddard Stark, who is asked to become chief advisor to his king and longtime friend, Robert Baratheon. Ned must find out who killed the previous Hand of the King, Jon Arryn, while trying to protect his family from their rivals the Lannisters. He uncovers the dark secrets about the Lannisters that his predecessor died trying to expose. Meanwhile, in Essos, the exiled Viserys Targaryen, son of the former king, believes he still has the rightful claim to the throne.
Game of Thrones features a large ensemble cast, including Sean Bean, Mark Addy, Peter Dinklage, Lena Headey, Nikolaj Coster - Waldau, Michelle Fairley and Iain Glen. Newer actors were cast as the younger generation of characters, such as Kit Harington, Sophie Turner and Maisie Williams.
Critics praised the show 's production values and cast, with specific accolades for Dinklage 's portrayal of Tyrion Lannister. The first season won two of the thirteen Emmy Awards for which it was nominated, for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (Dinklage) and Outstanding Main Title Design. It also received a nomination for Outstanding Drama Series. Bean and Emilia Clarke also received individual accolades, as did Ramin Djawadi for music. U.S. viewership rose by approximately 33 % over the course of the season, from 2.2 million to over 3 million by the finale.
The series begins as Ned Stark is asked to become the chief advisor (known as the Hand of the King) to lecherous King Robert Baratheon. Ned and his wife Catelyn receive a letter from Catelyn 's sister Lysa that gives them reason to believe that rival House Lannister -- to which the King 's wife Cersei belongs -- was the cause of the previous Hand 's death. Ned must travel south to help the king and find out who killed the previous Hand of the King, Jon Arryn, while trying to protect his family from the Lannisters. As he tries to uncover the reasons behind Jon Arryn 's death he uncovers the dark secrets about the Lannisters that Arryn himself died trying to expose.
Meanwhile, across the Narrow Sea in the continent of Essos, the exiled, arrogant Viserys Targaryen, son of the former king whose throne was usurped, believes he still has the rightful claim to the throne. He marries off his younger sister, Daenerys Targaryen, whom he has psychologically and physically abused for years, to the leader of the Dothraki warrior tribe, Khal Drogo, in an exchange for an army to return to Westeros and take the throne. However, Daenerys ' growing love for Drogo and newfound mental strength as the Khaleesi of the tribe mean Viserys ' plans go unexpectedly and powerfully awry.
At the Wall, Ned 's bastard son Jon Snow joins the Night 's Watch, an ancient brotherhood sworn to watch over the massive wall that separates the Seven Kingdoms from the dangerous unknown beyond. But an ancient force, long believed dead, threatens the land.
The recurring actors listed here are those who appeared in season 1. They are listed by the region in which they first appear:
HBO originally optioned the rights to A Song of Ice and Fire in 2007, at which time David Benioff and D.B. Weiss were identified as the project 's writers and executive producers. The first and second drafts of the pilot script, written by Benioff and Weiss, were submitted in August 2007, and June 2008, respectively. While HBO found both drafts to their liking, a pilot was not ordered until November 2008, with the 2007 -- 2008 Writers Guild of America strike possibly delaying the process.
Benioff and Weiss served as main writers and showrunners for the first season. They contributed eight out of ten episodes, including one co-written with Jane Espenson. The two remaining episodes were written by Bryan Cogman and A Song of Ice and Fire author George R.R. Martin.
Tom McCarthy directed the original pilot, but much of this was later re-shot by Tim Van Patten as the pilot was reworked into the first episode of the complete season. Van Patten also directed the second episode. McCarthy is still credited as a consulting producer for the series ' first episode. Brian Kirk and Daniel Minahan directed three episodes each, and Alan Taylor directed the final two.
Before Game of Thrones both Benioff and Weiss worked in film, and were unfamiliar with working on a television show. This resulted in several first - season episodes being about 10 minutes too short for HBO, forcing them to write another 100 pages of scripts in two weeks. Due to lack of budget the new scenes were designed to be inexpensive to film, such as two actors conversing in one room. Benioff and Weiss noted that some of their favorite scenes from the first season were the results of the dilemma, including one between Robert and Cersei Baratheon discussing their marriage.
On May 5, 2009, it was announced that Peter Dinklage had been signed on to star as Tyrion Lannister in the pilot, and that Tom McCarthy was set to direct. On July 19, 2009, a number of further casting decisions were announced, including Sean Bean being given the role of Ned Stark. Other actors signed on for the pilot were Kit Harington in the role of Jon Snow, Jack Gleeson as Joffrey Baratheon, Harry Lloyd as Viserys Targaryen, and Mark Addy as Robert Baratheon.
At the beginning of August 2009, it was revealed that Catelyn Stark would be portrayed by Jennifer Ehle. On August 20, more casting announcements were made, including Nikolaj Coster - Waldau as Jaime Lannister and Tamzin Merchant as Daenerys Targaryen, as well as Richard Madden in the role of Robb Stark, Iain Glen as Ser Jorah Mormont, Alfie Allen as Theon Greyjoy, Sophie Turner as Sansa Stark and Maisie Williams as Arya Stark. On September 1 Lena Headey was announced as Cersei Lannister. On September 23, Martin confirmed that Rory McCann had been cast as Sandor Clegane. Isaac Hempstead - Wright was confirmed as Bran Stark on October 14, followed by an announcement of Jason Momoa as Khal Drogo three days later.
After the pilot was shot and the series picked up, it was announced that the role of Catelyn had been recast, with Michelle Fairley replacing Ehle. Later, it was also confirmed that Emilia Clarke would replace Tamzin Merchant as Daenerys. The rest of the cast was filled out in the second half of the year, and included Charles Dance as Tywin Lannister, Aidan Gillen as Petyr ' Littlefinger ' Baelish, and Conleth Hill as Varys.
The pilot episode was initially filmed on location in Northern Ireland, Scotland and Morocco by Tom McCarthy between October 24 and November 19, 2009. However, the pilot was deemed unsatisfactory and much of it had to be reshot together with the other episodes of the season in Northern Ireland and Malta.
Most scenes were shot in Northern Ireland and Republic of Ireland border counties. Principal photography was scheduled to begin on July 26, 2010, with the primary studio location being the Paint Hall Studio in the Titanic Quarter of Belfast, Northern Ireland. Among various locations for the initial shooting of the pilot in 2009, Doune Castle in central Scotland was used as the location for Winterfell, including scenes at its great hall (the great hall was later recreated in a soundstage in Northern Ireland). Additional filming locations included Cairncastle at Larne, Shane 's Castle, and Tollymore Forest Park, all in Northern Ireland. In the 2010 shooting of the series, Castle Ward was used as Winterfell instead of Doune Castle, with Cairncastle for some exterior Winterfell scenes. The set for Castle Black was built at Magheramorne quarry. The show 's presence in Northern Ireland and use of Paint Hall created hundreds of jobs for residents, and made the area "a hub for film and television production ''.
The "King 's Landing '' exterior scenes were shot at various locations in Malta, including the city of Mdina and the island of Gozo. The filming in Malta resulted in controversy when a protected ecosystem was damaged by a subcontractor.
The soundtrack to Game of Thrones was originally to be composed by Stephen Warbeck. On February 2, 2011, only ten weeks prior to the show 's premiere, it was reported that Warbeck had left the project and Ramin Djawadi had been commissioned to write the music instead. The music supervisor of Game of Thrones Evyen Klean first suggested Djawadi to Benioff and Weiss as the replacement for Warbeck, and although Djawadi was reluctant as he had other commitments at that time, they managed to persuade Djawadi to accept the project.
To give the series its own distinctive musical identity, according to Djawadi, the producers asked him not to use musical elements such as flutes or solo vocals that had already been successfully used by other major fantasy productions. He mentioned that a challenge in scoring the series was its reliance on dialogue and its sprawling cast: on several occasions already - scored music had to be omitted so as not to get in the way of dialogue.
Djawadi said that he was inspired to write the main title music by an early version of the series 's computer - animated title sequence. The title music is reprised as a global theme in the rest of the soundtrack, initially infrequently and as part of the theme of individual characters, then in full towards the end of season 1 during particularly important scenes.
Anticipation for the series was described by various media outlets as very high, with a dedicated fan base closely following the show 's development. By April 2011, multiple entertainment news outlets had put it at the top of their lists of television events to look forward to in 2011.
The majority of reviews for the first season were very positive, with critics noting the high production values, the well - realized world, compelling characters, and giving particular note to the strength of the child actors. Tim Goodman 's review for The Hollywood Reporter stated, "a few minutes into HBO 's epic Game of Thrones series, it 's clear that the hype was right and the wait was worth it ''. Mary McNamara from the Los Angeles Times called it "... a great and thundering series of political and psychological intrigue bristling with vivid characters, cross-hatched with tantalizing plotlines and seasoned with a splash of fantasy ''. New York Post 's Linda Stasi gave Thrones 3.5 / 4 stars stating, "The art direction, acting and incredible sets are as breathtaking as the massive scope of the series ''. Many critics praised Peter Dinklage for his portrayal of Tyrion Lannister, with Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly stating, "... if Dinklage does n't get an Emmy for his clever, rude Tyrion Lannister, I 'll be gobsmacked '' and Mary McNamara from the Los Angeles Times stating, "If the man does n't win an Emmy, heads should certainly roll ''.
The first season of Game of Thrones has a Metacritic average of 80 out of 100 based on 28 critic reviews, categorized as "generally favorable ''. On Rotten Tomatoes, the first season has an 89 % approval rating from 33 critics with an average rating of 8.3 out of 10. The season also received a 97 % episode average score on Rotten Tomatoes, which is tied with Season 4 for the highest season episode average of the show.
The first episode attracted 2.2 million viewers its initial airing on April 17 in the U.S., and totaled 5.4 million viewers across multiple Sunday and Monday night airings. It averaged 743,000 and reached a peak 823,000 in UK and Ireland on its April 18 premiere. HBO announced that they would be commissioning a second season on the strength of the reception of the premiere episode. By the final episode of the season, which aired June 20, the ratings had climbed to over 3 million.
The first season of Game of Thrones was nominated for thirteen Emmy Awards, including Outstanding Drama Series, Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series (Tim Van Patten for "Winter Is Coming ''), and Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series (David Benioff and D.B. Weiss for "Baelor ''). It won two, Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (Peter Dinklage) and Outstanding Main Title Design. Dinklage, who plays Tyrion, was also named best supporting actor by the Golden Globes, the Scream Awards and the Satellite Awards.
Game of Thrones premiered on HBO in the United States and Canada on April 17, 2011, and on Sky Atlantic in the United Kingdom and Ireland on April 18, 2011, with a same - day release on HBO Central Europe. The series premiered in Australia on Showcase on July 17, 2011.
The first season of Game of Thrones was released on DVD and Blu - ray Disc on March 6, 2012. The set includes extra background and behind - the - scenes material, but no deleted scenes, because almost all footage shot for the first season was used in the show.
HBO released a Collector 's Edition DVD / Blu - ray combo pack of the first season, which includes a resin - carved Dragon Egg Paperweight. The set was released in the United States and Canada on November 20, 2012.
Blu - ray exclusive:
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who was leader of japan during pearl harbor | Hideki Tojo - wikipedia
Hideki Tojo (Kyūjitai: 東條 英機; Shinjitai: 東条 英機; Tōjō Hideki (help info); December 30, 1884 -- December 23, 1948) was a general of the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA), the leader of the Imperial Rule Assistance Association, and the 27th Prime Minister of Japan during much of World War II, from October 17, 1941, to July 22, 1944. As Prime Minister, he was responsible for ordering the attack on Pearl Harbor, which initiated war between Japan and the United States, although planning for it had begun in April 1941, before he entered office. After the end of the war, Tojo was arrested and sentenced to death for war crimes by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, and hanged on December 23, 1948.
Hideki Tojo was born in the Kōjimachi district of Tokyo on December 30, 1884, as the third son of Hidenori Tojo, a lieutenant general in the Imperial Japanese Army. Under the bakufu, Japanese society was divided rigidly into four castes; the merchants, peasants, artisans and the samurai. After the Meiji Restoration, the caste system was abolished in 1871, but the former caste distinctions in many ways persisted afterwards, ensuring that those from the former samurai caste continued to enjoy their traditional prestige. The Tojo family came from the samurai caste, though the Tojos were relatively lowly warrior retainers for the great daimyōs (lords) that they had served for generations. Tojo 's father was a samurai turned Army officer and his mother was the daughter of a Buddhist priest, making his family very respectable, but poor.
Hideki had an education typical of a Japanese youth in the Meiji era. The purpose of the Meiji educational system was to train the boys to be soldiers as adults, and the message was relentlessly drilled into Japanese students that war was the most beautiful thing in the entire world, that the Emperor was a living god and that the greatest honor for a Japanese man was to die for the Emperor. Japanese girls were taught that the highest honor for a woman was to have as many sons as possible who could die for the Emperor in war. As a boy, Tojo was known for his stubbornness, for having utterly no sense of humor, for being an opinionated and combative youth fond of getting into fights with the other boys and for his tenacious way of pursuing what he wanted. Japanese schools in the Meiji era were very competitive, and there was no tradition of sympathy with failing; those who did were often bullied by the teachers into committing suicide. Tojo was of average intelligence, but he was known to compensate for his limited intelligence with a willingness to work extremely hard. Tojo 's boyhood hero was the 17th - century shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu who issued the injunction: "Avoid the things you like, turn your attention to unpleasant duties ''. Tojo liked to say: "I am just an ordinary man possessing no shining talents. Anything I have achieved I owe to my capacity for hard work and never giving up ''.
In 1899, Hideki entered the Army Cadet School. When he graduated from the Japanese Military Academy (ranked 10th of 363 cadets) in March 1905, he was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the infantry of the IJA. In 1905, Tojo shared in the general outrage in Japan at the Treaty of Portsmouth, which ended the war with Russia, and which the Japanese people saw as a betrayal as the war did not end with Japan annexing Siberia as popular opinion had demanded. The Treaty of Portsmouth was so unpopular that it set off anti-American riots known as the Hibiya incendiary incident as many Japanese were enraged at the way the Americans had apparently cheated Japan as the Japanese gains in the treaty were far less than what public opinion had expected. Very few Japanese at the time had understood that the war with Russia had pushed their nation to the verge of bankruptcy, and most people in Japan believed that the American president Theodore Roosevelt who had mediated the Treaty of Portsmouth had cheated Japan out of its rightful gains. Tojo 's anger at the Treaty of Portsmouth left him with an abiding dislike of Americans.
In 1909, Hideki married Katsuko Ito, with whom he had three sons (Hidetake, Teruo, and Toshio) and four daughters (Mitsue, Makie, Sachie and Kimie). In 1918 -- 19, Tojo briefly served in Siberia as part of the Japanese expeditionary force sent to intervene in the Russian Civil War. Tojo served as Japanese military attache to Germany between 1919 - 1922. As the Imperial Japanese Army had been trained by a German military mission in the 19th century, the Japanese Army was always very strongly influenced by intellectual developments in the German Army, and Tojo was no exception. In the 1920s, the German military favored winning the next war on starting by creating a totalitarian Wehrstaat (Defense State), an idea that was taken up by the Japanese military as the "national defense state ''. In 1922, on his way home to Japan, Tojo took a train ride across the United States, his first and only visit to America, which left him with the impression that the Americans were a materialistic "soft '' people devoted only to making money and to hedonistic pursuits like sex, partying and despite Prohibition, drinking.
Tojo boasted that his only hobby was his work, and he customarily brought home his paperwork to work late into the night, and he refused to have any part in raising his children, which he viewed both as a distraction from his work and a woman 's work, having his wife do all the work of taking care of his children. A stern, humorless man, Tojo was known for his brusque manner, his obsession with etiquette, and for his coldness. Like almost all Japanese officers at the time, Tojo routinely slapped the faces of the men under his command when giving orders, saying that face - slapping was a "means of training '' men who came from families that were not part of the samurai caste, and for whom bushido was not second nature.
In 1924, Tojo was greatly offended by the Immigration Control Act passed by the American Congress banning all Asian immigration into the United States with many Congressmen and Senators openly saying the act was necessary because the Asians worked harder than whites. Tojo wrote with bitterness at the time that American whites would never accept Asians as equals and "It (the Immigration Control Act) shows how the strong will always put their own interests first. Japan, too, has to be strong to survive in the world ''.
By 1928, he was bureau chief of the Japanese Army and was shortly thereafter promoted to colonel. He began to take an interest in militarist politics during his command of the 8th Infantry Regiment. Reflecting the imagery often used in Japan to describe people in power, Tojo told his officers that they were to be both a "father '' and a "mother '' to the men under their command. Tojo often visited the homes of the men under his command, assisted his men with personal problems and made loans to officers short of money. Like many other Japanese officers, Tojo disliked Western cultural influence in Japan, which was often disparaged as resulting in the ero - guro - nansensu ("eroticism, grotesquerie and nonsense '') movement as he complained about such forms of "Western decadence '' like young couples holding hands and kissing in public, which were undermining traditional values necessary to uphold the kokutai.
In 1934, Hideki was promoted to major general and served as Chief of the Personnel Department within the Army Ministry. Tojo wrote a chapter in the book Hijōji kokumin zenshū (Essays in time of national emergency), a book published in March 1934 by the Army Ministry calling for Japan to become a totalitarian "national defense state ''. This book of 15 essays by senior generals argued that Japan had defeated Russia in the war of 1904 -- 05 because bushidō had given the Japanese superior willpower as the Japanese did not fear death unlike the Russians who wanted to live, and what was needed to win the inevitable next war (against precisely whom the book did not say) was to repeat the example of the Russian - Japanese war on a much greater scale by creating the "national defense state '' that would mobilize the entire nation for war. In his essay Tojo wrote "The modern war of national defense extends over a great many areas '' requiring "a state that can monolithically control '' all aspects of the nation in the political, social and economic spheres. Tojo attacked Britain, France and the United States for waging "ideological war '' against Japan since 1919. Tojo ended his essay stating that Japan must stand tall "and spread its own moral principles to the world '' as the "cultural and ideological war of the ' imperial way ' is about to begin ''. Tojo was appointed commander of the IJA 24th Infantry Brigade in August 1934. In September 1935, Tojo assumed top command of the Kenpeitai of the Kwantung Army in Manchuria. Politically, he was fascist, nationalist, and militarist, and was nicknamed "Razor '' (カミソリ, Kamisori), for his reputation of having a sharp and legalistic mind capable of quick decision - making. Tojo was a member of the Tōseiha ("Control '') faction in the Army that was opposed by the more radical Kōdōha ("Imperial Way '') faction. Both the Tōseiha and the Kōdōha factions were militaristic, fascistic groups that favored a policy of expansionism abroad and dictatorship under the Emperor at home, but differed over the best way of achieving these goals. The Imperial Way faction wanted a coup d'état to achieve a Shōwa Restoration; emphasised "spirit '' as the principle war - winning factor; and despite advocating socialist policies at home wanted to invade the Soviet Union. The Control faction, while being willing to use assassination to achieve its goals, was more willing to work within the system to achieve reforms; wanted to create the "national defense state '' to mobilize the entire nation before going to war; and, while not rejecting the idea of "spirit '' as a war - winning factor also saw military modernization as a war - winning factor; and saw the United States as a future enemy just as much as the Soviet Union.
During the February 26 coup attempt of 1936, Tojo and Shigeru Honjō, a noted supporter of Sadao Araki, both opposed the rebels who were associated with the rival "Imperial Way '' faction. Emperor Hirohito himself was outraged at the attacks on his close advisers, and after a brief political crisis and stalling on the part of a sympathetic military, the rebels were forced to surrender. As the commander of the Kenpeitai, Tojo ordered the arrest of all officers in the Kwantung Army suspected of supporting the coup attempt in Tokyo. In the aftermath, the Tōseiha faction was able to purge the Army of radical officers, and the coup leaders were tried and executed. Following the purge, Tōseiha and Kōdōha elements were unified in their nationalist but highly anti-political stance under the banner of the Tōseiha military clique, with Tojo in the leadership position. Tojo was promoted to Chief of staff of the Kwangtung Army in 1937. As the "Empire of Manchukuo '' was a sham, and in reality, Manchukuo was a Japanese colony, the Kwangtung Army 's duties were just as much political as they were military. During this period, Tojo become close to Yōsuke Matsuoka, the fiery ultra-nationalist CEO of the South Manchuria Railway, one of Asia 's largest corporations at the time, and Nobusuke Kishi, the Deputy Minister of Industry in Manchukuo, who was the man de facto in charge of Manchukuo 's economy. Though Tojo regarded preparing for a war with the Soviet Union as his first duty, Tojo also supported the forward policy in north China as the Japanese sought to extend their influence into China. As chief of staff, Tojo was responsible for the military operations designed to increase Japanese penetration into the Inner Mongolia border regions with Manchukuo. In July 1937, he personally led the units of the 1st Independent Mixed Brigade in Operation Chahar, his only real combat experience.
After the Marco Polo Bridge Incident marking the start of the Second Sino - Japanese War, Tojo ordered his forces to attack Hebei Province and other targets in northern China. Tojo received Jewish refugees in accordance with Japanese national policy and rejected the resulting Nazi German protests. Tojo was recalled to Japan in May 1938 to serve as Vice-Minister of War under Army Minister Seishirō Itagaki. From December 1938 to 1940, Tojo was Inspector - General of Army Aviation.
On 1 June 1940, the Showa Emperor appointed Kōichi Kido, a leading "reform bureaucrat '' as the Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal, making him into the Emperor 's leading political advisor and fixer. Kido had aided in the creation in the 1930s of an alliance between the "reform bureaucrats '' and the "Control '' faction in the Army, which was headed by General Mutō Akira and General Tojo. Kido 's appointment also favored the rise of his allies in the Control faction. On July 30, 1940, Hideki Tojo was appointed Army Minister in the second Fumimaro Konoe regime and remained in that post in the third Konoe cabinet. Prince Konoe had chosen Tojo -- a man representative of both the Army 's hardline views and the Control faction while being considered reasonable to deal with -- to secure the Army 's backing for his foreign policy. Tojo was a militant ultra-nationalist, well respected for his work ethic and his ability to handle paperwork, who believed that the Emperor was a living god and favored "direct imperial rule '', ensuring that he would faithfully follow any order from the Emperor. Konoe favored having Germany mediate an end to the Sino - Japanese war, pressuring Britain to end its economic and military support of China even at the risk of war, seeking better relations with both Germany and the United States, and of taking advantage of the changes in the international order caused by Germany 's victories in the spring of 1940 to make Japan a stronger power in Asia. Konoe wanted to make Japan the dominant power in East Asia, but he also believed it was possible to negotiate a modus vivendi with the United States under which the Americans would agree to recognize the "Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere ''.
By 1940, Konoe, who had started the war with China in 1937, no longer believed that a military solution to the "China Affair '' was possible as he once did, instead favored having Germany mediate an end to the war that would presumably result in a pro-Japanese peace settlement, but would be less than he himself had outlined in the "Konoe programme '' of January 1938. For this reason, Konoe wanted Tojo, a tough general whose ultra-nationalism was beyond question, to provide "cover '' for his attempt to seek a diplomatic solution to the war with China. Tojo was a strong supporter of the Tripartite Pact between Imperial Japan, Nazi Germany, and Fascist Italy. As the Army Minister, he continued to expand the war with China. After negotiations with Vichy France, Japan was given permission to place its troops in the southern part of French Indochina in July 1941. In spite of its formal recognition of the Vichy government, the United States retaliated against Japan by imposing economic sanctions in August, including a total embargo on oil and gasoline exports. On September 6, a deadline of early October was fixed in the Imperial Conference for resolving the situation diplomatically. On October 14, the deadline had passed with no progress. Prime Minister Konoe then held his last cabinet meeting, where Tojo did most of the talking:
For the past six months, ever since April, the foreign minister has made painstaking efforts to adjust relations. Although I respect him for that, we remain deadlocked... The heart of the matter is the imposition on us of withdrawal from Indochina and China... If we yield to America 's demands, it will destroy the fruits of the China incident. Manchukuo will be endangered and our control of Korea undermined.
The prevailing opinion within the Japanese Army at that time was that continued negotiations could be dangerous. However, Hirohito thought that he might be able to control extreme opinions in the army by using the charismatic and well - connected Tojo, who had expressed reservations regarding war with the West, although the Emperor himself was skeptical that Tojo would be able to avoid conflict. On October 13, he declared to Kōichi Kido: "There seems little hope in the present situation for the Japan - U.S. negotiations. This time, if hostilities erupt, I have to issue a declaration of war. '' During the last cabinet meetings of the Konoe government, Tojo emerged as a hawkish voice, saying he did not want a war with the United States but portrayed the Americans as arrogant, bullying white supremacists. He said that any compromise solution would only encourage them to make more extreme demands on Japan, in which case Japan might be better to choose war to uphold national honor. Despite saying he favored peace, Tojo had often declared at cabinet meetings that any withdrawal from French Indochina and / or China would be damaging to military morale and might threaten the kokutai; the "China Incident '' could not be resolved via diplomacy and required a military solution; and attempting to compromise with the Americans would be seen as weakness by them.
On October 16, Konoe, politically isolated and convinced that the Emperor no longer trusted him, resigned. Later, he justified himself to his chief cabinet secretary, Kenji Tomita:
Of course His Majesty is a pacifist, and there is no doubt he wished to avoid war. When I told him that to initiate war is a mistake, he agreed. But the next day, he would tell me: "You were worried about it yesterday, but you do not have to worry so much. '' Thus, gradually, he began to lean toward war. And the next time I met him, he leaned even more toward war. In short, I felt the Emperor was telling me: "My prime minister does not understand military matters, I know much more. '' In short, the Emperor had absorbed the views of the army and navy high commands.
At the time, Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni was said to be the only person who could control the Army and the Navy and was recommended by Konoe and Tojo as Konoe 's replacement. Hirohito rejected this option, arguing that a member of the imperial family should not have to eventually carry the responsibility for a war against the West as a defeat would ruin the prestige of the House of Yamato. Following the advice of Kōichi Kido, he chose instead Tojo, who was known for his devotion to the imperial institution. Tojo 's first speech on the radio made a call for "world peace '', but also stated his determination to settle the "China Affair '' on Japanese terms and to achieve the "Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere '' that would unite all of the Asian nations together. Tojo was known to advocate war with the United States, and Prince Takamatsu wrote in his diary about hearing of the appointment: "We have finally committed to war and now must do all we can to launch it powerfully. But we have clumsily telegraphed out intentions. We need n't have signaled what we 're going to do; having (the entire Konoe cabinet) resign was too much. As matters stand now we can merely keep silent and without the least effort war will begin. '' The Emperor summoned Tojo to the Imperial Palace one day before Tojo took office. During the meetings of the senior statesmen to decide who was to succeed Prince Konoe, the former Prime Minister Admiral Keisuke Okada was opposed to Tojo as Prime Minister, while the powerful Lord Privy Seal Kōichi Kido pushed for Tojo, leading a compromise where Tojo would become Prime Minister while "re-examining '' the options for dealing with the crisis with the United States, though Kido did not say that Tojo would attempt to avoid a war. By tradition, the Emperor needed a consensus among the elder statesmen before appointing a prime minister, and as long as Admiral Okada was opposed to Tojo, it would be impolitic for the Emperor to appoint him as Prime Minister.
Tojo wrote in his diary: "I thought I was summoned because the Emperor was angry at my opinion. '' He was given one order from the Emperor: to make a policy review of what had been sanctioned by the Imperial Conferences. Tojo, who was on the side of war, nevertheless accepted this order, and pledged to obey. According to Colonel Akiho Ishii, a member of the Army General Staff, the Prime Minister showed a true sense of loyalty to the emperor performing this duty. For example, when Ishii received from Hirohito a communication saying the Army should drop the idea of stationing troops in China to counter the military operations of the Western powers, he wrote a reply for the Prime Minister for his audience with the Emperor. Tojo then replied to Ishii: "If the Emperor said it should be so, then that 's it for me. One can not recite arguments to the Emperor. You may keep your finely phrased memorandum. ''
On November 2, Tojo and Chiefs of Staff Hajime Sugiyama and Osami Nagano reported to Hirohito that the review had been in vain. The Emperor then gave his consent to war. The next day, Fleet Admiral Osami Nagano explained in detail the Pearl Harbor attack plan to Hirohito. The eventual plan drawn up by Army and Navy Chiefs of Staff envisaged such a mauling of the Western powers that Japanese defense perimeter lines -- operating on interior lines of communications and inflicting heavy Western casualties -- could not be breached. In addition, the Japanese fleet which attacked Pearl Harbor was under orders from Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto to be prepared to return to Japan on a moment 's notice, should negotiations succeed. Two days later, on November 5, Hirohito approved the operations plan for a war against the West and continued to hold meetings with the military and Tojo until the end of the month. On 26 November 1941, the American Secretary of State Cordell Hull handed Ambassador Nomura and Kurusu Saburo in Washington a "draft mutual declaration of policy '' and "Outline of Proposed Basis for Agreement between the United States and Japan ''. Hull proposed that Japan "withdraw all military, naval, air and police forces '' from China and French Indochina in exchange for lifting the oil embargo, but left the term China undefined. The "Hull note '' as it is known in Japan made it clear the United States would not recognise the puppet government of Wang Jingwei as the government of China, but strongly implied that the United States might recognise the "Empire of Manchukuo '' and did not impose a deadline for the Japanese withdrawal from China. On 27 November 1941, Tojo chose to misrepresent the "Hull note '' to the Cabinet as an "ultimatum to Japan '', which was incorrect as the "Hull note '' did not have a timeline for its acceptance and was marked "tentative '' in the opening sentence, which is inconsistent with an ultimatum. The claim that the Americans had demanded in the "Hull note '' Japanese withdrawal from all of China, instead of just the parts occupied since 1937 and together with the claim the note was an ultimatum was used as one of the principal excuses for choosing war with the United States. On December 1, another conference finally sanctioned the "war against the United States, England, and Holland ''.
On 7 December 1941, Tojo went on Japanese radio to announce that Japan was now at war with the United States, the British Empire and the Netherlands, reading out an Imperial Rescript that ended with the playing of the popular martial song Umi Yukabe (Across the Sea), which set to music a popular war poem the Manyōshū, featuring the lyrics "Across the sea, corpses soaking in the water, Across the mountains corpses heaped up in the grass, We shall die by the side of our lord, We shall never look back ''. Tojo continued to hold the position of Army Minister during his term as Prime Minister from October 17, 1941, to July 22, 1944. He also served concurrently as Home Minister from 1941 to 1942, Foreign Minister in September 1942, Education Minister in 1943, and Minister of Commerce and Industry in 1943.
As Education Minister, he continued militaristic and nationalist indoctrination in the national education system, and reaffirmed totalitarian policies in government. As Home Minister, he ordered various eugenics measures (including the sterilization of the "mentally unfit '').
Tojo had popular support in the early years of the war as Japanese forces moved from one victory to another. In March 1942, Tojo in his capacity as Army Minister gave permission for the Japanese Army in Taiwan to ship 50 "comfort women '' from Taiwan to Borneo without ID papers (his approval was necessary as the Army 's rules forbade people without ID traveling to the new conquests). The Japanese historian Yoshimi Yoshiaki noted this document proves that Tojo was aware of and approved of the "comfort women '' corps. On 18 April 1942, the Americans staged the Doolittle Raid, bombing Tokyo. Some of the American planes were shot down and their pilots taken prisoner. The Army General Staff led by Field Marshal Hajime Sugiyama insisted on executing the eight American fliers, but were opposed by Tojo, who feared that the Americans would retaliate against Japanese POWs if the Doolittle fliers were executed. The dispute was resolved by the Emperor who commuted the death sentences of five fliers while allowing the other three to die, for reasons that remain unclear as the documents relating to the Emperor 's intervention were burned in 1945.
As the Japanese went from victory to victory, Tojo and the rest of the Japanese elite were gripped by what the Japanese called "victory disease '' as the entire elite was caught up in a state of hubris, believing Japan was invincible and the war was as good as won. In May 1942, reflecting his hubris, Tojo approved of a set of "non-negotiable '' demands to be presented when the Allies sued for peace once it became clear to them that Japan was invincible, under which Japan would keep everything it had already conquered, and would take considerably more. Tojo wanted Japan to annex Australia; Australian New Guinea; British India (all of modern India, Pakistan and Bangladesh); Ceylon (modern Sri Lanka); New Zealand; the Canadian province of British Columbia and the Yukon Territory; the American state of Washington and the territories of Alaska and Hawaii; and to take Ecuador, Columbia, Honduras, Panama, El Salvador, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, British Honduras, Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti and the rest of the West Indies. Additionally, Tojo wanted all of China to be under the rule of the puppet Wang Jingwei, planned to buy Macau and East Timor from Portugal and to create new puppet kingdoms in Burma, Cambodia, Vietnam, Laos, Thailand and Malaya. As the Burmese had proved to be enthusiastic collaborators in the "New Order in Asia '', the new Burmese kingdom would be allowed to annex much of north - east India as a reward. The Navy for its part demanded that Japan take New Caledonia, Fiji, and Samoa.
The main forum for military decision - making was the Imperial General Headquarters presided over by the Emperor that consisted of the Army and Navy ministers; the Army and Navy chiefs of staff; and chiefs of the military affairs bureaus in both services. The Imperial GHQ was not a joint chiefs of staff as existed in the United States and United Kingdom, but rather two separate services command operating under the same roof who would meet about twice a week to attempt to agree on a common strategy. The Operations Bureaus of the Army and Navy would develop their own plans and then attempt to "sell them '' to the other, which was often not possible. Tojo was one voice out of many speaking at the Imperial GHQ, and was not able to impose his will on the Navy, which he had to negotiate with, like he was dealing with an ally. The American historian Stanley Falk described the Japanese system as characterized by "bitter inter-service antagonisms '' as the Army and Navy worked "at cross-purposes '', observing the Japanese system of command was "uncoordinated, ill - defined and inefficient ''.
However, after the Battle of Midway, with the tide of war turning against Japan, Tojo faced increasing opposition from within the government and military. In August -- September 1942, a major crisis gripped the Tojo cabinet when the Foreign Minister Shigenori Tōgō objected quite violently on 29 August 1942 to the Prime Minister 's plan to establish a Greater East Asia Ministry to handle relations with the puppet regimes in Asia as an insult to the Gaimushō and threatened to resign in protest. Tojo went to see the Emperor, who backed the Prime Minister 's plans for the Greater East Asia Ministry, and on 1 September 1942 Tojo told the cabinet he was establishing the Greater East Asia Ministry and could not care less about how the Gaimusho felt about the issue, leading Tōgō to resign in protest. The American historian Herbert Bix wrote that Tojo was a "dictator '' only in the narrow sense that from September 1942 on, he was generally able to impose his will on the Cabinet without seeking a consensus, but at same time noted that Tojo 's power was based upon support from the Emperor, who held the ultimate powers. In November 1942, Tojo, as Army Minister, was involved in drafting the regulations for taking "comfort women '' from China, Japan (which included Taiwan and Korea at this time) and Manchukuo to the "South '', as the Japanese called their conquests in South - East Asia, to ensure that the "comfort women '' had the proper papers before departing. Until then the War Ministry required special permission to take "comfort women '' without papers, and Tojo was tired of dealing with these requests. At the same time, Tojo, as the Army Minister, became involved in a clash with the Army chief of staff over whether to continue the battle of Guadalcanal or not. Tojo sacked the Operations office and his deputy at the general staff, who were opposed to withdrawing, and ordered the abandonment of the island.
In September 1943, the Emperor and Tojo agreed that Japan would pull back to an "absolute defense line '' in the south - west Pacific to stem the American advance, and considered abandoning Rabual base, but changed their minds in face of objections from the Navy. In November 1943, the American public 's reaction to the Battle of Tarawa led Tojo to view Tarawa as a sort of Japanese victory, believing that more battles like Tarawa would break American morale, and force the U.S. to sue for peace. Moreover, Tojo believed that the Americans would become bogged down in the Marshalls, giving more time to strengthen the defenses in the Marianas. In late 1943, with the support of the Emperor, Tojo made a major effort to make peace with China to free up the 2 million Japanese soldiers in China for operations elsewhere, but the unwillingness of the Japanese to give up any of their "rights and interests '' in China doomed the effort. China was by far the largest theater of operations for Japan, and with the Americans steadily advancing in the Pacific, Tojo was anxious to end the quagmire of the "China affair '' to redeploy Japanese forces. In an attempt to enlist support from all of Asia, especially China, Tojo opened the Greater East Asia Conference in November 1943, which issued a set of Pan-Asian war aims, which made little impression on most Asians. On 9 January 1944, Japan signed a treaty with the puppet Wang regime under which Japan gave up its extraterritorial rights in China as part of a bid to win Chinese public opinion over to a pro-Japanese viewpoint, but as the treaty changed nothing in practice, the gambit failed. At the same time as he sought a diplomatic effort to end the war with China, Tojo also approved of the planning for Operation Ichi - Go, a huge offensive against China intended to take the American air bases in China and finally knock China out of the war once and for all. In January 1944, Tojo approved of orders issued by Imperial General Headquarters for an invasion of India, where the Burma Area Army in Burma under General Masakazu Kawabe was to seize the Manipour and Assam provinces with the aim of cutting off American aid to China (the railroad that supplied the American air bases in north - east India that allowed for supplies to be flown over "the Hump '' of the Himalayas to China passed through these provinces). Cutting off American aid to China in turn might have the effect of forcing Chiang Kai - shek to sue for peace. Following the 15th Army into India in the U-Go offensive were the Indian nationalist Subhas Chandra Bose and his Indian National Army, as the political purpose of the operation was to provoke a general uprising against British rule in India that might allow the Japanese to take all of India. The roads necessary to properly supply the 150,000 Japanese soldiers committed to invading India would turn into mud when the monsoons arrived, giving the Japanese a very short period of time to break through. The Japanese were counting on capturing food from the British to feed their army, which in turn was based on the assumption that all of India would rise up when the Japanese arrived, causing the collapse of the Raj. The Japanese brought along with them enough food to last for only 20 days, and after that, they would have to capture food from the British to avoid starving. Bose had impressed Tojo at their meetings as the best man to inspire an anti-British revolution in India.
In the central Pacific, the Americans destroyed the main Japanese naval base at Truk in an air raid on 18 February 1944, forcing the Imperial Navy back to the Marianas (the oil to fuel ships and planes operating in the Marshalls, Caroline and Gilbert islands went up in smoke at Truk). This breach of the "absolute defense line '', five months after its creation, led Tojo to fire Admiral Osami Nagano as the Navy Chief of Staff, for incompetence. The Americans had penetrated 1,300 miles across "absolute defense line '' and destroyed Truk, which caused a major crisis in Tokyo as Tojo, senior generals and admirals all blamed each other for the situation. To strengthen his position in face of criticism of the way the war was going, on 21 February 1944, Tojo assumed the post of Chief of the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff, arguing he needed to take personal charge of the Army. When Field Marshal Sugiyama complained to the Emperor about being fired and having the Prime Minister run the General Staff, the Emperor told him he supported Tojo. Tojo 's major concern as Army Chief of Staff was planning the operations in China and India, with less time given over to the coming battles in the Marianas. Tojo decided to take the strategic offensive for 1944 with his plans to win the war in 1944 being as follows:
Tojo expected that a major American defeat in the Marianas together with the conquest of China and India would so stun the Americans that they would sue for peace. By this point, Tojo no longer believed the war aims of 1942 could be achieved, but he believed that his plans for victory 1944 would lead to a compromise peace that would allow him to present as a victory to the Japanese people. By serving as Prime Minister, Army Minister and Army Chief of Staff, Tojo was taking on all of the responsibility, and if plans for victory in 1944 failed, he would have no scapegoat.
On 12 March 1944, the Japanese launched the U-Go offensive and invaded India. Tojo had some doubts about Operation U-Go, but it was ordered by the Emperor himself, and Tojo was unwilling to oppose any decision of the Emperor.
Despite the Japanese Pan-Asian rhetoric and claim to be liberating India, the Indian people did not revolt and the Indian soldiers of the 14th Army stayed loyal to their British officers, and the invasion of India ended in complete disaster. The Japanese were defeated by the Anglo - Indian 14th Army at the Battles of Imphal and Kohima. On 5 July 1944, the Emperor accepted Tojo 's advice to end the invasion of India as 72,000 Japanese soldiers had been killed in battle. A similar number had starved to death or died of diseases as the logistics to support an invasion of India were lacking, once the monsoons turned the roads of Burma into impassable mud. Of the 150,000 Japanese soldiers who had participated in the March invasion of India, most were dead by July 1944.
In parallel with the invasion of India, in April 1944 Tojo began Operation Ichigo, the largest Japanese offensive of the entire war, with the aim of taking southern China.
In the Battle of Saipan, about 70,000 Japanese soldiers, sailors, and civilians were killed in June -- July 1944 and in the Battle of the Philippine Sea the Imperial Navy suffered a crushing defeat. The first day of the Battle of the Philippine Sea, 19 June 1944, was dubbed by the Americans "the Great Marianas Turkey Shoot '' as over the course of the dogfights in the air, the United States Navy lost 30 planes while shooting down about 350 Imperial Japanese planes, in one of the Imperial Navy 's most humiliating defeats. The Japanese believed that indoctrination in bushido ("the way of the warrior '') would give them the edge as the Japanese longed to die for the Emperor, while the Americans were afraid to die, but superior American pilot training and airplanes meant the Japanese were hopelessly outclassed by the Americans. With Saipan in American hands, the Americans could take other islands in the Marianas to build airbases. The establishment of American bases in the Marianas meant the cities of Japan were within the range of B - 29 Superfortress bombers and Willmott noted that "even the most hard - headed of the Japanese militarists could dimly perceive that Japan would be at the end of her tether in that case ''. As the news of the disastrous defeat suffered at Saipan reached Japan, it turned elite opinion against the Tojo government. The Emperor himself was furious about the defeat at Saipan; had called a meeting of the Board of Field Marshals and Fleet Admirals to see if were possible to recapture Saipan (it was not); and Prince Takamatsu wrote in his diary "he flares up frequently ''. Tojo was the Prime Minister, Minister of War and Chief of the Army General Staff, and was seen both in Japan and in the US as, in words of the British historian H.P. Willmott, "the embodiment of national determination, hardline nationalism and militarism ''. Prince Konoe and Admiral Okada had long been plotting to bring down the Tojo government since the spring of 1943, and their principal problem had been the support of the Emperor, who did not wish to lose his favorite Prime Minister.
After the Battle of Saipan, it was clear to at least some of the Japanese elite that the war was lost, and Japan needed to make peace before the kokutai and perhaps even the Chrysanthemum Throne itself was destroyed. Tojo had been so demonized in the United States during the war that, for the American people, Tojo was the face of Japanese militarism, and it was inconceivable that the United States would make peace with a government headed by Tojo. Willmott noted that an additional problem for the "peace faction '' was that: "Tojo was an embodiment of mainstream opinion within the nation, the armed services and particularly the Army. Tojo had powerful support, and by Japanese standards, he was not extreme. '' Tojo was more of a follower than a leader, and he represented mainstream opinion in the Army, and so his removal from office would not mean the end of the political ambitions of an Army still fanatically committed to victory or death. The jushin (elder statesmen) had advised the Emperor that Tojo needed to go after Saipan and further advised the Emperor against partial changes in the cabinet, demanding that the entire Tojo cabinet resign. Tojo, aware of the intrigues to bring him down, had sought the public approval of the Emperor, which was denied, with the Emperor sending him a message to the effect that the man responsible for the disaster of Saipan was not worthy of his approval. Tojo suggested reorganizing his cabinet to regain Imperial approval, and was rebuffed with the Emperor saying the entire cabinet had to go. Once it was clear that Tojo no longer had the support of the Chrysanthemum Throne, Tojo 's enemies had little trouble bringing down his government. The politically powerful Lord Privy Seal, Marquis Kōichi Kido spread the word that the Emperor no longer supported Tojo. After the fall of Saipan, he was forced to resign on July 18, 1944. The jushin advised the Emperor to appoint a former Prime Minister, Admiral Mitsumasa Yonai as Prime Minister as he was popular with the Navy, the diplomatic corps, the bureaucracy and the "peace faction '', but Yonai refused to serve, knowing full well that a Prime Minister who attempted to make peace with the Americans might be assassinated as many Army officers were still committed to victory or death and regarded any talk of peace as treason. Admiral Yonai stated that only another general could serve as Prime Minister, and advised General Kuniaki Koiso should serve as Prime Minister. At a conference with the Emperor, Koiso and Yonai were told by the Emperor to co-operate in forming a government without saying who was to be the new Prime Minister. As the Emperor was worshiped as a living god, neither Yonai and Koiso could ask him who was to be the Prime Minister, as one does not ask questions of a god, and after the meeting, both men were very confused as to which of the two was now the Prime Minister. Finally, the Lord Privy Seal, Kōichi Kido resolved the muddle by saying Koiso was the Prime Minister. Two days after Tojo resigned, the Emperor gave him an imperial rescript offering him unusually lavish praise for his "meritorious services and hard work '' and declaring "Hereafter we expect you to live up to our trust and make even greater contributions to military affairs ''.
After Japan 's unconditional surrender in 1945, U.S. general Douglas MacArthur ordered the arrest of forty alleged war criminals, including Tojo. Five American GIs were sent to serve the arrest warrant. As American soldiers surrounded Hideki 's house on September 11, he shot himself in the chest with a pistol but missed his heart. As a result of this experience, the Army had medical personnel present during the later arrests of other accused Japanese war criminals, such as Shimada Shigetarō.
As he bled, Tojo began to talk, and two Japanese reporters recorded his words: "I am very sorry it is taking me so long to die. The Greater East Asia War was justified and righteous. I am very sorry for the nation and all the races of the Greater Asiatic powers. I wait for the righteous judgment of history. I wished to commit suicide but sometimes that fails. ''
After recovering from his injuries, Tojo was moved to Sugamo Prison. While there, he received a new set of dentures, made by an American dentist, into which the phrase "Remember Pearl Harbor '' had been secretly drilled in Morse code. The dentist ground away the message three months later.
Tojo was tried by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East for war crimes and found guilty of, among other things, waging wars of aggression; war in violation of international law; unprovoked or aggressive war against various nations; and ordering, authorizing, and permitting inhumane treatment of prisoners of war.
Crimes committed by Imperial Japan were responsible for the deaths of millions, some estimate between 3,000,000 and 14,000,000 civilians and prisoners of war through massacre, human experimentation, starvation, and forced labor that was either directly perpetrated or condoned by the Japanese military and government with a significant portion of them occurring during Tojo 's rule of the military. One source attributes 5,000,000 civilian deaths to Tojo 's rule of the military.
Hideki Tojo accepted full responsibility in the end for his actions during the war, and made this speech:
It is natural that I should bear entire responsibility for the war in general, and, needless to say, I am prepared to do so. Consequently, now that the war has been lost, it is presumably necessary that I be judged so that the circumstances of the time can be clarified and the future peace of the world be assured. Therefore, with respect to my trial, it is my intention to speak frankly, according to my recollection, even though when the vanquished stands before the victor, who has over him the power of life and death, he may be apt to toady and flatter. I mean to pay considerable attention to this in my actions, and say to the end that what is true is true and what is false is false. To shade one 's words in flattery to the point of untruthfulness would falsify the trial and do incalculable harm to the nation, and great care must be taken to avoid this.
Tojo was sentenced to death on November 12, 1948, and executed by hanging 41 days later on December 23, 1948. Before his execution, he gave his military ribbons to one of his guards; they are on display in the National Museum for Naval Aviation in Pensacola, Florida. In his final statement, he apologized for the atrocities committed by the Japanese military and urged the American military to show compassion toward the Japanese people, who had suffered devastating air attacks and the two atomic bombings.
Historians Herbert P. Bix and John W. Dower criticize the work done by General MacArthur and his staff to exonerate Emperor Hirohito and all members of the imperial family from criminal prosecutions. According to them, MacArthur and Brigadier General Bonner Fellers worked to protect the Emperor and shift ultimate responsibility to Tojo.
According to the written report of Shūichi Mizota, interpreter for Admiral Mitsumasa Yonai, Fellers met the two men at his office on March 6, 1946, and told Yonai: "It would be most convenient if the Japanese side could prove to us that the Emperor is completely blameless. I think the forthcoming trials offer the best opportunity to do that. Tojo, in particular, should be made to bear all responsibility at this trial. ''
The sustained intensity of this campaign to protect the Emperor was revealed when, in testifying before the tribunal on December 31, 1947, Tojo momentarily strayed from the agreed - upon line concerning imperial innocence and referred to the Emperor 's ultimate authority. The American - led prosecution immediately arranged that he be secretly coached to recant this testimony. Ryūkichi Tanaka, a former general who testified at the trial and had close connections with chief prosecutor Joseph B. Keenan, was used as an intermediary to persuade Tojo to revise his testimony.
Tojo 's commemorating tomb is located in a shrine in Hazu, Aichi (now Nishio, Aichi), and he is one of those enshrined at the controversial Yasukuni Shrine. His ashes are divided between Yasukuni Shrine and Zōshigaya Cemetery in Toshima ward, Tokyo.
He was survived by a number of his descendants, including his granddaughter, Yūko Tojo, who was a far - right ultranationalist and political hopeful who claimed Japan 's war was one of self - defense and that it was unfair that her grandfather was judged a Class - A war criminal. Tojo 's second son, Teruo Tojo, who designed fighter and passenger aircraft during and after the war, eventually served as an executive at Mitsubishi Heavy Industries. In a 1997 survey of university students in China asking "When somebody talks about Japanese people, what person do you think of '', the answer that most gave was Hideki Tojo, reflecting a lingering sense of hurt in China about Japan 's wartime aggression. In the 1998 film Puraido (Pride), Tojo was portrayed as a national hero, forced against his will by the Hull note into attacking America and executed after a rigged trial, a picture of Tojo that is widely accepted in Japan while giving offense abroad.
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you got what i need say he's just a friend | Just a Friend - wikipedia
"Just a Friend '' is a song written by Ronald Murray, produced and performed by American hip hop artist Biz Markie. It was released in September 1989 as the lead single from his album, The Biz Never Sleeps. It is Markie 's most successful single, reaching # 9 on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1990.
The song interpolates the 1968 song "You Got What I Need '' recorded by Freddie Scott, whose basic chord and melody provided the base for the song 's chorus and made it famous. Due to the widespread popularity of the song along with its acclaim and its influence on pop culture (and Markie 's failure to have another charting Hot 100 song), Biz was classified by VH1 as a one - hit wonder, and "Just a Friend '' was ranked 81st on VH1 's 100 Greatest One - Hit Wonders in 2000, and later as number 100 on VH1 's 100 Greatest Songs of Hip Hop in 2008. Karma, a staff record producer for Cold Chillin ' Records, told Vibe magazine in 2005 that he produced the single, but never received credit.
The single was certified platinum on April 12, 1990.
The music video, directed by Lionel C. Martin, chronicles the rapper / singer 's woman problems. At the climax of the video, Biz Markie 's character stumbles upon a girl he was trying to date -- not his girlfriend -- kissing another man she had previously referred to as "just a friend ''. It also includes a scene of Biz Markie singing the chorus dressed as Mozart in 18th - century clothing with a powdered wig in a candlelit room while playing the piano.
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who won the 2011 gubernatorial election in lagos state | Nigerian parliamentary election, 2011 - wikipedia
A parliamentary election was held in Nigeria on 9 April 2011.
The election was originally scheduled to be held on 2 April. However it was later postponed to 4 April on the originally scheduled day of the election itself as voters turned up in the morning to see ballots had not yet arrived. The next day Attahiru Jega, the head of the electoral commission, said that "The commission weighed all the options and considered the wide - ranging counsel of Nigerians and decided to reschedule all the elections as follows: Saturday, April 9, senate and house of representatives elections; Saturday, April 16, presidential elections; Tuesday, April 26, state houses of assembly and governorship elections. Some parties have said they wo n't take part. Without political parties there was no election so INEC has to listen to their comments. ''
This comes after Jega was allocated US $570 m budget in August 2010 to overhaul voter lists and acquire more ballot boxes.
The incumbent People 's Democratic Party is running against the Action Congress of Nigeria and the Congress for Progressive Change, amongst others. (CPC), appeared to make inroads in the north.
The people living in the oil - producing Niger Delta sought political representation that would be strong enough to be able to deal with a cleanup of the polluted parts of their region.
In Kano State, traditional voting along sectarian lines was seen to change in favour of cross-voting for candidates who seemed most capable of delivering on promises of alleviating poverty.
In December 2010, bombs went off in Yenegoa, Bayelsa State during a gubernatorial campaign rally. There were also bombings and shooting in the north blamed on Boko Haram. Politicians and police said that the campaign of violence aimed to disrupt the election. Again on 3 March assailants in Abuja attacked a People 's Democratic Party rally with a bomb killing three and wounding 21. The police said that the attack occurred just after the state governor Mu'azu Babangida Aliyu made an address and left.
The day before the election a bomb went off by the National Electoral Commission offices in Suleja outside the capital Abuja killing at least eight people. The bombing followed a shooting in Borno state that killed four people, including a member of the incumbent Peoples ' Democratic Party. On the day of the election itself another bomb went off in Maiduguri. Yushua Shuaib of the National Emergency Management Agency said there was a possibility of casualties. At least two were later reported to have died. During the campaigning season up to a 100 people were reported to have died in bombings and shootings.
Turnout was reported to be low in the commercial capital of Lagos. Voting in the north continued the next day as there was a high turnout.
Preliminary results indicated that the incumbent People 's Democratic Party would lose their parliamentary strength.
The Action Congress of Nigeria made gaines in the southwest, where Lagos is located and the Congress for Progressive Change made gains in the north.
High - profile losses included the PDP 's Dimeji Bankole, the speaker of the House of Representatives, and former president Olusegun Obasanjo 's daughter in the Senate. However the PDP still had just over half of the one - fifth of the seats declared at the time.
Polling in 15 Senatorial districts and 48 federal constituencies were delayed again until 26 April 2011 due to logistical problems.
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who picks the companies in the dow jones | Dow Jones Industrial average - Wikipedia
The Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA), or simply the Dow (/ ˈdaʊ /), is a stock market index that shows how 30 large, publicly owned companies based in the United States have traded during a standard trading session in the stock market. The value of the Dow is not a weighted arithmetic mean and does not represent its component companies ' market capitalization, but rather the sum of the price of one share of stock for each component company. The sum is corrected by a factor which changes whenever one of the component stocks has a stock split or stock dividend, so as to generate a consistent value for the index.
It is the second - oldest U.S. market index after the Dow Jones Transportation Average, created by Wall Street Journal editor and Dow Jones & Company co-founder Charles Dow. Currently owned by S&P Dow Jones Indices, which is majority owned by S&P Global, it is the best known of the Dow Averages, of which the first (non-industrial) was originally published on February 16, 1885. The averages are named after Dow and one of his business associates, statistician Edward Jones. The industrial average was first calculated on May 26, 1896.
The Industrial portion of the name is largely historical, as many of the modern 30 components have little or nothing to do with traditional heavy industry. Since the divisor is currently less than one, the value of the index is larger than the sum of the component prices. Although the Dow is compiled to gauge the performance of the industrial sector within the American economy, the index 's performance continues to be influenced by not only corporate and economic reports, but also by domestic and foreign political events such as war and terrorism, as well as by natural disasters that could potentially lead to economic harm.
Since June 26, 2018, the Dow Jones Industrial Average has consisted of the following companies:
The components of the DJIA have changed 52 times since its beginning on May 26, 1896. General Electric had the longest continuous presence on the index, beginning in 1907. More recent changes to the index include the following:
In 1884, Charles Dow composed his first stock average, which contained nine railroads and two industrial companies that appeared in the Customer 's Afternoon Letter, a daily two - page financial news bulletin which was the precursor to The Wall Street Journal. On January 2, 1886, the number of stocks represented in what is now the Dow Jones Transportation Average dropped from 14 to 12, as the Central Pacific Railroad and Central Railroad of New Jersey were removed. Though comprising the same number of stocks, this index contained only one of the original twelve industrials that would eventually form Dow 's most famous index.
Dow calculated his first average purely of industrial stocks on May 26, 1896, creating what is now known as the Dow Jones Industrial Average. None of the original 12 industrials still remain part of the index. They were:
When it was first published in the mid-1880s, the index stood at a level of 62.76. It reached a peak of 78.38 during the summer of 1890, but ended up hitting its all - time low of 28.48 in the summer of 1896 during the Panic of 1896. Many of the biggest percentage price moves in the Dow occurred early in its history, as the nascent industrial economy matured. The 1900s would see the Dow halt its momentum as it worked its way through two financial crises; the Panic of 1901 and the Panic of 1907. The Dow would remain stuck in a range between 53 and 103 points until late 1914. The negativity surrounding the 1906 San Francisco earthquake did little to improve the economic climate.
At the start of the 1910s, the decade would begin with the Panic of 1910 -- 1911 stifling economic growth for a lengthy period of time. History would later take its course on July 30, 1914; as the average stood at a level of 71.42 when a decision was made to close down the New York Stock Exchange, and suspend trading for a span of four and a half months. Some historians believe the exchange closed because of a concern that markets would plunge as a result of panic over the onset of World War I. An alternative explanation is that the Secretary of the Treasury, William Gibbs McAdoo, closed the exchange to conserve the U.S. gold stock in order to launch the Federal Reserve System later that year, with enough gold to keep the United States on par with the gold standard. When the markets reopened on December 12, 1914, the index closed at 74.56, a gain of 4.4 percent. This is frequently reported as a large drop, due to using a later redefinition. Reports from the time say that the day was positive. Following World War I, the United States would experience another economic downturn, the post-World War I recession. The Dow 's performance would remain unchanged from the closing value of the previous decade, adding only 8.26 %, from 99.05 points at the beginning of 1910, to a level of 107.23 points at the end of 1919.
During the 1920s, specifically In 1928, the components of the Dow were increased to 30 stocks near the economic height of that decade, which was nicknamed the Roaring Twenties. This period downplayed the influence of an early 1920s recession plus certain international conflicts such as the Polish - Soviet war, the Irish Civil War, the Turkish War of Independence and the initial phase of the Chinese Civil War. The Crash of 1929 and the ensuing Great Depression over the next several years returned the average to its starting point, almost 90 % below its peak. By July 8, 1932, following its intra-day low of 40.56, the Dow would end up closing the session at 41.22. The high of 381.17 on September 3, 1929, would not be surpassed until 1954, in inflation - adjusted numbers. However, the bottom of the 1929 Crash came just 21⁄2 months later on November 13, 1929, when intra-day it was at the 195.35 level, closing slightly higher at 198.69. For the decade, the Dow would end off with a healthy 131.7 % gain, from 107.23 points at the beginning of 1920, to a level of 248.48 points at the end of 1929, just before the Crash of 1929.
Marked by global instability and the Great Depression, the 1930s contended with several consequential European and Asian outbreaks of war, leading up to catastrophic World War II in 1939. Other conflicts during the decade which affected the stock market included the 1936 -- 1939 Spanish Civil War, the 1935 -- 1936 Second Italo - Abyssinian War, the Soviet - Japanese Border War of 1939 and the Second Sino - Japanese War from 1937. On top of that, the United States dealt with a painful recession in 1937 and 1938 which temporarily brought economic recovery to a halt. The largest one - day percentage gain in the index, 15.34 %, happened on March 15, 1933, in the depths of the 1930s bear market when the Dow gained 8.26 points to close at 62.10. However, as a whole throughout the Great Depression, the Dow posted some of its worst performances, for a negative return during most of the 1930s for new and old stock market investors. For the decade, the Dow Jones average was down from 248.48 points at the beginning of 1930, to a stable level of 150.24 points at the end of 1939, a loss of about 40 %.
Post-war reconstruction during the 1940s, along with renewed optimism of peace and prosperity, brought about a 39 % surge in the Dow from around the 148 level to 206. The strength in the Dow occurred despite a brief recession in 1949 and other global conflicts which started a short time later including the latter stages of the Chinese Civil War, the Greek Civil War, the Indo - Pakistani War of 1947 and the 1948 Arab -- Israeli War.
During the 1950s, the Korean War, the Algerian War, the Cold War and other political tensions such as the Cuban Revolution, as well as widespread political and economic changes in Africa during the initial stages of European Decolonization, did not stop the Dow 's bullish climb higher. Additionally, the U.S. would also make its way through two grinding recessions; one in 1953 and another in 1958. A 200 % increase in the average from a level of 206 to 616 ensued over the course of that decade.
The Dow 's bullish behavior began to stall during the 1960s as the U.S. became entangled with foreign political issues such as U.S. military excursions including the Bay of Pigs Invasion involving Cuba, the Vietnam War, the Portuguese Colonial War, the Colombian civil war which the U.S. assisted with short - lived counter-guerrilla campaigns, as well as domestic issues such as the Civil Rights Movement and several influential political assassinations. For the decade though, and despite a mild recession between 1960 and 1961, the average still managed a respectable 30 % gain from the 616 level to 800.
The 1970s marked a time of economic uncertainty and troubled relations between the U.S. and certain Middle - Eastern countries. To begin with, the decade started off with the ongoing Recession of 1969 -- 70. Following that, the 1970s Energy Crisis ensued which included the 1973 -- 75 recession, the 1973 Oil Crisis as well as the 1979 energy crisis beginning as a prelude to a disastrous economic climate injected with stagflation; the combination between high unemployment and high inflation. However, on November 14, 1972, the average closed above the 1,000 mark (1,003.16) for the first time, during a brief relief rally in the midst of a lengthy bear market. Between January 1973 and December 1974, the average lost 48 % of its value in what became known as the 1973 -- 1974 Stock Market Crash; with the situation being exacerbated by the events surrounding the Yom Kippur War. The index closed at 577.60, on December 4, 1974. During 1976, the index went above 1000 several times, and it closed the year at 1,004.75. Although the Vietnam War ended in 1975, new tensions arose towards Iran surrounding the Iranian Revolution in 1979. Other notable disturbances such as the Lebanese Civil War, the Ethiopian Civil War, the Indo - Pakistani War of 1971 and the Angolan Civil War which the U.S. and Soviet Union considered critical to the global balance of power, seemed to have had little influence towards the financial markets. Performance-wise for the decade, gains remained virtually flat, rising less than 5 % from about the 800 level to 838.
The 1980s decade started with the early 1980s recession. In early 1981, it broke above 1000 several times, but then retreated. The largest one - day percentage drop occurred on Black Monday; October 19, 1987, when the average fell 22.61 %. There were no clear reasons given to explain the crash, but program trading may have been a major contributing factor. On October 13, 1989, the Dow stumbled into another downfall, the 1989 Mini-Crash which initiated the collapse of the junk bond market as the Dow registered a loss of almost 7 %.
For the decade, the Dow made a 228 % increase from the 838 level to 2,753; despite the market crashes, Silver Thursday, an early 1980s recession, the 1980s oil glut, the Japanese asset price bubble and other political distractions such as the Soviet war in Afghanistan, the Falklands War, the Iran -- Iraq War, the Second Sudanese Civil War and the First Intifada in the Middle East. The index had only two negative years, which were in 1981 and 1984.
The 1990s brought on rapid advances in technology along with the introduction of the dot - com era. To start off, the markets contended with the 1990 oil price shock compounded with the effects of the Early 1990s recession and a brief European situation surrounding Black Wednesday. Certain influential foreign conflicts such as the 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt which took place as part of the initial stages of the Dissolution of the USSR and the Fall of Communism; the First and Second Chechen Wars, the Persian Gulf War and the Yugoslav Wars failed to dampen economic enthusiasm surrounding the ongoing Information Age and the "irrational exuberance '' (a phrase coined by Alan Greenspan) of the Internet Boom. Even the occurrences of the Rwandan Genocide and the Second Congo War, termed as "Africa 's World War '' that involved 8 separate African nations which together between the two killed over 5 million people, did n't seem to have any noticeable negative financial impact on the Dow either. Between late 1992 and early 1993, the Dow staggered through the 3,000 level making only modest gains as the Biotechnology sector suffered through the downfall of the Biotech Bubble; as many biotech companies saw their share prices rapidly rise to record levels and then subsequently fall to new all - time lows.
On November 21, 1995, the DJIA closed above the 5,000 level (5,023.55) for the first time. Over the following two years, the Dow would rapidly tower above the 6,000 level during the month of October in 1996, and the 7,000 level in February 1997. On its march higher into record territory, the Dow easily made its way through the 8,000 level in July 1997. However, later in that year during October, the events surrounding the Asian Financial Crisis plunged the Dow into a 554 - point loss to a close of 7,161.15; a retrenchment of 7.18 % in what became known as the 1997 Mini-Crash. Although internationally there was negativity surrounding the 1998 Russian financial crisis along with the subsequent fallout from the 1998 collapse of the derivatives Long - Term Capital Management hedge fund involving bad bets placed on the movement of the Russian ruble, the Dow would go on to surpass the 9,000 level during the month of April in 1998, making its sentimental push towards the symbolic 10,000 level. On March 29, 1999, the average closed above the 10,000 mark (10,006.78) after flirting with it for two weeks. This prompted a celebration on the trading floor, complete with party hats. The scene at the exchange made front - page headlines on many U.S. newspapers such as The New York Times. On May 3, 1999, the Dow achieved its first close above the 11,000 mark (11,014.70). Total gains for the decade exceeded 315 %; from the 2,753 level to 11,497.
The Dow averaged a 5.3 % return compounded annually for the 20th century, a record Warren Buffett called "a wonderful century ''; when he calculated that to achieve that return again, the index would need to close at about 2,000,000 by December 2099. During the height of the dot - com era, authors James K. Glassman and Kevin A. Hassett went so far as to publish a book entitled Dow 36,000: The New Strategy for Profiting From the Coming Rise in the Stock Market. Their theory was to imply that stocks were still cheap and it was not too late to benefit from rising prices during the Internet boom.
Characterized by fear on the part of newer investors, the uncertainty of the 2000s (decade) brought on a significant bear market. There was indecision on whether the cyclical bull market represented a prolonged temporary bounce or a new long - term trend. Ultimately, there was widespread resignation and disappointment as the lows were revisited, and in some cases, surpassed near the end of the decade.
The fourth largest one - day point drop in DJIA history, and largest at the time, occurred on September 17, 2001, the first day of trading after the September 11, 2001 attacks, when the Dow fell 684.81 points, or 7.1 %. However, the Dow had been in a downward trend for virtually all of 2001 prior to September 11, losing well over 1000 points between January 2 and September 10, and had lost 187.51 points on September 6, followed by losing 235.4 points on September 7. By the end of that week, the Dow had fallen 1,369.70 points, or 14.3 %. However, the Dow began an upward trend shortly after the attacks, and quickly regained all lost ground to close above the 10,000 level for the year.
During 2002, the average remained subdued without making substantial gains due to the stock market downturn of 2002 as well as the lingering effects of the dot - com bubble. In 2003, the Dow held steady within the 7,000 to 9,000 - point level range by the early 2000s recession, the Afghan War and the Iraq War. But by December of that year, the Dow remarkably returned to the 10,000 mark. In October 2006, four years after its bear market low, the DJIA set fresh record theoretical, intra-day, daily close, weekly, and monthly highs for the first time in almost seven years, closing above the 12,000 level for the first time on the 19th anniversary of Black Monday (1987). On February 27, 2007, the Dow Jones Industrial Average fell 3.3 % (415.30 points), its biggest point drop since 2001. The initial drop was caused by a global sell - off after Chinese stocks experienced a mini-crash, yet by April 25, the Dow passed the 13,000 level in trading and closed above that milestone for the first time. On July 19, 2007, the average passed the 14,000 level, completing the fastest 1,000 - point advance for the index since 1999. One week later, a 450 - point intra-day loss, owing to turbulence in the U.S. sub-prime mortgage market and the soaring value of the yuan, initiated another correction falling below the 13,000 mark, about 10 % from its highs.
On October 9, 2007, the Dow Jones Industrial Average closed at a record high of 14,164.53. Two days later on October 11, the Dow traded at an intra-day level high of 14,198.10, a mark which would not be matched until March 2013. In what would normally take many years to accomplish; numerous reasons were cited for the Dow 's extremely rapid rise from the 11,000 level in early 2006, to the 14,000 level in late 2007. They included future possible takeovers and mergers, healthy earnings reports particularly in the tech sector, and moderate inflationary numbers; fueling speculation the Federal Reserve would not raise interest rates.
On September 15, 2008, a wider financial crisis became evident when Lehman Brothers filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy along with the economic effect of record high oil prices which reached almost $150 per barrel two months earlier. When opening that morning, it immediately lost 300 points and overall the DJIA lost more than 500 points for only the sixth time in history, returning to its mid-July lows below the 11,000 level. A series of "bailout '' packages, including the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008, proposed and implemented by the Federal Reserve and U.S. Treasury, as well as FDIC - sponsored bank mergers, did not prevent further losses. After nearly six months of extreme volatility during which the Dow experienced its largest one - day point loss, largest daily point gain, and largest intra-day range (more than 1,000 points), the index closed at a new twelve - year low of 6,547.05 on March 9, 2009 (after an intra-day low of 6,469.95 during the March 6 session), its lowest close since April 1997, and had lost 20 % of its value in only six weeks.
Towards the latter half of 2009, the average rallied towards the 10,000 level amid optimism that the Late - 2000s (decade) Recession, the United States Housing Bubble and the Global Financial Crisis of 2008 -- 2009, were easing and possibly coming to an end. For the decade, the Dow saw a rather substantial pullback for a negative return from the 11,497 level to 10,428, a loss of a little over 9 %.
During the early part of the 2010s, aided somewhat by the loose monetary policy practiced by the Federal Reserve, the Dow made a notable rally attempt, though with significant volatility due to growing global concerns such as the 2010 European sovereign debt crisis, the Dubai debt crisis, and the United States debt ceiling crisis. On May 6, 2010, the index lost around 400 points over the day, then just after 2: 30 pm EDT, it lost about 600 points in just a few minutes, and gained the last amount back about as quickly. The intra-day change at the lowest point was 998.50 points, representing an intra-day loss of 9.2 %. The event, during which the Dow bottomed out at 9,869 before recovering to end with a 3.2 % daily loss at 10,520.32, became known as the 2010 Flash Crash. The index closed the half - year at 9,774.02 for a loss of 7.7 %.
In the midst of the decade, the Dow rallied its way above the peak from October 2007. On May 3, 2013, the Dow surpassed the 15,000 mark for the first time before towering above the next few millenary milestones thanks to commendable economic reports. The index closed 2014 at 17,823.07 for a gain of 71 % for the five years before progress became minimal the next year. However, the overwhelming economic factors exhibited in 2015 caused the Dow to plunge into correction territory for the first time since 2011. By October, the Dow had exited correction rallying 14 % from its August lows, but failed to hit a record high set back in May. In November and December, the Dow continued to retreat from the 14 % rally in October, leading some to call it a bear market. This led to the Dow closing at 17,425.03 for 2015, the first annual loss since 2008. After nearly 14 months since the last record close, the Dow finally achieved a fresh new, central - bank debt fueled record close on July 20, 2016 at 18,595.03 along with an intraday high of 18,622.01.
During the late part of the 2010s, despite anticipations of post-election selloffs, the Dow rallied significantly after Donald Trump was elected President. On January 25, 2017, the Dow hit a record high of 20,000, an increase of 1,667 points since his election in November 2016. Throughout the course of the rest of 2017 and January 2018, the Dow skyrocketed past a few millenary milestones, including the symbolic 25,000 on January 4, 2018. The current record high of 26,616.71 was achieved on Jan. 26, 2018. However, on February 2, 2018, the Dow suffered its biggest loss since Brexit on June 24, 2016. As volatility made its return for next week, the largest intraday point drop of 1,597.08 points and largest closing point drop of 1,175.21 points were both set on February 5, 2018 although percentage changes were not as extreme as some past stock market crashes.
Investing in the DJIA is made widely accessible in equities through exchange - traded funds (ETFs) as well as in derivatives through option contracts and futures contracts.
Several ETFs follow the Dow Jones Industrial Average, including with short or leverage strategies. The biggest has assets under management in the tens of billions dollars as of 2017.
Due to the advent of pre-market trading, the ETFs provide a very accurate opening value for the average.
In the derivatives market, the CME Group through its subsidiaries the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME) and the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT), issues Futures Contracts; the E-mini Dow ($5) Futures (YM), which track the average and trade on their exchange floors respectively. Trading is typically carried out in an Open Outcry auction, or over an electronic network such as CME 's Globex platform. Dow Futures is one of the most important premarket tool and reflect the mood in which DJIA will open.
The Chicago Board Options Exchange (CBOE) issues Options Contracts on the Dow through the root symbol DJX in combination with long - term expiration options called DJX LEAPS. There are also options on the various ETFs; Performance ETFs, Inverse Performance ETFs, 2x Performance ETFs, Inverse 2x Performance ETFs, 3x Performance ETFs, and Inverse 3x Performance ETFs.
To calculate the DJIA, the sum of the prices of all 30 stocks is divided by a divisor, the Dow Divisor. The divisor is adjusted in case of stock splits, spinoffs or similar structural changes, to ensure that such events do not in themselves alter the numerical value of the DJIA. Early on, the initial divisor was composed of the original number of component companies; this initially made the DJIA a simple arithmetic average. The present divisor, after many adjustments, is less than one (meaning the index is larger than the sum of the prices of the components). That is:
where p are the prices of the component stocks and d is the Dow Divisor.
Events such as stock splits or changes in the list of the companies composing the index alter the sum of the component prices. In these cases, in order to avoid discontinuity in the index, the Dow Divisor is updated so that the quotations right before and after the event coincide:
The Dow Divisor was 0.14748071991788 on June 26, 2018. Presently, every $1 change in price in a particular stock within the average equates to a 6.781 (or 1 ÷ 0.14748071991788) point movement.
With the current inclusion of only 30 stocks, critics such as Ric Edelman argue that the DJIA is not a very accurate representation of overall market performance. Still, it is the most cited and most widely recognized of the stock market indices. Additionally, the DJIA is criticized for being a price - weighted average, which gives higher - priced stocks more influence over the average than their lower - priced counterparts, but takes no account of the relative industry size or market capitalization of the components. For example, a $1 increase in a lower - priced stock can be negated by a $1 decrease in a much higher - priced stock, even though the lower - priced stock experienced a larger percentage change. In addition, a $1 move in the smallest component of the DJIA has the same effect as a $1 move in the largest component of the average. For example, during September -- October 2008, former component AIG 's reverse split - adjusted stock price collapsed from $22.76 on September 8 to $1.35 on October 27; contributing to a roughly 3,000 - point drop in the index.
As of July 2018, Boeing and Goldman Sachs are among the highest priced stocks in the average and therefore have the greatest influence on it. Alternately, Pfizer and Cisco Systems are among the lowest priced stocks in the average and have the least amount of sway in the price movement. Critics of the DJIA and most securities professionals recommend the float - adjusted market - value weighted S&P 500 or the Wilshire 5000, the latter of which includes all U.S. equity securities, as better indicators of the U.S. stock market.
A study between the correlation of components of the Dow Jones Industrial Average compared with the movement of the index finds that the correlation is higher in a time period where the average recedes and goes down. The correlation is lowest in a time when the average is flat or rises a modest amount.
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who played virgil tibbs in the heat of the night | Howard Rollins - wikipedia
Howard Ellsworth Rollins Jr. (October 17, 1950 -- December 8, 1996) was an American stage, film and television actor. Howard Rollins was best known for his role as Andrew Young in 1978 's King, George Haley in the 1979 miniseries Roots: The Next Generations, Coalhouse Walker Jr. in the 1981 film Ragtime, Captain Davenport in the 1984 film A Soldier 's Story, and as Virgil Tibbs on the crime drama In the Heat of the Night.
Rollins was the youngest of four children born to Ruth and Howard Ellsworth Rollins Sr. in Baltimore, Maryland. His mother was a domestic worker while his father was a steelworker. Rollins Sr. died of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis in 1980. Upon his high school graduation, Rollins studied theater at Towson University.
In 1970, Rollins left college early to play the role of "Slick '' in the PBS soap opera Our Street. In 1974, he moved to New York City where he went on to appear in the Broadway productions of We Interrupt This Program..., in 1975, The Mighty Gents in 1978, and G.R. Point in 1979. He also appeared in the miniseries King and Roots: The Next Generations.
In 1981, Rollins made his film debut in the Dino De Laurentiis / Miloš Forman motion picture, Ragtime. His performance in the film earned him an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor nomination. He also earned a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor in a Motion Picture and New Star of the Year in a Motion Picture. The following year, he was nominated for a Daytime Emmy for his role on Another World. In 1984, Rollins starred in director Norman Jewison 's film, A Soldier 's Story which led to his role as Virgil Tibbs on In the Heat of the Night, the television series based on Jewison 's acclaimed film 1967 film of the same name.
In the Heat of the Night began airing on NBC in 1988. During the show 's run, Rollins struggled with an addiction to drugs and alcohol. He was arrested four times for drug and alcohol - related crimes and spent one month in jail for reckless driving and driving under the influence. Due to his ongoing personal and legal issues, Rollins was let go from the series in 1994 and replaced by Carl Weathers.
After being let go from In the Heat of the Night, Rollins got sober and worked on rebuilding his career and reputation. In 1995, he appeared in a guest role on New York Undercover, followed by a role in the theatrical film, Drunks. In 1996, he appeared in a guest role on Remember WENN. His final acting role was in the 1996 PBS television movie Harambee!.
In 1988, Rollins was arrested and pled guilty to cocaine possession in Louisiana. In 1992 and 1993, he was arrested on three separate occasions for driving under the influence. In 1994, he served a month in jail for reckless driving and driving under the influence. Because of continued legal problems, Rollins was ultimately dropped from In the Heat of the Night. After attending drug rehab, he returned to In the Heat of the Night as a guest star.
On December 8, 1996, Rollins died at St. Luke 's - Roosevelt Hospital Center in New York City of complications of AIDS - related lymphoma. He had been diagnosed with the disease approximately six weeks earlier. His funeral was held on December 13 in Baltimore. He was entombed in Woodlawn Cemetery Mausoleum in Baltimore County, Maryland. He was cremated.
On October 25, 2006, a wax statue of Rollins was unveiled at the Senator Theatre in Baltimore. The statue is now at Baltimore 's Great Blacks in Wax Museum.
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who won americas next top model season 7 | America 's Next Top Model (cycle 7) - wikipedia
September 20 (2006 - 09 - 20) -- December 6, 2006 (2006 - 12 - 06)
The seventh cycle of America 's Next Top Model started airing on September 20, 2006 as the first to be aired on The CW network. The season 's catch - phrase is "The Competition Wo n't Be Pretty. '' The season 's promotional theme song is "Hot Stuff (I Want You Back) '' by Pussycat Dolls.
To date, this cycle is the most watched season in The CW, averaging 5.13 million viewers per episode. In addition, a new opening was made, different from the last three cycles. J. Manuel also was added to the final judging panel, for a total of five judges deciding on the winner.
The prizes for this were:
The following prizes have been removed:
The international destination during this cycle was Barcelona, Spain.
The winner was 21 - year - old CariDee English from Fargo, North Dakota.
(ages stated are at time of contest)
^ 1 Amanda and Michelle Babin are identical twins; however, they competed individually.
First aired September 20, 2006
The thirty - three semi-finalists went on their first photoshoot which consisted of ten poses. They then had their interviews with Jay Manuel, J. Alexander, and Tyra. The cuts reduced the semi-finalists down to twenty - one where they had their first nude shoot. The final cut resulted in thirteen finalists.
The thirteen finalists participated in a challenge where they had to feminize the outfits of male models, with the winner being Melrose. They had a photoshoot where they portrayed different model stereotypes. The judging saw Christian become the first model eliminated.
First aired September 27, 2006
The twelve finalists received makeovers and then had a swimsuit photoshoot. They participated in a challenge where they had to create and sell their own new look, with the winner being Eugena. They had a photoshoot with crazy hair in the style of Hair Wars. The judging saw Megan become the second model eliminated.
First aired October 4, 2006
The eleven finalists participated in a challenge that tested their runway walk, poise, and balance, with the winner being AJ. They had a photoshoot where they had walk a rocking runway over water. The judging saw Monique become the third model eliminated.
First aired October 11, 2006
The ten finalists participated in a challenge where they had to become living art, with the winner being Eugena. They had a photoshoot where they portrayed different circus characters. The judging saw Megg become the fourth model eliminated.
First aired October 18, 2006
The nine finalists participated in a challenge where they had to give a red carpet interview, with the winner being Melrose. They had a photoshoot where they had to portray both members of a celebrity couple. The judging saw AJ become the fifth model eliminated.
First aired October 25, 2006
The eight finalists had an impromptu black and white photoshoot. They participated in a challenge where they had to walk sexy on a dining table runway, with the winner being Melrose. They had a second photoshoot where they shot romance novel covers. The judging saw Brooke become the sixth model eliminated.
First aired November 1, 2006
The episode was an overview of the past six episodes of the cycle which featured previously unseen footage.
First aired November 8, 2006
The seven finalists participated in a challenge where they shot their own action shots, with the winner being Michelle. They had a photoshoot where they did a campaign for Cover Girl TruBlend Whipped Foundation set in outer outerspace. The judging saw Anchal become the seventh model eliminated.
First aired November 15, 2006
The six finalists participated in a challenge where they had to shoot a silent film, with the winner being CariDee. The models travelled to Barcelona, Spain, where they shot a commercial for Secret Deodorant in Catalan. The judging saw Jaeda become the eighth model eliminated.
First aired November 22, 2006
The five finalists participated in a challenge where they had to go on go - sees, with the winner being Melrose. They had a photoshoot where they portrayed Spanish matadors. The judging saw Michelle become the ninth model eliminated.
First aired November 29, 2006
First aired December 6, 2006
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who sings female vocals on gimme shelter | Merry Clayton - wikipedia
Merry Clayton (born December 25, 1948) is an American soul and gospel singer and an actress. She provided a number of backing vocal tracks for major performing artists in the 1960s, most notably in her duet with Mick Jagger on the Rolling Stones song "Gimme Shelter. '' Clayton is featured in 20 Feet from Stardom, the Oscar - winning documentary about background singers and their contributions to the music industry. In 2013, she released The Best of Merry Clayton, a compilation of her favorite songs.
Clayton was born in Gert Town, New Orleans, Louisiana. Clayton was born on Christmas Day, and earned her name due to the holiday. She is the daughter of Eva B. Clayton and Reverend A.G. Williams Sr. Clayton was raised in New Orleans as a Christian, and spent much of her time in her father 's parish, New Zion Baptist Church. After moving to Los Angeles, she joined the now famous singer group "The Blossoms. ''
Clayton began her recording career in 1962 at the age of 14, singing "Who Can I Count On? (When I Ca n't Count on You) '' as a duet with Bobby Darin on his album "You 're the Reason I 'm Living. '' In 1963 she recorded the first version of "The Shoop Shoop Song (It 's in His Kiss), '' the same year that Betty Everett 's version reached the Top 10 on the Billboard Hot 100. Early in her career Merry performed with Ray Charles (as one of the Raelettes), who was the only artist her father allowed her to see live. Others include Pearl Bailey, Phil Ochs, Burt Bacharach, Tom Jones, Joe Cocker, Linda Ronstadt, Carole King, and on several tracks from Neil Young 's debut album. Clayton is often credited as having recorded with Elvis Presley but her name does not appear in Elvis sessionographies.
Clayton is best known for her 1969 duet with Mick Jagger on the Rolling Stones song "Gimme Shelter, '' though on some releases her name is misspelled as "Mary. '' According to Jagger, this collaboration came about due to partially to chance. Jagger states that they thought "it 'd be great to have a woman come do the... chorus. '' They called Clayton "randomly '' in the middle of the night, and she showed up to the studio "in curlers '' and did the verse in a few takes, which Jagger remarks is "pretty amazing. '' The Stones had asked Bonnie Bramlett to sing on the song, but Bramlett 's husband, Delaney, refused to let her perform with the Stones. Clayton also sang backing vocals on Lynyrd Skynyrd 's "Sweet Home Alabama ''.
In 1970, Clayton recorded her own version of "Gimme Shelter, '' and it became the title track of her debut solo album and peaked at # 73, released that year. Her version would be the first of five singles under her name to crack the Billboard Hot 100. That same year she performed a live version of "Lift Every Voice and Sing '' for the soundtrack for Robert Altman film Brewster McCloud and also contributed vocals to Donald Cammell and Nicolas Roeg 's film Performance. In 1971 she co-wrote the song "Sho ' Nuff '' about her mother. She starred as the original Acid Queen in the first London production of The Who 's Tommy in 1972. In 1973, she featured prominently on Ringo Starr 's "Oh My My '', which reached Billboard 's Top 10 the following year.
In the mid 1970s, Clayton sang on The Blackbyrds ' R&B hit "Rock Creek Park '' and continued to release solo albums throughout the next decade, notching several minor R&B singles. Her soundtrack work continued into the 1980s, including "You 're Always There When I Need You '', the title track for the 1980 Get Smart film The Nude Bomb, and the song "Yes '' from Dirty Dancing, which hit # 45 on the Hot 100. In 1987, Clayton co-starred with Ally Sheedy in the film Maid to Order and played Verna Dee Jordan in the final season of Cagney & Lacey. In 1989, she recorded a cover of "Almost Paradise '' with Eric Carmen.
In 1994 Clayton recorded backing vocals for and sang the "Man with the Golden Gun '' bridge on Tori Amos 's hit, "Cornflake Girl ''. In 2006, Clayton provided background vocals for Sparta 's album Threes on the songs "Atlas '' and "Translation ''.
She was featured in the documentary film 20 Feet from Stardom (2013), which premiered at the Sundance Film Festival and went on to win the Oscar for best documentary at the 86th Academy Awards. 20 Feet from Stardom also won the 2015 Grammy Award for Best Music Film, with the award being presented to the featured artists as well as the production crew.
In 2014, Clayton provided vocals for G. Love & Special Sauce 's album Sugar.
In 2015, Clayton was featured on two tracks on Coldplay 's album A Head Full of Dreams.
Clayton has been sampled in various songs, most notably Watch for the Hook by Cool Breeze featuring Goodie Mobb and supergroup Outkast.
Clayton was married to jazz artist Curtis Amy from 1970 until his death in 2002. Clayton 's brother is the Little Feat percussionist Sam Clayton.
She had a miscarriage upon returning home from recording "Gimme Shelter '', according to the LA Times.
On June 16, 2014, Clayton was severely injured in a car accident in Los Angeles, California. Both of Clayton 's legs were later amputated at the knees due to her suffering "profound trauma to her lower extremities '' as a result of the accident.
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who paid the cost of france's war effort during the french indochina war | First Indochina War - wikipedia
Viet Minh victory
Viet Minh Lao Issara (1945 -- 1949)
Khmer Issarak
Japanese volunteers
France
Cambodia (1953 -- 1954) Laos (1953 -- 1954) State of Vietnam (1949 -- 1954)
Hồ Chí Minh Võ Nguyên Giáp Phạm Văn Đồng Trường Chinh
French Expeditionary Corps
State of Vietnam
The First Indochina War (generally known as the Indochina War in France, and as the Anti-French Resistance War in Vietnam) began in French Indochina on 19 December 1946, and lasted until 1 August 1954. Fighting between French forces and their Viet Minh opponents in the south dated from September 1945. The conflict pitted a range of forces, including the French Union 's French Far East Expeditionary Corps, led by France and supported by Emperor Bảo Đại 's Vietnamese National Army against the Viet Minh, led by Ho Chi Minh and the People 's Army of Vietnam led by Vo Nguyen Giap. Most of the fighting took place in Tonkin in northern Vietnam, although the conflict engulfed the entire country and also extended into the neighboring French Indochina protectorates of Laos and Cambodia.
At the Potsdam Conference in July 1945, the Combined Chiefs of Staff decided that Indochina south of latitude 16 ° north was to be included in the Southeast Asia Command under British Admiral Mountbatten. Japanese forces located south of that line surrendered to him and those to the north surrendered to Generalissimo Chiang Kai - shek. In September 1945, Chinese forces entered Tonkin and a small British task force landed at Saigon. The Chinese accepted the Vietnamese government under Ho Chi Minh, then in power in Hanoi. The British refused to do likewise in Saigon, and deferred to the French there from the outset, against the ostensible support of the Viet Minh authorities by American OSS representatives. On V-J Day, September 2, Ho Chi Minh had proclaimed in Hanoi the establishment of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV). The DRV ruled as the only civil government in all of Vietnam for a period of about 20 days, after the abdication of Emperor Bảo Đại, who had governed under Japanese rule and thus was considered a "Japanese puppet '' by the Viet Minh. On 23 September 1945, with the knowledge of the British commander in Saigon, French forces overthrew the local DRV government, and declared French authority restored in Cochinchina. Guerrilla warfare began around Saigon immediately.
The first few years of the war involved a low - level rural insurgency against the French. However, after the Chinese communists reached the northern border of Vietnam in 1949, the conflict turned into a conventional war between two armies equipped with modern weapons supplied by the United States and the Soviet Union. French Union forces included colonial troops from the whole former empire (Moroccan, Algerian, Tunisian, Laotian, Cambodian, and Vietnamese ethnic minorities), French professional troops and units of the French Foreign Legion. The use of metropolitan recruits was forbidden by the government to prevent the war from becoming even more unpopular at home. It was called the "dirty war '' (la sale guerre) by leftists in France.
The strategy of pushing the Viet Minh into attacking well - defended bases in remote parts of the country at the end of their logistical trails was validated at the Battle of Nà Sản. However, this base was relatively weak because of a lack of concrete and steel. French efforts were made more difficult due to the limited usefulness of armored tanks in a jungle environment, lack of strong air forces for air cover and carpet bombing, and use of foreign recruits from other French colonies (mainly from Algeria, Morocco and even Vietnam). Võ Nguyên Giáp, however, used efficient and novel tactics of direct fire artillery, convoy ambushes and amassed anti-aircraft guns to impede land and air supply deliveries together with a strategy based on recruiting a sizable regular army facilitated by wide popular support, a guerrilla warfare doctrine and instruction developed in China, and the use of simple and reliable war material provided by the Soviet Union. This combination proved fatal for the bases ' defenses, culminating in a decisive French defeat at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu.
At the International Geneva Conference on July 21, 1954, the new socialist French government and the Viet Minh made an agreement that was denounced by the State of Vietnam and by the United States, but which effectively gave the Viet Minh control of North Vietnam above the 17th parallel. The south continued under Emperor Bảo Đại. A year later, Bảo Đại would be deposed by his prime minister, Ngô Đình Diệm, creating the Republic of Vietnam. Soon an insurgency, backed by the north, developed against Diệm 's government. The conflict gradually escalated into the Vietnam War.
Vietnam was absorbed into French Indochina in stages between 1858 and 1887. Nationalism grew until World War II provided a break in French control. Early Vietnamese resistance centered on the intellectual Phan Bội Châu. Châu looked to Japan, which had modernized and was one of the few Asian nations to successfully resist European colonization. With Prince Cường Để, Châu started two organizations in Japan, the Duy Tân hội (Modernistic Association) and Vietnam Cong Hien Hoi.
Due to French pressure, Japan deported Phan Bội Châu to China. Witnessing Sun Yat - sen 's 1911 nationalist revolution, Châu was inspired to commence the Viet Nam Quang Phục Hội movement in Guangzhou. From 1914 to 1917, he was imprisoned by Yuan Shikai 's counterrevolutionary government. In 1925, he was captured by French agents in Shanghai and spirited to Vietnam. Due to his popularity, Châu was spared from execution and placed under house arrest until his death in 1940.
In September 1940, shortly after Phan Bội Châu 's death, Japan launched its invasion of French Indochina, mirroring its ally Germany 's conquest of metropolitan France. Keeping the French colonial administration, the Japanese ruled from behind the scenes in a parallel of Vichy France. As far as Vietnamese nationalists were concerned, this was a double - puppet government. Emperor Bảo Đại collaborated with the Japanese, just as he had with the French, ensuring his lifestyle could continue.
From October 1940 to May 1941, during the Franco - Thai War, the Vichy French in Indochina were involved with defending their colony in a border conflict which saw the forces of Thailand invade, while the Japanese sat on the sidelines. Thai military successes were limited to the Cambodian border area, and in January 1941 Vichy France 's modern naval forces soundly defeated the inferior Thai naval forces in the Battle of Ko Chang. The war ended in May, with the French agreeing to minor territorial revisions which restored formerly Thai areas to Thailand.
In 1941, Ho Chi Minh, seeing communist revolution as the path to freedom, returned to Vietnam and formed the Viet Nam Doc Lap Dong Minh Hoi (League for the Independence of Vietnam), better known as the Viet Minh. Ho created the Viet Minh as an umbrella organization for all the nationalist resistance movements, de-emphasizing his communist social revolutionary background.
During the Vietnamese Famine of 1945, Ho Chi Minh blamed ruthless Japanese exploitation and poor weather for up to two million Vietnamese deaths. The Viet Minh arranged a relief effort in the north, winning wide support there as a result.
In March 1945, Japan launched the Second French Indochina Campaign and ousted the Vichy French and formally installed Emperor Bảo Đại as head of the nominally independent Empire of Vietnam. The Japanese arrested and imprisoned most of the French officials and military officers remaining in the country.
American President Franklin D. Roosevelt and General Joseph Stilwell privately made it clear that France was not to reacquire French Indochina after the war was over. Roosevelt suggested that Chiang Kai - shek place Indochina under Chinese rule; Chiang Kai - shek supposedly replied: "Under no circumstances! '' Following Roosevelt 's death in April 1945, U.S. resistance to French rule weakened.
An armistice was signed between Japan and the United States on August 20, 1945. The Provisional Government of the French Republic wanted to restore its colonial rule in French Indochina as the final step of the Liberation of France.
On August 22, 1945, OSS agents Archimedes Patti and Carleton B. Swift Jr. arrived in Hanoi on a mercy mission to liberate Allied POWs, and were accompanied by French government official Jean Sainteny. The Imperial Japanese Army, being the only force capable of maintaining law and order, remained in power while keeping French colonial troops and Sainteny detained.
Japanese forces allowed the Viet Minh and other nationalist groups to take over public buildings and weapons without resistance, which began the August Revolution. On August 25, Ho Chi Minh was able to persuade Emperor Bảo Đại to abdicate. Bảo Đại was appointed "supreme advisor '' to the new Vietminh - led government in Hanoi.
On September 2, aboard the USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay, CEFEO Expeditionary Corps leader General Leclerc signed the armistice with Japan on behalf of France. The same day, Ho Chi Minh declared Vietnam 's independence from France. Deliberately borrowing from the Declaration of Independence of the United States of America, Ho Chi Minh proclaimed:
"We hold the truth that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, among them life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. ''
After their surrender, the Japanese Army gave weapons to the Viet Minh. In order to further help the nationalists, the Japanese kept Vichy French officials and military officers imprisoned for a month after the surrender. OSS officers met repeatedly with Ho Chi Minh and other Viet Minh officers during this period. The Viet Minh had recruited more than 600 Japanese soldiers and given them roles to train or command Vietnamese soldiers.
On September 13, 1945, a Franco - British task force landed in Java, main island of the Dutch East Indies (for which independence was being sought by Sukarno), and Saigon, capital of Cochinchina (southern part of French Indochina), both being occupied by the Japanese and ruled by Field Marshal Hisaichi Terauchi, Commander - in - Chief of Japan 's Southern Expeditionary Army Group based in Saigon. Allied troops in Saigon were an airborne detachment, two British companies of the Indian 20th Infantry Division and the French 5th Colonial Infantry Regiment, with British General Sir Douglas Gracey as supreme commander. The latter proclaimed martial law on September 21. The following night the Franco - British troops took control of Saigon.
Almost immediately afterward, as agreed to at the Potsdam Conference (and under Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers ' "General Order no. One ''.), 200,000 troops of the Chinese 1st Army occupied Indochina as far south as the 16th parallel. They had been sent by Chiang Kai - shek under General Lu Han to accept the surrender of Japanese forces occupying that area, then to supervise the disarming and repatriation of the Japanese Army. This effectively ended Ho Chi Minh 's nominal government in Hanoi. Initially, the Chinese kept the French Colonial soldiers interned, with the acquiescence of the Americans. The Chinese used the VNQDĐ, the Vietnamese branch of the Chinese Kuomintang, to increase their influence in Indochina and put pressure on their opponents.
On October 9, 1945, General Leclerc arrived in Saigon, accompanied by French Colonel Massu 's March Group (Groupement de marche). Leclerc 's primary objectives were to restore public order in south Vietnam and to militarize Tonkin (north Vietnam). Secondary objectives were to wait for French backup in view to take back Chinese - occupied Hanoi, then to negotiate with the Viet Minh officials.
Chiang Kai - shek threatened the French with war in response to manoeuvering by the French and Ho Chi Minh against each other, forcing them to come to a peace agreement. In February 1946, he also forced the French to surrender and renounce all of their concessions and ports in China, such as Shanghai, in exchange for withdrawing from northern Indochina and allowing French troops to reoccupy the region starting in March 1946. Following this agreement, VNQDĐ forces became vulnerable due to the withdrawal of Chinese forces and were attacked by Viet Minh and French troops. The Viet Minh massacred thousands of VNQDD members and other nationalists in a large scale purge.
The British supported the French in fighting the Viet Minh, armed militias from the religious Cao Đài and Hòa Hảo sects and the Bình Xuyên organized crime groups, which were all individually seeking power in the country and fought the Viet Ming as well. The Viet Minh were militarily ineffective in the first few years of the war and could do little more than harass the French in remote areas of Indochina.
The French were backed by the Nung minority while Viet Minh were backed by the Tay minority.
In early 1946, the French landed a military force at Haiphong. Negotiations took place about the future for Vietnam as a state within the French Union.
Fighting broke out in Haiphong about a conflict of interest in import duty at the port between the Viet Minh government and the French. On November 23, 1946, the French fleet began a naval bombardment of the Vietnamese sections of the city that killed over 6,000 Vietnamese civilians in one afternoon. The Viet Minh quickly agreed to a cease - fire and left the cities. This is known as the Haiphong incident.
There was never any intention among the Vietnamese to give up, as General Võ Nguyên Giáp soon brought up 30,000 men to attack the city. Although the French were outnumbered, their superior weaponry and naval support made any Viet Minh attack unsuccessful. In December, hostilities between the Viet Minh and the French broke out in Hanoi, and Ho Chi Minh was forced to evacuate the capital in favor of remote mountain areas. Guerrilla warfare ensued, with the French controlling most of the country except far - flung areas.
In 1947, General Võ Nguyên Giáp retreated his command to Tan Trao deep in the hills of Tuyên Quang Province. The French sent military expeditions to attack his bases, but Giap refused to meet them head - on in battle. Wherever the French troops went, the Viet Minh disappeared. Late in the year the French launched Operation Lea to take out the Viet Minh communications center at Bắc Kạn. They failed to capture Ho Chi Minh and his key lieutenants as intended. The French claimed 9,000 Viet Minh soldiers KIA during the campaign which, if true, would represent a major blow for the insurgency.
In 1948, France started looking for means of opposing the Viet Minh politically, with an alternative government in Saigon. They began negotiations with the former emperor Bảo Đại to lead an "autonomous '' government within the French Union of nations, the State of Vietnam. Two years before, the French had refused Ho 's proposal of a similar status, albeit with some restrictions on French power and the latter 's eventual withdrawal from Vietnam.
However, they were willing to give it to Bảo Đại as he had freely collaborated with French rule of Vietnam in the past and was in no position to seriously negotiate or impose demands (Bảo Đại had no military of his own, but soon he would have one).
In 1949, France officially recognized the nominal "independence '' of the State of Vietnam as an associated state within the French Union under Bảo Đại. However, France still controlled all foreign relations and every defense issue. The Viet Minh quickly denounced the government and stated that they wanted "real independence, not Bảo Đại independence ''. Within the framework of the French Union, France also granted independence to the other nations in Indochina, the Kingdoms of Laos and Cambodia.
Later, as a concession to the new government and a way to increase their numbers, France agreed to the formation of the Vietnamese National Army commanded by Vietnamese officers. These troops were used mostly to garrison quiet sectors, so French forces would be available for combat. Private armies from the Cao Đài and Hòa Hảo religious sects and the Bình Xuyên crime syndicate were used in the same way.
With the triumph of the communists in China 's civil war, the Vietnamese communists gained a major political ally on their northern border, supporting them with weapons and supplies. Giap re-organized his local irregular forces into five full conventional infantry divisions, the 304th, 308th, 312th, 316th and the 320th. The war began to intensify when Giap went on the offensive, attacking isolated French bases along the Chinese border.
The United States began to give military aid to France in the form of weaponry and military observers.
By January 1950, Ho 's government gained recognition from China and the Soviet Union. In the same year, the government of Bao Dai gained recognition by the United States and the United Kingdom.
In February, Giap seized the vulnerable 150 - strong French garrison at Lai Khê in Tonkin just south of the border with China.
In June, the Korean War broke out between communist North Korea (DPRK) supported by China and the Soviet Union, and South Korea (ROK) supported by the United States and its allies in the UN. The Cold War was turning ' hot ' in East Asia, and the American government feared communist domination of the entire region would have deep implications for American interests. The US became strongly opposed to the government of Ho Chi Minh, in part, because it was supported and supplied by China.
Major general Thái attacked Đông Khê on September 15. Đông Khê fell on September 18.
Cao Bằng garrison was then evacuated south, together with the relief force coming from That Khe, were attacked all the way by ambushing Viet Minh forces, which result in a stunning French defeat in the Battle of Route Coloniale 4. The French air - dropped a paratroop battalion south of Cao Bằng to act as diversion only to see it quickly surrounded and destroyed. After that, Lạng Sơn, is evacuted in panic while it was n't menaced.
By the time the remains of the garrisons reached the safety of the Red River Delta, 4,800 French troops had been killed, captured or missing in action and 2,000 wounded out of a total garrison force of over 10,000. Also lost were 13 artillery pieces, 125 mortars, 450 trucks, 940 machine guns, 1,200 submachine guns and 8,000 rifles destroyed or captured during the fighting. China and the Soviet Union recognized Ho Chi Minh as the legitimate ruler of Vietnam and sent him more and more supplies and material aid. The year 1950 also marked the first time that napalm was ever used in Vietnam (this type of weapon was supplied by the U.S. for the use of the French Aéronavale at the time).
The military situation improved for France when its new commander, General Jean Marie de Lattre de Tassigny, built a fortified line from Hanoi to the Gulf of Tonkin, across the Red River Delta, to hold the Viet Minh in place and use his troops to smash them against this barricade, which became known as the De Lattre Line. This led to a period of success for the French.
On January 13, 1951, Giáp moved the 308th and 312th Divisions, made up of over 20,000 men, to attack Vĩnh Yên, 20 miles (32 km) northwest of Hanoi, which was manned by the 6,000 - strong 9th Foreign Legion Brigade. The Viet Minh entered a trap. Caught for the first time in the open and actually forced to fight the French head - on, without the ability to quickly hide and retreat, they were mown down by concentrated French artillery and machine gun fire. By January 16, the Battle of Vĩnh Yên ended as Giáp was forced to withdraw, with over 6,000 of his troops killed, 8,000 wounded and 500 captured.
On March 23, Giáp tried again, launching an attack against Mạo Khê, 20 miles (32 km) north of Haiphong. The 316th Division, composed of 11,000 men, with the partly rebuilt 308th and 312th Divisions in reserve, went forward and were beaten in bitter hand - to - hand fighting against French troops. Giap, having lost over 3,000 (French estimation) / ~ 500 (Viet Minh information) dead and wounded by March 28, withdrew.
Giáp launched yet another attack, the Battle of the Day River, on May 29 with the 304th Division at Phủ Lý, the 308th Division at Ninh Bình, and the main attack delivered by the 320th Division at Phat Diem south of Hanoi. The attacks fared no better and the three divisions lost heavily. Taking advantage of this, de Lattre mounted his counteroffensive against the demoralized Viet Minh, driving them back into the jungle and eliminating the enemy pockets in the Red River Delta by June 18, costing the Viet Minh over 10,000 killed.
Every effort by Võ Nguyên Giáp to break the De Lattre Line failed, and every attack he made was answered by a French counter-attack that destroyed his forces. Viet Minh casualties rose alarmingly during this period, leading some to question the leadership of the Communist government, even within the party. However, any benefit this may have reaped for France was negated by the increasing domestic opposition to the war in France.
On July 31, French General Charles Chanson was assassinated during a propaganda suicide attack at Sa Đéc in South Vietnam that was blamed on the Viet Minh although it was argued in some quarters that Cao Đài nationalist Trình Minh Thế could have been involved in its planning.
On November 14, 1951, the French seized Hòa Bình, 25 miles (40 km) west of the De Lattre Line, by a parachute drop and extended their perimeter.
In January, General de Lattre fell ill from cancer and had to return to France for treatment. He died there shortly thereafter and was replaced by General Raoul Salan as the overall commander of French forces in Indochina. Viet Minh launched attacks on Hòa Bình, forcing the French to withdraw back to their main positions on the De Lattre line by February 22, 1952. Each side lost nearly 5,000 men in this campaign, and it showed that the war was far from over.
Throughout the war theater, the Viet Minh cut French supply lines and began to seriously wear down the resolve of the French forces. There were continued raids, skirmishes and guerrilla attacks, but through most of the rest of the year each side withdrew to prepare itself for larger operations. Starting on October 2, the Battle of Nà Sản saw the first use of the French commanders ' "hedgehog '' tactics, consisting in setting up well - defended outposts to get the Viet Minh out of the jungle and force them to fight conventional battles instead of using guerrilla tactics.
On October 17, 1952, Giáp launched attacks against the French garrisons along Nghĩa Lộ, northwest of Hanoi, and overran much of the Black River valley, except for the airfield of Nà Sản where a strong French garrison entrenched. Giáp by now had control over most of Tonkin beyond the De Lattre line. Raoul Salan, seeing the situation as critical, launched Operation Lorraine along the Clear River to force Giáp to relieve pressure on the Nghĩa Lộ outposts.
On October 29, 1952, in the largest operation in Indochina to date, 30,000 French Union soldiers moved out from the De Lattre line to attack the Viet Minh supply dumps at Phú Yên. Salan took Phú Thọ on November 5, and Phu Doan on November 9 by a parachute drop, and finally Phú Yên on November 13. Giáp at first did not react to the French offensive. He planned to wait until their supply lines were overextended and then cut them off from the Red River Delta.
Salan correctly guessed what the Viet Minh were up to and cancelled the operation on November 14, beginning to withdraw back to the De Lattre Line. The only major fighting during the operation came during the withdrawal, when the Viet Minh ambushed the French column at Chan Muong on November 17. The road was cleared after a bayonet charge by the Indochinese March Battalion, and the withdrawal could continue. The French lost around 1,200 men during the whole operation, most of them during the Chan Muong ambush. The operation was partially successful, proving that the French could strike out at targets outside the De Lattre Line. However, it failed to divert the Viet Minh offensive or seriously damage its logistical network.
On April 9, 1953, Giáp, after having failed repeatedly in direct attacks on French positions in Vietnam, changed strategy and began to pressure the French by invading Laos, surrounding and defeating several French outposts such as Muong Khoua. In May, General Henri Navarre replaced Salan as supreme commander of French forces in Indochina. He reported to the French government "... that there was no possibility of winning the war in Indo - China, '' saying that the best the French could hope for was a stalemate.
Navarre, in response to the Viet Minh attacking Laos, concluded that "hedgehog '' centers of defense were the best plan. Looking at a map of the area, Navarre chose the small town of Điện Biên Phủ, located about 10 miles (16 km) north of the Lao border and 175 miles (282 km) west of Hanoi as a target to block the Viet Minh from invading Laos. Điện Biên Phủ had a number of advantages: it was on a Viet Minh supply route into Laos on the Nam Yum River, it had an old airstrip for supply, and it was situated in the Tai hills where the Tai tribesmen, still loyal to the French, operated.
Operation Castor was launched on November 20, 1953, with 1,800 men of the French 1st and 2nd Airborne Battalions dropping into the valley of Điện Biên Phủ and sweeping aside the local Viet Minh garrison. The paratroopers gained control of a heart - shaped valley 12 miles (19 km) long and 8 miles (13 km) wide surrounded by heavily wooded hills. Encountering little opposition, the French and Tai units operating from Lai Châu to the north patrolled the hills.
The operation was a tactical success for the French. However, Giáp, seeing the weakness of the French position, started moving most of his forces from the De Lattre line to Điện Biên Phủ. By mid-December, most of the French and Tai patrols in the hills around the town were wiped out by Viet Minh ambushes. The fight for control of this position would be the longest and hardest battle for the French Far East Expeditionary Corps and would be remembered by the veterans as "57 Days of Hell ''.
By 1954, despite official propaganda presenting the war as a "crusade against communism '', the war in Indochina was still growing unpopular with the French public. The political stagnation of the Fourth Republic meant that France was unable to extract itself from the conflict.
The Battle of Dien Bien Phu occurred in 1954 between Viet Minh forces under Võ Nguyên Giáp, supported by China and the Soviet Union, and the French Union 's French Far East Expeditionary Corps, supported by US financing and Indochinese allies. The battle was fought near the village of Điện Biên Phủ in northern Vietnam and became the last major battle between the French and the Vietnamese in the First Indochina War.
The battle began on March 13 when a preemptive Viet Minh attack surprised the French with heavy artillery. The artillery damaged both the main and secondary airfields that the French were using to fly in supplies. The only road into Điện Biên Phủ, already difficult to traverse, was also knocked out by Viet Minh forces. With French supply lines interrupted, the French position became untenable, particularly when the advent of the monsoon season made dropping supplies and reinforcements by parachute difficult. With defeat imminent, the French sought to hold on until the opening of the Geneva peace meeting on April 26. The last French offensive took place on May 4, but it was ineffective. The Viet Minh then began to hammer the outpost with newly supplied Soviet Katyusha rockets and other weaponry provided by communist allies.
The final fall took two days, May 6 and 7, during which the French fought on but were eventually overrun by a huge frontal assault. General Cogny, based in Hanoi, ordered General de Castries, who was commanding the outpost, to cease fire at 5: 30 pm and to destroy all materiél (weapons, transmissions, etc.) to deny their use to the enemy. A formal order was given to not use the white flag so that the action would be considered a ceasefire instead of a surrender. Much of the fighting ended on May 7; however, the ceasefire was not respected on Isabelle, the isolated southern position, where the battle lasted until May 8, 1: 00 am.
At least 2,200 members of the 20,000 - strong French forces died, and another 1,729 were reported missing after the battle, and 11,721 were captured. Of the 50,000 or so Vietnamese soldiers thought to be involved, there were an estimated 4,800 to 8,000 killed and another 9,000 -- 15,000 wounded. The prisoners taken at Điện Biên Phủ were the greatest number the Viet Minh had ever captured: one - third of the total captured during the entire war.
One month after Điện Biên Phủ, the composite Groupe Mobile 100 (GM100) of the French Union forces evacuated the An Khê outpost and was ambushed by a larger Viet Minh force at the Battle of Mang Yang Pass from June 24 to July 17. At the same time, Giap launched some offensives against the delta, but they all failed. The Viet Minh victory at Điện Biên Phủ heavily influenced the outcome of the 1954 Geneva accords that took place on July 21. In August Operation Passage to Freedom began, consisting of the evacuation of Catholic and loyalist Vietnamese civilians from communist North Vietnamese persecution.
Negotiations between France and the Viet Minh started in Geneva in April 1954 at the Geneva Conference, during which time the French Union and the Viet Minh were fighting a battle at Điện Biên Phủ. In France, Pierre Mendès France, opponent of the war since 1950, had been invested as Prime Minister on June 17, 1954, on a promise to put an end to the war, reaching a ceasefire in four months:
"Today it seems we can be reunited in a will for peace that may express the aspirations of our country... Since already several years, a compromise peace, a peace negotiated with the opponent seemed to me commanded by the facts, while it commanded, in return, to put back in order our finances, the recovery of our economy and its expansion. Because this war placed on our country an unbearable burden. And here appears today a new and formidable threat: if the Indochina conflict is not resolved -- and settled very fast -- it is the risk of war, of international war and maybe atomic, that we must foresee. It is because I wanted a better peace that I wanted it earlier, when we had more assets. But even now there is some renouncings or abandons that the situation does not comprise. France does not have to accept and will not accept settlement which would be incompatible with its more vital interests (applauding on certain seats of the Assembly on the left and at the extreme right). France will remain present in Far - Orient. Neither our allies, nor our opponents must conserve the least doubt on the signification of our determination. A negotiation has been engaged in Geneva... I have longly studied the report... consulted the most qualified military and diplomatic experts. My conviction that a pacific settlement of the conflict is possible has been confirmed. A "cease - fire '' must henceforth intervene quickly. The government which I will form will fix itself -- and will fix to its opponents -- a delay of 4 weeks to reach it. We are today on 17th of June. I will present myself before you before the 20th of July... If no satisfying solution has been reached at this date, you will be freed from the contract which would have tied us together, and my government will give its dismissal to the President of the Republic. ''
The Geneva Conference on July 21, 1954, recognized the 17th parallel north as a "provisional military demarcation line, '' temporarily dividing the country into two zones, communist North Vietnam and pro-Western South Vietnam.
The Geneva Accords promised elections in 1956 to determine a national government for a united Vietnam. Neither the United States government nor Ngo Dinh Diem 's State of Vietnam signed anything at the 1954 Geneva Conference. With respect to the question of reunification, the non-communist Vietnamese delegation objected strenuously to any division of Vietnam, but lost out when the French accepted the proposal of Viet Minh delegate Pham Van Dong, who proposed that Vietnam eventually be united by elections under the supervision of "local commissions ''. The United States countered with what became known as the "American Plan '', with the support of South Vietnam and the United Kingdom. It provided for unification elections under the supervision of the United Nations, but was rejected by the Soviet delegation. From his home in France, Emperor Bảo Đại appointed Ngô Đình Diệm as Prime Minister of South Vietnam. With American support, in 1955 Diem used a referendum to remove the former Emperor and declare himself the president of the Republic of Vietnam.
When the elections failed to occur, Viet Minh cadres who stayed behind in South Vietnam were activated and started to fight the government. North Vietnam also invaded and occupied portions of Laos to assist in supplying the National Liberation Front guerillas fighting in South Vietnam. The war gradually escalated into the Second Indochina War, more commonly known as the Vietnam War in the West and the American War in Vietnam.
The 1946 Constitution creating the Fourth Republic (1946 -- 1958) made France a Parliamentary republic. Because of the political context, it could find stability only by an alliance between the three dominant parties: the Christian Democratic Popular Republican Movement (MRP), the French Communist Party (PCF) and the socialist French Section of the Workers ' International (SFIO). Known as tripartisme, this alliance briefly lasted until the May 1947 crisis, with the expulsion from Paul Ramadier 's SFIO government of the PCF ministers, marking the official start of the Cold War in France. This had the effect of weakening the regime, with the two most significant movements of this period, Communism and Gaullism, in opposition.
Unlikely alliances had to be made between left - and right - wing parties in order to form a government invested by the National Assembly, resulting in parliamentary instability, with fourteen prime ministers in succession between 1947 and 1954 's Battle of Dien Bien Phu. The rapid turnover of governments (there were 17 different governments during the war) left France unable to prosecute the war with any consistent policy, according to veteran General René de Biré (who was a lieutenant at Dien Bien Phu). France was increasingly unable to afford the costly conflict in Indochina and, by 1954, the United States was paying 80 % of France 's war effort, which was $3,000,000 per day in 1952.
A strong anti-war movement came into existence in France driven mostly by the then - powerful French Communist Party (outpowering the socialists) and its young militant associations, major trade unions such as the General Confederation of Labour, and notable leftist intellectuals. The first occurrence was probably at the National Assembly on March 21, 1947, when the communist deputees refused to back the military credits for Indochina. The following year a pacifist event was organized, the "1st Worldwide Congress of Peace Partisans '' (1er Congrès Mondial des Partisans de la Paix, the World Peace Council 's predecessor), which took place March 25 -- 28, 1948, in Paris, with the French communist Nobel laureate atomic physicist Frédéric Joliot - Curie as president. Later, on April 28, 1950, Joliot - Curie would be dismissed from the military and civilian Atomic Energy Commission for political reasons.
Young communist militants (UJRF) were also accused of sabotage actions like the famous Henri Martin affair and the case of Raymonde Dien, who was jailed one year for having blocked an ammunition train, with the help of other militants, in order to prevent the supply of French forces in Indochina in February 1950. Similar actions against trains occurred in Roanne, Charleville, Marseille, and Paris. Even ammunition sabotage by PCF agents has been reported, such as grenades exploding in the hands of legionaries. These actions became such a cause for concern by 1950 that the French Assembly voted a law against sabotage between March 2 -- 8. At this session tension was so high between politicians that fighting ensued in the assembly following communist deputees ' speeches against the Indochinese policy. This month saw the French navy mariner and communist militant Henri Martin arrested by military police and jailed for five years for sabotage and propaganda operations in Toulon 's arsenal. On May 5 communist Ministers were dismissed from the government, marking the end of Tripartism. A few months later on November 11, 1950, the French Communist Party leader Maurice Thorez went to Moscow.
Some military officers involved in the Revers Report scandal (Rapport Revers) such as Salan were pessimistic about the way the war was being conducted, with multiple political - military scandals all happening during the war, starting with the Generals ' Affair (Affaire des Généraux) from September 1949 to November 1950. As a result, General Georges Revers was dismissed in December 1949 and socialist Defense Ministry Jules Moch (SFIO) was brought on court by the National Assembly on November 28, 1950. Emerging media played their role. The scandal started the commercial success of the first French news magazine, L'Express, created in 1953. The third scandal was financial - political, concerning military corruption, money and arms trading involving both the French Union army and the Viet Minh, known as the Piastres affair. The war ended in 1954 but its sequel started in French Algeria where the French Communist Party played an even stronger role by supplying the National Liberation Front (FLN) rebels with intelligence documents and financial aid. They were called "the suitcase carriers '' (les porteurs de valises).
In the French news, the Indochina War was presented as a direct continuation of the Korean War, where France had fought: a UN French battalion, incorporated in a U.S. unit in Korea, was later involved in the Battle of Mang Yang Pass of June and July 1954. In an interview taped in May 2004, General Marcel Bigeard (6th BPC) argues that "one of the deepest mistakes done by the French during the war was the propaganda telling you are fighting for Freedom, you are fighting against Communism '', hence the sacrifice of volunteers during the climactic battle of Dien Bien Phu. In the latest days of the siege, 652 non-paratrooper soldiers from all army corps from cavalry to infantry to artillery dropped for the first and last time of their life to support their comrades. The Cold War excuse was later used by General Maurice Challe through his famous "Do you want Mers El Kébir and Algiers to become Soviet bases as soon as tomorrow? '', during the Generals ' putsch (Algerian War) of 1961, with limited effect though.
A few hours after the French Union defeat at Dien Bien Phu in May 1954, United States Secretary of State John Foster Dulles made an official speech depicting the "tragic event '' and "its defense for fifty seven days and nights will remain in History as one of the most heroic of all time. '' Later on, he denounced Chinese aid to the Viet Minh, explained that the United States could not act openly because of international pressure, and concluded with the call to "all concerned nations '' concerning the necessity of "a collective defense '' against "the communist aggression ''.
By 1946, France headed the French Union. As successive governments had forbidden the sending of metropolitan troops, the French Far East Expeditionary Corps (CEFEO) was created in March 1945. The Union gathered combatants from almost all French territories made of colonies, protectorates and associated states (Madagascar, Senegal, Tunisia, etc.) to fight in French Indochina, which was then occupied by the Japanese. About 325,000 of the 500,000 French troops were Indochinese, almost all of whom were used in conventional units.
French West Africa (Afrique Occidentale Française, AOF) was a federation of African colonies. Senegalese and other African troops were sent to fight in Indochina. Some African alumni were trained in the Infantry Instruction Center no. 2 (Centre d'Instruction de l'Infanterie no. 2) located in southern Vietnam. Senegalese of the Colonial Artillery fought at the siege of Dien Bien Phu. As a French colony (later a full province), French Algeria sent local troops to Indochina including several RTA (Régiment de Tirailleurs Algériens) light infantry battalions. Morocco was a French protectorate and sent troops to support the French effort in Indochina. Moroccan troops were part of light infantry RTMs (Régiment de Tirailleurs Marocains) for the "Moroccan Sharpshooters Regiment ''.
As a French protectorate, Bizerte, Tunisia, was a major French base. Tunisian troops, mostly RTT (Régiment de Tirailleurs Tunisiens), were sent to Indochina. Part of French Indochina, then part of the French Union and later an associated state, Laos fought the communists along with French forces. The role played by Laotian troops in the conflict was depicted by veteran Pierre Schoendoerffer 's famous 317th Platoon released in 1964. The French Indochina state of Cambodia played a significant role during the Indochina War through its infantrymen and paratroopers.
While Bảo Đại 's State of Vietnam (formerly Annam, Tonkin, Cochinchina) had the Vietnamese National Army supporting the French forces, some minorities were trained and organized as regular battalions (mostly infantry tirailleurs) that fought with French forces against the Viet Minh. The Tai Battalion 2 (BT2, 2e Bataillon Thai) is infamous for its desertion during the siege of Dien Bien Phu. Propaganda leaflets written in Tai and French sent by the Viet Minh were found in the deserted positions and trenches. Such deserters were called the Nam Yum rats by Bigeard during the siege, as they hid close to the Nam Yum river during the day and searched at night for supply drops. Another allied minority was the Muong people (Mường). The 1st Muong Battalion (1er Bataillon Muong) was awarded the Croix de guerre des théâtres d'opérations extérieures after the victorious Battle of Vinh Yen in 1951.
In the 1950s, the French established secret commando groups based on loyal Montagnard ethnic minorities referred to as "partisans '' or "maquisards '', called the Groupement de Commandos Mixtes Aéroportés (Composite Airborne Commando Group or GCMA), later renamed Groupement Mixte d'Intervention (GMI, or Mixed Intervention Group), directed by the SDECE counter-intelligence service. The SDECE 's "Service Action '' GCMA used both commando and guerrilla techniques and operated in intelligence and secret missions from 1950 to 1955. Declassified information about the GCMA includes the name of its commander, famous Colonel Roger Trinquier, and a mission on April 30, 1954, when Jedburgh veteran Captain Sassi led the Meo partisans of the GCMA Malo - Servan in Operation Condor during the siege of Dien Bien Phu.
In 1951, Adjutant - Chief Vandenberghe from the 6th Colonial Infantry Regiment (6e RIC) created the "Commando Vanden '' (aka "Black Tigers '', aka "North Vietnam Commando # 24 '') based in Nam Định. Recruits were volunteers from the Thổ people, Nùng people and Miao people. This commando unit wore Viet Minh black uniforms to confuse the enemy and used techniques of the experienced Bo doi (Bộ đội, regular army) and Du Kich (guerrilla unit). Viet Minh prisoners were recruited in POW camps. The commando was awarded the Croix de guerre des TOE with palm in July 1951; however, Vandenberghe was betrayed by a Viet Minh recruit, commander Nguien Tinh Khoi (308th Division 's 56th Regiment), who assassinated him (and his Vietnamese fiancée) with external help on the night of January 5, 1952. Coolies and POWs known as PIM (Prisonniers Internés Militaires, which is basically the same as POW) were civilians used by the army as logistical support personnel. During the battle of Dien Bien Phu, coolies were in charge of burying the corpses -- during the first days only, after they were abandoned, hence giving off a terrible smell, according to veterans -- and they had the dangerous job of gathering supply packets delivered in drop zones while the Viet Minh artillery was firing hard to destroy the crates. The Viet Minh also used thousands of coolies to carry the Chu - Luc (regional units) supplies and ammunition during assaults. The PIM were civilian males old enough to join Bảo Đại 's army. They were captured in enemy - controlled villages, and those who refused to join the State of Vietnam 's army were considered prisoners or used as coolies to support a given regiment.
Many former Imperial Japanese Army soldiers fought with the Viet Minh - perhaps as many as 5,000 volunteered their services throughout the war. These Japanese stayed behind in Indochina soon after World War II concluded in 1945 out of a peak number of 50,000 - the majority of which were repatriated to Japan by the then occupying British. For those that stayed behind, fighting with the Viet Minh became a more attractive idea than returning to a defeated and occupied homeland. In addition the Viet Minh had very little experience in warfare or government so the advice of the Japanese was welcome. Some of the Japanese were ex-Kenpeitai who were wanted for questioning by Allied authorities. Giap arranged for them all to receive Vietnamese citizenship and false identification papers. Some Japanese were captured by the Viet Minh during the last months of the war and were recruited in to their ranks.
Most of the Japanese officers who stayed served as military instructors for the Viet Minh forces, most notably at the Quang Ngai Army Academy. There were necessary conventional military knowledge such as how to conduct assaults, night attacks, company / battalion level exercises, commanding, tactics, navigation, communications and movements. A few, however, actively led Vietnamese forces into combat. The French also identified eleven Japanese nurses and two doctors working for the Viet Minh in northern Vietnam in 1951. A number of Japanese are remembered at the Yasukuni Shrine as a result of the First Indochina War.
One point that the French had a major problem with was the concept of sanctuary. As long as the revolutionaries who are fighting a guerilla war have a sanctuary, in which they can hide out, recoup after losses, and store supplies, it is almost impossible for any foreign enemy to ever destroy them. In the early 1950s, southern China was used as a sanctuary by Viet Minh guerrillas. Several hit and run ambushes were successfully operated against French Union convoys along the neighboring Route Coloniale 4 (RC 4), which was a major supply way in Tonkin (northern Vietnam). One of the most famous attacks of this kind was the battle of Cao Bằng.
China supplied the Viet Minh guerrillas with food (thousands of tons of rice), money, medics, arms, ammunition, artillery (24 guns were used at Dien Bien Phu) and other military equipment, including a large part of materials captured from Chiang Kai - shek 's National Revolutionary Army during the Chinese Civil War. Evidences of the Chinese secret aid were found in caves during Operation Hirondelle in July 1953. 2,000 Chinese and Soviet Union military advisors trained the Viet Minh guerrilla force to turn it into a full range army. On top of this China, sent two artillery battalions at the siege of Dien Bien Phu on May 6, 1954. One operated 12 x 6 Katyusha rockets
China and the Soviet Union were the first nations to recognize Ho Chi Minh government.
The Soviet Union was the other ally of the Viet Minh, supplying GAZ trucks, truck engines, fuel, tires, arms (thousands of Skoda light machine guns), all kind of ammunitions, anti-aircraft guns (4 x 37 mm type) and cigarettes. During Operation Hirondelle, the French Union paratroopers captured and destroyed tons of Soviet supplies in the Ky Lua area. According to General Giap, the Viet Minh used 400 GAZ - 51 soviet - built trucks at the battle of Dien Bien Phu. Because the trucks were using highly effective camouflage, the French Union reconnaissance planes were not able to notice them. On May 6, 1954, during the siege, Katyusha were successfully used against the outpost. Together with China, the Soviet Union sent 2,000 military advisors to train the Viet Minh and turn it into a fully organized army.
At the beginning of the war, the U.S. was neutral in the conflict because of opposition to European colonialism, because the Viet Minh had recently been their allies, and because most of its attention was focused on Europe where Winston Churchill argued an Iron Curtain had fallen.
Then the U.S. government gradually began supporting the French in their war effort, primarily through the Mutual Defense Assistance Act, as a means of stabilizing the French Fourth Republic in which the French Communist Party was a significant political force. A dramatic shift occurred in American policy after the victory of Mao Zedong 's Communist Party of China in the Chinese Civil War. By 1949, however, the United States became concerned about the spread of communism in Asia, particularly following the end of the Chinese Civil War, and began to strongly support the French as the two countries were bound by the Cold War Mutual Defense Programme.
After the Moch -- Marshall meeting of September 23, 1950, in Washington, the United States started to support the French Union effort politically, logistically and financially. Officially, US involvement did not include use of armed force. However, recently it has been discovered that undercover (CAT) -- or not -- US Air Force pilots flew to support the French during Operation Castor in November 1953. Two US pilots were killed in action during the siege at Dien Bien Phu the following year. These facts were declassified and made public more than 50 years after the events, in 2005 during the Légion d'honneur award ceremony by the French ambassador in Washington.
In May 1950, after the capture of Hainan island by Chinese communist forces, U.S. President Harry S. Truman began covertly authorizing direct financial assistance to the French, and on June 27, 1950, after the outbreak of the Korean War, announced publicly that the U.S. was doing so. It was feared in Washington that if Ho were to win the war, with his ties to the Soviet Union, he would establish a puppet state with Moscow with the Soviets ultimately controlling Vietnamese affairs. The prospect of a communist - dominated Southeast Asia was enough to spur the U.S. to support France, so that the spread of Soviet - allied communism could be contained.
On June 30, 1950, the first U.S. supplies for Indochina were delivered. In September, Truman sent the Military Assistance Advisory Group (MAAG) to Indochina to assist the French. Later, in 1954, U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower explained the escalation risk, introducing what he referred to as the "domino principle '', which eventually became the concept of domino theory. During the Korean War, the conflict in Vietnam was also seen as part of a broader proxy war with China and the USSR in Asia.
The USS Windham Bay delivered Grumman F8F Bearcat fighter aircraft to Saigon on January 26, 1951.
On March 2 of that year, the United States Navy transferred the USS Agenor (ARL - 3) (LST 490) to the French Navy in Indochina in accordance with the MAAG - led MAP. Renamed RFS Vulcain (A-656), she was used in Operation Hirondelle in 1953. The USS Sitkoh Bay carrier delivered Grumman F8F Bearcat aircraft to Saigon on March 26, 1951. During September 1953, the USS Belleau Wood (renamed Bois Belleau) was lent to France and sent to French Indochina to replace the Arromanches. She was used to support delta defenders in the Hạ Long Bay operation in May 1954. In August, she joined the Franco - American evacuation operation called "Passage to Freedom ''.
The same month, the United States delivered additional aircraft, again using the USS Windham Bay. On April 18, 1954, during the siege of Dien Bien Phu, the USS Saipan delivered 25 Korean War AU - 1 Corsair aircraft for use by the French Aeronavale in supporting the besieged garrison.
A total of 94 F4U - 7s were built for the Aéronavale in 1952, with the last of the batch, the final Corsair built, rolled out in December 1952. The F4U - 7s were actually purchased by the U.S. Navy and passed on to the Aéronavale through the U.S. Military Assistance Program (MAP). They were supplemented by 25 ex-U.S. MC AU - 1s (previously used in the Korean War) and moved from Yokosuka, Japan, to Tourane Air Base (Da Nang), Vietnam, in April 1952. US Air Force assistance followed in November 1953 when the French commander in Indochina, General Henri Navarre, asked General Chester E. McCarty, commander of the Combat Cargo Division, for 12 Fairchild C - 119s for Operation Castor at Dien Bien Phu. The USAF also provided C - 124 Globemasters to transport French paratroop reinforcements to Indochina.
Under the codename Project Swivel Chair, on March 3, 1954, twelve C - 119s of the 483rd Troop Carrier Wing ("Packet Rats '') based at Ashiya, Japan, were painted with France 's insignia and loaned to France with 24 CIA pilots for short - term use. Maintenance was carried out by the US Air Force and airlift operations were commanded by McCarty.
Twenty four Central Intelligence Agency (Civil Air Transport) pilots supplied the French Union garrison during the siege of Dien Bien Phu by airlifting paratroopers, ammunition, artillery pieces, tons of barbed wire, medics and other military materiel. With the reducing Drop zone areas, night operations and anti-aircraft artillery assaults, many of the "packets '' fell into Viet Minh hands. The 37 CIA pilots completed 682 airdrops under anti-aircraft fire between March 13 and May 6. Two CAT pilots, Wallace Bufford and James B. McGovern, Jr. were killed in action when their Fairchild C - 119 Flying Boxcar was shot down on May 6, 1954. On February 25, 2005, the French ambassador to the United States, Jean - David Levitte, awarded the seven remaining CIA pilots the Légion d'honneur.
In August 1954, in support to the French navy and the merchant navy, the U.S. Navy launched Operation Passage to Freedom and sent hundreds of ships, including USS Montague, in order to evacuate non-communist -- especially Catholic -- Vietnamese refugees from North Vietnam following the July 20, 1954, armistice and partition of Vietnam. Up to 1 million Vietnamese civilians were transported from North to South during this period, with around one tenth of that number moving in the opposite direction.
Although a kind of taboo in France, "the dirty war '' has been featured in various films, books and songs. Since its declassification in the 2000s, television documentaries have been released using new perspectives about the U.S. covert involvement and open critics about the French propaganda used during wartime.
The famous Communist propagandist Roman Karmen was in charge of the media exploitation of the battle of Dien Bien Phu. In his documentary, Vietnam (Вьетнам, 1955), he staged the famous scene with the raising of the Viet Minh flag over de Castries ' bunker which is similar to the one he staged over the Berlin Reichstag roof during World War II (Берлин, 1945) and the "S '' - shaped POW column marching after the battle, where he used the same optical technique he experimented with before when he staged the German prisoners after the Siege of Leningrad (Ленинград в борьбе, 1942) and the Battle of Moscow (Разгром немецких войск под Москвой, 1942).
Hollywood made a film about Dien Bien Phu in 1955, Jump into Hell, directed by David Butler and scripted by Irving Wallace, before his fame as a bestselling novelist. Hollywood also made several films about the war, Robert Florey 's Rogues ' Regiment (1948). Samuel Fuller 's China Gate (1957). and James Clavell 's Five Gates to Hell (1959).
The first French movie about the war, Shock Patrol (Patrouille de Choc) aka Patrol Without Hope (Patrouille Sans Espoir) by Claude Bernard - Aubert, came out in 1956. The French censor cut some violent scenes and made the director change the end of his movie which was seen as "too pessismistic ''. Léo Joannon 's film Fort du Fou (Fort of the Mad) / Outpost in Indochina was released in 1963. Another film was The 317th Platoon (La 317ème Section) was released in 1964, it was directed by Indochina War (and siege of Dien Bien Phu) veteran Pierre Schoendoerffer. Schoendoerffer has since become a media specialist about the Indochina War and has focused his production on realistic war movies. He was cameraman for the army ("Cinematographic Service of the Armies '', SCA) during his duty time; moreover, as he had covered the Vietnam War he released The Anderson Platoon, which won the Academy Award for Documentary Feature.
Graham Greene 's novel The Quiet American takes place during this war.
A Vietnamese software developer made a videogame called 7554 after the date of Battle of Dien Bien Phu to commemorate the First Indochina War from the Vietnamese point of view.
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who is the us air force’s all-time leading ace | Flying ace - wikipedia
A flying ace, fighter ace or air ace is a military aviator credited with shooting down several enemy aircraft during aerial combat. The actual number of aerial victories required to officially qualify as an "ace '' has varied, but is usually considered to be five or more. The few aces among combat aviators have historically accounted for the majority of air - to - air victories in military history.
The concept of the "ace '' emerged in 1915 during World War I, at the same time as aerial dogfighting. It was a propaganda term intended to provide the home front with a cult of the hero in what was otherwise a war of attrition. The individual actions of aces were widely reported and the image was disseminated of the ace as a chivalrous knight reminiscent of a bygone era. For a brief early period when air - to - air combat was just being invented, the exceptionally skilled pilot could shape the battle in the skies. For most of the war, however, the image of the ace had little to do with the reality of air warfare, in which fighters fought in formation and air superiority depended heavily on the relative availability of resources.
World War I introduced the systematic use of true single - seat fighter aircraft, with enough speed and agility to catch and maintain contact with targets in the air, coupled with armament sufficiently powerful to destroy the targets. Aerial combat became a prominent feature with the Fokker Scourge, in the last half of 1915. This was also the beginning of a long - standing trend in warfare, showing statistically that approximately five percent of combat pilots account for the majority of air - to - air victories.
Use of the term "ace '' to describe these pilots began in World War I, when French newspapers described Adolphe Pégoud, as l'As (French for "Ace '') after he became the first pilot to down five German aircraft. The British initially used the term "star - turns '' (a show business term), while the Germans described their elite fighter pilots as Überkanonen (which roughly translates to "top guns '').
The successes of such German ace pilots as Max Immelmann and Oswald Boelcke were much publicised for the benefit of civilian morale, and the Pour le Mérite, Prussia 's highest award for gallantry, became part of the uniform of a leading German ace. In the Luftstreitkräfte the Pour le Mérite was nicknamed Der blaue Max / The Blue Max, after Max Immelmann, who was the first fighter pilot to receive this award. Initially, German aviators had to destroy eight Allied aircraft to receive this medal. As the war progressed, the qualifications for Pour le Mérite were raised, but successful German fighter pilots continued to be hailed as national heroes for the remainder of the war.
As the German fighter squadrons usually fought well within German lines, it was practicable to establish and maintain very strict guidelines for the official recognition of victory claims by German pilots. Shared victories were either credited to one of the pilots concerned or to the unit as a whole -- the destruction of the aircraft had to be physically confirmed by locating its wreckage, or an independent witness to the destruction had to be found. Victories were also counted for aircraft forced down within German lines, as this usually resulted in the death or capture of the enemy aircrew.
Allied fighter pilots fought mostly in German - held airspace and were often not in a position to confirm that an apparently destroyed enemy aircraft had in fact crashed, so these victories were frequently claimed as "driven down '', "forced to land '', or "out of control '' (called "probables '' in later wars). These victories were usually included in a pilot 's totals and in citations for decorations.
The British high command considered praise of fighter pilots to be detrimental to equally brave bomber and reconnaissance aircrew -- so that the British air services did not publish official statistics on the successes of individuals. Nonetheless some pilots did become famous through press coverage, making the British system for the recognition of successful fighter pilots much more informal and somewhat inconsistent. One pilot, Arthur Gould Lee, described his own score in a letter to his wife as "Eleven, five by me solo -- the rest shared '', adding that he was "miles from being an ace ''. This shows that his No. 46 Squadron RAF counted shared kills, but separately from "solo '' ones -- one of a number of factors that seems to have varied from unit to unit. Also evident is that Lee considered a higher figure than five kills to be necessary for "ace '' status. Aviation historians credit him as an ace with two enemy aircraft destroyed and five driven down out of control, for a total of seven victories.
Other Allied countries, such as France and Italy, fell somewhere in between the very strict German approach and the relatively casual British one. They usually demanded independent witnessing of the destruction of an aircraft, making confirmation of victories scored in enemy territory very difficult. The Belgian crediting system sometimes included "out of control '' to be counted as a victory.
The United States Army Air Service adopted French standards for evaluating victories, with two exceptions -- during the summer of 1918, while flying under operational control of the British, the 17th Aero Squadron and the 148th Aero Squadron used British standards. American newsmen, in their correspondence to their papers, decided that five victories were the minimum needed to become an ace.
While "ace '' status was generally won only by fighter pilots, bomber and reconnaissance crews on both sides also destroyed some enemy aircraft, typically in defending themselves from attack. The most notable example of a non-pilot ace in World War I is Charles George Gass with 39 accredited aerial victories.
There were two theaters of war that produced flying aces between the two world wars. They were the Spanish Civil War and the Second Sino - Japanese War.
The Spanish ace Joaquín García Morato scored 40 victories for the Nationalists during the Spanish Civil War. Part of the outside intervention in the war was the supply of "volunteer '' foreign pilots to both sides. Russian and American aces joined the Republican air force, while the Nationalists included Germans and Italians.
The Soviet Volunteer Group began operations in the Second Sino - Japanese War as early as December 2, 1937, resulting in 28 Soviet aces. The Flying Tigers were American military pilots recruited sub rosa to aid the Chinese Nationalists. They spent the summer and autumn of 1941 in transit to China, and did not begin flying combat missions until December 20, 1941.
In World War II many air forces adopted the British practice of crediting fractional shares of aerial victories, resulting in fractions or decimal scores, such as 111⁄2 or 26.83. Some U.S. commands also credited aircraft destroyed on the ground as equal to aerial victories. The Soviets distinguished between solo and group kills, as did the Japanese, though the Imperial Japanese Navy stopped crediting individual victories (in favor of squadron tallies) in 1943.
The Soviet Air Forces has the top Allied pilots in terms of aerial victories, Ivan Kozhedub credited with 66 victories and Alexander Pokryshkin scored 65 victories. It also claimed the only female aces of the war: Lydia Litvyak scored 12 victories and Yekaterina Budanova achieved 11. Fighting on different sides, the French pilot Pierre Le Gloan had the unusual distinction of shooting down four German, seven Italian and seven British aircraft, the latter while he was flying for Vichy France in Syria.
The Luftwaffe continued the tradition of "one pilot, one kill '', and now referred to top scorers as Experten. During the war, and for some years after, the very high victory totals of some Experten were considered by many historians to be coloured by grandiose Nazi propaganda. In spite of this, there are 107 German pilots with more than 100 kills.
A number of factors probably contributed to the very high totals of the top German aces. For a limited period (especially during Operation Barbarossa), many Axis victories were over obsolescent aircraft and either poorly trained or inexperienced Allied pilots. In addition, Luftwaffe pilots generally flew many more individual sorties (sometimes well over 1000) than their Allied counterparts. Moreover, they often kept flying combat missions until they were captured, incapacitated, or killed, while successful Allied pilots were usually either promoted to positions involving less combat flying or routinely rotated back to training bases to pass their valuable combat knowledge to younger pilots. An imbalance in the number of targets available also contributed to the apparently lower numbers on the Allied side, since the number of operational Luftwaffe fighters was normally well below 1,500, with the total aircraft number never exceeding 5,000, and the total aircraft production of the Allies being nearly triple that of the other side. A difference in tactics might have been a factor as well; Erich Hartmann, for example, stated "See if there is a straggler or an uncertain pilot among the enemy... Shoot him down. '', which would have been an efficient and relatively low - risk way of increasing the number of kills. At the same time, the Soviet 1943 "Instruction For Air Combat '' stated that the first priority must be the enemy commander, which was a much riskier task, but one giving the highest return in case of a success.
Similarly, in the Pacific theater, one of the factors leading to the superiority of Japanese aces such as the legendary Hiroyoshi Nishizawa (about 87 kills) could be the early technical dominance of the Mitsubishi A6M "Zero '' fighter.
The Korean War of 1950 -- 53 marked the transition from piston - engined propeller driven aircraft to more modern jet aircraft. As such, it saw the world 's first jet - vs - jet aces.
The air war of 1965 between India and Pakistan marked the first ever "ace in a day '' in the jet age when PAF pilot M.M. Alam shot down five IAF Hunters in a single sortie. Overall he had 9 kills.
The South Vietnam Air Force was the world 's sixth largest air force at the height of its power in 1974 but armed with mostly obsolescent aircraft. This allowed many North Vietnamese pilots to claim "ace '' status. American air - to - air combat during the Vietnam War generally matched intruding United States fighter - bombers against radar - directed integrated North Vietnamese air defense systems. American McDonnell Douglas F - 4 Phantom II, Vought F - 8 Crusader and Republic F - 105 Thunderchief fighter crews usually had to contend with surface - to - air missiles, anti-aircraft artillery, and machine gun fire before opposing fighters attacked them. The long - running conflict produced 22 aces: 17 North Vietnamese pilots, two American pilots, three American weapon systems officers or WSOs (WSO is the USAF designation, one of the three was actually a US Naval aviator, with an equivalent job, but using the USN designation of Radar Intercept Officer or RIO).
The series of wars and conflicts between Israel and its neighbors began with Israeli independence in 1948 and continued for over three decades. Of the 50 known aces during these battles, one was Egyptian, three Syrian, and the rest Israeli.
Brig. General Jalil Zandi (1951 -- 2001) was an ace fighter pilot in the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force, serving for the full duration of the Iran -- Iraq War. His record of eight confirmed and three probable victories against Iraqi combat aircraft qualifies him as an ace and the most successful pilot of that conflict and the most successful Grumman F - 14 Tomcat pilot worldwide.
Brig. General Shahram Rostami was another Iranian ace. He was also an F - 14 pilot. He had six confirmed kills. His victories include: one MiG - 21, two MiG - 25s and three Mirage F1s.
The Iran - Iraq conflict also saw the only known helicopter dogfights in history.
Realistic assessment of enemy casualties is important for intelligence purposes, so most air forces expend considerable effort to ensure accuracy in victory claims. In World War II, the aircraft gun camera came into general usage, partly in hope of alleviating inaccurate victory claims.
And yet, to quote an extreme example, in the Korean War, both the U.S. and Communist air arms claimed a 10 - to - 1 victory / loss ratio. Without delving too deeply into these claims, they are obviously mutually incompatible. Arguably, few recognized aces actually shot down as many aircraft as credited to them. The primary reason for inaccurate victory claims is the inherent confusion of three - dimensional, high speed combat between large numbers of aircraft, but competitiveness and the desire for recognition (not to mention optimistic enthusiasm) also figure into inflation, especially when the attainment of a specific total is required for a particular decoration or promotion. Adolf Galland stated: "Hermann Göring actually goes much further, and claims that scores were deliberately falsified for the purpose of fabricating grounds for decorations -- but this seems unlikely to be the case, nor Goering 's real opinion. ''
The most accurate figures usually belong to the air arm fighting over its own territory, where many wrecks can be located, and even identified, and where shot down enemy are either killed or captured. It is for this reason that at least 76 of the 80 aircraft credited to Manfred von Richthofen can be tied to known British losses -- the German Jagdstaffeln flew defensively, on their own side of the lines, in part due to General Hugh Trenchard 's policy of offensive patrol.
On the other hand, losses (especially in aircraft as opposed to personnel) are sometimes recorded inaccurately, for various reasons. Nearly 50 % of RAF victories in the Battle of Britain, for instance, do not tally statistically with recorded German losses -- but some at least of this apparent over-claiming can be tallied with known wrecks, and aircrew known to have been in British PoW camps. There are a number of reasons why reported losses may be understated -- including poor reporting procedures and loss of records due to enemy action or wartime confusion.
While aces are generally thought of exclusively as fighter pilots, some have accorded this status to gunners on bombers or reconnaissance aircraft, observers / gunners in two - seater fighters such as the early Bristol F. 2b, and airborne weapons officers in aircraft like the F - 4 Phantom. Because pilots often teamed with different air crew members, an observer or gunner might be an ace while his pilot is not, or vice versa. Observer aces constitute a sizable minority in many lists. Charles George Gass, who tallied 39 victories, was the highest scoring observer ace in World War I.
In World War II, United States Army Air Forces B - 17 tail gunner S / Sgt. Michael Arooth (379th Bomb Group) was credited with 17 victories. The Royal Air Force 's leading bomber gunner, Wallace McIntosh, was credited with eight kills, including three on one mission. Flight Sergeant F.J. Barker scored 13 victories while flying as a gunner in a Boulton Paul Defiant turret fighter, piloted by Flight Sergeant E.R. Thorne.
With the advent of more advanced technology, a third category of ace appeared. Charles B. DeBellevue became not only the first U.S. Air Force weapon systems officer (WSO) to become an ace but also the top American ace of the Vietnam War, with six victories. Close behind with five were fellow WSO Jeffrey Feinstein and Radar Intercept Officer William P. Driscoll.
The first military aviators to score five or more victories on the same date, thus each becoming an "ace in a day '', were pilot Julius Arigi and observer / gunner Johann Lasi of the Austro - Hungarian air force, on August 22, 1916, when they downed five Italian aircraft. The feat was repeated five more times during World War I.
Becoming an ace in a day became relatively common during World War II. A total of 68 U.S. pilots (43 Army Air Forces, 18 Navy, and seven Marine Corps pilots) were credited with the feat.
In the Soviet offensive of 1944 in the Karelian Isthmus, Finnish pilot Hans Wind shot down 30 enemy aircraft in 12 days. In doing so, he obtained "ace in a day '' status three times.
On September 6, 1965, during the Indo - Pakistani War of 1965, Muhammad Mahmood Alam of the Pakistan Air Force has nine confirmed kills (and two probables).
On September 7, 1965, he battled defending the city of Lahore where he shot down five Indian Air Force Hawker Hunter fighters in less than a minute, four of them within 30 seconds. He was awarded the Sitara - e-Jurat ("The star of courage '') and bar for his actions. He observed: "Before we had completed more than of about 270 degrees of the turn, at around 12 degrees per second, all four Hunters had been shot down. '' After the war, PAF confirmed his kills and listed on the top of the hall of fame list at the PAF Museum in Karachi. The Pakistan Air Force figures have been disputed by Indian sources which claim that Alam made four kills, attributing one of the losses of Sqn Ldr Onkar Nath Kacker 's aircraft to technical failure or some other cause, including the possibility of ground fire.
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they say it never rains in southern california | It Never Rains in Southern California - wikipedia
"It Never Rains in Southern California '', written by Albert Hammond and Mike Hazlewood, is a song first released by Hammond, a British born singer - songwriter, in 1972. Instrumental backing was provided by L.A. session musicians from the Wrecking Crew. The song is from his album, It Never Rains in Southern California. Hammond 's version peaked at number five on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 that year.
In the UK the song is perhaps the quintessential example of a turntable hit: a song which, although very frequently played and requested on radio, never makes it into the charts. Through the 1970s, the record was re-issued at least five times by various labels but remained outside the UK top 40, despite yet more airplay, and is still frequently to be heard on UK radio.
The song concerns the struggles of an actor who moves out to California to pursue a career in Hollywood but does not have any success and deteriorates in the process. In the chorus, Hammond sings: "It never rains in California, but girl do n't they warn ya. It pours, man, it pours. ''
In 1989, Hammond re-recorded the song for his Best of Me greatest hits compilation.
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who is the exterminator on life in pieces | Life in Pieces - wikipedia
Life in Pieces is an American sitcom television series created by Justin Adler and which airs on CBS. The series debuted on September 21, 2015. The first season was picked up for a full 22 - episode order on October 27, 2015. On May 11, 2016, CBS renewed the show for a second season, which premiered on October 27, 2016.
On March 23, 2017, CBS renewed the series for a third season, which premiered on November 2, 2017.
On May 12, 2018, CBS renewed the series for a fourth season.
The series chronicles the lives of three generations of the Short family as they go about their daily lives in Los Angeles County. Each episode is told as four short stories, one for each branch of the Short family.
The show debuted on September 21, 2015 on CBS. The first five episodes aired on Mondays, before it was moved on November 5, 2015, to a new time slot of 8: 30 p.m. ET / PT (7: 30 p.m. CT) on Thursdays, directly after CBS finished its NFL broadcasts. In the United States, the first season airs on Netflix, with the second season also being available in Canada.
In the UK all seasons are available on Amazon Prime and is shown season by season on Comedy Central.
Fox Home Entertainment released region - free, MOD versions of the first two seasons on Amazon on May 22, 2018. This was followed by the third season being released on June 12, 2018.
The first season on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports a 62 % approval rating with an average rating of 6.6 / 10 based on 39 reviews. The website 's consensus reads "Life in Pieces strong cast delivers funny, offbeat stories even if they 're not always relatable ''. On Metacritic, the series holds a score of 64 out of 100 based on 24 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews. ''
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when did the lion king 2 come out | The Lion King II: Simba 's Pride - wikipedia
The Lion King II: Simba 's Pride (later retitled The Lion King 2: Simba 's Pride) is a 1998 American animated direct - to - video romantic musical film and a sequel to Disney 's 1994 animated feature film, The Lion King. The story takes place in a kingdom of lions in Africa and was influenced by William Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet. According to co-director Darrell Rooney, the final draft gradually became a variation of Romeo and Juliet.
Produced by Walt Disney Pictures and Walt Disney Animation Australia and released on October 27, 1998, the film centers on Simba and Nala 's daughter Kiara, who falls in love with Kovu, a male rogue lion from a banished pride that was once loyal to Simba 's evil uncle, Scar. Separated by Simba 's prejudice against the banished pride and a vindictive plot planned by Kovu 's mother Zira, Kiara and Kovu struggle to unite their estranged prides and be together.
Most of the original cast returned to their roles from the first film, apart from Rowan Atkinson, who was replaced by Edward Hibbert as the voice of Zazu for this film and its prequel / sequel, The Lion King 11⁄2 and Jeremy Irons, who was briefly replaced by Jim Cummings as the voice of Scar.
In the Pride Lands of Africa, King Simba and Queen Nala 's newborn daughter, Kiara, is presented to the assembled animals by Rafiki, a baboon who serves as shaman and advisor. Simba 's father Mufasa proudly watches over the ceremony from the Heavens above. Kiara becomes annoyed with her father 's overprotective parenting. Simba assigns Timon and Pumbaa, a meerkat and warthog, to follow her. After entering the forbidden "Outlands, '' Kiara meets a young cub, Kovu, and they escape from crocodiles while befriending each other. When Kovu retaliates to Kiara 's playing, Simba confronts the young cub just as he is confronted by Zira, Kovu 's mother and the Outsiders ' leader. Zira reminds Simba of how he exiled her and the other Outsiders, and she reveals that Scar selected Kovu to be his successor despite not being his biological father.
After returning to the Pride Lands, Nala and the rest of the pride head back to Pride Rock while Simba lectures Kiara about the danger posed by the Outsiders. He then tells her that they are a part of each other. In the Outlands, Zira reminds Kovu that Simba killed Scar and exiled the lionesses who respected him. Kovu explains that he does not think it is so bad to have Kiara as a friend, but Zira realizes she can use Kovu 's friendship with Kiara to seek revenge on Simba.
Several years later, Kiara, now a young adult, begins her first solo hunt. Simba has Timon and Pumbaa follow her in secret, causing her to hunt away from the Pride Lands. As part of Zira 's plan, Kovu 's siblings Nuka and Vitani trap Kiara in a fire, allowing Kovu to rescue her. Simba is forced to accept Kovu 's place since he rescued Kiara. Later that night, Simba has a nightmare about attempting to save Mufasa from falling into the wildebeest stampede but is stopped by Scar who then morphs into Kovu and sends Simba to his death.
The next day, Kovu contemplates attacking Simba as he was instructed to, but he teaches Kiara how to hunt instead and eventually realizes his feelings for her. Later, Kiara and Kovu stargaze where they talk about the Great Kings of the Past and Kovu wonders if there is a darkness in him like there was in Scar. Simba watches the two from afar and Nala convinces him to give Kovu a chance. Kovu attempts to reveal his mission to Kiara, but Rafiki interrupts and leads them to the jungle, where he introduces them to "upendi '' (an erroneous form of upendo, which means "love '' in Swahili). The two lions fall in love. That night, Simba allows Kovu to sleep inside Pride Rock with the rest of the pride, but Vitani tells Zira about Kovu 's failure to kill Simba. Zira sets a trap for her son and Simba.
The next day, Kovu attempts to reveal his mission to Kiara, but Simba takes him around the Pride Lands and tells him the real story of how Scar died. The Outsiders then attack Simba, resulting in Nuka 's death and Simba 's escape. Enraged, Zira scratches Kovu for his brother 's death, causing him to turn on her. Kovu returns to Pride Rock to plead Simba for his forgiveness but is exiled. Kiara makes Simba realize that he is acting irrationally, and flees to find Kovu. The two lions later find each other and profess their love. Realizing that they must reunite the two prides, Kiara and Kovu return to the Pride Lands and convince them to stop fighting. When Zira attempts to kill Simba, Kiara intervenes and Zira falls to her death.
With his enemy gone, Simba accepts the Outsiders back into the Pride Lands, and appoints Kovu and Kiara as his successors.
Discussion began about the possibility of a sequel to The Lion King before the first film even hit theaters. In January 1995, it was reported that a Lion King sequel was to be released "in the next twelve months ''. However, it was delayed, and then it was reported in May 1996 that it would be released in "early next year '' of 1997. By 1996, producer Jeannine Roussel and director Darrell Rooney signed on board to produce and direct the sequel. In August 1996, Cheech Marin reported that he would reprise his role as Banzai the Hyena from the first film, but the character was ultimately cut from the sequel. In December 1996, Matthew Broderick was confirmed to be returning as Simba while his wife, Sarah Jessica Parker, and Jennifer Aniston were in talks to voice Aisha, Simba 's daughter. Andy Dick was also confirmed to have signed on to voice Nunka, the young villain - in - training - turned hero, who attempts to romance Aisha. Ultimately, the character was renamed Kiara (after it was discovered that Aisha was the name of the female Power Ranger), and voiced by Neve Campbell, from the "Scream '' trilogy. Nunka was renamed Kovu, and voiced by Jason Marsden. Then - Disney CEO Michael Eisner urged for Kovu 's relationship to Scar to be changed during production as being Scar 's son would make him Kiara 's first cousin once - removed. According to Rooney, the final draft gradually became a variation of Romeo and Juliet. "It 's the biggest love story we have, '' he explained. "The difference is that you understand the position of the parents in this film in a way you never did in the Shakespeare play. '' Because none of the original animators were involved in the production, the majority of the animation was done by Walt Disney Television Animation 's studio in Sydney, Australia. However, all storyboarding and pre-production work was done at the Feature Animation studio in Burbank, California. By March 1998, Disney confirmed the sequel would be released on October 27, 1998.
Coincided with its direct - to - video release, Simba 's Pride was accompanied with a promotional campaign which included tie - ins with McDonald 's, Mattel, and Lever 2000. Unlike the North American release, Simba 's Pride was theatrically released in European and Latin American countries in spring 1999.
The film was first released on VHS in the United States on October 27, 1998 and on DVD as a limited issue on November 23, 1999. The DVD release featured the film in a letterboxed 1.66: 1 aspect ratio, the trailer for the movie, and a music video of "Love Will Find A Way '' performed by Heather Headley and Kenny Lattimore. In 1998, Disney believed that The Lion King II: Simba 's Pride would be so popular that it shipped 13 million copies to stores for the October 27 release date. In March 2001, it was reported that in its first three days, 3.5 million VHS copies were sold, and ultimately about thirteen million copies were sold. In September 2001, it was reported that Simba 's Pride had sold more than 15 million copies. Overall, consumer spending on The Lion King II: Simba 's Pride accumulated about $300 million -- roughly the same figure of its predecessor 's theatrical release at that time, and continues to be one of the top - selling direct - to - video releases of all time, with $464.5 million worldwide in sales and rentals.
On August 31, 2004, the film was re-released on VHS and a 2 - Disc Special Edition DVD. The DVD edition featured optional pop - up informational commentary, interactive games (the "Virtual Safari '') featuring Timon, Pumbaa and Rafiki, five humorous "Find Out Why '' shorts, an animated short based on Lebo M 's "One By One '', and a "Proud of Simba 's Pride '' featurette. The Special Edition version featured changes made to the film such as Kovu in the water being inexplicably re-animated as well as other alterations. A DVD boxed set of the three The Lion King films (in two - disc Special Edition formats) was released on December 6, 2004. In January 2005, the film, along with the sequels, went back into moratorium.
On October 4, 2011, Simba 's Pride was included in an eight - disc box set trilogy set with the other two films. The Blu - ray edition for the film was released as a separate version on March 6, 2012. The Blu - ray edition has three different versions, a 2 - disc Blu - ray / DVD combo pack, a 1 - disc edition, and a digital download. The Blu - ray edition has also been attached with a new Timon & Pumbaa short, in which the two friends gaze at the night sky as the star constellations resemble their favorite meal, insects.
Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the film an approval rating of 43 % based on 7 reviews with an average rating of 6 / 10.
Siskel & Ebert gave the film a "two - thumbs up '' and said it was a "satisfactory sequel to one of the most popular films of all time, The Lion King ''. However, they also said it was best that it went to video, citing that the music was lacking and not remotely equal to the original 's soundtrack. TV Guide gave the film 21⁄2 stars out of four, claiming that, despite being of slightly higher quality than Disney 's previous direct - to - video animated sequels, "comes nowhere near the level of its big - screen predecessor '', either musically or artistically. The review later went on to say that "Though most of the original characters and their voices are back, they all sound bored, apart from the zesty addition of Suzanne Pleshette as the scheming Zira. The overall result is OK for kids, who will enjoy the low humor provided by the comical meerkat Timon and the flatulent warthog Pumbaa, but it could have been so much better. ''
Writing for Variety, Joe Leydon commented in his review "In marked contrast to most of the studio 's small screen sequels to bigscreen animated hits, the new pic is n't merely kids ' stuff. Not unlike its predecessor, Lion King II has enough across - the - board appeal to entertain viewers of all ages. '' Caryn James of The New York Times concluded her review with "It 's the rare sequel that matches the creative flair of an original, of course. The Lion King II may be derivative, but it is also winning on its own. ''
Entertainment Weekly critic Stephen Witty, who graded the sequel a C+, wrote, "Despite its drawbacks, The Lion King II could make a decent rental for undemanding under - 7 fans of the original, who wo n't be overburdened by the psychodrama. For true believers who 've already watched and rewound their copies to shreds, it might even make a good buy. And for them, hey, hakuna matata. But for the rest of us, caveat emptor might be a better motto. '' James Plath of Movie Metropolis gave the film 6 / 10, saying that, "Simply put, we 've seen it all before. '' Felix Vasquez Jr. of Cinema Crazed derided, "the sequel is as predictable a sequel as can be. It takes from The Fox and the Hound with shades of Romeo and Juliet and side steps the interesting Simba in favor of his bland daughter Kiara, and Timon and Pumba (sic). ''
The songwriters were Marty Panzer, Tom Snow, Kevin Quinn, Randy Petersen, Mark Mancina, Jay Rifkin, Lebo M, Jack Feldman, Scott Warrender, and Joss Whedon.
An audio CD entitled Walt Disney Records Presents: Return to Pride Rock: Songs Inspired by Disney 's The Lion King II: Simba 's Pride was released on September 8, 1998. Although not promoted as a soundtrack to the film, it contained all the songs from the film and some additional songs inspired by it by Lebo M.
In January 2016, a television series titled The Lion Guard began airing on Disney Junior, following a television pilot film The Lion Guard: Return of the Roar in November 2015. The series takes place during the years in - between Kiara 's first meeting with Kovu as a cub and her first hunt as a young adult. It focuses on Kiara 's younger brother Kion who as second - born, becomes leader of The Lion Guard, a group who protect the Pride Lands and defend the Circle of Life.
Kovu, Nuka, Vitani and Zira appear in the season one episode "Lions of the Outlands ''.
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what did buildings look like in ancient greece | Ancient Greek architecture - wikipedia
The architecture of ancient Greece is the architecture produced by the Greek - speaking people (Hellenic people) whose culture flourished on the Greek mainland, the Peloponnese, the Aegean Islands, and in colonies in Anatolia and Italy for a period from about 900 BC until the 1st century AD, with the earliest remaining architectural works dating from around 600 BC.
Ancient Greek architecture is best known from its temples, many of which are found throughout the region, mostly as ruins but many substantially intact. The second important type of building that survives all over the Hellenic world is the open - air theatre, with the earliest dating from around 525 - 480 BC. Other architectural forms that are still in evidence are the processional gateway (propylon), the public square (agora) surrounded by storied colonnade (stoa), the town council building (bouleuterion), the public monument, the monumental tomb (mausoleum) and the stadium.
Ancient Greek architecture is distinguished by its highly formalised characteristics, both of structure and decoration. This is particularly so in the case of temples where each building appears to have been conceived as a sculptural entity within the landscape, most often raised on high ground so that the elegance of its proportions and the effects of light on its surfaces might be viewed from all angles. Nikolaus Pevsner refers to "the plastic shape of the (Greek) temple... placed before us with a physical presence more intense, more alive than that of any later building ''.
The formal vocabulary of ancient Greek architecture, in particular the division of architectural style into three defined orders: the Doric Order, the Ionic Order and the Corinthian Order, was to have profound effect on Western architecture of later periods. The architecture of ancient Rome grew out of that of Greece and maintained its influence in Italy unbroken until the present day. From the Renaissance, revivals of Classicism have kept alive not only the precise forms and ordered details of Greek architecture, but also its concept of architectural beauty based on balance and proportion. The successive styles of Neoclassical architecture and Greek Revival architecture followed and adapted Ancient Greek styles closely.
The mainland and islands of Greece are rocky, with deeply indented coastline, and rugged mountain ranges with few substantial forests. The most freely available building material is stone. Limestone was readily available and easily worked. There is an abundance of high quality white marble both on the mainland and islands, particularly Paros and Naxos. This finely grained material was a major contributing factor to precision of detail, both architectural and sculptural, that adorned ancient Greek architecture. Deposits of high quality potter 's clay were found throughout Greece and the Islands, with major deposits near Athens. It was used not only for pottery vessels, but also roof tiles and architectural decoration.
The climate of Greece is maritime, with both the coldness of winter and the heat of summer tempered by sea breezes. This led to a lifestyle where many activities took place outdoors. Hence temples were placed on hilltops, their exteriors designed as a visual focus of gatherings and processions, while theatres were often an enhancement of a naturally occurring sloping site where people could sit, rather than a containing structure. Colonnades encircling buildings, or surrounding courtyards provided shelter from the sun and from sudden winter storms.
The light of Greece may be another important factor in the development of the particular character of ancient Greek architecture. The light is often extremely bright, with both the sky and the sea vividly blue. The clear light and sharp shadows give a precision to the details of landscape, pale rocky outcrops and seashore. This clarity is alternated with periods of haze that varies in colour to the light on it. In this characteristic environment, the ancient Greek architects constructed buildings that were marked by precision of detail. The gleaming marble surfaces were smooth, curved, fluted, or ornately sculpted to reflect the sun, cast graded shadows and change in colour with the ever - changing light of day.
Historians divide ancient Greek civilization into two eras, the Hellenic period (from around 900 BC to the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC), and the Hellenistic period (323 BC to 30 AD). During the earlier Hellenic period, substantial works of architecture began to appear around 600 BC. During the later (Hellenistic) period, Greek culture spread widely, initially as a result of Alexander 's conquest of other lands, and later as a result of the rise of the Roman Empire, which adopted much of Greek culture.
Before the Hellenic era, two major cultures had dominated the region: the Minoan (c. 2800 -- 1100 BC), and the Mycenaean (c. 1500 -- 1100 BC). Minoan is the name given by modern historians to the culture of the people of ancient Crete, known for its elaborate and richly decorated palaces, and for its pottery painted with floral and marine motifs. The Mycenaean culture, which flourished on the Peloponnesus, was quite different in character. Its people built citadels, fortifications and tombs rather than palaces, and decorated their pottery with bands of marching soldiers rather than octopus and seaweed. Both these civilizations came to an end around 1100 BC, that of Crete possibly because of volcanic devastation, and that of Mycenae because of an invasion by the Dorian people who lived on the Greek mainland. Following these events, there was a period from which few signs of culture remain. This period is thus often referred to as a Dark Age.
The art history of the Hellenic era is generally subdivided into four periods: the Protogeometric (1100 -- 900 BC), the Geometric (900 -- 700 BC), the Archaic (700 -- 500 BC) and the Classical (500 -- 323 BC) with sculpture being further divided into Severe Classical, High Classical and Late Classical. The first signs of the particular artistic character that defines ancient Greek architecture are to be seen in the pottery of the Dorian Greeks from the 10th century BC. Already at this period it is created with a sense of proportion, symmetry and balance not apparent in similar pottery from Crete and Mycenae. The decoration is precisely geometric, and ordered neatly into zones on defined areas of each vessel. These qualities were to manifest themselves not only through a millennium of Greek pottery making, but also in the architecture that was to emerge in the 6th century. The major development that occurred was in the growing use of the human figure as the major decorative motif, and the increasing surety with which humanity, its mythology, activities and passions were depicted.
The development in the depiction of the human form in pottery was accompanied by a similar development in sculpture. The tiny stylised bronzes of the Geometric period gave way to life - sized highly formalised monolithic representation in the Archaic period. The Classical period was marked by a rapid development towards idealised but increasingly lifelike depictions of gods in human form. This development had a direct effect on the sculptural decoration of temples, as many of the greatest extant works of ancient Greek sculpture once adorned temples, and many of the largest recorded statues of the age, such as the lost chryselephantine statues of Zeus at the Temple of Zeus at Olympia and Athena at the Parthenon, Athens, both over 40 feet high, were once housed in them.
The religion of ancient Greece was a form of nature worship that grew out of the beliefs of earlier cultures. However, unlike earlier cultures, man was no longer perceived as being threatened by nature, but as its sublime product. The natural elements were personified as gods of completely human form, and very human behaviour.
The home of the gods was thought to be Olympus, the highest mountain in Greece. The most important deities were: Zeus, the supreme god and ruler of the sky; Hera, his wife and goddess of marriage; Athena, goddess of wisdom; Poseidon, god of the sea; Demeter, goddess of the harvest; Apollo, god of the sun, law, healing, plague, reason, music and poetry; Artemis, goddess of the moon, the hunt and the wilderness; Aphrodite, goddess of love; Ares, God of war; Hermes, god of commerce and travelers, Hephaestus, god of fire and metalwork, and Dionysus, god of wine and fruit - bearing plants. Worship, like many other activities, was done in community, in the open. However, by 600 BC, the gods were often represented by large statues and it was necessary to provide a building in which each of these could be housed. This led to the development of temples.
The ancient Greeks perceived order in the universe, and in turn, applied order and reason to their creations. Their humanist philosophy put mankind at the centre of things, and promoted well - ordered societies and the development of democracy. At the same time, the respect for human intellect demanded reason, and promoted a passion for enquiry, logic, challenge, and problem solving. The architecture of the ancient Greeks, and in particular, temple architecture, responds to these challenges with a passion for beauty, and for order and symmetry which is the product of a continual search for perfection, rather than a simple application of a set of working rules.
There is a clear division between the architecture of the preceding Mycenaean culture and Minoan cultures and that of the ancient Greeks, the techniques and an understanding of their style being lost when these civilisations fell.
Mycenaean art is marked by its circular structures and tapered domes with flat - bedded, cantilevered courses. This architectural form did not carry over into the architecture of ancient Greece, but reappeared about 400 BC in the interior of large monumental tombs such as the Lion Tomb at Cnidos (c. 350 BC). Little is known of Mycenaean wooden or domestic architecture and any continuing traditions that may have flowed into the early buildings of the Dorian people.
The Minoan architecture of Crete, was of trabeated form like that of ancient Greece. It employed wooden columns with capitals, but the columns were of very different form to Doric columns, being narrow at the base and splaying upward. The earliest forms of columns in Greece seem to have developed independently. As with Minoan architecture, ancient Greek domestic architecture centred on open spaces or courtyards surrounded by colonnades. This form was adapted to the construction of hypostyle halls within the larger temples. The evolution that occurred in architecture was towards public building, first and foremost the temple, rather than towards grand domestic architecture such as had evolved in Crete.
The Greek word for the family or household, oikos, is also the name for the house. Houses followed several different types. It is probable that many of the earliest houses were simple structures of two rooms, with an open porch or "pronaos '' above which rose a low pitched gable or pediment. This form is thought to have contributed to temple architecture.
The construction of many houses employed walls of sun dried clay bricks or wooden framework filled with fibrous material such as straw or seaweed covered with clay or plaster, on a base of stone which protected the more vulnerable elements from damp. The roofs were probably of thatch with eaves which overhung the permeable walls. Many larger houses, such as those at Delos, were built of stone and plastered. The roofing material for substantial house was tile. Houses of the wealthy had mosaic floors and demonstrated the Classical style.
Many houses centred on a wide passage or "pasta '' which ran the length of the house and opened at one side onto a small courtyard which admitted light and air. Larger houses had a fully developed peristyle courtyard at the centre, with the rooms arranged around it. Some houses had an upper floor which appears to have been reserved for the use of the women of the family.
City houses were built with adjoining walls and were divided into small blocks by narrow streets. Shops were sometimes located in the rooms towards the street. City houses were inward - facing, with major openings looking onto the central courtyard, rather than the street.
The rectangular temple is the most common and best - known form of Greek public architecture. This rectilinear structure borrows from the Late Helladic, Mycenaean Megaron, which contained a central throne room, vestibule, and porch. The temple did not serve the same function as a modern church, since the altar stood under the open sky in the temenos or sacred precinct, often directly before the temple. Temples served as the location of a cult image and as a storage place or strong room for the treasury associated with the cult of the god in question, and as a place for devotees of the god to leave their votive offerings, such as statues, helmets and weapons. Some Greek temples appear to have been oriented astronomically. The temple was generally part of a religious precinct known as the acropolis. According to Aristotle, ' "the site should be a spot seen far and wide, which gives good elevation to virtue and towers over the neighbourhood ''. Small circular temples, tholos were also constructed, as well as small temple - like buildings that served as treasuries for specific groups of donors.
During the late 5th and 4th centuries BC, town planning became an important consideration of Greek builders, with towns such as Paestum and Priene being laid out with a regular grid of paved streets and an agora or central market place surrounded by a colonnade or stoa. The completely restored Stoa of Attalos can be seen in Athens. Towns were also equipped with a public fountain where water could be collected for household use. The development of regular town plans is associated with Hippodamus of Miletus, a pupil of Pythagoras.
Public buildings became "dignified and gracious structures '', and were sited so that they related to each other architecturally. The propylon or porch, formed the entrance to temple sanctuaries and other significant sites with the best - surviving example being the Propylaea on the Acropolis of Athens. The bouleuterion was a large public building with a hypostyle hall that served as a court house and as a meeting place for the town council (boule). Remnants of bouleuterion survive at Athens, Olympia and Miletus, the latter having held up to 1200 people.
Every Greek town had an open - air theatre. These were used for both public meetings as well as dramatic performances. The theatre was usually set in a hillside outside the town, and had rows of tiered seating set in a semicircle around the central performance area, the orchestra. Behind the orchestra was a low building called the skênê, which served as a store - room, a dressing - room, and also as a backdrop to the action taking place in the orchestra. A number of Greek theatres survive almost intact, the best known being at Epidaurus, by the architect Polykleitos the Younger.
Greek towns of substantial size also had a palaestra or a gymnasium, the social centre for male citizens which included spectator areas, baths, toilets and club rooms. Other buildings associated with sports include the hippodrome for horse racing, of which only remnants have survived, and the stadium for foot racing, 600 feet in length, of which examples exist at Olympia, Delphi, Epidarus and Ephesus, while the Panathinaiko Stadium in Athens, which seats 45,000 people, was restored in the 19th century and was used in the 1896, 1906 and 2004 Olympic Games.
The architecture of ancient Greece is of a trabeated or "post and lintel '' form, i.e. it is composed of upright beams (posts) supporting horizontal beams (lintels). Although the existent buildings of the era are constructed in stone, it is clear that the origin of the style lies in simple wooden structures, with vertical posts supporting beams which carried a ridged roof. The posts and beams divided the walls into regular compartments which could be left as openings, or filled with sun dried bricks, lathes or straw and covered with clay daub or plaster. Alternately, the spaces might be filled with rubble. It is likely that many early houses and temples were constructed with an open porch or "pronaos '' above which rose a low pitched gable or pediment.
The earliest temples, built to enshrine statues of deities, were probably of wooden construction, later replaced by the more durable stone temples many of which are still in evidence today. The signs of the original timber nature of the architecture were maintained in the stone buildings.
A few of these temples are very large, with several, such as the Temple of Zeus Olympus and the Olympians at Athens being well over 300 feet in length, but most were less than half this size. It appears that some of the large temples began as wooden constructions in which the columns were replaced piecemeal as stone became available. This, at least was the interpretation of the historian Pausanias looking at the Temple of Hera at Olympia in the 2nd century AD.
The stone columns are made of a series of solid stone cylinders or "drums '' that rest on each other without mortar, but were sometimes centred with a bronze pin. The columns are wider at the base than at the top, tapering with an outward curve known as "entasis ''. Each column has a capital of two parts, the upper, on which rests the lintels, being square and called the "abacus ''. The part of the capital that rises from the column itself is called the "echinus ''. It differs according to the order, being plain in the Doric Order, fluted in the Ionic and foliate in the Corinthian. Doric and usually Ionic capitals are cut with vertical grooves known as "fluting ''. This fluting or grooving of the columns is a retention of an element of the original wooden architecture.
The columns of a temple support a structure that rises in two main stages, the entablature and the pediment.
The entablature is the major horizontal structural element supporting the roof and encircling the entire building. It is composed of three parts. Resting on the columns is the architrave made of a series of stone "lintels '' that spanned the space between the columns, and meet each other at a joint directly above the centre of each column.
Above the architrave is a second horizontal stage called the "frieze ''. The frieze is one of the major decorative elements of the building and carries a sculptured relief. In the case of Ionic and Corinthian architecture, the relief decoration runs in a continuous band, but in the Doric Order, it is divided into sections called "metopes '' which fill the spaces between vertical rectangular blocks called "triglyphs ''. The triglyphs are vertically grooved like the Doric columns, and retain the form of the wooden beams that would once have supported the roof.
The upper band of the entablature is called the "cornice '', which is generally ornately decorated on its lower edge. The cornice retains the shape of the beams that would once have supported the wooden roof at each end of the building. At the front and rear of each temple, the entablature supports a triangular structure called the "pediment ''. The triangular space framed by the cornices is the location of the most significant sculptural decoration on the exterior of the building.
Every temple rested on a masonry base called the crepidoma, generally of three steps, of which the upper one which carried the columns was the stylobate. Masonry walls were employed for temples from about 600 BC onwards. Masonry of all types was used for ancient Greek buildings, including rubble, but the finest ashlar masonry was usually employed for temple walls, in regular courses and large sizes to minimise the joints. The blocks were rough hewn and hauled from quarries to be cut and bedded very precisely, with mortar hardly ever being used. Blocks, particularly those of columns and parts of the building bearing loads were sometimes fixed in place or reinforced with iron clamps, dowels and rods of wood, bronze or iron fixed in lead to minimise corrosion.
Door and window openings were spanned with a lintel, which in a stone building limited the possible width of the opening. The distance between columns was similarly affected by the nature of the lintel, columns on the exterior of buildings and carrying stone lintels being closer together than those on the interior, which carried wooden lintels. Door and window openings narrowed towards the top. Temples were constructed without windows, the light to the naos entering through the door. It has been suggested that some temples were lit from openings in the roof. A door of the Ionic Order at the Erechtheion (17 feet high and 7.5 feet wide at the top) retains many of its features intact, including mouldings, and an entablature supported on console brackets. (See Architectural Decoration, below)
The widest span of a temple roof was across the cella, or internal space. In a large building, this space contains columns to support the roof, the architectural form being known as hypostyle. It appears that, although the architecture of ancient Greece was initially of wooden construction, the early builders did not have the concept of the diagonal truss as a stabilising member. This is evidenced by the nature of temple construction in the 6th century BC, where the rows of columns supporting the roof the cella rise higher than the outer walls, unnecessary if roof trusses are employed as an integral part of the wooden roof. The indication is that initially all the rafters were supported directly by the entablature, walls and hypostyle, rather than on a trussed wooden frame, which came into use in Greek architecture only in the 3rd century BC.
Ancient Greek buildings of timber, clay and plaster construction were probably roofed with thatch. With the rise of stone architecture came the appearance of fired ceramic roof tiles. These early roof tiles showed an S - shape, with the pan and cover tile forming one piece. They were much larger than modern roof tiles, being up to 90 cm (35.43 in) long, 70 cm (27.56 in) wide, 3 -- 4 cm (1.18 -- 1.57 in) thick and weighing around 30 kg (66 lb) apiece. Only stone walls, which were replacing the earlier mudbrick and wood walls, were strong enough to support the weight of a tiled roof.
The earliest finds of roof tiles of the Archaic period in Greece are documented from a very restricted area around Corinth, where fired tiles began to replace thatched roofs at the temples of Apollo and Poseidon between 700 and 650 BC. Spreading rapidly, roof tiles were within fifty years in evidence for a large number of sites around the Eastern Mediterranean, including Mainland Greece, Western Asia Minor, Southern and Central Italy. Being more expensive and labour - intensive to produce than thatch, their introduction has been explained by the fact that their fireproof quality would have given desired protection to the costly temples. As a side - effect, it has been assumed that the new stone and tile construction also ushered in the end of overhanging eaves in Greek architecture, as they made the need for an extended roof as rain protection for the mudbrick walls obsolete.
Vaults and arches were not generally used, but begin to appear in tombs (in a "beehive '' or cantilevered form such as used in Mycenaea) and occasionally, as an external feature, exedrae of voussoired construction from the 5th century BC. The dome and vault never became significant structural features, as they were to become in ancient Roman architecture.
Most ancient Greek temples were rectangular, and were approximately twice as long as they were wide, with some notable exceptions such as the enormous Temple of Olympian Zeus, Athens with a length of nearly 21⁄2 times its width. A number of surviving temple - like structures are circular, and are referred to as tholos. The smallest temples are less than 25 metres (approx. 75 feet) in length, or in the case of the circular tholos, in diameter. The great majority of temples are between 30 -- 60 metres (approx. 100 -- 200 feet) in length. A small group of Doric temples, including the Parthenon, are between 60 -- 80 metres (approx. 200 -- 260 feet) in length. The largest temples, mainly Ionic and Corinthian, but including the Doric Temple of the Olympian Zeus, Agrigento, were between 90 -- 120 metres (approx. 300 -- 390 feet) in length.
The temple rises from a stepped base or "stylobate '', which elevates the structure above the ground on which it stands. Early examples, such as the Temple of Zeus at Olympus, have two steps, but the majority, like the Parthenon, have three, with the exceptional example of the Temple of Apollo at Didyma having six. The core of the building is a masonry - built "naos '' within which is a cella, a windowless room originally housing the statue of the god. The cella generally has a porch or "pronaos '' before it, and perhaps a second chamber or "antenaos '' serving as a treasury or repository for trophies and gifts. The chambers were lit by a single large doorway, fitted with a wrought iron grill. Some rooms appear to have been illuminated by skylights.
On the stylobate, often completely surrounding the naos, stand rows of columns. Each temple is defined as being of a particular type, with two terms: one describing the number of columns across the entrance front, and the other defining their distribution.
Examples:
The ideal of proportion that was used by ancient Greek architects in designing temples was not a simple mathematical progression using a square module. The math involved a more complex geometrical progression, the so - called Golden mean. The ratio is similar to that of the growth patterns of many spiral forms that occur in nature such as rams ' horns, nautilus shells, fern fronds, and vine tendrils and which were a source of decorative motifs employed by ancient Greek architects as particularly in evidence in the volutes of capitals of the Ionic and Corinthian Orders.
The ancient Greek architects took a philosophic approach to the rules and proportions. The determining factor in the mathematics of any notable work of architecture was its ultimate appearance. The architects calculated for perspective, for the optical illusions that make edges of objects appear concave and for the fact that columns that are viewed against the sky look different from those adjacent that are viewed against a shadowed wall. Because of these factors, the architects adjusted the plans so that the major lines of any significant building are rarely straight. The most obvious adjustment is to the profile of columns, which narrow from base to top. However, the narrowing is not regular, but gently curved so that each columns appears to have a slight swelling, called entasis below the middle. The entasis is never sufficiently pronounced as to make the swelling wider than the base; it is controlled by a slight reduction in the rate of decrease of diameter.
The Parthenon, the Temple to the Goddess Athena on the Acropolis in Athens, is referred to by many as the pinnacle of ancient Greek architecture. Helen Gardner refers to its "unsurpassable excellence '', to be surveyed, studied and emulated by architects of later ages. Yet, as Gardner points out, there is hardly a straight line in the building. Banister Fletcher calculated that the stylobate curves upward so that its centres at either end rise about 2.6 inches above the outer corners, and 4.3 inches on the longer sides. A slightly greater adjustment has been made to the entablature. The columns at the ends of the building are not vertical but are inclined towards the centre, with those at the corners being out of plumb by about 2.6 inches. These outer columns are both slightly wider than their neighbours and are slightly closer than any of the others.
Ancient Greek architecture of the most formal type, for temples and other public buildings, is divided stylistically into three "orders '', first described by the Roman architectural writer Vitruvius. These are: the Doric Order, the Ionic Order and the Corinthian Order, the names reflecting their regional origins within the Greek world. While the three orders are most easily recognizable by their capitals, the orders also governed the form, proportions, details and relationships of the columns, entablature, pediment and the stylobate. The different orders were applied to the whole range of buildings and monuments.
The Doric Order developed on mainland Greece and spread to Magna Graecia (Italy). It was firmly established and well - defined in its characteristics by the time of the building of the Temple of Hera at Olympia, c. 600 BC. The Ionic order co-existed with the Doric, being favoured by the Greek cities of Ionia, in Asia Minor and the Aegean Islands. It did not reach a clearly defined form until the mid 5th century BC. The early Ionic temples of Asia Minor were particularly ambitious in scale, such as the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus. The Corinthian Order was a highly decorative variant not developed until the Hellenistic period and retaining many characteristics of the Ionic. It was popularised by the Romans.
The Doric order is recognised by its capital, of which the echinus is like a circular cushion rising from the top of the column to the square abacus on which rest the lintels. The echinus appears flat and splayed in early examples, deeper and with greater curve in later, more refined examples, and smaller and straight - sided in Hellenistc examples. A refinement of the Doric column is the entasis, a gentle convex swelling to the profile of the column, which prevents an optical illusion of concavity. This is more pronounced in earlier examples.
Doric columns are almost always cut with grooves, known as "fluting '', which run the length of the column and are usually 20 in number, although sometimes fewer. The flutes meet at sharp edges called arrises. At the top of the columns, slightly below the narrowest point, and crossing the terminating arrises, are three horizontal grooves known as the hypotrachelion. Doric columns have no bases, until a few examples in the Hellenistic period.
The columns of an early Doric temple such as the Temple of Apollo at Syracuse, Sicily, may have a height to base diameter ratio of only 4: 1 and a column height to entablature ratio of 2: 1, with relatively crude details. A column height to diameter of 6: 1 became more usual, while the column height to entablature ratio at the Parthenon is about 3: 1. During the Hellenistic period, Doric conventions of solidity and masculinity dropped away, with the slender and unfluted columns reaching a height to diameter ratio of 7.5: 1.
The Doric entablature is in three parts, the architrave, the frieze and the cornice. The architrave is composed of the stone lintels which span the space between the columns, with a joint occurring above the centre of each abacus. On this rests the frieze, one of the major areas of sculptural decoration. The frieze is divided into triglyphs and metopes, the triglyphs, as stated elsewhere in this article, are a reminder of the timber history of the architectural style. Each triglyph has three vertical grooves, similar to the columnar fluting, and below them, seemingly connected, are guttae, small strips that appear to connect the triglyphs to the architrave below. A triglyph is located above the centre of each capital, and above the centre of each lintel. However, at the corners of the building, the triglyphs do not fall over the centre the column. The ancient architects took a pragmatic approach to the apparent "rules '', simply extending the width of the last two metopes at each end of the building.
The cornice is a narrow jutting band of complex moulding which overhangs and protects the ornamented frieze, like the edge of an overhanging wooden - framed roof. It is decorated on the underside with projecting blocks, mutules, further suggesting the wooden nature of the prototype. At either end of the building the pediment rises from the cornice, framed by moulding of similar form.
The pediment is decorated with figures that are in relief in the earlier examples, though almost freestanding by the time of the sculpture on the Parthenon. Early architectural sculptors found difficulty in creating satisfactory sculptural compositions in the tapering triangular space. By the Early Classical period, with the decoration of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, (486 - 460 BC) the sculptors had solved the problem by having a standing central figure framed by rearing centaurs and fighting men who are falling, kneeling and lying in attitudes that fit the size and angle of each part of the space. The famous sculptor Phidias fills the space at the Parthenon (448 - 432 BC) with a complex array of draped and undraped figures of deities who appear in attitudes of sublime relaxation and elegance.
The Ionic Order is recognized by its voluted capital, in which a curved echinus of similar shape to that of the Doric Order, but decorated with stylised ornament, is surmounted by a horizontal band that scrolls under to either side, forming spirals or volutes similar to those of the nautilus shell or ram 's horn. In plan, the capital is rectangular. It is designed to be viewed frontally but the capitals at the corners of buildings are modified with an additional scroll so as to appear regular on two adjoining faces. In the Hellenistic period, four - fronted Ionic capitals became common.
Like the Doric Order, the Ionic Order retains signs of having its origins in wooden architecture. The horizontal spread of a flat timber plate across the top of a column is a common device in wooden construction, giving a thin upright a wider area on which to bear the lintel, while at the same time reinforcing the load - bearing strength of the lintel itself. Likewise, the columns always have bases, a necessity in wooden architecture to spread the load and protect the base of a comparatively thin upright. The columns are fluted with narrow, shallow flutes that do not meet at a sharp edge but have a flat band or fillet between them. The usual number of flutes is twenty - four but there may be as many as forty - four. The base has two convex mouldings called torus, and from the late Hellenic period stood on a square plinth similar to the abacus.
The architrave of the Ionic Order is sometimes undecorated, but more often rises in three outwardly - stepped bands like overlapping timber planks. The frieze, which runs in a continuous band, is separated from the other members by rows of small projecting blocks. They are referred to as dentils, meaning "teeth '', but their origin is clearly in narrow wooden slats which supported the roof of a timber structure. The Ionic Order is altogether lighter in appearance than the Doric, with the columns, including base and capital, having a 9: 1 ratio with the diameter, while the whole entablature was also much narrower and less heavy than the Doric entablature. There was some variation in the distribution of decoration. Formalised bands of motifs such as alternating forms known as "egg and dart '' were a feature of the Ionic entablatures, along with the bands of dentils. The external frieze often contained a continuous band of figurative sculpture or ornament, but this was not always the case. Sometimes a decorative frieze occurred around the upper part of the naos rather than on the exterior of the building. These Ionic - style friezes around the naos are sometimes found on Doric buildings, notably the Parthenon. Some temples, like the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, had friezes of figures around the lower drum of each column, separated from the fluted section by a bold moulding.
Caryatids, draped female figures used as supporting members to carry the entablature, were a feature of the Ionic order, occurring at several buildings including the Siphnian Treasury at Delphi in 525 BC and at the Erechtheion, about 410 BC.
The Corinthian Order does not have its origin in wooden architecture. It grew directly out of the Ionic in the mid 5th century BC, and was initially of much the same style and proportion, but distinguished by its more ornate capitals. The capital was very much deeper than either the Doric or the Ionic capital, being shaped like a large krater, a bell - shaped mixing bowl, and being ornamented with a double row of acanthus leaves above which rose voluted tendrils, supporting the corners of the abacus, which, no longer perfectly square, splayed above them. According to Vitruvius, the capital was invented by a bronze founder, Callimachus of Corinth, who took his inspiration from a basket of offerings that had been placed on a grave, with a flat tile on top to protect the goods. The basket had been placed on the root of an acanthus plant which had grown up around it. The ratio of the column height to diameter is generally 10: 1, with the capital taking up more than 1 / 10 of the height. The ratio of capital height to diameter is generally about 1.16: 1.
The Corinthian Order was initially used internally, as at the Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae (c. 450 - 425 BC). In 334 BC it appeared as an external feature on the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates in Athens, and then on a huge scale at the Temple of Zeus Olympia in Athens, (174 BC - AD 132). It was popularised by the Romans, who added a number of refinements and decorative details. During the Hellenistic period, Corinthian columns were sometimes built without fluting.
Early wooden structures, particularly temples, were ornamented and in part protected by fired and painted clay revetments in the form of rectangular panels, and ornamental discs. Many fragments of these have outlived the buildings that they decorated and demonstrate a wealth of formal border designs of geometric scrolls, overlapping patterns and foliate motifs. With the introduction of stone - built temples, the revetments no longer served a protective purpose and sculptured decoration became more common.
The clay ornaments were limited to the roof of buildings, decorating the cornice, the corners and surmounting the pediment. At the corners of pediments they were called acroteria and along the sides of the building, antefixes. Early decorative elements were generally semi-circular, but later of roughly triangular shape with moulded ornament, often palmate. Ionic cornices were often set with a row of lion 's masks, with open mouths that ejected rainwater. From the Late Classical period, acroteria were sometimes sculptured figures. See "Architectural sculpture ''
In the three orders of ancient Greek architecture, the sculptural decoration, be it a simple half round astragal, a frieze of stylised foliage or the ornate sculpture of the pediment, is all essential to the architecture of which it is a part. In the Doric order, there is no variation in its placement. Reliefs never decorate walls in an arbitrary way. The sculpture is always located in several predetermined areas, the metopes and the pediment. In later Ionic architecture, there is greater diversity in the types and numbers of mouldings and decorations, particularly around doorways, where voluted brackets sometimes occur supporting an ornamental cornice over a door, such as that at the Erechtheion. A much applied narrow moulding is called "bead and reel '' and is symmetrical, stemming from turned wooden prototypes. Wider mouldings include one with tongue - like or pointed leaf shapes, which are grooved and sometimes turned upward at the tip, and "egg and dart '' moulding which alternates ovoid shapes with narrow pointy ones.
Architectural sculpture showed a development from early Archaic examples through Severe Classical, High Classical, Late Classical and Hellenistic. Remnants of Archaic architectural sculpture (700 - 500 BC) exist from the early 6th century BC with the earliest surviving pedimental sculpture being fragments of a Gorgon flanked by heraldic panthers from the centre of the pediment of the Artemis Temple of Corfu. A metope from a temple known as "Temple C '' at Selinus, Sicily, shows, in a better preserved state, Perseus slaying the Gorgon Medusa. Both images parallel the stylised depiction of the Gorgons on the black figure name vase decorated by the Nessos painter (c. 600 BC), with the face and shoulders turned frontally, and the legs in a running or kneeling position. At this date images of terrifying monsters have predominance over the emphasis on the human figure that developed with Humanist philosophy.
The Severe Classical style (500 -- 450 BC) is represented by the pedimental sculptures of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, (470 -- 456 BC). The eastern pediment shows a moment of stillness and "impending drama '' before the beginning of a chariot race, the figures of Zeus and the competitors being severe and idealised representations of the human form. The western pediment has Apollo as the central figure, "majestic '' and "remote '', presiding over a battle of Lapiths and Centaurs, in strong contrast to that of the eastern pediment for its depiction of violent action, and described by D.E. Strong as the "most powerful piece of illustration '' for a hundred years.
The shallow reliefs and three - dimensional sculpture which adorned the frieze and pediments, respectively, of the Parthenon, are the lifelike products of the High Classical style (450 -- 400 BC) and were created under the direction of the sculptor Phidias. The pedimental sculpture represents the Gods of Olympus, while the frieze shows the Panathenaic procession and ceremonial events that took place every four years to honour the titular Goddess of Athens. The frieze and remaining figures of the eastern pediment show a profound understanding of the human body, and how it varies depending upon its position and the stresses that action and emotion place upon it. Benjamin Robert Haydon described the reclining figure of Dionysus as "... the most heroic style of art, combined with all the essential detail of actual life ''.
The names of many famous sculptors are known from the Late Classical period (400 -- 323 BC), including Timotheos, Praxiteles, Leochares and Skopas, but their works are known mainly from Roman copies. Little architectural sculpture of the period remains intact. The Temple of Asclepius at Epidauros had sculpture by Timotheos working with the architect Theodotos. Fragments of the eastern pediment survive, showing the Sack of Troy. The scene appears to have filled the space with figures carefully arranged to fit the slope and shape available, as with earlier east pediment of the Temple of Zeus at Olympus. But the figures are more violent in action, the central space taken up, not with a commanding God, but with the dynamic figure of Neoptolemos as he seizes the aged king Priam and stabs him. The remaining fragments give the impression of a whole range of human emotions, fear, horror, cruelty and lust for conquest. The acroteria were sculptured by Timotheus, except for that at the centre of the east pediment which is the work of the architect. The palmate acroteria have been replaced here with small figures, the eastern pediment being surmounted by a winged Nike, poised against the wind.
Hellenistic architectural sculpture (323 -- 31 BC) was to become more flamboyant, both in the rendering of expression and motion, which is often emphasised by flowing draperies, the Nike Samothrace which decorated a monument in the shape of a ship being a well - known example. The Pergamon Altar (c. 180 -- 160 BC) has a frieze (120 metres long by 2.3 metres high) of figures in very high relief. The frieze represents the battle for supremacy of Gods and Titans, and employs many dramatic devices: frenzy, pathos and triumph, to convey the sense of conflict.
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what sector accounts for more than 80 of water use in utah | Drinking water supply and sanitation in the United States - wikipedia
Issues that affect drinking water supply and sanitation in the United States include water scarcity, pollution, a backlog of investment, concerns about the affordability of water for the poorest, and a rapidly retiring workforce. Increased variability and intensity of rainfall as a result of climate change is expected to produce both more severe droughts and flooding, with potentially serious consequences for water supply and for pollution from combined sewer overflows. Droughts are likely to particularly affect the 66 percent of Americans whose communities depend on surface water. As for drinking water quality, there are concerns about disinfection by - products, lead, perchlorates and pharmaceutical substances, but generally drinking water quality in the U.S. is good.
Cities, utilities, state governments and the federal government have addressed the above issues in various ways. To keep pace with demand from an increasing population, utilities traditionally have augmented supplies. However, faced with increasing costs and droughts, water conservation is beginning to receive more attention and is being supported through the federal WaterSense program. The reuse of treated wastewater for non-potable uses is also becoming increasingly common. Pollution through wastewater discharges, a major issue in the 1960s, has been brought largely under control.
Most Americans are served by publicly owned water and sewer utilities. Eleven percent of Americans receive water from private (so - called "investor - owned '') utilities. In rural areas, cooperatives often provide drinking water. Finally, up to 15 percent of Americans are served by their own wells. Water supply and wastewater systems are regulated by state governments and the federal government. At the state level, health and environmental regulation is entrusted to the corresponding state - level departments. Public Utilities Commissions or Public Service Commissions regulate tariffs charged by private utilities. In some states they also regulate tariffs by public utilities. At the federal level, drinking water quality and wastewater discharges are regulated by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which also provides funding to utilities through State Revolving Funds. Water consumption in the United States is more than double that in Central Europe, with large variations among the states. In 2002 the average American family spent $474 on water and sewerage charges, which is about the same level as in Europe. The median household spent about 1.1 percent of its income on water and sewage.
In the 19th century numerous American cities were afflicted with major outbreaks of disease, including cholera in 1832, 1849 and 1866 and typhoid in 1848. The fast - growing cities did not have sewers and relied on contaminated wells within the city confines for drinking water supply. In the mid-19th century many cities built centralized water supply systems. However, initially these systems provided raw river water without any treatment. Only after John Snow established the link between contaminated water and disease in 1854 and after authorities became gradually convinced of that link, water treatment plants were added and public health improved. Sewers were built since the 1850s, initially based on the erroneous belief that bad air (miasma theory) caused cholera and typhoid. It took until the 1890s for the now universally accepted germ theory of disease to prevail.
However, most wastewater was still discharged without any treatment, because wastewater was not believed to be harmful to receiving waters due to the natural dilution and self - purifying capacity of rivers, lakes and the sea. Wastewater treatment only became widespread after the introduction of federal funding in 1948 and especially after an increase in environmental consciousness and the upscaling of financing in the 1970s. For decades federal funding for water supply and sanitation was provided through grants to local governments. After 1987 the system was changed to loans through revolving funds.
In the 1840s and 1850s the largest cities in the U.S. built pipelines to supply drinking water from rivers or lakes. However, the drinking water was initially not treated, since the link between waterborne pathogens and diseases was not yet well known. In 1842 New York City was one of the first cities in the U.S. to tap water resources outside the city limits. It dammed the Croton River in Westchester County, New York, and built an aqueduct from the reservoir to the city. Also in 1842, construction was completed on Chicago 's first water works, with water mains made of cedar and a water intake located about 150 feet (46 m) into Lake Michigan. In 1848, Boston began construction of a water transmission system. A tributary of the Sudbury River was impounded creating Lake Cochituate, from where the Cochituate Aqueduct transported water to the Brookline Reservoir that fed the city 's distribution system. In 1853 Washington, D.C. followed suit by beginning the construction of the Washington Aqueduct to provide water from the Great Falls on the Potomac River.
In 1854, the British physician John Snow found that cholera was spread through contaminated water. As a result of his findings, several cities began to treat all water with sand filters and chlorine before distributing it to the public. Cities also began to construct sewers. As a result of water treatment and sanitation, the incidence of cholera and typhoid rapidly decreased. Slow sand filtration was initially the technology of choice for water treatment, later being gradually displaced by rapid sand filtration.
In the arid American Southwest, the water demand of rapidly growing cities such as Los Angeles exceeded local water availability, requiring the construction of large pipelines to bring in water from far - away sources. The most spectacular example is the first Los Angeles Aqueduct built between 1905 and 1913 to supply water from the Owens Valley over a distance of 375 km.
Most of the first sewer systems in the United States were built as combined sewers (carrying both storm water and sewerage). They discharged into rivers, lakes and the sea without any treatment. The main reason for choosing combined sewers over separate systems (separating sanitary sewers from storm water drains) was a belief that combined sewer systems were cheaper to build than separate systems. Also, there was no European precedent for successful separate sewer systems at the time. The first large - scale sewer systems in the United States were constructed in Chicago and Brooklyn in the late 1850s, followed by other major U.S. cities.
Few sewage treatment facilities were constructed in the late 19th century to treat combined wastewater because of the associated difficulties. There were only 27 U.S. cities with wastewater treatment works by 1892, most of them "treating '' wastewater through land application. Of these 27 cities, 26 had separate sanitary and storm water sewer systems, thus facilitating wastewater treatment, because there was no need for large capacitites to accommodate wet weather flows. Furthermore, there was a belief that the diluted combined wastewater was not harmful to receiving waters, due to the natural dilution and self - purifying capacity of rivers, lakes and the sea. In the early 20th century a debate evolved between those who thought it was in the best interest of public health to construct wastewater treatment facilities and those who believed building them was unnecessary. Nevertheless, many cities began to opt for separate sewer systems, creating favorable conditions for adding wastewater treatment plants in the future.
Where wastewater was being treated it was typically discharged into rivers or lakes. However, in 1932, the first reclaimed water facility in the U.S. was built in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, for the reuse of treated wastewater in landscape irrigation.
Sanitary sewers were not the only sanitation solution applied. They were particularly useful in high - density urban areas. However, in some newly built lower - density areas, decentralized septic systems were built. They were attractive because they reduced capital expenditures and had fewer operation and maintenance costs compared to wastewater treatment plants.
In the first half of the 20th century water supply and sanitation were a local government responsibility with regulation at the state level; the federal government played almost no role in the sector at that time. This changed with the enactment of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1948, which provided for comprehensive planning, technical services, research, and financial assistance by the federal government to state and local governments for sanitary infrastructure. The Act was amended in 1965, establishing a uniform set of water quality standards and creating a Federal Water Pollution Control Administration authorized to set standards where states failed to do so. Comprehensive federal regulations for water supply and sanitation were introduced in the 1970s, in reaction to an increase in environmental concerns. In 1970 EPA was created by the Richard Nixon administration, and authority for managing various environmental programs was transferred to the new agency. In 1972, Congress passed the Clean Water Act, requiring industrial plants and municipal sewage plants to proactively improve their waste treatment practices in order to limit the effect of contaminants on freshwater sources. In 1974, the Safe Drinking Water Act was adopted for the regulation of public water systems. This law specified a number of contaminants that must be closely monitored and reported to residents should they exceed the maximum contaminant levels allowed. From then on, drinking water systems were closely monitored by federal, state, and municipal governments for safety and compliance with existing regulations. The Clean Water Act set the unprecedented goal of eliminating all water pollution by 1985 and authorized massive expenditures of $24.6 billion in research and construction grants for municipal sewage treatment. The funds initially provided an incentive to build centralized wastewater collection and treatment infrastructure for municipalities, instead of decentralized systems. However, the 1977 amendments to the Clean Water Act required communities to consider alternatives to the conventional centralized sewer systems, and financial assistance was made available for such alternatives. In the mid-1990s decentralized systems served approximately 25 percent of the U.S. population, and approximately 37 percent of new housing developments.
There were disagreements between the federal government and local government about the appropriate level of wastewater treatment, with the former arguing for more stringent standards. For example, in the late 1980s, the city of San Diego and EPA were involved in a legal dispute over the requirement to treat sewage at the Point Loma Wastewater Treatment Plant to secondary treatment standards. The city prevailed, saying that it saved ratepayers an estimated $3 billion and that process had proved successful in maintaining a healthy ocean environment. The Point Loma plant uses an advanced primary process. The requirement to perform secondary treatment on wastewater before ocean discharge was waived by the EPA in 1995, "taking into account the city 's unique circumstances ''.
In 1987 Congress passed the Water Quality Act, which replaced the construction grant program with a system of subsidized loans using the Clean Water State Revolving Fund (CWSRF). The intention at the time was to completely phase out federal funding after a few years. Funding peaked in 1991 and continued at high levels thereafter, despite the original intentions. New challenges arose, such as the need to address combined sewer overflows for which EPA issued a policy in 1994. In 1996 Congress established the Drinking Water State Revolving Fund, building on the success of the CWSRF, in order to finance investments to improve compliance with more stringent drinking water quality standards.
This section provides a brief overview of the water supply and sanitation infrastructure in the U.S., water sources of some of the main cities, and the main types of residential water use.
The centralized drinking water supply infrastructure in the United States consists of dams and reservoirs, well fields, pumping stations, aqueducts for the transport of large quantities of water over long distances, water treatment plants, reservoirs in the distribution system (including water towers), and 1.8 million miles of distribution lines. Depending on the location and quality of the water source, all or some of these elements may be present in a particular water supply system. In addition to this infrastructure for centralized network distribution, 14.5 % of Americans rely on their own water sources, usually wells.
The centralized sanitation infrastructure in the U.S. consists of 1.2 million miles of sewers -- including both sanitary sewers and combined sewers, sewage pumping stations and 16,024 publicly owned wastewater treatment plants. In addition, at least 17 % of Americans are served by on - site sanitation systems such as septic tanks.
Publicly owned wastewater treatment plants serve 189.7 million people and treat 32.1 billion gallons per day. 9,388 facilities provide secondary treatment, 4,428 facilities provide advanced treatment, and 2,032 facilities do not discharge. There are 176 facilities that provide a treatment level that is less than secondary. These include facilities with ocean discharge waivers, and treatment facilities discharging to other facilities meeting secondary treatment or better. 880 facilities receive flows from combined sewer systems. About 772 communities in the U.S. have combined sewer systems, serving about 40 million people.
About 90 % of public water systems in the U.S. obtain their water from groundwater. However, since systems served by groundwater tend to be much smaller than systems served by surface water, only 34 % of Americans (101 million) are supplied with treated groundwater, while 66 % (195 million) are supplied with surface water.
For a surface water system to operate without filtration it has to fulfill certain criteria set by the EPA under its Surface Water Treatment Rule, including the implementation of a watershed control program. The water system of New York City has repeatedly fulfilled these criteria.
Boston, New York City, San Francisco, Denver, and Portland, Oregon are among the large cities in the U.S. that do not need to treat their surface water sources beyond disinfection, because their water sources are located in the upper reaches of protected watersheds and thus are naturally very pure. Boston receives most of its water from the Quabbin and Wachusett Reservoirs and the Ware River in central and western Massachusetts. New York City 's water supply is fed by a 2,000 - square - mile (5,200 km) watershed in the Catskill Mountains. The watershed is in one of the largest protected wilderness areas in the United States. San Francisco obtains 85 % of its drinking water from high Sierra snowmelt through the Hetch Hetchy Reservoir in Yosemite National Park. However, to supplement the imported water supply, and to help maintain delivery of drinking water in the event of a major earthquake, drought or decline in the snowpack, San Francisco considers the use of alternative locally produced, sustainable water sources such as reclaimed water for irrigation, local groundwater and desalination during drought periods, all as part of its Water Supply Diversification Program. The largest source of water supply for Portland, Oregon, is the Bull Run Watershed. Denver receives its water almost entirely from mountain snowmelt in a number of highly protected watersheds in more than 9 counties. Its water is stored in 14 reservoirs, the largest of which is the Dillon Reservoir on the Blue River in the Colorado River. Water is diverted from there through the Harold D. Roberts Tunnel under the Continental Divide into the South Platte River Basin.
Cities that rely on more or less polluted surface water from the lower reaches of rivers have to rely on extensive and costly water purification plants. The Las Vegas Valley obtains 90 % of its water from Lake Mead on the Colorado River, which has been affected by drought. To supply a portion of the future water supply, Las Vegas plans to buy water rights in the Snake Valley in White Pine County, 250 mi (400 km) north of the city straddling the Utah border and other areas, pumping it to Las Vegas through a US $2 billion pipeline. Phoenix draws about half of its drinking water from the Salt River -- Verde River watershed, and about 40 % from the Colorado River further downstream at Lake Havasu through the Central Arizona Project. Los Angeles obtains about half of its drinking water from the Owens River and Mono Lake through the Los Angeles Aqueduct, with additional supplies from Lake Havasu through the Colorado River Aqueduct. San Diego imports nearly 90 percent of its water from other areas, specifically northern California and the Colorado River.
The cities on the Mississippi River are supplied by water from that river except for Memphis. The metropolitan area of Atlanta receives 70 % of its water from the Chattahoochee River and another 28 % from the Etowah, Flint, Ocmulgee and Oconee rivers. Chicago is supplied by water from Lake Michigan and Detroit receives its water from the Detroit River. Philadelphia receives 60 % of its water from the Delaware River and 40 % from the Schuylkill River. Washington, D.C. receives its water from the Potomac River through the Washington Aqueduct.
Miami and its metropolitan area obtain drinking water primarily from the Biscayne Aquifer. Given increasing water demand, Miami - Dade County is considering the use of reclaimed water to help preserve the Biscayne Aquifer. Memphis receives its water from artesian aquifers. San Antonio draws the bulk of its water from the Edwards Aquifer; it did not use any surface water until 2006.
Seventy - one percent of Houston 's supply flows from the Trinity River into Lake Livingston, and from the San Jacinto River into Lake Conroe and Lake Houston. Deep underground wells drilled into the Evangeline and Chicot aquifers provide the other 29 percent of the city 's water supply.
Domestic water use (also called home or residential water use) in the United States was estimated by the United States Geological Survey at 29.4 billion US gallons (111,000,000 m) per day in 2005, and 27.4 billion US gallons (104,000,000 m) per day in 2010 (7 percent lower). The bulk of domestic water is provided through public networks. 13 % or 3.6 billion US gallons (14,000,000 m) of water is self - supplied. The average domestic water use per person in the U.S. was 98 - US - gallon (370 L) per day in 2005, and 88 - US - gallon (330 L) per day in 2010. This is about 2.2 times as high as in England (150 Liter) and 2.6 times as high as in Germany (126 Liter).
One of the reasons for the high domestic water use in the U.S. is the high share of outdoor water use. For example, the arid West has some of the highest per capita domestic water use, largely because of landscape irrigation. Per capita domestic water use varied from 51 - US - gallon (190 L) per day in Maine to 148 - US - gallon (560 L) per day in Arizona and 167 - US - gallon (630 L) per day in Utah. According to a 1999 study, on average all over the U.S. 58 % of domestic water use is outdoors for gardening, swimming pools etc. and 42 % is used indoors. A 2016 update of the 1999 study measured the average quantities and percent shares of seven indoor end uses of water:
Only a very small share of public water supply is used for drinking. According to one 2002 survey of 1,000 households, an estimated 56 % of Americans drank water straight from the tap and an additional 37 % drank tap water after filtering it. 74 % of Americans said they bought bottled water. According to a non-representative survey conducted among 216 parents (173 Latinos and 43 non-Latinos), 63 (29 %) never drank tap water. The share is much higher among Latinos (34 %) than among non-Latinos (12 %). The study concluded that many Latino families avoid drinking tap water because they fear it causes illness, resulting in greater cost for the purchase of bottled and filtered water. This notion is also repeated among Asians.
EPA defines a public water system (PWS) as one that provides water for human consumption through pipes or other constructed conveyances to at least 15 service connections or serves an average of at least 25 people for at least 60 days a year. The agency has defined three types of PWS:
In 2007 there were about 155,000 PWSs in the United States, of which 52,000 CWSs. PWSs are either publicly owned, cooperatives or privately owned, serving a total of about 242 million people in 2000. EPA estimates the number of beneficiaries of community water systems at 288 million in 2007 The United States Geological Survey estimates that "About 242 million people depended on water from public suppliers '' in 2000. Four thousand systems provide water in localities with more than 10,000 inhabitants, and the remaining 50,000 systems provide water in localities with less than 10,000 inhabitants. In 2000 15 % of Americans (43.5 million people) relied on their own water source, usually a well, for drinking water.
Utilities in charge of public water supply and sanitation systems can be owned, financed, operated and maintained by a public entity, a private company or both can share responsibilities through a public - private partnership. Utilities can either be in charge of only water supply and / or sanitation, or they can also be in charge of providing other services, in particular electricity and gas. In the latter case they are called multi-utilities. Bulk water suppliers are entities that manage large aqueducts and sell either treated or untreated water to various users, including utilities.
Public service providers. Eighty - nine percent of Americans served by a public water system are served by a public or cooperative entity. Usually public systems are managed by utilities that are owned by a city or county, but have a separate legal personality, management and finances. Examples are the District of Columbia Water and Sewer Authority, the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power and Denver Water. In some cases public utilities span several jurisdictions. An example is the Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission that spans two counties in Maryland. Utility cooperatives are a major provider of water services, especially in small towns and rural areas
Private utilities. About half of American drinking water utilities, or about 26,700, are privately owned, providing water to 11 % of Americans served by public water systems. Most of the private utilities are small, but a few are large and are traded on the stock exchange. The largest private water company in the U.S. is American Water, which serves 15 million customers in 1,600 communities in the U.S. and Canada. It is followed by United Water, which serves 7 million customers and is owned by the French firm Suez Environnement. Overall, about 33.5 million Americans (11 % of the population) get water from a privately owned drinking water utility. In addition, 20 % of all wastewater utilities in the U.S. are privately owned, many of them relatively small. About 3 % of Americans get wastewater service from private wastewater utilities. In addition, more than 1,300 government entities (typically municipalities) contract with private companies to provide water and / or wastewater services.
Multi-utilities. Some utilities in the U.S. provide only water and / or sewer services, while others are multi-utilities that also provide power and gas services. Examples of utilities that provide only water and sewer services are the Boston Water and Sewer Commission, Dallas Water Utilities, the New York City Department of Environmental Protection, Seattle Public Utilities and the Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission. Other utilities, such as the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission, provide power in addition to water and sewer services. Other multi-utilities provide power and water services, but no sewer services, such as the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power and the Orlando Utilities Commission. There are also some utilities that provide only sewer services, such as the Metropolitan Water Reclamation District of Greater Chicago or the sewer utility in the city of Santa Clara.
Bulk water suppliers. There are also a few large bulk water suppliers in the arid Southwest of the United States, which sell water to utilities. The Metropolitan Water District of Southern California (MWD) sells treated water from the Colorado River and Northern California to its member utilities in Southern California through the California Aqueduct. Twenty - six cities and water districts serving 18 million people are members of MWD. The Central Arizona Water Conservation district supplies water from the Colorado River to 80 municipal, industrial, agricultural and Indian customers in Central and Southern Arizona through the Central Arizona Project Aqueduct (CAP).
The economic regulation of water and sanitation service providers in the U.S. (in particular in relation to the setting of user water rates) is usually the responsibility of regulators such as Public Utility Commissions at the state level, which are organized in the National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners. (see economic regulator). However, while all investor - owned utilities are subject to tariff regulation, only few public utilities are subjected to the same regulation. In fact, only 12 states have laws restricting pricing practices by public water and sanitation utilities.
The environmental and drinking water quality regulation is the responsibility of state departments of health or environment and the EPA.
There are a number of Professional associations, trade associations and other non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that are actively engaged in water supply and sanitation.
Professional associations include the American Society of Civil Engineers focused on advocacy for state revolving fund and water resource development legislation, American Water Works Association (AWWA) oriented mainly towards drinking water professionals and the Water Environment Federation (WEF) geared mainly at wastewater professionals. The geographical scope of both is greater than the U.S.: AWWA has members in 100 countries, with a focus on the U.S. and Canada, and WEF has member associations in 30 countries.
There are a number of trade associations in the sector, including:
In addition to lobbying, some of these trade associations also provide public education, as well as training and technical assistance to their members.
An example of an NGO active in water supply and sanitation is Food & Water Watch, a consumer rights group created in 2005 which focuses on corporate and government accountability relating to food, water, and fishing. Another example is the Alliance for Water Efficiency (AWE), which was created in 2007 with seed funding from the EPA to "advocate for water efficiency research, evaluation, and education '' at the national level. Its Board members "represent water utilities, environmental organizations, plumbing and appliance associations, irrigation manufacturers, the academic community, government, and others. ''
Among the main issues facing water users and the water industry in the U.S. in 2009 are water scarcity and adaptation to climate change; concerns about combined sewer overflows and drinking water quality; as well as concerns about a gap between investment needs and actual investments. Other issues are concerns about a swiftly retiring workforce, the affordability of water bills for the poor during a recession, and water fluoridation, which is opposed by some mainly on ethical and safety grounds.
With water use in the United States increasing every year, many regions are starting to feel the pressure. At least 36 states are anticipating local, regional, or statewide water shortages by 2013, even under non-drought conditions.
According to the National Academies, climate change affects water supply in the U.S. in the following ways:
An important turning point in managing drinking water pollution in the United States occurred after passage of the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974, which required the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) to conduct a study of the issue. The NAS found that there really was not a lot of information available on drinking water quality. Perhaps the most important part of the study, according to senior EPA officials responsible for implementing the 1974 law, was that it described some methodologies for doing risk assessments for chemicals that were suspected carcinogens.
Sewer overflows. Combined sewer overflows (CSO) and sanitary sewer overflows affect the quality of water resources in many parts of the U.S. About 772 communities have combined sewer systems, serving about 40 million people, mostly in the Northeast, the Great Lakes Region and the Pacific Northwest. CSO discharges during heavy storms can cause serious water pollution. A 2004 EPA report to Congress estimated that there are 9,348 CSO outflows in the U.S., discharging about 850 billion US gallons (3.2 × 10 m) of untreated wastewater and storm water to the environment. EPA estimates that between 23,000 and 75,000 sanitary sewer overflows occur each year, resulting in releases of between 3 and 10 billion US gallons (38,000,000 m) of untreated wastewater.
The increased frequency and intensity of rainfall as a result of climate change will result in additional water pollution from wastewater treatment, storage, and conveyance systems. '' For the most part, wastewater treatment plants and combined sewer overflow control programs have been designed on the basis of the historic hydrologic record, taking no account of prospective changes in flow conditions due to climate change.
Drinking water quality. There are several aspects of drinking water quality that are of some concern in the United States, including Cryptosporidium, disinfection by - products, lead, perchlorates and pharmaceutical substances. However, in almost all cases drinking water quality is in conformity with the norms of the Safe Drinking Water Act, which requires EPA to set Maximum Contaminant Levels for pollutants. In addition, the EPA 's Consumer Confidence Rule of 1998 requires most public water suppliers to provide consumer confidence reports, also known as annual water quality reports, to their customers. Each year by July 1 anyone connected to a public water system should receive in the mail an annual water quality report that tells where water in a specific locality comes from and what 's in it. Consumers can find out about these local reports on a map provided by EPA. 29 % of Americans are reading their water quality reports. A 2003 survey found that customers were generally satisfied with the information they are receiving from their water companies and their local or state environmental offices.
In its Infrastructure Report Card the American Society of Civil Engineers gave both the U.S. drinking water and wastewater infrastructure a grade of D - in 2005, down from D in 2001. According to the report, "the nation 's drinking water system faces a staggering public investment need to replace aging facilities, comply with safe drinking water regulations and meet future needs. '' Investment needs are about $19 billion / year for sanitation and $14 billion / year for drinking water, totaling $33 billion / year. State and local governments invested $35.1 billion in water supply and sanitation in 2008, including 16.3 billion for drinking water supply and 18.8 billion for sanitation.
As of 2013, the American Society of Civil Engineers report card remains a "D '', and a recent paper from Stanford University 's Center for Reinventing the Nation 's Urban Water Infrastructure (ReNUWIt) describes why "water infrastructure is systemically resistant to innovation '':
Despite a growing sense that water will be as important a global issue as energy in the coming century, capital deployed for water resources "pales in comparison to that for renewable energy. ''... Only 5 percent of the $4.3 billion in VC money invested in the clean tech industry goes to water technologies.
Federal support is also on the decline. The membranes that today enable desalinization and water reuse, for example, were the fruits of R&D undertaken during the Kennedy administration. We now spend ten times less on that research.
The paper notes that innovations occur when utilities see opportunities for "short - term benefits and immediate savings, '' when there are water shortages, and in quality of life situations, like Philadelphia 's "green infrastructure initiative designed to reduce combined sewer overflow. ''
Concerning drinking water supply the EPA estimated in 2003 that $276.8 billion would have to be invested between 2003 and 2023. Concerning sanitation, the EPA estimated in 2007 that investment of $202.5 billion is needed over the next 20 years to control wastewater pollution. This includes $134 billion for wastewater treatment and collection, $54.8 billion for resolving unsatisfactory combined sewer overflows and $9 billion for stormwater management. The EPA needs surveys do not capture all investment needs, in particular concerning capital replacement.
In the U.S, in 2015, about 2.7 million people still lacked access to "improved '' water. Regarding sanitation, in 2015, only around 36000 people did not have access to "improved '' sanitation.
More than 99 % of the U.S. population has access to "complete plumbing facilities '', defined as the following services within the housing unit:
However, more than 1.6 million people in the United States, in 630,000 households, still lack basic plumbing facilities. More than a third of them have household incomes below the federal poverty level. They are spread across all racial and ethnic categories, but they are more prominent in the minority groups. Most of the people who lacked plumbing services were elderly, poor, and living in rural areas. Alaska has the highest percentage of households without plumbing -- 6.32 percent of all its households.
The median household in the U.S. spent about 1.1 % of its income on water and sewerage in 2002. However, poor households face a different situation: In 1997 18 % of U.S. households, many of them poor, paid more than 4 % of their income on their water and sewer bill.
The mean U.S. water tariff -- excluding sewer tariffs -- was $2.72 per 1,000 gallons ($0.72 per cubic meter) in 2000, with significant variations between localities. Average residential water tariffs for a monthly consumption of 15 cubic meters varied between $0.35 per cubic meter in Chicago and $3.01 in Atlanta in 2007. The combined water and sewer tariff was $0.64 in Chicago and $3.01 in Atlanta, with Atlanta not charging separately for sewer services. Annual combined water and sewer bills vary between $228 in Chicago and $1,476 in Atlanta in 2008. For purposes of comparison, the average water and sewer bill in England and Wales in 2008 was equivalent to $466.
The average annual increase in typical residential water bills was approximately 5.3 percent from 2001 through 2009, while the increase in typical residential sewer bills was approximately 5.5 percent according to data from the 50 Largest Cities Water and Wastewater Rate Survey by Black & Veatch.
The water community in the US is faced with a swiftly retiring workforce and a tightening market place for new workers. In 2008, approximately one third of executives and managers were expected to retire in the following five years. Water and sanitation utilities in the United States had 41,922 employees in 2002.
Water fluoridation, the controlled addition of moderate concentrations of fluoride to a public water supply to reduce tooth decay, is used for about two - thirds of the U.S. population on public water systems. Almost all major public health and dental organizations support water fluoridation, or consider it safe. Nevertheless, it is contentious for ethical, safety, and efficacy reasons.
Historically the predominant response to increasing water demand in the U.S. has been to tap into ever more distant sources of conventional water supply, in particular rivers. Because of environmental concerns and limitations in the availability of water resources, including droughts that may be due to climate change, this approach now is in many cases not feasible any more. Still, supply - side management is often being pursued tapping into non-conventional water resources, in particular seawater desalination in coastal areas with high population growth. California alone had plans to build 21 desalination plants in 2006 with a total capacity of 450 million US gallons (1,700,000 m) per day, which would represent a massive 70-fold increase over current seawater desalination capacity in the state. In 2007 the largest desalination plant in the United States is the one at Tampa Bay, Florida, which began desalinating 25 million US gallons (95,000 m) of water per day in December 2007.
In 2005 over 2,000 desalination plants with a capacity of more than 100m3 / day had been installed or contracted in every state in the U.S. with a total capacity of more than 6 million m3 / day. Only 7 % of that capacity was for seawater desalination, while 51 % used brackish water and 26 % used river water as water source. The contracted capacity corresponds to 2.4 % of total municipal and industrial water use in the country in 2000. The actual share of desalinated water is lower, because some of the contracted capacity was never built or never operated, was closed down or is not operated at full capacity.
Demand - side management, including the reduction of leakage in the distribution network and water conservation, are other options that are being considered and, in some cases, also applied to address water scarcity. For example, Seattle has reduced per capita water use from 152 US gallons (580 L) per day in 1990 to 97 US gallons (370 L) per day in 2007 through a comprehensive water conservation program including pricing policies, education, regulations and rebates for water - saving appliances. Other cities such as Atlanta and Las Vegas have also launched water conservation programs that are somewhat less comprehensive than the one in Seattle concerning indoor water use. However, Las Vegas has intentionally focused on curbing outdoor water demand, which accounts for 70 % of residential water use in the city, through reductions in turf area and incentives for the use of rains sensors, irrigation controllers and pool covers. At the federal level, the Energy Policy Act of 1992 set standards for water - efficient appliances, replacing the 3.5 US gallons (13 L) per flush (gpf) toilet with a new 1.6 gpf / 6 litres per flush maximum standard for all new toilets. By 1994, federal law mandated that showerheads and faucets sold in the U.S. release no more than 2.5 and 2.2 US gallons (8.3 L) of water per minute respectively. Also in 1994 the AWWA established a clearinghouse for water conservation, efficiency, and demand management, called WaterWiser, to assist water conservation professionals and the general public in using water more efficiently. In 2006 the EPA launched its WaterSense program to encourage water efficiency beyond the standards set by the Energy Policy Act through the use of a special label on consumer products.
Distributional losses in the U.S. are typically 10 -- 15 % of total withdrawals, although they can exceed 25 % of total water use in older systems. According to another source unaccounted - for water (UFW) -- which includes system losses, water used for firefighting and water used in the treatment process -- was estimated to be only 8 % in systems with more than 500,000 connections in 2000. In comparison, the level of water losses is 7 % in Germany, 19 % in England and Wales, and 26 % in France. Together with Germany water losses in the U.S. are thus among the lowest in 16 industrial countries.
Low water tariffs and inappropriate tariff structures do not encourage water conservation. For example, decreasing - block rates, under which the unit rate decreases with consumption, offer hardly any incentive for water conservation. In 2000 about 51 % of water tariffs in the U.S. were uniform (i.e. the unit tariff is independent of the level of consumption), 12 % were increasing - block tariffs (the unit rate increases with consumption) and 19 % were decreasing - block tariffs. The use of decreasing - block tariffs declined sharply from 45 % of all tariff structures in 1992. Sewer rates are often flat rates that are not linked to consumption, thus offering no incentive to conserve water.
Reuse of reclaimed water is an increasingly common response to water scarcity in many parts of the United States. Reclaimed water is being reused directly for various non-potable uses in the United States, including urban landscape irrigation of parks, school yards, highway medians and golf courses; fire protection; commercial uses such as vehicle washing; industrial reuse such as cooling water, boiler water and process water; environmental and recreational uses such as the creation or restoration of wetlands; as well as agricultural irrigation. In some cases, such as in Irvine Ranch Water District in Orange County it is also used for flushing toilets.
It was estimated that in 2002 a total of 1.7 billion US gallons (6,400,000 m) per day, or almost 3 % of public water supply, were being directly reused. California reused 0.6 and Florida 0.5 billion US gallons (1,900,000 m) per day respectively. Twenty - five states had regulations regarding the use of reclaimed water in 2002. Planned direct reuse of reclaimed water was initiated in 1932 with the construction of a reclaimed water facility at San Francisco 's Golden Gate Park. Reclaimed water is typically distributed with a color - coded dual piping network that keeps reclaimed water pipes completely separate from potable water pipes.
The leaders in use of reclaimed water in the U.S. are Florida and California, with Irvine Ranch Water District as one of the leading developers. They were the first district to approve the use of reclaimed water for in - building piping and use in flushing toilets.
In places like Florida, where it is necessary to avoid nutrient overload of sensitive receiving water, reuse of treated or reclaimed water can be more economically feasible than meeting the higher standards for surface water disposal mandated by the Clean Water Act
In a January 2012 U.S. National Research Council report, a committee of independent experts found that expanding the reuse of municipal wastewater for irrigation, industrial uses, and drinking water augmentation could significantly increase the United States ' total available water resources. The committee noted that a portfolio of treatment options is available to mitigate water quality issues in reclaimed water. The report also includes a risk analysis that suggests the risk of exposure to certain microbial and chemical contaminants from drinking reclaimed water is not any higher than the risk from drinking water from current water treatment systems -- and in some cases, may be orders of magnitude lower. The report concludes that adjustments to the federal regulatory framework could enhance public health protection and increase public confidence in water reuse.
There are examples of communities that have safely used recycled water for many years. Los Angeles County 's sanitation districts have provided treated wastewater for landscape irrigation in parks and golf courses since 1929. The first reclaimed water facility in California was built at San Francisco 's Golden Gate Park in 1932. The Water Replenishment District of Southern California was the first groundwater agency to obtain permitted use of recycled water for groundwater recharge in 1962.
The Irvine Ranch Water District (IRWD) was the first water district in California to receive an unrestricted use permit from the state for its recycled water; such a permit means that water can be used for any purpose except drinking. IRWD maintains one of the largest recycled water systems in the nation with more than 400 miles serving more than 4,500 metered connections. The Irvine Ranch Water District and Orange County Water District in Southern California are established leaders in recycled water. Further, the Orange County Water District, located in Orange County, water is given more advanced treatments and is used indirectly for drinking.
The Trinity River in Texas is a representative example of an effluent - dominated surface water system where de facto potable water reuse occurs. The section of the river south of Dallas / Fort Worth consists almost entirely of wastewater effluent under base flow conditions. In response to concerns about nutrients, the wastewater treatment plants in Dallas / Fort Worth that collectively discharge about 2 million m per day of effluent employ nutrient removal processes. Little dilution of the effluent - dominated waters occurs as the water travels from Dallas / Fort Worth to Lake Livingston, which is one of the main drinking water reservoirs for Houston. Once the water reaches Lake Livingston, it is subjected to conventional drinking water treatment prior to delivery to consumers in Houston.
Orange County is located in Southern California, USA, and houses a classic example in IPR. A large - scale artificial groundwater recharge scheme exists in the area, providing a much - needed freshwater barrier to intruding seawater. Part of the injected water consists of recycled water, starting as of 1976 with Water Factory 21, which used RO and high lime to clean the water (production capacity of 19,000 m per day). This plant was de-commissioned in 2004 and has since made place for a new project with a higher capacity (265,000 m per day with an ultimate capacity of 492,000 m per day), under the name of Groundwater Replenishment System. This newer scheme uses the newer technological combination of RO, MF, and ultraviolet light with hydrogen peroxide. Plans are also underway to further increase the capacity of the system, which already provides up to 20 % of the water used by the country.
In the USA, San Diego, California is the leading state implementing IPR. MF, RO and UV / H O are employed prior to groundwater replenishment with the treated effluents (CDPH, 2013). In San Diego, the effort to increase the share of recycled water was rekindled with an extensive study in 2006. MF provides substantial removal of the dissolved effluent organic matter (dEfOM), while dEfOM reduction down to 0.5 mg / L (in terms of TOC) is achieved through RO application. The chemical oxidation treatment (UV / H O) following the membrane steps, results in the mitigation of N - nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), as well as in the improvement of the effluent quality with respect to its organic content.
The City of El Paso 's (Texas, USA) water sources include groundwater aquifers and surface water from the Rio Grande. In order to increase groundwater levels, the El Paso Water Utilities injects advanced treated reclaimed water into the aquifer. The advanced treatment facilities use two - stage powdered activated carbon (PAC), addition of lime, two - stage recarbonation, sand filtration, ozonation, granular activated carbon (GAC), and chlorination for purifying the water. The Hueco Bolson Recharge Project, which initially began in 1985, currently recharges 1,700 acre - feet per year of reclaimed water at 10 injection wells and 800 acre - feet per year at an infiltration basin for groundwater recharge.
In Colorado, USA, the Colorado River Municipal Water District implemented a project to capture treated municipal effluent from the City of Big Spring, and provide additional advanced treatment prior to blending into their raw surface water delivery system (2012). Advanced treatment of the municipal effluent consisted of MF, RO, and ultraviolet oxidation, producing very high quality water, which is blended with surface water from Lake E.V. Spence for distribution to their member and customer cities (production of 6,700 m per day).
Further examples:
In July 2014, the city of Wichita Falls, Texas (USA), became one of the first in the United States to use treated wastewater directly in its drinking water supply (production of 45,000 -- 60,000 m per day). Treated wastewater is disinfected and pumped to the Cypress Water Treatment Plant where it goes through clarification, microfiltration (MF), reverse osmosis (RO), and ultraviolet light disinfection before being released into a holding lagoon where it is blended with lake water (50: 50). The blended water goes through a seven - step conventional surface water treatment.
Proposed projects:
Numerous efforts have been undertaken in the United States to control the pollution of water resources and to make drinking water safe. The most comprehensive federal regulations and standards for the water treatment industry were implemented in the 1970s, in reaction to a huge increase in environmental concerns in the country. In 1972, Congress passed the Clean Water Act (CWA), with the unprecedented goal of eliminating all water pollution by 1985 and authorized expenditures of $24.6 billion in research and construction grants. In 1974, Congress passed the Safe Drinking Water Act, specifying a number of contaminants that had to be closely monitored and reported to residents should they exceed the maximum contaminant levels. The CWA included substantial federal grant funding to improve sewage treatment infrastructure in the form of construction grants to local governments.
The 1987 Water Quality Act amended the CWA, replacing the sewage treatment construction grant program with a system of subsidized loans, using the Clean Water State Revolving Fund (CWSRF). The loans use a combination of 80 % federal funds and 20 % matching funds from states. The intention at the time was to completely phase out federal funding after a few years. Funding for the CWSRF peaked in 1991 and continued at high levels thereafter, despite the original intentions. New challenges arose, such as the need to address combined sewer overflows for which EPA issued a policy in 1994, and which was codified into law by Congress in 2000. In 1996 Congress established the Drinking Water State Revolving Fund, in order to finance investments to improve compliance with more stringent drinking water quality standards.
Today cities make significant investments in the control of combined sewer overflows, including through the construction of storage facilities in the sewerage system in order to allow for the subsequent controlled release of sewage into treatment plants.
One way to address the funding needs of utilities to respond to the various challenges they face without increasing the burden of water bills on users is federal financial assistance.
Centralized water and sanitation infrastructure is typically financed through utilities ' own revenue or debt. Debt can be in the form of soft loans from State Revolving Funds (SRF), credits from commercial Banks or -- in the case of large utilities -- from bonds issued directly in the capital market. In the case of water supply (i.e. excluding sanitation), 42 % of investments were financed by private sector borrowing, 39 % by current revenues, 13 % by government loans including the Drinking Water SRF, 5 % by government grants and 1 % from other sources. Although federal funding for the main of the two SRFs has declined in real terms by 70 % between its peak in 1991 and 2006, SRFs play an important role in financing water and sanitation investments. There are two SRFs: The larger Clean Water State Revolving Fund, created in 1987, and the smaller Drinking Water State Revolving Fund, created in 1997. They receive federal and state contributions and issue bonds. In turn, they provide soft loans to utilities in their respective states, with average interest rates at 2 % for up to 20 years in the case of the Clean Water State Revolving Fund. In addition to the SRFs, the United States Department of Agriculture provides grants, loans and loan guarantees for water supply and sanitation in small communities (those with less than 10,000 inhabitants), together with technical assistance and training.
The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of February 17, 2009, provides $4 billion for the Clean Water SRF, $2 billion for the Drinking Water SRF and, among others, $126 million for water recycling projects through the United States Bureau of Reclamation.
This exceeds previous levels of financing, since Congress approved only US $1.5 billion of federal funding for State Revolving Funds in 2008. This was much below the historical average of US $3 billion / year for the Clean Water State Revolving Fund (1987 -- 2006) and US $1.2 billion / year for the Drinking Water State Revolving Fund (1997 -- 2005). The share of federal funding for sanitation has declined from almost 50 % in the early 1980s to about 20 % in the early 1990s. A May 2016 article asserted that there has been "a huge federal retreat from helping cities fund water projects, '' stating that overall federal spending on water utilities "has dropped 75 percent since 1977, '' and that experts expect more situations like the Flint water crisis to emerge.
Congress passed the Water Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act of 2014 (WIFIA) to provide an expanded credit program for water and wastewater infrastructure projects, with broader eligibility criteria than the previously - authorized revolving funds. Pursuant to the act, EPA established its Water Infrastructure and Resiliency Finance Center in 2015 to help local governments and municipal utilities design innovative financing mechanisms, including public - private partnerships. It is part of the federal government 's Build American Investment Initiative. Congress amended the WIFIA program in 2015 and 2016. One of the envisaged instruments to boost financing in water infrastructure are Qualified Public Infrastructure Bonds (QPIBs), tax - exempt municipal bonds that can be used by private companies.
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who does in the new star wars movie | Star Wars: the Last Jedi - wikipedia
Star Wars: The Last Jedi (also known as Star Wars: Episode VIII -- The Last Jedi) is a 2017 American epic space opera film written and directed by Rian Johnson. It is the second installment of the Star Wars sequel trilogy and the eighth main installment of the Star Wars franchise, following Star Wars: The Force Awakens (2015). It was produced by Lucasfilm and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. The ensemble cast includes Mark Hamill, Carrie Fisher, Adam Driver, Daisy Ridley, John Boyega, Oscar Isaac, Andy Serkis, Lupita Nyong'o, Domhnall Gleeson, Anthony Daniels and Gwendoline Christie in returning roles, with Kelly Marie Tran, Laura Dern and Benicio del Toro joining the cast. The film features the final film performance by Fisher, who died in December 2016, and it is dedicated to her memory. The plot follows Rey as she receives Jedi training from Luke Skywalker, in hopes of turning the tide for the Resistance in the fight against Kylo Ren and the First Order.
The Last Jedi was part of a new trilogy of films announced after Disney 's acquisition of Lucasfilm in October 2012. It was produced by Lucasfilm President Kathleen Kennedy and Ram Bergman, with Force Awakens director J.J. Abrams as an executive producer. John Williams, composer for the previous films, returned to compose the score. Scenes that required shooting at Skellig Michael in Ireland were filmed during pre-production in September 2015, with principal photography beginning at Pinewood Studios in the United Kingdom in February 2016 and ending in July 2016. Post-production wrapped in September 2017.
The Last Jedi had its world premiere in Los Angeles on December 9, 2017, and was released in the United States on December 15, 2017. It has grossed over $1.3 billion worldwide, making it the highest - grossing film of 2017, the 6th - highest - ever grossing film in North America and the 9th - highest grossing film of all - time, as well as the second - highest grossing film of the Star Wars franchise. It received positive reviews from critics, who praised its ensemble cast, visual effects, musical score, action sequences and emotional weight; some considered it the best Star Wars film since The Empire Strikes Back. The film received four nominations at the 90th Academy Awards, including Best Original Score and Best Visual Effects, as well two nominations at the 71st British Academy Film Awards. A sequel, provisionally titled Star Wars: Episode IX, is scheduled for release on December 20, 2019.
Resistance forces, led by General Leia Organa, flee D'Qar when a First Order fleet arrives. A costly counterattack led by Poe Dameron destroys a First Order dreadnought, but after escaping to hyperspace, the First Order tracks them and attacks the Resistance convoy. Poe is demoted due to the loss of ships and disobeying Leia. Kylo Ren, Leia 's son, hesitates to fire on the lead Resistance ship after sensing his mother 's presence, but his TIE fighter wingmen destroy the bridge, incapacitating Leia. Disapproving of new leader Vice Admiral Holdo 's passive strategy, Poe helps Finn, BB - 8, and mechanic Rose Tico embark on a secret mission to disable the tracking device.
Meanwhile, Rey arrives on Ahch - To, with Chewbacca and R2 - D2 aboard the Millennium Falcon, to recruit Luke Skywalker to the Resistance. Disillusioned by his failure to help Kylo become a Jedi and under self - imposed exile from the Force, Luke refuses to help -- even after he learns of Han Solo 's death at the hands of Kylo Ren -- and believes that the Jedi should become extinct. Unbeknownst to Luke, Rey and Kylo communicate through the Force, puzzling the two enemies. As the rival Force users learn about each other, each has future visions of themselves as partners.
R2 - D2 persuades Luke to train Rey. After Kylo tells Rey about what happened between him and Luke that caused him to choose the dark side of the Force, Luke confesses that he momentarily contemplated killing Kylo upon sensing that Supreme Leader Snoke was corrupting him, causing Kylo to destroy Luke 's new Jedi Order in retaliation. Convinced that Kylo can be redeemed, Rey leaves Ahch - To to confront Kylo without Luke. Luke prepares to burn down the Ahch - To Jedi temple and library, but hesitates. Yoda 's ghost appears and destroys the temple, claiming Rey has all she needs to learn, and encourages Luke to learn from his failure.
Holdo reveals her plan to discreetly evacuate the remaining Resistance members using small transports. Believing her actions cowardly and risky, Poe leads a mutiny. Finn, Rose, and BB - 8 travel to the Canto Bight casino and acquire the help of the hacker DJ, who says he can help them disable the tracking device. They infiltrate Snoke 's ship but are captured by Captain Phasma, though BB - 8 escapes. Meanwhile, Rey lands on the ship, and Kylo brings her to Snoke, who reveals that he facilitated the mental connection between her and Kylo as part of a plan to destroy Luke. Ordered to kill Rey, Kylo instead kills Snoke and with Rey defeats Snoke 's guards. Rey believes that Kylo has returned to the light side of the Force, but he invites her to rule the galaxy with him; Rey refuses. They use the Force to fight for possession of Anakin Skywalker 's lightsaber, which splits in two.
Leia recovers and stuns Poe, allowing the evacuation to begin. Holdo remains on the ship to mislead Snoke 's fleet as the others flee to an abandoned Rebel Alliance base on Crait. DJ reveals the Resistance 's plan to the First Order, and the evacuation transports are slowly destroyed. Holdo sacrifices herself by ramming Snoke 's fleet at lightspeed; Rey escapes in the chaos, while Kylo declares himself Supreme Leader. BB - 8 frees Finn and Rose, who escape after defeating Captain Phasma, and join survivors on Crait. When the First Order arrives, Poe, Finn, and Rose attack with old speeders. Rey and Chewbacca draw the TIE fighters away with the Falcon, while Rose stops Finn from completing a suicide run against the enemy siege cannon, which penetrates the Resistance fortress.
Luke appears and confronts the First Order to enable surviving Resistance members to escape. Kylo orders the First Order 's forces to fire on Luke but to no effect. He then engages Luke in a lightsaber duel. Luke tells Kylo he will not be the last Jedi; Kylo strikes Luke but realizes he has been fighting Luke 's Force projection. Rey uses the Force to help the Resistance escape on the Falcon. Luke, exhausted, dies peacefully on Ahch - To. His death is sensed by Rey and Leia, but Leia tells surviving rebels that the Resistance has all it needs to rise again. At Canto Bight, one of the children who helped Finn and Rose escape grabs a broom with the Force and gazes into space.
Joonas Suotamo appears as Chewbacca, taking over the role from Peter Mayhew after previously serving as his body double for The Force Awakens. Mayhew, who was 73 years old and suffering from chronic knee and back pain, is credited as "Chewbacca consultant. '' Billie Lourd, Mike Quinn, and Timothy D. Rose reprise their roles as Lieutenant Connix, Nien Nunb, and Admiral Ackbar respectively from previous films. Due to the death of Eric Bauersfield, Admiral Ackbar is now voiced by Tom Kane. Amanda Lawrence appears as Commander D'Acy, and Mark Lewis Jones and Adrian Edmondson play Captains Canady and Peavey respectively. BB - 8 is controlled by puppeteers Dave Chapman and Brian Herring, with initial voice work by Ben Schwartz and final sound effects voiced by Bill Hader modulated through a synthesizer. Jimmy Vee portrays R2 - D2, taking over the role from Kenny Baker who died on August 13, 2016. Veronica Ngo portrays Rose 's sister Paige Tico, a Resistance gunner who sacrifices her life to destroy a First Order dreadnought.
Justin Theroux plays the master codebreaker, while Lily Cole plays his companion. Joseph Gordon - Levitt has a voice cameo as Slowen Lo. Warwick Davis plays Wodibin. Gareth Edwards, director of the Star Wars Anthology film Rogue One, has a cameo appearance as a Resistance Soldier, as does Gary Barlow. Directors Edgar Wright and Joe Cornish also cameo in the film. Hermione Corfield appears as Tallie Lintra, a Resistance A-Wing pilot and squadron leader. Noah Segan and Jamie Christopher appear as Resistance pilots Starck and Tubbs. Hamill 's children, Griffin, Nathan, and Chelsea, cameo as Resistance soldiers. Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Prince Harry filmed cameo appearances as stormtroopers. Tom Hardy also filmed an appearance as a stormtrooper, but his cameo was ultimately dropped from the final cut. Hugh Skinner cameos as a Resistance Officer.
In October 2012, Star Wars creator George Lucas sold his production company Lucasfilm, and with it the Star Wars franchise, to The Walt Disney Company. Disney announced a new trilogy of Star Wars films. J.J. Abrams was named director of the first episode in the trilogy, The Force Awakens, in January 2013. In June 2014, director Rian Johnson was reported to be in talks to write and direct its sequel, dubbed Episode VIII, and to write a treatment for the third film, Episode IX, with Ram Bergman producing both films. Johnson confirmed in August 2014 that he would direct Episode VIII. In September, filmmaker Terry Gilliam asked Johnson about what it felt like to take over something that was made famous by another filmmaker, to which Johnson responded:
I 'm just starting into it, but so far, honestly, it 's the most fun I 've ever had writing. It 's just joyous. But also for me personally, I grew up not just watching those movies but playing with those toys, so as a little kid, the first movies I was making in my head were set in this world. A big part of it is that direct connection, almost like an automatic jacking back into childhood in a weird way. But I do n't know, ask me again in a few years and we 'll be able to talk about that.
The story begins immediately after the last scene of The Force Awakens. He had his story group watch films such as Twelve O'Clock High, The Bridge on the River Kwai, Gunga Din, Three Outlaw Samurai, Sahara, and Letter Never Sent for inspiration while developing ideas. He felt it was difficult to work on the film while The Force Awakens was being finished.
In December 2015, Lucasfilm president Kathleen Kennedy stated that "we have n't mapped out every single detail (of the sequel trilogy) yet ''. She said that Abrams was collaborating with Johnson and that Johnson would in turn work with (then) Episode IX director Colin Trevorrow to ensure a smooth transition. Abrams is an executive producer along with Jason McGatlin and Tom Karnowski. Lucasfilm announced the film 's title, Star Wars: The Last Jedi, on January 23, 2017.
In September 2015, Disney shortlisted the female cast members to Gina Rodriguez, Tatiana Maslany, and Olivia Cooke. Later that month, Benicio del Toro confirmed that he would play a villain in the film, and Mark Hamill was also confirmed. In October 2015, Gugu Mbatha - Raw was rumored to have been cast in the film. In November, Jimmy Vee was cast as R2 - D2. In November, Kennedy announced at the London premiere for The Force Awakens that the entire cast would return for Episode VIII, along with "a handful '' of new cast members. In February 2016, at the start of filming, it was confirmed that Laura Dern and Kelly Marie Tran had been cast in unspecified roles. In April 2017, at Star Wars Celebration Orlando, Lucasfilm announced that Tran plays Resistance maintenance worker Rose Tico, which Johnson described as the film 's largest new role. To keep Frank Oz 's return as Yoda a secret, producers excluded Oz 's name in the billing for the film 's marketing and ensured that Oz stayed on set during filming.
Second unit photography began during pre-production at Skellig Michael in Ireland on September 14, 2015, due to the difficulties of filming at that location during other seasons. It would have lasted four days, but filming was canceled for the first day due to poor weather and rough conditions. In November 2014, Ivan Dunleavy, chief executive of Pinewood Studios, confirmed that the film would be shot at Pinewood, with additional filming in Mexico. In September 2015, del Toro revealed that principal photography would begin in March 2016; Kennedy later stated that filming would begin in January 2016. The production began work on the 007 Stage at Pinewood Studios on November 15, 2015. Rick Heinrichs served as production designer.
In January 2016, production of Episode VIII was delayed until February 2016, due to script rewrites. Additionally, filming was potentially in danger of being delayed further due to an upcoming strike between the Producers Alliance for Cinema and Television and the Broadcasting, Entertainment, Cinematograph and Theatre Union. On February 10, 2016, Disney CEO Bob Iger confirmed that principal photography had begun, under the working title Space Bear. Additional filming took place in Dubrovnik, Croatia from March 9 to 16, 2016, as well as in Ireland in May. Malin Head in County Donegal and a mountain headland, Ceann Sibeal in County Kerry, served as additional filming locations. To increase the scenes ' intimacy Driver and Ridley were both present when filming Kylo and Rey 's Force visions. Location filming for the battle scenes on the planet Crait took place in July 2016 at the Salar de Uyuni salt flats in Bolivia.
Principal photography wrapped on July 22, 2016, though as of early September 2016, Nyong'o had not filmed her scenes. In February 2017, it was announced that sequences from the film were shot in IMAX. Production designer Rick Heinrichs said the original screenplay called for 160 sets, double what might be expected, but that Johnson did some "trimming and cutting ''. Ultimately 125 sets were created on 14 sound stages at Pinewood Studios.
According to creature designer Neal Scanlan, The Last Jedi uses more practical effects than any Star Wars film, with 180 to 200 creatures created with practical effects, some cut from the final edit. For Yoda 's appearance in the film as a Force ghost, the character was created using puppetry, as was done in the original Star Wars trilogy (as opposed to computer - generated imagery, which was used to create Yoda in most of the prequel trilogy).
The film 's Canto Bight sequence contains a reference to the 1985 Terry Gilliam film Brazil, in which Finn and Rose are arrested for committing parking violation 27B / 6.
In July 2013, Kennedy announced at Star Wars Celebration Europe that John Williams would return to score the Star Wars sequel trilogy. Williams confirmed his assignment for The Last Jedi at a Tanglewood concert in August 2016, stating he would begin recording the score "off and on '' in December 2016 until March or April 2017. On February 21, 2017, it was confirmed that recording was underway, with both Williams and William Ross conducting the sessions.
In lieu of a traditional spotting session with Johnson, Williams was provided a temp track of music from his previous film scores as a reference for scoring The Last Jedi. The score briefly quotes "Aquarela do Brasil '' by Ary Barroso in its "Canto Bight '' track as another reference to the film Brazil. It also contains a brief quote of Williams 's own theme for The Long Goodbye (co-composed by Johnny Mercer) during Finn and Rose 's escape, although this quote is not heard in the official soundtrack release.
The official soundtrack album was released by Walt Disney Records on December 15, 2017 in digipak CD, digital formats, and streaming services.
In January 2015, Disney CEO Bob Iger stated that Episode VIII would be released in 2017, and in March, Lucasfilm announced a release date of May 26, 2017. In January 2016, The Last Jedi was rescheduled for December 15, 2017 in 3D and IMAX 3D. On January 23, 2017, the film 's title was announced as Star Wars: The Last Jedi. Similarly to The Empire Strikes Back, Return of the Jedi and The Force Awakens, "Episode VIII '' was included in the film 's opening crawl, although not in its official title.
The Last Jedi had its world premiere in Los Angeles on December 9, 2017. The European premiere was held at London 's Royal Albert Hall on December 12, 2017, with a red carpet event.
It was reported that Disney had placed notable conditions on U.S. cinemas screening The Last Jedi, which some operators described as being "onerous ''. Disney required that the film be screened in a cinema 's largest auditorium for a four - week period (other Disney releases have had similar clauses, but only for two weeks), and was given a 65 % cut of ticket sales (a percentage higher than the 55 -- 60 % average of other major films, and cited as the highest split ever demanded by a Hollywood film behind the 64 % split of The Force Awakens). The agreement, which was required to be kept confidential, also contained regulations on promotions and restrictions on removing any scheduled screening. Violations were to be penalized with an additional 5 % cut of ticket sales. Some cinemas declined to screen the film due to these conditions, particularly smaller or one - screen cinemas that would otherwise be barred from screening any other film during the commitment period. Industry representatives considered this policy to be reasonable, citing the performance of Disney releases and the Star Wars franchise, and that the guaranteed business attracted by the film, and concession sales, would make up for the larger cut of ticket sales.
A set of eight promotional postage stamps were released on October 12, 2017 in the UK by the Royal Mail with artwork by Malcolm Tween. On September 19, 2017, Australia Post released a set of stamp packs. Tie - in promotional campaigns were done with Nissan Motors and Bell Media, among others. Two main trailers were released, followed by numerous television spots. Figurines of many of the characters were released in October, and advance tickets for Last Jedi went on sale in October.
Several tie - in books were released on the same day of the North American release of the movie, including The Last Jedi: Visual Dictionary, and various children 's reading and activity books. Related novelizations included the prequel book Cobalt Squadron, and the Canto Bight, a collection of novellas about the Canto Bight Casino.
As with The Force Awakens, there is no official tie - in game for The Last Jedi, in favor of integrating content from the film into other Star Wars video games, including Star Wars Battlefront II, which introduced various content from the film, during the second week of the game 's first "season ''. An update to the MOBA mobile game Star Wars: Force Arena added new content from the sequel era, including some characters as they appeared in The Last Jedi. Characters from the film also appeared in the mobile RPG Star Wars: Galaxy of Heroes.
Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment will release Star Wars: The Last Jedi digitally in HD and 4K via download and Disney Movies Anywhere on March 13, 2018, with an Ultra HD Blu - Ray, Blu - ray, and DVD release on March 27.
As of February 19, 2018, Star Wars: The Last Jedi has grossed $618.2 million in the United States and Canada, and $708.8 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $1.327 billion. It had a worldwide opening of $450.8 million, the fifth - biggest of all time, including $40.6 million that was attributed to IMAX screenings, the second biggest for IMAX. It was estimated that the film would need to gross $800 million worldwide to break even.
Pre-sale tickets went on sale in the United States on October 9, 2017, and as with The Force Awakens and Rogue One, ticket service sites such as Fandango had their servers crash due to heavy traffic and demand. In the United States and Canada, industry tracking had The Last Jedi grossing around $200 million from 4,232 theaters in its opening weekend. The film made $45 million from Thursday night previews, the second - highest amount ever (behind The Force Awakens ' $57 million). It went on to make $104.8 million on its first day (including previews) and $220 million over the weekend, both the second - highest amounts of all time. The opening weekend figure included an IMAX opening - weekend of $25 million, the biggest IMAX opening of the year and the second biggest ever behind The Force Awakens. After dropping by 76 % on its second Friday, the worst Friday - to - Friday drop in the series, the film fell by a total of 67.5 % in its second weekend, grossing $71.6 million. It was the largest second - weekend drop of the franchise, although it remained atop the box office. It grossed an additional $27.5 million on Christmas day, the second biggest Christmas day gross of all time behind The Force Awakens ($49.3 million), for a four - day weekend total of $99 million. It made $52.4 million in its third weekend, again topping the box office. It also brought its domestic total to $517.1 million, overtaking fellow Disney vehicle Beauty and the Beast as the highest of 2017. It grossed $23.7 million and was dethroned the following weekend by Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle (which was in its third week) and newcomer Insidious: The Last Key.
In its first two days of release the film made $60.8 million from 48 markets. The top countries were the United Kingdom ($10.2 million), Germany ($6.1 million), France ($6 million), Australia ($5.6 million) and Brazil ($2.5 million). By the end of the weekend, the film made $230.8 million outside North America, the ninth - highest of all time. This included $36.7 million in the UK (third - highest), $23.6 million in Germany (second - highest), $18.1 million in France, $15.9 million in Australia (second - highest), $14.4 million in Japan, $8.5 million in Russia, $8.3 million in Spain, $7.2 million in Brazil, $7 million in Italy and Mexico, $6.0 million in Sweden and $5.1 million in South Korea. On its second weekend, it grossed $76.1 million overseas and became the fourth - highest - grossing film of the year in Europe. As of January 7, the largest markets outside of the United States and Canada are the United Kingdom ($102.9 million), Germany ($73.5 million), France ($57.6 million), Japan ($52.2 million) and Australia ($39.8 million).
The film had a $28.7 million opening weekend in China, the lowest for a Star Wars film in that country since 2005. Star Wars: The Force Awakens opened to $52 million two years prior and Rogue One, which featured Chinese stars Donnie Yen and Jiang Wen, opened to $30 million in 2016. The Last Jedi added only $7 million during the week, to reach a total of $34.2 million in its first seven days. A week after its debut, China 's movie exhibitors dropped the film 's showtimes by 92 percent, from its 34.5 % percent share of the territory 's total screenings. The film grossed $910,000 in its third weekend, dropping to ninth place at the Chinese box office, overshadowed by new releases including Bollywood film Secret Superstar, Hollywood films Ferdinand and Wonder, and Chinese film A Better Tomorrow 2018. The Last Jedi grossed $41 million in China, as of January 21, 2018.
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, Star Wars: The Last Jedi has an approval rating of 91 % based on 361 reviews, with an average rating of 8.1 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Star Wars: The Last Jedi honors the saga 's rich legacy while adding some surprising twists -- and delivering all the emotion - rich action fans could hope for. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 85 out of 100, based on 56 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale, while ComScore reported audiences gave an 89 % overall positive score and a 79 % definite recommend. An audience poll of U.S. adults conducted by SurveyMonkey on the first four days of release found that, out of all the respondents who said they had seen the film, 89 % said they either "loved '' or "liked '' it.
Matt Zoller Seitz of RogerEbert.com gave the film four out of four stars, praising the surprises and risks that it took, writing that "The movie works equally well as an earnest adventure full of passionate heroes and villains and a meditation on sequels and franchise properties... (The film) is preoccupied with questions of legacy, legitimacy and succession, and includes multiple debates over whether one should replicate or reject the stories and symbols of the past. '' Writing for Rolling Stone, Peter Travers gave the film 3.5 out of 4 stars, praising the cast and the direction: "You 're in hyper - skilled hands with Johnson who makes sure you leave the multiplex feeling euphoric. The middle part of the current trilogy, The Last Jedi ranks with the very best Star Wars epics (even the pinnacle that is The Empire Strikes Back) by pointing the way ahead to a next generation of skywalkers -- and, thrillingly, to a new hope. ''
Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film 3.5 / 4 stars, saying, "Star Wars: The Last Jedi... does n't pack quite the same emotional punch (as The Force Awakens) and it lags a bit in the second half, (but) this is still a worthy chapter in the Star Wars franchise, popping with exciting action sequences, sprinkled with good humor and containing more than a few nifty ' callbacks ' to previous characters and iconic moments. '' For The Hollywood Reporter, Todd McCarthy said, "Loaded with action and satisfying in the ways its loyal audience wants it to be, writer - director Rian Johnson 's plunge into George Lucas ' universe is generally pleasing even as it sometimes strains to find useful and / or interesting things for some of its characters to do. ''
Will Gompertz, arts editor of BBC News, gave the film 4 / 5 stars, writing "Rian Johnson... has not ruined your Christmas with a turkey. His gift to you is a cracker, a blockbuster movie packed with invention, wit, and action galore. '' Mark Kermode, British film critic, gave the film 4 / 5 stars saying Johnson "proves himself the master of the balancing act, keeping the warring forces of this intergalactic franchise in near - perfect harmony. '' The unpredictability of the plot was appreciated by reviewers such as Alex Leadbeater of Screen Rant, who commented specifically that the death of Snoke was "the best movie twist in years ''.
Conversely, Richard Brody of The New Yorker wrote, "Despite a few stunning decorative touches (most of which involve the color red) and that brief central sequence of multiple Reys, the movie comes off as a work that 's ironed out, flattened down, appallingly purified. Above all, it delivers a terrifyingly calculated consensus storytelling, an artificial universality that is achieved, in part, through express religious references. '' Kate Taylor of The Globe and Mail gave the film 2 / 4 stars, saying the film suffered from too many new additions and writing, "Nifty new animals, a maturing villain, a flagging heroine, muffled humour -- as it seeks to uphold a giant cultural legacy, this unfolding trilogy struggles to maintain a balance that often seems just out of reach. ''
Episode IX, the final installment of the sequel trilogy, is scheduled for release on December 20, 2019. Principal photography is set to begin in June 2018. Although Colin Trevorrow had been attached to direct the film, on September 5, 2017, Lucasfilm announced that Trevorrow had stepped down. A week later, Lucasfilm announced that J.J. Abrams would return to direct Episode IX and co-write it with Chris Terrio. Abrams and Terrio stated that Episode IX will bring together all three trilogies, with elements from the previous two trilogies.
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who came in first second and third in the belmont | Belmont Stakes top three finishers - wikipedia
This is a listing of the horses that finished in either first, second, or third place and the number of starters in the Belmont Stakes, the third leg of the United States Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing run at 1 1 / 2 miles on dirt for three - year - olds at Belmont Park in Elmont, New York.
A † designates a Triple Crown Winner. A ‡ designates a Filly. Note: D. Wayne Lukas swept the 1995 Triple Crown with two different horses.
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why wasn't the united states interested in annexing texas in 1836 | Texas annexation - wikipedia
The Texas Annexation was the 1845 annexation of the Republic of Texas into the United States of America, which was admitted to the Union as the 28th state on December 29, 1845.
The Republic of Texas declared independence from the Republic of Mexico on March 2, 1836. At the time the vast majority of the Texian population favored the annexation of the Republic by the United States. The leadership of both major U.S. political parties, the Democrats and the Whigs, opposed the introduction of Texas, a vast slave - holding region, into the volatile political climate of the pro - and anti-slavery sectional controversies in Congress. Moreover, they wished to avoid a war with Mexico, whose government refused to acknowledge the sovereignty of its rebellious northern province. With Texas 's economic fortunes declining by the early 1840s, the President of the Texas Republic, Sam Houston, arranged talks with Mexico to explore the possibility of securing official recognition of independence, with the United Kingdom mediating.
In 1843, U.S. President John Tyler, then unaligned with any political party, decided independently to pursue the annexation of Texas in a bid to gain a base of popular support for another four years in office. His official motivation was to outmaneuver suspected diplomatic efforts by the British government for emancipation of slaves in Texas, which would undermine slavery in the United States. Through secret negotiations with the Houston administration, Tyler secured a treaty of annexation in April 1844. When the documents were submitted to the U.S. Senate for ratification, the details of the terms of annexation became public and the question of acquiring Texas took center stage in the presidential election of 1844. Pro-Texas - annexation southern Democratic delegates denied their anti-annexation leader Martin Van Buren the nomination at their party 's convention in May 1844. In alliance with pro-expansion northern Democratic colleagues, they secured the nomination of James K. Polk, who ran on a pro-Texas Manifest Destiny platform.
In June 1844, the Senate, with its Whig majority, soundly rejected the Tyler -- Texas treaty. The pro-annexation Democrat Polk narrowly defeated anti-annexation Whig Henry Clay in the 1844 presidential election. In December 1844, lame - duck President Tyler called on Congress to pass his treaty by simple majorities in each house. The Democratic - dominated House of Representatives complied with his request by passing an amended bill expanding on the pro-slavery provisions of the Tyler treaty. The Senate narrowly passed a compromise version of the House bill (by the vote of the minority Democrats and several southern Whigs), designed to provide President - elect Polk the options of immediate annexation of Texas or new talks to revise the annexation terms of the House - amended bill.
On March 1, 1845, President Tyler signed the annexation bill, and on March 3 (his last full day in office), he forwarded the House version to Texas, offering immediate annexation (which preempted Polk). When Polk took office at noon EST the next day, he encouraged Texas to accept the Tyler offer. Texas ratified the agreement with popular approval from Texans. The bill was signed by President Polk on December 29, 1845, accepting Texas as the 28th state of the Union. Texas formally joined the union on February 19, 1846. Following the annexation, relations between the United States and Mexico deteriorated due to an unresolved dispute over the border between Texas and Mexico, and the Mexican -- American War broke out only a few months later.
First mapped by Spain in 1519, Texas was part of the vast Spanish empire seized by the Spanish Conquistadors from its indigenous people for over 300 years. When the Louisiana territory was acquired by the United States from France in 1803, many in the U.S. believed the new territory included parts or all of present - day Texas. The US - Spain border along the northern frontier of Texas took shape in the 1817 -- 1819 negotiations between Secretary of State John Quincy Adams and the Spanish ambassador to the United States, Luis de Onís y González - Vara. The boundaries of Texas were determined within the larger geostrategic struggle to demarcate the limits of the United States ' extensive western lands and of Spain 's vast possessions in North America. The Florida Treaty of February 22, 1819 emerged as a compromise that excluded Spain from the lower Columbia River watershed, but established southern boundaries at the Sabine and Red Rivers, "legally extinguish (ing) '' any American claims to Texas. Nonetheless, Texas remained an object of fervent interest to American expansionists, among them Thomas Jefferson, who anticipated the eventual acquisition of its fertile lands.
The Missouri crisis of 1819 -- 1821 sharpened commitments to expansionism among the country 's slaveholding interests, when the so - called Thomas proviso established the 36 ° 30 ' parallel, imposing free - soil and slave - soil futures in the Louisiana Purchase lands. While a majority of southern congressmen acquiesced to the exclusion of slavery from the bulk of the Louisiana Purchase, a significant minority objected. Virginian editor Thomas Ritchie of the Richmond Enquirer predicted that with the proviso restrictions, the South would ultimately require Texas: "If we are cooped up on the north, we must have elbow room to the west. '' Representative John Floyd of Virginia in 1824 accused Secretary of State Adams of conceding Texas to Spain in 1819 in the interests of Northern anti-slavery advocates, and so depriving the South of additional slave states. Then - Representative John Tyler of Virginia invoked the Jeffersonian precepts of territorial and commercial growth as a national goal to counter the rise of sectional differences over slavery. His "diffusion '' theory declared that with Missouri open to slavery, the new state would encourage the transfer of underutilized slaves westward, emptying the eastern states of bondsmen and making emancipation feasible in the old South. This doctrine would be revived during the Texas annexation controversy.
When Mexico won its independence from Spain in 1821, the United States did not contest the new republic 's claims to Texas, and both presidents John Quincy Adams (1825 -- 1829) and Andrew Jackson (1829 -- 1837) persistently sought, through official and unofficial channels, to procure all or portions of provincial Texas from the Mexican government, without success.
Spanish and Indigenous immigrants, primarily from North Eastern provinces of New Spain began to settle Texas in the late 17th century. The Spanish constructed chains of missions and presidios in what is today Louisiana, East Texas and South Texas. The first chain of missions was designed for the Tejas Indians, near Los Adaes. Soon thereafter, the San Antonio Missions were founded along the San Antonio River. The City of San Antonio, then known as San Fernando de Bexar, was founded in 1719. In the early 1760s, Jose de Escandon created five settlements along the Rio Grande River, including Laredo.
Anglo - American immigrants, primarily from the Southern United States, began emigrating to Mexican Texas in the early 1820s at the invitation of the Texas faction of the Coahuila y Texas state government, which sought to populate the sparsely inhabited lands of its northern frontier for cotton production. Colonizing empresario Stephen F. Austin managed the regional affairs of the mostly American - born population -- 20 % of them slaves -- under the terms of the generous government land grants. Mexican authorities were initially content to govern the remote province through salutary neglect, "permitting slavery under the legal fiction of ' permanent indentured servitude ', similar to Mexico 's peonage system.
A general lawlessness prevailed in the vast Texas frontier, and Mexico 's civic laws went largely unenforced among the Anglo - American settlers. In particular, the prohibitions against slavery and forced labor were ignored. The requirement that all settlers be Catholic or convert to Catholicism was also subverted. Mexican authorities, perceiving that they were losing control over Texas and alarmed by the unsuccessful Fredonian Rebellion of 1826, abandoned the policy of benign rule. New restrictions were imposed in 1829 -- 1830, outlawing slavery throughout the nation and terminating further American immigration to Texas. Military occupation followed, sparking local uprisings and a civil war. Texas conventions in 1832 and 1833 submitted petitions for redress of grievances to overturn the restrictions, with limited success. In 1835, an army under Mexican President Santa Anna entered its territory of Texas and abolished self - government. Texans responded by declaring their independence from Mexico on March 2, 1836. On April 20 -- 21, rebel forces under Texas General Sam Houston defeated the Mexican army at the Battle of San Jacinto. In June 1836, Santa Anna agreed to Texas independence, but the Mexican government refused to honor Santa Anna 's pledge. Texans, now de facto independent, recognized that their security and prosperity could never be achieved while Mexico denied the legitimacy of their revolution.
In the years following independence, the migration of white settlers and importation of black slave labor into the vast republic was deterred by Texas 's unresolved international status and the threat of renewed warfare with Mexico. American citizens who considered migrating to the new republic perceived that "life and property were safer within the United States '' than in an independent Texas. The situation led to labor shortages, reduced tax revenue, large national debts and a diminished Texas militia.
The Anglo - American immigrants residing in newly - independent Texas overwhelmingly desired immediate annexation by the United States. But, despite his strong support for Texas independence from Mexico, then - President Andrew Jackson delayed recognizing the new republic until the last day of his presidency to avoid raising the issue during the 1836 general election. Jackson 's political caution was informed by northern concerns that Texas could potentially form several new slave states and undermine the North - South balance in Congress.
Jackson 's successor, President Martin Van Buren, viewed Texas annexation as an immense political liability that would empower the anti-slavery northern Whig opposition -- especially if annexation provoked a war with Mexico. Presented with a formal annexation proposal from Texas minister Memucan Hunt, Jr. in August 1837, Van Buren summarily rejected it. Annexation resolutions presented separately in each house of Congress were either soundly defeated or tabled through filibuster. After the election of 1838, new Texas president Mirabeau B. Lamar withdrew his republic 's offer of annexation due to these failures. Texans were at an annexation impasse when John Tyler entered the White House in 1841.
William Henry Harrison, Whig Party presidential nominee, defeated US President Martin Van Buren in the 1840 general election. Upon Harrison 's death shortly after his inauguration, Vice-President John Tyler assumed the presidency. President Tyler was expelled from the Whig party in 1841 for repeatedly vetoing their domestic finance legislation. Tyler, isolated and outside the two - party mainstream, turned to foreign affairs to salvage his presidency, aligning himself with a southern states ' rights faction that shared his fervent slavery expansionist views.
In his first address to Congress in special session on June 1, 1841, Tyler set the stage for Texas annexation by announcing his intention to pursue an expansionist agenda so as to preserve the balance between state and national authority and to protect American institutions, including slavery, so as to avoid sectional conflict. Tyler 's closest advisors counseled him that obtaining Texas would assure him a second term in the White House, and it became a deeply personal obsession for the president, who viewed the acquisition of Texas as the "primary objective of his administration ''. Tyler delayed direct action on Texas to work closely with his Secretary of State Daniel Webster on other pressing diplomatic initiatives.
With the Webster - Ashburton Treaty ratified in 1843, Tyler was ready to make the annexation of Texas his "top priority ''. Representative Thomas W. Gilmer of Virginia was authorized by the administration to make the case for annexation to the American electorate. In a widely circulated open letter, understood as an announcement of the executive branch 's designs for Texas, Gilmer described Texas as a panacea for North - South conflict and an economic boon to all commercial interests. The slavery issue, however divisive, would be left for the states to decide as per the US Constitution. Domestic tranquility and national security, Tyler argued, would result from an annexed Texas; a Texas left outside American jurisdiction would imperil the Union. Tyler adroitly arranged the resignation of his anti-annexation Secretary of State Daniel Webster, and on June 23, 1843 appointed Abel P. Upshur, a Virginia states ' rights champion and ardent proponent of Texas annexation. This cabinet shift signaled Tyler 's intent to pursue Texas annexation aggressively.
In late September 1843, in an effort to cultivate public support for Texas, Secretary Upshur dispatched a letter to the US Minister to Great Britain, Edward Everett, conveying his displeasure with Britain 's global anti-slavery posture, and warning their government that forays into Texas 's affairs would be regarded as "tantamount to direct interference ' with the established institutions of the United States ' ''. In a breach of diplomatic norms, Upshur leaked the communique to the press to inflame popular Anglophobic sentiments among American citizens.
In the spring of 1843, the Tyler administration had sent executive agent Duff Green to Europe to gather intelligence and arrange territorial treaty talks with Great Britain regarding Oregon; he also worked with American minister to France, Lewis Cass, to thwart efforts by major European powers to suppress the maritime slave trade. Green reported to Secretary Upshur in July 1843 that he had discovered a "loan plot '' by American abolitionists, in league with Lord Aberdeen, British Foreign Secretary, to provide funds to the Texas in exchange for the emancipation of its slaves. Minister Everett was charged with determining the substance of these confidential reports alleging a Texas plot. His investigations, including personal interviews with Lord Aberdeen, concluded that British interest in abolitionist intrigues was weak, contradicting Secretary of State Upshur 's conviction that Great Britain was manipulating Texas. Though unsubstantiated, Green 's unofficial intelligence so alarmed Tyler that he requested verification from the US minister to Mexico, Waddy Thompson.
John C. Calhoun of South Carolina, a pro-slavery extremist counseled Secretary Upshur that British designs on American slavery were real and required immediate action to preempt a takeover of Texas by Great Britain. When Tyler confirmed in September that the British Foreign Secretary Aberdeen had encouraged détente between Mexico and Texas, allegedly pressing Mexico to maneuver Texas towards emancipation of its slaves, Tyler acted at once. On September 18, 1843, in consultation with Secretary Upshur, he ordered secret talks opened with Texas Minister to the United States Isaac Van Zandt to negotiate the annexation of Texas. Face - to - face negotiations commenced on October 16, 1843.
By the summer of 1843 Sam Houston 's Texas administration had returned to negotiations with the Mexican government to consider a rapprochement that would permit Texas self - governance, possibly as a state of Mexico, with Great Britain acting as mediator. Texas officials felt compelled by the fact that the Tyler administration appeared unequipped to mount an effective campaign for Texas annexation. With the 1844 general election in the United States approaching, the leadership in both the Democratic and Whig parties remained unequivocally anti-Texas. Texas - Mexico treaty options under consideration included an autonomous Texas within Mexico 's borders, or an independent republic with the provision that Texas should emancipate its slaves upon recognition.
Van Zandt, though he personally favored annexation by the United States, was not authorized to entertain any overtures from the US government on the subject. Texas officials were at the moment deeply engaged in exploring settlements with Mexican diplomats, facilitated by Great Britain. Texas 's predominant concern was not British interference with the institution of slavery -- English diplomats had not alluded to the issue -- but the avoidance of any resumption of hostilities with Mexico. Still, US Secretary of State Upshur vigorously courted Texas diplomats to begin annexation talks, finally dispatching an appeal to President Sam Houston in January 1844. In it, he assured Houston that, in contrast to previous attempts, the political climate in the United States, including sections of the North, was amenable to Texas statehood, and that a two - thirds majority in Senate could be obtained to ratify a Texas treaty.
Texans were hesitant to pursue a US - Texas treaty without a written commitment of military defense from America, since a full - scale military attack by Mexico seemed likely when the negotiations became public. If ratification of the annexation measure stalled in the US Senate, Texas could face a war alone against Mexico. Because only Congress could declare war, the Tyler administration lacked the constitutional authority to commit the US to support of Texas. But when Secretary Upshur provided a verbal assurance of military defense, President Houston, responding to urgent calls for annexation from the Texas Congress of December 1843, authorized the reopening of annexation negotiations.
As Secretary Upshur accelerated the secret treaty discussions, Mexican diplomats learned that US - Texas talks were taking place. Mexican minister to the U.S. Juan Almonte confronted Upshur with these reports, warning him that if Congress sanctioned a treaty of annexation, Mexico would break diplomatic ties and immediately declare war. Secretary Upshur evaded and dismissed the charges, and pressed forward with the negotiations. In tandem with moving forward with Texas diplomats, Upshur was secretly lobbying US Senators to support annexation, providing lawmakers with persuasive arguments linking Texas acquisition to national security and domestic peace. By early 1844, Upshur was able to assure Texas officials that 40 of the 52 members of the Senate were pledged to ratify the Tyler - Texas treaty, more than the two - thirds majority required for passage. Tyler, in his annual address to Congress in December 1843, maintained his silence on the secret treaty, so as not to damage relations with the wary Texas diplomats. Throughout, Tyler did his utmost to keep the negotiations secret, making no public reference to his administration 's single - minded quest for Texas.
The Tyler - Texas treaty was in its final stages when its chief architects, Secretary Upshur and Secretary of the Navy Thomas W. Gilmer, died in an accident aboard USS Princeton on February 28, 1844, just a day after achieving a preliminary treaty draft agreement with the Texas Republic. The Princeton disaster proved a major setback for Texas annexation, in that Tyler expected Secretary Upshur to elicit critical support from Whig and Democratic Senators during the upcoming treaty ratification process. Tyler selected John C. Calhoun to replace Upshur as Secretary of State and to finalize the treaty with Texas. The choice of Calhoun, a highly regarded but controversial American statesman, risked introducing a politically polarizing element into the Texas debates, but Tyler prized him as a strong advocate of annexation.
With the Tyler - Upshur secret annexation negotiations with Texas near consummation, Senator Robert J. Walker of Mississippi, a key Tyler ally, issued a widely distributed and highly influential letter, reproduced as a pamphlet, making the case for immediate annexation. In it, Walker argued that Texas could be acquired by Congress in a number of ways -- all constitutional -- and that the moral authority to do so was based on the precepts for territorial expansion established by Jefferson and Madison, and promulgated as doctrine by Monroe in 1823. Senator Walker 's polemic offered analysis on the significance of Texas with respect to slavery and race. He envisioned Texas as a corridor through which both free and enslaved African - Americans could be "diffused '' southward in a gradual exodus that would ultimately supply labor to the Central American tropics, and in time, empty the United States of its slave population.
This "safety - valve '' theory "appealed to the racial fears of northern whites '' who dreaded the prospect of absorbing emancipated slaves into their communities in the event that the institution of slavery collapsed in the South. This scheme for racial cleansing was consistent, on a pragmatic level, with proposals for overseas colonization of blacks, which were pursued by a number of American presidents, from Jefferson to Lincoln. Walker bolstered his position by raising national security concerns, warning that in the event annexation failed, imperialist Great Britain would maneuver the Republic of Texas into emancipating its slaves, forecasting a dangerous destabilizing influence on southwestern slaveholding states. The pamphlet characterized abolitionists as traitors who conspired with the British to overthrow the United States.
A variation of the Tyler 's "diffusion '' theory, it played on economic fears in a period when slave - based staple crop markets had not yet recovered from the Panic of 1837. The Texas "escape route '' conceived by Walker promised to increase demand for slaves in fertile cotton - growing regions of Texas, as well as the monetary value of slaves. Cash - poor plantation owners in the older eastern South were promised a market for surplus slaves at a profit. Texas annexation, wrote Walker, would eliminate all these dangers and "fortify the whole Union. ''
Walker 's pamphlet brought forth strident demands for Texas from pro-slavery expansionists in the South; in the North, it allowed anti-slavery expansionists to embrace Texas without appearing to be aligned with pro-slavery extremists. His assumptions and analysis "shaped and framed the debates on annexation but his premises went largely unchallenged among the press and public.
The Tyler - Texas treaty, signed on April 12, 1844, was framed to induct Texas into the Union as a territory, following constitutional protocols. To wit, Texas would cede all its public lands to the United States, and the federal government would assume all its bonded debt, up to $10 million. The boundaries of the Texas territory were left unspecified. Four new states could ultimately be carved from the former republic -- three of them likely to become slave states. Any allusion to slavery was omitted from the document so as not to antagonize anti-slavery sentiments during Senate debates, but it provided for the "preservation of all (Texas) property as secured in our domestic institutions. ''
Upon the signing of the treaty, Tyler complied with the Texans ' demand for military and naval protection, deploying troops to Fort Jesup in Louisiana and a fleet of warships to the Gulf of Mexico. In the event that the Senate failed to pass the treaty, Tyler promised the Texas diplomats that he would officially exhort both houses of Congress to establish Texas as a state of the Union upon provisions authorized in the Constitution. Tyler 's cabinet was split on the administration 's handling of the Texas agreement. Secretary of War William Wilkins praised the terms of annexation publicly, touting the economic and geostrategic benefits with relation to Great Britain. Secretary of the Treasury John C. Spencer was alarmed at the constitutional implications of Tyler 's application of military force without congressional approval, a violation of the separation of powers. Refusing to transfer contingency funds for the naval mobilization, he resigned.
Tyler submitted his treaty for annexation to the Senate, delivered April 22, 1844, where a two - thirds majority was required for ratification. Secretary of State Calhoun (assuming his post March 29, 1844) had sent a letter to British minister Richard Packenham denouncing British anti-slavery interference in Texas. He included the Packenham Letter with the Tyler bill, intending to create a sense of crisis in Southern Democrats. In it, he characterized slavery as a social blessing and the acquisition of Texas as an emergency measure necessary to safeguard the "peculiar institution '' in the United States. In doing so, Tyler and Calhoun sought to unite the South in a crusade that would present the North with an ultimatum: support Texas annexation or lose the South.
President Tyler expected that his treaty would be debated secretly in Senate executive session. However, less than a week after debates opened, the treaty, its associated internal correspondence, and the Packenham letter were leaked to the public. The nature of the Tyler - Texas negotiations caused a national outcry, in that "the documents appeared to verify that the sole objective of Texas annexation was the preservation of slavery. '' A mobilization of anti-annexation forces in the North strengthened both major parties ' hostility toward Tyler 's agenda. The leading presidential hopefuls of both parties, Democrat Martin Van Buren and Whig Henry Clay, publicly denounced the treaty. Texas annexation and the reoccupation of Oregon territory emerged as the central issues in the 1844 general election.
In response, Tyler, already ejected from the Whig party, quickly began to organize a third party in hopes of inducing the Democrats to embrace a pro-expansionist platform. By running as a third - party candidate, Tyler threatened to siphon off pro-annexation Democratic voters; Democratic party disunity would mean the election of Henry Clay, a staunchly anti-Texas Whig. Pro-annexation delegates among southern Democrats, with assistance from a number of northern delegates, blocked anti-expansion candidate Martin Van Buren at the convention, which instead nominated the pro-expansion champion of Manifest Destiny, James K. Polk of Tennessee. Polk unified his party under the banner of Texas and Oregon acquisition.
In August 1844, in the midst of the campaign, Tyler withdrew from the race. The Democratic Party was by then unequivocally committed to Texas annexation, and Tyler, assured by Polk 's envoys that as President he would effect Texas annexation, urged his supporters to vote Democratic. Polk narrowly defeated Whig Henry Clay in the November election. The victorious Democrats were poised to acquire Texas under President - elect Polk 's doctrine of Manifest Destiny, rather than on the pro-slavery agenda of Tyler and Calhoun.
As a treaty document with a foreign nation, the Tyler - Texas annexation treaty required the support of a two - thirds majority in the Senate for passage. But in fact, when the Senate voted on the measure on June 8, 1844, fully two - thirds voted against the treaty (16 -- 35). The vote went largely along party lines: Whigs had opposed it almost unanimously (1 -- 27), while Democrats split, but voted overwhelmingly in favor (15 -- 8). The election campaign had hardened partisan positions on Texas among Democrats. Tyler had anticipated that the measure would fail, due largely to the divisive effects of Secretary Calhoun 's Packenham letter. Undeterred, he formally asked the House of Representatives to consider other constitutional means to authorize passage of the treaty. Congress adjourned before debating the matter.
The same Senate that had rejected the Tyler -- Calhoun treaty by a margin of 2: 1 in June 1844 reassembled in December 1844 in a short lame - duck session. (Though pro-annexation Democrats had made gains in the fall elections, those legislators -- the 29th Congress -- would not assume office until March 1845.) Lame - duck President Tyler, still trying to annex Texas in the final months of his administration, wished to avoid another overwhelming Senate rejection of his treaty. In his annual address to Congress on December 4, he declared the Polk victory a mandate for Texas annexation and proposed that Congress adopt a joint resolution procedure by which simple majorities in each house could secure ratification for the Tyler treaty. This method would avoid the constitutional requirement of a two - thirds majority in the Senate. Bringing the House of Representatives into the equation boded well for Texas annexation, as the pro-annexation Democratic Party possessed nearly a 2: 1 majority in that chamber.
By resubmitting the discredited treaty through a House - sponsored bill, the Tyler administration reignited sectional hostilities over Texas admission. Both northern Democratic and southern Whig Congressmen had been bewildered by local political agitation in their home states during the 1844 presidential campaigns. Now, northern Democrats found themselves vulnerable to charges of appeasement of their southern wing if they capitulated to Tyler 's slavery expansion provisions. On the other hand, Manifest Destiny enthusiasm in the north placed politicians under pressure to admit Texas immediately to the Union.
Constitutional objections were raised in House debates as to whether both houses of Congress could constitutionally authorize admission of territories, rather than states. Moreover, if the Republic of Texas, a nation in its own right, were admitted as a state, its territorial boundaries, property relations (including slave property), debts and public lands would require a Senate - ratified treaty. Democrats were particularly uneasy about burdening the United States with $10 million in Texas debt, resenting the deluge of speculators, who had bought Texas bonds cheap and now lobbied Congress for the Texas House bill. House Democrats, at an impasse, relinquished the legislative initiative to the southern Whigs.
Anti-Texas Whig legislators had lost more than the White House in the general election of 1844. In the southern states of Tennessee and Georgia, Whig strongholds in the 1840 general election, voter support dropped precipitously due to the pro-annexation excitement in the Deep South -- and Clay lost every Deep South state to Polk. Northern Whigs ' uncompromising hostility to slavery expansion increasingly characterized the party, and southern members, by association, had suffered from charges of being "soft on Texas, therefore soft on slavery '' by Southern Democrats. Facing congressional and gubernatorial races in 1845 in their home states, a number of Southern Whigs sought to erase that impression with respect to the Tyler - Texas bill.
Southern Whigs in the Congress, including Representative Milton Brown and Senator Ephraim Foster, both of Tennessee, and Representative Alexander Stephens of Georgia collaborated to introduce a House amendment on January 13, 1845 that was designed to enhance slaveowner gains in Texas beyond those offered by the Democratic - sponsored Tyler - Calhoun treaty bill. The legislation proposed to recognize Texas as a slave state which would retain all its vast public lands, as well as its bonded debt accrued since 1836. Furthermore, the Brown amendment would delegate to the U.S. government responsibility for negotiating the disputed Texas - Mexico boundary. The issue was a critical one, as the size of Texas would be immensely increased if the international border were set at the Rio Grande River, with its headwaters in the Rocky Mountains, rather than the traditionally recognized boundary at the Nueces River, 100 miles to the north. While the Tyler - Calhoun treaty provided for the organization of a total of four states from the Texas lands -- three likely to qualify as slave states -- Brown 's plan would permit Texas state lawmakers to configure a total of five states from its western region, south of the 36 ° 30 ' Missouri Compromise line, each pre-authorized to permit slavery upon statehood, if Texas designated them as such.
Politically, the Brown amendment was designed to portray Southern Whigs as "even more ardent champions of slavery and the South, than southern Democrats. '' The bill also served to distinguish them from their northern Whig colleagues who cast the controversy, as Calhoun did, in strictly pro - versus anti-slavery terms. While almost all Northern Whigs spurned Brown 's amendment, the Democrats quickly co-opted the legislation, providing the votes necessary to attach the proviso to Tyler 's joint resolution, by a 118 -- 101 vote. Southern Democrats supported the bill almost unanimously (59 -- 1), while Northern Democrats split strongly in favor (50 -- 30). Eight of eighteen Southern Whigs cast their votes in favor. Northern Whigs unanimously rejected it. The House proceeded to approve the amended Texas treaty 120 -- 98 on January 25, 1845. The vote in the House had been one in which party affiliation prevailed over sectional allegiance. The bill was forwarded the same day to the Senate for debate.
By early February 1845, when the Senate began to debate the Brown - amended Tyler treaty, its passage seemed unlikely, as support was "perishing ''. The partisan alignments in the Senate were near parity, 28 -- 24, slightly in favor of the Whigs. The Senate Democrats would require undivided support among their colleagues, and three or more Whigs who would be willing to cross party lines to pass the House - amended treaty. The fact that Senator Foster had drafted the House amendment under consideration improved prospects of Senate passage.
Anti-annexation Senator Thomas Hart Benton of Missouri had been the only Southern Democrat to vote against the Tyler - Texas measure in June 1844. His original proposal for an annexed Texas had embodied a national compromise, whereby Texas would be divided in two, half slave - soil and half free - soil. As pro-annexation sentiment grew in his home state, Benton retreated from this compromise offer. By February 5, 1845, in the early debates on the Brown - amended House bill, he advanced an alternative resolution that, unlike the Brown scenario, made no reference whatsoever to the ultimate free - slave apportionment of an annexed Texas and simply called for five bipartisan commissioners to resolve border disputes with Texas and Mexico and set conditions for the Lone Star Republic 's acquisition by the United States.
The Benton proposal was intended to calm northern anti-slavery Democrats (who wished to eliminate the Tyler - Calhoun treaty altogether, as it had been negotiated on behalf of the slavery expansionists), and allow the decision to devolve upon the soon - to - be-inaugurated Democratic President - elect James K. Polk. President - elect Polk had expressed his ardent wish that Texas annexation should be accomplished before he entered Washington in advance of his inauguration on March 4, 1845, the same day Congress would end its session. With his arrival in the capital, he discovered the Benton and Brown factions in the Senate "paralyzed '' over the Texas annexation legislation. On the advice of his soon - to - be Secretary of the Treasury Robert J. Walker, Polk urged Senate Democrats to unite under a dual resolution that would include both the Benton and Brown versions of annexation, leaving enactment of the legislation to Polk 's discretion when he took office. In private and separate talks with supporters of both the Brown and Benton plans, Polk left each side with the "impression he would administer their (respective) policy. Polk meant what he said to Southerners and meant to appear friendly to the Van Burenite faction. '' Polk 's handling of the matter had the effect of uniting Senate northern Democrats in favor of the dual alternative treaty bill.
On February 27, 1845, less than a week before Polk 's inauguration, the Senate voted 27 -- 25 to admit Texas, based on the Tyler protocols of simple majority passage. All twenty - four Democrats voted for the measure, joined by three southern Whigs. Benton and his allies were assured that Polk would act to establish the eastern portion of Texas as a slave state; the western section was to remain unorganized territory, not committed to slavery. On this understanding, the northern Democrats had conceded their votes for the dichotomous bill. The next day, in an almost strict party line vote, the Benton - Milton measure was passed in the Democrat - controlled House of Representatives. President Tyler signed the bill the following day, March 1, 1845 (Joint Resolution for annexing Texas to the United States, J. Res. 8, enacted March 1, 1845, 5 Stat. 797).
Senate and house legislators who had favored Benton 's renegotiated version of the Texas annexation bill had been assured that President Tyler would sign the joint house measure, but leave its implementation to the incoming Polk administration. But, during his last full day in office, President Tyler, with the urging of his Secretary of State Calhoun, decided to act decisively to improve the odds for the immediate annexation of Texas. On March 3, 1845, with his cabinet 's assent, he dispatched an offer of annexation to the Republic of Texas by courier, exclusively under the terms of the Brown -- Foster option of the joint house measure. Secretary Calhoun apprised President - elect Polk of the action, who demurred without comment. Tyler justified his preemptive move on the grounds that Polk was likely to come under pressure to abandon immediate annexation and reopen negotiations under the Benton alternative.
When President Polk took office on (at noon EST) March 4, he was in a position to recall Tyler 's dispatch to Texas and reverse his decision. On March 10, after conferring with his cabinet, Polk upheld Tyler 's action and allowed the courier to proceed with the offer of immediate annexation to Texas. The only modification was to exhort Texans to accept the annexation terms unconditionally. Polk 's decision was based on his concern that a protracted negotiation by US commissioners would expose annexation efforts to foreign intrigue and interference. While Polk kept his annexation endeavors confidential, Senators passed a resolution requesting formal disclosure of the administration 's Texas policy. Polk stalled, and when the Senate special session had adjourned on March 20, 1845, no names for US commissioners to Texas had been submitted by him. Polk denied charges from Senator Benton that he had misled Benton on his intention to support the new negotiations option, declaring "if any such pledges were made, it was in a total misconception of what I said or meant. ''
On May 5, 1845, Texas President Jones called for a convention on July 4, 1845, to consider the annexation and a constitution. On June 23, the Texan Congress accepted the US Congress 's joint resolution of March 1, 1845, annexing Texas to the United States, and consented to the convention. On July 4, the Texas convention debated the annexation offer and almost unanimously passed an ordinance assenting to it. The convention remained in session through August 28, and adopted the Constitution of Texas on August 27, 1845. The citizens of Texas approved the annexation ordinance and new constitution on October 13, 1845.
President Polk signed the legislation making the former Lone Star Republic a state of the Union on December 29, 1845 (Joint Resolution for the admission of the state of Texas into the Union, J. Res. 1, enacted December 29, 1845, 9 Stat. 108). Texas formally relinquished its sovereignty to the United States on February 14, 1846.
The joint resolution and ordinance of annexation have no language specifying the boundaries of Texas, but only refer in general terms to "the territory properly included within, and rightfully belonging to the Republic of Texas '', and state that the new State of Texas is to be formed "subject to the adjustment by this (U.S.) government of all questions of boundary that may arise with other governments. '' According to George Lockhart Rives, "That treaty had been expressly so framed as to leave the boundaries of Texas undefined, and the joint resolution of the following winter was drawn in the same manner. It was hoped that this might open the way to a negotiation, in the course of which the whole subject of the boundaries of Mexico, from the Gulf to the Pacific, might be reconsidered, but these hopes came to nothing. ''
There was an ongoing border dispute between the Republic of Texas and Mexico prior to annexation. Texas claimed the Rio Grande as its border based on the Treaties of Velasco, while Mexico maintained that it was the Nueces River and did not recognize Texan independence. In November 1845, President James K. Polk sent John Slidell, a secret representative, to Mexico City with a monetary offer to the Mexican government for the disputed land and other Mexican territories. Mexico was not inclined nor able to negotiate due to instability in the government and popular nationalistic sentiment against such a sale. Slidell returned to the United States, and Polk ordered General Zachary Taylor to garrison the southern border of Texas, as defined by the former Republic, in 1846. Taylor moved into Texas, ignoring Mexican demands to withdraw, and marched as far south as the Rio Grande, where he began to build a fort near the river 's mouth on the Gulf of Mexico. The Mexican government regarded this action as a violation of its sovereignty, and immediately prepared for war. Following a United States victory and the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Mexico ceded its claims to Texas and the Rio Grande border was accepted by both nations.
The formal controversy over the legality of the annexation of Texas stems from the fact that Congress approved the annexation of Texas as a state, rather than a territory, with simple majorities in each house, instead of annexing the land by Senate treaty, as was done with Native American lands. Tyler 's extralegal joint resolution maneuver in 1844 exceeded strict constructionist precepts, but was passed by Congress in 1845 as part of a compromise bill. The success of the joint house Texas annexation set a precedent that would be applied to Hawaii 's annexation in 1897.
Republican President Benjamin Harrison (1889 -- 1893) attempted, in 1893, to annex Hawaii through a Senate treaty. When this failed, he was asked to consider the Tyler joint house precedent; he declined. Democratic President Grover Cleveland (1893 -- 1897) did not pursue the annexation of Hawaii. When President William McKinley took office in 1897, he quickly revived expectations among territorial expansionists when he resubmitted legislation to acquire Hawaii. When the two - thirds Senate support was not forthcoming, committees in the House and Senate explicitly invoked the Tyler precedent for the joint house resolution, which was successfully applied to approve the annexation of Hawaii in July 1898.
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what's the largest cemetery in the united states | Calvary Cemetery (Queens, New York) - wikipedia
Calvary Cemetery is a Roman Catholic cemetery in Maspeth and Woodside, Queens, in New York City, New York, United States. With about 3 million burials, it has the largest number of interments of any cemetery in the United States; it is also one of the oldest cemeteries in the United States. It covers 365 acres and is owned by the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New York and managed by the Trustees of St. Patrick 's Cathedral.
Calvary Cemetery is divided into four sections, spread across the neighborhoods of Maspeth and Woodside. The oldest, First Calvary, is also called "Old Calvary. '' The Second, Third and Fourth sections are all considered part of "New Calvary. ''
In 1817, the Trustees of Old St. Patrick 's Cathedral on Mott Street realized that their original cemetery on Mulberry Street was almost full.
In 1847, faced with cholera epidemics and a shortage of burial grounds in Manhattan, the New York State Legislature passed the Rural Cemetery Act authorizing nonprofit corporations to operate commercial cemeteries. On October 29, 1845 Old St. Patrick 's Cathedral trustees had purchased 71 acres of land from John McMenoy and John McNolte in Maspeth and this land was used to develop Calvary Cemetery. The cemetery was consecrated by Archbishop John Hughes in August 1848.
The cemetery was named after Mount Calvary, where Jesus Christ was crucified according to the New Testament.
Calvary was accessible by ferryboat from 23rd Street and the East River. It cost an adult seven dollars to be buried there. Burial of children under age seven cost three dollars; children aged seven to fourteen cost five dollars. As development in the East Village expanded, bodies buried in that neighborhood were transferred to Queens. In 1854, ferry service opened by 10th Street and the East River.
The first Calvary Cemetery burial occurred on July 31, 1848. The name of the deceased was Esther Ennis, who reportedly "died of a broken heart. '' By 1852 there were 50 burials a day, half of them poor Irish under seven years of age. In the early 20th century, influenza and tuberculosis epidemics caused a shortage of gravediggers, and people dug graves for their own loved ones. The entire number of interments from the cemetery 's opening in August 1848 until January 1898, was 644,761. From January 1898 until 1907 there were about 200,000 interments, thus yielding roughly 850,000 interments at Calvary Cemetery by 1907.
The original division of the cemetery, now known as First Calvary or Old Calvary, was filled by 1867. The Archdiocese of New York expanded the area of the cemetery, adding more sections, and by the 1990s there were nearly 3 million burials in Calvary Cemetery. The cemetery was used in the film The Godfather for the funeral of Don Corleone and the Ben Stiller comedy, Zoolander. Now the Cemetery accepts only immediate interments; plots can not be purchased in advance.
The chapel was designed by Raymond F. Almirall.
The Calvary Monument is located in a city - owned park, Calvary Veterans Park which is wholly contained within the cemetery. The monument honors the 69th Regiment.
There is no signage from the main entrance directing one to the monument which is located at 40 ° 43 ′ 51 '' N 73 ° 55 ′ 47 '' W / 40.7308 ° N 73.9297 ° W / 40.7308; - 73.9297.
Coordinates: 40 ° 44 ′ 07 '' N 73 ° 55 ′ 05 '' W / 40.73528 ° N 73.91806 ° W / 40.73528; - 73.91806
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what is the legal age to get a tattoo in virginia | Legal status of Tattooing in the United states - wikipedia
In the United States, there is no federal law regulating the practice of tattooing. However, all 50 states and the District of Columbia have statutory laws requiring a person receiving a tattoo be 18 years or older. This is partially based on the legal principle that a minor can not enter into a legal contract or otherwise render informed consent for a procedure. Most states permit a person under the age of 18 to receive a tattoo with permission of a parent or guardian, but some states outright prohibit tattooing under a certain age regardless of permission, with the exception of medical necessity (such as markings placed for radiation therapy).
In all jurisdictions, individual tattooists may also choose to place additional restrictions based on their own moral feelings, such as refusing any clients under a specific age even with parental consent despite it being legal, or limiting the type and / or location of where they are willing to tattoo (such as refusing any work around intimate parts of the body). They may additionally refuse to perform specific artwork, including if they merely find it inappropriate or offensive, or refuse to work on a client that they suspect may be intoxicated. Artists sometimes claim their personal business restrictions are a matter of law even when it is not true, so as to avoid arguments with clients.
Individual tattoo artists, piercers, etc. require a permit.
State Board of Health rules on Body Art Practices and Facilities.
Cal. Penal Code 653
Tattooing may only be performed by physicians, or by registered nurses & technicians working under the supervision of a physician.
Conn. Gen. Stat. § 19a - 92g
Del. Code Ann. Title 16, Ch 2 § 122 (3) (w)
Fla. Stat. § 381.0775 et seq. Fla. Stat. § 381.075
Minors may be body pierced with written parental consent
Physicians and Osteopaths or technicians working under their direct supervision can give minors tattoos or produce scars for "medical or cosmetic purposes. ''
No one can be tattooed within an inch of their eye socket.
Ga. Code § 16 - 12 - 5
Ga. Code § 16 - 5 - 71.1
Hawaii Rev. Stat. § 321 - 379
Piercing for medical procedures exempt.
Minors can have their ears pierced without parent / guardian consent.
Ill. Stat. 410 § 54 / 1 t0 54 / 999
Ind. Code Ann. § 16 - 19 - 3 - 4.1
Iowa Code § 135.37
Kan. Stat. Ann. § 65 - 1940 to 65 - 1954
Ky. Rev. Stat. § 194A. 050; 211.760
La. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 40: 2831 et seq.
Other violations of Montana body art laws are a misdemeanor, with punishments ranging from a fine of $50 -- 100 for a first offense to $300 and / or 90 days in county jail for third and subsequent offense.
Mont. Code Ann. § 50 - 48 - 101 to 110
Mont. Code Ann. § 50 - 48 - 201 to 209
N.J.A.C. 8: 27 - 1 et seq.
N.J. Stat. Ann. § 26 - 1A - 7
N.Y. Public Health Law § 460 - 466
N.Y. Penal Law § 260.21
N.C. Gen. Stat. § 14 - 400
N.D. Code § 12.1 - 31 - 13
Scleral tattooing is illegal.
Scarification and dermal implants are prohibited
Persons with sunburns or skin diseases or disorders can not be tattooed or pierced.
Minors can not be pierced on the genitals or nipples, even with parent / guardian consent.
Piercing on testes, deep shaft (corpus cavernosa), uvula, eyelids and sub-clavicle are all prohibited.
Violations of Health Licensing Office rules are fined (various amounts).
Or. Rev. Stat. § 690.401 to 410
Or. Rev. Stat. § 679.500
Health Licensing Office Rules, especially Divisions 900, 905, 915 & 920
RI Gen L § 11 - 9 - 15
S.C. Code § 44 - 34 - 10 to 44 - 34 - 110
S.D. Laws § 9 - 34 - 17
For piercings: Parent / Guardian must give written consent, be present during the procedure.
Tattooing a minor is a class a misdemeanor, breach of body piercing law is a class b misdemeanor.
Minors may, with parent / guardian consent, be tattooed to cover up an existing tattoo that has offensive, gang - related, or drug - related content, or "other words, symbols, or markings that the person 's parent or guardian considers would be in the best interest of the person to cover ''
Tongue splitting prohibited.
Violations of Texas tattooing & body piercing statute are a Class A misdemeanor, with each day of violation counting as a separate offense.
Health Commissioner can impose a fine of up to $5000 on artists & shops for each violation
Civic / local governments are empowered to regulate tattoo and body piercing establishments.
Va. Code § 15.2 - 912
Va. Code § 18.2 - 371.3.
Wash. Code § 18.300
Wash. Code § 246 - 145 - 001 to 060
Wash. Code § 70.54
W. Va. Code § 16 - 38
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what was the rood screen used for before the english reformation | Rood screen - wikipedia
The rood screen (also choir screen, chancel screen, or jube) is a common feature in late medieval church architecture. It is typically an ornate partition between the chancel and nave, of more or less open tracery constructed of wood, stone, or wrought iron. The rood screen would originally have been surmounted by a rood loft carrying the Great Rood, a sculptural representation of the Crucifixion. In English, Scots, and Welsh cathedral, monastic, and collegiate churches, there were commonly two transverse screens, with a rood screen or rood beam located one bay west of the pulpitum screen, but this double arrangement nowhere survives complete, and accordingly the preserved pulpitum in such churches is sometimes referred to as a rood screen. At Wells Cathedral the medieval arrangement was restored in the 20th century, with the medieval strainer arch supporting a rood, placed in front of the pulpitum and organ.
Rood screens can be found in churches in many parts of Europe: the German word for one is Lettner; the French jubé; the Italian tramezzo; and the Dutch doksaal. However, in Catholic countries they were generally removed during the Counter-reformation, when the retention of any visual barrier between the laity and the high altar was widely seen as inconsistent with the decrees of the Council of Trent. Accordingly, rood screens now survive in much greater numbers in Anglican and Lutheran churches; with the greatest number of survivals complete with screen and rood figures in Scandinavia. The iconostasis in Eastern Christian churches is a visually similar barrier, but is now generally considered to have a different origin, deriving from the ancient altar screen or templon.
The word rood is derived from the Saxon word rood or rode, meaning "cross ''. The rood screen is so called because it was surmounted by the Rood itself, a large figure of the crucified Christ. Commonly, to either side of the Rood, there stood supporting statues of saints, normally Mary and St John, in an arrangement comparable to the Deesis always found in the centre of an Orthodox iconostasis (which uses John the Baptist instead of the Apostle, and a Pantokrator instead of a Crucifixion).
Latterly in England and Wales the Rood tended to rise above a narrow loft (called the "rood loft ''), which could occasionally be substantial enough to be used as a singing gallery (and might even contain an altar); but whose main purpose was to hold candles to light the rood itself. The panels and uprights of the screen did not support the loft, which instead rested on a substantial transverse beam called the "rood beam '' or "candle beam ''. Access was via a narrow rood stair set into the piers supporting the chancel arch. In parish churches, the space between the rood beam and the chancel arch was commonly filled by a boarded or lath and plaster tympanum, set immediately behind the rood figures and painted with a representation of the Last Judgement. The roof panels of the first bay of the nave were commonly richly decorated to form a celure or canopy of honour; or otherwise there might be a separate celure canopy attached to the front of the chancel arch.
The carving or construction of the rood screen often included latticework, which makes it possible to see through the screen partially from the nave into the chancel. The term "chancel '' itself derives from the Latin word cancelli meaning "lattice ''; a term which had long been applied to the low metalwork or stone screens that delineate the choir enclosure in early medieval Italian cathedrals and major churches. The passage through the rood screen was fitted with doors, which were kept locked except during services.
The terms; pulpitum, Lettner, jubé and doksaal all suggest a screen platform used for readings from scripture, and there is plentiful documentary evidence for this practice in major churches in Europe in the 16th century. From this it was concluded by Victorian liturgists that the specification ad pulpitum for the location for Gospel lections in the rubrics of the Use of Sarum referred both to the cathedral pulpitum screen and the parish rood loft. However, rood stairs in English parish churches are rarely, if ever, found to have been built wide enough to accommodate the Gospel procession required in the Sarum Use. The specific functions of the late medieval parish rood loft, over and above supporting the rood and its lights, remain an issue of conjecture and debate. In this respect it may be significant that, although there are terms for a rood screen in the vernacular languages of Europe, there is no counterpart specific term in liturgical Latin. Nor does the 13th century liturgical commentator Durandus refer directly to rood screens or rood lofts. This is consistent with the ritual uses of rood lofts being substantially a late medieval development.
Until the 6th century the altar of Christian churches would have been in full view of the congregation, separated only by a low altar rail around it. Large churches had a ciborium, or canopy on four columns, over the altar, from which hung altar curtains which were closed at certain points in the liturgy. Then however, following the example of the church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, churches began to surround their altars with a colonnade or templon which supported a decorated architrave beam along which a curtain could be drawn to veil the altar at specific points in the consecration of the Eucharist; and this altar screen, with widely spaced columns, subsequently became standard in the major churches of Rome. In Rome the ritual choir tended to be located west of the altar screen, and this choir area was also surrounded by cancelli, or low chancel screens. These arrangements still survive in the Roman basilicas of San Clemente and Santa Maria in Cosmedin, as well as St Mark 's Basilica in Venice. In the Eastern Church, the templon and its associated curtains and decorations evolved into the modern iconostasis. In the Western Church, the cancelli screens of the ritual choir developed into the choir stalls and pulpitum screen of major cathedral and monastic churches; but the colonnaded altar screen was superseded from the 10th century onwards, when the practice developed of raising a canopy or baldacchino, carrying veiling curtains, over the altar itself.
Many churches in Ireland and Scotland in the early Middle Ages were very small which may have served the same function as a rood screen. Contemporary sources suggest that the faithful may have remained outside the church for most of the mass; the priest would go outside for the first part of the mass including the reading of the gospel, and return inside the church, out of sight of the faithful, to consecrate the Eucharist.
Churches built in England in the 7th and 8th centuries consciously copied Roman practices; remains indicating early cancelli screens have been found in the monastic churches of Jarrow and Monkwearmouth, while the churches of the monasteries of Brixworth, Reculver and St Pancras Canterbury have been found to have had arcaded colonnades corresponding to the Roman altar screen, and it may be presumed that these too were equipped with curtains. Equivalent arcaded colonnades also survive in 10th - century monastic churches in Spain, such as San Miguel de Escalada. Some 19th - century liturgists supposed that these early altar screens might have represented the origins of the medieval rood screens; but this view is rejected by most current scholars, who emphasize that these screens were intended to separate the altar from the ritual choir, whereas the medieval rood screen separated the ritual choir from the lay congregation.
The Great Rood or Rood cross itself long preceded the development of screen lofts, originally being either just hung from the chancel arch or also supported by a plain beam across the arch, and high up, typically at the level of the capitals of the columns (if there are any), or near the point where the arch begins to lean inwards. Numerous near life - size crucifixes survive from the Romanesque period or earlier, with the Gero Cross in Cologne Cathedral (965 -- 970) and the Volto Santo of Lucca the best known. Such crosses are commonly referred to in German as Triumphkreuz or triumphal cross. The prototype may have been one known to have been set up in Charlemagne 's Palatine Chapel at Aachen, apparently in gold foil worked over a wooden core in the manner of the Golden Madonna of Essen. The original location and support for the surviving figures is often not clear many are now hung on walls - but a number of northern European churches, especially in Germany and Scandinavia, preserve the original setting in full -- they are known as a "Triumphkreutz '' in German, from the "triumphal arch '' (chancel arch in later terms) of Early Christian architecture. As in later examples a Virgin and Saint John often flanked the cross, and cherubim and other figures are sometimes seen.
For most of the medieval period, there would have been no fixed screen or barrier separating the congregational space from the altar space in parish churches in the Latin West; although as noted above, a curtain might be drawn across the altar at specific points in the Mass. Following the exposition of the doctrine of transubstantiation at the fourth Lateran Council of 1215, clergy were required to ensure that the reserved sacrament was to be kept protected from irreverent access or abuse; and accordingly some form of permanent screen came to be seen as essential, as the parish nave was commonly kept open and used for a wide range of secular purposes. Hence the origin of the chancel screen was independent of the Great Rood; indeed most surviving early screens lack lofts, and do not appear ever to have had a rood cross mounted on them. Nevertheless, over time, the rood beam and its sculptures tended to become incorporated into the chancel screen in new or reworked churches. Over the succeeding three centuries, and especially in the latter period when it became standard for the screen to be topped by a rood loft facing the congregation, a range of local ritual practices developed which incorporated the rood and loft into the performance of the liturgy; especially in the Use of Sarum, the form of the missal that was most common in England. For example, during the 40 days of "Lent '' the rood in England was obscured by the "Lenten Veil '', a large hanging suspended by stays from hooks set into the chancel arch; in such a way that it could be dropped abruptly to the ground on Palm Sunday, at the reading of Matthew 27: 51 when the Veil of the Temple is torn asunder.
The provisions of the Lateran Council had less effect on monastic churches and cathedrals in England; as these would have already been fitted with two transverse screens; a pulpitum screen separating off the ritual choir; and an additional rood screen one bay further west, delineating the area of the nave provided for lay worship (or in monastic churches of the Cistercian order, delineating the distinct church area reserved for the worship of lay brothers). The monastic rood screen invariably had a nave altar set against its western face, which, from at least the late 11th century onwards, was commonly dedicated to the Holy Cross; as for example in Norwich Cathedral, and in Castle Acre Priory. In the later medieval period many monastic churches erected an additional transverse parclose screen, or fence screen, to the west of the nave altar; an example of which survives as the chancel screen in Dunstable Priory. Hence the Rites of Durham, a detailed account of the liturgical arrangements of Durham Cathedral Priory before the Reformation, describes three transverse screens; fence screen, rood screen and pulpitum. and the triple same arrangement is also documented in the collegiate church of Ottery St Mary. In the rest of Europe, this multiple screen arrangement was only found in Cistercian churches, as at Maulbronn. but many other major churches, such as Albi Cathedral, inserted transverse screens in the later medieval period, or reconstructed existing choir screens on a greatly increased scale. In Italy, massive rood screens incorporating an ambo or pulpit facing the nave appear to have been universal in the churches of friars; but not in parish churches, there being no equivalent in the Roman Missal for the ritual elaborations of the Use of Sarum.
The decrees of the Council of Trent (1545 -- 1563) enjoined that the celebration of the Mass should be made much more accessible to lay worshippers; and this was widely interpreted as requiring the removal of rood screens as physical and visual barriers, even though the Council had made no explicit condemnation of screens. Already in 1565, Duke Cosimo de ' Medici ordered the removal of the tramezzi from the Florentine friary churches of Sante Croce and Santa Maria Novella in accordance with the principles of the Council. In 1577 Carlo Borromeo published Instructionum Fabricae et Sellectilis Ecclesiasticae libri duo, making no mention of the screen and emphasizing the importance of making the high altar visible to all worshippers; and in 1584 the Church of the Gesù was built in Rome as a demonstration the new principles of Tridentine worship, having an altar rail but conspicuously lacking either a central rood or screen. Almost all medieval churches in Italy were subsequently re-ordered following this model; and most screens that impeded the view of the altar were removed, or their screening effect reduced, in other Catholic countries, with exceptions like Toledo Cathedral, Albi Cathedral, the church of Brou in Bourg - en - Bresse; and also in monasteries and convents, where the screen was preserved to maintain the enclosure. In Catholic Europe, parochial rood screens survive in substantial numbers only in Brittany, such as those at Plouvorn, Morbihan and Ploubezre.
The rood screen was a physical and symbolic barrier, separating the chancel, the domain of the clergy, from the nave where lay people gathered to worship. It was also a means of seeing; often it was solid only to waist height and richly decorated with pictures of saints and angels. Concealment and revelation were part of the mediaeval Mass. When kneeling, the congregation could not see the priest, but might do so through the upper part of the screen, when he elevated the Host on Sundays. In some churches, ' squints ' (holes in the screen) would ensure that everyone could see the elevation, as seeing the bread made flesh was significant for the congregation.
Moreover, while Sunday Masses were very important, there were also weekday services which were celebrated at secondary altars in front of the screen (such as the "Jesus altar '', erected for the worship of the Holy Name, a popular devotion in mediaeval times) which thus became the backdrop to the celebration of the Mass. The Rood itself provided a focus for worship according to the medieval Use of Sarum, most especially in Holy Week, when worship was highly elaborate. During Lent the Rood was veiled; on Palm Sunday it was revealed before the procession of palms and the congregation knelt before it. The whole Passion story would then be read from the Rood loft, at the foot of the crucifix by three priests.
At the Reformation, the Reformers sought to destroy abused images i.e. those statues and paintings which they alleged to have been the focus of superstitious adoration. Thus not a single mediaeval Rood survives in Britain. They were removed as a result of the 1547 Injunctions of Edward VI (some to be restored when Mary came to the throne and removed again under Elizabeth). Of original rood lofts, also considered suspect due to their association with superstitious veneration, very few are left; surviving examples in Wales being at the ancient churches in Llanelieu, Llanengan and Llanegryn. The rood screens themselves were sometimes demolished or cut down in height, but more commonly remained with their painted figures whitewashed and overpainted with religious texts. Tympanums too were whitewashed. English cathedral churches maintained their choirs, and consequently their choir stalls and pulpitum screens; but generally demolished their rood screens entirely, although those of Peterborough and Canterbury survived into the 18th century.
In the century following the English Reformation newly built Anglican churches were invariably fitted with chancel screens, which served the purpose of differentiating a separate space in the chancel for communicants at Holy Communion, as was required in the newly adopted Book of Common Prayer. In effect, these chancel screens were rood screens without a surmounting loft or crucifix, and examples survive at St John Leeds and at Foremark. New screens were also erected in many medieval churches where they had been destroyed at the Reformation, as at Cartmel Priory and Abbey Dore. From the early 17th century it became normal for screens or tympanums to carry the Royal Arms of England, good examples of which survive in two of the London churches of Sir Christopher Wren, and also at Derby Cathedral. However, Wren 's design for the church of St James, Piccadilly of 1684 dispensed with a chancel screen, retaining only rails around the altar itself, and this auditory church plan was widely adopted as a model for new churches from then on. In the 18th and 19th centuries hundreds of surviving medieval screens were removed altogether; today, in many British churches, the rood stair (which gave access to the rood loft) is often the only remaining trace of the former rood loft and screen.
In the 19th century, Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin campaigned for the re-introduction of rood screens into Catholic church architecture. His screens survive in Macclesfield and Cheadle, Staffordshire, although others have been removed. In Anglican churches, under the influence of the Cambridge Camden Society, many medieval screens were restored; though until the 20th century, generally without roods or with only a plain cross rather than a crucifix. A nearly complete restoration can be seen at Eye, Suffolk, where the rood screen dates from 1480. Its missing rood loft was reconstructed by Sir Ninian Comper in 1925, complete with a Rood and figures of saints and angels, and gives a good impression of how a full rood group might have appeared in a mediaeval English church - except that the former tympanum has not been replaced. Indeed, because tympanums, repainted with the Royal Arms, were erroneously considered post-medieval, they were almost all removed in the course of 19th - century restorations. For parish churches, the 19th - century Tractarians tended however to prefer an arrangement whereby the chancel was distinguished from the nave only by steps and a low - gated screen wall or septum (as at All Saints, Margaret Street), so as not to obscure the congregation 's view of the altar. This arrangement was adopted for almost all new Anglican parish churches of the period.
Painted rood screens occur rarely, but some of the best surviving examples are in East Anglia.
The earliest known example of a parochial rood screen in Britain, dating to the mid-13th century, is to be found at Stanton Harcourt, Oxfordshire; and a notable early stone screen (14th century) is found at Ilkeston Derbyshire. Both these screens lack lofts, as do all surviving English screens earlier than the 15th century. However, some early screens, now lost, may be presumed to have had a loft surmounted by the Great Rood, as the churches of Colsterworth and Thurlby in Lincolnshire preserve rood stairs which can be dated stylistically to the beginning of the 13th century, and these represent the earliest surviving evidence of parochial screens; effectively contemporary with the Lateran Council. The majority of surviving screens are no earlier than the 15th century, such as those at Trull in Somerset and Attleborough in Norfolk. In many East Anglian and Devonian parish churches, original painted decoration survives on wooden screen panels, having been whitewashed over at the Reformation; although almost all have lost their rood beams and lofts, and many have been sawn off at the top of the panelled lower section. The quality of the painting and gilding is, some of it, of a very high order, notably those from the East Anglian Ranworth school of painters; of which examples can be found in Southwold and Blythburgh, as well as at Ranworth itself. The magnificent painted screen at Barton Turf is unique in giving an unusually complete view of the heavenly hierarchy, including nine orders of angels. Nikolaus Pevsner also identified the early - 16th - century painted screen at Bridford, Devon, as being notable. The 16th - century screen at Charlton - on - Otmoor, said by Pevsner to be "the finest in Oxfordshire ', has an unusual custom associated with it, where the rood cross is garlanded with flowers and foliage twice a year, and until the 1850s the cross (which at that time resembled a large corn dolly) was carried in a May day procession.
Notes
Bibliography
Williams, Michael Aufrère, ' Medieval Devon Roodscreens from the Fourteenth Century to the Present Day ', The Devon Historian, 83, 2014, pp. 1 -- 13
Williams, Michael Aufrère, ' The Iconography of Medieval Devon Roodscreens ', The Devon Historian, 84, 2015, pp. 17 - 34.
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which of these sanctuaries is located on the coast between paradip and chandipur | Gahirmatha beach - wikipedia
Gahirmatha Beach is a beach in the Indian state of Odisha. The beach separates the Bhitarkanika mangroves from the Bay of Bengal and is the world 's most important nesting beach for Olive Ridley Sea Turtles. The beach is part of Gahirmatha Marine Wildlife Sanctuary, which also includes the adjacent portion of the Bay of Bengal.
Odisha coast has the world 's largest known rookery of Olive Ridley sea turtle. Apart from Gahirmatha rookery, two other mass nesting beaches have been located which are on the mouth of rivers Rushikulya and Devi. The spectacular site of mass congregation of Olive Ridley sea turtles for mating and nesting enthralls both the scientists and the nature lovers throughout the world. An event that took place in April 2017 validates this phenomenon. In this month, it was reported by forest officials that at least 2 lakh baby Olive Ridley turtles have come out of their pits within a span of 24 hours. This news was received well by conservation societies and wildlife lovers. Events like these are expected to last at least a week at the Gahirmatha beach. That rarity of mass congregation and the cruelty meted out to these innocent marine creatures, paved the way for declaration of the stretch of water body from old light house near Batighar to Maipura river mouth as Gahirmatha (Marine) Wildlife Sanctuary.
Gahirmatha is the only marine wildlife sanctuary of Odisha. This was notified as such in Government of Odisha, Forest & Environment Department Notification No. 18805 / F&E dated 27 September 1997 and published in the Odisha Gazette, extraordinary No. 1268 dated 17 October 1997. It is located between 86 degree 45'57 '' to 87 degree 17 ' 36 "- East longitude and 20 degree 17 ' 32 '' to 20 degree 45'58 '' - North latitude. The total area of the sanctuary is 1435.0 km2 which includes 1408.0 km2 of water body and 27.0 km2 of land mass including reserve forests, mud flats and accreted sand bars. Core area of the sanctuary consists of 725.50 km2 and the buffer zone accounts for 709.50 km2. The entire sanctuary area comes within the revenue district of Kendrapara.
Olive Ridley sea turtles migrate in huge numbers from the beginning of November, every year, for mating and nesting along the coast of Odisha. Gahirmatha coast has the annual nesting figure between one hundred to five hundred thousand, each year. there has been decline in the population of these turtles in the recent past due to mass mortality. Olive Ridley sea turtle has found place in Schedule - I of Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (amended 1991). All the species of sea turtles in the coastal water of Odisha are listed as "endangered '' as per IUCN Red Data Book. The sea turtles are protected under the ' Migratory Species Convention ' and CITES (Convention of International Trade on Wildlife Flora and Fauna). India is a signatory nation to all these conventions. The ' Homing ' characteristics of the Ridley sea turtles make them more prone to mass casualty. The voyage to the natal nesting beaches is the dooming factor for the sea turtles. Since Gahirmatha coast serves as the natal nesting beach for millions of turtles, it has immense importance on turtle conservation.
Olive Ridley sea turtles feed on marine snails, smaller forms of fish, fish eggs, crustaceans and jellyfish. Algal material is also used as food by the Ridleys. Ridleys generally crush and grind the food materials before intaking.
The best feeding ground of sea turtles may not be the best nesting ground for them. The sea turtles migrate thousands of kilometres to meet both the ends. It has been observed that Olive Ridley sea turtles migrate from the coastal water of Sri Lanka in the Indian ocean to the coastal water of Gahirmatha in the north. The ' Homing ' characteristics and the uncanny ability to orient itself in open sea help the sea turtles to migrate over long distance without getting lost in the vastness of the sea. Mating Immediately after the arrival of ridley sea turtles in the coastal water of Gahirmatha, they indulge in matting activities. Males mount over the females and are often seen floating on the surface with the intermittent movement of flippers. Sometimes more than one male is seen mounting over one female. The courtship continues for hours unless there is any external threat. A female will continue to mate with several males throughout the breeding season. Mostly the mating pairs are seen off the coast of Ekakula. Nesting The mass nesting behaviour of Olive ridley sea turtles is known as "Arribada ''. Thousands of female carrying turtles scramble on the nesting beach at Nasi - I & II islands to release the eggs in flask shaped cavities. The turtles scoop the soft sand to a depth of 45 cm with the help of flippers and release 100 to 180 eggs. Before scampering on to the beach, the turtles survey the nesting ground from the sea and in case they smell and danger, they shun the beach and search for safer breeding ground. The urge to release the egg is so intense that they are so oblivious of the presence of any foreigner, at the time of nesting. Generally dark nights are preferred by the ridleys for nesting. It has been observed that nesting takes place once the southernly wind starts blowing. The period of emergence and retreat into the sea after nesting takes 45 to 55 minutes. Due to the shrinkage of the nesting beach, over crowding of turtles is observed during nesting. The eggs which are scooped out by successive nesters is known as "doomed '' egg as it would never be able to hatch. Sporadic nesting is also not uncommon. These eggs are mostly damaged by predators. The nesting females emit hissing noise at the time of laying eggs as the intake of oxygen is maximum at that moment. After laying eggs, the female turtle fills up the pit with sand by the flippers and tries to camouflage the pit site. The mother turtle, rams the pit with the help of its body weight.
The eggs inside the flask shaped pits, being incubated by sun and the metabolic heat, hatch after 50 to 60 days. The hatching takes place during night or in the predawn period to avoid predation by Jackals, dogs and birds. The walls of the pit gradually collapse, thereby allowing the eggs on the lower strata to rise upwards. After the emergence of hatchlings, they immediately head for the open sea. The tiny replicas of turtles are in a frenzy to enter the sea water. This is the most spectacular sight. The hatchlings orient themselves by the reflection of stars on sea water or by the brighter horizon and head en masse towards the sea. The hatchlings swim deep into the sea until they reach the sea current. During this period large scale mortality of hatchlings take place. It is studied that 1 in 1000 survives. Bigger fishes, ghost crabs or seagulls either predates the hatchlings. Then the period of "lost year '' begins.
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what episode of the office does pam and roy break up | Pam Beesly - wikipedia
Pamela Morgan Halpert (née Beesly; born March 25, 1979) is a fictional character on the U.S. television sitcom The Office, played by Jenna Fischer. Her counterpart in the original UK series of The Office is Dawn Tinsley. Her character is initially the receptionist at the paper distribution company Dunder Mifflin, before becoming a saleswoman and eventually office administrator until her termination in the series finale. Her character is shy, growing assertive but amiable, and artistically inclined, and shares romantic interest with Jim Halpert, whom she begins dating in the fourth season and marries and starts a family with as the series continues.
The character was originally created to be very similar to the British counterpart, Dawn Tinsley. Even minute details, such as how Pam wore her hair each day, were considered by executive producer, Greg Daniels.
"When I went in for The Office, the casting director said to me, ' Please look normal ', '' recalls Jenna Fischer. "Do n't make yourself all pretty, and dare to bore me with your audition. Those were her words. Dare to bore me. ''
Heeding the advice, Fischer said little during the auditions, during which she was interviewed in character by show producers, in an improvisational format, to imitate the show 's documentary premise. "My take on the character of Pam was that she did n't have any media training, so she did n't know how to be a good interview. And also, she did n't care about this interview, '' she told NPR. "So, I gave very short one - word answers and I tried very hard not to be funny or clever, because I thought that the comedy would come out of just, you know, the real human reactions to the situation... and they liked that take on it. ''
"When I went in to the audition, the first question that they asked me in the character of Pam -- they said, ' Do you like working as a receptionist? ' I said, ' No. ' And that was it. I did n't speak any more than that. And they started laughing. ''
Fischer found herself creating a very elaborate backstory for the character. For the first few seasons, she kept a list of the character history revealed on - screen by the creators, as well as her own imaginative thoughts on Pam 's history. She created a rule with the set 's hair and make - up department that it could n't look as though it took Pam more than 30 minutes to do her hair, and she formulated ideas as to who gave Pam each piece of jewelry she wore or where she went to college. Fischer also carefully crafted Pam 's quiet persona. "Well, my character of Pam is really stuck, '' she explained to NPR. "I mean, she 's a subordinate in this office. And so, I think that for her, the only way she can express herself is in the silences, but you can say so much by not saying anything. ''
Originally meek and passive, the character grew more assertive as the seasons passed, prompting Fischer to reassess her portrayal. "I have to approach Pam differently (now), '' she explained in Season 4, a defining season in which her character finally begins a long - awaited relationship with Jim and is accepted into the Pratt Institute. "She is in a loving relationship, she has found her voice, she has started taking art classes. All of these things must inform the character and we need to see changes in the way she moves, speaks, dresses, etc. ''
At the beginning of the series, Pam and Roy have been dating for eight years and engaged for three years. Their open - ended engagement has become one of Michael 's running gags and a sore spot for Pam.
Pam does not want her current job to become permanent, remarking that "I do n't think it 's many little girls ' dream to be a receptionist. '' Pam is apathetic toward her work, evidenced by her frequent games of FreeCell on her office computer. However, in the pilot episode, she breaks down crying when Michael pulls an ill - advised prank by telling her that she will be fired.
Michael has criticized Pam for simply forwarding calls to voice mail without answering and (in a deleted scene) for not sounding enthusiastic enough when speaking on the telephone. Pam is usually happy to abandon her work if asked to do something else by Jim. She will do extra, unnecessary work (such as making a casket for a dead bird or paper doves for the Office Olympics) to make other people happy.
Despite the abuse she takes from Michael, she never goes any further than calling him a jerk in the pilot. In later seasons, however, she becomes more honest and forward with Michael and will often make sarcastic comments toward him.
While engaged to Roy, Pam denies, or is in denial about, having any romantic feelings for Jim. When Jim confesses his love for her at the Dunder Mifflin "Casino Night '' she turns him down. She later talks to her mom on the phone and says Jim is her best friend (though she does n't say his name), and says "Yeah, I think I am '' to an unheard question. She is interrupted by Jim, who enters and kisses her; she responds by kissing back.
Season three marks a turning point for Pam 's character: she gains self - confidence and appears less passive and more self - assured as the season progresses. In "Gay Witch Hunt, '' the season 's opener, it is revealed that Pam got cold feet before her wedding and did not marry Roy after all, and that Jim transferred to a different Dunder Mifflin branch, in Stamford, shortly after Pam rejected him a second time, after their kiss. Pam moves into her own apartment, begins taking art classes, a pursuit that Roy had previously dismissed as a waste of time, and buys a new car, a blue Toyota Yaris. Jim returns to Scranton later on as a result of "The Merger '', and brings along a female co-worker, Karen Filippelli, whom he begins dating. Jim and Pam appeared to have ended all communication after Jim transfers to the Stamford branch (aside from an episode in which Jim accidentally calls Pam at the end of the work day), and their episodes together following the branch merge are tense, despite both admitting to still harboring feelings for the other during the presence of the documentary cameras.
Meanwhile, Roy vows to win Pam back. Roy 's efforts to improve his relationship with Pam are quite successful, but once Pam and Roy are back together, he falls back into old habits almost immediately. When Roy and Pam attend an after work get - together at a local bar with their co-workers, Pam, feeling that she should be more honest with Roy, tells him about Jim kissing her at, "Casino Night. '' Roy yells, smashes a mirror, and trashes the bar. Pam, frightened and embarrassed by his reaction, breaks up with Roy immediately. Roy vows to kill Jim and in, "The Negotiation '', Roy unsuccessfully tries to attack Jim at work (Jim is saved by Dwight 's intervention), and is subsequently fired. Pam later reluctantly agrees to meet Roy for coffee at his request, and after the polite but brief meeting, it appears that their relationship has ended amicably with Roy encouraging Pam to pursue Jim.
Pam participates in an art show, but few people attend. Her co-worker, Oscar, brings his partner along who, not knowing that Pam is standing behind him, criticizes her work by proclaiming that "real art requires courage. '' Oscar then goes on to say that courage is n't one of Pam 's strong points. Affected by this statement, Pam tells the documentary crew that she is going to be more honest, culminating in a dramatic coal walk during the next - to - last episode of the season, "Beach Games '', and a seemingly sincere speech to Jim in front of the entire office about their relationship. Michael also comes to the art show and reveals his erratically kind heart and loyalty by buying, framing and hanging Pam 's drawing of the Dunder Mifflin building in the office. In the season finale, "The Job, '' she leaves a friendly note in Jim 's briefcase and an old memento depicting the ' gold medal ' yogurt lid from the Office Olympics, which he sees during an interview for a job at Corporate in New York City. While he is asked how he "would function here in New York '', Jim is shown to have his mind back in Scranton, still distracted by the thought of Pam. Jim withdraws his name from consideration and drives back to the office, where he interrupts a talking head Pam is doing for the documentary crew by asking her out for dinner. She happily accepts, visibly moved, abandoning a train of thought about how she would be fine if Jim got the job and never came back to Scranton. Karen quits soon after, becoming the regional manager at Dunder Mifflin 's Utica branch.
In Season 4, Pam retains the assertiveness she developed in the third season. She wears her hair down and has updated her old dowdy wardrobe.
In the season 4 premiere, "Fun Run '', Jim and Pam confess that they have started dating after the camera crew catches them kissing. The office ultimately learns of their relationship in "Dunder Mifflin Infinity ''. In "Chair Model '', after teasing Pam about his impending proposal, Jim tells the documentary crew he is not kidding around about an engagement and shows them a ring he bought a week after he and Pam started dating. In the next few episodes, Jim fake - proposes to Pam multiple times. In "Goodbye, Toby '', Pam discovers she 's been accepted at Pratt Institute, an art and design school in Brooklyn. In an interview later in the episode, Jim announces that he will propose to Pam that evening. Just as Jim is preparing to propose, however, Andy Bernard stands up and makes his own impromptu proposal to Angela. Having had his thunder stolen by Andy, Jim reluctantly puts the ring back in his jacket pocket, leaving Pam visibly disappointed as she was expecting Jim to propose that night.
In the Season 5 premiere, "Weight Loss '', Pam begins her three - month course at the Pratt Institute. In this episode, Jim proposes in the pouring rain at a rest stop, saying that he "ca n't wait ''. In "Business Trip '', Pam learns that she is failing one of her classes and will have to remain in New York another three months to retake it. Although Jim is supportive and tells her he will wait for her to come back "the right way '', she ultimately makes the decision to return home, saying that she realized she hated graphic design and missed Scranton. A deleted scene for the episode shows Jim looking through Pam 's graphic design projects, which he thinks are "cool '', as well as a notebook filled with pencil sketches, which he finds a lot more impressive than her graphic design projects, implying her talents lie in hand - drawn works. In "Two Weeks '', Pam agrees to become Michael 's first saleswoman in his not - yet - established company, The Michael Scott Paper Co., as a supportive Jim looks on. When David Wallace makes an offer to buy the company Michael negotiates in order to get their jobs at Dunder Mifflin back instead, including adding Pam to the sales team. In "Company Picnic '', Pam, after dominating the company volleyball tournament, injures her ankle during a game and is taken to the hospital against her wishes. At the hospital, the camera crew is stationed outside an exam room while a doctor updates Jim and Pam on her condition. There is no audio as the camera shows Jim and Pam embrace, looking shocked and ecstatic. It is implied that she is pregnant and is confirmed in the Season 6 premiere, "Gossip ''.
Jim and Pam marry early in the season, at Niagara Falls, during the highly anticipated, hour long episode, "Niagara ''. The ending of the episode, in which their co-workers dance down the aisle, is an imitation of a viral YouTube video -- JK Wedding Entrance Dance. Following the wedding, a multi-episode story arc begins in which it is revealed that Michael hooked up with Pam 's mother the night of the wedding. The two break up during "Double Date '', an episode that ends with Pam slapping Michael in response to his actions.
In "The Delivery '' of Season 6, Pam and Jim have their first child, a daughter named Cecelia Marie Halpert. Jenna Fischer was granted naming rights by show producers, and chose to name her after her own niece.
In "Counseling '', Pam feels inadequate about her poor performance in sales and tricks Gabe into promoting her to a phony new salaried position called office administrator. In "China '', Pam tries to use her authority as office administrator to force building manager Dwight to stop his annoying cost - cutting measures. Pam threatens to move the office to a new building, which Dwight discovers does n't exist. Pam saves face, however, when Dwight secretly has his assistant provide her with a book on building regulations that proves Dwight 's measures were not allowed. The episode is another example of Dwight 's covert protectiveness and fondness for Pam (as previously demonstrated in "The Injury '', "Back from Vacation '', "The Job '' and "Diwali ''); Mindy Kaling said during an online Q&A session that Dwight has a soft spot for her that he does not extend to anyone else at the office. She also uses her position to buy Erin Hannon an expensive desk top computer to replace the terrible one she had to use for years, as well as discreetly giving Andy a new computer, and giving Darell three sick days. At the end of the episode she proudly says that she is, "Full on corrupt. ''
In "Goodbye, Michael '', Pam almost misses saying good - bye to Michael, as she spends most of the day out of the office trying to price shredders. Jim figures out Michael 's plan to leave early and tells her by text. Pam reaches the airport in time and is the last person to see Michael before he leaves.
At the beginning of Season 8, Pam is revealed to be pregnant with her and Jim 's second child, Philip Halpert. The child coincided with Jenna Fischer 's actual pregnancy. She begins her maternity leave after "Pam 's Replacement ''. Pam returns in "Jury Duty '', where she and Jim bring Cece and Phillip into the office. In both "Tallahassee '' and "Test the Store '' Pam is shown helping, and developing her friendship with Andy.
Early in season 9, Jim is restless about his life in Scranton and helps a friend start a Sports Marketing business, Athlead, in Philadelphia but he keeps it a secret from Pam until the third episode "Andy 's Ancestry ''. Although Pam is happy for his decision, she is concerned about the fact that he had kept it a secret from her and she is later disturbed to hear about just how much of their money he had invested. Jim begins spending part of each work week in Philadelphia, but in "Customer Loyalty '', the strain of this on Pam is evident when she breaks down in tears, and is comforted by Brian, the boom mic operator of the film crew.
In "Moving On '', Pam interviews for a job in Philadelphia to be closer to Jim, but she is turned off by the idea when her prospective new boss bears a striking resemblance in behavior to Michael Scott. Over dinner, Pam reveals to Jim that she does n't really want to move to Philadelphia after all. However, in "Livin ' the Dream '', when Athlead is bought out and Jim is offered a large sum of money for 3 months to pitch the company across the country, Pam overhears Jim refuse the opportunity because of her and appears to have mixed feelings about this decision. In "A.A.R.M. '', Pam tells Jim that she 's afraid that he will resent her for making him stay and that she might not be enough for him. Jim asks the camera crew to compile documentary footage of the two of them to show her. When she finishes the montage, which shows Jim taking back a letter he intended to give her with his teapot gift during Christmas; Jim finally gives her that letter, and she reads it, visibly moved. In the series finale, which takes place a year later, she reveals to Jim that she secretly put the house on the market, so that they can move to Austin, Texas, and take his job back at Athlead (now Athleap).
From her years working the front desk, Pam has become well - acquainted with the Dunder - Mifflin staff and is consistently shown to have a thorough understanding of her coworkers ' personalities, including the more eccentric individuals Dwight Schrute and Michael Scott. She uses this familiarity to manipulate them, often for their and the company 's best interests (such as her giving the staff elaborate instructions on how to handle a heartbroken Michael in "The Chump '') but also occasionally for her own. This familiarity plays a large part in her efficiency as office administrator and was crucial to her being promoted to the previously non-existent position.
The "will they or wo n't they '' tension between Jim and Pam is a strong storyline in the early episodes of The Office, encompassing much of Seasons 1 to 3. In the opener of Season 4, the two characters are revealed to be dating, and as such, other character romances, such as the romance between fellow co-workers Dwight Schrute and Angela Martin, begin to move more toward the forefront of episodes. In Season 6, Jim and Pam are married in the season 's 4th and 5th episodes (hour long), a feat considered noteworthy by many television critics, as bringing together the two lead love interests in a television series is often thought to be a risky venture. Their child is born in the second half of the season, during another hour long, "The Delivery ''. Pam and Jim 's second child is born during season 8. In season 9, their marriage becomes strained when Jim takes up a second job in Philadelphia. They ultimately decide to leave Dunder Mifflin together so Jim can pursue his dream job.
When the series begins, Pam is engaged to her high school sweetheart Roy Anderson; this engagement is revealed to be three years old and running. They finally set a date, but Pam calls off the wedding at the last minute. They get back together once, briefly, but Pam is much more assertive, and finally breaks up with him after he has a violent outburst. Roy is deeply flawed - he is overbearing, neglectful, dismissive of her desire to be an artist, and offers her sex as a gift on Valentine 's Day. Jim comments in Season 2 that Pam does not like to "bother '' Roy with her "thoughts or feelings ''. He tells the camera crew that the only two problems in Pam 's life seemed to be Roy and her job at Dunder Mifflin.
In the early seasons, there is a great deal of tension between Jim and Roy, with Roy often acting threateningly towards Jim. In "Basketball '', when Jim starts to impress Pam with his basketball skills, Roy elbows Jim in the nose. In season 2, when Jim encourages Pam to pursue a graphic arts internship offered by Dunder Mifflin, Roy objects to the opportunity and eventually convinces her that the idea is foolish. Pam ultimately calls off her wedding to Roy, but they remain friendly and he is determined to win her back by being less of a jerk. She reconciles with Roy at Phyllis 's wedding as a response to watching Jim date Karen. In an attempt at a fresh start with Roy, Pam comes clean about Jim kissing her during "Casino Night ''. Roy flies into a violent rage and Pam ends the relationship on the spot. The next day, Roy attempts to attack Jim in the office but is stopped by Dwight 's pepper spray and is summarily fired. After losing his job, Roy meets Pam for coffee and says that even though Jim is dating Karen, she should at least make an effort to date him (inasmuch as she called off the wedding because of him).
In season 5, Jim and Roy run into each other at a bar and Roy learns that Jim and Pam are engaged. The mood is somewhat awkward, but Roy is congratulatory, but then makes a somewhat passive - aggressive comment, seemingly meant to make Jim feel insecure about his current role in Pam 's life, which tempts him to drive to Pratt, where she is attending art classes. Jim gets on the freeway, but changes his mind and remembers that he trusts Pam. Jim did n't want to treat Pam the same way Roy treated her.
In the series pilot, Michael is overtly rude to Pam and at one point fakes her firing, leaving her in tears. He often makes suggestive if harmless remarks about her beauty and general appearance, and at one point lies to the camera that they used to date (inspiring a horrified "WHAT??? '' from Pam when an interviewer relays the message to her). However, his impulsive attempt to kiss her during Diwali is shot down and marked the end of any romantic dreams for Michael with Pam. Over time, the combination of Michael being supportive of her goals, her transition from a bad relationship with Roy to a great one with Jim as well as her finding a job she not only enjoys but is effective at in the office administrator position and Michael finding his own soulmate in Holly Flax made Pam soften her stance towards Michael, and the experience at the Michael Scott Paper Company further bonded them (as did Michael 's decision to choose Pam instead of Ryan Howard as the only MSPC salesman to keep that job when Michael returned as Branch Manager). Pam was furious at Michael for dating her mom Helene, and excoriated him at length during "The Lover '' before eventually slapping him in "Double Date '', but they once again were able to be civil to each other afterward. Pam does set up boundaries around her personal life that Michael ca n't cross, like telling him that he was n't Cece 's godfather. By Season 7, Pam acts as something of a guardian angel for Michael, steering him away from (numerous) bad ideas and towards his (fewer but real) good ones, such as his successful efforts to propose to Holly. In Michael 's finale "Goodbye, Michael '', Pam spends the whole day looking for a shredder, believing that the next day Michael was leaving. As Michael takes off his microphone and heads down the airport concourse, Pam runs to him with no shoes and hugs him as he kisses her cheek. The two have a nice moment and he walks off, leaving her holding her shoes. She then tells the camera that he was happy, wanting to be an advanced rewards member, and was glad to be going home to see Holly. She then is there to watch Michael 's plane take off. In a deleted scene from "The Inner Circle '', we learn Pam is flattered that Michael named his new puppy "Pamela Beagsley '', and in "The List '' she playfully teases Jim by calling their second child "Little Michael Scott '', further proving that the two have developed a genuine friendship.
Toby, the Human Resources Representative for Dunder Mifflin in the Scranton branch, has a secret crush on Pam. In "A Benihana Christmas '' she gives him her Dunder - Mifflin bathrobe, a display of friendly affection, after he spent the day feeling bad that Dwight took his. In "Night Out '', Toby awkwardly rubs her knee while they share a laugh (and while Jim sits just on her other side), and the rest of the office watches in horror. In his mortification, Toby immediately announces that he is moving to Costa Rica before jumping over the locked gate and fleeing. In "Goodbye, Toby '', he purchases a DSLR camera just to get a picture with Pam. On the eve of his departure, she confesses to the cameras that she always thought he was "kind of cute ''. The crush receives less attention after Toby 's return. However, in "Niagara '', Pam and Jim are late for their wedding and he is visibly excited at the prospect that the wedding might not happen. In "Finale '', Pam and Toby dance with each other at Dwight 's wedding, with Toby beginning to cry as Pam comforts him. When she asks, "is it me? '', he replies that "it 's everything! ''.
Pam Halpert has appeared in every episode with the exceptions of "Business Ethics '' (except for the deleted scenes), "St. Patrick 's Day '', and "New Leads '' in which only her voice is heard, and several season 8 episodes from "Mrs. California '' to "Pool Party '', where she did not appear at all as Fischer was on maternity leave.
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who was the first sociologist to win a nobel prize | List of female Nobel Laureates - wikipedia
The Nobel Prizes are awarded annually by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, the Swedish Academy, the Karolinska Institute, and the Norwegian Nobel Committee to individuals who make outstanding contributions in the fields of Chemistry, Physics, Literature, Peace, Physiology or Medicine and Economics. All but the economics prize were established by the 1895 will of Alfred Nobel, which dictates that the awards should be administered by the Nobel Foundation. The Nobel prize in Economics, or The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, was established in 1968 by the Sveriges Riksbank, the central bank of Sweden, for outstanding contributions in the field of Economics. Each prize is awarded by a separate committee; the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awards the Prizes in Physics, Chemistry, and Economics, the Swedish Academy awards the Prize in Literature, the Karolinska Institute awards the Prize in Physiology or Medicine, and the Norwegian Nobel Committee awards the Prize in Peace. Each recipient receives a medal, a diploma and a cash prize that has varied throughout the years.
As of 2017, Nobel Prizes have been awarded to 844 men, 48 women (Marie Curie won it twice), and 27 organizations. Sixteen women have won the Nobel Peace Prize, fourteen have won the Nobel Prize in Literature, twelve have won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, four have won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, two have won the Nobel Prize in Physics and one, Elinor Ostrom, has won the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. The first woman to win a Nobel Prize was Marie Curie, who won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903 with her husband, Pierre Curie, and Henri Becquerel. Curie is also the only woman to have won multiple Nobel Prizes; in 1911, she won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Curie 's daughter, Irène Joliot - Curie, won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1935, making the two the only mother - daughter pair to have won Nobel Prizes. The most Nobel Prizes awarded to women in a single year was in 2009, when five women became laureates. The most recent women to be awarded a Nobel Prize were Tu Youyou and Svetlana Alexievich (2015).
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who is the owner of burj al arab hotel | Burj Al Arab - wikipedia
The Burj Al Arab (Arabic: برج العرب , Tower of the Arabs) is a luxury hotel located in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. It is the third tallest hotel in the world (although 39 % of its total height is made up of non-occupiable space). Burj Al Arab stands on an artificial island 280 m (920 ft) from Jumeirah Beach and is connected to the mainland by a private curving bridge. The shape of the structure is designed to resemble the sail of a ship. It has a helipad near the roof at a height of 210 m (689 ft) above ground.
The beachfront area where Burj Al Arab and Jumeirah Beach Hotel are located was previously called Miami Beach. The hotel is located on an island of reclaimed land 280 meters offshore of the beach of the former Chicago Beach Hotel. The locale 's name had its origins in the Chicago Bridge & Iron Company which at one time welded giant floating oil storage tanks, known locally as Kazzans on the site.
The old name persisted after the old hotel was demolished in 1997. Dubai Chicago Beach Hotel remained as the Public Project Name for the construction phase of Burj Al Arab Hotel until Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum announced the new name.
Burj Al Arab was designed by multidisciplinary consultancy Atkins led by architect Tom Wright, who has since become co-founder of WKK Architects. The design and construction were managed by Canadian engineer Rick Gregory also of WS Atkins. It 's very similar with the Vasco da Gama Tower located in Lisbon, Portugal. Construction of the island began in 1994 and involved up to 2,000 construction workers during peak construction. It was built to resemble the billowing spinnaker sail of a J - class yacht. Two "wings '' spread in a V to form a vast "mast '', while the space between them is enclosed in a massive atrium. The architect Tom Wright said "The client wanted a building that would become an iconic or symbolic statement for Dubai; this is very similar to Sydney with its Opera House, London with Big Ben, or Paris with the Eiffel Tower. It needed to be a building that would become synonymous with the name of the country. ''
Fletcher Construction from New Zealand was the lead joint venture partner in the initial stages of pre-construction and construction. The hotel was built by South African construction contractor Murray & Roberts and Al Habtoor Engineering and the interior works were delivered by UAE based Depa.
The building opened in December 1999.
Several features of the hotel required complex engineering feats to achieve. The hotel rests on an artificial island constructed 280 m (920 ft) offshore. To secure a foundation, the builders drove 230 forty - meter - long (130 ft) concrete piles into the sand.
Engineers created a ground / surface layer of large rocks, which is circled with a concrete honeycomb pattern, which serves to protect the foundation from erosion. It took three years to reclaim the land from the sea, while it took fewer than three years to construct the building itself. The building contains over 70,000 m (92,000 cu yd) of concrete and 9,000 tons of steel.
Inside the building, the atrium is 180 m (590 ft) tall.
Burj Al Arab is the world 's third tallest hotel (not including buildings with mixed use). The structure of the Rose Rayhaan, also in Dubai, is 11 m (36 ft) taller than Burj Al Arab.
The hotel is managed by the Jumeirah Group. Despite its size, Burj Al Arab holds only 28 double - story floors which accommodate 202 bedroom suites. The smallest suite occupies an area of 169 m (1,820 sq ft), the largest covers 780 m (8,400 sq ft).
Suites feature design details that juxtapose east and west. White columns show great influence. Bathrooms are accented by mosaic tile patterns.
The Royal Suite, billed at US $ 24,000 per night, is listed at number 12 on World 's 15 most expensive hotel suites compiled by CNN Go in 2012.
The Burj Al Arab is very popular with the Chinese market, which made up 25 percent of all bookings at the hotel in 2011 and 2012.
Al Muntaha ("The Ultimate ''), is located 200 m (660 ft) above the Persian Gulf, offering a view of Dubai. It is supported by a full cantilever that extends 27 m (89 ft) from either side of the mast, and is accessed by a panoramic elevator.
Al Mahara ("Oyster ''), which is accessed via a simulated submarine voyage, features a large seawater aquarium, holding roughly 990,000 L (260,000 US gal) of water. The wall of the tank, made of acrylic glass in order to withstand the water pressure, is about 18 cm (7.1 in) thick.
The Burj Al Arab is a five - star hotel, the highest official ranking. While the hotel is sometimes erroneously described as "the world 's only seven - star hotel '', the hotel management claims to never have done that themselves. In the words of a Jumeirah Group spokesperson: "There 's not a lot we can do to stop it. We 're not encouraging the use of the term. We 've never used it in our advertising. ''
Burj Al Arab has attracted criticism as well "a contradiction of sorts, considering how well - designed and impressive the construction ultimately proves to be. '' The contradiction here seems to be related to the hotel 's decor. "This extraordinary investment in state - of - the - art construction technology stretches the limits of the ambitious urban imagination in an exercise that is largely due to the power of excessive wealth. '' Another critic includes negative critiques for the city of Dubai as well: "both the hotel and the city, after all, are monuments to the triumph of money over practicality. Both elevate style over substance. '' Yet another: "Emulating the quality of palatial interiors, in an expression of wealth for the mainstream, a theater of opulence is created in Burj Al Arab... The result is a baroque effect ''.
Several events have taken place on the helipad 210 m (689 ft) above ground to attract media attention. These include:
The last chapter of the espionage novel Performance Anomalies takes place at the top of the Burj Al Arab, (1) where the spy protagonist Cono 7Q discovers that through deadly betrayal his spy nemesis Katerina has maneuvered herself into the top echelon of the government of Kazakhstan. The Hotel can also be seen in Syriana, Mission: Impossible -- Ghost Protocol and also some Bollywood movies.
Richard Hammond included the building in his television series, Richard Hammond 's Engineering Connections.
The Burj Al Arab serves as the cover image for the 2009 album Ocean Eyes by Owl City.
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how can time slow down at the speed of light | Time dilation - wikipedia
According to the theory of relativity, time dilation is a difference in the elapsed time measured by two observers, either due to a velocity difference relative to each other, or by being differently situated relative to a gravitational field. As a result of the nature of spacetime, a clock that is moving relative to an observer will be measured to tick slower than a clock that is at rest in the observer 's own frame of reference. A clock that is under the influence of a stronger gravitational field than an observer 's will also be measured to tick slower than the observer 's own clock.
Such time dilation has been repeatedly demonstrated, for instance by small disparities in a pair of atomic clocks after one of them is sent on a space trip, or by clocks on the Space Shuttle running slightly slower than reference clocks on Earth, or clocks on GPS and Galileo satellites running slightly faster. Time dilation has also been the subject of science fiction works, as it technically provides the means for forward time travel.
Time dilation by the Lorentz factor was predicted by several authors at the turn of the 20th century. Joseph Larmor (1897), at least for electrons orbiting a nucleus, wrote "... individual electrons describe corresponding parts of their orbits in times shorter for the (rest) system in the ratio: 1 − v 2 c 2 (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle (\ sqrt (1 - (\ frac (v ^ (2)) (c ^ (2)))))) ". Emil Cohn (1904) specifically related this formula to the rate of clocks. In the context of special relativity it was shown by Albert Einstein (1905) that this effect concerns the nature of time itself, and he was also the first to point out its reciprocity or symmetry. Subsequently, Hermann Minkowski (1907) introduced the concept of proper time which further clarified the meaning of time dilation.
Special relativity indicates that, for an observer in an inertial frame of reference, a clock that is moving relative to him will be measured to tick slower than a clock that is at rest in his frame of reference. This case is sometimes called special relativistic time dilation. The faster the relative velocity, the greater the time dilation between one another, with the rate of time reaching zero as one approaches the speed of light (299,792,458 m / s). This causes massless particles that travel at the speed of light to be unaffected by the passage of time.
Theoretically, time dilation would make it possible for passengers in a fast - moving vehicle to advance further into the future in a short period of their own time. For sufficiently high speeds, the effect is dramatic. For example, one year of travel might correspond to ten years on Earth. Indeed, a constant 1 g acceleration would permit humans to travel through the entire known Universe in one human lifetime. Space travelers could then return to Earth billions of years in the future. A scenario based on this idea was presented in the novel Planet of the Apes by Pierre Boulle, and the Orion Project has been an attempt toward this idea.
With current technology severely limiting the velocity of space travel, however, the differences experienced in practice are minuscule: after 6 months on the International Space Station (ISS) (which orbits Earth at a speed of about 7,700 m / s) an astronaut would have aged about 0.005 seconds less than those on Earth. The Hafele and Keating experiment involved flying planes around the world with atomic clocks on board. Upon the trips ' completion the clocks were compared to a static, ground based atomic clock. It was found that 7002273000000000000 ♠ 273 ± 7 nanoseconds had been gained on the planes ' clocks. The current human time travel record holder is Russian cosmonaut Sergei Krikalev. He gained 22.68 milliseconds of lifetime on his journeys to space and therefore beat the previous record of about 20 milliseconds by cosmonaut Sergei Avdeyev.
Time dilation can be inferred from the observed constancy of the speed of light in all reference frames dictated by the second postulate of special relativity.
This constancy of the speed of light means that, counter to intuition, speeds of material objects and light are not additive. It is not possible to make the speed of light appear greater by moving towards or away from the light source.
Consider then, a simple clock consisting of two mirrors A and B, between which a light pulse is bouncing. The separation of the mirrors is L and the clock ticks once each time the light pulse hits either of the mirrors.
In the frame in which the clock is at rest (diagram on the left), the light pulse traces out a path of length 2L and the period of the clock is 2L divided by the speed of light:
From the frame of reference of a moving observer traveling at the speed v relative to the resting frame of the clock (diagram at right), the light pulse is seen as tracing out a longer, angled path. Keeping the speed of light constant for all inertial observers, requires a lengthening of the period of this clock from the moving observer 's perspective. That is to say, in a frame moving relative to the local clock, this clock will appear to be running more slowly. Straightforward application of the Pythagorean theorem leads to the well - known prediction of special relativity:
The total time for the light pulse to trace its path is given by
The length of the half path can be calculated as a function of known quantities as
Elimination of the variables D and L from these three equations results in
which expresses the fact that the moving observer 's period of the clock Δ t ′ (\ displaystyle \ Delta t ') is longer than the period Δ t (\ displaystyle \ Delta t) in the frame of the clock itself.
Given a certain frame of reference, and the "stationary '' observer described earlier, if a second observer accompanied the "moving '' clock, each of the observers would perceive the other 's clock as ticking at a slower rate than their own local clock, due to them both perceiving the other to be the one that 's in motion relative to their own stationary frame of reference.
Common sense would dictate that, if the passage of time has slowed for a moving object, said object would observe the external world 's time to be correspondingly sped up. Counterintuitively, special relativity predicts the opposite. When two observers are in motion relative to each other, each will measure the other 's clock slowing down, in concordance with them being moving relative to the observer 's frame of reference.
While this seems self - contradictory, a similar oddity occurs in everyday life. If two persons A and B observe each other from a distance, B will appear small to A, but at the same time A will appear small to B. Being familiar with the effects of perspective, there is no contradiction or paradox in this situation.
The reciprocity of the phenomenon also leads to the so - called twin paradox where the aging of twins, one staying on Earth and the other embarking on a space travel, is compared, and where the reciprocity suggests that both persons should have the same age when they reunite. On the contrary, at the end of the round - trip, the traveling twin will be younger than his brother on Earth. The dilemma posed by the paradox, however, can be explained by the fact that the traveling twin must markedly accelerate in at least three phases of the trip (beginning, direction change, and end), while the other will only experience negligible acceleration, due to rotation and revolution of Earth. During the acceleration phases of the space travel, time dilation is not symmetric.
In the Minkowski diagram from the second image on the right, clock C resting in inertial frame S ′ meets clock A at d and clock B at f (both resting in S). All three clocks simultaneously start to tick in S. The worldline of A is the ct - axis, the worldline of B intersecting f is parallel to the ct - axis, and the worldline of C is the ct ′ - axis. All events simultaneous with d in S are on the x-axis, in S ′ on the x ′ - axis.
The proper time between two events is indicated by a clock present at both events. It is invariant, i.e., in all inertial frames it is agreed that this time is indicated by that clock. Interval df is therefore the proper time of clock C, and is shorter with respect to the coordinate times ef = dg of clocks B and A in S. Conversely, also proper time ef of B is shorter with respect to time if in S ′, because event e was measured in S ′ already at time i due to relativity of simultaneity, long before C started to tick.
From that it can be seen, that the proper time between two events indicated by an unaccelerated clock present at both events, compared with the synchronized coordinate time measured in all other inertial frames, is always the minimal time interval between those events. However, the interval between two events can also correspond to the proper time of accelerated clocks present at both events. Under all possible proper times between two events, the proper time of the unaccelerated clock is maximal, which is the solution to the twin paradox.
In addition to the light clock used above, the formula for time dilation can be more generally derived from the temporal part of the Lorentz transformation. Let there be two events at which the moving clock indicates t a (\ displaystyle t_ (a)) and t b (\ displaystyle t_ (b)), thus
Since the clock remains at rest in its inertial frame, it follows x a = x b (\ displaystyle x_ (a) = x_ (b)), thus the interval Δ t ′ = t b ′ − t a ′ (\ displaystyle \ Delta t ^ (\ prime) = t_ (b) ^ (\ prime) - t_ (a) ^ (\ prime)) is given by
where Δt is the time interval between two co-local events (i.e. happening at the same place) for an observer in some inertial frame (e.g. ticks on his clock), known as the proper time, Δ t ′ is the time interval between those same events, as measured by another observer, inertially moving with velocity v with respect to the former observer, v is the relative velocity between the observer and the moving clock, c is the speed of light, and the Lorentz factor (conventionally denoted by the Greek letter gamma or γ) is
Thus the duration of the clock cycle of a moving clock is found to be increased: it is measured to be "running slow ''. The range of such variances in ordinary life, where v ≪ c, even considering space travel, are not great enough to produce easily detectable time dilation effects and such vanishingly small effects can be safely ignored for most purposes. It is only when an object approaches speeds on the order of 30,000 km / s (1 / 10 the speed of light) that time dilation becomes important.
In special relativity, time dilation is most simply described in circumstances where relative velocity is unchanging. Nevertheless, the Lorentz equations allow one to calculate proper time and movement in space for the simple case of a spaceship which is applied with a force per unit mass, relative to some reference object in uniform (i.e. constant velocity) motion, equal to g throughout the period of measurement.
Let t be the time in an inertial frame subsequently called the rest frame. Let x be a spatial coordinate, and let the direction of the constant acceleration as well as the spaceship 's velocity (relative to the rest frame) be parallel to the x-axis. Assuming the spaceship 's position at time t = 0 being x = 0 and the velocity being v and defining the following abbreviation
the following formulas hold:
Position:
Velocity:
Proper time:
In the case where v (0) = v = 0 and τ (0) = τ = 0 the integral can be expressed as a logarithmic function or, equivalently, as an inverse hyperbolic function:
The clock hypothesis is the assumption that the rate at which a clock is affected by time dilation does not depend on its acceleration but only on its instantaneous velocity. This is equivalent to stating that a clock moving along a path P (\ displaystyle P) measures the proper time, defined by:
The clock hypothesis was implicitly (but not explicitly) included in Einstein 's original 1905 formulation of special relativity. Since then, it has become a standard assumption and is usually included in the axioms of special relativity, especially in the light of experimental verification up to very high accelerations in particle accelerators.
Gravitational time dilation is experienced by an observer that, being under the influence of a gravitational field, will measure his own clock to slow down, compared to another that is under a weaker gravitational field.
Gravitational time dilation is at play e.g. for ISS astronauts. While the astronauts ' relative velocity slows down their time, the reduced gravitational influence at their location speeds it up, although at a lesser degree. Also, a climber 's time is theoretically passing slightly faster at the top of a mountain compared to people at sea level. It has also been calculated that due to time dilation, the core of the Earth is 2.5 years younger than the crust. Travel to regions of space where gravitational time dilation is taking place, such as within the gravitational field of a black hole, yet still outside the event horizon, perhaps on a hyperbolic trajectory exiting the field, could yield time - shifting results analogous to those of near - lightspeed space travel.
Contrarily to velocity time dilation, in which both observers measure the other as aging slower (a reciprocal effect), gravitational time dilation is not reciprocal. This means that with gravitational time dilation both observers agree that the clock nearer the center of the gravitational field is slower in rate, and they agree on the ratio of the difference.
High accuracy timekeeping, low earth orbit satellite tracking, and pulsar timing are applications that require the consideration of the combined effects of mass and motion in producing time dilation. Practical examples include the International Atomic Time standard and its relationship with the Barycentric Coordinate Time standard used for interplanetary objects.
Relativistic time dilation effects for the solar system and the earth can be modeled very precisely by the Schwarzschild solution to the Einstein field equations. In the Schwarzschild metric, the interval d t E (\ displaystyle dt_ (\ text (E))) is given by
where
The coordinate velocity of the clock is given by
The coordinate time t c (\ displaystyle t_ (c)) is the time that would be read on a hypothetical "coordinate clock '' situated infinitely far from all gravitational masses (U = 0 (\ displaystyle U = 0)), and stationary in the system of coordinates (v = 0 (\ displaystyle v = 0)). The exact relation between the rate of proper time and the rate of coordinate time for a clock with a radial component of velocity is
where
The above equation is exact under the assumptions of the Schwarzschild solution. It reduces to velocity time dilation equation in the presence of motion and absence of gravity, i.e. β e = 0 (\ displaystyle \ beta _ (e) = 0). It reduces to gravitational time dilation equation in the absence of motion and presence of gravity, i.e. β = 0 = β ∥ (\ displaystyle \ beta = 0 = \ beta _ (\ shortparallel)).
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what is the tri cities area of tennessee | Tri-Cities, Tennessee - wikipedia
The Tri-Cities is the region comprising the cities of Kingsport, Johnson City, and Bristol and the surrounding smaller towns and communities in Northeast Tennessee and Southwest Virginia. All three cities are located in Northeast Tennessee, while Bristol has a twin city of the same name in Virginia.
The Tri-Cities region was formerly a single Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA); due to the U.S. Census Bureau 's revised definitions of urban areas in the early 2000s, it is now a Combined Statistical Area (CSA) with two metropolitan components: Johnson City and Kingsport - Bristol (TN) - Bristol (VA). (1) As of the 2000 Census, the CSA had a population of 480,091 (though a July 1, 2008 estimate placed the population at 500,538).
As of the census of 2000, there were 480,091 people, 199,218 households, and 138,548 families residing within the CSA. The racial makeup of the CSA was 96.22 % White, 2.12 % African American, 0.20 % Native American, 0.40 % Asian, 0.02 % Pacific Islander, 0.02 % from other races, and 0.74 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.92 % of the population.
The median income for a household in the CSA was $30,331, and the median income for a family was $37,254. Males had a median income of $29,561 versus $21,014 for females. The per capita income for the CSA was $16,923.
Interstate Highways I - 26 and I - 81 intersect in the region, while I - 40, I - 77, and I - 75 are nearby. Tri-Cities Regional Airport (TRI) has non-stop service to Atlanta, Charlotte, Ft. Lauderdale, Orlando, and St. Petersburg / Clearwater. Airlines include Delta Air Lines, Delta Connection, Allegiant Air and American Eagle Airlines. Additionally, TRI manages an aggressive Air Cargo program, administers Foreign Trade Zone 204, supports and promotes U.S. Customs Port 2027, and provides trade development assistance. The Region has both CSX and Norfolk Southern mainline railway access.
The region is served by Tri-Cities Regional Airport which has scheduled airline passenger jet service.
The Kingsport Higher Education Center is a complex in downtown Kingsport, Tennessee that combines classes from five area colleges and universities, including The University of Tennessee.
The All - America City Award is given by the National Civic League annually to ten cities in the United States. In 1999, the Tri-Cities were collectively designated as an All - America City by the National Civic League.
The award is the oldest community recognition program in the nation and recognizes communities whose citizens work together to identify and tackle community - wide challenges and achieve uncommon results.
Since the program 's inception in 1949, more than 4,000 communities have competed and over 500 have been named All - America Cities.
The Greater Tri-Cities of Tennessee and Virginia has three sister cities, as designated by Sister Cities International:
On NBC Dateline 's To Catch A Predator one of the predators made a reference about visiting a Japanese steakhouse near the Tri-cities.
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who sings mulan make a man out of you | I 'll Make a Man Out of You - wikipedia
"I 'll Make a Man out of You '' is a song written by composer Matthew Wilder and lyricist David Zippel for Walt Disney Pictures ' 36th animated feature film Mulan (1998). Appearing on the film 's soundtrack Mulan: An Original Walt Disney Records Soundtrack, "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' is performed by American singer Donny Osmond as the singing voice of Captain Li Shang in lieu of American actor BD Wong, who provides the character 's speaking voice. The song also features appearances by Lea Salonga as Mulan, Eddie Murphy as Mushu, and Harvey Fierstein, Jerry Tondo and Wilder himself as Yao, Chien - Po and Ling, respectively. Murphy 's line, however, is the only one to be spoken instead of sung.
"I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' was written to replace the song "We 'll Make a Man of You '' after the film 's original songwriter Stephen Schwartz departed from the project in favor of working on DreamWorks ' The Prince of Egypt (1998). Prior to Mulan, Osmond had auditioned for the role of Hercules in Disney 's Hercules (1997), a role for which he was ultimately turned down by the directors because they felt that he sounded too old. Disney eventually cast Osmond as the singing voice of Shang because his singing voice is similar to Wong 's speaking voice. An up - tempo military - style song, "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' is performed by Shang during a rigorous training montage in which his young, inexperienced soldiers attempt to justify their worth. The song 's title is considered ironic because Mulan, who relies on intelligence, ultimately proves more competent than her male comrades, including Captain Li Shang, who takes a liking to her.
"I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' has received mostly positive reviews from film and music critics, some of whom dubbed it the film 's best song, while praising Osmond 's performance. Critics have also drawn comparisons between the song and Disney 's Hercules, while likening Mulan 's role and transformation to actress Demi Moore 's performance as Lieutenant Jordan O'Neil in the film G.I. Jane (1997). The song has since appeared on several "best of '' Disney songs lists, including those of Total Film and the New York Post. Discussed by film critics, film historians, academic journalists and feminists, the song has gone on to be recorded and covered in several different languages -- namely Mandarin, Cantonese and Spanish -- by entertainers Jackie Chan and Cristian Castro, respectively.
"I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' was written by composer Matthew Wilder and lyricist David Zippel, who were hired to write the songs for Mulan because, according to co-director Tony Bancroft, "Disney was trying to find different songwriters that... would give kind of different sound to each of the songs. '' While Zippel, a Broadway lyricist, was recruited because the directors were impressed by the songwriter 's work on Disney 's Hercules (1997), at the time Wilder, a pop singer and record producer, was best known for his hit single "Break My Stride ''. Bancroft believes that, although the songwriters "had two different sensibilities... I think the (y) blend worked well together, especially on (' I 'll Make a Man Out of You ') ''.
Originally, songwriter Stephen Schwartz, who had just recently worked as a lyricist opposite composer Alan Menken on Disney 's Pocahontas (1995) and The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1996), was slated to write the lyrics for Mulan, but he was replaced by Zippel "at the last moment. '' Schwartz had written a song called "We 'll Make a Man of You '' for "when Mulan is trying to learn to be a soldier ''. The song was eventually replaced by Wilder and Zippel 's "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' when Schwartz was forced to resign from Mulan by Disney executives Peter Schneider and Michael Eisner because the songwriter had also agreed to write the songs for rival film studio DreamWorks ' animated feature film The Prince of Egypt (1998). According to The Musical Theater of Stephen Schwartz: From Godspell to Wicked and Beyond, Schwartz believed that he would have been able to work on both films simultaneously, but ultimately chose The Prince of Egypt instead because he felt pressured by Disney.
Before Mulan, American singer Donny Osmond had auditioned for the lead role in Hercules, a role for which he was ultimately not cast because the directors felt that his voice sounded "too old '' and "too deep '' for the character. Osmond later revealed in an interview with People that he was so embarrassed by his Hercules audition that he had nearly considered ending his singing career prematurely. A few months later, Disney contacted Osmond with interest in casting him as the singing voice of Shang after comparing his audition tapes to BD Wong and determining that both actors have "very similar voices. '' In one scene, Osmond 's character, Shang, is hit in the stomach while singing "I 'll Make a Man Out of You ''. In order to sound as realistic as possible, Osmond punched himself in the stomach several times while recording the song.
"I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' is performed by Captain Li Shang during Mulan 's training montage, which has also been identified as the film 's "boot camp sequence. '' The scene explores Shang 's attempt to train his newly recruited squadron of incompetent soldiers in the hopes of ultimately transforming into a skilled army. Occupying a significant portion of the film 's plot, Shang promises to turn his team of "rag - tag recruits '' into men. The musical number is used to "compress dramatic time or narrate '' in a more compelling way than had solely dialogue been used. The scene begins with Shang shooting an arrow into the top of a tall pole and challenging all of his soldiers to retrieve it, each of whom fail until Mulan eventually succeeds. According to the book Into the Closet: Cross-Dressing and the Gendered Body in Children 's Literature and Film by Victoria Flanagan, Mulan is successful in retrieving the arrow because she uses "an ingenuity that is based upon her ability to incorporate aspects of femininity into her masculine performance. '' By the end of the scene, all of the soldiers have improved dramatically and the results of their practice and training are finally revealed. In what Joshua and Judges author Athalya Brenner called "a humorous reversal toward the end of the movie, '' Mulan and her male comrades disguise themselves as concubines in order to infiltrate the palace and rescue the emperor while "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' reprises in the background.
Critics have observed ways in which the scene explores Mulan 's growth and transformation as the character evolves from a clumsy, inexperienced recruit into one of the army 's most skilled soldiers, in spite of her gender. According to the book Literacy, Play and Globalization: Converging Imaginaries in Children 's Critical and Cultural Performances, the montage depicts Mulan 's gender as "an obstacle to overcome. '' Author Phyllis Frus wrote in her book Beyond Adaptation: Essays on Radical Transformations of Original Works, "The need for inexperienced young men to go through a rigorous training results in a sequence common to many films, '' and that the scene "show 's the challenges Ping / Mulan faces due to her '' inexperience. As observed by Juanita Kwok in the book Film Asia: New Perspectives on Film for English, the irony of the scene lies within the fact that "Mulan proves herself more competent than any of the men. '' The author also observed that the scene 's first refrain accompanies shots of Shang, while its second "coincides with Mulan climbing to the top of the pole. '' Additionally, while the earlier, all - female musical number "Honor to Us All '' "functions as an account of the constructedness of female gender, '' "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' "juxtaposes and makes explicit the contention that gender is a cultural product, '' according to Johnson Cheu, author of Diversity in Disney Films: Critical Essays on Race, Ethnicity, Gender, Sexuality and Disability. The Representation of Gender in Walt Disney 's "Mulan '' believes that the song emphasizes desirable masculine traits, namely "discipline... tranquility, celerity, strength and fearlessness, '' while Shang, according to Putting the Grail Back into Girl Power: How a Girl Saved Camelot, and why it Matters, "views (femininity) as comparable to weakness. '' In her article Disney 's "Mulan '' -- the "True '' Deconstructed Heroine?, Lisa Brocklebank argued the song explores themes such as othering, ostracism and abjection.
Critics have drawn similarities between the "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' sequence and Hercules ' training montage in Disney 's Hercules (1997), as well as actress Demi Moore 's role as Lieutenant Jordan O'Neil in the film G.I. Jane (1997). In the book Ways of Being Male: Representing Masculinities in Children 's Literature, author John Stephens wrote that although both Mulan and Hercules depict "the active male body as spectacle, '' Mulan 's is less "straight - forward '' due to the character 's gender. Michael Dequina of The Movie Report observed that "Mulan 's transformation is highly reminiscent of Demi Moore 's in last year 's Disney drama G.I. Jane, but Mulan oneups that film 's hour - long toughening process by efficiently covering the same ground during a single, rousing musical number. ''
Written in common time at a tempo of 110 beats per minute and starting out in the key of E minor, "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' has been identified as a "heroic power ballad '' and anthem that features an upbeat, "thumping '' rhythm. The Disney Song Encyclopedia described the song as a "rhythmic military song. '' Beginning with "a military - style drum '' introduction, "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '', which is immediately preceded by the emotional ballad "Reflection '' on the film 's soundtrack album, "breaks up the slower pace of the songs, '' according to Filmtracks.com. Similar to the song "A Girl Worth Fighting For '', the "ironically titled '' "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' "play (s) off Mulan 's secret '' because Shang is unaware that she is actually a girl, as observed by Jeffrey Gantz of The Phoenix. Johnson Cheu, author of Diversity in Disney Films: Critical Essays on Race, Ethnicity, Gender, Sexuality and Disability, received the song as a counterpart to the all - female musical number "Honor to Us All ''. Going into the last verse, the song 's key shifts up to F minor and later towards the end, "the backing track falls into silence and (Osmond 's) vocals come to the fore. '' Osmond 's vocal range spans one octave, from D to F. Beginning with two verses, followed by a bridge, a refrain, a final verse and repeated choruses, the song is a total of three minutes and twenty - one seconds in length.
Entertainment Weekly identified the number as the film 's "rambunctious peak. '' According to Victoria Flanagan, author of Into the Closet: Gender and Cross-dressing in Children 's Fiction: Cross-Dressing and the Gendered Body in Children 's Literature and Film, "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' is "a playful parody of conventional masculinity. '' The lyric "I 'll make a man out of you '' is constantly repeated and reinforced by Shang. According to author John Stephens of Ways of Being Male: Representing Masculinities in Children 's Literature, the song 's lyrics "initially define masculinity in opposition to femininity, '' with its first verse beginning, "Let 's get down to business / To defeat the Huns / Did they send me daughters / When I asked for sons? '' Its chorus reads, "You must be swift as the coursing river / With all the force of the great typhoon / With all the strength of a raging fire / Mysterious as the dark side of the moon '' which, according to Ways of Being Male: Representing Masculinities in Children 's Literature, "essentializes masculinity by asserting that it embodies the speed, strength and power of the natural world, and yet contains this within an aura of tranquility and mystery. '' According to Beyond Adaptation: Essays on Radical Transformations of Original Works, these lyrics "add a hint of darkness as they celebrate male prowess '' by suggesting that one who has "acquired fiery strength '' is also "untamed as the moon 's dark side. '' The song has been noted by the New York Post for its "slew of one - liners from supporting characters. '' According to The Phoenix, Osmond performs the song 's lyrics with "grit. '' Meanwhile, the singer is backed up by a macho - sounding choir repeatedly chanting "Be a man! ''
"I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' has been met with mostly positive reviews from both film and music critics. Irving Tan of Sputnikmusic wrote, "there has n't been a single chorus in all of post-Mulan pop music that has managed to rival the roaring power in the refrain. '' Scott Chitwood of ComingSoon.net reviewed "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' as "a stirring, testosterone filled piece, '' describing the scene as "amusing. '' Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly wrote that the song "has a comparable infectious punch, '' concluding, "it 's the only song in the movie that escapes Disneyfied blandness. '' Jeff Vice of the Deseret News observed that Wong and Osmond 's "voices sound eerily similar. '' Tom Henry of The Blade enjoyed Osmond 's delivery, describing the singer 's performance as "solid. '' Lloyd Paseman of The Register - Guard called "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' a favorite of his. While exploring "The History of Movie Training Montages '', Chris Giblin of Men 's Fitness opined, "Mulan served as proof that the fitness montage can work amazingly well in movies for kids. '' Giblin continued, "it has the best lyrics of any serious fitness / sports montage song. Overall, a very strong montage. '' Disney.com itself cites "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' as a "song that was so epic, so legendary, that it requires an out loud sing along anytime we hear it. ''
Despite dubbing the film 's songs its "weak link, '' TV Guide wrote that the musical numbers are "crafted with a knowing, almost camp wink that 's totally in keeping with the subtext of the film, '' concluding that "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' sounds like a Village People song. Writing for The Seattle Times, Moira Macdonald criticized Wilder and Zippel 's songs as "forgettable, '' calling "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' "annoying. '' The Phoenix 's Jeffrey Gantz wrote that "Donny Osmond shows some grit, but he 's still the voice of the Whitebread West. '' Amazon.ca 's Jason Verlinde commented, "Unfortunately, the voice of Donny Osmond, relegated to anthems such as ' I 'll Make a Man Out of You ' does n't really enhance the story line ''.
Total Film ranked "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' twenty - ninth on its list of the "30 Best Disney Songs ''. Similarly, M ranked the song twentieth on its list of the "Top 20 Disney Songs of All Time ''. Author Stephanie Osmanski cited "Did they send me daughters when I asked for sons? '' as her favourite lyric. Gregory E. Miller of the New York Post cited I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' as one of "The best (and the most underrated) Disney songs, '' writing, "Captain Shang 's battle - preparation anthem is the movie 's most quotable, with a memorable chorus and a slew of one - liners from supporting characters. '' PopSugar ranked the song the nineteenth "Catchiest Disney Song ''. On Empire 's list of the twenty "Most Awesome Training Montages In Cinema History '', "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' was ranked 14th. The author identified it as "a solid training montage in which Mulan and her friends go from hapless duffers to fearless warriors in just over two minutes. '' Similarly, Men 's Fitness also ranked "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' among the greatest training montages in film history. Stephen Fiorentine of Sneaker Report wrote that "Training montages are n't limited to just live - action movies. With movies like Mulan and Hercules, Disney mastered the art of the montage in their animated films. ''
When Mulan was released in China, Hong Kong actor Jackie Chan was hired to dub the voice of Shang and record "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' in Mandarin and Cantonese. The special edition DVD release of Mulan features a music video of Chan performing the song. The video also depicts Chan performing martial arts - inspired choreography. Positively received, Scott Chitwood of ComingSoon.net called Chan 's rendition "a fun addition for Chan fans, '' while Nancy Churnin of The Dallas Morning News wrote that he performed the song "very ably. '' Mexican singer Cristian Castro, who voiced Shang in the film 's Latin American release, recorded "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' in Spanish, titled "Hombres de Acción serán hoy ''.
In July 2013, a parody of the song was uploaded to YouTube titled "I 'll Make a Mann Out Of You ''. The video uses the song with animation made in Source Filmmaker in which the Soldier from Team Fortress 2 motivates his fellow RED teammates against the BLU team. In October 2014, a parody of "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' was uploaded to YouTube entitled "I 'll Make a ' Mon Out of You ''. A mashup of Mulan and the popular Pokémon franchise, the video features Digimon Gatomon attempting to masquerade as Pokémon Meowth in lieu of Mulan, while Ash occupies the role of Shang as his trainer, according to Smosh. Another parody of the song, based on the Dragon Ball franchise was uploaded to YouTube by TeamFourStar.
Credits adapted from the website Discogs.
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how was the balance of power in europe meant to prevent war | European balance of power - wikipedia
The European balance of power referred to European international relations before the First World War, which evolved into the present states of Europe. The Nineteenth Century political concept emerged at the Peace of Paris in 1815. It is often known by the term European State System. Its basic tenet is that no single European power should be allowed to achieve hegemony over a substantial part of the continent and that this is best curtailed by having a small number of ever - changing alliances contend for power, it also meant that none should be able to achieve absolute power.
In the 16th and 17th centuries, English foreign policy strove to prevent a creation of a single universal monarchy in Europe, which many believed France or Spain might attempt to create. To maintain the balance of power, the English made alliances with other states -- including Portugal, the Ottoman Empire, and the Netherlands -- to counter the perceived threat. These Grand Alliances reached their height in the wars against Louis XIV and Louis XV of France. They often involved the English (later the British) and Dutch paying large subsidies to European allies to finance large armies.
In the 18th century, this led to the stately quadrille, with a number of major European powers -- such as Austria, Prussia, Great Britain, and France -- changing alliances multiple times to prevent the hegemony of one nation or alliance. A number of wars stemmed, at least in part, from the desire to maintain the balance of power, including the War of the Spanish Succession, War of the Austrian Succession, the Seven Years ' War, the War of the Bavarian Succession and the Napoleonic Wars. Following Britain 's success in the Seven Years ' War, many of the other powers began to see Great Britain as a greater threat than France. Several states entered the American War of Independence in the hope of overturning Britain 's growing strength by securing the independence of the Thirteen colonies of British America.
During the 19th century, to achieve lasting peace, the Concert of Europe tried to maintain the balance of power. The territorial boundaries laid down at the Congress of Vienna were maintained, and even more important there was an acceptance of the theme of balance with no major aggression. Otherwise the Congress system says historian Roy Bridge, "failed '' by 1823. In 1818 the British decided not to become involved in continental issues that did not directly affect them. They rejected the plan of Tsar Alexander I to suppress future revolutions. The Concert system fell apart as the common goals of the Great Powers were replaced by growing political and economic rivalries. Artz says the Congress of Verona in 1822 "marked the end. '' There was no Congress called to restore the old system during the great revolutionary upheavals of 1848 with their demands for revision of the Congress of Vienna 's frontiers along national lines.
Before 1850 Britain and France dominated Europe, but by the 1850s they had become deeply concerned by the growing power of Russia and Prussia. The Crimean War of 1854 -- 55 and the Italian War of 1859 shattered the relations among the Great Powers in Europe.
After 1870 the creation and rise of the German Empire as a dominant nation restructured the European balance of power. For the next twenty years, Otto von Bismarck managed to maintain the balance of power, by proposing treaties and creating many complex alliances between the European nations such as the Triple Alliance.
After the resignation of Otto Von Bismarck in the 1890s, the foreign policy of the German Empire became expansionary and the newly created alliances were proven to be fragile, something that triggered the First World War in 1914. One of the objectives of the Treaty of Versailles, the main post-World War I treaty, was to abolish the dominance of the ' Balance of Power ' concept and replace it with the (global) League of Nations.
This idea floundered as Europe split into three principal factions in the 1920s and 1930s: liberal democratic states led by the UK and France, communist states led by the Soviet Union, and authoritarian nationalists led by Germany and Italy. The failure of the democratic states to prevent the advance of Nazi Germany ultimately led to the Second World War, which led to a temporary alliance between the UK and the Soviets. The UK did not condemn the Soviet invasion of Poland in 1939, but declared war on Germany. Later they sided with the Soviet Union against Germany after the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union.
During the post-Second World War era the Allies split into two blocs, a balance of power emerged in between the Eastern Bloc: affiliated with the Soviet Union and the Socialist nations of Central and Eastern Europe; the Western Bloc: affiliated with the Western democracies, particularly France, the United States, and the United Kingdom, and neutral or non-aligned countries, including the Republic of Ireland, Sweden, Switzerland and Yugoslavia. The majority of the European democratic nations, together with Canada and the US, came together under the military alliance of NATO, which continues to this day and has expanded to other countries in Europe. The first NATO Secretary General, the British Lord Ismay, famously stated the organization 's initial goal was "to keep the Russians out, the Americans in, and the Germans down. ''
From the late 20th century, the four most powerful members of the European Union -- the UK, France, Italy and Germany -- are referred to as the EU big four. They are major European powers and the only EU countries individually represented as full members of the G7, the G8 and the G20. The NATO Quint is made up by the United States and the Big Four.
The term G4 is especially (although not only) used to describe meeting of the four nations at the leaders ' level. In addition, the term EU three (or G - 3) is used to describe the grouping of foreign ministers from France, the UK and Germany during the Iran nuclear talks. On the other hand, the grouping of interior ministers that includes Spain and Poland is known as the G6. Germany (which has the largest economy in Europe) is often regarded as the EU 's economic leader, such as with the ongoing European sovereign debt crisis, whilst France and the United Kingdom (both permanent members of the UNSC) often lead in defence and foreign policy matters, such as the intervention in Libya in 2011, even if the major actor in the attack was Italy. This, to an extent, represents a balancing of leadership power for the Western sphere of the continent. How this balance will change after the Brexit vote in 2016 is still an open matter.
There continues however to be a wider, strategic balance of Western and (now) Russian power, albeit with the boundary between the two pushed further east since the collapse of the Soviet Union, with many former Communist countries in central Europe having since joined the EU and NATO.
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discuss the theme of as you like it | As You Like It - wikipedia
As You Like It is a pastoral comedy by William Shakespeare believed to have been written in 1599 and first published in the First Folio in 1623. The play 's first performance is uncertain, though a performance at Wilton House in 1603 has been suggested as a possibility.
As You Like It follows its heroine Rosalind as she flees persecution in her uncle 's court, accompanied by her cousin Celia to find safety and, eventually, love, in the Forest of Arden. In the forest, they encounter a variety of memorable characters, notably the melancholy traveller Jaques who speaks many of Shakespeare 's most famous speeches (such as "All the world 's a stage '', "too much of a good thing '' and "A fool! A fool! I met a fool in the forest ''). Jaques provides a sharp contrast to the other characters in the play, always observing and disputing the hardships of life in the country.
Historically, critical response has varied, with some critics finding the play a work of great merit and some finding the work of lesser quality than other Shakespearean works. The play remains a favourite among audiences and has been adapted for radio, film, and musical theatre. The piece has been a favorite of famous actors on stage and screen, notably Vanessa Redgrave, Juliet Stevenson, Maggie Smith, Rebecca Hall, Helen Mirren, and Patti LuPone in the role of Rosalind and Alan Rickman, Stephen Spinella, Kevin Kline, Stephen Dillane, and Ellen Burstyn in the role of Jaques.
Main Characters: The Court of Duke Frederick:
The Household of the deceased Sir Rowland de Boys:
The Exiled Court of Duke Senior in the Forest of Arden:
Country folk in the Forest of Arden:
Other characters:
The play is set in a duchy in France, but most of the action takes place in a location called the Forest of Arden. This may be intended as the Ardennes, a forested region covering an area located in southeast Belgium, western Luxembourg and northeastern France, or Arden, Warwickshire, near Shakespeare 's home town, which was the ancestral origin of his mother 's family -- who incidentally were called Arden.
Frederick has usurped the duchy and exiled his older brother, Duke Senior. Duke Senior 's daughter, Rosalind, has been permitted to remain at court because she is the closest friend and cousin of Frederick 's only child, Celia. Orlando, a young gentleman of the kingdom who at first sight has fallen in love with Rosalind, is forced to flee his home after being persecuted by his older brother, Oliver. Frederick becomes angry and banishes Rosalind from court. Celia and Rosalind decide to flee together accompanied by the court fool, Touchstone, with Rosalind disguised as a young man and Celia disguised as a poor lady.
Rosalind, now disguised as Ganymede ("Jove 's own page ''), and Celia, now disguised as Aliena (Latin for "stranger ''), arrive in the Arcadian Forest of Arden, where the exiled Duke now lives with some supporters, including "the melancholy Jaques, '' a malcontent figure, who is introduced weeping over the slaughter of a deer. "Ganymede '' and "Aliena '' do not immediately encounter the Duke and his companions. Instead, they meet Corin, an impoverished tenant, and offer to buy his master 's crude cottage.
Orlando and his servant Adam, meanwhile, find the Duke and his men and are soon living with them and posting simplistic love poems for Rosalind on the trees. (The role of Adam may have been played by Shakespeare, though this story is said to be apocryphal.) Rosalind, also in love with Orlando, meets him as Ganymede and pretends to counsel him to cure him of being in love. Ganymede says that "he '' will take Rosalind 's place and that "he '' and Orlando can act out their relationship.
The shepherdess, Phoebe, with whom Silvius is in love, has fallen in love with Ganymede (Rosalind in disguise), though "Ganymede '' continually shows that "he '' is not interested in Phoebe. Touchstone, meanwhile, has fallen in love with the dull - witted shepherdess, Audrey, and tries to woo her, but eventually is forced to be married first. William, another shepherd, attempts to marry Audrey as well, but is stopped by Touchstone, who threatens to kill him "a hundred and fifty ways. ''
Finally, Silvius, Phoebe, Ganymede, and Orlando are brought together in an argument with each other over who will get whom. Ganymede says he will solve the problem, having Orlando promise to marry Rosalind, and Phoebe promise to marry Silvius if she can not marry Ganymede.
Orlando sees Oliver in the forest and rescues him from a lioness, causing Oliver to repent for mistreating Orlando. Oliver meets Aliena (Celia 's false identity) and falls in love with her, and they agree to marry. Orlando and Rosalind, Oliver and Celia, Silvius and Phoebe, and Touchstone and Audrey all are married in the final scene, after which they discover that Frederick also has repented his faults, deciding to restore his legitimate brother to the dukedom and adopt a religious life. Jaques, ever melancholic, declines their invitation to return to the court, preferring to stay in the forest and to adopt a religious life as well. Rosalind speaks an epilogue to the audience, commending the play to both men and women in the audience.
The direct and immediate source of As You Like It is Thomas Lodge 's Rosalynde, Euphues Golden Legacie, written 1586 - 7 and first published in 1590. Lodge 's story is based upon "The Tale of Gamelyn '', wrongly attributed to Geoffrey Chaucer and sometimes printed among his Canterbury Tales. Although it was first printed in 1721, "The Tale Gamelyn '' must have existed in manuscript form in Shakespeare 's time. It is doubtful that Shakespeare had read it, but Lodge must have built his pastoral romance on the foundation of "The Tale of Gamelyn, '' giving it a pastoral setting and the artificial sentimental vein, much in fashion at the time. The tale provided the intertwined plots, and suggested all the characters except Touchstone and Jaques.
Some have suggested two other minor debts. The first is Michael Drayton 's Poly - Olbion, a poetic description of England, but there is no evidence that the poem was written before As You Like It. The second suggested source is The Historie of Orlando Furioso by Robert Greene, acted about 1592. It is suggested that Shakespeare derived the idea of Orlando 's carving his lady 's name on barks of trees from this play, but a lover carving love - poems on barks of trees was already in Lodge 's tale.
As You Like It was first printed in the collected edition of Shakespeare 's plays, known as the First Folio, during 1623. No copy of it in Quarto exists, for the play is mentioned by the printers of the First Folio among those which "are not formerly entered to other men. '' By means of evidences, external and internal, the date of composition of the play has been approximately fixed at a period between the end of 1598 and the middle of 1599.
As You Like It was entered into the Register of the Stationers ' Company on 4 August 1600 as a work which was "to be stayed, '' i.e., not published till the Stationers ' Company were satisfied that the publisher in whose name the work was entered was the undisputed owner of the copyright. Thomas Morley 's First Book of Ayres, published in London in 1600 contains a musical setting for the song "It was a Lover and his Lass '' from As You Like It. This evidence implies that the play was in existence in some shape or other before 1600.
It seems likely this play was written after 1598, since Francis Meres did not mention it in his Palladis Tamia. Although twelve plays are listed in Palladis Tamia, it was an incomplete inventory of Shakespeare 's plays to that date (1598). The new Globe Theatre opened some time in the summer of 1599, and tradition has it that the new playhouse 's motto was Totus mundus agit histrionem -- "all the Globe 's a stage '' -- an echo of Jaques ' famous line "All the world 's a stage '' (II. 7). This evidence posits September 1598 and September 1599 as the time frame within which the play was likely written.
In Act III, vi, Phoebe refers to the famous line "Whoever loved that loved not at first sight '' taken from Marlowe 's "Hero and Leander, '' which was published in 1598. This line, however, dates from 1593 when Marlowe was killed, and the poem was likely circulated in unfinished form before being completed by George Chapman. It is suggested in Michael Wood 's In Search of Shakespeare that the words of Touchstone, "When a man 's verses can not be understood, nor a man 's good wit seconded with the forward child understanding, it strikes a man more dead than a great reckoning in a little room, '' allude to Marlowe 's assassination. According to the inquest into his death, Marlowe had been killed in a brawl following an argument over the "reckoning '' of a bill in a room in a house in Deptford, owned by the widow Eleanor Bull in 1593. The 1598 posthumous publication of Hero and Leander would have revived interest in his work and the circumstances of his death. These words in Act IV, i, in Rosalind 's speech, "I will weep for nothing, like Diana in the fountain, '' may refer to an Alabaster image of Diana which was set up in Cheapside in 1598. However, it should be remembered Diana is mentioned by Shakespeare in at least ten other plays, and is often depicted in myth and art as at her bath. Diana was a literary epithet for Queen Elizabeth I during her reign, along with Cynthia, Phoebe, Astraea, and the Virgin Mary. Certain anachronisms exist as well, such as the minor character Sir Oliver Mar - text 's possible reference to the Marprelate Controversy which transpired between 1588 - 1589. On the basis of these references, it seems that As You Like It may have been composed in 1599 - 1600, but it remains impossible to say with any certainty.
Though the play is consistently one of Shakespeare 's most frequently performed comedies, scholars have long disputed over its merits. George Bernard Shaw complained that As You Like It is lacking in the high artistry of which Shakespeare was capable. Shaw liked to think that Shakespeare wrote the play as a mere crowdpleaser, and signalled his own middling opinion of the work by calling it As You Like It -- as if the playwright did not agree. Tolstoy objected to the immorality of the characters and Touchstone 's constant clowning. Other critics have found great literary value in the work. Harold Bloom has written that Rosalind is among Shakespeare 's greatest and most fully realised female characters.
The elaborate gender reversals in the story are of particular interest to modern critics interested in gender studies. Through four acts of the play, Rosalind, who in Shakespeare 's day would have been played by a boy, finds it necessary to disguise herself as a boy, whereupon the rustic Phoebe, also played by a boy, becomes infatuated with this "Ganymede, '' a name with homoerotic overtones. In fact, the epilogue, spoken by Rosalind to the audience, states rather explicitly that she (or at least the actor playing her) is not a woman. In several scenes, "Ganymede '' impersonates Rosalind ' so a boy actor would have been playing a girl disguised as a boy impersonating a girl.
Although the play is ostensibly set in France, Arden is the name of a forest located close to Shakespeare 's home town of Stratford - upon - Avon. The Oxford Shakespeare edition rationalises this geographical discrepancy by assuming that "Arden '' is an anglicisation of the forested Ardennes region of France, where Lodge set his tale) and alters the spelling to reflect this. Other editions keep Shakespeare 's "Arden '' spelling, since it can be argued that the pastoral mode depicts a fantastical world in which geographical details are irrelevant. The Arden edition of Shakespeare makes the suggestion that the name "Arden '' comes from a combination of the classical region of Arcadia and the biblical garden of Eden, as there is a strong interplay of classical and Christian belief systems and philosophies within the play. Arden was also the maiden name of Shakespeare 's mother and her family home is located within the Forest of Arden.
Love is the central theme of As You Like It, like other romantic comedies of Shakespeare. Following the tradition of a romantic comedy, As You Like It is a tale of love manifested in its varied forms. In many of the love - stories, it is love at first sight. This principle of "love at first sight '' is seen in the love - stories of Rosalind and Orlando, Celia and Oliver, as well as Phoebe and Ganymede. The love - story of Audrey and Touchstone is a parody of romantic love. Another form of love is between women, as in Rosalind and Celia 's deep bond.
This is a significant theme of this play. The new Duke Frederick usurps his older brother Duke Senior, while Oliver parallels this behavior by treating his younger brother Orlando so ungenerously as to compel him to seek his fortune elsewhere. Both Duke Senior and Orlando take refuge in the forest, where justice is restored "through nature. ''
The play highlights the theme of usurpation and injustice on the property of others. However, it ends happily with reconciliation and forgiveness. Duke Frederick is converted by a hermit and he restores the dukedom to Duke Senior who, in his turn, restores the forest to the deer. Oliver also undergoes a change of heart and learns to love Orlando. Thus, the play ends on a note of rejoicing and merry - making.
Most of the play is a celebration of life in the country. The inhabitants of Duke Frederick 's court suffer the perils of arbitrary injustice and even threats of death; the courtiers who followed the old duke into forced exile in the "desert city '' of the forest are, by contrast, experiencing liberty but at the expense of some easily borne discomfort. (Act II, i). A passage between Touchstone, the court jester, and shepherd Corin establishes the contentment to be found in country life, compared with the perfumed, mannered life at court. (Act III, I). At the end of the play the usurping duke and the exiled courtier Jaques both elect to remain within the forest.
University of Wisconsin professor Richard Knowles, the editor of the 1977 New Variorum edition of this play, in his article "Myth and Type in As You Like It, '' pointed out that the play contains mythological references in particular to Eden and to Hercules.
As You Like It is known as a musical comedy because of the number of songs in the play. Indeed, there are more songs in it than in any other play of Shakespeare. These songs and music are incorporated in the action that takes place in the forest of Arden, as shown below:
Shakespeare uses prose for about 55 % of the text, with the remainder in verse. Shaw explains that as used here the prose, "brief (and) sure, '' drives the meaning and is part of the play 's appeal, whereas some of its verse he regards only as ornament. The dramatic convention of the time required the courtly characters to use verse, and the country characters prose, but in As You Like It this convention is deliberately overturned. For example, Rosalind, although the daughter of a Duke and thinking and behaving in high poetic style, actually speaks in prose as this is the "natural and suitable '' way of expressing the directness of her character, and the love scenes between Rosalind and Orlando are in prose (III, ii, 277). In a deliberate contrast, Silvius describes his love for Phoebe in verse (II, iv, 20). As a mood of a character changes, he or she may change from one form of expression to the other in mid-scene. Indeed, in a metafictional touch, Jaques cuts off a prose dialogue with Rosalind because Orlando enters, using verse: "Nay then, God be with you, an you talk in blank verse '' (IV, i, 29). The defiance of convention is continued when the epilogue is given in prose.
Act II, Scene VII, features one of Shakespeare 's most famous monologues, spoken by Jaques, which begins:
"All the world 's a stage
And all the men and women merely players; They have their exits and their entrances,
And one man in his time plays many parts... ''
The arresting imagery and figures of speech in the monologue develop the central metaphor: a person 's lifespan is a play in seven acts. These acts, or "seven ages '', begin with "the infant / Mewling and puking in the nurse 's arms '' and work through six further vivid verbal sketches, culminating in "second childishness and mere oblivion, / Sans teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, sans everything, ''.
The main theme of pastoral comedy is love in all its guises in a rustic setting, the genuine love embodied by Rosalind contrasted with the sentimentalised affectations of Orlando, and the improbable happenings that set the urban courtiers wandering to find exile, solace or freedom in a woodland setting are no more unrealistic than the string of chance encounters in the forest which provoke witty banter and which require no subtleties of plotting and character development. The main action of the first act is no more than a wrestling match, and the action throughout is often interrupted by a song. At the end, Hymen himself arrives to bless the wedding festivities.
William Shakespeare 's play As You Like It clearly falls into the Pastoral Romance genre; but Shakespeare does not merely use the genre, he develops it. Shakespeare also used the Pastoral genre in As You Like It to ' cast a critical eye on social practices that produce injustice and unhappiness, and to make fun of anti-social, foolish and self - destructive behaviour ', most obviously through the theme of love, culminating in a rejection of the notion of the traditional Petrarchan lovers.
The stock characters in conventional situations were familiar material for Shakespeare and his audience; it is the light repartee and the breadth of the subjects that provide opportunities for wit that put a fresh stamp on the proceedings. At the centre the optimism of Rosalind is contrasted with the misogynistic melancholy of Jaques. Shakespeare would take up some of the themes more seriously later: the usurper Duke and the Duke in exile provide themes for Measure for Measure and The Tempest.
The play, turning upon chance encounters in the forest and several entangled love affairs in a serene pastoral setting, has been found, by many directors, to be especially effective staged outdoors in a park or similar site.
There is no certain record of any performance before the Restoration. Evidence suggests that the premiere may have taken place at Richmond Palace on 20 Feb 1599, enacted by the Lord Chamberlain 's Men. Another possible performance may have taken place at Wilton House in Wiltshire, the country seat of the Earls of Pembroke. William Herbert, 3rd Earl of Pembroke hosted James I and his Court at Wilton House from October to December 1603, while Jacobean London was suffering an epidemic of bubonic plague. The King 's Men were paid £ 30 to come to Wilton House and perform for the King and Court on 2 December 1603. A Herbert family tradition holds that the play acted that night was As You Like It.
During the English Restoration, the King 's Company was assigned the play by royal warrant in 1669. It is known to have been acted at Drury Lane in 1723, in an adapted form called Love in a Forest; Colley Cibber played Jaques. Another Drury Lane production seventeen years later returned to the Shakespearean text (1740).
Notable recent productions of As You Like It include the 1936 Old Vic Theatre production starring Edith Evans and the 1961 Shakespeare Memorial Theatre production starring Vanessa Redgrave. The longest running Broadway production starred Katharine Hepburn as Rosalind, Cloris Leachman as Celia, William Prince as Orlando, and Ernest Thesiger as Jaques, and was directed by Michael Benthall. It ran for 145 performances in 1950. Another notable production was at the 2005 Stratford Festival in Stratford, Ontario, which was set in the 1960s and featured Shakespeare 's lyrics set to music written by Barenaked Ladies. In 2014, theatre critic Michael Billington said his favourite production of the play was Cheek by Jowl 's 1991 production, directed by Declan Donnellan.
Thomas Morley (c. 1557 -- 1602) composed music for "It Was a Lover and His Lass ''; he lived in the same parish as Shakespeare, and at times composed music for Shakespeare 's plays.
In 1942, Gerald Finzi included a setting of "It Was a Lover and His Lass '' (V, iii) in his song cycle on Shakespearean texts Let Us Garlands Bring.
Donovan set "Under the Greenwood Tree '' to music and recorded it for A Gift from a Flower to a Garden in 1968.
Mark Nichols wrote a musical version of the play in 2007.
In 2008, to celebrate the 450th anniversary of the ascension of Elizabeth I, Lady and Lord Salisbury, descendant of Robert Cecil, commissioned composer Scott Stroman to create a new set of Shakespeare Songs, most which were drawn from As You Like It. They were premiered in the Great Hall in which Elizabeth had held her first council of state in 1558.
Michael John Trotta composed a setting of "Blow, Blow, Thou Winter Wind '' for choir in 2013.
According to the history of radio station WCAL in the US state of Minnesota, As You Like It may have been the first play ever broadcast. It went over the air in 1922.
On 1 March 2015, BBC Radio 3 broadcast a new production directed by Sally Avens with music composed by actor and singer Johnny Flynn of acclaimed folk rock band Johnny Flynn and The Sussex Wit. The production included Pippa Nixon as Rosalind, Luke Norris as Orlando, Adrian Scarborough as Touchstone, William Houston as Jaques, Ellie Kendrick as Celia and Jude Akuwudike as Corin.
As You Like It was Laurence Olivier 's first Shakespeare film. Olivier, however, served only in an acting capacity (performing the role of Orlando), rather than producing or directing the film. Made in England and released in 1936, As You Like It also starred director Paul Czinner 's wife Elizabeth Bergner, who played Rosalind with a thick German accent. Although it is much less "Hollywoody '' than the versions of A Midsummer Night 's Dream and Romeo and Juliet made at about the same time, and although its cast was made up entirely of Shakespearean actors, it was not considered a success by either Olivier or the critics.
Helen Mirren starred as Rosalind in the 1978 BBC videotaped version of As You Like It, directed by Basil Coleman.
In 1992, Christine Edzard made another film adaptation of the play. It features James Fox, Cyril Cusack, Andrew Tiernan, Griff Rhys Jones, and Ewen Bremner. The action is transposed to a modern and bleak urban world.
A film version of As You Like It, set in 19th - century Japan, was released in 2006, directed by Kenneth Branagh. It stars Bryce Dallas Howard, David Oyelowo, Romola Garai, Alfred Molina, Kevin Kline, and Brian Blessed. Although it was actually made for cinemas, it was released to theatres only in Europe, and had its U.S. premiere on HBO in 2007. And although it was not a made - for - television film, Kevin Kline won a Screen Actors Guild award for Best Performance by a Male Actor in a Television Movie or Miniseries for his performance as Jaques.
In 2012, Distant Thunder Films produced an award - winning film adaptation of the play set in modern - day San Francisco 's Mission District. Directed by Marika Sonja Cotter, a graduate of the USC School of Cinematic Arts, LOVE: As You Like It was produced with a crowd - sourced budget of roughly $16,000. Though deeply abridged, this feature - length adaptation features the original language of the play and offers an interpretation of the play through the use of performance, color, camera movement, space and medium (both Super 8mm film and digital video were used).
Daniel Aquisito and Sammy Buck adapted this play into an 1980s themed musical entitled Like You Like It.
For Shakespeare 's 450th birthday Scott Stroman adapted the play into a stage musical of the same name, premiered in London, England by Highbury Opera Theatre in June 2014. www.highburyoperatheatre.com Stroman 's version edits Shakespeare 's original text, removing subplots and combining characters to make room for the jazz - influenced music, which also alludes to the music of William Byrd. In addition to the songs existing in the play he sets some sections of dialogue as songs (All the World 's a Stage, What ' Tis to Love, Married Tomorrow), borrows songs from other plays (O Mistress Mine, Sigh No More, Fear No More) and creates a musical prologue (Crabbed Age and Youth, from The Passionate Pilgrim).
A manga - style graphic novel was released in January 2009 by Self - Made Hero publishers, where the setting of the Forest of Arden has been transposed to modern - day China. The story has been adapted by Richard Appignanesi and features the illustrations of Chie Kutsuwada.
The Seven Doors of Danny, by Ricky Horscraft and John McCullough is based on the "Seven Ages of Man '' element of the "All the World 's a Stage '' speech and was premiered in April 2016.
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where did the term poached eggs come from | Poached egg - wikipedia
A poached egg is an egg that has been cooked by poaching, as opposed to simmering or boiling liquid. This method of preparation is favored for delicate foods that could be damaged by cooking at higher temperatures such as the boiling point of water.
The egg is cracked into a cup or bowl of any size, and then gently slid into a pan of water at approximately 75 Celsius and cooked until the egg white has mostly solidified, but the yolk remains soft. The "perfect '' poached egg has a runny yolk, with a hardening crust and no raw white remaining.
Broken into water at the poaching temperature, the white will cling to the yolk, resulting in cooked egg white and runny yolk.
Any given chicken egg contains some egg white that is prone to dispersing into the poaching liquid and cooking into an undesirable foam. To prevent this, the egg can be strained beforehand to remove the thinner component of the egg white. A small amount of vinegar may also be added to the water, as its acidic qualities accelerate the poaching process. Stirring the water vigorously to create a vortex may also reduce dispersion.
The term "poaching '' is used for this method but is actually incorrect. The egg is placed in a cup and suspended over simmering water, using a special pan called an "egg - poacher ''. This is usually a wide - bottomed pan with an inner lid, with holes containing a number of circular cups that each hold one egg, with an additional lid over the top. To cook, the pan is filled with water and brought to a simmer, or a gentle boil. The outer lid holds in the steam, ensuring that the heat surrounds the egg completely. The cups are often lubricated with butter in order to effect easy removal of the cooked egg, although non-stick egg poachers are also available.
The result is very similar to the traditional coddled egg, although these steamed eggs are often cooked for longer, and hence are firmer. Eggs so prepared are often served on buttered toast.
Poached eggs are used in the traditional American breakfast / brunch dish Eggs Benedict.
Poached eggs are the basis for many dishes in Louisiana Creole cuisine, such as Eggs Sardou, Eggs Portuguese, Eggs Hussarde and Eggs St. Charles. Creole poached egg dishes are typically served for brunches.
Several cuisines include eggs poached in soup or broth and served in the soup. In parts of central Colombia, for instance, a popular breakfast item is eggs poached in a scallion / coriander broth with milk, known as changua or simply caldo de huevo ("egg soup '').
The Libyan dish Shakshouka consists of eggs poached in a spicy tomato sauce.
In Italy poached eggs are typically seasoned with grated parmigiano reggiano and butter (or olive oil).
In Korean cuisine, poached eggs are known as suran (수란) and is topped with variety of garnishes such as chili threads, rock tripe threads, and scallion threads.
Turkish dish Çılbır consists of poached eggs, yogurt sauce with garlic and butter with red peppers.
In India, fried eggs are most commonly called "poached, '' but are sometimes also known as bullseyes, as a reference to "bullseye '' targets, or "half - boil '' in Southern India, indicating that they are partly cooked. These eggs are "poached '' in name only and so do not share the same preparation method as poached eggs in other countries.
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list of states chief ministers and governors of india | List of current Indian Chief Ministers - Wikipedia
-- -- -- -- -- -- --
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- Executive:
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- Legislature:
Judiciary:
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- Political parties
National coalitions:
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- State governments
Legislatures:
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- Local governments: Rural bodies:
Urban bodies:
In the Republic of India, a chief minister is the head of government of each of twenty - nine states and two union territories (Delhi and Puducherry). According to the Constitution of India, at the state - level, the governor is de jure head, but de facto executive authority rests with the chief minister. Following elections to the state legislative assembly, the governor usually invites the party (or coalition) with a majority of seats to form the government. The governor appoints the chief minister, whose council of ministers are collectively responsible to the assembly. Given he has the assembly 's confidence, the chief minister 's term is usually for a maximum of five years; there are no limits to the number of terms he / she can serve.
Of the thirty incumbents, two are women -- Mamata Banerjee in West Bengal and Vasundhara Raje in Rajasthan. Serving since December 1994 (for 23 years, 189 days), Sikkim 's Pawan Kumar Chamling has the longest incumbency. Amarinder Singh (b. 1942) of Punjab is the oldest chief minister while Arunachal Pradesh 's Pema Khandu (b. 1979) is the youngest. Fifteen incumbents belong to the Bharatiya Janata Party and three to the Indian National Congress; no other party has more than one chief minister in office.
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is there anything higher than a platinum album | Recording Industry Association of America certification - wikipedia
In the United States, the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) awards certification based on the number of albums and singles sold through retail and other ancillary markets. Other countries have similar awards (see music recording sales certification). Certification is not automatic; for an award to be made, the record label must request certification. The audit is conducted against net shipments after returns (most often an artist 's royalty statement is used), which includes albums sold directly to retailers and one - stops, direct - to - consumer sales (music clubs and mail order) and other outlets.
Presently, an American RIAA - certified Gold record is a single or album that has sold 500,000 units (records, tapes or compact discs). The award was launched in 1958; originally, the requirement for a Gold single was one million units sold and a Gold album represented $1 million in sales (at wholesale value, around a third of the list price). In 1975, the additional requirement of 500,000 units sold was added for Gold albums. Reflecting growth in record sales, the Platinum award was added in 1976 for albums selling one million units, and singles selling two million units. The Multi-Platinum award was introduced in 1984, signifying multiple Platinum levels of albums and singles. In 1989, the sales thresholds for singles were reduced to 500,000 for Gold and 1,000,000 for Platinum, reflecting a decrease in sales of singles. In 1992, RIAA began counting each disc in a multi-disc set as one unit toward certification. Reflecting additional growth in music sales, the Diamond award was instituted in 1999 for albums or singles selling ten million units. Because of these changes in criteria, the sales level associated with a particular award depends on when the award was made.
Nielsen SoundScan figures are not used in RIAA certification; the RIAA system predates Nielsen SoundScan and includes sales outlets Nielsen misses. Prior to Nielsen SoundScan, RIAA certification was the only audited and verifiable system for tracking music sales in the U.S.; it is still the only system capable of tracking 100 % of sales (albeit as shipments less returns, not actual sales like Nielsen SoundScan). This system has allowed, at times, for record labels to promote an album as Gold or Platinum simply based on large shipments. For instance, in 1978 the Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band soundtrack shipped Platinum but was a sales bust, with two million returns. Similarly, all four solo albums by the members of Kiss simultaneously shipped Platinum that same year but did not reach the top 20 of the Billboard 200 album chart. The following year, the RIAA began requiring 120 days from the release date before recordings were eligible for certification, although that requirement has been reduced over the years and currently stands at 30 days. Sony was widely criticized in 1995 for hyping Michael Jackson 's double album HIStory as five times Platinum, based on shipments of 2.5 million and using the RIAA 's recently adopted practice of counting each disc toward certification, while SoundScan was reporting only 1.3 million copies sold. A similar discrepancy between shipments and sales was reported with The Lion King soundtrack.
For further information, see Music recording sales certification.
Multi-disc albums are counted once for each disc within the album if it is over 100 minutes in length or is from the vinyl era. For example, each copy of The Smashing Pumpkins 's Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness (running time of 121: 39), and OutKast 's Speakerboxxx / The Love Below (running time of 134: 56), both double albums, were counted twice, meaning each album was certified diamond after 5 million copies were shipped. Pink Floyd 's The Wall and The Beatles ' White Album, both vinyl - era, are also counted double even though their running times are under the minimum requirement.
Since 2000, the RIAA also awards Los Premios de Oro y De Platino (Gold and Platinum Awards in Spanish) to Latin albums which are defined by the RIAA as a type of product that features at least 51 % of content in Spanish.
As of December 20, 2013, the award levels for Latin certifications are:
For certifications made before December 20, 2013, the award levels are:
Note: The number of sales required to qualify for Oro and Platino awards was higher prior to January 1, 2008. The thresholds were 100,000 units (Oro) and 200,000 units (Platino). All Spanish - language albums certified prior to 2008 were updated to match the current certification at the time. "La Bomba '' by Bolivian group Azul Azul is the only single to receive a Latin certification based on shipments before the creation of the Latin digital singles awards in 2013. The Disco de Diamante award was introduced after the RIAA updated the thresholds for Latin certifications in December 20, 2013. The Disco de Diamante is awarded to Latin albums that have been certified 10 × Platinum.
Standard singles are certified:
Note: The number of sales required to qualify for Gold and Platinum discs was higher prior to January 1, 1989. The thresholds were previously 1,000,000 units (Gold) and 2,000,000 units (Platinum).
Digital singles are certified:
From 2004 through July 2006, the certification level was 100,000 downloads for Gold and 200,000 for Platinum. When the RIAA changed the certification standards to match retail distribution in August 2006, all Platinum and Multi-Platinum awards for a digital release were withdrawn. Gold certifications, however, were not, meaning a song that was downloaded over 100,000 times and certified so by the RIAA during that time frame retains its Gold status.
Starting May 9, 2013 RIAA certifications for singles in the "digital '' category include on - demand audio and / or video song streams in addition to downloads at a rate of 100 streams = 1 certification "unit ''. On January 2, 2016, this rate was updated to 150 streams = 1 certification unit.
Latin digital singles are certified:
The Latin Digital Single Awards began on December 20, 2013. As with the digital sales, 100 streams count as one download sale.
Along with albums, digital albums, and singles there is another classification of music release called "Video Longform. '' This release format includes DVD and VHS releases, and certain live albums and compilation albums. The certification criteria are slightly different from other styles.
Lists from RIAA site showing current status holders of RIAA Certifications:
Albums that have been certified Gold might receive additional certifications for achieving Platinum and Multi-Platinum levels.
Note: The RIAA provides the Detailed List of Artists with Most Album Certified Units
Singles that have been certified Gold might receive additional certifications for achieving Platinum and Multi-Platinum levels. For example, Eminem has had 13 singles certified Gold, 8 of which went on to achieve Platinum certification as well.
This list includes the RIAA formats ' Single ', ' 12 inch single ' and ' Video Single '. This list includes singles of the RIAA types ' standard ' and ' digital '.
This table tracks artists with some number of singles that have received at least twenty total certifications.
Note: The RIAA provides the Detailed List of Artists with Most Singles Certified Units
Diamond (10 + million) certified albums and singles
Diamante certified Latin albums and singles (1 + million for Latin albums certified before December 2013 and 600,000 + for Latin albums and singles certified after December 2013
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what is the legislative body of chicago called | Government of Chicago - wikipedia
The government of the City of Chicago, Illinois is divided into executive and legislative branches. The Mayor of Chicago is the chief executive, elected by general election for a term of four years, with no term limits. The mayor appoints commissioners and other officials who oversee the various departments. In addition to the mayor, Chicago 's two other citywide elected officials are the City Clerk and the treasurer.
The City Council is the legislative branch and is made up of 50 aldermen, one elected from each ward in the city. The council takes official action through the passage of ordinances and resolutions and approves the city budget. Government priorities and activities are established in a budget ordinance usually adopted each November.
Chicago is a special charter municipality. The Journal of the Proceedings of the City Council of the City of Chicago is the official publication of the acts of the City Council. The Municipal Code of Chicago is the codification of Chicago 's local ordinances of a general and permanent nature.
Chicago is also part of Cook County. The Government of Cook County is primarily composed of the Board of Commissioners, other elected officials such as the Sheriff, State 's Attorney, Treasurer, Board of Review, Clerk, Assessor, Recorder, Circuit Court judges and Circuit Court Clerk, as well as numerous other officers and entities. Other municipal agencies within the Government of City of Chicago includes: The Chicago Housing Authority, Chicago Transit Authority and The Metropolitan Pier & Exposition Authority (ubiquitously referred to as "McPier '' in reference to The McCormick Place and Chicago 's popular tourist attraction Navy Pier).
The United States Postal Service operates post offices in Chicago. The main Chicago Post Office is located at 433 West Harrison Street in the Near West Side community area. The post office is the only 24 - hour post office in the United States.
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i keep working my way back to you babe four seasons | Working My Way Back to You - wikipedia
"Working My Way Back to You '' is a song made popular by The Four Seasons in 1966 and The Spinners in 1980.
Written by Sandy Linzer and Denny Randell, the song was originally recorded by The Four Seasons in 1966, reaching number nine on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100. In the UK Top 50 chart it spent three weeks - all at No. 50. It is the only hit to feature the group 's arranger Charles Calello in the temporary role of bassist / bass vocalist, having replaced original member Nick Massi.
The song is about a man who cheated on his girlfriend and also emotionally abused her. When she leaves, he realizes that he did love her and is very remorseful about his past actions. He vows to win her love back. It is in some ways a re-casting of the melody from their previous hit, "Let 's Hang On! ''.
In 1979 American soul and R&B group The Spinners recorded a medley of "Working My Way Back to You '' and Michael Zager 's "Forgive Me Girl, '' topping the UK Singles Chart for two weeks in April 1980. On the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart, the medley (released in December 1979 in the U.S.) peaked at the number two position in March and April 1980 for two weeks, behind "Another Brick in the Wall '' by Pink Floyd. The Spinners version also made it to number six on the Soul Singles chart and number eight on the disco / dance chart.
The Irish boyband, Boyzone, released a cover version of "Working My Way Back to You '' as their debut single in May 1994. The song reached # 3 on the Irish Singles Chart. It is one of the few songs to feature Mikey Graham on lead vocals. The band recorded two versions of the song, one of which was a collaboration with Alliage. The track is credited as being a major turning point in the career of producer - songwriter Steve Mac. A lack of interest from the "usual producers '' led to Polydor phoning up Mac and asking him to take on the role, and by doing he effectively made a decisive progression from his early Dance - pop singles to the mature balladry he has since made a very successful career out of.
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who began the religious change in england and who carried out the change over several years | History of the Church of England - wikipedia
The formal history of the Church of England is traditionally dated by the Church to the Gregorian mission to England by Saint Augustine of Canterbury in AD 597. As a result of Augustine 's mission, Christianity in England, from Anglican (English) perspective, came under the authority of the Pope. However, in 1534 King Henry VIII declared himself to be supreme head of the Church of England. This resulted in a schism with the Papacy. As a result of this schism, many non-Anglicans consider that the Church of England only existed from the 16th century Protestant Reformation.
However, Christianity arrived in the British Isles around AD 47 during the Roman Empire according to Gildas 's De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae. Archbishop Restitutus and others are known to have attended the council of Arles in 314. Christianity developed roots in Sub-Roman Britain and later Ireland, Scotland, and Pictland. The Anglo - Saxons (Germanic pagans who progressively seized British territory) during the 5th, 6th and 7th centuries, established a small number of kingdoms and evangelisation of the Anglo - Saxons was carried out by the successors of the Gregorian mission and by Celtic missionaries from Scotland. The church in Wales remained isolated and was only brought within the jurisdiction of English bishops several centuries later.
The Church of England became the established church by an Act of Parliament in the Act of Supremacy, beginning a series of events known as the English Reformation. During the reign of Queen Mary I and King Philip, the church was fully restored under Rome in 1555. However, the pope 's authority was again explicitly rejected after the accession of Queen Elizabeth I when the Act of Supremacy 1558 was passed. Catholic and Reformed factions vied for determining the doctrines and worship of the church. This ended with the 1558 Elizabethan Settlement, which developed the understanding that the church was to be "both Catholic and Reformed ''.
According to medieval traditions, Christianity arrived in Britain in the 1st or 2nd century, although stories involving Joseph of Arimathea, King Lucius, and Fagan are now usually accounted as pious forgeries. The earliest historical evidence of Christianity among the native Britons is found in the writings of such early Christian Fathers as Tertullian and Origen in the first years of the 3rd century, although the first Christian communities probably were established some decades earlier.
Three Romano - British bishops, including Restitutus, metropolitan bishop of London, are known to have been present at the Council of Arles in 314. Others attended the Council of Sardica in 347 and that of Ariminum in 360. A number of references to the church in Roman Britain are also found in the writings of 4th century Christian fathers. Britain was the home of Pelagius, who opposed Augustine of Hippo 's doctrine of original sin. The first recorded Christian martyr in Britain, St Alban, is thought to have lived in the early 4th century, and his prominence in English hagiography is reflected in the number of parish churches of which he is patron.
Irish Anglicans trace their origins back to the founding saint of Irish Christianity (St Patrick) who is believed to have been a Roman Briton and pre-dated Anglo - Saxon Christianity. Anglicans also consider Celtic Christianity a forerunner of their church, since the re-establishment of Christianity in some areas of Great Britain in the 6th century came via Irish and Scottish missionaries, notably followers of St Patrick and St Columba.
Anglicans traditionally date the origins of their Church to the arrival in the Kingdom of Kent of the Gregorian mission to the pagan Anglo - Saxons led by the first Archbishop of Canterbury, St Augustine, at the end of the 6th century. Alone among the kingdoms then existing Kent was Jutish, rather than Anglian or Saxon. However, the origin of the Church in the British Isles extends farther back (see above).
Æthelberht of Kent 's queen Bertha, daughter of Charibert, one of the Merovingian kings of the Franks, had brought a chaplain (Liudhard) with her. Bertha had restored a church remaining from Roman times to the east of Canterbury and dedicated it to Saint Martin of Tours, the patronal saint of the Merovingian royal family. This church, Saint Martin 's, is the oldest church in England still in use today. Æthelberht himself, though a pagan, allowed his wife to worship God in her own way, at St Martin 's. Probably influenced by his wife, Æthelberht asked Pope Gregory I to send missionaries, and in 596 the Pope dispatched Augustine, together with a party of monks.
Augustine had served as praepositus (prior) of the monastery of Saint Andrew in Rome, founded by Gregory. His party lost heart on the way and Augustine went back to Rome from Provence and asked his superiors to abandon the mission project. The pope, however, commanded and encouraged continuation, and Augustine and his followers landed on the Island of Thanet in the spring of 597.
Æthelberht permitted the missionaries to settle and preach in his town of Canterbury, first in Saint Martin 's Church and then nearby at what later became St Augustine 's Abbey. By the end of the year he himself had been converted, and Augustine received consecration as a bishop at Arles. At Christmas 10,000 of the king 's subjects underwent baptism.
Augustine sent a report of his success to Gregory with certain questions concerning his work. In 601 Mellitus, Justus and others brought the pope 's replies, with the pallium for Augustine and a present of sacred vessels, vestments, relics, books, and the like. Gregory directed the new archbishop to ordain as soon as possible twelve suffragan bishops and to send a bishop to York, who should also have twelve suffragans. Augustine did not carry out this papal plan, nor did he establish the primatial see at London (in the Kingdom of the East Saxons) as Gregory intended, as the Londoners remained heathen. Augustine did consecrate Mellitus as bishop of London and Justus as bishop of Rochester.
Pope Gregory issued more practicable mandates concerning heathen temples and usages: he desired that temples become consecrated to Christian service and asked Augustine to transform pagan practices, so far as possible, into dedication ceremonies or feasts of martyrs, since "he who would climb to a lofty height must go up by steps, not leaps '' (letter of Gregory to Mellitus, in Bede, i, 30).
Augustine re-consecrated and rebuilt an old church at Canterbury as his cathedral and founded a monastery in connection with it. He also restored a church and founded the monastery of St Peter and St Paul outside the walls. He died before completing the monastery, but now lies buried in the Church of St Peter and St Paul.
In 616 Æthelberht of Kent died. The kingdom of Kent and those Anglo - Saxon kingdoms over which Kent had influence relapsed into heathenism for several decades. During the next 50 years Celtic missionaries evangelised the kingdom of Northumbria with an episcopal see at Lindisfarne and missionaries then proceeded to some of the other kingdoms to evangelise those also. Mercia and Sussex were among the last kingdoms to undergo Christianization.
The Synod of Whitby in 664 forms a significant watershed in that King Oswiu of Northumbria decided to follow Roman rather than Celtic practices. The Synod of Whitby established the Roman date for Easter and the Roman style of monastic tonsure in Britain. This meeting of the ecclesiastics with Roman customs and local bishops following Celtic ecclesiastical customs was summoned in 664 at Saint Hilda 's double monastery of Streonshalh (Streanæshalch), later called Whitby Abbey. It was presided over by King Oswiu, who did not engage in the debate but made the final ruling.
A later archbishop of Canterbury, the Greek Theodore of Tarsus, also contributed to the organisation of Christianity in England, reforming many aspects of the church 's administration.
As in other parts of medieval Europe, tension existed between the local monarch and the Pope about civil judicial authority over clerics, taxes and the wealth of the Church, and appointments of bishops, notably during the reigns of Henry II and John. As begun by Alfred the Great in 871 and consolidated under William the Conqueror in 1066, England became a politically unified entity at an earlier date than other European countries. One of the effects was that the units of government, both of church and state, were comparatively large. England was divided between the Province of Canterbury and the Province of York under two archbishops. At the time of the Norman Conquest, there were only 15 diocesan bishops in England, increased to 17 in the 12th century with the creation of the sees of Ely and Carlisle. This is far fewer than the numbers in France and Italy. A further four medieval dioceses in Wales came within the Province of Canterbury. Following the depredations of the Viking invasions of the 9th century, most English monasteries had ceased to function and the cathedrals were typically served by small communities of married priests. King Edgar and his Archbishop of Canterbury Dunstan instituted a major reform of cathedrals at a synod at Winchester in 970, where it was agreed that all bishops should seek to establish monasticism in their cathedrals following the Benedictine rule, with the bishop as abbot. Excavations have demonstrated that the reformed monastic cathedrals of Canterbury, Winchester, Sherborne and Worcester were rebuilt on a lavish scale in the late 10th century. However, renewed Viking attacks in the reign of Ethelred, stalled the progress of monastic revival.
In 1072, following the Norman Conquest, William the Conqueror and his archbishop Lanfranc sought to complete the programme of reform. Durham and Rochester cathedrals were refounded as Benedictine monasteries, the secular cathedral of Wells was moved to monastic Bath, while the secular cathedral of Lichfield was moved to Chester, and then to monastic Coventry. Norman bishops were seeking to establish an endowment income entirely separate from that of their cathedral body, and this was inherently more difficult in a monastic cathedral, where the bishop was also titular abbot. Hence, following Lanfanc 's death in 1090, a number of bishops took advantage of the vacancy to obtain secular constitutions for their cathedrals -- Lincoln, Sarum, Chichester, Exeter and Hereford; while the major urban cathedrals of London and York always remained secular. Furthermore, when the bishops ' seats were transferred back from Coventry to Lichfield, and from Bath to Wells, these sees reverted to being secular. Bishops of monastic cathedrals, tended to find themselves embroiled in long - running legal disputes with their respective monastic bodies; and increasingly tended to reside elsewhere. The bishops of Ely and Winchester lived in London as did the Archbishop of Canterbury. The bishops of Worcester generally lived in York, while the bishops of Carlisle lived at Melbourne in Derbyshire. Monastic governance of cathedrals continued in England, Scotland and Wales throughout the medieval period; whereas elsewhere in western Europe it was found only at Monreale in Sicily and Downpatrick in Ireland.
An important aspect in the practice of medieval Christianity was the veneration of saints, and the associated pilgrimages to places where the relics of a particular saint were interred and the saint 's tradition honoured. The possession of the relics of a popular saint was a source of funds to the individual church as the faithful made donations and benefactions in the hope that they might receive spiritual aid, a blessing or a healing from the presence of the physical remains of the holy person. Among those churches to benefit in particular were: St. Alban 's Abbey, which contained the relics of England 's first Christian martyr; Ripon, with the shrine of its founder St. Wilfrid; Durham, which was built to house the body of Saints Cuthbert of Lindisfarne and Aidan; Ely, with the shrine of St. Etheldreda; Westminster Abbey, with the magnificent shrine of its founder St. Edward the Confessor; and Chichester, which held the honoured remains of St. Richard. All these saints brought pilgrims to their churches, but among them the most renowned was Thomas Becket, the late Archbishop of Canterbury, who was assassinated by henchmen of King Henry II in 1170. As a place of pilgrimage Canterbury was, in the 13th century, second only to Santiago de Compostela.
John Wycliffe (about 1320 -- 31 December 1384) was an English theologian and an early dissident against the Roman Catholic Church during the 14th century. He founded the Lollard movement, which opposed a number of practices of the Church. He was also against papal encroachments on secular power. Wycliffe was associated with statements indicating that the Church in Rome is not the head of all churches, nor did St Peter have any more powers given to him than other disciples. These statements were related to his call for a reformation of its wealth, corruption and abuses. Wycliffe, an Oxford scholar, went so far as to state that "... The Gospel by itself is a rule sufficient to rule the life of every Christian person on the earth, without any other rule. '' The Lollard movement continued with his pronouncements from pulpits even under the persecution that followed with Henry IV up to and including the early years of the reign of Henry VIII.
The first break with Rome (subsequently reversed) came when Pope Clement VII refused, over a period of years, to annul Henry 's marriage to Catherine of Aragon, not purely as a matter of principle, but also because the Pope lived in fear of Catherine 's nephew, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, as a result of events in the Italian Wars.
Henry first asked for an annulment in 1527. After various failed initiatives he stepped up the pressure on Rome, in the summer of 1529, by compiling a manuscript from ancient sources arguing that, in law, spiritual supremacy rested with the monarch and also against the legality of Papal authority. In 1531 Henry first challenged the Pope when he demanded 100,000 pounds from the clergy in exchange for a royal pardon for what he called their illegal jurisdiction. He also demanded that the clergy should recognise him as their sole protector and supreme head. The church in England recognised Henry VIII as supreme head of the Church of England on 11 February 1531. Nonetheless, he continued to seek a compromise with the Pope, but negotiations (which had started in 1530 and ended in 1532) with the papal legate Antonio Giovanni da Burgio failed. Efforts by Henry to appeal to Jewish scholarship concerning the contours of levirate marriage were unavailing as well.
In May 1532 the Church of England agreed to surrender its legislative independence and canon law to the authority of the monarch. In 1533 the Statute in Restraint of Appeals removed the right of the English clergy and laity to appeal to Rome on matters of matrimony, tithes and oblations. It also gave authority over such matters to the Archbishops of Canterbury and York. This finally allowed Thomas Cranmer, the new Archbishop of Canterbury, to issue Henry 's annulment; and upon procuring it, Henry married Anne Boleyn. Pope Clement VII excommunicated Henry VIII in 1533.
In 1534 the Act of Submission of the Clergy removed the right of all appeals to Rome, effectively ending the Pope 's influence. The first Act of Supremacy confirmed Henry by statute as the Supreme Head of the Church of England in 1536. (Due to clergy objections the contentious term "Supreme Head '' for the monarch later became "Supreme Governor of the Church of England '' -- which is the title held by the reigning monarch to the present.)
Such constitutional changes made it not only possible for Henry to have his marriage annulled but also gave him access to the considerable wealth that the Church had amassed. Thomas Cromwell, as Vicar General, launched a commission of enquiry into the nature and value of all ecclesiastical property in 1535, which culminated in the Dissolution of the Monasteries (1536 -- 1540).
Many Roman Catholics consider the separation of the Church in England from Rome in 1534 to be the true origin of the Church of England, rather than dating it from the mission of St. Augustine in AD 597. While Anglicans acknowledge that Henry VIII 's repudiation of papal authority caused the Church of England to become a separate entity, they believe that it is in continuity with the pre-Reformation Church of England. Apart from its distinct customs and liturgies (such as the Sarum rite), the organizational machinery of the Church of England was in place by the time of the Synod of Hertford in 672 -- 673, when the English bishops were first able to act as one body under the leadership of the Archbishop of Canterbury. Henry 's Act in Restraint of Appeals (1533) and the Acts of Supremacy (1534) declared that the English crown was "the only Supreme Head in earth of the Church of England, called Ecclesia Anglicana, '' in order "to repress and extirpate all errors, heresies, and other enormities and abuses heretofore used in the same. '' The development of the Thirty - Nine Articles of religion and the passage of the Acts of Uniformity culminated in the Elizabethan Religious Settlement. By the end of the 17th century, the English church described itself as both Catholic and Reformed, with the English monarch as its Supreme Governor. MacCulloch commenting on this situation says that it "has never subsequently dared to define its identity decisively as Protestant or Catholic, and has decided in the end that this is a virtue rather than a handicap. ''
The English Reformation was initially driven by the dynastic goals of Henry VIII, who, in his quest for a consort who would bear him a male heir, found it expedient to replace papal authority with the supremacy of the English crown. The early legislation focused primarily on questions of temporal and spiritual supremacy. The Institution of the Christian Man (also called The Bishops ' Book) of 1537 was written by a committee of 46 divines and bishops headed by Thomas Cranmer. The purpose of the work, along with the Ten Articles of the previous year, was to implement the reforms of Henry VIII in separating from the Roman Catholic Church and reforming the Ecclesia Anglicana. "The work was a noble endeavor on the part of the bishops to promote unity, and to instruct the people in Church doctrine. '' The introduction of the Great Bible in 1538 brought a vernacular translation of the Scriptures into churches. The Dissolution of the Monasteries and the seizure of their assets by 1540 brought huge amounts of church land and property under the jurisdiction of the Crown, and ultimately into the hands of the English nobility. This simultaneously removed the greatest centres of loyalty to the pope and created vested interests which made a powerful material incentive to support a separate Christian church in England under the rule of the Crown.
By 1549, the process of reforming the ancient national church was fully spurred on by the publication of the first vernacular prayer book, the Book of Common Prayer, and the enforcement of the Acts of Uniformity, establishing English as the language of public worship. The theological justification for Anglican distinctiveness was begun by the Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, the principal author of the first prayer book, and continued by others such as Matthew Parker, Richard Hooker and Lancelot Andrewes. Cranmer had worked as a diplomat in Europe and was aware of the ideas of Reformers such as Andreas Osiander and Friedrich Myconius as well as the Roman Catholic theologian Desiderius Erasmus.
During the short reign of Edward VI, Henry 's son, Cranmer and others moved the Church of England significantly towards a more reformed position, which was reflected in the development of the second prayer book (1552) and in the Forty - Two Articles. This reform was reversed abruptly in the reign of Queen Mary, a Roman Catholic who re-established communion with Rome following her accession in 1553.
In the 16th century, religious life was an important part of the cement which held society together and formed an important basis for extending and consolidating political power. Differences in religion were likely to lead to civil unrest at the very least, with treason and foreign invasion acting as real threats. When Queen Elizabeth came to the throne in 1558, a solution was thought to have been found. To minimise bloodshed over religion in her dominions, the religious settlement between the factions of Rome and Geneva was brought about. It was compellingly articulated in the development of the 1559 Book of Common Prayer, the Thirty - Nine Articles, the Ordinal, and the two Books of Homilies. These works, issued under Archbishop Matthew Parker, were to become the basis of all subsequent Anglican doctrine and identity.
The new version of the prayer book was substantially the same as Cranmer 's earlier versions. It would become a source of great argument during the 17th century, but later revisions were not of great theological importance. The Thirty - Nine Articles were based on the earlier work of Cranmer, being modelled after the Forty - Two Articles.
The bulk of the population acceded to Elizabeth 's religious settlement with varying degrees of enthusiasm or resignation. It was imposed by law, and secured Parliamentary approval only by a narrow vote in which all the Roman Catholic bishops who were not imprisoned voted against. As well as those who continued to recognise papal supremacy, the more militant Protestants, or Puritans as they became known, opposed it. Both groups were punished and disenfranchised in various ways and cracks in the facade of religious unity in England appeared.
Despite separation from Rome, the Church of England under Henry VIII remained essentially Catholic rather than Protestant in nature. Pope Leo X had earlier awarded to Henry himself the title of fidei defensor (defender of the faith), partly on account of Henry 's attack on Lutheranism. Some Protestant - influenced changes under Henry included a limited iconoclasm, the abolition of pilgrimages, and pilgrimage shrines, chantries, and the extinction of many saints ' days. However, only minor changes in liturgy occurred during Henry 's reign, and he carried through the Six Articles of 1539 which reaffirmed the Catholic nature of the church.
All this took place, however, at a time of major religious upheaval in Western Europe associated with the Reformation; once the schism had occurred, some reform probably became inevitable.
Only under Henry 's son Edward VI (reigned 1547 -- 1553) did the first major changes in parish activity take place, including translation and thorough revision of the liturgy along more Protestant lines. The resulting Book of Common Prayer, issued in 1549 and revised in 1552, came into use by the authority of the Parliament of England.
Following the death of Edward, his half - sister the Roman Catholic Mary I (reigned 1553 -- 1558) came to the throne. She renounced the Henrician and Edwardian changes, first by repealing her brother 's reforms then by re-establishing unity with Rome. The Marian Persecutions of Protestants and dissenters took place at this time. The queen 's image after the persecutions turned into that of an almost legendary tyrant called Bloody Mary. This view of Bloody Mary was mainly due to the widespread publication of Foxe 's Book of Martyrs during her successor Elizabeth I 's reign.
Nigel Heard summarises the persecution thus: "It is now estimated that the 274 religious executions carried out during the last three years of Mary 's reign exceeded the number recorded in any Catholic country on the continent in the same period. ''
The second schism, from which the present Church of England originates, came later. Upon Mary 's death in 1558, her half - sister Elizabeth I (reigned 1558 -- 1603) came to power. Elizabeth became a determined opponent of papal control and re-introduced separatist ideas. In 1559, Parliament recognised Elizabeth as the Church 's supreme governor, with a new Act of Supremacy that also repealed the remaining anti-Protestant legislation. A new Book of Common Prayer appeared in the same year. Elizabeth presided over the "Elizabethan Settlement '', an attempt to satisfy the Puritan and Catholic forces in England within a single national Church. Elizabeth was eventually excommunicated on 25 February 1570 by Pope Pius V, finally breaking communion between Rome and the Anglican Church.
Shortly after coming to the throne, James I attempted to bring unity to the Church of England by instituting a commission consisting of scholars from all views within the Church to produce a unified and new translation of the Bible free of Calvinist and Popish influence. The project was begun in 1604 and completed in 1611 becoming de facto the Authorised Version in the Church of England and later other Anglican churches throughout the communion until the mid-20th century. The New Testament was translated from the Textus Receptus (Received Text) edition of the Greek texts, so called because most extant texts of the time were in agreement with it.
The Old Testament was translated from the Masoretic Hebrew text, while the Apocrypha was translated from the Greek Septuagint (LXX). The work was done by 47 scholars working in six committees, two based in each of the University of Oxford, the University of Cambridge, and Westminster. They worked on certain parts separately; then the drafts produced by each committee were compared and revised for harmony with each other.
This translation had a profound effect on English literature. The works of famous authors such as John Milton, Herman Melville, John Dryden and William Wordsworth are deeply inspired by it.
The Authorised Version is often referred to as the King James Version, particularly in the United States. King James was not personally involved in the translation, though his authorisation was legally necessary for the translation to begin, and he set out guidelines for the translation process, such as prohibiting footnotes and ensuring that Anglican positions were recognised on various points. A dedication to James by the translators still appears at the beginning of modern editions.
For the next century, through the reigns of James I and Charles I, and culminating in the English Civil War and the protectorate of Oliver Cromwell, there were significant swings back and forth between two factions: the Puritans (and other radicals) who sought more far - reaching reform, and the more conservative churchmen who aimed to keep closer to traditional beliefs and practices. The failure of political and ecclesiastical authorities to submit to Puritan demands for more extensive reform was one of the causes of open warfare. By continental standards the level of violence over religion was not high, but the casualties included a king, Charles I and an Archbishop of Canterbury, William Laud. For about a decade (1647 -- 1660), Christmas was another casualty as Parliament abolished all feasts and festivals of the Church to rid England of outward signs of Popishness. Under the Protectorate of the Commonwealth of England from 1649 to 1660, Anglicanism was disestablished, presbyterian ecclesiology was introduced as an adjunct to the Episcopal system, the Articles were replaced with a non-Presbyterian version of the Westminster Confession (1647), and the Book of Common Prayer was replaced by the Directory of Public Worship.
Despite this, about one quarter of English clergy refused to conform. In the midst of the apparent triumph of Calvinism, the 17th century brought forth a Golden Age of Anglicanism. The Caroline Divines, such as Andrewes, Laud, Herbert Thorndike, Jeremy Taylor, John Cosin, Thomas Ken and others rejected Roman claims and refused to adopt the ways and beliefs of the Continental Protestants. The historic episcopate was preserved. Truth was to be found in Scripture and the bishops and archbishops, which were to be bound to the traditions of the first four centuries of the Church 's history. The role of reason in theology was affirmed.
With the Restoration of Charles II, Anglicanism too was restored in a form not far removed from the Elizabethan version. One difference was that the ideal of encompassing all the people of England in one religious organisation, taken for granted by the Tudors, had to be abandoned. The 1662 revision of the Book of Common Prayer became the unifying text of the ruptured and repaired Church after the disaster that was the civil war.
When the new king Charles II reached the throne in 1660, he actively appointed his supporters who had resisted Cromwell to vacancies. He translated the leading supporters to the most prestigious and rewarding sees. He also considered the need to reestablish episcopal authority and to reincorporate "moderate dissenters '' in order to effect Protestant reconciliation. In some cases turnover was heavy -- he made four appointments to the diocese of Worcester in four years 1660 - 63, moving the first three up to better positions.
James II was overthrown by William of Orange in 1688, and the new king moved quickly to ease religious tensions. Many of his supporters had been Nonconformist non-Anglicans. With the Act of Toleration enacted on 24 May 1689, Nonconformists had freedom of worship. That is, those Protestants who dissented from the Church of England such as Baptists, Congregationalists and Quakers were allowed their own places of worship and their own teachers and preachers, subject to acceptance of certain oaths of allegiance. These privileges expressly did not apply to Catholics and Unitarians, and it continued the existing social and political disabilities for dissenters, including exclusion from political office. The religious settlement of 1689 shaped policy down to the 1830s. The Church of England was not only dominant in religious affairs, but it blocked outsiders from responsible positions in national and local government, business, professions and academe. In practice, the doctrine of the divine right of kings persisted Old animosities had diminished, and a new spirit of toleration was abroad. Restrictions on Nonconformists were mostly either ignored or slowly lifted. The Protestants, including the Quakers, who worked to overthrow King James II were rewarded. The Toleration Act of 1689 allowed nonconformists who have their own chapels, teachers, and preachers, censorship was relaxed. The religious landscape of England assumed its present form, with an Anglican established church occupying the middle ground, and Roman Catholics and those Puritans who dissented from the establishment, too strong to be suppressed altogether, having to continue their existence outside the national church rather than controlling it.
The history of Anglicanism since the 17th century has been one of greater geographical and cultural expansion and diversity, accompanied by a concomitant diversity of liturgical and theological profession and practice.
At the same time as the English reformation, the Church of Ireland was separated from Rome and adopted articles of faith similar to England 's Thirty - Nine Articles. However, unlike England, the Anglican church there was never able to capture the loyalty of the majority of the population (who still adhered to Roman Catholicism). As early as 1582, the Scottish Episcopal Church was inaugurated when James VI of Scotland sought to reintroduce bishops when the Church of Scotland became fully presbyterian (see Scottish reformation). The Scottish Episcopal Church enabled the creation of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America after the American Revolution, by consecrating in Aberdeen the first American bishop, Samuel Seabury, who had been refused consecration by bishops in England, due to his inability to take the oath of allegiance to the English crown prescribed in the Order for the Consecration of Bishops. The polity and ecclesiology of the Scottish and American churches, as well as their daughter churches, thus tends to be distinct from those spawned by the English church -- reflected, for example, in their looser conception of provincial government, and their leadership by a presiding bishop or primus rather than by a metropolitan or archbishop. The names of the Scottish and American churches inspire the customary term Episcopalian for an Anglican; the term being used in these and other parts of the world. See also: American Episcopalians, Scottish Episcopalians
At the time of the English Reformation the four (now six) Welsh dioceses were all part of the Province of Canterbury and remained so until 1920 when the Church in Wales was created as a province of the Anglican Communion. The intense interest in the Christian faith which characterised the Welsh in the 18th and 19th centuries was not present in the sixteenth and most Welsh people went along with the church 's reformation more because the English government was strong enough to impose its wishes in Wales rather than out of any real conviction.
Anglicanism spread outside of the British Isles by means of emigration as well as missionary effort. The 1609 wreck of the flagship of the Virginia Company, the Sea Venture, resulted in the settlement of Bermuda by that Company. This was made official in 1612, when the town of St George 's, now the oldest surviving English settlement in the New World, was established. It is the location of St Peter 's Church, the oldest - surviving Anglican church outside the British Isles (Britain and Ireland), and the oldest surviving non-Roman Catholic church in the New World, also established in 1612. It remained part of the Church of England until 1978, when the Anglican Church of Bermuda separated. The Church of England was the state religion in Bermuda and a system of parishes was set up for the religious and political subdivision of the colony (they survive, today, as both civil and religious parishes). Bermuda, like Virginia, tended to the Royalist side during the Civil War. The conflict in Bermuda resulted in the expulsion of Independent Puritans from the island (the Eleutheran Adventurers, who settled Eleuthera, in the Bahamas). The church in Bermuda, before the Civil War, had a somewhat Presbyterian flavour, but mainstream Anglicanism was asserted afterwards (although Bermuda is also home to the oldest Presbyterian church outside the British Isles). Bermudians were required by law in the 17th century to attend Church of England services, and proscriptions similar to those in England existed on other denominations.
English missionary organisations such as USPG -- then known as the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge (SPCK) and the Church Missionary Society (CMS) were established in the 17th and 18th centuries to bring Anglican Christianity to the British colonies. By the 19th century, such missions were extended to other areas of the world. The liturgical and theological orientations of these missionary organisations were diverse. The SPG, for example, was in the 19th century influenced by the Catholic Revival in the Church of England, while the CMS was influenced by the Evangelicalism of the earlier Evangelical Revival. As a result, the piety, liturgy, and polity of the indigenous churches they established came to reflect these diverse orientations.
The Plymouth Brethren seceded from the established church in the 1820s. The church in this period was affected by the Evangelical revival and the growth of industrial towns in the Industrial Revolution. There was an expansion of the various Nonconformist churches, notably Methodism. From the 1830s the Oxford Movement became influential and occasioned the revival of Anglo - Catholicism. From 1801 the Church of England and the Church of Ireland were unified and this situation lasted until the disestablishment of the Irish church in 1871 (by the Irish Church Act, 1869).
The growth of the twin "revivals '' in 19th century Anglicanism - -- Evangelical and Catholic - -- was hugely influential. The Evangelical Revival informed important social movements such as the abolition of slavery, child welfare legislation, prohibition of alcohol, the development of public health and public education. It led to the creation of the Church Army, an evangelical and social welfare association and informed piety and liturgy, most notably in the development of Methodism.
The Catholic Revival had a more penetrating impact by transforming the liturgy of the Anglican Church, repositioning the Eucharist as the central act of worship in place of the daily offices, and reintroducing the use of vestments, ceremonial, and acts of piety (such as Eucharistic adoration) that had long been prohibited in the English church and (to a certain extent) in its daughter churches. It influenced Anglican theology, through such Oxford Movement figures as John Henry Newman, Edward Pusey, as well as the Christian socialism of Charles Gore and Frederick Maurice. Much work was done to introduce a more medieval style of church furnishing in many churches. Neo-Gothic in many different forms became the norm rather than the earlier Neo-Classical forms. Both revivals led to considerable missionary efforts in parts of the British Empire.
Patronage continued to play a central role in Church affairs. Not since Newcastle, over a century before, did a prime minister pay as much attention to church vacancies as William Ewart Gladstone. He annoyed Queen Victoria by making appointments she did not like. He worked to match the skills of candidates to the needs of specific church offices. He supported his party by favouring Liberals who would support his political positions. His counterpart, Disraeli, favoured Conservative bishops to a small extent, but took care to distribute bishoprics so as to balance various church factions. He occasionally sacrificed party advantage to choose a more qualified candidate. On most issues Disraeli and Queen Victoria were close, but they frequently clashed over church nominations because of her aversion to high churchmen.
The current form of military chaplain dates from the era of the First World War. A chaplain provides spiritual and pastoral support for service personnel, including the conduct of religious services at sea or in the field. The Army Chaplains Department was granted the prefix "Royal '' in recognition of the chaplains ' wartime service. The Chaplain General of the British Army was Bishop John Taylor Smith who held the post from 1901 to 1925.
An attempt to revise the Book of Common Prayer in 1928 was nullified by opposition in the House of Commons.
During the Second World War the head of chaplaincy in the British Army was an (Anglican) chaplain - general, the Very Revd Charles Symons (with the military rank of major - general), who was formally under the control of the Permanent Under - Secretary of State. An assistant chaplain - general was a chaplain 1st class (full colonel), and a senior chaplain was a chaplain 2nd class (lieutenant colonel).
A movement towards unification with the Methodist Church in the 1960s failed to pass through all the required stages on the Anglican side, being rejected by the General Synod in 1972. This was initiated by the Methodists and welcomed on the part of the Anglicans but full agreement on all points could not be reached.
The Church Assembly was replaced by the General Synod in 1970.
On 12 March 1994 the Church of England ordained its first female priests. On 11 July 2005 a vote was passed by the Church of England 's General Synod in York to allow women 's ordination as bishops. Both of these events were subject to opposition from some within the church who found difficulties in accepting them. Adjustments had to be made in the diocesan structure to accommodate those parishes unwilling to accept the ministry of women priests. (See women 's ordination)
The first black archbishop of the Church of England, John Sentamu, formerly of Uganda, was enthroned on 30 November 2005 as Archbishop of York.
In 2006 the Church of England at its General Synod made a public apology for the institutional role it played as a historic owner of slave plantations in Barbados and Barbuda. The Reverend Simon Bessant recounted the history of the church on the island of Barbados, West Indies, where through a charitable bequest received in 1710 by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, thousands of sugar plantation slaves had been appallingly treated and branded using red - hot irons as the property of the "society ''.
In 2010, for the first time in the history of the Church of England, more women than men were ordained as priests (290 women and 273 men).
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who does spider man end up with in spider man homecoming | Spider - Man: Homecoming - Wikipedia
Spider - Man: Homecoming is a 2017 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics character Spider - Man, co-produced by Columbia Pictures and Marvel Studios, and distributed by Sony Pictures Releasing. It is the second Spider - Man film reboot and the sixteenth film of the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). The film is directed by Jon Watts, with a screenplay by the writing teams of Jonathan Goldstein and John Francis Daley, Watts and Christopher Ford, and Chris McKenna and Erik Sommers. Tom Holland stars as Spider - Man, alongside Michael Keaton, Jon Favreau, Zendaya, Donald Glover, Tyne Daly, Marisa Tomei and Robert Downey Jr. In Spider - Man: Homecoming, Peter Parker tries to balance high school life with being Spider - Man, while facing the Vulture.
In February 2015, Marvel Studios and Sony reached a deal to share the character rights of Spider - Man, integrating the character into the established MCU. The following June, Holland was cast as the title character, while Watts was hired to direct, followed shortly by the casting of Tomei and the hiring of Daley and Goldstein. In April 2016, the film 's title was revealed, along with additional cast, including Downey. Principal photography began in June 2016 at Pinewood Atlanta Studios in Fayette County, Georgia, and continued in Atlanta, Los Angeles and New York City. The additional screenwriters were revealed during filming, which concluded in Berlin in October 2016. The production team made efforts to differentiate the film from previous Spider - Man incarnations.
Spider - Man: Homecoming premiered in Hollywood on June 28, 2017, and was released in the United States on July 7, 2017, in 3D, IMAX and IMAX 3D. Homecoming has grossed over $880 million worldwide, making it the second most successful Spider - Man film and the fourth highest - grossing film of 2017. It received positive reviews, with critics praising Holland and the other cast 's performances, the light tone and the action sequences. A sequel is scheduled to be released on July 5, 2019.
Following the Battle of New York, Adrian Toomes and his salvage company are contracted to clean up the city, but their operation is taken over by the Department of Damage Control (D.O.D.C.), a partnership between Tony Stark and the U.S. government. Enraged at being driven out of business, Toomes persuades his employees to keep the Chitauri technology they have already scavenged and use it to create and sell advanced weapons. Eight years later, Peter Parker is drafted into the Avengers by Stark to help with an internal dispute, but resumes his studies at the Midtown School of Science and Technology when Stark tells him he is not yet ready to become a full Avenger.
Parker quits his school 's academic decathlon team to spend more time focusing on his crime - fighting activities as Spider - Man. One night, after preventing criminals from robbing an ATM with their advanced weapons from Toomes, Parker returns to his Queens apartment where his best friend Ned discovers his secret identity. On another night, Parker comes across Toomes ' associates Jackson Brice / Shocker and Herman Schultz selling weapons to local criminal Aaron Davis. Parker saves Davis before being caught by Toomes and dropped in a lake, nearly drowning after becoming tangled in a parachute built into his suit. He is rescued by Stark, who is monitoring the Spider - Man suit he gave Parker and warns him against further involvement with the criminals. Toomes accidentally kills Brice with one of their weapons, and Schultz becomes the new Shocker.
Parker and Ned study a weapon left behind by Brice, removing its power core. When a tracking device on Schultz leads to Maryland, Parker rejoins the decathlon team and accompanies them to Washington, D.C. for their national tournament. Ned and Parker disable the tracker Stark implanted in the Spider - Man suit, and unlock its advanced features. Parker tries to stop Toomes from stealing weapons from a D.O.D.C. truck, but is trapped inside the truck, causing him to miss the decathlon tournament. When he discovers that the power core is an unstable Chitauri grenade, Parker races to the Washington Monument where the core explodes and traps Ned and their friends in an elevator. Evading local authorities, Parker saves his friends, including his fellow classmate and crush Liz. Returning to New York City, Parker persuades Davis to reveal Toomes ' whereabouts. Aboard the Staten Island Ferry, Parker captures Toomes ' new buyer Mac Gargan, but Toomes escapes and a malfunctioning weapon tears the ferry in half. Stark helps Parker save the passengers before admonishing him for his recklessness and confiscating his suit.
Parker returns to his high school life, and eventually asks Liz to go to the homecoming dance with him. On the night of the dance, Parker learns that Liz is Toomes ' daughter. Deducing Parker 's secret identity, Toomes threatens retaliation if he interferes with his plans. During the dance, Parker realizes Toomes is planning to hijack a D.O.D.C. plane transporting weapons from Avengers Tower to the team 's new headquarters. He dons his old homemade Spider - Man suit and races to Toomes ' lair. He is first ambushed by Schultz, but defeats him with the help of Ned. At the lair, Toomes destroys the building 's support beams and leaves Parker to die. Parker escapes the rubble and intercepts the plane, steering it to crash on the beach near Coney Island. He and Toomes continue fighting, ending with Parker saving Toomes ' life after some unstable material explodes, and leaving him for the police along with the plane 's cargo. After her father 's arrest, Liz moves away, and Parker declines an invitation from Stark to join the Avengers full - time. Stark returns Parker 's suit, which he puts on at his apartment just as his Aunt May walks in.
In a mid-credits scene, an incarcerated Gargan approaches Toomes in prison. Gargan has heard that Toomes knows Spider - Man 's real identity, but Toomes denies this.
Additionally, Gwyneth Paltrow, Kerry Condon, and Chris Evans reprise their roles as Pepper Potts, F.R.I.D.A.Y., and Steve Rogers / Captain America from previous MCU films, respectively. Rogers appears in public service announcements played at Parker 's school. Jacob Batalon portrays Parker 's best friend Ned, a "complete gamer '', whom Batalon described as "the quintessential best guy, the best man, the number two guy, the guy in the chair '' for Parker. Marvel used Ned Leeds as a basis for the character, who does not have a last name in the script or film, but essentially created their own character with him. Carroll said that Ned and other characters in the film are composites of several of their favorites from Spider - Man comics, and while Ned may eventually wind up with the last name "Leeds '', it is not a guarantee. Laura Harrier portrays Liz, a senior, Parker 's love interest, and Toomes ' daughter, with a "type - A '' personality. Tony Revolori plays Eugene "Flash '' Thompson, Parker 's rival and classmate. It was noted that the character is generally depicted as a white bully in the comics; the Guatemalan American actor received death threats upon his casting. Revolori worked hard "to do him justice '', as he is an important character to the fans. Rather than being a physically imposing jock, Thompson was re-imagined as "a rich, smug kid '' to reflect modern views of bullying, by crafting him more into a social media bully and rival for Parker opposed to a jock; this depiction was largely informed by Holland 's visit to The Bronx High School of Science. Revolori said that Thompson has to work hard to match Parker 's intelligence, which is "one of the reasons he does n't like Peter. Everyone else seems to like Peter, so he 's like, why do n't they like me like they like him? '' Revolori gained 60 lb (27 kg) for the role.
Garcelle Beauvais portrays Doris Toomes, Adrian 's wife and Liz 's mother, and Jennifer Connelly provides the voice of Karen, the A.I. in Parker 's suit. Hemky Madera appears as Mr. Delmar, the owner of a local bodega. Bokeem Woodbine and Logan Marshall - Green both play different incarnations of Shocker, Herman Schultz and Jackson Brice respectively; both are accomplices of Toomes who use modified, vibro - blast shooting versions of Crossbones ' gauntlets. Michael Chernus plays Phineas Mason / Tinkerer, and Michael Mando appears as Mac Gargan. Faculty at Parker 's high school include: Kenneth Choi, who previously played Jim Morita in the MCU, as Jim 's descendant Principal Morita; Hannibal Buress as Coach Wilson, the school 's gym teacher, which he described as "one of the dumbass characters that do n't realize (Parker is) Spider - Man ''; Martin Starr, who previously had a non-speaking role in The Incredible Hulk identified as Amadeus Cho by the novelization for that film, as Mr. Harrington, a teacher and academic decathlon coach; Selenis Leyva as Ms. Warren; Tunde Adebimpe as Mr. Cobbwell; and John Penick as Mr. Hapgood. Parker 's classmates include: Isabella Amara as Sally; Jorge Lendeborg Jr. as Jason Ionello; J.J. Totah as Seymour; Abraham Attah as Abraham; Tiffany Espensen as Cindy; Angourie Rice as Betty Brant; Michael Barbieri as Charles; and Ethan Dizon as Tiny. Martha Kelly appears in the film as a tour guide, and Kirk Thatcher makes a cameo appearance as a "punk '', a homage to his role in Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home. Spider - Man co-creator Stan Lee also has a cameo, as a New York City apartment resident named Gary who witnesses Parker 's confrontation with a neighbor. Jona Xiao was cast in an undisclosed role, but did not appear in the final film.
Following the November 2014 hacking of Sony 's computers, emails between Sony Pictures Entertainment Co-Chairman Amy Pascal and president Doug Belgrad were released, stating that Sony wanted Marvel Studios to produce a new trilogy of Spider - Man films while Sony retained "creative control, marketing and distribution ''. Discussions between Sony and Marvel broke down, and Sony planned to proceed with its own slate of Spider - Man films. However, in February 2015, Sony Pictures and Marvel Studios announced that they would release a new Spider - Man film, with Kevin Feige and Pascal producing. The character would first appear in an earlier Marvel Cinematic Universe film, later revealed to be Captain America: Civil War. Marvel Studios would explore opportunities to integrate MCU characters into future Spider - Man films, which Sony Pictures would continue to finance, distribute, and have final creative control. Both studios have the ability to terminate the agreement at any point, and no money was exchanged with the deal. However, a small adjustment was made to a 2011 deal formed between the two studios (where Marvel gained full control of Spider - Man 's merchandising rights, in exchange for making a one - time payment of $175 million to Sony and paying up to $35 million for each future Spider - Man film, and forgoing receiving their previous 5 % of any Spider - Man film 's revenue), with Marvel getting to reduce their $35 million payment to Sony if the co-produced film grossed more than $750 million. Lone Star Funds also co-financed the film with Sony, via its LSC Film Corporation deal, covering 25 % of the $175 million budget.
Feige stated that Marvel had been working to add Spider - Man to the Marvel Cinematic Universe since at least October 2014, when they announced their full slate of Phase Three films, saying, "Marvel does n't announce anything officially until it 's set in stone. So we went forward with that Plan A in October, with the Plan B being, if (the deal) were to happen with Sony, how it would all shift. We 've been thinking about (the Spider - Man film) as long as we 've been thinking about Phase Three. '' It was said that Avi Arad and Matt Tolmach, producers for the Amazing Spider - Man series, would serve as executive producers, and neither director Marc Webb nor actor Andrew Garfield would return for the new film. Sony was reportedly looking for an actor younger than Garfield to play Spider - Man, with Logan Lerman and Dylan O'Brien considered front - runners. In March 2015, Drew Goddard was being considered to write and direct the film, while O'Brien said he had not been approached for the role. Goddard, who was previously attached to Sony film based on the Sinister Six, later said he declined to work on the new film as he thought he "did n't really have an idea '' for it, adding "it 's very hard to say, ' Ok, now write a new movie, ' '' after spending a year working on the Sinister Six film and being in that mindset. The next month, while promoting Avengers: Age of Ultron, Feige said the character of Peter Parker would be around 15 to 16 years old in the film, which would not be an origin story, since "there have been two retellings of that origin in the last (thirteen years, so) we are going to take it for granted that people know that, and the specifics. '' Parker 's Uncle Ben is referenced in the film, but not by name. Later in April, Nat Wolff, Asa Butterfield, Tom Holland, Timothée Chalamet, and Liam James were under consideration by Sony and Marvel to play Spider - Man, with Holland and Butterfield the front - runners.
In May 2015, Jonathan Levine, Ted Melfi, Jason Moore, the writing team of John Francis Daley and Jonathan Goldstein, and Jared Hess were being considered to direct the film. Butterfield, Holland, Judah Lewis, Matthew Lintz, Charlie Plummer, and Charlie Rowe screen tested for the lead role against Robert Downey Jr., who portrays Tony Stark / Iron Man in the MCU, for "chemistry ''. The six were chosen out of a search of over 1,500 actors to test in front of Feige, Pascal, and the Russo brothers, the directors of Captain America: Civil War. By early June 2015, Levine and Melfi had become the favorites to direct the film, with Daley and Goldstein, and Jon Watts also in consideration, while Feige and Pascal narrowed the actors considered to Holland and Rowe, with both screen testing with Downey again. Holland also tested with Chris Evans, who portrays Steve Rogers / Captain America in the MCU, and emerged as the favorite. On June 23, Marvel and Sony officially announced that Holland would star as Spider - Man, and that Watts would direct the film. The Russos "were pretty vocal about who (they) wanted for the part '', pushing to cast an actor close to the age of Peter Parker in order to differentiate from the previous portrayals. They also praised Holland for having a dancing and gymnastics background. Watts was able to read the Civil War script, talk with the Russos, and was on set for the filming of Spider - Man 's scenes in that film. He was able to "see what they were doing with it '' and provide "ideas about this and that '', including what Parker 's bedroom and wardrobe looked like "so that my movie transitions seamlessly with theirs. '' On joining the MCU and directing the film, Watts said, "I was really excited about that, because the other movies have shown what I described as the Penthouse level of the Marvel world, what it 's like to be Thor, Iron Man, you know, a billionaire playboy and all of that stuff. But what 's great about Spider - Man is that he 's a regular kid and so by showing his story you also get to show what the ground level is like in a world where the Avengers exist ''.
Before getting the job of director, Watts created images of Nick Fury as Parker 's mentor in the story in early "mood reels '' saying, "I do n't know what the situation would be, but that would be a person he 'd want to get in trouble with. '' Feige said the films of John Hughes would be a major influence and that Parker 's personal growth and development would be just as important as his role as Spider - Man. He noted that "at that age, in high school, everything feels like life or death. '' He also said that the film hoped to use one of Spider - Man 's rogues that have not been seen in film yet, and that filming would begin in June 2016. In July 2015, it was reported that Marisa Tomei had been offered the role of May Parker, Peter 's aunt. It was also revealed that Daley and Goldstein, after missing out on the director role, had begun negotiations to write the screenplay, and were given three days to present Marvel with their pitch; both confirmed shortly after that they had reached a deal to write the screenplay. The pair had proposed a take on the character that was "diametrically opposed '' to the previous Spider - Man films, creating a laundry list of all the elements seen in those films and actively trying to avoid re-using them in this film. They chose to focus on the high school aspects of the character and "what it would be like to be a real kid who gets superpowers '', rather than the "drama and weight of the tragedy that leads to the origin of Spider - Man ''. They felt this would differentiate him from the other MCU superheroes as well. Daley called the film "an origin story of him finding his place in the Marvel (Cinematic) Universe '', with the writing team wanting the film to "focus on (Parker) coming to terms with his new abilities and not yet being good with them, and carrying with him some real human fears and weaknesses, '' such as a fear of heights when he has to scale the Washington Monument. Daley noted, "Even within the context of this movie, I do n't think you would feel that fear of heights or even the vertigo the audience feels in that scene if you establish him as swinging from skyscrapers at the top of the movie. '' The writers also wanted to avoid the skyscrapers of Manhattan because of how often they were used in the other films, and instead wrote the character into locations such as "the suburbs, on a golf course, the Staten Island Ferry, Coney Island, and even Washington D.C. '' One of the first sequences they pitched was "seeing Spider - Man attached to a plane 10,000 feet up in the air, where he had absolutely no safety net. If you have a character that you 're so familiar with, and you 're familiar with the sort of areas he 's been in, why not turn it on its head and make it something different that people have n't seen before? '' The pair conceded that the film took a more grounded, "low - stakes '' approach than previous films, in part to Spider - Man existing in a world with the Avengers, since "if the threat became world - threatening, you would obviously bring in the big guys to handle it. ''
Marvel encouraged Daley and Goldstein to express their own sense of humor in the script, with Daley saying, "When you 're seeing the world through the eyes of a fun, funny kid, you can really embrace that voice, and not give him the cookie - cutter one - liners that you 're so accustomed to hearing from Peter Parker. '' Inspired by their experiences working on sit - coms, the writers also looked to create "a network of strong characters '' to surround Parker with in the film. In October 2015, Watts said he was looking to make the film a coming - of - age story to see the growth of Parker, citing Say Anything..., Almost Famous, and Ca n't Buy Me Love as some of his favorite films in that genre. It was this aspect of the film that had initially got Watts interested in directing it, as he had already been looking to make a coming - of - age story when he heard that the new Spider - Man would be younger than previous incarnations. Watts re-read the original Spider - Man comics in preparation for the film, and "came to a new realization about why he was so popular originally: He gave a different perspective on this world that they were building. He was introduced in the ' 60s, when they had already built a crazy spectacular Marvel Universe... to give a regular person 's perspective on it. And that ties in really nicely with what I get to do with this movie, which is '' introduce him to the MCU. Specific comics that Watts noted as potential influences were Ultimate Spider - Man and Spider - Man Loves Mary Jane. In December, Oliver Scholl signed on to be the production designer for the film.
Watts wanted to heavily pre-visualize the film, especially its action sequences, as he does on all his films. For Homecoming, Watts worked with a team to "figure out the visual language for the action sequences and just... you get to try stuff out before you 're actually on - set shooting it '' which helped Watts practice given his lack of experience working on large - scale action films. For the "web - slinging '' sequences in the film, Watts wanted to avoid the big "swoopy '' camera moves that had been previously used for such Spider - Man scenes and instead "keep it all as grounded as possible. So, whether it was shooting with a drone camera or a helicopter or a cable - cam, or even just handheld, up on a roof chasing after him, I wanted it to feel like we were there with him, and everything was something you could actually film. ''
In January 2016, Sony shifted the film 's release date from July 28 to July 7, 2017, and said the film would be digitally remastered for IMAX 3D in post-production. J.K. Simmons expressed interest in reprising his role as J. Jonah Jameson from Sam Raimi 's Spider - Man films. In early March, Zendaya was cast in the film as Michelle, and Tomei was confirmed as May Parker. The following month, Feige confirmed that characters from previous MCU films would appear, and clarified that the deal formed with Sony does not specify which characters can and can not crossover. He noted that the sharing between the studios was done with "good faith '' in order "to have more toys to play with as we put together a story '', and that "the agreement was that it is very much a Sony Pictures movie... we are the creative producers. We are the ones hiring the actor, introducing him in (Civil War), and then working right now on the script and soon to be shooting ''. Sony Pictures chairman Thomas Rothman further added that Sony has final greenlight authority, but were deferring creatively to Marvel. At CinemaCon 2016, Sony announced the title of the film to be Spider - Man: Homecoming, a reference to the common high school tradition homecoming as well as the character "coming home '' to Marvel and the MCU. Tony Revolori and Laura Harrier joined the cast as classmates of Parker 's, and Downey Jr. was revealed to be in the film as Stark. Watts noted that Stark "was always a part of '' the films ' story because of his interactions with Parker in Civil War.
Also in April, Michael Keaton entered talks to play a villain, but dropped out of discussions shortly thereafter due to scheduling conflicts with The Founder. He soon reentered talks for the role after a change in schedule for that film, and closed the deal in late May. In June, Michael Barbieri was cast as a friend of Parker 's, Kenneth Choi was cast as Parker 's high school principal, and Logan Marshall - Green was cast as another villain alongside Keaton 's character, while Donald Glover and Martin Starr joined the cast in undisclosed roles. Watts said that he wanted the cast to reflect Queens as "one of (the) most diverse places in the world '', with Feige adding that "we want everyone to recognize themselves in every portion of our universe. (With this cast) especially, it really feels like this is absolutely what has to happen and continue. '' This is also different from the previous films, which Feige described as being "set in a lily - white Queens ''. Additionally, Marvel made a conscious decision to mostly avoid including or referencing characters who appeared in previous Spider - Man films, outside of major ones like Peter and May Parker, and Flash Thompson. This included The Daily Bugle, with co-producer Eric Hauserman Carroll saying, "We toyed with it for a while, but again, we did n't want to go down that road right away, and if we do do a Daily Bugle, we want to do it in a way that feels contemporary. '' This also included the character Mary Jane Watson, but Zendaya 's Michelle was eventually given the initials "MJ '' as a nod to that character. Feige said that the point of this is "to have fun with (references) while at the same time having it be different characters that can provide a different dynamic. ''
Spider - Man 's costume in the film has more technical improvements than previous suits, including the logo on the chest being a remote drone, an AI system similar to Stark 's J.A.R.V.I.S., a holographic interface, a parachute, a tracking device for Stark to track Parker, a heater, an airbag, the ability to light up, and the ability to augment reality with the eye pieces. Stark also builds in a "training wheels '' protocol, to initially limit Parker 's access to all of its features. Carroll noted Marvel went through the comics and "pull (ed) out all the sort of fun and wacky things the suit did '' to include in the Homecoming suit. Spider - Man 's web shooters have various settings, first teased at the end of Civil War, which Carroll explained, "he can adjust the spray, and he can even scroll through different web settings, like spinning web, web ball, ricochet web... you know, all of the stuff we can see him do in the comics... It 's kind of like a DSLR camera. He can shoot without it, or he can hold that thing a second, get his aiming right, and really choose a web to shoot. ''
Principal photography began on June 20, 2016, at Pinewood Atlanta Studios in Fayette County, Georgia, under the working title Summer of George. Salvatore Totino served as director of photography. Filming also took place in Atlanta, with locations including Grady High School, Downtown Atlanta, the Atlanta Marriott Marquis, Piedmont Park, the Georgia World Congress Center, and the West End neighborhood. Holland said building New York sets in Atlanta was cheaper than actually filming in New York, a location closely associated with the character, though the production may "end up (in New York) for one week or two. '' A replica of the Staten Island Ferry was built in Atlanta, with the ability to open and close in half in 10 to 12 seconds and be flooded with 40,000 gallons of water in 8 seconds. Additional filming also occurred at two magnet schools in the Van Nuys and Reseda neighborhoods of Los Angeles.
Casting continued after the start of production, with the inclusion of Isabella Amara, Jorge Lendeborg Jr., J.J. Totah, Hannibal Buress, Selenis Leyva, Abraham Attah, Michael Mando, Tyne Daly, Garcelle Beauvais, Tiffany Espensen, and Angourie Rice in unspecified roles, with Bokeem Woodbine joining as an additional villain. At San Diego Comic - Con International 2016, Marvel confirmed the castings of Keaton, Zendaya, Glover, Harrier, Revolori, Daly and Woodbine, while revealing Zendaya, Harrier, and Revolori 's roles as Michelle, Liz Allan and Thompson, respectively, and announcing the casting of Jacob Batalon as Ned. It was also revealed that the Vulture would be the film 's villain, while the writing teams of Watts and Christopher Ford, and Chris McKenna and Erik Sommers, joined Goldstein and Daley in writing the screenplay, from Goldstein and Daley 's story. Watts praised Goldstein and Daley 's drafts as "really fun and funny '', and said that they "sort of established the broad strokes of the movie '', with he and Ford, close friends since childhood, then re-writing the script based on specific ideas that Watts had and things that he wanted to film, which he said was a "pretty substantial structural pass, rearranging things and building it into the sort of story arc we wanted it to be. '' McKenna and Sommers then joined the film to deal with changes to the script during filming, as "it 's all a little bit flexible when you get to set. You try things out, and you just need someone to be writing while you 're shooting. ''
Harrier noted that the young actors in the film "constantly refer to ourselves as The Breakfast Club. '' Shortly after, Martha Kelly joined the cast in an unspecified role. In August, Michael Chernus was cast as Phineas Mason / Tinkerer, while Jona Xiao joined the cast in an unspecified role, and Buress said he was playing a gym teacher. By September 2016, Jon Favreau was reprising his role as Happy Hogan from the Iron Man series, and filming concluded in Atlanta and moved to New York City. Locations in the latter included Astoria, Queens, St. George, Staten Island, Manhattan, and Franklin K. Lane High School in Brooklyn. Additionally, UFC fighter Tyron Woodley said he had been considered for a villain role in the film, but had to drop out due to a prior commitment with Fox Sports. Principal photography wrapped on October 2, 2016, in New York City, with some additional filming taking place later in the month in Berlin, Germany, near the Brandenburg Gate.
In November 2016, Feige confirmed that Keaton would play the Vulture, the Adrian Toomes incarnation of the character, while Woodbine was revealed as Herman Schultz / Shocker. In March 2017, Harrier said the film was undergoing reshoots, and Evans was set to appear as Steve Rogers / Captain America in an instructional fitness video. Watts was inspired by The President 's Fitness Challenge for this, feeling that Captain America would be the obvious version of that for the MCU. He then started brainstorming other public service announcements (PSA) starring Captain America, "about just everything, (like) brushing your teeth. Just anything you could think of, we had poor Captain America do it. '' Watts said that many of the additional PSA videos would be featured on the home media of the film. Watts confirmed that the company Stark creates that leads Toomes on his villainous path in the film is Damage Control, which Watts felt "just fit in with our overall philosophy with the kind of story we wanted to tell '' and created a lot of practical questions Watts wanted to use "to drive the story ''.
The film features multiple post-credit scenes. The first gives the Vulture a chance at redemption, showing him protect Parker from another villain. Watts said this "was a really interesting thing in the development of the story. You could n't just rely on the tropes of the villain being a murderer and killing a bunch of people. He had to be redeemable in some capacity in the end and that he believes everything he said, especially about his family. '' The second post-credits scene is an additional Captain America PSA, where he talks about the value of patience -- a joke at the expense of the audience, who have just waited through the film 's credits to see the scene. This was a "last - minute addition '' to the film. Watts completed work on Homecoming at the beginning of June 2017, approving the final visual effects shots. He stated that he had never been told that he could not do something by Marvel or Sony, saying, "You assume you 'll have to fight for every little weird thing you wan na do, but I did n't really ever run into that. I got to do kind of everything I wanted to. '' That month, Starr explained that he was playing the academic decathlon coach at Parker 's high school, and Marshall - Green was said to be portraying another Shocker.
In July, Feige discussed specific moments in the film, including an homage to The Amazing Spider - Man issue 33 where Parker is trapped underneath rubble, something Feige "wanted to see in a movie for a long, long time ''. Daley said that they added the scene to the script because of how much Feige wanted it, and explained, "We have (Parker) starting the scene with such self - doubt and helplessness, in a way that you really see the kid. You feel for him. He 's screaming for help, because he does n't think he can do it, and then... he kind of realizes that that 's been his biggest problem. '' Feige compared the film 's final scene, where Parker accidentally reveals that he is Spider - Man to his Aunt May, to the ending of Iron Man when Stark reveals that he is Iron Man to the world, saying, "what does that mean for the next movie? I do n't know, but it will force us to do something unique. '' Goldstein added that it "diminishes what is often the most trivial part of superhero worlds, which is finding your secret. It takes the emphasis off that (and) lets her become part of what 's really his life ''. Feige also talked about the film 's revelation that the Vulture is the father of Parker 's love interest, saying, "If that did n't work, the movie did n't work. We worked backwards and forwards from that moment. It was like two movies -- it was the movie up until then and the movie after that moment. Because it had to surprise you, but it had to be true, also. You had to believe that we had set it up so that you would buy it (and it) does n't seem like something out of left field. That 's a pretty great moment and we did n't know until we showed it to audiences '' that it would work. Watts said the revelation scene and the following interactions between the Vulture and Parker were, "more than anything else, (what) I was looking forward to, and I got to have a lot of fun shooting that stuff. '' Goldstein said the scene after the reveal, where Vulture realizes that Parker is Spider - Man while driving him to the school dance, was the moment he was most proud of in the film, and Daley said that scene 's effect on audiences was the dramatic equivalent of an audience laughing at a joke they had written. He added that the writers were "giddy when we first came up with (that twist), because it 's taking the obvious tension of meeting the father of the girl that you have a crush on, and multiplying it by 1,000, when you also realize he 's the guy you 've been trying to stop the whole time. ''
Visual effects for the film were completed by Sony Pictures Imageworks, Method Studios, Luma Pictures, Digital Domain, Cantina Creative, Iloura, Trixter, and Industrial Light & Magic. Executive producer Victoria Alonso initially did not want Imageworks, who worked on all previous Spider - Man films, to work on Homecoming in order to have a different look. She eventually changed her mind after seeing "phenomenal '' test material from the vendor. Digital Domain worked on the Staten Island Ferry battle, creating the CGI versions of Spider - Man and the first Vulture suit, Iron Man, and Spider - Man 's emblem drone, Dronie. Digital Domain was able to LIDAR an actual Staten Island Ferry, as well as the version created on set, to help with creating their digital version. They also created Iron Man for when he confronts Parker after the battle. Lou Pecora, visual effects supervisor at Digital Domain, called that sequence "brutal '' because "the way they were shot, it was lit to be a certain time of day, and afterwards it was decided to change that time of day. '' Sony Pictures Imageworks created much of the third act of the film, when Parker confronts Toomes on the plane and beach in his homemade suit and Toomes is in his upgraded Vulture suit. Some elements from Vulture 's first suit were shared with Imageworks, but the remainder was created by them based off a maquete. For the plane 's cloaking ability, Imageworks based what they created off the real world Adaptiv IR Camouflage tank cloaking system from BAE Systems, which uses a series of titles to cloak against infrared. For their web design, which was based on the one created for Civil War, Digital Domain referenced polar bear hair because of its translucent nature. Imageworks, who also looked to the Civil War webs, referenced the webs they had created for previous Spider - Man films, in which the webs had tiny barbs that aided in hooking on to things, by dialing back the barbs and referencing the other web designs created for the film. Method Studios worked on the Washington Monument sequence.
Trixter contributed over 300 shots for the film, working on the opening sequence that retold the events of Civil War from Parker 's perspective, the scene in the opening at Grand Central Terminal, a sequence during when Toomes is bringing Liz and Parker to the dance, the school battle between Parker and Schultz, and the scene around and within the Avengers compound. They also worked on both Spider - Man suits and the spider tracer. Trixter created additional salvage workers to populate the Grand Central scene, whose clothes and proportions were able to be altered to create variation. For the battle between Parker and Schultz, Trixter used an all - digital Spider - Man in his homemade suit, which came from Imageworks, with Trixter applying a rigging, muscle and cloth system to it "to mimic the appearance of the rather lose training suit ''. They also created the effects for Schultz 's gauntlets and had to change the setting from the Atlanta set to Queens, by using a CGI school and adding 360 degrees of matte paintings for the mid to far distance elements. Trixter received concept art and basic geometry that was used previously for the Avengers compound, but ended up remodeling it for the way it appear in Homecoming and created the environment around it. Models and textures for Spider - Man 's Avengers costume were created by Framestore for use in a future MCU film, which Trixter took to add to the vault they created to house the suit. Trixter VFX supervisor Dominik Zimmerle noted "The idea was to have a clean, high tech, presentation Vault for the new suit. It should appear distinctively ' Stark ' originated. ''
While promoting Doctor Strange in early November 2016, Feige accidentally revealed that Michael Giacchino, who composed the music for that film, would compose the score for Homecoming as well. Giacchino soon confirmed this himself. Recording for the soundtrack began on April 11, 2017. The score includes the theme from the 1960s animated series. The soundtrack was released by Sony Masterworks on July 7, 2017.
Spider - Man: Homecoming held its world premiere at the TCL Chinese Theater in Hollywood on June 28, 2017, and was released in the United Kingdom on July 5. It opened in additional international markets on July 6, with 23,400 screens (277 of which were IMAX) in 56 markets for its opening weekend. The film was released in the United States on July 7, in 4,348 theaters (392 were IMAX and IMAX 3D, and 601 were premium large - format), including 3D screenings. It was originally slated for release on July 28.
Watts, Holland, Batalon, Harrier, Revolori, and Zendaya appeared at the 2016 San Diego Comic - Con to show an exclusive clip of the film, which also had a panel at Comic Con Experience 2016. The first trailer for Homecoming premiered on Jimmy Kimmel Live! on December 8, 2016, and was released online alongside an international version which featured some different shots and dialogue. Feige thought there was enough of a difference between the two that "it would be fun for people to see both. '' The shots of Vulture descending through a hotel atrium and Spider - Man swinging with Iron Man flying beside him were created specifically for the trailer, not the film. Watts explained that the Vulture shot was created for Comic - Con before much of the film had been shot, and "was never meant to be in the movie '', but he was able to repurpose the angle for Vulture 's reveal in the film. The Spider - Man and Iron Man shot was created because the marketing team wanted a shot of the two together and existing shots for the film "just did n't look that great '' then. The shot used in the trailer was made with a background plate taken when filming the subway in Queens. The two trailers were viewed over 266 million times globally within a week.
On March 28, 2017, a second trailer debuted after screening at CinemaCon 2017 the night before. Shawn Robbins, chief analyst at BoxOffice.com, noted that the new Justice League trailer had received more Twitter mentions in that week but there was "clearer enthusiasm for Spider - Man. '' The Homecoming trailer was second for the week of March 20 -- 26 in new conversations (85,859) behind Justice League (201,267), according comScore 's PreAct service, which is "a tracking service utilizing social data to create context of the ever - evolving role of digital communication on feature films ''. An exclusive clip from the film was seen during the 2017 MTV Movie & TV Awards. On May 24, 2017, Sony and Marvel released a third domestic and international trailer. Ethan Anderton of / Film enjoyed both trailers, stating Homecoming "has the potential to be the best Spider - Man movie yet. Having the webslinger as part of the Marvel Cinematic Universe just feels right ''. TechCrunch 's Darrell Etherington agreed, saying, "You may have feelings about a tech - heavy Spider - Man suit or other aspects of this interpretation of the character, but it 's still shaping up to be better than any Spider - Man depicted in movies in recent memory. '' Ana Dumaraog for ScreenRant said the second trailer "arguably showed too much of the movie 's overarching narrative '', but the third "perfectly shows the right amount of new and old footage ''. She also appreciated the attention to detail that Watts and the writers put into the film, as highlighted by the trailers. Siddhant Adlakha of Birth. Movies. Death also felt the trailers were giving away too many details, but enjoyed them overall, especially the "vlogging '' aspect. Collider 's Dave Trombore expressed similar sentiments to Adlakha. After the trailers ' release, comScore and its PreAct service noted Homecoming was the top film for new social media conversations, that week and the week of May 29.
Alongside the release of the third trailers were domestic and international release posters. The domestic poster was criticized for its "floating head '' style, which offers "a chaotic mess of people looking in different directions, with little sense of what the film will deliver. '' Dan Auty for GameSpot called it a "star studded hot mess '', while Vanity Fair 's Katey Rich felt the poster was "too bogged down by the many different threads of the Marvel universe to highlight anything that 's made Spider - Man: Homecoming seem special so far. '' Adlakha felt the posters released for the film "have been alright thus far, but these ones probably tell general audiences to expect a very bloated movie. '' Adlakha was more positive of the international poster, which he felt was more "comicbook - y '' and "looks like it could be an actual scene from the film. '' Both Rich and Adlakha criticized the fact that Holland, Keaton and Downey appeared twice on the domestic poster, both in and out of costume. Sony partnered with ESPN CreativeWorks to create cross-promotional television ads for Homecoming and the 2017 NBA Finals, which were filmed by Watts. The ads were made to "weave in a highlight from the game just moments '' after it occurred. The promos see Holland, Downey Jr., and Favreau reprise their roles from the film, with cameo appearances from Stan Lee, DJ Khaled, Tim Duncan, Magic Johnson, and Cari Champion. Through June and July 2017, a Homecoming - inspired cafe opened in the Roppongi Hills complex in Tokyo, offering "arachnid - themed foods and drinks, including a Spider Curry, Spider Sense Latte and a sweet and refreshing Strawberry Spider Squash drink '', as well as a free, limited - edition sticker with any purchase.
For the week ending on June 11, comScore and its PreAct service noted that new social media conversations for the film were second only to Black Panther and its new trailer; Homecoming was then the number one film in the next two weeks. That month, Sony released a mobile app allowing users to "access '' Parker 's phone and "view his photos, videos, text messages, and hear voicemails from his friends ''. The app also provided an "AR Suit Explorer '' to learn more about the technology in the Spider - Man suit, and use photo filters, GIFs and stickers of the character. Sony and Dave & Buster 's also announced an arcade game based on the film, playable exclusively at Dave & Buster 's locations. A tie - in comic, Spider - Man: Homecoming Prelude, was released on June 20, collecting two prelude issues. On June 28, in partnership with Thinkmodo, a promotional prank was released in which Spider - Man (stuntman Chris Silcox) dropped from the ceiling in a coffee shop to scare customers; the video also featured a cameo appearance from Lee. Sony also partnered with the mobile app Holo to let users add 3D holograms of Spider - Man, with Holland 's voice and lines from the film, to real - world photos and videos. Before the end of June, Spider - Man: Homecoming -- Virtual Reality Experience was released on the PlayStation VR, Oculus Rift and HTC Vive for free, produced by Sony Pictures VR and developed by CreateVR. The virtual reality experience allows users to experience how it feels to be Spider - Man, with the ability to hit targets with his web shooters and face off against the Vulture. It was also available at select Cinemark Theatres in the United States and at the CineEurope trade show in Barcelona.
Ahead of the film 's release, for the week ending on July 2, the film was the top film for the third consecutive week for new social media conversations, according to comScore, which also noted that Spider - Man: Homecoming had produced a total of 2.67 million conversations to date. The film 's marketing campaign also included promotions with Audi and Dell (both also had product placement within the film), Pizza Hut, General Mills, Synchrony Bank, Movietickets.com, Goodwill, Baskin Robbins, Dunkin ' Donuts, Danone Waters, Panasonic Batteries, M&M 's, Mondelez, Asus, Bimbo, Jetstar, KEF, Kellogg 's, Lieferheld, Pepsico, Plus, Roady, Snickers, Sony Mobile, Oppo, Optus, and Doritos. As with the ESPN NBA Finals campaign, Watts directed a commercial for Dell 's marketing efforts, which earned 2.8 million views online. Goodwill hosted a build - your - own Spider - Man suit contest, with the winner attending the film 's premiere and receiving a co-branded Goodwill campaign focused on being a community hero. Overall, the campaign generated over $140 million in media value, greater than those for all previous Spider - Man films and Marvel Studios ' first 2017 release, Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2. This does not include merchandising for the film, which is controlled by Marvel and Disney and where they benefit the most from the deal to make the film for Sony. Marketing of the film in China for its release in the country included partnering with Momo, iQiyi, Tencent QQ, Baidu, Audi, Doritos, M&Ms, Dell, Mizone, CapitaLand, Xiaomi, HTC Vive and corporate parent Sony. To help target the teenage audience, Holland "recorded a high school entrance exam greeting '' while The Rap of China contestant PG One recorded a theme song.
Spider - Man: Homecoming was released on digital download by Sony Pictures Home Entertainment on September 26, 2017, and on Blu - ray, Blu - ray 3D, Ultra HD Blu - ray and DVD on October 17, 2017. The digital and Blu - ray releases include behind - the - scenes featurettes, deleted scenes, and a blooper reel.
The physical releases in its first week of sale were the top home media release, according to NPD VideoScan data. The Blu - ray version accounted for 79 % of the sales, with 13 % of total sales coming from the Ultra HD Blu - ray version.
As of November 5, 2017, Spider - Man: Homecoming has grossed $334 million in the United States and Canada, and $546 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $880 million. The film had the second biggest global IMAX opening for a Sony film with $18 million. In May 2017, a survey from Fandango indicated that Homecoming was the second-most anticipated summer blockbuster behind Wonder Woman. By September 24, 2017, the film had earned $874.4 million worldwide, becoming the highest grossing superhero film of 2017, and the sixth largest film based on a Marvel character.
Spider - Man: Homecoming earned $50.9 million on its opening day in the United States and Canada (including $15.4 million from Thursday night previews), and had a total weekend gross of $117 million, the top film for the weekend. It was the second - highest opening for both a Spider - Man film and a Sony film, after Spider - Man 3 's $151.1 million debut in 2007. Early projections for the film from BoxOffice had it earning $135 million in its opening weekend, which was later adjusted to $125 million, and Deadline.com noting industry projections at anywhere between $90 -- 120 million. In its second weekend, the film fell to second behind War for the Planet of the Apes with $45.2 million, a 61 % decline in earnings, which was similar to the declines The Amazing Spider - Man 2 and Spider - Man 3 had in their second weekends. Additionally, Homecoming 's domestic gross reached $208.3 million, which surpassed the total domestic gross of The Amazing Spider - Man 2 ($202.9 million). The film fell to third in its third weekend. By July 26, Homecoming 's domestic gross reached $262.1 million, surpassing the total domestic gross of The Amazing Spider - Man ($262 million), leading to a fifth place finish for its fourth weekend. The next weekend, Homecoming finished sixth, and finished seventh the following five weekends. By September 3, 2017, the film had earned $325.1 million, surpassing the $325 million projected amount for its total domestic gross. In its eleventh weekend, Homecoming finished ninth.
Outside of the United States and Canada, Spider - Man: Homecoming earned $140.5 million its opening weekend from the 56 markets it opened in, with the film becoming number one in 50 of them. The $140.5 million was the highest opening ever for a Spider - Man film, factoring in the same number of markets and 2017 's exchange rates. South Korea had the highest Wednesday opening day gross, which contributed to a $25.4 million five - day opening in the country, the third highest opening ever for a Hollywood film. Brazil had the largest July opening day of all time, with $2 million, leading to an opening weekend total of $8.9 million. The $7 million earned from IMAX showings was the top opening of all time for a Sony film internationally. In its second weekend, the film opened in France at number one and number two in Germany. It earned an additional $11.9 million in South Korea, to bring its total in the country to $42.2 million. This made Homecoming the highest grossing Spider - Man film and the top grossing Hollywood film of 2017 in the country. Brazil contributed an additional $5.7 million, for a total of $19.4 million from the country, which was also the largest gross from a Spider - Man film. The film 's third weekend saw the Latin America region set a record as the highest - grossing Spider - Man film of all - time, with a region total of $77.4 million. Brazil remained the top grossing market for the region, with $25.7 million. In South Korea, the film became the 10th highest - grossing international release of all time. Homecoming opened at number one in Spain in its fourth weekend. In its sixth weekend, the film opened at number one in Japan, with its $770,000 from IMAX the fourth largest IMAX weekend for a Marvel film in the country. The film opened at number one in China on September 8, 2017, grossing $23 million on its opening day, including Thursday previews, making it the third biggest opening day for a Marvel Cinematic Universe film, behind Avengers: Age of Ultron and Captain America: Civil War, and the largest opening day gross for a Sony film in the country. The $70.8 million Homecoming earned in China for its opening weekend was the third highest opening behind Age of Ultron and Civil War, with $6 million from IMAX, which was the best IMAX opening weekend in September, and the best IMAX opening weekend for a Sony film. As of September 24, 2017, the film 's largest markets were China ($115.7 million), South Korea ($51.4 million), and the United Kingdom ($34.8 million).
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 92 % rating based on 300 reviews, with an average rating of 7.6 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Spider - Man: Homecoming does whatever a second reboot can, delivering a colorful, fun adventure that fits snugly in the sprawling MCU without getting bogged down in franchise - building. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 73 out of 100, based on 51 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale.
Owen Gleiberman of Variety said, "(T) he flying action has a casual flip buoyancy, and the movie does get you rooting for Peter. The appeal of this particular Spider - Boy is all too basic: In his lunge for valor, he keeps falling, and he keeps getting up. '' Mike Ryan of Uproxx praised the film 's light tone and performances, writing: "Spider - Man: Homecoming is the best Spider - Man movie to date. That does come with a caveat that Spider - Man: Homecoming and Spider - Man 2 are going for different things and both are great. But, tonally, I just love this incarnation of a Peter Parker who just loves being Spider - Man. '' The New York Times 's Manohla Dargis stated, "Mr. Holland looks and sounds more like a teen than the actors who 've previously suited up for this series, and he has fine support from a cast that includes Jacob Batalon as Peter 's best friend. Other good company includes Donald Glover, as a wrong - time, wrong - place criminal, and Martin Starr, who plays his teacher role with perfect deadpan timing. '' Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun - Times wrote, "The best thing about Spider - Man: Homecoming is Spidey is still more of a kid than a man. Even with his budding superpowers, he still has the impatience, the awkwardness, the passion, the uncertainty and sometimes the dangerous ambition of a teenager still trying to figure out this world. '' Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times gave the film a "mixed '' review, praising the stunt work and calling Michael Keaton 's performance as the Vulture "one of the strongest, most sympathetic villains of the entire series, '' but criticizing the direction by Jon Watts as "unevenly orchestrated ''.
Conversely, The Hollywood Reporter 's John DeFore found the film to be "occasionally exciting but often frustrating, '' and suggested it might have worked better "had Marvel Studios execs and a half - dozen screenwriters not worked so hard to integrate Peter Parker into their money - minting world. '' Robbie Collin of The Daily Telegraph said, "A little of the new Spider - Man went an exhilaratingly long way in Captain America: Civil War last year. But a lot of him goes almost nowhere in this slack and spiritless solo escapade. '' Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle stated, "The movie breaks no new ground, and action sequences that were intended to be thrilling -- such as an epic battle on the Staten Island Ferry -- just sit there on the screen, incapable of stirring a single pulse, but content in their competence. ''
In June 2016, Rothman stated that Sony and Marvel were committed to making future Spider - Man films. By October 2016, discussions had begun for a second film, according to Holland, figuring out "who the villain is going to be and where we 're going '' in a potential sequel. In December 2016, after the successful release of the first Homecoming trailer, Sony slated a sequel to the film for July 5, 2019. Feige had stated that if additional films were made, an early idea Marvel had for them was to follow the model of the Harry Potter film series, having the plot of each film cover a new school year; the first sequel is intended to follow Parker 's junior year of high school, with a potential third film being set during his senior year. In June 2017, Feige and Pascal were both keen on having Watts return to direct the sequel, which is expected to start filming in April or May 2018. By the next month, Holland was confirmed to return, with Watts entering negotiations to return as director. Tomei has indicated a willingness to play Aunt May in future sequels. By the end of August, Chris McKenna and Erik Sommers were in final negotiations to write the screenplay.
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where was the last wolf in england killed | Wolves in Great Britain - wikipedia
Wolves were once present in Great Britain. Early writing from Roman and later Saxon chronicles indicate that wolves appear to have been extraordinarily numerous on the island. Unlike other British animals, wolves were unaffected by island dwarfism, with certain skeletal remains indicating that they may have grown as large as Arctic wolves. The species, which frequently desecrated burial sites and was a threat to livestock and human life, was exterminated from Britain through a combination of deforestation and active hunting through bounty systems.
Certain historians write that in 950, King Athelstan imposed an annual tribute of 300 wolf skins on Welsh king Hywel Dda, while William of Malmesbury states that Athelstan requested gold and silver, and that it was his nephew Edgar the Peaceful who gave up that fine and instead demanded a tribute of wolf skins on King Constantine of Wales. Wolves at that time were especially numerous in the districts bordering Wales, which were heavily forested.
This imposition was maintained until the Norman conquest of England. At the time, several criminals, rather than being put to death, would be ordered to provide a certain number of wolf tongues annually. The monk Galfrid, whilst writing about the miracles of St. Cuthbert seven centuries earlier, observed that wolves were so numerous in Northumbria, that it was virtually impossible for even the richest flock - masters to protect their sheep, despite employing many men for the job. The Anglo - Saxon Chronicle states that the month of January was known as "Wolf manoth '', as this was the first full month of wolf hunting by the nobility. Officially, this hunting season would end on March 25; thus it encompassed the cubbing season, when wolves were at their most vulnerable, and their fur was of greater quality.
The Norman kings (reigning from 1066 to 1154) employed servants as wolf hunters and many held lands granted on condition that they fulfilled this duty. William the Conqueror granted the lordship of Riddesdale in Northumberland to Robert de Umfraville on condition that he defend that land from enemies and wolves. There were no restrictions on or penalties for the hunting of wolves, except in royal game reserves, under the reasoning that the temptation for a commoner to shoot a deer there would be too great.
English wolves were more often trapped than hunted. Indeed, the Wolfhunt family, who resided in Peak forest in the 13th century, would march into the forest in March and December, and place pitch in the areas wolves frequented. At that time of year, wolves would have had greater difficulty in smelling the pitch than at others. During the dry summers, they would enter the forest to destroy cubs. Gerald of Wales wrote of how wolves in Holywell ate the corpses resulting from Henry II 's punitive expedition to Wales in 1165.
King John gave a premium of 10 shillings for the capture of two wolves. King Edward I, who reigned from 1272 to 1307, ordered the total extermination of all wolves in his kingdom and personally employed one Peter Corbet, with instructions to destroy wolves in the counties of Gloucestershire, Herefordshire, Worcestershire, Shropshire and Staffordshire -- areas near to and including some of the Welsh Marches, where wolves were more common than in the southern areas of England.
In the forty - third year of Edward III 's rule, a Thomas Engaine held lands in Pytchley in the county of Northampton, on the condition that he find special hunting dogs to kill wolves in the counties of Northampton, Rutland, Oxford, Essex and Buckingham. In the eleventh year of Henry VI 's reign (1433), a Sir Robert Plumpton held a bovate of land called "Wolf hunt land '' in Nottingham, by service of winding a horn and chasing or frightening the wolves in Sherwood Forest. The wolf is generally thought to have become extinct in England during the reign of Henry VII (1485 -- 1509), or at least very rare. By this time, wolves had become limited to the Lancashire forests of Blackburnshire and Bowland, the wilder parts of the Derbyshire Peak District, and the Yorkshire Wolds. Indeed, wolf bounties were still maintained in the East Riding until the early 19th century.
In Scotland, during the reign of James VI, wolves were considered such a threat to travellers that special houses called spittals were erected on the highways for protection. In Sutherland, wolves dug up graves so frequently that the inhabitants of Eddrachillis resorted to burying their dead on the island of Handa, Scotland.
Island burial was a practice also adopted on Tanera Mòr and on Inishail, while in Atholl, coffins were made wolf - proof by building them out of five flagstones. Wolves likely became extinct in the Scottish Lowlands during the thirteenth to fifteenth centuries, when immense tracts of forest were cleared. James I passed a law in 1427 requiring three wolf hunts a year between 25 April and 1 August, coinciding with the wolf 's cubbing season. Scottish wolf populations reached a peak during the second half of the 16th century. Mary, Queen of Scots is known to have hunted wolves in the forest of Atholl in 1563.
The wolves later caused such damage to the cattle herds of Sutherland that in 1577, James VI made it compulsory to hunt wolves three times a year. Stories of the killing of the alleged last wolf of Scotland vary. Official records indicate that the last Scottish wolf was killed by Sir Ewen Cameron in 1680 in Killiecrankie (Perthshire), but there are reports that wolves survived in Scotland up until the 18th century, and a tale even exists of one being seen as late as 1888.
In the Welsh tale of Gelert, Llywelyn the Great, Prince of Gwynedd, killed his faithful dog Gelert after finding him covered in blood which he presumed belonged to his baby son. Only later does he discover that his son is still alive, and that the blood belonged to a wolf which Gelert killed in defence of the young prince. In Welsh mythology, both St. Ciwa the "Wolf Girl '' and Bairre (an ancestor of Amergin Glúingel) are said to have been suckled by wolves.
Scottish folklore tells of how an old man in Morayshire named MacQueen of Findhorn killed the last wolf in 1743.
Wolf remains in the Kirkdale Cave were noted to be scanty when compared with the prominence of cave hyena bones. Cuvier later pointed out that the number of wolf bones in Kirkdale was even lower than originally thought, as a lot of teeth first referred to as belonging to wolves turned out to be those of juvenile hyenas. The few positively identified wolf remains were thought to have been transported to the cave system by hyenas for consumption. William Buckland, in his Reliquiae Diluvianae, wrote that he only found one molar tooth which could be positively identified as being that of a wolf, while other bone fragments were indistinguishable from those of domestic dogs.
In the Paviland limestone caves of the Gower Peninsula in south Wales, the jaw, a heel bone and several metatarsals were found of a large canid, though it was impossible to definitively prove that they belonged to a wolf rather than a large dog.
In a series of caves discovered in a quarry in Oreston, Plymouth, a Mr. Whidbey found several bones and teeth of a species of canis indistinguishable from modern wolves. Richard Owen examined a jaw bone excavated from Oreston, which he remarked was from a subadult animal with evidence of having been enlarged by exotosis and ulceration, probably due to a fight with another wolf. The other bones showed evidence of having been gnawed by small animals, and many were further damaged by workmen in their efforts to extricate them from the clay. Unlike those of the Kirkdale wolves, the Oreston remains showed no evidence of having been gnawed on by hyenas.
An almost entire skull with missing teeth was discovered in Kents Cavern by a Mr. Mac Enery. The skull was exactly equal in size to that of an Arctic wolf, the only notable differences being that the sectorial molar was slightly larger and the lower border of the jaw was more convex. It was positively identified as being that of a wolf by its low and contracted forehead.
In 1999, Dr. Martyn Gorman, senior lecturer in zoology at Aberdeen University and vice chairman of the UK Mammal Society, called for a reintroduction of wolves to the Scottish Highlands and English countryside in order to deal with the then 350,000 red deer damaging young trees in commercial forests. Scottish National Heritage considered re-establishing carefully controlled colonies of wolves, but shelved the idea following an outcry from sheep farmers.
In 2002, Paul van Vlissingen, a wealthy landowner at Letterewe, Achnasheen, Ross - shire, in the western Highlands, proposed the reintroduction of both wolves and lynxes to Scotland and England, stating that current deer - culling methods were inadequate, and that wolves would boost the Scottish tourist industry.
In 2007, British and Norwegian researchers who included experts from the Imperial College London said that wolf reintroduction into the Scottish Highlands and English countryside would aid in the re-establishment of plants and birds currently hampered by the deer population. Their study also assessed people 's attitudes towards the idea of releasing wolves into the wild. While the public were generally positive, people living in rural areas were more sensitive, though they were open to the idea provided they would be reimbursed for livestock losses.
Richard Morley, of the Wolves and Humans Foundation (formerly The Wolf Society of Great Britain), forecast in 2007 that public support for wolf reintroduction would grow over the next 15 years, though he criticised previous talks as being too "simple or romantic ''. He stated that although wolves would be good for tourism, farmers and crofters had serious concerns about the effect wolves could have on their livestock, particularly sheep, that had to be acknowledged.
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what hall of fame is in youngstown ohio | Youngstown, Ohio - wikipedia
Youngstown is a city in and the county seat of Mahoning County in the U.S. state of Ohio, with small portions extending into Trumbull County. According to the 2010 Census, Youngstown had a city proper population of 66,982, while the Youngstown - Warren - Boardman, OH - PA Metropolitan Statistical Area it anchors contained 565,773 people in Mahoning and Trumbull counties in Ohio, and Mercer County in Pennsylvania.
Youngstown is located on the Mahoning River, approximately 65 miles (105 km) southeast of Cleveland and 61 miles (100 km) northwest of Pittsburgh. Despite having its own media market, Youngstown is often included in commercial and cultural depictions of both Northeast Ohio as well as the Pittsburgh Tri-State Area due to these proximities. Youngstown lies 10 miles (16 km) west of the Pennsylvania state line, midway between New York City and Chicago via Interstate 80.
The city was named for John Young, an early settler from Whitestown, New York, who established the community 's first sawmill and gristmill. Youngstown is in a region of the United States that is often referred to as the Rust Belt. Traditionally known as a center of steel production, Youngstown was forced to redefine itself when the U.S. steel industry fell into decline in the 1970s, leaving communities throughout the region without major industry. The city has experienced a decline of over 60 % of its population since 1959. Youngstown also falls within the Appalachian Ohio region, among the foothills of the Appalachian Mountains.
Youngstown was named for New York native John Young, who surveyed the area in 1796 and settled there soon after. On February 9, 1797, Young purchased the township of 15,560 acres (6,300 ha) from the Western Reserve Land Company for $16,085. The 1797 establishment of Youngstown was officially recorded on August 19, 1802.
The area including present - day Youngstown was part of the Connecticut Western Reserve, a section of the Northwest Territory that Connecticut initially did not cede to the Federal government. Upon cession, Connecticut retained the title to the land in the Western Reserve, which it sold to the Connecticut Land Company for $1,200,000. While many of the area 's early settlers came from Connecticut, Youngstown attracted a significant number of Scots - Irish settlers from neighboring Pennsylvania. The first European Americans to settle permanently in the area were Pittsburgh native James Hillman and wife Catherine Dougherty. By 1798, Youngstown was the home of several families who were concentrated near the point where Mill Creek meets the Mahoning River. Boardman Township was founded in 1798 by Elijah Boardman, a member of the Connecticut Land Company. Also founded in 1798 was Austintown by John McCollum who was a settler from New Jersey.
As the Western Reserve 's population grew, the need for administrative districts became apparent. In 1800, territorial governor Arthur St. Clair established Trumbull County (named in honor of Connecticut Governor Jonathan Trumbull), and designated the smaller settlement of Warren as its administrative center, or "county seat ''. In 1813, Trumbull County was divided into townships, with Youngstown Township comprising much of what became Mahoning County. The village of Youngstown was incorporated in 1848, and in 1867 Youngstown was chartered as a city. It became the county seat in 1876, when the administrative center of Mahoning County was moved from neighboring Canfield. Youngstown has been Mahoning County 's county seat to this day.
The discovery of coal by the community in the early 19th century paved the way for the Youngstown area 's inclusion on the network of the famed Erie Canal. The Pennsylvania and Ohio Canal Company was organized in 1835, and the canal was completed in 1840. Local industrialist David Tod, who was later Ohio governor during the Civil War, persuaded Lake Erie steamboat owners that coal mined in the Mahoning Valley could fuel their vessels if canal transportation were available between Youngstown and Cleveland. The arrival of the railroad in 1856 smoothed the path for further economic growth.
Youngstown 's industrial development changed the face of the Mahoning Valley. The community 's burgeoning coal industry drew hundreds of immigrants from Wales, Germany, and Ireland. With the establishment of steel mills in the late 19th century, Youngstown became a popular destination for immigrants from Eastern Europe, Italy, and Greece. In the early 20th century, the community saw an influx of immigrants from non-European countries including what is modern day Lebanon, Palestine / Israel, and Syria. By the 1920s, this dramatic demographic shift produced a nativist backlash, and the Mahoning Valley became a center of Ku Klux Klan activity. The situation reached a climax in 1924, when street clashes between Klan members and Italian and Irish Americans in neighboring Niles led Ohio Governor A. Victor Donahey to declare martial law. By 1928 the Klan was in steep decline; and three years later, the organization sold its Canfield, Ohio, meeting area, Kountry Klub Field.
The growth of industry attracted people from within the borders of the United States, and from Latin America. By the late 19th century, African Americans were well represented in Youngstown, and the first local congregation of the African Methodist Episcopal Church was established in 1871. In the 1880s, local attorney William R. Stewart was the second African American elected to the Ohio House of Representatives. A large influx of African Americans in the early 20th century owed much to developments in the industrial sector. During the national Steel Strike of 1919, local industrialists recruited thousands of workers from the South, many of whom were Black. This move inflamed racist sentiment among local Whites, and for decades, African - American steelworkers experienced discrimination in the workplace. Migration from the South rose dramatically in the 1940s, when the mechanization of southern agriculture brought an end to the exploitative sharecropping system, leading onetime farm laborers to seek industrial jobs.
The city 's population became more diverse after the end of World War II, when a seemingly robust steel industry attracted thousands of workers. In the 1950s, the Latino population grew significantly; and by the 1970s, St. Rose of Lima Roman Catholic Church and the First Spanish Baptist Church of Ohio were among the largest religious institutions for Spanish - speaking residents in the Youngstown metropolitan area. While diversity is among the community 's enduring characteristics, the industrial economy that drew various groups to the area collapsed in the late 1970s. In response to subsequent challenges, the city has taken well - publicized steps to diversify economically, while building on some traditional strengths.
Downtown Youngstown has seen modest levels of new construction. Recent additions include the George Voinovich Government Center and state and federal courthouses: the Seventh District Court of Appeals and the Nathaniel R. Jones Federal Building and U.S. Courthouse. The latter features an award - winning design by the architectural firm, Robert A.M. Stern Architects.
In 2005, Federal Street, a major downtown thoroughfare that was closed off to create a pedestrian - oriented plaza, was reopened to through traffic. The downtown area has seen the razing of structurally unsound buildings and the expansion or restoration of others.
In 2004, construction began on a 60 - home upscale development called Arlington Heights, and a grant from the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development allowed for the demolition of Westlake Terrace, a sprawling and dilapidated public housing project. Today, the site features a blend of senior housing, rental townhouses and for - sale single - family homes. Low real - estate prices and the efforts of the Youngstown Central Area Improvement Corporation (CIC) have contributed to the purchase of several long - abandoned downtown buildings (many by out - of - town investors) and their restoration and conversion into specialty shops, restaurants, and eventually condominiums. Further, a nonprofit organization called Wick Neighbors is planning a $250 million New Urbanist revitalization of Smoky Hollow, a former ethnic neighborhood that borders the downtown and university campus. The neighborhood will eventually comprise about 400 residential units, university student housing, retail space, and a central park. Construction for the project began in 2006.
New construction has dovetailed with efforts to cultivate business growth. One of the area 's more successful business ventures in recent years has been the Youngstown Business Incubator. This nonprofit organization, based in a former downtown department store building, fosters the growth of fledgling technology - based companies. The incubator, which boasts more than a dozen business tenants, has recently completed construction on the Taft Technology Center, where some of its largest tenants will locate their offices.
In line with these efforts to change the community 's image, the city government, in partnership with Youngstown State University, has organized an ambitious urban renewal plan known as Youngstown 2010. The stated goals of Youngstown 2010 include the creation of a "cleaner, greener, and better planned and organized Youngstown ''. In January 2005, the organization unveiled a master plan prepared by Urban Strategies Inc. of Toronto, which had taken shape during an extensive process of public consultation and meetings that gathered input from citizens. The plan, which included platforms such as the acceptance of a reduced population and an improved image and quality of life, received national attention and is consistent with efforts in other metropolitan areas to address the phenomenon of urban depopulation. Youngstown 2010 received an award for public outreach from the American Planning Association in 2007.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 34.60 square miles (89.61 km), of which 33.96 square miles (87.96 km) is land and 0.64 square miles (1.66 km) is water.
Located in the Cleveland tri-state area, Youngstown is in the Mahoning Valley on the Glaciated Allegheny Plateau. At the end of the last Ice Age, the glaciers left behind a uniform plain with valleys eroded by the Mahoning River crossing the plain. Lakes created by glaciers that dammed small streams were eventually drained, leaving behind fertile terrain.
Youngstown has a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb), typical of the Midwest, with four distinct seasons, and lies in USDA hardiness zone 6a. Winters are cold and dry but typically bring a mix of rain, sleet, and snow with occasional heavy snowfall and icing. January is the coldest month with an average mean temperature of 25.8 ° F (− 3.4 ° C), with temperatures on average dropping to or below 0 ° F (− 18 ° C) on 4.1 days and staying at or below freezing on 43 days per year. Snowfall averages 62.7 inches (159 cm) per season, significantly less than the snowbelt areas closer to Lake Erie. The snowiest month on record was 53.1 inches (135 cm) in December 2010, while winter snowfall amounts have ranged from 118.7 in (301 cm) in 2010 -- 11 to 25.2 in (64 cm) in 1948 -- 49. Springs generally see a transition to fewer weather systems that produce heavier rainfall. Summers are typically very warm and humid with temperatures exceeding 90 ° F (32 ° C) on 7.7 days per year on average; the annual count has been as high as 40 days in 1943, while the most recent year to not reach that mark is 2014. July is the warmest month with an average mean temperature of 70.5 ° F (21 ° C). Autumn is relatively dry with many clear warm days and cool nights.
The all - time record high temperature in Youngstown of 103 ° F (39 ° C) was established on July 10, 1936, which occurred during the Dust Bowl, and the all - time record low temperature of − 22 ° F (− 30 ° C) was set on January 19, 1994. The first and last freezes of the season on average fall on October 10 and May 6, respectively, allowing a growing season of 156 days; freezing temperatures have been observed in every month except July. The normal annual mean temperature is 49.0 ° F (9.4 ° C). Normal yearly precipitation based on the 30 - year average from 1981 -- 2010 is 38.91 inches (988 mm), falling on an average 160 days. Monthly precipitation has ranged from 10.66 in (271 mm) in June 1986 to 0.16 in (4.1 mm) in October 1924, while for annual precipitation the historical range is 54.01 in (1,372 mm) in 2011 to 23.79 in (604 mm) in 1963.
The 2010 United States Census population estimate was 65,062 people. The Mahoning Valley area as a whole has 763,207 residents.
The United States Census Bureau 's 2011 American Community Survey estimated a median household income of $24,006. A 2007 report by CNNMoney.com stated that Youngstown has the lowest median income of any U.S. city with more than 65,000 residents. Between 1960 and 2010, the city 's population declined by over 60 %. Youngstown 's vacant - housing rate is twenty times that of the national average.
According to the 2010 Census, Youngstown has 26,839 households and 15,150 families in the city. The population density is 755.2 / km2 (1958.5 / sq mi). There are 33,123 housing units at an average density of 968.5 per square mile (373.4 / km2). The racial makeup of the city was 47.0 % White, 45.2 % African American, 0.4 % Native American, 0.4 % Asian, 0.02 % Pacific Islander, 3.3 % of some other race, and 3.7 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 9.3 % of the population. The European ancestry included had 10.8 % Italian, 10.8 % Irish, 10.0 % German, and 4.2 % English ancestries. Among the Hispanic population, 5.7 % are Puerto Rican, 1.9 % Mexican, 0.1 % Cuban, and 0.7 % some other Hispanic or Latino.
Records suggest that 28.6 % of the households have children under the age of 18. Of these, 25.6 % are married couples living together, 24.8 % have a female householder with no husband present, and 43.6 % are non-families. Meanwhile, 37.8 % of all households comprise a single person, and 14.5 % of households comprise a person over 65 years of age living alone. The average household size is 2.28 and the average family size is 3.02.
The population is spread out with 22.8 % under the age of 18, 10.8 % from 18 to 24, 24.3 % from 25 to 44, 26.2 % from 45 to 64, and 15.8 % who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 38 years. For every 100 females there are 96.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 95 males.
Endowed with large deposits of coal and iron as well as "old growth '' hardwood forests needed to produce charcoal, the Youngstown area eventually developed a thriving steel industry, starting with the area 's blast furnace in 1803 by James and Daniel Heaton. By the mid-19th century, Youngstown was the site of several iron industrial plants, and because of easy rail connections to adjacent states, the iron industry continued to expand in the 1890s despite the depletion of local natural resources. At the turn of the 20th century, local industrialists began to convert to steel manufacturing, amid a wave of industrial consolidations that placed much of the Mahoning Valley 's industry in the hands of national corporations.
In the late 1930s, the community 's steel sector gained national attention once again, when Youngstown became a site of the so - called "Little Steel Strike '', an effort by the Steel Workers Organizing Committee, a precursor to United Steelworkers, to secure contract agreements with smaller steel companies. On June 21, 1937, strike - related violence in Youngstown resulted in two deaths and 42 injuries. Despite the violence, historian William Lawson observed that the strike transformed industrial unions from "basically local and ineffective organizations into all - encompassing, nationwide collective bargaining representatives of American workers ''.
Between the 1920s and 1960s, the city was known as an important industrial hub that featured the massive furnaces and foundries of such companies as Republic Steel and U.S. Steel. At the same time, Youngstown never became economically diversified, as did larger industrial cities such as Chicago, Pittsburgh, Akron, or Cleveland. Hence, when economic changes forced the closure of plants throughout the 1970s, the city was left with few substantial economic alternatives. The September 19, 1977, announcement of the closure of a large portion of Youngstown Sheet and Tube, an event still referred to as "Black Monday '', is widely regarded as the death knell of the old area steel industry in Youngstown. In the wake of the steel plant shutdowns, the community lost an estimated 40,000 manufacturing jobs, 400 satellite businesses, $414 million in personal income, and from 33 to 75 percent of the school tax revenues. The Youngstown area has yet to fully recover from the loss of jobs in the steel sector.
Youngstown is the site of several steel and metalworking operations, though nothing on the scale seen during the "glory days '' of the "Steel Valley ''. The largest employer in the city is Youngstown State University (YSU), an urban public campus that serves about 15,000 students, located just north of downtown.
The blow dealt to the community 's industrial economy in the 1970s was slightly mitigated by the presence of auto production plants in the metropolitan area. In the late 1980s, the Avanti, an automobile with a fiberglass body originally designed by Studebaker to compete with the Corvette, was manufactured in an industrial complex on Youngstown 's Albert Street. This company moved away after just a few years. A mainstay of Youngstown 's industrial economy has long been the GM Lordstown plant. The General Motors ' Lordstown Assembly plant is the largest industrial employer in the area. One of the nation 's largest auto plants in terms of square feet, the Lordstown facility was home to production of the Chevrolet Impala, Vega, and Cavalier. It was recently expanded and retooled with a new paint facility.
The largest industrial employers within the Youngstown city limits are Vallourec Star Steel Company (formerly North Star Steel), in the Brier Hill district, and Exal Corporation on Poland Avenue. The latter has recently expanded its operations.
Youngstown 's downtown, which once underscored the community 's economic difficulties, is a site of new business growth. The Youngstown Business Incubator (YBI), in the heart of the downtown, houses several start - up technology companies that have received office space, furnishings, and access to utilities. Some companies supported by the incubator have earned recognition, and a few are starting to outgrow their current space. One such company -- Turning Technologies -- has been rated by Inc. Magazine as the fastest - growing privately held software company in the United States and 18th fastest - growing privately held company overall. In an effort to keep such companies downtown, the YBI secured approval to demolish a row of vacant buildings nearby to clear space for expansion. The project will be funded by a $2 million federal grant awarded in 2006. In 2014, the YBI was ranked as the number 1 university associated business incubator in the world by the Swedish UBII (University Business Incubator Index). In 2015, the YBI was the top University Associated Incubator in North America, and came in second to the Dublin Enterprise & Technology Centre, also known as the Guinness Enterprise Centre, in Dublin.
Extensive coverage of Youngstown 's economic challenges has overshadowed the city 's long entrepreneurial tradition. A number of products and enterprises introduced in Youngstown later became national household names. Among these is Youngstown - based Schwebel 's Bakery, which was established in neighboring Campbell in the 20th century. The company now distributes bread products nationally. In the 1920s, Youngstown was the birthplace of the Good Humor brand of ice cream novelties, and the popular franchise of Handel 's Homemade Ice Cream & Yogurt was established there in the 1940s. In the 1950s, Youngstown - born developer Edward J. DeBartolo, Sr. established one of the country 's first modern shopping plazas in the suburb of Boardman. The fast - food chain, Arby 's, opened the first of its restaurants in Boardman in 1964, and Arthur Treacher 's Fish & Chips was headquartered in Youngstown in the late 1970s. More recently, the city 's downtown hosted the corporate headquarters of the now - defunct pharmacy chain store Phar - Mor, which had been established by Youngstown native Mickey Monus.
Youngstown is governed by a mayor who is elected every four years and limited to a maximum of two terms. Mayors are traditionally inaugurated on or around January 2. The city has tended to elect Democratic mayors since the late 1920s because of the local unions ' support for Democratic candidates for office. Youngstown 's current mayor is John McNally IV. Jay Williams was the city 's first African - American mayor and its first independent mayor since 1922. Williams belonged to the Mayors Against Illegal Guns Coalition, a bi-partisan group with the stated goal of "making the public safer by getting illegal guns off the streets ''. He left his position in Youngstown to become President Barack Obama 's auto czar, directing the Presidential Task Force on the Auto Industry.
Residents elect an eight - member city council composed of representatives of the city 's seven wards and a council president. The council, in turn, appoints a city clerk. The council traditionally meets every first and third Wednesday of the month. City council meetings are generally held from the third week in September to the third week in June. Meanwhile, the board of control oversees contracts for public projects within the municipal limits. The Youngstown Police Department and Youngstown Fire Department fall under the board 's supervision, as do the parks, civil service, community development, health, planning, and water departments.
Youngstown 's finance department oversees all municipal finances and supervises the departments of economic development and income tax. The city 's department of public works has sweeping supervisory responsibilities and oversees the departments of engineering, building inspection, building and grounds, signal and sign, demolition and housing, litter and recycling, street, and water waste treatment. The city 's law department represents the city on all legal issues, serving as counsel to all municipal departments.
Crime has been a lingering problem in many of the Rust Belt 's big and small urban communities, hampering economic recovery. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, Youngstown was nationally identified with gangland slayings that were often committed with car bombs. The town gained the nicknames "Murdertown, USA '' and "Bomb City, USA, '' while the phrase "Youngstown tune - up '' became a nationally popular slang term for car - bomb assassination. The image of Youngstown 's association with crime was reinforced by the construction of prisons inside the metropolitan area. As of 2012, three adult correctional facilities continue to operate within city limits: the Mahoning County Justice Center the Northeast Ohio Correctional Center, and the Ohio State Penitentiary.
For decades, Youngstown was a haven for organized crime, and related corruption was ingrained into the fabric of its society. A 2000 publication in The New Republic listed a "chief of police, the outgoing prosecutor, the sheriff, the county engineer, members of the local police force, a city law director, several defense attorneys, politicians, judges, and a former assistant U.S. attorney '' as controlled by the Mob. The city accelerated measures to limit the influence of organized crime upon all sectors of municipal life. The climax of this ongoing effort was the arrest, trial, and 2002 conviction of former U.S. Representative James A. Traficant, Jr. (D), on bribery, tax fraud, and racketeering charges. Although this has since been cleaned up somewhat, in 2006, Youngstown was ranked by Morgan Quitno Press, a Kansas - based publishing and research company, as the 9th most dangerous city in the United States.
The Youngstown City School District manages all public education within the city. As of 2007, the school district was engaged in a process of reconfiguration, consolidating existing schools while building some new ones. District high schools once included South, North, Chaney, Rayen, East, Woodrow Wilson, Youngstown Early College, and Choffin Career and Technical Center. This roster has changed; Chaney expanded, North, South, and the original East were closed, and Rayen and Wilson were closed to make way for a newly built and re-opened East High School. Youngstown City School District participates in an "Early College '' program, in cooperation with Youngstown State University. This program enables high school students to attend classes on campus and earn college credit.
The Diocese of Youngstown once oversaw more than 20 schools within the city limits. As a result of dwindling enrollment, only four Catholic schools continue to operate within Youngstown proper. These include two elementary schools -- St. Christine 's and St. Joseph the Provider -- and two secondary schools, Ursuline and Cardinal Mooney. (The two high schools share a heated and longstanding rivalry in athletics.) Several additional Catholic schools operate in Mahoning, Trumbull, Columbiana, Portage, Stark, and Ashtabula counties.
Youngstown hosts a small number of private schools. These include Valley Christian School, a nondenomenational K - 12 school located on the south side of the city; Akiva Academy, a progressive K -- 8 school located in the Jewish Community Center; and the Montessori School of the Mahoning Valley, which offers alternative learning environments for students ranging from preschool to eighth grade.
Youngstown has a high school graduation rate of 65 %.
Youngstown State University, the primary institution of higher learning in the Youngstown - Warren metropolitan area, traces its origins to a local YMCA program that began offering college - level courses in 1908. YSU joined the Ohio system of higher education in 1967. The university consists of six colleges: The College of Liberal Arts and Social Sciences (CLASS); The College of Science, Technology, Engineering and Math (STEM); The Willamson College of Business; The Bitonte College of Health and Human Services; The College of Fine and Performing Arts (FPA), and the College of Education. Once regarded as a commuter school, YSU serves about 13,000 students, many from outside the Youngstown area. The campus is just north of the city 's downtown and south of Youngstown 's historic Fifth Avenue district, a neighborhood of Tudor -, Victorian -, and Spanish Colonial Revival - style homes.
YSU offers tuition rates that are lower than the average of other public universities in Ohio, at $3,856 per semester for undergraduates. The university 's assets include the Dana School of Music, an All - Steinway school. The Dana School of Music is one of the six oldest continuously operating schools of music in the United States. Youngstown State 's Engineering programs are accredited through ABET, making it one of the best Engineering Schools in the country, many graduates from the school have gone on to become the founders and heads for various Fortune 100 companies.
In 2012, Forbes.com ranked Youngstown, Ohio 4th among the best cities in the U.S. for raising a family. The article included the city 's schools, current low crime, cost - of - living, and property rates in its decision.
Despite the impact of regional economic decline, Youngstown offers an array of cultural and recreational resources. Moreover, the community 's range of attractions has increased in recent years. The newest addition is the Covelli Centre, a venue for Tier I Jr. A hockey games, concerts, "on ice '' shows, and other forms of entertainment.
The community 's culture center is Powers Auditorium, a former Warner Brothers movie palace that serves as the area 's primary music hall while providing a home for the Youngstown Symphony Orchestra. This downtown landmark is one of five auditoriums within the city limits. Ford Recital Hall was built in 2006 as an addition to newly renovated Powers Auditorium. Imposing and neo-classical Stambaugh Auditorium, on the city 's north side, has served for decades as a site of concerts and is often rented for private events. The facility also hosts the Stambaugh Youth Concert Band. Bruce Springsteen, who sang about the decline of Youngstown 's steel industry and its adverse effects on local workers in his ballad "Youngstown '', played at Stambaugh Auditorium on January 12, 1996, as part of his solo Ghost of Tom Joad Tour. Former violinist for the Dave Matthews Tribute Band, Jason C. Genaro, is from Youngstown, Ohio.
Oakland Center for the Arts, in the downtown area, is a venue for locally produced plays. This institution is complemented by the Youngstown Playhouse on the city 's south side. The Youngstown Playhouse, Mahoning County 's primary community theater, has served the area for more than 80 years, despite intermittent financial problems. Well known theatrical personalities from the Youngstown area include comedic actor Joe Flynn, screen actress Elizabeth Hartman, singer and Broadway performer Maureen McGovern, and television and screen actor Ed O'Neill.
The Butler Institute of American Art is on the northeastern edge of the Youngstown State University campus. This institution was established by industrialist Joseph G. Butler, Jr., in 1919 as the first museum in the country dedicated to American art. Across the street from the Butler Institute stands the McDonough Museum of Art, YSU 's University Art Museum and the Mahoning Valley 's center for contemporary art. The McDonough, established in 1991, features changing exhibitions by regional, national and international artists and provides public access to the work of students, faculty and alumni from the Department of Art. The Clarence R. Smith Mineral Museum, also on the YSU campus, is operated by the university 's geology department and housed in a campus building.
To the immediate north of YSU is the Arms Family Museum of Local History. The museum, housed in a 1905 Arts & Crafts style mansion on the main artery of Wick Avenue, is managed by the Mahoning Valley Historical Society. Once the estate of a local industrialist, the museum maintains period rooms that showcase the original contents of the household, including furnishings, art objects, and personal artifacts. The museum mounts rotating exhibits on topics related to local history. Recently, the museum opened the "Anne Kilcawley Christman Hands - on History Room ''. The MVHS Archival Library operates in the estate 's former carriage house, near the back of the site.
The Youngstown Historical Center of Industry and Labor sits south of the YSU campus on a grade overlooking the downtown area. This museum, owned and operated by the Ohio Historical Society, focuses on the Mahoning Valley 's history of steel production. Other museums include the Children 's Museum of the Valley, an interactive educational center in the downtown area, and the Davis Education and Recreation Center, a small museum that showcases the history of Youngstown 's Mill Creek Park. On the city 's north side the Youngstown Steel Heritage Foundation is constructing the Tod Engine Heritage Park, featuring a collection of steel industry equipment and artifacts. The main exhibit is a 1914 William Tod Co. rolling mill steam engine that was built in Youngstown and used at the Youngstown Sheet and Tube Brier Hill Works. The Tod Engine is one of three remaining rolling mill engines in the United States and is a Mechanical and Materials Engineering Landmark.
Youngstown 's most popular resource is Mill Creek Park, a five - mile (8 km) - long stretch of landscaped woodland reminiscent of Rock Creek Park in Washington, D.C. Mill Creek Park is the oldest park district in Ohio, established as a township park in 1891. The park 's highlights include the restored 19th century Lanterman 's Mill, the rock formations of Bear 's Den, scores of nature trails, the Fellows Riverside Gardens and Education Center, the "Cinderella '' iron link bridge, and two 18 hole Donald Ross golf courses.
Mill Creek Park encompasses approximately 2,600 acres (1,100 ha), 20 miles (32 km) of drives and 15 miles (24 km) of foot trails. Its attractions include gardens, streams, lakes, woodlands, meadows, and wildlife.
Fellows Riverside Gardens ' popular lookout point offers visitors contrasting views of the area. From the south side, the canopied woodlands overlooking Lake Glacier are visible; from the north side, visitors are presented with a view of downtown Youngstown. The park features two 18 - hole golf courses. The North Course is on rolling terrain, while the South Course features narrow, tree - lined fairways. Other features include playgrounds, athletic fields, and picnic areas.
In 2005, Mill Creek Park was placed on the National Register of Historic Places. A plaque commemorating this event is near a memorial statue of Volney Rogers, the Youngstown attorney who set aside land for the creation of Mill Creek Park.
A smaller recreational area called Wick Park is on the historic North side. Wick Park 's periphery is lined with early 20th - century mansions built by the city 's industrialists, business leaders, and professionals during Youngstown 's "boom '' years. Stambaugh Auditorium, a popular venue for concerts and other public events, is near the park 's southwestern edge. Another small recreational area called Crandall Park is also on the North side. Crandall Park offers well - maintained and landscaped homes, tree - lined streets, and walkable access to shopping and recreations. Several cemeteries (notably historic Oak Hill Cemetery) and small recreational spaces are scattered throughout the city. Some of those recreational spaces include Homestead Park, John White park, Lynn park, Borts Pool, and the Northside Pool.
Youngstown has enjoyed a long tradition of professional and semi-professional sports. In earlier decades, the city produced scores of minor league baseball teams, including the Youngstown Ohio Works, Youngstown Champs, Youngstown Indians, Youngstown Steelmen, Youngstown Browns, Youngstown Gremlins, and Youngstown Athletics. Local enthusiasm for baseball was such that the community hosted championship games of the National Amateur Baseball Federation throughout the 1930s and 1940s. The area 's minor league baseball teams were supplemented by semi-professional football teams, including the Youngstown Patricians, who won the 1915 championship of the informal "Ohio League '' (a direct predecessor to the National Football League), and the Youngstown Hardhats, who competed in the Middle Atlantic Football League in the 1970s and early 1980s. For three seasons, Youngstown was home to the Mahoning Valley Thunder of the now - defunct af2, the minor league for the Arena Football League until 2009 when the franchise ceased operations. Local minor league basketball teams included the Youngstown Pride of the WBA from 1987 to 1992, the Youngstown Hawks of the IBA in 1999, and the Mahoning Valley Wildcats of the IBL in 2005. Covelli Centre (known then as the Chevrolet Centre) was the home of the Youngstown SteelHounds hockey team that played in the Central Hockey League until May 2008. In 2005 the Ohio Redbulls semi-pro football of the United States Football Association (owned by Will Smith) won their first championship. (1)
The community has a lengthy tradition of collegiate sports. The Youngstown State University Penguins, a major regional draw, compete in the Missouri Valley Football Conference. The Penguins, noted participants in FCS (I - AA) football, play their games at Stambaugh Stadium and enjoy one of the more supportive fan bases. All other YSU athletic teams compete in the Horizon League, which does not sponsor football. The Youngstown State men and women 's basketball teams hold their games at Youngstown State 's Beeghly Center. The teams average about 2,500 fans per game, a number that has been on the rise the past two seasons with a new style of play under Head Coach Jerry Slocum. In addition, the YSU baseball and softball teams have enjoyed local support and success. The baseball team reached the NCAA super-regionals in 2005, and the softball team did so in 2006.
Youngstown has produced a significant number of boxing champions, including bantamweight Greg Richardson, lightweights Ray "Boom Boom '' Mancini and Harry Arroyo, and middleweight Kelly Pavlik.
One of the city 's most recent sports - related attractions is the Covelli Centre, which was funded primarily through a $26 million federal grant. Located on the site of an abandoned steel mill, the large, high - tech facility opened in October 2005. It was formerly called the Chevrolet Center, and during planning it was known as the Youngstown Convocation Center. The Centre 's main tenants are the Youngstown Phantoms, who play in the United States Hockey League. Previously, it was home to the Youngstown Steelhounds hockey team, who played in the CHL. The city plans to develop vacant land adjacent to the Centre for a park, a riverwalk (the Mahoning River flows through the site), an amphitheater, or an athletic stadium for the city 's public and private high schools.
These investments reflect wide appreciation of Youngstown 's athletic tradition, which has produced noted figures in a variety of sports. Prominent athletes with connections to the city include former world boxing champions Greg Richardson, IBF lightweight champion Harry Arroyo, College Football Hall of Fame end Bob Dove, Hall of Fame umpire Billy Evans, major league pitcher Dave Dravecky, NFL quarterback Bernie Kosar, IBF cruiserweight champion Jeff Lampkin, WBA lightweight champion Ray "Boom Boom '' Mancini, major league manager Jimmy McAleer, WBC and WBO middleweight champion Kelly Pavlik, legendary baseball trainer "Bonesetter '' Reese, major league outfielder George Shuba, and Heisman Trophy recipient Frank Sinkwich.
The Youngstown area is served by the Western Reserve Transit Authority (WRTA) bus system, which is supported through Mahoning County property and sales taxes. WRTA, whose main terminal is in the downtown area, provides service throughout the city and into surrounding Mahoning and Trumbull counties. The downtown terminal serves as the Youngstown area 's Greyhound terminal.
In the vicinity of the WRTA terminal is a former Baltimore and Ohio Railroad station. The historic terminal building has now been converted into a banquet hall, served Amtrak 's Three Rivers as a train station from 1995 to 2005. The local railroads now serve freight trains exclusively.
The Youngstown - Warren Regional Airport is currently served by three airlines (Allegiant Air, Sun Country Airlines and Via Air, in order of market share), five rental car agencies Alamo, National, Enterprise, Budget, Avis, and has direct non-stop flights to Orlando (Allegiant), Fort Myers (Allegiant), Tampa (Allegiant), Atlantic City (Via Air), Tunica (Via Air, Sun Country), and Gulfport (Sun Country). Additional seasonal service includes flights to Myrtle Beach, SC (Allegiant).
On June 23, 2016, Uber launched its services in Youngstown, covering all of Mahoning County and most of Trumbull County.
Youngstown features diverse media, including television, print and radio. Newspapers include The Buckeye Review (bi-monthly / African - American), The Business Journal (bi-monthly / business), The Catholic Exponent (bi-monthly / religious), Daily Legal News (daily / legal), The Jambar (bi-weekly / college), The Jewish Journal (monthly / Jewish), The Metro Monthly (monthly / news, features, calendar), Morning Journal (daily / Columbiana County news), The Review (daily (serving southern Columbiana County) / news, features), Senior News (monthly / seniors), The Journal (weekly / Struthers, Campbell and Lowellville), Parent Magazine (monthly / children 's), Peace Action Youngstown (quarterly / peace activism), The Town Crier (weekly / suburban news), Record Courier (daily / Portage County news), Akron Beacon Journal (daily / regional news), The Plain Dealer (daily / regional news), Pittsburgh Post Gazette (daily / regional news), Warren Tribune Chronicle (daily / regional news), and The Vindicator (daily / regional news), The News Outlet (university based media collaborative)
Youngstown is served by 10 television stations, three of which are repeaters of TV stations in other cities, and a fourth coming in the near future from Pittsburgh NBC affiliate WPXI in nearby New Castle, Pennsylvania, that would easily penetrate Youngstown pending FCC approval. This is unusual for a mid-sized city near large metro areas such as Cleveland and Pittsburgh. Nearby Akron, with a larger population than Youngstown and Warren combined, has no local television stations and relies on Cleveland for its local news. The community 's 273,480 television households make the Youngstown market the nation 's 106th largest, according to Nielsen Media Research.
The market is served by stations affiliated with major American networks including: WFMJ - TV (channel 21, NBC), WYTV (channel 33, ABC), WYFX - LD (channel 17 / 62 & 27.2 on WKBN - DT2, Fox), WKBN - TV (channel 27, CBS), MY - YTV (channel 33.2, MNTV), and WBCB (channel 21.2, The CW). WFMJ - TV and its digital subchannel WBCB are both locally owned & operated by the Maag family, owners of The Vindicator. The rest of Youngstown 's commercial television stations are either owned and operated by Media General or operated by MG through a shared services agreement. Western Reserve Public Media airs on channel 45 (WNEO) from Alliance, Ohio, and channel 49 (WEAO) from Akron is a member of PBS.
Youngstown is served by 37 different radio stations in the metropolitan area making it the 119th largest radio market in the United States. Stations include 17 on the AM band and 20 on the FM band. The majority of the most powerful and popular radio stations in the Youngstown - Warren market are divided between two national media companies: Clear Channel and Cumulus Media.
Bruce Springsteen wrote a song called "Youngstown '' about the industrial history of Youngstown in his album The Ghost of Tom Joad, which he released in 1995.
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who invented chewing gum and when was it first used | Chewing gum - wikipedia
Chewing gum is a soft, cohesive substance designed to be chewed without being swallowed. Modern chewing gum is composed of gum base, sweeteners, softeners / plasticizers, flavors, colors, and, typically, a hard or powdered polyol coating. Its texture is reminiscent of rubber because of the physical - chemical properties of its polymer, plasticizer, and resin components, which contribute to its elastic - plastic, sticky, chewy characteristics.
The cultural tradition of chewing gum seems to have developed through a convergent evolution process, as traces of this habit have arisen separately in many of the early civilizations. Each of the early precursors to chewing gum were derived from natural growths local to the region and were chewed purely out the instinctual desire to masticate. Early chewers did not necessarily desire to derive nutritional benefits from their chewable substances, but at times sought taste stimuli and teeth cleaning or breath - freshening capabilities.
Chewing gum in many forms has existed since the Neolithic period. 6,000 - year - old chewing gum made from birch bark tar, with tooth imprints, has been found in Kierikki in Finland. The tar from which the gums were made is believed to have antiseptic properties and other medicinal benefits. It is chemically similar to petroleum tar and is in this way different from most other early gum. The Mayans and Aztecs were the first to exploit the positive properties of gum, they used chicle, a natural tree gum, as a base for making a gum - like substance and to stick objects together in everyday use. Forms of chewing gums were also chewed in Ancient Greece. The Ancient Greeks chewed mastic gum, made from the resin of the mastic tree. Mastic gum, like birch bark tar, has antiseptic properties and is believed to have been used to maintain oral health. Both chicle and mastic are tree resins. Many other cultures have chewed gum - like substances made from plants, grasses, and resins.
Although chewing gum can be traced back to civilizations around the world, the modernization and commercialization of this product mainly took place in the United States. The American Indians chewed resin made from the sap of spruce trees. The New England settlers picked up this practice, and in 1848, John B. Curtis developed and sold the first commercial chewing gum called The State of Maine Pure Spruce Gum. In this way, the industrializing West, having forgotten about tree gums, rediscovered chewing gum through the First Americans. Around 1850 a gum made from paraffin wax, which is a petroleum product, was developed and soon exceeded the spruce gum in popularity. To sweeten these early gums, the chewer would often make use of a plate of powdered sugar, which they would repeatedly dip the gum into to maintain sweetness. William Semple filed an early patent on chewing gum, patent number 98,304, on December 28, 1869.
The first flavored chewing gum was created in the 1860s by John Colgan, a Louisville, Kentucky pharmacist. Colgan mixed with powdered sugar the aromatic flavoring tolu, a powder obtained from an extract of the balsam tree (Myroxylon), creating small sticks of flavored chewing gum he named "Taffy Tolu ''. Colgan also lead the way in the manufacturing and packaging of chicle - based chewing gum, derived from Manilkara chicle, a tropical evergreen tree. He licensed a patent for automatically cutting chips of chewing gum from larger sticks: US 966,160 "Chewing Gum Chip Forming Machine '' August 2, 1910 and a patent for automatically cutting wrappers for sticks of chewing gum: US 913,352 "Web - cutting attachment for wrapping - machines '' February 23, 1909 from Louisville, Kentucky inventor James Henry Brady, an employee of the Colgan Gum Company.
Modern chewing gum was first developed in the 1860s when chicle was brought from Mexico by the former President, General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, to New York, where he gave it to Thomas Adams for use as a rubber substitute. Chicle did not succeed as a replacement for rubber, but as a gum, which was cut into strips and marketed as Adams New York Chewing Gum in 1871. Black Jack (1884), which is flavored with licorice, Chiclets (1899), and Wrigley 's Spearmint Gum were early popular gums that quickly dominated the market and are all still around today. Chewing gum gained worldwide popularity through American GIs in WWII, who were supplied chewing gum as a ration and traded it with locals. Synthetic gums were first introduced to the U.S. after chicle no longer satisfied the needs of making good chewing gum. By the 1960s, US manufacturers had switched to butadiene - based synthetic rubber, as it was cheaper to manufacture.
Gum base composition is considered proprietary information known by select individuals within each gum - manufacturing company. Information about the other components of chewing gum are more accessible to the public and they are listed in Table 2.
Table 2: Common Ingredients in the Formulation of Modern Chewing Gum
Artificial Sweeteners: 0.05 - 0.5 %
sugar, dextrose, glucose or corn syrup, erythritol, isomalt, xylitol, maltitol, mannitol, sorbitol, lactitol
aspartame, acesulfame - K, saccharine, sucralose, neohesperidine, dihydrichalcone
Peppermint and spearmint are the most popular flavors. Food acids are implemented to provide a sour flavor (i.e. citric, tartaric, malic, lactic, adipic, and fumaric acids).
Maltitol / Isomalt
Mannitol
Starch
Gum base is made of polymers, plasticizers, and resins. Polymers, including elastomers, are responsible for the stretchy and sticky nature of chewing gum. Plasticizers improve flexibility and reduce brittleness, contributing to the plastic and elastic nature of gum. The interactions of plasticizers within gum base are governed by solubility parameters, molecular weight, and chemical structure. Resins compose the hydrophobic portion of the gum base, responsible for its chewiness. Although the exact ingredients and proportions used in each brand 's gum base are trade secrets within the gum industry, Table 3 lists all of the natural and synthetic gum base components approved for use in the United States, demonstrating some examples of key gum base components.
Table 3: Gum Base Ingredients Approved for Use by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2016)
Chicle
Chiquibul
Crown Gum
Gutta hang kang
Massaranduba balata
Massaranduba chocolate
Nispero
Rosidinha
Venezuelan chicle
Isobutylene - isoprene copolymer (butyl rubber)
Paraffin (via the Fischer - Tropsch process)
Petroleum wax
Petroleum wax synthetic
Polyethylene
Polyisobutylene Polyvinyl acetate
Jelutong
Leche caspi (sorva)
Pendare
Perillo
Leche de vaca
Niger gutta
Tunu (tuno)
Chilte
Natural rubber
First, gum base is previously prepared through a melting and straining or filtering process. The formulation for gum base is proprietary information known to few individuals within each gum - producing company. Next, other ingredients such as nutritive and non-nutritive sweeteners and flavors are added to the gum base until the warm mixture thickens like dough. The gum base mixture is heated during this mixing process in order to increase the entropy of the polymers to achieve a more uniform dispersion of ingredients. Then, extrusion technology is implemented to smooth, form, and shape the gum. Next, the gum goes through a shaping process that is determined by gum type and consumer demand. For example, cut and wrap (chunk or cube) pieces are severed straight out of the extruder using a vertical cutter. Sheeting is a technique often used for stick, slab and tab gums. Next, gum is either conditioned by being sprinkled with a powdered polyol or coated via the application of subsequent layers of coating using temperature controlled coating basins before it is sent to packaging.
Chewing gum can come in a variety of formats ranging from 1.4 to 6.9 grams per piece, and products can be differentiated by the consumers ' intent to form bubbles or the sugar / sugarless dichotomy.
Chewing gum typically comes in three formats: tablets, coated pellets, and sticks / slabs. Bubble gum typically come in three formats as well: tablets, hollow balls, and cubes or chunks. Stick, slab, and tab gums typically come in packs of about 5 to 17 sticks, and their medium size allows for softer texture. Pellet gums, or dragée gums, are pillow shaped pieces that are almost always coated. Packaging of pellet gums can vary from boxes to bottles to blister packs. The coating of pellet gum allows for the opportunity for multiple flavor sensations, since coating is done in a layering process and different flavor attributes can be added to various layers. Cube or chunk gums, which are typically intended for bubble blowing, are called cut and wrap gums as they are typically severed from continuous strands of extruded gum and packaged directly.
Chewing gum is rather shelf stable because of its non-reactive nature and low moisture content. The water activity of chewing gum ranges from 0.40 to 0.65. The moisture content of chewing gum ranges from 3 to 6 %. In fact, chewing gum retains its quality for so long that, in most countries, it is not required by law to be labeled with an expiration date. If chewing gum remains in a stable environment, over time the gum may become brittle or lose some of its flavor, but it will never be unsafe to eat. If chewing gum is exposed to moisture, over time water migration may occur, making the gum soggy. In lollipops with a gum center, water migration can lead to the end of the product 's shelf life, causing the exterior hard candy shell to soften and the interior gum center to harden.
The physical and chemical properties of chewing gum impact all aspects of this product, from manufacturing to sensory perception during mastication.
The polymers that make up the main component of chewing gum base are hydrophobic. This property is essential because it allows for retention of physical properties throughout the mastication process. Because the polymers of gum repel water, the water - based saliva system in a consumer 's mouth will dissolve the sugars and flavorings in chewing gum, but not the gum base itself. This allows for gum to be chewed for a long period of time without breaking down in the mouth like conventional foods. Chewing gum can be classified as a product containing a liquid phase and a crystalline phase, providing gum with its characteristic balance of plastic and elastic properties.
While hydrophobic polymers beneficially repel water and contribute to chewiness, they also detrimentally attract oil. The stickiness of gum results from this hydrophobic nature, as gum can form bonds and stick when it makes contact with oily surfaces such as sidewalks, skin, hair, or the sole of one 's shoe. To make matters worse, unsticking the gum is a challenge because the long polymers of the gum base stretch, rather than break. The sticky characteristic of gum may be problematic during processing if the gum sticks to any machinery or packaging materials during processing, impeding the flow of product. Aside from ensuring that the machinery is free from lipid - based residues, this issue can be combatted by the conditioning and coating of gum toward the end of the process. By adding either a powder or a coating to the exterior of the gum product, the hydrophobic gum base binds to the added substance instead of various surfaces with which it may come in contact.
Bubblegum bubbles are formed when the tension and elasticity of gum polymers acts against the constant and equally dispersed pressure of air being directed into the gum bolus. Bubble gum bubbles are circular because pressure from the focused air being directed into the bolus acts equally on all of the interior surfaces of the gum cud, uniformly pushing outward on all surfaces as the polymers extend. As the bubble expands, the polymers of the gum base stretch and the surface of the bubble begins to thin. When the force of the air being blown into the bubble exceeds the force that the polymers can withstand, the polymers overextend and the bubble pops. Due to the elastic attributes of chewing gum, the deflated bubble recoils and the wad of gum is ready to continue being chewed.
Gum bases with higher molecular weights are typically used in gums intended to meet bubble - forming expectations. Higher molecular weight gum bases include longer polymers that are able to stretch further, and thus are able to form larger bubbles that retain their shape for a longer time.
Flavor delivery is extended throughout the mastication process by timed release of different flavor components due to the physical - chemical properties of many of chewing gum 's ingredients. Entropy is a key player in the process of flavor delivery; because some gum components are more soluble in saliva than gum base and because over time flavor components desire to increase their entropy by becoming dispersed in the less ordered system of the mouth than in the more ordered system of the gum bolus, flavor delivery occurs. During the first three to four minutes of the chew, bulking agents such as sugar or sorbitol and maltitol have the highest solubility and, therefore, are chewed out first. As these components dissolve in the consumers ' saliva and slide down the esophagus, they are no longer retained in the gum base or perceived by the chewer. During the next phase of the chew in the four to six minute range, intense sweeteners and some acids are dissolved and chewed out. These components last slightly longer than the bulking agents because they have a slightly lower solubility. Next, encapsulated flavors are released during either 10 - 15 minute into the chew or after 30 -- 45 minutes. Encapsulated flavors remain incorporated in the gum base longer because the molecules that they are encapsulated in are more easily held within the gum matrix. Finally, during the last phase of the chew, softeners such as corn syrup and glycerin and other textural modifiers are dissolved, resulting in a firming up of the gum and the end of the chew.
Studies have shown that gum flavor is perceived better in the presence of sweetener. Companies have started to create chemical systems in gum so that the sweetener and flavor release together in a controlled manner during chewing.
A cooling sensation is achieved through the chemical phenomenon of the negative enthalpy of dissolution that occurs with bulk sweeteners, such as the sugar alcohols. The enthalpy of dissolution refers to the overall amount of heat that is absorbed or released in the dissolving process. Because the bulk sweeteners absorb heat as they dissolve and have a negative enthalpy, they yield a cooling sensation as they are dissolved in a consumer 's saliva.
A review about the cognitive advantages of chewing gum by Onyper et al. (2011) found strong evidence of improvement for the following cognitive domains: working memory, episodic memory and speed of perception. However the improvements were only evident when chewing took place prior to cognitive testing. The precise mechanism by which gum chewing improves cognitive functioning is however not well understood. The researchers did also note that chewing - induced arousal could be masked by the distracting nature of chewing itself, which they named "dual - process theory '', which in turn could explain some of the contradictory findings by previous studies. They also noticed the similarity between mild physical exercise such as pedaling a stationary bike and chewing gum. It has been demonstrated that mild physical exercise leads to little cognitive impairment during the physical task accompanied by enhanced cognitive functioning afterwards. Furthermore, the researchers noted that no improvement could be found for verbal fluency, which is in accordance with previous studies. This finding suggests that the effect of chewing gum is domain specific. The cognitive improvements after a period of chewing gum have been demonstrated to last for 15 -- 20 minutes and decline afterwards.
Sugar - free gum sweetened with xylitol has been shown to reduce cavities and plaque. The sweetener sorbitol has the same benefit, but is only about one - third as effective as xylitol. Other sugar substitutes, such as maltitol, aspartame and acesulfame K, have also been found to not cause tooth decay. Xylitol is specific in its inhibition of Streptococcus mutans, bacteria that are significant contributors to tooth decay. Xylitol inhibits Streptococcus mutans in the presence of other sugars, with the exception of fructose. Xylitol is a safe sweetener that benefits teeth and saliva production because, unlike most sugars, it is not fermented to acid. Daily doses of xylitol below 3.44 grams are ineffective and doses above 10.32 grams show no additional benefit. Other active ingredients in chewing gum include fluoride, which strengthens tooth enamel, and p - chlorbenzyl - 4 - methylbenzylpiperazine, which prevents travel sickness. Chewing gum also increases saliva production.
Food and sucrose have a demineralizing effect upon enamel that has been reduced by adding calcium lactate to food. Calcium lactate added to toothpaste has reduced calculus formation. One study has shown that calcium lactate enhances enamel remineralization when added to xylitol - containing gum, but another study showed no additional remineralization benefit from calcium lactate or other calcium compounds in chewing - gum.
Other studies indicated that the caries preventive effect of chewing sugar - free gum is related to the chewing process itself rather than being an effect of gum sweeteners or additives, such as polyols and carbamide. A study investigated the in situ effect of casein phosphopeptide -- amorphous calcium phosphate (CPP -- ACP) found that its incorporation into a sugar - free gum increases the remineralization / protection of eroded enamel surface significantly.
Gum chewing is regarded as a helpful way to cure halitosis (bad breath). Chewing gum not only helps to add freshness to breath but can aid in removing food particles and bacteria associated with bad breath from teeth. It does this by stimulating saliva, which essentially washes out the mouth. Chewing sugar - free gum for 20 minutes after a meal helps prevent tooth decay, according to the American Dental Association, because the act of chewing the sugar - free gum produces saliva to wash away bacteria, which protects teeth. Chewing gum after a meal replaces brushing and flossing, if that 's not possible, to prevent tooth decay and increase saliva production. Chewing gum can also help with the lack of saliva or xerostomia since it naturally stimulates saliva production. Saliva is made of chemicals, such as organic molecules, inorganic ions and macromolecules. 0.5 % of saliva deals with dental health, since tooth enamel is made of calcium phosphate, those inorganic ions in saliva help repair the teeth and keep them in good condition. The pH of saliva is neutral, which having a pH of 7 allows it to remineralize tooth enamel. Falling below a pH of 5.5 (which is acidic) causes the saliva to demineralize the teeth.
Masumoto et al. looked at the effects of chewing gum after meals following an orthodontic procedure, to see if chewing exercises caused subjects pain or discomfort, or helped maintain a large occlusal contact area. 35 adult volunteers chewed gum for 10 to 15 minutes before or after three meals each day for 4 weeks. 90 % of those questioned said that the gum felt "quite hard '', and half reported no discomfort.
Several randomized controlled studies have investigated the use of chewing gum in reducing the duration of post-operative ileus following abdominal and specifically gastrointestinal surgery. A systematic review of these suggests gum chewing, as a form of "sham feeding '', is a useful treatment therapy in open abdominal or pelvic surgery, although the benefit is less clear when laparoscopic surgical techniques are used.
Chewing gum after a colon surgery helps the patient recover sooner. If the patient chews gum for fifteen minutes for at least four times per day, it will reduce their recovery time by a day and a half. The average patient took 0.66 fewer days to pass gas and 1.10 fewer days to have a bowel movement. Saliva flow and production is stimulated when gum is chewed. Gum also gets digestive juices flowing and is considered "sham feeding ''. Sham feeding is the role of the central nervous system in the regulation of gastric secretion.
Chewing gum is used as a novel approach for the treatment of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). One hypothesis is that chewing gum stimulates the production of more bicarbonate - containing saliva and increases the rate of swallowing. After the saliva is swallowed, it neutralizes acid in the esophagus. In effect, chewing gum exaggerates one of the normal processes that neutralize acid in the esophagus. However, chewing gum is sometimes considered to contribute to the development of stomach ulcers. It stimulates the stomach to secrete acid and the pancreas to produce digestive enzymes that are n't required. In some cases, when consuming large quantities of gum containing sorbitol, gas and / or diarrhea may occur.
Controversy arises as to health concerns surrounding the questionable classification of gum as food, particularly in regard to some alternative uses for gum base ingredients. According to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), chewing gum is considered a food, as the term "food '' means "a raw, cooked, or processed edible substance, ice, beverage, or ingredient used or intended for use or for sale in whole or in part for human consumption, or chewing gum ''. Chewing gum is defined as a food of minimal nutritional value. However, many of the ingredients in gum base have uses in inedible products, which raises concern in some consumers. Polyethylene, one of the most popular components of gum base, belongs to a common group of plastics and is used in products from plastic bags to hula hoops. Polyvinyl acetate is a sticky polymer found in white glue. Butyl rubber is typically used in caulking and the lining of car tires, in addition to its role in gum base. Paraffin wax is a byproduct of refined petroleum.
Concern has arisen about the possible carcinogenicity of the vinyl acetate (acetic acid ethenyl ester) used by some manufacturers in their gum bases. Currently, the ingredient can be hidden in the catch - all term "gum base ''. The Canadian government at one point classified the ingredient as a "potentially high hazard substance. '' However, on January 31, 2010, the Government of Canada 's final assessment concluded that exposure to vinyl acetate is not considered to be harmful to human health. This decision under the Canadian Environmental Protection Act (CEPA) was based on new information received during the public comment period, as well as more recent information from the risk assessment conducted by the European Union.
Various myths hold that swallowed gum will remain in a human 's stomach for up to 7 years, as it is not digestible. According to several medical opinions, there seems to be little truth behind the tale. In most cases, swallowed gum will pass through the system as quickly as any other food.
There have been cases where swallowing gum has resulted in complications requiring medical attention. A 1998 paper describes a four - year - old boy being referred with a two - year history of constipation. The boy was found to have "always swallowed his gum after chewing five to seven pieces each day '', being given the gum as a reward for good behavior, and the build - up resulted in a solid mass which could not leave the body. A 11⁄2 - year - old girl required medical attention when she swallowed her gum and four coins, which got stuck together in her esophagus. A bezoar is formed in the stomach when food or other foreign objects stick to gum and build up, causing intestinal blockage. As long as the mass of gum is small enough to pass out of the stomach, it will likely pass out of the body easily, but it is recommended that gum not be swallowed or given to young children who do not understand not to swallow it.
Chewing gum is not water - soluble and unlike other confectionery is not fully consumed. There has been much effort at public education and investment aimed at encouraging responsible disposal. Despite this it is commonly found stuck underneath benches, tables, handrails and escalators. It is extremely difficult and expensive to remove once "walked in '' and dried. Gum bonds strongly to asphalt and rubber shoe soles because they are all made from polymeric hydrocarbons. It also bonds strongly with concrete paving. Removal is generally achieved by steam jet and scraper but the process is slow and labour - intensive.
Most external urban areas with high pedestrian traffic show high incidence of casual chewing gum discard. In 2000 a study on Oxford Street, one of London 's busiest shopping streets, showed that a quarter of a million black or white blobs of chewing gum were stuck to its pavement. Gum removal from city streets, or even famous landmarks, can be a costly effort; in Rome, 15,000 pieces of chewed gum are discarded on a daily basis and the removal of each piece costs the city one euro. However, likely as a consequence of Singapore 's ban, Singapore 's pavements are, perhaps uniquely amongst modern cities, free of gum.
Various teams of researchers have developed gum that is less adhesive and degrades within days or weeks. One example, Rev7 Gum, was briefly for sale from 2010 to 2012.
Many schools do not allow chewing gum because students often dispose of it inappropriately (leaving it under desks and chairs, behind vending machines, etc.). The chewing may also pose a distraction to class, and the gum might carry diseases or bacteria from other students.
The Singapore government outlawed chewing gum in 1992 citing the danger of discarded gum being wedged in the sliding doors of underground trains and general cleanliness. However, in 2004 the government allowed sugarless gum to be sold in pharmacies if a doctor or dentist prescribed it due to the Singapore -- United States Free Trade Agreement.
In 2018, the BBC published a news article on British designer Anna Bullus, who created a method of collecting and recycling chewing gum into plastic, noting that litter from chewing gum is the second most common form of litter, second only to cigarette litter. She uses a Worcester recycling plant to make old chewing gum into plastic. She then uses that plastic at a plastic moulding specialist, Amber Valley, in Leicester to make plastic objects. Known objects made are collection containers for more chewing gum, shoe soles, rubber boots, and plastic cups. Her company advertises itself as the "first company in the world to recycle and process chewing gum into a range of new compounds that can be used in the rubber and plastics industry ''. The company is called Gum - tec, and the collection containers are dubbed "gumdrops ''. Advertised products on the website are pencils, coffee mugs, guitar picks, a "bicycle spoke '', rulers, sports cones, frisbees, boomerangs, door stops, "meal mates '', lunch - boxes, and combs.
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by 1900 the societies of the frontier west were making their greatest world history mark in | Historiography of the British Empire - wikipedia
The historiography of the British Empire refers to the studies, sources, critical methods and interpretations used by scholars. Historians and their ideas are the focus here; specific lands and historical dates and episodes are covered in the article on the British Empire. Scholars have long studied the Empire, looking at the causes for its formation, its relations to the French and other empires, and the kinds of people who became imperialists or anti-imperialists, together with their mindsets. The history of the breakdown of the Empire has attracted scholars of the histories of the United States (which broke away in 1776), India (independent in 1947), and the African colonies (independent in the 1960s). John Darwin (2013) identifies four imperial goals: colonizing, civilizing, converting, and commerce.
Historians have approached imperial history from numerous angles over the last century. In recent decades scholars have expanded the range of topics into new areas in social and cultural history, paying special attention to the impact on the natives and their agency in response. The cultural turn in historiography has recently emphasised issues of language, religion, gender, and identity. Recent debates have considered the relationship between the "metropole '' (Great Britain itself, especially London), and the colonial peripheries. The "British world '' historians stress the material, emotional, and financial links among the colonizers across the imperial diaspora. The "new imperial historians, '' by contrast, are more concerned with the Empire 's impact on the metropole, including everyday experiences and images. Phillip Buckner says that by the 1990s few historians continued to portray the Empire as benevolent. The new thinking was that the impact was not so great, for historians had discovered the many ways which the locals responded to and adapted to Imperial rule. The implication Buckner says is that Imperial history is "therefore less important than was formerly believed. ''
Historians agree that the Empire was not planned by anyone. The concept of the British Empire is a construct and was never a legal entity, unlike the Roman or other European empires. There was no imperial constitution, no office of emperor, no uniformity of laws. So when it began, when it ended, and what stages it went through is a matter of opinion, not official orders or laws. The dividing line was Britain 's shift in the 1763 - 93 period from emphasis on western to eastern territories following U.S. independence. The London bureaucracy governing the colonies also changed, policies to white settler colonies changed and slavery was phased out.
The first major history was The Expansion of England (1883), by Sir John Seeley. It was a bestseller for decades, and was widely admired by the imperialistic faction in British politics, and opposed by the anti-imperialists of the Liberal Party. The book points out how and why Britain gained the colonies, the character of the Empire, and the light in which it should be regarded. It was well written and persuasive. Seeley argued that British rule is in India 's best interest. He also warned that India had to be protected and vastly increased the responsibilities and dangers to Britain. The book contains the much - quoted statement that "we seem, as it were, to have conquered half the world in a fit of absence of mind ''. Expansion of England appeared at an opportune time, and did much to make the British regard the colonies as an expansion of the British state as well as of British nationality, and to confirm to them the value of Britain 's empire in the East. In his history of the British Empire, written in 1940, A.P. Newton lamented that Seeley "dealt in the main with the great wars of the eighteenth century and this gave the false impression that the British Empire has been founded largely by war and conquest, an idea that was unfortunately planted firmly in the public mind, not only in Great Britain, but also in foreign countries ''.
Historians often point out that in the First British Empire (before the 1780s) there was no single imperial vision, but rather a multiplicity of private operations led by different groups of English businessmen or religious groups. Although protected by the Royal Navy, they were not funded or planned by the government. After the American war, says Bruce Collins, British leaders "focused not on any military lessons to be learned, but upon the regulation and expansion of imperial trade and the readjustment of Britain 's constitutional relationship with its colonies. ''
In the Second British Empire, by 1815 historians identify four distinct elements in the colonies. The most politically developed colonies were the self - governing colonies in the Caribbean and those that later formed Canada and Australia. India was in a category by itself, and its immense size and distance required control of the routes to it, and in turn permitted British naval dominance from the Persian Gulf to the South China Sea. The third group was a mixed bag of smaller territories, including isolated ports used as way stations to India, and emerging trade entrepots such as Hong Kong and Singapore, along with a few isolated ports in Africa. The fourth kind of empire was the "informal empire, '' that is financial dominance exercised through investments, as in Latin America, and including the complex situation in Egypt (it was owned theoretically by the Ottoman Empire, but ruled by Britain). Darwin argues the British Empire was distinguished by the adaptability of its builders: "The hallmark of British imperialism was its extraordinary versatility in method, outlook and object. '' The British tried to avoid military action in favour of reliance on networks of local elites and businessmen who voluntarily collaborated and in turn gained authority (and military protection) from British recognition.
Historians argue that Britain built an informal economic empire through control of trade and finance in Latin America after the independence of Spanish and Portuguese colonies about 1820. By the 1840s, Britain had adopted a highly successful policy of free trade that gave it dominance in the trade of much of the world. After losing its first Empire to the Americans, Britain then turned its attention towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific. Following the defeat of Napoleonic France in 1815, Britain enjoyed a century of almost unchallenged dominance and expanded its imperial holdings around the globe. Increasing degrees of internal autonomy were granted to its white settler colonies in the 20th century.
A resurgence came in the late 19th century, with the Scramble for Africa and major additions in Asia and the Middle East. Leadership in British imperialism was expressed by Joseph Chamberlain and Lord Rosebury, and implemented in Africa by Cecil Rhodes. Other influential spokesmen included Lord Cromer, Lord Curzon, General Kitchner, Lord Milner, and the writer Rudyard Kipling. They all were influenced by Seeley 's Expansion of England. The British Empire was the largest Empire that the world has ever seen both in terms of landmass and population. Its power, both military and economic, remained unmatched in 1900. In 1876 Disraeli overcame vehement Liberal opposition and obtained for Queen Victoria the title of "Empress of India '' (she was not "Empress of the British Empire. '')
British historians focused on the diplomatic, military and administrative aspects of the Empire before the 1960s. They saw a benevolent enterprise. Younger generations branched off into a variety of social, economic and cultural themes, and took a much more critical stance. Representative of the old tradition was the Cambridge History of India, a large - scale project published in five volumes between 1922 and 1937 by Cambridge University Press. Some volumes were also part of the simultaneous multivolume The Cambridge History of the British Empire. Production of both works was delayed by the First World War and the ill health of contributors; the India volume II had to be abandoned. Reviewers complained the research methods were too old - fashioned; one critic said it was "history as it was understood by our grandfathers. ''
David Armitage provided an influential study of the emergence of a British imperial ideology from the time of Henry VIII to that of Robert Walpole in the 1720s and 1730s. Using a close reading of English, Scottish and Irish authors from Sir Thomas Smith (1513 -- 77) to David Hume (1711 -- 1776), Armitage argues that the imperial ideology was both a critical agent in the formation of a British state from three kingdoms and an essential bond between the state and the transatlantic colonies. Armitage thus links the concerns of the ' New British History ' with that of the Atlantic history. Before 1700, Armitage finds that contested English and Scottish versions of state and empire delayed the emergence of a unitary imperial ideology. Furthermore, the notions of republicanism produced in the writers a tension between "empire and liberty '' and "imperium and dominium ''. However political economists Nicholas Barbon and Charles Davenant in the late 17th century emphasized the significance of commerce, especially mercantilism or commerce that was closed to outsiders, to the success of the state. They argued that "trade depended on liberty, and that liberty could therefore be the foundation of empire. '' To overcome competing versions of ' empires of the seas ' within Britain, Parliament undertook the regulation of the Irish economy, the Acts of Union 1707 and the formation of a unitary and organic ' British ' empire of the sea. Walpole 's opponents in the 1730s in the "country party '' and in the American colonies developed an alternative vision of empire that would be "Protestant, commercial, maritime and free. '' Walpole did not ensure the promised "liberty '' to the colonies because he was intent on subordinating all colonial economic activity to the mercantilist advantages of the metropolis. Anti-imperial critiques emerged from Francis Hutcheson and David Hume, presaging the republicanism that swept the American colonies in the 1770s and led to the creation of a rival empire.
Historians led by Eli Heckscher have identified Mercantilism as the central economic policy for the empire before the shift to free trade in the 1840s. Mercantilism is an economic theory practice, commonly used in Britain, France and other major European nations from the 16th to the 18th century that promoted governmental regulation of a nation 's economy for the purpose of augmenting state power at the expense of rival national powers. It was the economic counterpart of political absolutism. It involves a national economic policy aimed at accumulating monetary reserves through a positive balance of trade, especially of finished goods. Mercantilism dominated Western European economic policy and discourse from the 16th to late - 18th centuries. Mercantilism was a cause of frequent European wars and also motivated colonial expansion.
High tariffs, especially on manufactured goods, are an almost universal feature of mercantilist policy. Other policies have included:
The term "mercantile system '' was used by its foremost critic Adam Smith,
Mercantilism in its simplest form was bullionism which focused on accumulating gold and silver through clever trades (leaver the trading partner with less of his gold and silver). Mercantilist writers emphasized the circulation of money and rejected hoarding. Their emphasis on monetary metals accords with current ideas regarding the money supply, such as the stimulative effect of a growing money supply. In England, mercantilism reached its peak during the Long Parliament government (1640 -- 1660). Mercantilist policies were also embraced throughout much of the Tudor and Stuart periods, with Robert Walpole being another major proponent. In Britain, government control over the domestic economy was far less extensive than on the Continent, limited by common law and the steadily increasing power of Parliament. Government - controlled monopolies were common, especially before the English Civil War, but were often controversial.
With respect to its colonies, British mercantilism meant that the government and the merchants became partners with the goal of increasing political power and private wealth, to the exclusion of other empires. The government protected its merchants -- and kept others out -- by trade barriers, regulations, and subsidies to domestic industries in order to maximize exports from and minimize imports to the realm. The government used the Royal Navy to protect the colonies and to fight smuggling -- which became a favourite American technique in the 18th century to circumvent the restrictions on trading with the French, Spanish or Dutch. The goal of mercantilism was to run trade surpluses, so that gold and silver would pour into London. The government took its share through duties and taxes, with the remainder going to merchants in Britain. The colonies were captive markets for British industry, and the goal was to enrich the mother country (not the colonists).
British mercantilist writers were themselves divided on whether domestic controls were necessary. British mercantilism thus mainly took the form of efforts to control trade. Much of the enforcement against smuggling was handled by the Royal Navy, argued Neil Stout. A wide array of regulations was put in place to encourage exports and discourage imports. Tariffs were placed on imports and bounties given for exports, and the export of some raw materials was banned completely. The Navigation Acts expelled foreign merchants from England 's domestic trade. The nation aggressively sought colonies and once under British control, regulations were imposed that allowed the colony to only produce raw materials and to only trade with Britain. This led to smuggling by major merchants and political friction with the businessmen of these colonies. Mercantilist policies (such as forbidding trade with other empires and controls over smuggling) were a major irritant leading to the American Revolution.
Mercantilism taught that trade was a zero - sum game with one country 's gain equivalent to a loss sustained by the trading partner. Whatever the theoretical weaknesses exposed by economists after Adam Smith, it was under mercantilist policies before the 1840s that Britain became the world 's dominant trader, and the global hegemon. Mercantilism in Britain ended when Parliament repealed the Navigation Acts and Corn Laws by 1846.
Scholars agree that Britain gradually dropped mercantilism after 1815. Free trade, with no tariffs and few restrictions, was the prevailing doctrine from the 1840s to the 1930s.
John Darwin has explored the way historians have explained the large role of the Royal Navy, and the much smaller role of the army, in the history of the Empire. For the 20th century he explores what he calls a "pseudo-empire, '' that refers to oil producers in the Middle East. The strategic goal of protecting the Suez Canal was a high (priority from the 1880s to 1956, and by then had expanded to the oil regions, Darwin argues that defence strategy posed issues of how to reconcile the needs of domestic politics with the preservation of a global Empire. Darwin argues that a main function of the British defence system, especially the Royal Navy, was defence of the overseas empire (in addition of course to defence of the homeland). The army, usually in cooperation with local forces, suppressed internal revolts, losing only the American War of Independence (1775 -- 83). Armitage says it became an element of the British creed that:
The first British empire centered on the 13 American colonies, which attracted large numbers of settlers from across Britain. In the 1900s - 1930s period the "Imperial School, '' including Herbert L. Osgood, George Louis Beer, Charles M. Andrews and Lawrence Gipson took a favourable view of the benefits of empire, emphasizing its successful economic integration.
Regarding Columbia University historian Herbert L. Osgood (1855 - 1918) biographer Gwenda Morgan concludes:
Much of the historiography concerns the reasons the Americans revolted in the 1770s and successfully broke away. Since the 1960s the mainstream of historiography emphasizes the growth of American consciousness and nationalism, and its Republican value system but stood in opposition to the aristocratic viewpoint of British leaders. In the analysis of the coming of the Revolution, historians in recent decades have mostly used one of three approaches. The Atlantic history view places the American story in a broader context, including revolutions in France and Haiti. It tended to reintegrate the historiographies of the American Revolution and the British Empire. Second the "New social history '' approach looks at community social structure to find cleavages that were magnified into colonial cleavages. Third is the ideological approach that centers on Republicanism in the United States. Republicanism dictated there would be no royalty or aristocracy or national church. It did allow for continuation of the British common law, which American lawyers and jurists understood and approved and used in their everyday practice. Historians have examined how the rising American legal profession adapted the British common law to incorporate republicanism by selective revision of legal customs and by introducing more choice for courts.
The concept of a first and second British Empire was developed by historians in the late 19th century, and is a concept usually used by advanced scholars. Timothy H. Parsons argued in 2014, "In fact, there were several British empires that ended at different times and for different reasons. '' He focused on the Second.
Ashley Jackson argued in 2013 that historians have even extended to a third and fourth empire:
The first British Empire was largely destroyed by the loss of the American colonies, followed by a ' swing to the east ' and the foundation of a second British Empire based on commercial and territorial expansion in South Asia. The third British Empire was the construction of a ' white ' dominion power bloc in the international system based on Britain 's relations with its settler offshoots Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and South Africa... The fourth British Empire, meanwhile, is used to denote Britain 's rejuvenated imperial focus on Africa and South - East Asia following the Second World War and the independence in 1947 - 8 of Britain 's South Asian dependencies, when the Empire became a vital crutch in Britain 's economic recovery.
The first Empire was founded in the 17th century, and based on the migration of large numbers of settlers to the American, as well as the development of the sugar plantation colonies in the West Indies. It ended with the British loss of the American War for Independence. The second Empire had already started to emerge. It was originally designed as a chain of trading ports and naval bases. However, it expanded inland into the control of large numbers of natives when the East India Company proved highly successful in taking control of most of India. India became the keystone of the Second Empire, along with colonies later developed across Africa. A few new settler colonies were also built up in Australia and New Zealand, and to a lesser extent in South Africa. Marshall in 1999 shows the consensus of scholars is clear, for since 1900 the concepts of the First British Empire have "held their ground in historians ' usage without serious challenge. '' In 1988 Peter Marshall says that late 18th century transformations:
constituted a fundamental reordering of the Empire which make it appropriate to talk about a first British Empire giving way to a second one... Historians have long identified certain developments in the late eighteenth century that undermined the fundamentals of the old Empire and were to bring about a new one. These were the American Revolution and the industrial revolution.
Historians, however, debate whether 1783 was a sharp line of demarcation between First and Second, or whether there was an overlap (as argued by Vincent T. Harlow) or whether there was a "black hole between 1783 and the later birth of the Second Empire. Historian Denis Judd says the "black hole '' is a fallacy and that there was continuity. Judd writes: It is commonplace to suppose that the successful revolt of the American colonies marked the end of the ' First British Empire '. But this is only a half - truth. In 1783 there was still a substantial Empire left. '' Marshall notes that the exact dating of the two empires varies, with 1783 a typical demarcation point. Thus the story of the American revolt provides a key: The Fall of the First British Empire: Origins of the Wars of American Independence (1982) by American professors Robert W. Tucker and David Hendrickson, stresses the victorious initiative of the Americans. By contrast Cambridge professor Brendan Simms explores Three Victories and a Defeat: The Rise and Fall of the First British Empire, 1714 - 1783 (2007) and explains Britain 's defeat in terms of alienating the major powers on the Continent.
Theories about imperialism typically focus on the Second British Empire, with side glances elsewhere. The term "Imperialism '' was originally introduced into English in its present sense in the 1870s by Liberal leader William Gladstone to ridicule the imperial policies of Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli, which he denounced as aggressive and ostentatious and inspired by domestic motives. The term was shortly appropriated by supporters of "imperialism '' such as Joseph Chamberlain. For some, imperialism designated a policy of idealism and philanthropy; others alleged that it was characterized by political self - interest, and a growing number associated it with capitalist greed.
John A. Hobson, a leading English Liberal, developed a highly influential economic exploitation model in Imperialism: A Study (1902) that expanded on his belief that free enterprise capitalism had a negative impact on the majority of the population. In Imperialism he argued that the financing of overseas empires drained money that was needed at home. It was invested abroad because lower wages paid the workers overseas made for higher profits and higher rates of return, compared to domestic wages. So although domestic wages remained higher, they did not grow nearly as fast as they might have otherwise. Exporting capital, he concluded, put a lid on the growth of domestic wages in the domestic standard of living... By the 1970s, historians such as David K. Fieldhouse and Oren Hale could argue that the, "Hobsonian foundation has been almost completely demolished. '' The British experience failed to support it. However, European Socialists picked up Hobson 's ideas and made it into their own theory of imperialism, most notably in Lenin 's Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism (1916). Lenin portrayed Imperialism as the closure of the world market and the end of capitalist free - competition that arose from the need for capitalist economies to constantly expand investment, material resources and manpower in such a way that necessitated colonial expansion. Later Marxist theoreticians echo this conception of imperialism as a structural feature of capitalism, which explained the World War as the battle between imperialists for control of external markets. Lenin 's treatise became a standard textbook that flourished until the Collapse of communism in 1989 - 91.
As the application of the term "imperialism '' has expanded, its meaning has shifted along five axes: the moral, the economic, the systemic, the cultural, and the temporal. Those changes reflect a growing unease, even squeamishness, with the fact of power, specifically, Western power.
The relationships among capitalism, imperialism, exploitation, social reform and economic development has long been debated among historians and political theorists. Much of the debate was pioneered by such theorists as John A. Hobson (1858 -- 1940), Joseph Schumpeter (1883 -- 1950), Thorstein Veblen (1857 -- 1929), and Norman Angell (1872 -- 1967). While these non-Marxist writers were at their most prolific before World War I, they remained active in the interwar years. Their combined work informed the study of imperialism 's impact on Europe, as well as contributed to reflections on the rise of the military - political complex in the United States from the 1950s. Hobson argued that domestic social reforms could cure the international disease of imperialism by removing its economic foundation. Hobson theorized that state intervention through taxation could boost broader consumption, create wealth, and encourage a peaceful multilateral world order. Conversely, should the state not intervene, rentiers (people who earn income from property or securities) would generate socially negative wealth that fostered imperialism and protectionism.
Hobson for years was widely influential in liberal circles, especially the British Liberal Party. Lenin 's writings became orthodoxy for all Marxist historians. They had many critics. D.K. Fieldhouse, for example, argues that they used superficial arguments. Fieldhouse says that the "obvious driving force of British expansion since 1870 '' came from explorers, missionaries, engineers, and empire - minded politicians. They had little interest in financial investments. Hobson 's answer was to say that faceless financiers manipulated everyone else, so that "The final determination rests with the financial power. '' Lenin believed that capitalism was in its last stages and had been taken over by monopolists. They were no longer dynamic and sought to maintain profits by even more intensive exploitation of protected markets. Fieldhouse rejects these arguments as unfounded speculation.
Historians agree that in the 1840s, Britain adopted a free - trade policy, meaning open markets and no tariffs throughout the empire. The debate among historians involves what the implications of free trade actually were. "The Imperialism of Free Trade '' is a highly influential 1952 article by John Gallagher and Ronald Robinson. They argued that the New Imperialism of the 1880s ", especially the Scramble for Africa, was a continuation of a long - term policy in which informal empire, based on the principles of free trade, was favoured over formal imperial control. The article helped launch the Cambridge School of historiography. Gallagher and Robinson used the British experience to construct a framework for understanding European imperialism that swept away the all - or - nothing thinking of previous historians. They found that European leaders rejected the notion that "imperialism '' had to be based upon formal, legal control by one government over a colonial region. Much more important was informal influence in independent areas. According to Wm. Roger Louis, "In their view, historians have been mesmerized by formal empire and maps of the world with regions colored red. The bulk of British emigration, trade, and capital went to areas outside the formal British Empire. Key to their thinking is the idea of empire ' informally if possible and formally if necessary. ' '' Oron Hale says that Gallagher and Robinson looked at the British involvement in Africa where they, "found few capitalists, less capital, and not much pressure from the alleged traditional promoters of colonial expansion. Cabinet decisions to annex or not to annex were made, usually on the basis of political or geopolitical considerations. ''
Reviewing the debate from the end of the 20th century, historian Martin Lynn argues that Gallagher and Robinson exaggerated the impact. He says that Britain achieved its goal of increasing its economic interests in many areas, "but the broader goal of ' regenerating ' societies and thereby creating regions tied as ' tributaries ' to British economic interests was not attained. '' The reasons were:
the aim to reshape the world through free trade and its extension overseas owed more to the misplaced optimism of British policy - makers and their partial views of the world than to an understanding of the realities of the mid-19th century globe... the volumes of trade and investment... the British were able to generate remained limited... Local economies and local regimes proved adept at restricting the reach of British trade and investment. Local impediments to foreign inroads, the inhabitants ' low purchasing power, the resilience of local manufacturing, and the capabilities of local entrepreneurs meant that these areas effectively resisted British economic penetration.
The idea that free - trade imperial states use informal controls to secure their expanding economic influence has attracted Marxists trying to avoid the problems of earlier Marxist interpretations of capitalism. The approach is most often applied to American policies.
Historians have begun to explore some of the ramifications of British free - trade policy, especially the effect of American and German high tariff policies. Canada adopted a "national policy '' of high tariffs in the late 19th century, in sharp distinction to the mother country. The goal was to protect its infant manufacturing industries from low - cost imports from the United States and Britain. The demand increasingly rose in Great Britain to end the free trade policy and impose tariffs to protect its manufacturing from American and German competition. The leading spokesman was Joseph Chamberlain (1836 - 1914) and he made "tariff reform '' (that is, imposing higher tariffs) a central issue in British domestic politics. By the 1930s the British began shifting their policies away from free trade and toward low tariffs inside the British Commonwealth, and higher tariffs for outside products. Economic historians have debated at length the impact of these tariff changes on economic growth. One controversial formulation by Bairoch argues that in the 1870 - 1914 era: "protectionism = economic growth and expansion of trade; liberalism = stagnation in both. '' Many studies have supported Bairoch but Other economists have challenged his results regarding Canada.
Gentlemanly capitalism is a theory of New Imperialism first put forward by P.J. Cain and A.G. Hopkins in the 1980s before being fully developed in their 1993 work, British Imperialism. The theory posits that British imperialism was driven by the business interests of the City of London and landed interests. It encourages a shift of emphasis away from seeing provincial manufacturers and geopolitical strategy as important influences, and towards seeing the expansion of empire as emanating from London and the financial sector.
Kevin Grant shows that numerous historians in the 21st century have explored relationships between the Empire, international government and human rights. They have focused on British conceptions of imperial world order from the late 19th century to the Cold War. The British intellectuals and political leaders felt that they had a duty to protect and promote the human rights of the natives and to help pull them from the slough of traditionalism and cruelties (such as suttee in India and foot binding in China). The notion of "benevolence '' was developed in the 1780 - 1840 era by idealists whose moralistic prescriptions annoyed efficiency - oriented colonial administrators and profit - oriented merchants. Partly it was a matter of fighting corruption in the Empire, as typified by Edmund Burke 's long, but failed, attempt to impeach Warren Hastings for his cruelties in India. The most successful development came in the abolition of slavery led by William Wilberforce and the Evangelicals, and the expansion of Christian missionary work. Edward Gibbon Wakefield (1796 -- 1852) spearheaded efforts to create model colonies (such as South Australia, Canada and New Zealand). The 1840 Treaty of Waitangi, initially designed to protect Maori rights, has become the bedrock of Aotearoa - New Zealand biculturalism. In Wakefield 's vision, the object of benevolence was to introduce and promote values of industriousness and a productive economy, not to use colonies as a dumping ground for transported criminals.
One of the most controversial aspects of the Empire is its role in first promoting and then ending slavery. In the 18th century, British merchant ships were the largest element in the "Middle Passage '', which transported millions of slaves to the Western Hemisphere. Most of those who survived the journey wound up in the Caribbean, where the Empire had highly profitable sugar colonies, and the living conditions were bad (the plantation owners lived in Britain). Parliament ended the international transportation of slaves in 1807 and used the Royal Navy to enforce that ban. In 1833, it bought out the plantation owners and banned slavery. Historians before the 1940s argued that moralistic reformers such as William Wilberforce were primarily responsible.
Historical revisionism arrived when West Indian historian Eric Williams, a Marxist, in Capitalism and Slavery (1944), rejected this moral explanation and argued that abolition was now more profitable, as a century of sugar cane raising had exhausted the soil of the islands, and the plantations had become unprofitable. It was more profitable to sell the slaves to the government than to keep up operations. The 1807 prohibition of the international trade, Williams argued, prevented French expansion on other islands. Meanwhile, British investors turned to Asia, where labor was so plentiful that slavery was unnecessary. Williams went on to argue that slavery played a major role in making Britain prosperous. The high profits from the slave trade, he said, helped finance the Industrial Revolution. Britain enjoyed prosperity because of the capital gained from the unpaid work of slaves.
Since the 1970s, numerous historians have challenged Williams from various angles, and Gad Heuman has concluded, "More recent research has rejected this conclusion; it is now clear that the colonies of the British Caribbean profited considerably during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. '' In his major attack on the Williams 's thesis, Seymour Drescher argues that Britain 's abolition of the slave trade in 1807 resulted not from the diminishing value of slavery for Britain but instead from the moral outrage of the British voting public. Critics have also argued that slavery remained profitable in the 1830s because of innovations in agriculture so the profit motive was not central to abolition. Richardson (1998) finds that Williams 's claims regarding the Industrial Revolution are exaggerated, as profits from the slave trade amounted to less than 1 % of domestic investment in Britain. Richardson further challenges claims (by African scholars) that the slave trade caused widespread depopulation and economic distress in Africa but that it caused the "underdevelopment '' of Africa. Admitting the horrible suffering of slaves, he notes that many Africans benefited directly because the first stage of the trade was always firmly in the hands of Africans. European slave ships waited at ports to purchase cargoes of people who were captured in the hinterland by African dealers and tribal leaders. Richardson finds that the "terms of trade '' (how much the ship owners paid for the slave cargo) moved heavily in favour of the Africans after about 1750. That is, indigenous elites inside West and Central Africa made large and growing profits from slavery, thus increasing their wealth and power.
Economic historian Stanley Engerman finds that even without subtracting the associated costs of the slave trade (shipping costs, slave mortality, mortality of British people in Africa, defence costs) or reinvestment of profits back into the slave trade, the total profits from the slave trade and of West Indian plantations amounted to less than 5 % of the British economy during any year of the Industrial Revolution. Engerman 's 5 % figure gives as much as possible in terms of benefit of the doubt to the Williams argument, not solely because it does not take into account the associated costs of the slave trade to Britain, but also because it carries the full - employment assumption from economics and holds the gross value of slave trade profits as a direct contribution to Britain 's national income. Historian Richard Pares, in an article written before Williams 's book, dismisses the influence of wealth generated from the West Indian plantations upon the financing of the Industrial Revolution, stating that whatever substantial flow of investment from West Indian profits into industry there was occurred after emancipation, not before it.
Thomas Babington Macaulay (1800 -- 1859) was the foremost historian of his day, arguing for the "Whig interpretation of history '' that saw the history of Britain as an upward progression always leading to more liberty and more progress. Macaulay simultaneously was a leading reformer involved in transforming the educational system of India. He would base it on the English language so that India could join the mother country in a steady upward progress. Macaulay took Burke 's emphasis on moral rule and implemented it in actual school reforms, giving the British Empire a profound moral mission to civilize the natives.
Yale professor Karuna Mantena has argued that the civilizing mission did not last long, for she says that benevolent reformers were the losers in key debates, such as those following the 1857 rebellion in India, and the scandal of Governor Edward Eyre 's brutal repression of the Morant Bay rebellion in Jamaica in 1865. The rhetoric continued but it became an alibi for British misrule and racism. No longer was it believed that the natives could truly make progress, instead they had to be ruled by heavy hand, with democratic opportunities postponed indefinitely. As a result:
The central tenets of liberal imperialism were challenged as various forms of rebellion, resistance and instability in the colonies precipitated a broad - ranging reassessment... the equation of ' good government ' with the reform of native society, which was at the core of the discourse of liberal empire, would be subject to mounting skepticism. ''
English historian Peter Cain, has challenged Mantena, arguing that the imperialists truly believed that British rule would bring to the subjects the benefits of ' ordered liberty '. thereby Britain could fulfill its moral duty and achieve its own greatness. Much of the debate took place in Britain itself, and the imperialists worked hard to convince the general population that the civilising mission was well underway. This campaign served to strengthen imperial support at home, and thus, says Cain, to bolster the moral authority of the gentlemanly elites who ran the Empire.
Mark Harrison argues that the history of public health administration in India dates from the assumption of Crown rule in 1859. Medical experts found that epidemic disease had seriously depleted the fighting capacity of British troops in repressing the rebellion in 1857 and insisted that preventive measures were much more effective than waiting for the next epidemic to break out. Across the Empire it became a high priority for Imperial officials to establish a public health system in each colony. They applied the best practices as developed in Britain, using an elaborate administrative structure in each colony. The system depended on trained local elites and officials to carry out the sanitation improvements, quarantines, inoculations, hospitals, and local treatment centers that were needed. For example, local midwives were trained to provide maternal and infant health care. Propaganda campaigns using posters, rallies, and later films were used to educate the general public. A serious challenge came from the intensified use of multiple transportation routes and the emergence of central hubs such as Hong Kong all of which facilitated this spread of epidemics such as the plague in the 1890s, thus sharply increasing the priority of public health programs. Michael Worboys argues that the 20th century development and control of tropical diseases had three phases: protection of Europeans in the colonies, improvement in health care of employable natives, and finally the systematic attack on the main diseases of the natives. BELRA, a large - scale program against leprosy, had policies of isolation in newly established leper colonies, separation of healthy children from infected parents, and the development in Britain of chaulmoogra oil therapy and its systematic dissemination.
Danald McDonald has argued the most advanced program in public health (apart from the dominions) was established in India, with the Indian Medical Service (IMS). The Raj set up the Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine between 1910 and its opening in 1921 as a postgraduate center for tropical medicine on the periphery of the Empire.
In the 18th century, and even more so in the 19th century, missionaries based in Britain saw the Empire as a fertile field for proselytizing for Christianity. Congregations across Britain received regular reports and contributed money. All the main denominations were involved, including the Church of England, the Presbyterians of Scotland, and the Nonconformists. Much of the enthusiasm emerged from the Evangelical revival.
Before the American Revolution, Anglican and Methodist missionaries were active in the 13 Colonies. The Methodists, led by George Whitefield, were the most successful according to Mark Noll. After the revolution an entirely distinct American Methodist denomination emerged that became the largest Protestant denomination in the new United States. As historians such as Carl Bridenbaugh have argued, a major problem for colonial officials was the demand of the Church of England to set up an American bishop; this was strongly opposed by most of the Americans had never happened. Increasingly colonial officials took a neutral position on religious matters, even in those colonies such as Virginia where the Church of England was officially established, but in practice controlled by laymen in the local vestries. After the Americans broke free, British officials decided to enhance the power and wealth of the Church of England in all the settler colonies, especially British North America (Canada).
Missionary societies funded their own operations that were not supervised or directed by the Colonial Office. Tensions emerged between the missionaries and the colonial officials. The latter feared that missionaries might stir up trouble or encourage the natives to challenge colonial authority. In general, colonial officials were much more comfortable with working with the established local leadership, including the native religions, rather than introducing the divisive force of Christianity. This proved especially troublesome in India, were very few local elites were attracted to Christianity. In Africa, especially, the missionaries made many converts. By the 21st century there were more Anglicans in Nigeria than in England.
Historians have typically stressed how missionaries increasingly added secular roles to their spiritual mission. They tried to upgrade education, medical care, and sponsored the long - term modernization of the native personality to inculcate European middle - class values. Alongside their churches they established schools and medical clinics, and sometimes demonstrated improved farming techniques. Christian missionaries played a public role, especially in promoting sanitation and public health. Many were trained as physicians, or took special courses in public health and tropical medicine at Livingstone College, London.
Historians have used religion as a lens on social and cultural innovation and agency, enlarging the scope to include imperial religious politics as well as prophetic movements in Xhosa societies, the role of religion in defining nationalism in South African and India, the emergence of African independent churches, and religious work as a force for upgrading the status of native women and for enlarging the roles of British women.
Historians have begun to analyze the agency of women in overseas missions. At first, missionary societies officially enrolled only men, but women increasingly insisted on playing a variety of roles. Single women typically worked as educators. Wives assisted their missionary husbands in most of his roles. Advocates stopped short of calling for the end of specified gender roles, but they stressed the interconnectedness of the public and private spheres and spoke out against perceptions of women as weak and house - bound.
In the colonies that became dominions, education was left primarily in the hands of local officials. The Imperial government took a strong hand in India, and most of the later colonies. The goal was To speed up modernization and social development through a widespread system of elementary education for all natives, plus high school and eventually university education for selected elites. The students were encouraged to attend university in Britain.
Much of the older historiography, as represented by The Cambridge History of the British Empire, covers the detailed month - to - month operations of the Imperial bureaucracy. More recent scholarship has examined who Were the bureaucrats, and the governors, and the role of the colonial experience in their own lives, as well as their families. The cultural approach asks how bureaucrats represented themselves And enticed the natives to accept their rule.
Wives of senior bureaucrats played an increasingly important role in dealing with the local people, and in sponsoring and promoting charities and civic good will. When they returned to Britain they had an influential voice in shaping upper - class opinion toward colonization. Historian Robert Pearce points out that many colonial wives had a negative reputation, but he depicts Violet Bourdillon (1886 - 1979) as "the perfect Governor 's wife. '' She charmed both British businessmen and the locals in Nigeria, giving the colonial peoples graciousness and respect; she made the British appear to be not so much rulers, as guides and partners in social, economic and political development.
Some British colonies were ruled directly by the Colonial Office in London, while others were ruled indirectly through local rulers who are supervised behind the scenes by British advisors, with different economic results as shown by Lakshmi Iyer (2010).
In much of the Empire, large local populations were ruled in close cooperation with the local hierarchy. Historians have developed categories of control, such as "subsidiary alliances, '' "paramountcy, '' "protectorates, '' "indirect rule, '' "clientelism, '' or "collaboration. '' Local elites were co-opted into leadership positions, and often had the role of minimizing opposition from local independence movements.
Fisher has explored the origins and development of the system of indirect rule. The British East India Company starting in the mid-18th century stationed its staff as agents in Indian states which it did not control, especially the Princely States. By the 1840s The system became an efficient way to govern indirectly, by providing local rulers with highly detailed advice that had been approved by central authorities. After 1870, military more and more often took the role; they were recruited and promoted officers on the basis of experience and expertise. The indirect rule system was extended to Many of the colonial holdings in Asia and Africa.
Economic historians have explored the economic consequences of indirect rule, as in India and West Africa.
In 1890 Zanzibar became a protectorate (not a colony) of Britain. Prime minister Salisbury explained his position:
The condition of a protected dependency is more acceptable to the half civilised races, and more suitable for them than direct dominion. It is cheaper, simpler, less wounding to their self - esteem, gives them more career as public officials, and spares of unnecessary contact with white men.
Colonel Sir Robert Groves Sandeman (1835 - 1892) introduced an innovative system of tribal pacification in Balochistan that was in effect from 1877 to 1947. He gave financial allowances to tribal chiefs who enforced control, and used British military force only when necessary. However the Government of India generally opposed his methods and refused to allow it to operate in India 's North West Frontier. Historians have long debated its scope and effectiveness in the peaceful spread of Imperial influence.
Although environmental history was growing rapidly after 1970, it only reached empire studies in the 1990s. Gregory Barton argues that the concept of environmentalism emerged from forestry studies, and emphasizes the British imperial role in that research. He argues that imperial forestry movement in India around 1900 included government reservations, new methods of fire protection, and attention to revenue - producing forest management. The result eased the fight between romantic preservationists and laissez - faire businessmen, thus giving the compromise from which modern environmentalism emerged.
In recent years numerous scholars cited by James Beattie have examined the environmental impact of the Empire. Beinart and Hughes argue that the discovery and commercial or scientific use of new plants was an important concern in the 18th and 19th centuries. The efficient use of rivers through dams and irrigation projects was an expensive but important method of raising agricultural productivity. Searching for more efficient ways of using natural resources, the British moved flora, fauna and commodities around the world, sometimes resulting in ecological disruption and radical environmental change. Imperialism also stimulated more modern attitudes toward nature and subsidized botany and agricultural research. Scholars have used the British Empire to examine the utility of the new concept of eco-cultural networks as a lens for examining interconnected, wide - ranging social and environmental processes.
In 1914 the six volume The Oxford Survey Of The British Empire gave comprehensive coverage to geography and society of the entire Empire, includingthe British Isles.
Since the 1950s, historians have tended to concentrated on specific countries or regions. By the 1930s, an Empire so vast was a challenge for historians to grasp in its entirety. The American Lawrence H. Gipson (1880 -- 1971) won the Pulitzer Prize for his monumental coverage in 15 volumes of "The British Empire Before the American Revolution '', published 1936 -- 70. At about the same time in London, Sir Keith Hancock wrote a Survey of Commonwealth Affairs (2 vol 1937 - 42) that dramatically widened the scope of coverage beyond politics to the newer fields of economic and social history.
In recent decades numerous scholars have tried their hand at one volume surveys including T.O. Lloyd, The British Empire, 1558 - 1995 (1996); Denis Judd, Empire: The British Imperial Experience From 1765 To The Present (1998); Lawrence James, The Rise and Fall of the British Empire (1998); Niall Ferguson, Empire: The Rise and Demise of the British World Order and the Lessons for Global Power (2002); Brendan Simms, Three victories and a defeat: the rise and fall of the first British Empire (2008); Piers Brendon, The Decline and Fall of the British Empire, 1781 - 1997 (2008), and Phillip J. Smith, The Rise And Fall Of The British Empire: Mercantilism, Diplomacy and the Colonies (2015). There were also large scale popular histories, such as those by Winston Churchill, A History of the English - Speaking Peoples (4 vol. 1956 - 58) and Arthur Bryant, The History of Britain and the British Peoples (3 vols. 1984 -- 90). Obviously from their titles a number of writers have been inspired by the famous The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (6 vol. 1776 - 1781) by Edward Gibbon. Brendon notes that Gibbon 's work, "became the essential guide for Britons anxious to plot their own imperial trajectory. They found the key to understanding the British Empire in the ruins of Rome. ''
Ireland, in some ways the first acquisition the British Empire, has generated a very large popular and scholarly literature. Marshall says historians continue to debate whether Ireland should be considered part of the British Empire. Recent work by historians pays special attention to continuing Imperial aspects of Irish history, postcolonial approaches, Atlantic history, and the role of migration in forming the Irish diaspora across the Empire and North America.
Until the late 20th century, historians of Australia used an Imperial framework, arguing that Australia emerged from a transfer of people, institutions, and culture from Britain. It portrayed the first governors as ' Lilliputian sovereigns. ' The historians been traced the arrival of limited self - government, with regional parliaments and responsible ministers, followed by Federation in 1901 and eventually full national autonomy. This was a Whiggish story of successful growth into a modern nation. That interpretation has been largely abandoned by recent scholars. In his survey of the historiography of Australia, Stuart Macintyre shows how historians have emphasized the negative and tragic features between the boasts. Macintyre points out that in current historical writing:
The process of settlement is now regarded as a violent invasion of a rich and subtle indigenous culture, the colonists ' material practices as destructive of a fragile environment, their aesthetic response to it blinkered and prejudiced, the cultivation of some British forms timid and unresponsive.
The first major history was William Charles Wentworth, Statistical, Historical, and Political Description of the Colony of New South Wales, and Its Dependent Settlements in Van Diemen 's Land: With a Particular Enumeration of the Advantages Which These Colonies Offer for Emigration, and Their Superiority in Many Respects Over Those Possessed by the United States of America (1819). Wentworth shows the disastrous effects the penal regime. Many other historians followed his path, with the six volume History of Australia by Manning Clark (published 1962 - 87) telling the story of "epic tragedy '':
Since the 1980s a "history war '' has been fought in Australia by scholars and politicians. They angrily debate the concept of genocide in the treatment of Aboriginal populations. They debate how "British '' or "multicultural '' Australia has been historically, and how it should be today. The rhetoric has escalated into national politics, often tied to the question of whether the royalty should be discarded and Australia become a republic. There have been angry statements by those adhering to the older pro-British position. Interest in the study of Australian history has plunged, and some schools and universities have sharply cut it back.
Historians have used the founding of Australia to mark the beginning of the Second British Empire. It was planned by the government in London and designed as a replacement for the lost American colonies. The American Loyalist James Matra in 1783 wrote "A Proposal for Establishing a Settlement in New South Wales '' proposing the establishment of a colony composed of American Loyalists, Chinese and South Sea Islanders (but not convicts). Matra reasoned that the land country was suitable for plantations of sugar, cotton and tobacco; New Zealand timber and hemp or flax could prove valuable commodities; it could form a base for Pacific trade; and it could be a suitable compensation for displaced American Loyalists. At the suggestion of Secretary of State Lord Sydney, Matra amended his proposal to include convicts as settlers, considering that this would benefit both "Economy to the Publick, & Humanity to the Individual ''. The government adopted the basics of Matra 's plan in 1784, and funded the settlement of convicts.
Michael Roe argues that the founding of Australia supports the theory of Vincent T. Harlow in The Founding of the Second British Empire, 17G3 - 1793, Vol. 2. New Continents and Changing Values (1964) that a goal of the second British empire was to open up new commerce in the Far East and Pacific. However, London emphasized Australia 's purpose as a penal colony, and the East India Company was hostile to potential commercial rivals. Nevertheless, says Roe, the founders of Australia showed a keen interest in whaling, sealing, sheep raising, mining and other opportunities for trade. In the long run, he says, commerce was the main stimulus for colonization.
Canadian historian Carl Berger argues that an influential section of English Canadians embraced an ideology of imperialism as a way to enhance Canada 's own power position in the international system, as well as for more traditional reasons of Anglophillia. Berger identified Canadian imperialism as a distinct ideology, rival to anti-imperial Canadian nationalism or pro-American continentalism, the other nationalisms in Canada.
For the French Canadians, the chief debate among historians involves the conquest and the incorporation into the British Empire in 1763. One school says it was a disaster that retarded for a century and more the normal development of a middle class society, leaving Quebec locked into a traditionalism controlled by priests and landlords. The other more optimistic school says it was generally advantageous in political and economic terms. For example, it enabled Quebec to avoid the French Revolution that tore France apart in the 1790s. Another example is that it integrated the economy into the larger and faster growing British economy, as opposed to the sluggish French economy. The optimistic school attributes the backwardness of the Quebec economy to deeply ingrained conservatism and aversion to entrepreneurship.
Debate continues about the economic impact of British imperialism on India. The issue was actually raised by conservative British politician Edmund Burke who in the 1780s vehemently attacked the East India Company, claiming that Warren Hastings and other top officials had ruined the Indian economy and society. Indian historian Rajat Kanta Ray (1998) continues this line of attack, saying the new economy brought by the British in the 18th century was a form of "plunder '' and a catastrophe for the traditional economy of Mughal India. Ray accuses the British of depleting the food and money stocks and imposing high taxes that helped cause the terrible famine of 1770, which killed a third of the people of Bengal.
Rejecting the Indian nationalist account of the British as alien aggressors, seizing power by brute force and impoverishing all of India, British historian P.J. Marshall argues that the British were not in full control but instead were players in what was primarily an Indian play and in which their rise to power depended upon excellent cooperation with Indian elites. Marshall admits that much of his interpretation is still rejected by many historians. Marshall argues that recent scholarship has reinterpreted the view that the prosperity of the formerly benign Mughal rule gave way to poverty and anarchy. Marshall argues the British takeover did not make any sharp break with the past. The British largely delegated control to regional Mughal rulers and sustained a generally prosperous economy for the rest of the 18th century. Marshall notes the British went into partnership with Indian bankers and raised revenue through local tax administrators and kept the old Mughal rates of taxation. Professor Ray agrees that the East India Company inherited an onerous taxation system that took one - third of the produce of Indian cultivators.
the first historical studies appeared in the 1890s, and followed one of four approaches. The territorial narrative was typically written by a veteran soldier or civil servand who gave heavy emphasis to what he had seen. The "apologia '' were essays designed to justify British policies. Thirdly, popularizers tried to reach a large audience, and finally compendia appeared designed to combine academic and official credentials. Professional scholarship appeared around 1900, and began with the study of business operations, typically using government documents and unpublished archives. The economic approach was widely practiced in the 1930s, primarily to provide descriptions of the changes underway in the previous half - century. Reginald Copeland, an Oxford professor, studied the Exploitation of East Africa, 1856 - 1890: The Slave Trade and the Scramble (1939). The American historian William L. Langer wrote The Diplomacy of Imperialism: 1890 - 1902 (1935), a book is still widely cited. The Second World War diverted most scholars to wartime projects and accounted for a pause in scholarship during the 1940s.
By the 1950s, many African students were studying in British universities, and they produced a demand for new scholarship, and started themselves to supply it as well. Oxford University became the main center for African studies, with activity as well at Cambridge, and the London School of Economics. The perspective from British government policy - makers or from international business operations, slowly gave way to a new interest in the activities of the natives, especially in a nationalistic movements and the growing demand for independence. The major breakthrough came from Ronald Robinson and John Gallagher, especially with their studies of the impact of free trade on Africa.
The historiography of South Africa has been one of the most contentious areas of the British Empire, involving a three - way division of sharply differing interpretations among the British, the Boers, and the black African historians. The first British historians emphasized the benefits of British civilization. Afrikaner historiography began in the 1870s with early laudatory accounts of the trekkers and undisguised anger at the British. After many years of conflict and warfare, the British took control of South Africa and historians began conciliatory effort to bring the two sides together in a shared history. An influential large - scale effort was made by George McCall Theal (1837 - 1919), who wrote many books as school teacher and as the official historian, such as History and Ethnography of Africa South of the Zambesi (11 vol, 1897 - 1919). In the 1920s, historians using missionary sources started presenting the Coloured and African viewpoints, as in W.M. Macmillan, Bantu, Boer and Briton: The Making of the South African Native Problem (London, 1929). Modern research standards were introduced by Eric A. Walker (1886 - 1976), who moved from a professorship at the University of Cape Town to become the Vere Harmsworth Professor of Imperial and Naval History at the University of Cambridge, where he trained a generation of graduate students. Afrikaner historiography increasingly defended apartheid.
The dominant approach in recent decades is to emphasize the roots of the liberation movement. Baines argues that the "Soweto uprising '' of 1976 inspired a new generation of social historians to start looking for evidence that would allow the writing of history "from below ''; often they adopted a Marxist perspective.
By the 1990s, historians were exploring comparative race relations in South Africa and the United States from the late 19th century to the late 20th century. James Campbell argues that black American Methodist missionaries to South Africa adopted the same standards of promoting civilization as did the British.
Opposition to imperialism and demands for self - rule emerged across the empire; in all but one case the British authorities suppressed revolts. However, in the 1770s, under the leadership of Benjamin Franklin, George Washington and Thomas Jefferson, it came to an armed revolt in the 13 American colonies, the American Revolutionary War. With military and financial help from France and others, the 13 became the first British colonies to secure their independence in the name of American nationalism.
There is a large literature on the Indian Rebellion of 1857, which saw a very large scale revolt in India, involving the mutiny of many native troops. It was suppressed by the British Army after much bloodshed.
The Indians organised under Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru and finally achieved independence in 1947. They wanted one India but the Muslims were organized by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and created their own nation, Pakistan, in a process that still is heatedly debated by scholars. Independence came in the midst of religious communal violence, chiefly between Hindus and Moslems in border areas. Millions died and millions more were displaced as the conflicting memories and grievances still shape subcontinent tensions, as Jisha Menon argues.
Historians of the empire have recently paid close attention to 20th century native voices in many colonies who demanded independence. The African colonies became independent mostly in peaceful fashion. Kenya saw severe violence on both sides. Typically the leaders of independence had studied in England in the 1920s and 1930s. For example, the radical nationalist Kwame Nkrumah in 1957 led Ghana to become Britain 's first African colony to gain independence, and others quickly followed.
The chronology and main features of decolonization of the British Empire have been studied at length, by far the greatest attention has been given to the situation in India in 1947, with far less attention to other colonies in Asia and Africa. Of course most of the scholarly attention focuses on newly independent nations no longer ruled by Britain. From the Imperial perspective historians are divided on two issues: with respect to India, could London have handled decolonization better in 1947, or was what happened largely fixed in the previous century? Historians also disagree regarding a degree of involvement in the domestic British society and economy. Did Britons much care about decolonization, and did it make much difference to them? Bailkin points out that one view is that the domestic dimension was of minor importance, and most Britons paid little attention. She says that political historians often reach this conclusion. John Darwin has studied the political debates.
On the other hand, most social historians argue the contrary. They say the values and beliefs inside Britain about the overseas empire helped shape policy; the decolonization process proved psychologically wrenching to many people living in Britain, particularly migrants, and those with family experience with overseas civil service, business, or missionary activity. Bailkin says that decolonization was often taken personally, and had a major policy impact in terms of the policies of the British welfare state. She shows how some West Indian migrants were repatriated; idealists volunteered to help the new nations; a wave of overseas students came to British universities; and polygamous relationships were invalidated. Meanwhile, she says, the new welfare state was in part shaped by British colonial practices, especially regarding mental health and child care. Social historian Bill Schwarz says that as decolonization moved forward in the 1950s there was an upsurge in racial whiteness and racial segregation - the colour bar - became more pronounced.
The focus of attention of historians has shifted over time. Phillip Buckner reports that on a bygone era of graduate education in Britain when the Empire was
studied in a tradition that had been established in the late 19th century. By the 1960s the Empire was no no longer seen as an unmitigated blessing for its subjects overseas and the emphasis of the newer studies was an attempt to reassess British policy - making from a more critical perspective. Nonetheless, mainstream imperial history still focused on policy - making at the imperial centre with considerable emphasis on relations between Britain and its colonies of settlement overseas and the emergence of modern Commonwealth.
Ronald Hyam argues that the historiography of the British Empire reached a state of severe crisis:
The early 1980s marked the end of an era... as imperial and Commonwealth history itself everywhere became fragmented, unfashionable, and increasingly embattled. The old conceptual unities as they had been worked out in the previous half - century now collapsed, particularly under the pressure of the inexorable advance of area studies. ''
Hyam goes on the state that by the 21st century new themes had emerged including "post -- colonial theory, globalisation, sex and gender issues, the cultural imperative, and the linguistic turn. ''
The studies of policy - making in London and the settlement colonies like Canada and Australia are now rare. Newer concerns deal with the natives, and give much more attention to native leaders such as Gandhi. They address topics such as migration, gender, race, sexuality, environmentalism, visualization, and sports. Thus there are entire chapters on economics, religion, colonial knowledge, agency, culture, and identity in the historiographical overview edited by Sarah E. Stockwell, The British Empire: Themes and Perspectives (2008). The new approaches to imperial history are often grouped together under the heading of the "new imperial history ''. These approaches have been distinguished by two features. Firstly, they have suggested that the British empire was a cultural project as well as a set of political and economic relationships. As a result, these historians have stressed the ways in which empire building shaped the cultures of both colonized peoples and Britons themselves.
In particular they have shown the ways in which British imperialism rested upon ideas about cultural difference and in turn how British colonialism reshaped understandings of race and gender in both the colonies and at home in Britain. Mrinalini Sinha 's Colonial Masculinity (1995) showed how supposed British manliness and ideas about the effeminacy of some Indians influenced colonial policy and Indian nationalist thought. Antoinette Burton has been a key figure and her Burdens of History (1995) showed how white British feminists in the Victorian period appropriated imperialist rhetoric to claim a role for themselves in ' saving ' native women and thereby strengthened their own claims to equality in Britain. Historians like Sinha, Burton, and Catherine Hall have used this approach to argue that British culture at ' home ' was profoundly shaped by the empire during the 19th century.
The second feature that defines the new imperial history is its examination of the links and flows that connected different parts of the empire together. At first scholars looked at the empire 's impact on domestic Britain, particularly in terms of everyday experiences. More recently, attention has been paid to the material, emotional, and financial links among the different regions. Both Burton and Sinha stress the ways in which the politics of gender and race linked Britain and India. Sinha suggested that these linkages were part of an ' imperial social formation ', an uneven but integrative set of arguments, ideas and institutions that connected Britain to its colonies. More recent work by scholars like Alan Lester and Tony Ballantyne (historian) have stressed the importance of the networks that made up the empire. Lester 's Imperial Networks (2001) reconstructed some of the debates and policies that linked Britain and South Africa during the 19th century. Ballantyne 's Orientalism and Race developed an influential new model for writing about colonialism in highlighting the ' webs of empire ' that he suggested made up the empire. These webs were made up of the flows of ideas, books, arguments, money, and people that not only moved between London and Britain 's colonies, but also moved directly from colony to colony, from places like India to New Zealand. Many historians now focus on these ' networks ' and ' webs ' and Alison Games has used this as a model for studying the pattern of early English imperialism as well.
The major multi-volume multi-author coverage of the history of the British Empire is the Oxford History of the British Empire (1998 - 2001), five volume set, plus a companion series. Douglas Peers says the series demonstrates that, "As a field of historical inquiry, imperial history is clearly experiencing a renaissance. ''
Max Beloff, reviewing the first two volumes in History Today, praised them for their readability and was pleased that his worry that they would be too anti-imperialist had not been realised. Saul Dubow in H - Net noted the uneven quality of the chapters in volume III and also the difficulty of such an endeavor give the state of historiography of the British Empire and the impossibility of maintaining a triumphalist tone in the modern era. Dubow also felt that some of the authors had tended "to ' play safe ', awed perhaps by the monumental nature of the enterprise ''.
Madhavi Kale of Bryn Mawr College, writing in Social History, also felt that the history took a traditional approach to the historiography of the empire and placed the English, and to a lesser extent the Scottish, Irish and Welsh at the centre of the account, rather than the subject peoples of the empire. Kale summed up her review of volumes III - V of the history by saying it represented "a disturbingly revisionist project that seeks to neutralize... the massive political and military brutality and repression '' of the empire.
Turning away from most political, economic, and diplomatic themes historians recently have looked at the intellectual and cultural impact of the Empire on prison itself. Ideologically, Britons promoted the Empire with appeals to the ideals of political and legal liberty. Historians have always commented on the paradox of the dichotomy of freedom and coercion inside the Empire, of modernity and tradition. Sir John Seely, for example, pondered in 1883:
Historian Douglas Peers emphasizes that an idealized knowledge of the Empire permeated popular and elite thought in Britain during the 19th century:
Politicians at the time and historians ever since have explored whether the Empire was too expensive for the British budget. Joseph Chamberlain thought so but he had little success at the Imperial Conference of 1902 asking overseas partners to increase their contribution. Canada and Australia spoke of funding a warship -- the Canadian Senate voted it down in 1913. Meanwhile, the Royal Navy adjusted its war plans to focus on Germany, economizing on defending against lesser threats in peripheral areas such as the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Public opinion supported military spending out of pride, but the left in Britain leaned toward pacifism and deplored the waste of money.
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where did the ivory coast get its name | Ivory Coast - wikipedia
Coordinates: 8 ° N 5 ° W / 8 ° N 5 ° W / 8; - 5
in the African Union (light blue)
Ivory Coast, also known as Côte d'Ivoire and officially as the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire, is a sovereign state located in West Africa. Ivory Coast 's political capital is Yamoussoukro, and its economic capital and largest city is the port city of Abidjan. Its bordering countries are Guinea and Liberia in the west, Burkina Faso and Mali in the north, and Ghana in the east. The Gulf of Guinea (Atlantic Ocean) is located south of Ivory Coast.
Prior to its colonization by Europeans, Ivory Coast was home to several states, including Gyaaman, the Kong Empire, and Baoulé. Two Anyi kingdoms, Indénié and Sanwi, attempted to retain their separate identity through the French colonial period and after independence. Ivory Coast became a protectorate of France in 1843 -- 1844 and later a French colony in 1893 amid the European scramble for Africa. Ivory Coast achieved independence in 1960, led by Félix Houphouët - Boigny, who ruled the country until 1993. The country maintained close political and economic association with its West African neighbors while at the same time maintaining close ties to the West, especially France. Since the end of Houphouët - Boigny 's rule in 1993, Ivory Coast has experienced a coup d'état, in 1999, and two religion - grounded civil wars. The first took place between 2002 and 2007 and the second during 2010 -- 2011. In 2000, the country adopted a new constitution.
Ivory Coast is a republic with a strong executive power invested in its President. Through the production of coffee and cocoa, the country was an economic powerhouse in West Africa during the 1960s and 1970s. Ivory Coast went through an economic crisis in the 1980s, contributing to a period of political and social turmoil. In the 21st century the Ivorian economy is largely market - based and still relies heavily on agriculture, with smallholder cash - crop production being dominant.
The official language is French, with local indigenous languages also widely used, including Baoulé, Dioula, Dan, Anyin, and Cebaara Senufo. In total there are around 78 languages spoken in Ivory Coast. Popular religions include Christianity (primarily Roman Catholicism), Islam, and various indigenous religions.
Originally, Portuguese and French merchant - explorers in the 15th and 16th centuries divided the west coast of Africa, very roughly, into four "coasts '' reflecting local economies. The coast that the French named the Côte d'Ivoire and the Portuguese named the Costa do Marfim -- both, literally, mean "Coast of Ivory '' -- lay between what was known as the Guiné de Cabo Verde, so - called "Upper Guinea '' at Cap - Vert, and Lower Guinea. There was also a Pepper Coast, also known as the "Grain Coast '', a "Gold Coast '', and a "Slave Coast ''. Like those, the name "Ivory Coast '' reflected the major trade that occurred on that particular stretch of the coast: the export of ivory.
Other names included the Côte de Dents, literally "Coast of Teeth '', again reflecting the trade in ivory; the Côte de Quaqua, after the people whom the Dutch named the Quaqua (alternatively Kwa Kwa); the Coast of the Five and Six Stripes, after a type of cotton fabric also traded there; and the Côte du Vent, the Windward Coast, after perennial local off - shore weather conditions. One can find the name Cote de (s) Dents regularly used in older works. It was used in Duckett 's Dictionnaire (Duckett 1853) and by Nicolas Villault de Bellefond, for example, although Antoine François Prévost used Côte d'Ivoire. In the 19th century, usage switched to Côte d'Ivoire.
The coastline of the modern state is not quite coterminous with what the 15th - and 16th - century merchants knew as the "Teeth '' or "Ivory '' coast, which was considered to stretch from Cape Palmas to Cape Three Points and which is thus now divided between the modern states of Ghana and Ivory Coast (with a minute portion of Liberia). It retained the name through French rule and independence in 1960. The name had long since been translated literally into other languages, which the post-independence government considered increasingly troublesome whenever its international dealings extended beyond the Francophone sphere. Therefore, in April 1986, the government declared that Côte d'Ivoire (or, more fully, République de Côte d'Ivoire) would be its formal name for the purposes of diplomatic protocol, and since then officially refuses to recognize or accept any translation from French to another language in its international dealings.
Despite the Ivorian government 's request, the English translation "Ivory Coast '' (often "the Ivory Coast '') is still frequently used in English by various media outlets and publications.
The first human presence in Ivory Coast has been difficult to determine because human remains have not been well preserved in the country 's humid climate. However, newly found weapon and tool fragments (specifically, polished axes cut through shale and remnants of cooking and fishing) have been interpreted as a possible indication of a large human presence during the Upper Paleolithic period (15,000 to 10,000 BC), or at the minimum, the Neolithic period.
The earliest known inhabitants of Ivory Coast have left traces scattered throughout the territory. Historians believe that they were all either displaced or absorbed by the ancestors of the present indigenous inhabitants, who migrated south into the area before the 16th century. Such groups included the Ehotilé (Aboisso), Kotrowou (Fresco), Zéhiri (Grand Lahou), Ega and Diès (Divo).
The first recorded history appears in the chronicles of North African (Berber) traders, who, from early Roman times, conducted a caravan trade across the Sahara in salt, slaves, gold, and other goods. The southern terminals of the trans - Saharan trade routes were located on the edge of the desert, and from there supplemental trade extended as far south as the edge of the rain forest. The more important terminals -- Djenné, Gao, and Timbuctu -- grew into major commercial centres around which the great Sudanic empires developed.
By controlling the trade routes with their powerful military forces, these empires were able to dominate neighbouring states. The Sudanic empires also became centres of Islamic education. Islam had been introduced in the western Sudan (today 's Mali) by Muslim Berber traders from North Africa; it spread rapidly after the conversion of many important rulers. From the 11th century, by which time the rulers of the Sudanic empires had embraced Islam, it spread south into the northern areas of contemporary Ivory Coast.
The Ghana empire, the earliest of the Sudanic empires, flourished in present - day eastern Mauritania from the fourth to the 13th centuries. At the peak of its power in the 11th century, its realms extended from the Atlantic Ocean to Timbuctu. After the decline of Ghana, the Mali Empire grew into a powerful Muslim state, which reached its apogee in the early part of the 14th century. The territory of the Mali Empire in Ivory Coast was limited to the north - west corner around Odienné.
Its slow decline starting at the end of the 14th century followed internal discord and revolts by vassal states, one of which, Songhai, flourished as an empire between the 14th and 16th centuries. Songhai was also weakened by internal discord, which led to factional warfare. This discord spurred most of the migrations southward toward the forest belt. The dense rain forest covering the southern half of the country, created barriers to the large - scale political organizations that had arisen in the north. Inhabitants lived in villages or clusters of villages; their contacts with the outside world were filtered through long - distance traders. Villagers subsisted on agriculture and hunting.
Five important states flourished in Ivory Coast during the pre-European era. The Muslim Kong Empire was established by the Joola in the early 18th century in the north - central region inhabited by the Sénoufo, who had fled Islamization under the Mali Empire. Although Kong became a prosperous center of agriculture, trade, and crafts, ethnic diversity and religious discord gradually weakened the kingdom. The city of Kong was destroyed in 1895 by Samori Ture.
The Abron kingdom of Gyaaman was established in the 17th century by an Akan group, the Abron, who had fled the developing Ashanti confederation of Asanteman in what is present - day Ghana. From their settlement south of Bondoukou, the Abron gradually extended their hegemony over the Dyula people in Bondoukou, who were recent arrivals from the market city of Begho. Bondoukou developed into a major center of commerce and Islam. The kingdom 's Quranic scholars attracted students from all parts of West Africa. In the mid-17th century in east - central Ivory Coast, other Akan groups fleeing the Asante established a Baoulé kingdom at Sakasso and two Agni kingdoms, Indénié and Sanwi.
The Baoulé, like the Ashanti, developed a highly centralized political and administrative structure under three successive rulers. It finally split into smaller chiefdoms. Despite the breakup of their kingdom, the Baoulé strongly resisted French subjugation. The descendants of the rulers of the Agni kingdoms tried to retain their separate identity long after Ivory Coast 's independence; as late as 1969, the Sanwi attempted to break away from Ivory Coast and form an independent kingdom. The current king of Sanwi is Nana Amon Ndoufou V (since 2002).
Compared to neighboring Ghana, Ivory Coast, though practicing slavery and slave raiding, suffered little from the slave trade as such. European slaving and merchant ships preferred other areas along the coast. The earliest recorded European voyage to West Africa was made by the Portuguese in 1482. The first West African French settlement, Saint Louis, was founded in the mid-17th century in Senegal, while at about the same time, the Dutch ceded to the French a settlement at Goree Island, off Dakar. A French mission was established in 1637 at Assinie near the border with the Gold Coast (now Ghana). The Europeans suppressed the local practice of slavery at this time, and forbade the trade to their merchants.
Assinie 's survival was precarious, however; the French were not firmly established in Ivory Coast until the mid-19th century. In 1843 -- 4, French admiral Louis Edouard Bouët - Willaumez signed treaties with the kings of the Grand Bassam and Assinie regions, making their territories a French protectorate. French explorers, missionaries, trading companies, and soldiers gradually extended the area under French control inland from the lagoon region. Pacification was not accomplished until 1915.
Activity along the coast stimulated European interest in the interior, especially along the two great rivers, the Senegal and the Niger. Concerted French exploration of West Africa began in the mid-19th century, but moved slowly, based more on individual initiative than on government policy. In the 1840s, the French concluded a series of treaties with local West African chiefs that enabled the French to build fortified posts along the Gulf of Guinea to serve as permanent trading centres.
The first posts in Ivory Coast included one at Assinie and another at Grand Bassam, which became the colony 's first capital. The treaties provided for French sovereignty within the posts, and for trading privileges in exchange for fees or coutumes paid annually to the local chiefs for the use of the land. The arrangement was not entirely satisfactory to the French, because trade was limited and misunderstandings over treaty obligations often arose. Nevertheless, the French government maintained the treaties, hoping to expand trade.
France also wanted to maintain a presence in the region to stem the increasing influence of the British along the Gulf of Guinea coast. The French built naval bases to keep out non-French traders and began a systematic pacification of the interior to stop raids on their settlements. They accomplished this only after a long war in the 1890s against Mandinka tribesmen, mostly from Gambia. However, raids by the Baoulé and other eastern tribes continued until 1917.
The defeat of France in the Franco - Prussian War in 1871 and the subsequent annexation by Germany of the French province of Alsace - Lorraine caused the French government to abandon its colonial ambitions and withdraw its military garrisons from its West African trading posts, leaving them in the care of resident merchants. The trading post at Grand Bassam in Ivory Coast was left in the care of a shipper from Marseille, Arthur Verdier, who in 1878 was named Resident of the Establishment of Ivory Coast.
In 1886, to support its claims of effective occupation, France again assumed direct control of its West African coastal trading posts and embarked on an accelerated program of exploration in the interior. In 1887, Lieutenant Louis Gustave Binger began a two - year journey that traversed parts of Ivory Coast 's interior. By the end of the journey, he had concluded four treaties establishing French protectorates in Ivory Coast. Also in 1887, Verdier 's agent, Marcel Treich - Laplène, negotiated five additional agreements that extended French influence from the headwaters of the Niger River Basin through Ivory Coast.
By the end of the 1880s, France had established control over the coastal regions of Ivory Coast, and in 1889 Britain recognized French sovereignty in the area. That same year, France named Treich - Laplène titular governor of the territory. In 1893, Ivory Coast became a French colony, and Captain Binger was appointed governor. Agreements with Liberia in 1892 and with Britain in 1893 determined the eastern and western boundaries of the colony, but the northern boundary was not fixed until 1947 because of efforts by the French government to attach parts of Upper Volta (present - day Burkina Faso) and French Sudan (present - day Mali) to Ivory Coast for economic and administrative reasons.
France 's main goal was to stimulate the production of exports. Coffee, cocoa, and palm oil crops were soon planted along the coast. Ivory Coast stood out as the only West African country with a sizeable population of settlers; elsewhere in West and Central Africa, the French and British were largely bureaucrats. As a result, French citizens owned one - third of the cocoa, coffee, and banana plantations and adopted the local forced - labor system.
Throughout the early years of French rule, French military contingents were sent inland to establish new posts. Some of the native population and former slave - owning class resisted French settlers. Among those offering greatest resistance was Samori Ture, who in the 1880s and 1890s was conquering his neighbors, re-establishing slavery and founding the Wassoulou Empire, which extended over large parts of present - day Guinea, Mali, Burkina Faso, and Ivory Coast. Samori Ture 's large, well - equipped army, which could manufacture and repair its own firearms, attracted some support throughout the region from chiefs who sought to play the two sides off against each other. The French responded to Samori Ture 's expansion and conquest with military pressure. French campaigns against Samori Ture, which were met with greater resistance than usual in tribal warfare, intensified in the mid-1890s until he was captured in 1898 and his empire dissolved.
France 's imposition of a head tax in 1900 to support the colony 's public works program provoked unexpected protests. Many Ivoirians saw the tax as a violation of the protectorate treaties because they felt that France was demanding the equivalent of a coutume from the local kings, rather than the reverse. Many, especially in the interior, also considered the tax a humiliating symbol of submission. In 1905, the French officially abolished slavery in most of French West Africa. From 1904 to 1958, Ivory Coast was part of the Federation of French West Africa. It was a colony and an overseas territory under the Third Republic. In World War I, France organized regiments from Ivory Coast to fight in France, and colony resources were rationed from 1917 -- 1919. Some 150,000 men from Ivory Coast died in World War I. Until the period following World War II, governmental affairs in French West Africa were administered from Paris. France 's policy in West Africa was reflected mainly in its philosophy of "association '', meaning that all Africans in Ivory Coast were officially French "subjects '', but without rights to representation in Africa or France.
French colonial policy incorporated concepts of assimilation and association. Based on the assumed superiority of French culture, in practice the assimilation policy meant the extension of French language, institutions, laws, and customs to the colonies. The policy of association also affirmed the superiority of the French in the colonies, but it entailed different institutions and systems of laws for the colonizer and the colonized. Under this policy, the Africans in Ivory Coast were allowed to preserve their own customs insofar as they were compatible with French interests, such as the recent abolition of the slave trade.
An indigenous elite trained in French administrative practice formed an intermediary group between French and Africans. After 1930, a small number of Westernized Ivoirians were granted the right to apply for French citizenship. Most Ivoirians, however, were classified as French subjects and were governed under the principle of association. As subjects of France, natives outside the above - mentioned civilized elite had no political rights. They were drafted for work in mines, on plantations, as porters, and on public projects as part of their tax responsibility. They were expected to serve in the military and were subject to the indigénat, a separate system of law.
In World War II, the Vichy regime remained in control until 1942, when British troops invaded without much resistance. Winston Churchill gave power back to members of General Charles de Gaulle 's provisional government. By 1943, the Allies had returned French West Africa to the French. The Brazzaville Conference of 1944, the first Constituent Assembly of the Fourth Republic in 1946, and France 's gratitude for African loyalty during World War II, led to far - reaching governmental reforms in 1946. French citizenship was granted to all African "subjects '', the right to organize politically was recognized, and various forms of forced labor were abolished.
Until 1958, governors appointed in Paris administered the colony of Ivory Coast, using a system of direct, centralized administration that left little room for Ivoirian participation in policy - making. While British colonial administrations adopted divide - and - rule policies elsewhere, applying ideas of assimilation only to the educated elite, the French were interested in ensuring that the small but influential elite was sufficiently satisfied with the status quo to refrain from anti-French sentiment. Although strongly opposed to the practices of association, educated Ivoirians believed that they would achieve equality with their French peers through assimilation rather than through complete independence from France. After the assimilation doctrine was implemented through the postwar reforms, though, Ivoirian leaders realized that even assimilation implied the superiority of the French over the Ivoirians. Some of them thought that discrimination and political inequality would end only with independence; others thought the problem of the division between the tribal culture and modernity would continue.
Félix Houphouët - Boigny, the son of a Baoulé chief, became Ivory Coast 's father of independence. In 1944, he formed the country 's first agricultural trade union for African cocoa farmers like himself. Angered that colonial policy favoured French plantation owners, the union members united to recruit migrant workers for their own farms. Houphouët - Boigny soon rose to prominence and within a year was elected to the French Parliament in Paris. A year later, the French abolished forced labour. Houphouët - Boigny established a strong relationship with the French government, expressing a belief that the Ivory Coast would benefit from the relationship, which it did for many years. France appointed him as a minister, the first African to become a minister in a European government.
A turning point in relations with France was reached with the 1956 Overseas Reform Act (Loi Cadre), which transferred a number of powers from Paris to elected territorial governments in French West Africa and also removed the remaining voting inequities. In 1958, Ivory Coast became an autonomous member of the French Community, which had replaced the French Union.
At independence (1960), the country was easily French West Africa 's most prosperous, contributing over 40 % of the region 's total exports. When Houphouët - Boigny became the first president, his government gave farmers good prices for their products to further stimulate production, which was further boosted by a significant immigration of workers from surrounding countries. Coffee production increased significantly, catapulting Ivory Coast into third place in world output, behind Brazil and Colombia. By 1979, the country was the world 's leading producer of cocoa. It also became Africa 's leading exporter of pineapples and palm oil. French technicians contributed to the "Ivoirian miracle ''. In other African nations, the people drove out the Europeans following independence, but in Ivory Coast, they poured in. The French community grew from only 30,000 prior to independence to 60,000 in 1980, most of them teachers, managers, and advisors. For 20 years, the economy maintained an annual growth rate of nearly 10 % -- the highest of Africa 's non-oil - exporting countries.
Houphouët - Boigny 's one - party rule was not amenable to political competition. Laurent Gbagbo, who would become the president of Ivory Coast in 2000, had to flee the country in the 1980s, after he incurred the ire of Houphouët - Boigny by founding the Front Populaire Ivoirien. Houphouët - Boigny banked on his broad appeal to the population, who continued to elect him. He was criticized for his emphasis on developing large - scale projects.
Many felt the millions of dollars spent transforming his home village, Yamoussoukro, into the new political capital were wasted; others supported his vision to develop a centre for peace, education, and religion in the heart of the country. In the early 1980s, the world recession and a local drought sent shock waves through the Ivoirian economy. Due to the overcutting of timber and collapsing sugar prices, the country 's external debt increased three-fold. Crime rose dramatically in Abidjan as an influx of villagers exacerbated unemployment caused by the recession.
In 1990, hundreds of civil servants went on strike, joined by students protesting institutional corruption. The unrest forced the government to support multiparty democracy. Houphouët - Boigny became increasingly feeble, and died in 1993. He favoured Henri Konan Bédié as his successor.
In October 1995, Bédié overwhelmingly won re-election against a fragmented and disorganised opposition. He tightened his hold over political life, jailing several hundred opposition supporters. In contrast, the economic outlook improved, at least superficially, with decreasing inflation and an attempt to remove foreign debt.
Unlike Houphouët - Boigny, who was very careful to avoid any ethnic conflict and left access to administrative positions open to immigrants from neighbouring countries, Bedié emphasized the concept of Ivoirité to exclude his rival Alassane Ouattara, who had two northern Ivorian parents, from running for future presidential election. As people originating from foreign countries are a large part of the Ivoirian population, this policy excluded many people from Ivoirian nationality, and the relationship between various ethnic groups became strained, which resulted in two civil wars in the following decades.
Similarly, Bedié excluded many potential opponents from the army. In late 1999, a group of dissatisfied officers staged a military coup, putting General Robert Guéï in power. Bedié fled into exile in France. The new leadership reduced crime and corruption, and the generals pressed for austerity and campaigned in the streets for a less wasteful society.
A presidential election was held in October 2000 in which Laurent Gbagbo vied with Guéï, but it was peaceful. The lead - up to the election was marked by military and civil unrest. Following a public uprising that resulted in around 180 deaths, Guéï was swiftly replaced by Gbagbo. Alassane Ouattara was disqualified by the country 's Supreme Court, due to his alleged Burkinabé nationality. The existing and later reformed constitution (under Guéï) did not allow noncitizens to run for the presidency. This sparked violent protests in which his supporters, mainly from the country 's north, battled riot police in the capital, Yamoussoukro.
In the early hours of 19 September 2002, while the President was in Italy, an armed uprising occurred. Troops who were to be demobilised mutinied, launching attacks in several cities. The battle for the main gendarmerie barracks in Abidjan lasted until mid-morning, but by lunchtime, the government forces had secured Abidjan. They had lost control of the north of the country, and rebel forces made their stronghold in the northern city of Bouaké.
The rebels threatened to move on Abidjan again, and France deployed troops from its base in the country to stop their advance. The French said they were protecting their own citizens from danger, but their deployment also helped government forces. That the French were helping either side was not established as a fact; but each side accused the French of supporting the opposite side. Whether French actions improved or worsened the situation in the long term is disputed. What exactly happened that night is also disputed. The government claimed that former president Robert Guéï led a coup attempt, and state TV showed pictures of his dead body in the street; counter-claims stated that he and 15 others had been murdered at his home, and his body had been moved to the streets to incriminate him. Alassane Ouattara took refuge in the German embassy; his home had been burned down. President Gbagbo cut short his trip to Italy and on his return stated, in a television address, that some of the rebels were hiding in the shanty towns where foreign migrant workers lived. Gendarmes and vigilantes bulldozed and burned homes by the thousands, attacking residents.
An early ceasefire with the rebels, which had the backing of much of the northern populace, proved short - lived, and fighting over the prime cocoa - growing areas resumed. France sent in troops to maintain the cease - fire boundaries, and militias, including warlords and fighters from Liberia and Sierra Leone, took advantage of the crisis to seize parts of the west.
In January 2003, Gbagbo and rebel leaders signed accords creating a "government of national unity ''. Curfews were lifted, and French troops patrolled the western border of the country. The unity government was unstable, and central problems remained, with neither side achieving its goals. In March 2004, 120 people were killed at an opposition rally, and subsequent mob violence led to the evacuation of foreign nationals. A later report concluded the killings were planned. Though UN peacekeepers were deployed to maintain a "Zone of Confidence '', relations between Gbagbo and the opposition continued to deteriorate.
Early in November 2004, after the peace agreement had effectively collapsed because the rebels refused to disarm, Gbagbo ordered airstrikes against the rebels. During one of these airstrikes in Bouaké, on 6 November 2004, French soldiers were hit, and nine were killed; the Ivorian government said it was a mistake, but the French claimed it was deliberate. They responded by destroying most Ivoirian military aircraft (two Su - 25 planes and five helicopters), and violent retaliatory riots against the French broke out in Abidjan.
Gbagbo 's original term as president expired on 30 October 2005, but due to the lack of disarmament, an election was deemed impossible, so his term in office was extended for a maximum of one year, according to a plan worked out by the African Union and endorsed by the United Nations Security Council. With the late - October deadline approaching in 2006, the election was regarded as very unlikely to be held by that point, and the opposition and the rebels rejected the possibility of another term extension for Gbagbo. The UN Security Council endorsed another one - year extension of Gbagbo 's term on 1 November 2006; however, the resolution provided for strengthening of Prime Minister Charles Konan Banny 's powers. Gbagbo said the next day that elements of the resolution deemed to be constitutional violations would not be applied.
A peace accord between the government and the rebels, or New Forces, was signed on 4 March 2007, and subsequently Guillaume Soro, leader of the New Forces, became prime minister. These events were seen by some observers as substantially strengthening Gbagbo 's position.
According to UNICEF, at the end of the civil war, water and sanitation infrastructure had been greatly damaged. Communities across the country required repairs to their water supply.
The presidential elections that should have been organized in 2005 were postponed until November 2010. The preliminary results announced independently by the president of the Electoral Commission from the headquarters of Ouattara due to concern about fraud in that commission. They showed a loss for Gbagbo in favour of former prime minister Alassane Ouattara.
The ruling FPI contested the results before the Constitutional Council, charging massive fraud in the northern departments controlled by the rebels of the New Forces. These charges were contradicted by United Nations observers (unlike African Union observers). The report of the results led to severe tension and violent incidents. The Constitutional Council, which consisted of Gbagbo supporters, declared the results of seven northern departments unlawful and that Gbagbo had won the elections with 51 % of the vote -- instead of Ouattara winning with 54 %, as reported by the Electoral Commission. After the inauguration of Gbagbo, Ouattara -- who was recognized as the winner by most countries and the United Nations -- organized an alternative inauguration. These events raised fears of a resurgence of the civil war; thousands of refugees fled the country.
The African Union sent Thabo Mbeki, former President of South Africa, to mediate the conflict. The United Nations Security Council adopted a resolution recognising Alassane Ouattara as winner of the elections, based on the position of the Economic Community of West African States, which suspended Ivory Coast from all its decision - making bodies while the African Union also suspended the country 's membership.
In 2010, a colonel of the Ivory Coast armed forces, Nguessan Yao, was arrested in New York in a year - long U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement operation charged with procuring and illegal export of weapons and munitions: 4,000 9 mm handguns, 200,000 rounds of ammunition, and 50,000 tear - gas grenades, in violation of a UN embargo. Several other Ivory Coast officers were released because they had diplomatic passports. His accomplice, Michael Barry Shor, an international trader, was located in Virginia.
The 2010 presidential election led to the 2010 -- 2011 Ivorian crisis and the Second Ivorian Civil War. International organizations reported numerous human - rights violations by both sides. In the city of Duékoué, hundreds of people were killed. In nearby Bloléquin, dozens were killed. UN and French forces took military action against Gbagbo. Gbagbo was taken into custody after a raid into his residence on 11 April 2011. The country was severely damaged by the war, and observers say it will be a challenge for Ouattara to rebuild the economy and reunite Ivorians.
Ivory Coast is a country of western sub-Saharan Africa. It borders Liberia and Guinea in the west, Mali and Burkina Faso in the north, Ghana in the east, and the Gulf of Guinea (Atlantic Ocean) in the south. The country lies between latitudes 4 ° and 11 ° N, and longitudes 2 ° and 9 ° W. Around 64.8 % of the land is agricultural land, Arable land taking up 9.1 %, permanent pasture with 41.5 %, and permanent crops occupying 14.2 %. Water pollution is amongst one of the biggest issues that the country is currently facing.
Since 2011, Ivory Coast has been administratively organised into 12 districts plus two district - level autonomous cities. The districts are divided into 31 regions; the regions are divided into 108 departments; and the departments are divided into 510 sub-prefectures. In some instances, multiple villages are organised into communes. The autonomous districts are not divided into regions, but they do contain departments, sub-prefectures, and communes.
Since 2011, governors for the 12 non-autonomous districts have not been appointed, and as a result these districts have not yet begun to function as governmental entities.
The following is the list of districts, district capitals and each district 's regions:
The government is divided into three branches: the executive power, the legislative power, and the judicial power. In the legislative branch, Guillaume Soro directs the 2016 National Assembly and its 225 members, elected for five - year terms.
Since 1983, Ivory Coast 's capital has been Yamoussoukro, while Abidjan was the administrative center. Most countries maintain their embassies in Abidjan. The Ivoirian population has suffered because of the ongoing civil war. International human - rights organizations have noted problems with the treatment of captive non-combatants by both sides and the re-emergence of child slavery in cocoa production.
Although most of the fighting ended by late 2004, the country remained split in two, with the north controlled by the New Forces. A new presidential election was expected to be held in October 2005, and the rival parties agreed in March 2007 to proceed with this, but it continued to be postponed until November 2010 due to delays in its preparation.
Elections were finally held in 2010. The first round of elections was held peacefully, and widely hailed as free and fair. Runoffs were held 28 November 2010, after being delayed one week from the original date of 21 November. Laurent Gbagbo as president ran against former Prime Minister Alassane Ouattara. On 2 December, the Electoral Commission declared that Ouattara had won the election by a margin of 54 % to 46 %. In response, the Gbagbo - aligned Constitutional Council rejected the declaration, and the government announced that country 's borders had been sealed. An Ivorian military spokesman said, "The air, land, and sea border of the country are closed to all movement of people and goods. ''
In Africa, Ivorian diplomacy favors step - by - step economic and political cooperation. In 1959, Ivory Coast formed the Council of the Entente with Dahomey (Benin), Upper Volta (Burkina Faso), Niger and Togo; in 1965, the African and Malagasy Common Organization (OCAM); in 1972, the Economic Community of West Africa (CEAO). The latter organisation changed to the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) in 1975. A founding member of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) in 1963 and then of the African Union in 2000, Ivory Coast defends respect for state sovereignty and peaceful cooperation between African countries.
Worldwide, Ivorian diplomacy is committed to fair economic and trade relations, including the fair trade of agricultural products and the promotion of peaceful relations with all countries. Ivory Coast thus maintains diplomatic relations with international organizations and countries all around the world. In particular, it has signed United Nations treaties such as the Convention relating to the Status of Refugees, the 1967 Protocol, and the 1969 Convention Governing Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa. Ivory Coast is a member of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, African Union, La Francophonie, Latin Union, Economic Community of West African States, and South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone.
Ivory Coast has partnered with nations of the Sub-Saharan region to strengthen water and sanitation infrastructure. This has been done mainly with the help of organizations such as UNICEF and Nestle.
In 2015, the United Nations engineered the Sustainable Development Goals (replacing the Millennium Development Goals). They focus on health, education, poverty, hunger, climate change, water sanitation, and hygiene. A major focus was clean water and salinisation. Experts working on this field have designed the WASH concept. WASH focuses on safe drinkable water, hygiene, and proper sanitation. The group has had a major impact on the sub-Saharan region of Africa, particularly the Ivory Coast. By 2030, they plan to have universal and equal access to safe and affordable drinking water.
As of 2012, major equipment items reported by the Ivory Coast Army included 10 T - 55 tanks (marked as potentially unserviceable), five AMX - 13 light tanks, 34 reconnaissance vehicles, 10 BMP - 1⁄2 armoured infantry fighting vehicles, 41 wheeled APCs, and 36 + artillery pieces.
In 2012, the Ivory Coast Airforce consisted of one Mil Mi - 24 attack helicopter and three SA330L Puma transports (marked as potentially unserviceable).
Ivory Coast has, for the region, a relatively high income per capita (US $1014.4 in 2013) and plays a key role in transit trade for neighboring, landlocked countries. The country is the largest economy in the West African Economic and Monetary Union, constituting 40 % of the monetary union 's total GDP. The country is the world 's largest exporter of cocoa beans, and the fourth - largest exporter of goods, in general, in sub-Saharan Africa (following South Africa, Nigeria, and Angola).
In 2009, cocoa - bean farmers earned $2.53 billion for cocoa exports and were projected to produce 630,000 metric tons in 2013. According to the Hershey Company, the price of cocoa beans is expected to rise dramatically in upcoming years. The Ivory Coast also has 100,000 rubber farmers who earned a total of $105 million in 2012.
Close ties to France since independence in 1960, diversification of agricultural exports, and encouragement of foreign investment have been factors in the economic growth of Ivory Coast. In recent years, Ivory Coast has been subject to greater competition and falling prices in the global marketplace for its primary agricultural crops: coffee and cocoa. That, compounded with high internal corruption, makes life difficult for the grower, those exporting into foreign markets, and the labor force, inasmuch as instances of indentured labor have been reported in the country 's cocoa and coffee production in every edition of the U.S. Department of Labor 's List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor since 2009.
South Africa and North Africa aside, most African economies have not grown faster since independence. One possible reason for this might be taxes on export agriculture. Ivory Coast, Nigeria, and Kenya were exceptions as their rulers were themselves large cash - crop producers, and the newly independent countries desisted from imposing penal rates of taxation on export agriculture, with the result that their economies were doing well.
The country 's population was 15,366,672 in 1998, and was estimated to be 20,617,068 in 2009, and 23,919,000 in July 2014. Ivory Coast 's first national census in 1975 counted 6.7 million inhabitants.
According to 2012 government survey, the fertility rate was 5.0 children born per woman, with 3.7 in urban areas and 6.3 in rural areas.
French, the official language, is taught in schools and serves as a lingua franca in the country. An estimated 65 languages are spoken in Ivory Coast. One of the most common is the Dyula language, which acts as a trade language, as well as a language commonly spoken by the Muslim population.
Around 7.5 million people of Ivory Coast made up the work force in 2009. The work force took a hit, especially in the private sector, during the early 2000s due to the numerous economic crises since 1999. Furthermore, these crises caused companies to close and move locations, especially in Ivory Coast 's tourism industry, transit and banking companies. Job markets decreasing posed as a huge issue in Ivory Coast society as unemployment rates grew. Unemployment rates raised to 9.4 % in 2012.
Solutions proposed to decrease unemployment included diversifying jobs in small trade. This division of work encouraged farmers and the agricultural sector. Self - employment policy, established by the Ivorian government, allowed for very strong growth in the field with an increase of 142 % in seven years from 1995. Despite efforts like this to decrease unemployment, it still remains as a social problem.
Ethnic groups include Akan (42.1 %), Voltaiques or Gur (17.6 %), Northern Mandés (16.5 %), Krous (11 %), Southern Mandés (10 %), and others (2.8 %, including 30,000 Lebanese and 45,000 French; 2004). About 77 % of the population is considered Ivorian.
Since Ivory Coast has established itself as one of the most successful West African nations, about 20 % of the population (about 3.4 million) consists of workers from neighbouring Liberia, Burkina Faso, and Guinea.
About 4 % of the population is of non-African ancestry. Many are French, Lebanese, Vietnamese and Spanish citizens, as well as Protestant missionaries from the United States and Canada. In November 2004, around 10,000 French and other foreign nationals evacuated Ivory Coast due to attacks from progovernment youth militias. Aside from French nationals, native - born descendants of French settlers who arrived during the country 's colonial period are present.
Religion in Ivory Coast remains very heterogeneous, with Islam (almost all Sunni Muslims, with some Ahmadi Muslims) and Christianity (mostly Roman Catholic with smaller numbers of Protestants, primarily Methodists) being the major religions. Muslims dominate the north, while Christians dominate the south. In 2009, according to U.S. Department of State estimates, Christians and Muslims each made up 35 to 40 % of the population, while an estimated 25 % of the population practiced traditional (animist) religions.
Ivory Coast 's capital, Yamoussoukro, is home to the largest church building in the world, the Basilica of Our Lady of Peace of Yamoussoukro.
Judaism is rare in the Ivory Coast currently, but Jews can still be found scattered throughout the country. The Jewish people had a larger presence in the late 20th century before a mass Jewish immigration in which Jews from the Ivory Coast and all over the world left their native countries for Israel. Despite this, the Jewish population is beginning to re-emerge in the Ivory Coast.
Life expectancy at birth was 41 for males in 2004; for females it was 47. Infant mortality was 118 of 1000 live births. Twelve physicians are available per 100,000 people. About a quarter of the population lives below the international poverty line of US $1.25 a day. About 36 % of women have undergone female genital mutilation. According to 2010 estimates, Ivory Coast has the 27th - highest maternal mortality rate in the world. The HIV / AIDS rate was 19th - highest in the world, estimated in 2012 at 3.20 % among adults aged 15 -- 49 years.
A large part of the adult population, in particular women, are illiterate. Many children between 6 and 10 years are not enrolled in school. The majority of students in secondary education are male. At the end of secondary education, students can sit the baccalauréat examination.
The country has a number of universities, such as the Université de Cocody in Abidjan and the Université de Bouaké in Bouaké. In 2012, there were 57,541 students enrolled at post-secondary diploma level, 23,008 students studying for a bachelor 's or master 's degree and 269 PhD students. Enrolment in tertiary education suffered during the political crisis, dropping from 9.03 % to 4.46 % of the 18 - 25 - year cohort between 2009 and 2012.
According to the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research, Ivory Coast devotes about 0.13 % of GDP to GERD. Apart from low investment, other challenges include inadequate scientific equipment, the fragmentation of research organizations and a failure to exploit and protect research results.
The share of the National Development Plan for 2012 -- 2015 that is devoted to scientific research remains modest. Within the section on greater wealth creation and social equity (63.8 % of the total budget for the Plan), just 1.2 % is allocated to scientific research. Twenty - four national research programmes group public and private research and training institutions around a common research theme. These programmes correspond to eight priority sectors for 2012 -- 2015, namely: health, raw materials, agriculture, culture, environment, governance, mining and energy; and technology.
Each of the ethnic groups in Ivory Coast has its own music genres, most showing strong vocal polyphony. Talking drums are also common, especially among the Appolo, and polyrhythms, another African characteristic, are found throughout Ivory Coast and are especially common in the southwest.
Popular music genres from Ivory Coast include zoblazo, zouglou, and Coupé - Décalé. A few Ivorian artists who have known international success are Magic Système, Alpha Blondy, Meiway, Dobet Gnahoré, Tiken Jah Fakoly, and Christina Goh, of Ivorian descent.
The country has been the host for several major African sporting events, with the most recent being the 2013 African Basketball Championship. In the past, the country hosted the 1984 Africa Cup of Nations, in which its football team finished fifth, and the 1985 African Basketball Championship, where its basketball team won the gold medal.
Ivory Coast won an Olympic silver medal for men 's 400 - metre in the 1984 games, where it competed as "Côte d'Ivoire ''.
The most popular sport in Ivory Coast is association football. The national football team has played in the World Cup three times, in Germany 2006, in South Africa 2010, and Brazil in 2014. The woman 's football team played in the 2015 Women 's World Cup in Canada. Ivory Coast notable footballers are Didier Drogba, Yaya Touré, Eric Bailly and Gervinho. Rugby union is also popular, and the national rugby union team qualified to play at the Rugby World Cup in South Africa in 1995. Ivory Coast also won two Africa Cups one 1992 and the other 2015.
The traditional cuisine of Ivory Coast is very similar to that of neighboring countries in West Africa in its reliance on grains and tubers. Cassava and plantains are significant parts of Ivorian cuisine. A type of corn paste called aitiu is used to prepare corn balls, and peanuts are widely used in many dishes. Attiéké is a popular side dish in Ivory Coast made with grated cassava, a vegetable - based couscous. A common street food is alloco, ripe banana fried in palm oil, spiced with steamed onions and chili and eaten alone or with grilled fish. Chicken is commonly consumed and has a unique flavor due to its lean, low - fat mass in this region. Seafood includes tuna, sardines, shrimp, and bonito, which is similar to tuna. Mafé is a common dish consisting of meat in a peanut sauce.
Slow - simmered stews with various ingredients are another common food staple in Ivory Coast. Kedjenou is a dish consisting of chicken and vegetables slow - cooked in a sealed pot with little or no added liquid, which concentrates the flavors of the chicken and vegetables and tenderizes the chicken. It is usually cooked in a pottery jar called a canary, over a slow fire, or cooked in an oven. Bangui is a local palm wine.
Ivorians have a particular kind of small, open - air restaurant called a maquis, which is unique to the region. A maquis normally features braised chicken and fish covered in onions and tomatoes, served with attiéké or kedjenou.
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who sings take it to the limit on eagles live | Take it to the Limit (Eagles song) - wikipedia
"Take It to the Limit '' is a song by the Eagles from their fourth album One of These Nights from which it was issued as the third single on November 15, 1975. It reached No. 4 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 and was also the Eagles ' greatest success to that point in the UK, going to No. 12 on the charts. Billboard ranked it as the No. 25 song for 1976.
The song was written by Eagles ' members Randy Meisner, Don Henley and Glenn Frey. Meisner, who sang lead on it, says the song began as his solo composition. As it remained unfinished when time came for the One of These Nights album to be recorded, Henley and Frey assisted Meisner in completing it. Meisner 's performance of the song was popular with the audience in Eagles ' concerts, but disputes over his reluctance to perform it would also directly lead to Meisner 's departure from the band.
According to Meisner, he wrote the first few lines of the song one night while playing an acoustic guitar after returning from the Troubadour; however he was not able to finish the song by the time they were close to recording it, and Frey and Henley then helped him with the lyrics. Meisner later said of how he would usually write songs with the Eagles: "I 'd get a verse or two, and I 'm done, and they would help fill in the blanks ''
On the meaning of the song, Meisner said in the documentary History of the Eagles: "The line ' take it to the limit ' was to keep trying before you reach a point in your life where you feel you 've done everything and seen everything, sort of feeling, you know, part of getting old. And just to take it to the limit one more time, like every day just keep, you know, punching away at it... That was the line, and from there the song took a different course. ''
Meisner sings lead on "Take it to the Limit '' and the song was released as the third single from the album One of These Nights. It is the first and only Eagles single where Meisner sings lead.
"Take It to the Limit '' is unique in the canon of the band 's singles, being the sole A-side on which Randy Meisner sang lead, as well as the first A-side Eagles single on which neither Henley nor Frey sang lead. It was also the last Eagles single to feature founding member Bernie Leadon before he was replaced by guitarist Joe Walsh. The single version of the song is 3: 48 in length, almost a minute shorter than the album version. "Take It to the Limit '' is one of few Eagles ' tracks written in waltz time. (Other notable waltzes performed by the Eagles are "Hollywood Waltz ''; the Meisner / Henley / Frey waltz "Saturday Night '' (co-written with Leadon) from the 1973 Desperado album; Frey 's "Most of Us are Sad '' from their self - titled debut album; Frey / Henley / JD Souther 's hard - rocking "Teenage Jail '' from 1979 's "The Long Run '' album; and Walsh 's "Pretty Maids All in a Row '' on the 1976 album Hotel California.)
A live performance by Meisner from 1976, recorded at The Forum, Inglewood, California, is included in the album Eagles Live, which was released in 1980 after the band had effectively broken up.
The song was rerecorded on Meisner 's first solo album (Randy Meisner) released in 1978. The song was performed with piano and acoustic guitar accompaniment, and 1970s teen idol David Cassidy singing in the backing vocals.
According to Frey, fans of the band loved Meisner 's performance of his signature song "Take It to the Limit '' at concert. As Henley puts it: "They went crazy when Randy hit those high notes ''. Meisner, however, was concerned about not being able to hit the high notes, but Frey was insistent that Meisner should perform the song in concert for the fans, and live performances of the song then became a source of great contention between Frey and Meisner, and would eventually become one reason for Meisner leaving the band.
Meisner had been struggling to hit the crucial high notes in the song during the Hotel California tour. According to Joe Walsh, Meisner could perform the song, but would become nervous when told he had to sing it. By the time they had reached Knoxville, Tennessee in June 1977, the band was feeling the strain of a long tour, with Meisner unhappy and suffering from a stomach ulcer. Meisner decided not to sing the song for an encore because he had been up late and caught the flu, Frey and Meisner then became involved in an angry physical confrontation backstage over Meisner 's refusal to perform the song. After the altercation, Meisner was frozen out from the band and he decided to leave. He left the band at the end of their tour in September 1977 and was replaced by Timothy B. Schmit, coincidentally the same bassist who had replaced him in Poco.
The song was revived for the Eagles ' late 1999 shows at Los Angeles ' Staples Center and at those shows, as well as the Eagles ' Farewell 1 Tour in 2004 and 2005 and on subsequent tours, the song was sung by Frey. Originally in B major, the song was transposed down to G major to accommodate for Frey 's vocal range. For the band 's 2017 shows, lead vocals were taken by Vince Gill and was again transposed to A major.
The song was covered by country musicians Willie Nelson and Waylon Jennings as the title track of their duet album, Take It to the Limit, which was released in 1983.
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how did the 12 days of christmas start | Twelve Days of Christmas - wikipedia
The Twelve Days of Christmas, also known as Twelvetide, is a festive Christian season celebrating the Nativity of Jesus Christ. In most Western ecclesiastical traditions, "Christmas Day '' is considered the "First Day of Christmas '' and the Twelve Days are 25 December -- 5 January, inclusive. For many Christian denominations; for example, the Anglican Communion and Lutheran Church, the Twelve Days are identical to Christmastide, but for others, e.g., the Roman Catholic Church, "Christmastide '' lasts longer than the Twelve Days of Christmas.
Because the Armenian Apostolic Church and Armenian Catholic Church celebrate the Birth and Baptism of Christ on the same day, they do not have a series of twelve days between a feast of Christmas and a feast of Epiphany.
The Oriental Orthodox, other than the Armenians, the Eastern Orthodox, and the Eastern Catholics who follow the same traditions do have the interval of twelve days between the two feasts. If they use the Julian Calendar, they celebrate Christmas on what is for them 25 December, but is 7 January of the Gregorian Calendar, and they celebrate Epiphany on what is for them 6 January, but is 19 January of the Gregorian Calendar.
For the Eastern Orthodox, both Christmas and Epiphany are among the Twelve Great Feasts that are only second to Easter in importance.
The period between Christmas and Epiphany is fast - free. During this period one celebration leads into another. The Nativity of Christ is a three - day celebration: the formal title of the first day (i. e. Christmas Eve) is "The Nativity According to the Flesh of our Lord, God and Saviour Jesus Christ '', and celebrates not only the Nativity of Jesus, but also the Adoration of the Shepherds of Bethlehem and the arrival of the Magi; the second day is referred to as the "Synaxis of the Theotokos '', and commemorates the role of the Virgin Mary in the Incarnation; the third day is known as the "Third Day of the Nativity '', and is also the feast day of the Protodeacon and Protomartyr Saint Stephen. 29 December is the Orthodox Feast of the Holy Innocents. The Afterfeast of the Nativity (similar to the Western octave) continues until 31 December (that day is known as the Apodosis or "leave - taking '' of the Nativity).
The Saturday following the Nativity is commemorated by special readings from the Epistle (1 Tim 6: 11 - 16) and Gospel (Matt 12: 15 - 21) during the Divine Liturgy. The Sunday after the Nativity has its own liturgical commemoration in honour of "The Righteous Ones: Joseph the Betrothed, David the King and James the Brother of the Lord ''.
Another of the more prominent festivals that are included among the Twelve Great Feasts is that of the Circumcision of Christ on 1 January. On this same day is the feast day of Saint Basil the Great, and so the service celebrated on that day is the Divine Liturgy of Saint Basil.
On 2 January begins the Forefeast of the Theophany. The Eve of the Theophany on 5 January is a day of strict fasting, on which the devout will not eat anything until the first star is seen at night. This day is known as Paramony (Greek Παραμονή "Eve ''), and follows the same general outline as Christmas Eve. That morning is the celebration of the Royal Hours and then the Divine Liturgy of Saint Basil combined with Vespers, at the conclusion of which is celebrated the Great Blessing of Waters, in commemoration of the Baptism of Jesus in the Jordan River. There are certain parallels between the hymns chanted on Paramony and those of Good Friday, to show that, according to Orthodox theology, the steps that Jesus took into the Jordan River were the first steps on the way to the Cross. That night the All - Night Vigil is served for the Feast of the Theophany.
Within the Twelve Days of Christmas, there are celebrations both secular and religious.
Christmas Day, if it is considered to be part of the Twelve Days of Christmas and not as the day preceding the Twelve Days, is celebrated by Christians as the liturgical feast of the Nativity of the Lord. It is a public holiday in many nations, including some where the majority of the population is not Christian. On this see the articles on Christmas and Christmas traditions.
26 December is "St. Stephen 's Day '', a feast day in the Western Church. In Great Britain and its former colonies, it is also the secular holiday of Boxing Day. In some parts of Ireland it is denominated "Wren Day ''.
New Year 's Eve on 31 December is the feast of Pope St. Sylvester I and is known also as "Silvester ''. The transition that evening to the new year is an occasion for secular festivities in many nations, and in several languages is known as "St. Sylvester Night '' ("Notte di San Silvestro '' in Italian, "Silvesternacht '' in German, "Réveillon de la Saint - Sylvestre '' in French, and "סילבסטר '' in Hebrew).
New Year 's Day on 1 January is an occasion for further secular festivities or for rest from the celebrations of the night before. In the Roman Rite of the Roman Catholic Church, it is the Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God, liturgically celebrated on the Octave Day of Christmas. It has also been celebrated, and still is in some denominations, as the Feast of the Circumcision of Christ, because according to Jewish tradition He would have been circumcised on the eighth day after His Birth, inclusively counting the first day and last day. This day, or some day proximate to it, is also celebrated by the Pope and Roman Catholics as World Day of Peace.
In many nations, e.g., the United States, the Solemnity of Epiphany is transferred to the first Sunday after 1 January, which can occur as early as 2 January. That solemnity, then, together with customary observances associated with it, usually occur within the Twelve Days of Christmas, even if these are considered to end on 5 January rather than 6 January.
Other Roman Catholic liturgical feasts on the General Roman Calendar that occur within the Octave of Christmas and therefore also within the Twelve Days of Christmas are the Feast of St. Stephen, Proto - Martyr on 26 December; Feast of St. John, Apostle and Evangelist on 27 December; the Feast of the Holy Innocents on 28 December; Memorial of St. Thomas Becket, Bishop and Martyr on 29 December; and the Feast of the Holy Family of Jesus, Mary, and Joseph on the Sunday within the Octave of Christmas or, if there is no such Sunday, on 30 December. Outside the Octave, but within the Twelve Days of Christmas, there are the feast of Sts. Basil the Great and Gregory of Nazianzus on 2 January and the Memorial of the Holy Name of Jesus on 3 January.
Other saints are celebrated at a local level.
The Second Council of Tours of 567 noted that, in the area for which its bishops were responsible, the days between Christmas and Epiphany were, like the month of August, taken up entirely with saints ' days. Monks were therefore in principle not bound to fast on those days. However, the first three days of the year were to be days of prayer and penance so that faithful Christians would refrain from participating in the idolatrous practices and debauchery associated with the new year celebrations. The Fourth Council of Toledo (633) ordered a strict fast on those days, on the model of the Lenten fast.
In England in the Middle Ages, this period was one of continuous feasting and merrymaking, which climaxed on Twelfth Night, the traditional end of the Christmas season. In Tudor England, Twelfth Night itself was forever solidified in popular culture when William Shakespeare used it as the setting for one of his most famous stage plays, titled Twelfth Night. Often a Lord of Misrule was chosen to lead the Christmas revels.
Some of these traditions were adapted from the older pagan customs, including the Roman Saturnalia and the Germanic Yuletide. Some also have an echo in modern - day pantomime where traditionally authority is mocked and the principal male lead is played by a woman, while the leading older female character, or ' Dame ', is played by a man.
The early North American colonists brought their version of the Twelve Days over from England, and adapted them to their new country, adding their own variations over the years. For example, the modern - day Christmas wreath may have originated with these colonials. A homemade wreath would be fashioned from local greenery and fruits, if available, were added. Making the wreaths was one of the traditions of Christmas Eve; they would remain hung on each home 's front door beginning on Christmas Night (1st night of Christmas) through Twelfth Night or Epiphany morning. As was already the tradition in their native England, all decorations would be taken down by Epiphany morning and the remainder of the edibles would be consumed. A special cake, the king cake, was also baked then for Epiphany.
Many in the UK and other Commonwealth nations still celebrate some aspects of the Twelve Days of Christmas. Boxing Day, 26 December, is a national holiday in many Commonwealth nations. Victorian era stories by Charles Dickens, and others, particularly A Christmas Carol, hold key elements of the celebrations such as the consumption of plum pudding, roasted goose and wassail. These foods are consumed more at the beginning of the Twelve Days in the UK.
Twelfth Night is the last day for decorations to be taken down, and it is held to be bad luck to leave decorations up after this. This is in contrast to the custom in Elizabethan England, when decorations were left up until Candlemas; this is still done in some other Western European countries such as Germany.
In the United States, Christmas Day is a holiday for Christians and for some non-Christians.
The traditions of the Twelve Days of Christmas have been nearly forgotten in the United States. Contributing factors include the popularity of the stories of Charles Dickens in nineteenth - century America, with their emphasis on generous giving; introduction of secular traditions in the 19th and 20th centuries, e.g., the American Santa Claus; and increase in the popularity of secular New Year 's Eve parties. Presently, the commercial practice treats the Solemnity of Christmas, 25 December, the first day of Christmas, as the last day of the "Christmas '' marketing season, as the numerous "after - Christmas sales '' that commence on 26 December demonstrate. The commercial calendar encourages the error that the Twelve Days of Christmas terminate on Christmas Day and therefore begin on 14 December.
Many American Christians still celebrate the traditional liturgical seasons of Advent and Christmas, especially Amish, Anglo - Catholics, Episcopalians, Lutherans, Mennonites, Methodists, Moravians, Orthodox Christians, Presbyterians, and Roman Catholics. In Anglicanism, the designation of the "Twelve Days of Christmas '' is used liturgically in the Episcopal Church in the US, having its own invitatory antiphon in the Book of Common Prayer for Matins.
Christians who celebrate the Twelve Days may give gifts on each of them, with each of the Twelve Days representing a wish for a corresponding month of the new year. They may feast on traditional foods and otherwise celebrate the entire time through the morning of the Solemnity of Epiphany. Contemporary traditions include lighting a candle for each day, singing the verse of the corresponding day from the famous The Twelve Days of Christmas, and lighting a yule log on Christmas Eve and letting it burn some more on each of the twelve nights. For some, the Twelfth Night remains the night of the most festive parties and exchanges of gifts. Some households exchange gifts on the first (25 December) and last (5 January) days of the Twelve Days. As in former times, the Twelfth Night to the morning of Epiphany is the traditional time during which Christmas trees and decorations are deposed.
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when have the vikings been in the super bowl | Minnesota Vikings - wikipedia
National Football League (1961 -- present)
Purple, Gold, White
League championships (0 †)
Conference championships (4)
Division championships (20)
The Minnesota Vikings are an American football team based in Minneapolis, Minnesota. The Vikings joined the National Football League (NFL) as an expansion team in 1960, and first took the field for the 1961 season. The team competes in the National Football Conference (NFC) North division. The Vikings played in four Super Bowl games in the 1970s, but lost all four.
During the 1960s, the Vikings ' record was typical for an expansion franchise, but improved over the course of the decade, resulting in a Central Division title in 1968. In 1969, their dominant defense led to the Vikings ' league championship in 1969, the last NFL championship prior to the merger of the NFL with the AFL.
The team plays its home games at U.S. Bank Stadium in the Downtown East section of Minneapolis.
Professional football in the Minneapolis -- Saint Paul area (the "Twin Cities '') began with the Minneapolis Marines / Red Jackets, an NFL team that played intermittently in the 1920s and 1930s. However, a new professional team in the area did not surface again until August 1959, when Minneapolis businessmen Bill Boyer, H.P. Skoglund, and Max Winter were awarded a franchise in the new American Football League (AFL). Five months later, in January 1960, after significant pressure from the NFL, the ownership group, along with Bernard H. Ridder Jr., reneged on its agreement with the AFL and then was awarded the National Football League 's 14th franchise, with play to begin in 1961. Ole Haugsrud was added to the NFL team ownership because, in the 1920s, when he sold his Duluth Eskimos team back to the league, the agreement allowed him 10 percent of any future Minnesota team. Coincidentally or not, the teams from Ole Haugsrud 's high school, Central High School in Superior, Wisconsin, were also called the Vikings and also had a similar purple - and - yellow uniform design and color scheme.
From the team 's first season in 1961 to 1981, the team called Metropolitan Stadium in suburban Bloomington home. The Vikings conducted summer training camp at Bemidji State University from 1961 to 1965. In 1966, the team moved to their training camp to Minnesota State University in Mankato. The training camp at Minnesota State was one of the longest continuously running training camp events in the NFL and is remembered as part of the golden era history of the team. The Vikings played their home games at the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome in Minneapolis from 1982 to 2013. The Vikings played their last game at the Metrodome on December 29, 2013, defeating the Detroit Lions 14 -- 13 to end the season.
Since the team 's first season in 1961, the Vikings have had one of the highest winning percentages in the NFL. As of 2017, they have won at least three games in every season except in 1962, and are one of only six NFL teams to win at least 15 games in a regular season. The Vikings have won one NFL Championship, in 1969, before the league 's merger with the American Football League (AFL). Since the league merger in 1970, they have qualified for the playoffs 27 times, third-most in the league. The team has played in Super Bowls IV, VIII, IX, and XI, though failing to win any of them. In addition, they have lost in their last six NFC Championship Game appearances since 1978. The team currently has 14 members in the Pro Football Hall of Fame.
The team was officially named the Minnesota Vikings on September 27, 1960; the name is partly meant to reflect Minnesota 's place as a center of Scandinavian American culture. From the start, the Vikings embraced an energetic marketing program that produced first - year season ticket sales of nearly 26,000 and an average home attendance of 34,586, about 85 percent of Metropolitan Stadium 's capacity of 40,800. Eventually, the capacity of Met Stadium was increased to 47,900. Bert Rose, former public relations director for the Los Angeles Rams, was appointed the team 's first general manager. The search for the first head coach saw the team court then - Northwestern University head coach Ara Parseghian, who, according to Minneapolis Star writer Jim Klobuchar -- the Vikings ' first beat reporter for that newspaper -- visited team management in the Twin Cities under the condition that his visit was to be kept secret from his current employer. His cover was blown by local columnist Sid Hartman, who reported the visit and forced Parseghian to issue denials. Philadelphia Eagles assistant Nick Skorich and a man with Minnesota ties who was working in the CFL, Bud Grant, were also candidates until a different Eagle, quarterback Norm Van Brocklin, was hired on January 18, 1961. Van Brocklin had just finished his career as a player on a high note, having defeated the Green Bay Packers in the 1960 NFL Championship Game.
As a new franchise, the Vikings had the first overall selection in the 1961 NFL Draft, and they picked running back Tommy Mason of Tulane. They also took a young quarterback from the University of Georgia named Fran Tarkenton in the third round. Notable veterans acquired in the offseason were George Shaw and Hugh McElhenny. The Vikings won their first regular season game, defeating the Chicago Bears 37 -- 13 on Opening Day 1961; Tarkenton came off the bench to throw four touchdown passes and run for another to lead the upset. Reality set in as the expansion team lost its next seven games on their way to a 3 -- 11 record. The losing continued throughout much of the 1960s as the Vikings had a combined record of 32 wins, 59 losses, and 7 ties in their first seven seasons with only one winning season (8 -- 5 -- 1 in 1964).
On March 7, 1967, quarterback Fran Tarkenton was traded to the New York Giants for a first - round and second - round draft choice in 1967, a first - round choice in 1968 and a second - round choice in 1969. With the picks, Minnesota selected Clinton Jones and Bob Grim in 1967, Ron Yary in 1968 and Ed White in 1969. On March 10, 1967 the Vikings hired new head coach Bud Grant to replace Van Brocklin, who had resigned on February 11, 1967. Grant came to the Vikings from the Canadian Football League as head coach for the Winnipeg Blue Bombers, whom he led to four Grey Cup Championships in 10 years. Replacing Tarkenton at quarterback was eight - year CFL veteran and Grey Cup champion Joe Kapp. During the late 1960s, the Vikings built a powerful defense known as the Purple People Eaters, led by Alan Page, Carl Eller, Gary Larsen, and Jim Marshall. In 1968, that stingy defense earned the Vikings their first Central Division title and their first playoff berth.
In 1969, the Vikings secured a 12 -- 2 record. The team had 12 straight regular - season victories after a season - opening loss to the New York Giants, which was the longest single - season winning streak in 35 years. The Vikings defeated the Cleveland Browns 27 -- 7 in the last pre-merger NFL Championship Game on January 4, 1970, at Metropolitan Stadium. The Vikings became the first modern NFL expansion team to win an NFL Championship Game, and earned a berth in Super Bowl IV; however, the heavily favored Vikings lost that game to the Kansas City Chiefs, 23 -- 7. The team MVP that season was Joe Kapp, who threw for seven touchdowns against the Baltimore Colts -- still an all - time NFL record; however, Kapp refused to accept the award, stating, "There is not one most valuable Viking... there are 40 most valuable Vikings! ''
The team continued to dominate in 1970 and 1971, reaching the playoffs behind the stubborn "Purple People Eaters '' defensive line. In 1971, Alan Page won the NFL Most Valuable Player Award given by the Associated Press. He was the first defensive player to win the award.
On January 27, 1972, the Vikings traded Norm Snead, Bob Grim, Vince Clements and first - round draft picks in 1972 and 1973 to the New York Giants to reacquire the popular Fran Tarkenton. While the acquisitions of Tarkenton and wide receiver John Gilliam improved the passing attack, the running game was inconsistent and the Vikings finished with a disappointing 7 -- 7 record. The Vikings addressed the problem by drafting running back Chuck Foreman with their first pick in the 1973 Draft. Co-owner Bill Boyer died on February 19, 1973 and was replaced on the team 's board of directors by his son - in - law Jack Steele.
The Vikings won their first nine games of 1973 and finished the season with a 12 -- 2 record. They then advanced to their second Super Bowl in franchise history, Super Bowl VIII, against the Miami Dolphins at Rice Stadium in Houston, Texas; however, the Dolphins prevailed, 24 -- 7.
The Vikings won the Central Division again in 1974 with a 10 -- 4 record. In the playoffs they built on their cold weather reputation, defeating both the St. Louis Cardinals 30 -- 14 and the Los Angeles Rams 14 -- 10 in frozen Metropolitan Stadium. The Vikings played in their second straight Super Bowl, Super Bowl IX (3rd overall), losing to the Pittsburgh Steelers, 16 -- 6, at Tulane Stadium in New Orleans on January 12, 1975.
Led by Tarkenton and running back Chuck Foreman, the 1975 Vikings got off to a 10 -- 0 start and easily won another division title. However, the Vikings lost to the Dallas Cowboys in the playoffs, 17 -- 14, on a controversial touchdown pass from the Cowboys ' quarterback Roger Staubach to wide receiver Drew Pearson that became known as the Hail Mary. The touchdown was controversial because many felt that Pearson pushed off on Vikings defensive back Nate Wright, committing pass interference. As the Metropolitan Stadium crowd was stunned to learn that no penalty was called, debris was thrown on the field for several minutes. A Corby 's Whiskey bottle struck game official Armen Terzian, rendering him unconscious.
The Vikings played in Super Bowl XI, their third Super Bowl (fourth overall) in four years, against the Oakland Raiders at the Rose Bowl in Pasadena, California, on January 9, 1977. The Vikings, however, lost 32 -- 14.
In 1977, the Vikings again won the Central Division with a 9 -- 5 record and advanced to their 4th NFC Championship Game in 5 years, but were defeated by the eventual Super Bowl Champion Cowboys, 23 -- 6, at Texas Stadium.
By 1978, age was taking its toll on the Vikings, but they still made the playoffs with an 8 -- 7 -- 1 record. There was no more playoff magic as the Rams finally defeated the Vikings, 34 -- 10 in Los Angeles after having lost in their previous four playoff matchups (in 1969, ' 74, ' 76 and ' 77). Quarterback Fran Tarkenton retired following the season holding league passer records in attempts (6,467), completions (3,686), yards (47,003), and touchdowns (342).
In December 1979, ground was broken for construction of the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome in downtown Minneapolis.
On May 15, 1981, the Vikings moved into a new facility in suburban Eden Prairie that houses the team 's offices, locker room and practice fields. The complex was named "Winter Park '' after Max Winter, one of the Vikings ' founders, who served as the team 's president from 1965 to 1987. The Vikings played their final game at Metropolitan Stadium on December 20 to conclude the 1981 NFL season by losing to the Kansas City Chiefs, 10 -- 6.
The Vikings played their first game at the Metrodome in a preseason matchup against the Seattle Seahawks on August 21, 1982 in a game Minnesota won, 7 -- 3. The first touchdown in the new facility was scored by Joe Senser on an 11 - yard pass from Tommy Kramer. The first regular - season game in the Metrodome was the 1982 opener on September 12, when the Vikings defeated Tampa Bay, 17 -- 10. Rickey Young scored the first regular - season touchdown in the facility on a 3 - yard run in the 2nd quarter. That year the defense led by Joey Browner began a dominant 10 - year run as a premier NFL defense. The Vikings beat the St. Louis Cardinals 28 - 10 on August 6, 1983 at Wembley Stadium in London in the very first international game in the NFL.
On January 27, 1984, Bud Grant retired as head coach of the Vikings. With a career regular - season record of 151 -- 87 -- 5 (. 632) in 17 seasons with Minnesota, Grant led the franchise to 12 playoff appearances, 11 division titles, and four Super Bowls. Les Steckel, who was an offensive assistant with the Vikings for 5 seasons, was then named the 3rd head coach in franchise history. Steckel, who came to the Vikings in 1979 after working as an assistant with the 49ers, was the youngest head coach in the NFL in 1984 at age 38. However, the Vikings lost a franchise - worst 13 games. After the season Steckel was fired, and on December 18, 1984, Bud Grant came out of retirement and was rehired as the head coach of the Vikings.
On January 6, 1986, following the 1985 season, Bud Grant re-retired, this time permanently, as head coach of the Vikings. At the time of his retirement he was the 6th winningest coach in NFL history with 168 career wins, including playoffs. In 18 seasons, he led the Vikings to a 158 -- 96 -- 5 regular season record. Longtime Vikings assistant coach Jerry Burns was named the fourth head coach in team history on January 7, 1986. He served as the Vikings ' offensive coordinator from 1968 to 1985, when the team won 11 division titles and played in four Super Bowls. In his first season, the Vikings, led by the NFL Comeback Player of the Year Tommy Kramer, went 9 -- 7, their first winning record in four years. On August 2, 1986, Fran Tarkenton was the first player who played the majority of his career with the Vikings to be inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame.
Following the strike - shortened 1987 season, the 8 -- 7 Vikings, who had finished 8 -- 4 in regular games but 0 -- 3 using strike - replacement players, pulled two upsets in the playoffs. They defeated the 12 -- 3 New Orleans Saints 44 -- 10 at the Louisiana Superdome in the Wild Card game. The following week, in the Divisional Playoff game, they beat the 13 -- 2 San Francisco 49ers 36 -- 24 at Candlestick Park. During that game, Anthony Carter set the all - time record for most receiving yards in a playoff game with 227 yards. The Vikings played the Washington Redskins in the NFC Championship Game on January 17, 1988, at RFK Stadium. Trailing 17 -- 10, the Vikings drove to the Redskins ' 6 - yard line with a little over a minute left in the game, but failed to get the ball into the end zone. The Vikings ' hopes of a Super Bowl ended when Darrin Nelson dropped a pass from Wade Wilson on fourth down at the goal line.
On October 12, 1989, the Vikings acquired Herschel Walker from Dallas. The final result of the trade gave the Vikings Walker, third - round choice Mike Jones, fifth - round choice Reggie Thornton and 10th - round choice Pat Newman in 1990 and a third - round choice Jake Reed in 1991. Dallas received Issiac Holt, David Howard, Darrin Nelson, Jesse Solomon, Alex Stewart, a first -, second - and a sixth - round choice in 1990, first - and second - round choices in 1991 and a first -, second - and third - round choice in 1992. Two of those selections turned into Emmitt Smith and Darren Woodson. Walker 's performance fell short of expectations in his three seasons with the Vikings, while the Cowboys rode their draft picks to three Super Bowl victories in the early - to - mid-1990s.
On December 3, 1991, Jerry Burns announced his retirement effective at the end of the 1991 season. In six seasons as Head Coach of the Vikings, Burns compiled a career record of 52 -- 43 (. 547). He also led Minnesota to three playoff appearances, including a division title and an NFC Championship Game. Dennis Green was later named the fifth head coach in team history, after turning around a struggling Stanford University football program as head coach from 1989 to 1991. In his 10 seasons as the coach of the Vikings, Green won four NFC Central division titles, had eight playoff appearances, two NFC Championship Game appearances and an all - time record of 97 -- 62. The Vikings therefore had the fifth highest winning percentage among all NFL teams during the regular season in the 1990s.
1998 was a year to remember for the franchise. With a spectacular offense led by quarterback Randall Cunningham (who replaced an injured Brad Johnson), running back Robert Smith, veteran wide receiver Cris Carter, and explosive rookie Randy Moss, the Vikings set a then - NFL record by scoring a total of 556 points, never scoring fewer than 24 in a game. The Vikings finished the season 15 -- 1, their only loss was to the Tampa Bay Buccaneers 27 -- 24 in Week 9. In the playoffs, the Vikings rolled past the Arizona Cardinals 41 -- 21, and came into the Metrodome heavily favored for their NFC title showdown with the Atlanta Falcons, who had gone 14 -- 2 in the regular season. After kicker Gary Anderson, who had just completed the first perfect regular season in NFL history (not missing a single extra point or field goal attempt the entire year), missed a 38 - yard field goal attempt with just over 2 minutes remaining, the Falcons ' ensuing drive tied the game. This led to a controversial decision by head coach Dennis Green to run out the clock and let the game go to overtime. Though the Vikings won the coin toss, Atlanta went on to win it 30 -- 27 in overtime on Morten Andersen 's 38 - yard field goal. The Vikings became the first 15 -- 1 team to fail to reach the Super Bowl. The Falcons lost Super Bowl XXXIII to John Elway and the Denver Broncos.
Cunningham resumed duties again in 1999, but after a lukewarm 2 -- 4 start, Jeff George replaced him as starting quarterback. He finished the season with an 8 -- 2 record, and led the Vikings into the postseason once again, with an overall team record of 10 -- 6. Minnesota beat Dallas in the Wild Card game 27 -- 10, and faced playoff newcomer Kurt Warner and the St. Louis Rams in the Divisional matchup. The game was a shootout that Minnesota led 17 -- 14 at halftime, but the Rams outscored Minnesota 35 -- 20 in the second half to win 49 -- 37. St. Louis would go on to win Super Bowl XXXIV.
The Vikings entered the decade by winning the divisional championship and an appearance in the NFC Championship game, where they were defeated 41 - 0 by the New York Giants. The following season, they struggled by posting a 5 -- 11 record in 2001. The team would make the playoffs again in 2004, but would not win a divisional title again until 2008. Since the merger, the 2000s became the decade with the fewest playoff berths for the franchise.
In 2000, the Vikings went 11 -- 5. The Vikings were 11 -- 2 after 14 weeks, but slumped briefly, losing their last three to the Rams, Packers and Colts while starting quarterback Daunte Culpepper was hampered by injury. Nonetheless, the Vikings made the playoffs for the fifth straight year. After easily beating the Saints in the Divisional game 34 -- 16, they traveled to New York City to face the Giants in the NFC Championship Game. Though they were the road team, the Vikings were favored to win the game (since most considered their 11 -- 2 record with Culpepper more indicative than their 0 -- 3 record when he was out); instead, the Vikings were defeated 41 -- 0, their worst defeat in playoff history. Robert Smith, who ran for 1,521 yards that season, retired at the end of the year after only playing eight NFL seasons.
In 2001, after a disappointing 5 -- 11 season, the Vikings bought out the contract of Dennis Green, despite his successful coaching tenure with the team. Mike Tice coached the final game of 2001, losing to the Ravens 19 -- 3. Tice was named the permanent coach after the season, but he would not lead the Vikings back to the playoffs until 2004.
During the 2003 season, the Vikings came close to getting into the playoffs. However, the Arizona Cardinals completed a game - winning touchdown on 4th - and - 28 with 0: 00 left, knocking the Vikings out of the playoffs. The moment of Arizona 's touchdown was actually the first moment the entire season in which the Vikings had n't led their division. The Vikings became the second team in football history to miss the playoffs after getting off to a 6 -- 0 start, following the 1978 Washington Redskins.
In 2004, Daunte Culpepper amassed MVP - like statistics, throwing for 4,717 passing yards (leading the NFL), 39 passing touchdowns (a Viking record), and 5,123 total yards (an NFL record). In the wild card game, the Vikings defeated the rival Green Bay Packers in their first - ever playoff meeting, 31 -- 17. In doing so, the Vikings became the second team in NFL history to have a. 500 record (8 -- 8) in the regular season and win a playoff game (The St. Louis Rams did the same thing only a day earlier). In the divisional round, the Vikings were defeated by the eventual NFC champion Philadelphia Eagles.
On March 2, 2005, Vikings wide receiver Randy Moss was traded to the Oakland Raiders for linebacker Napoleon Harris and the Raiders ' first round draft pick. After struggling to a disappointing 2 -- 5 start to the 2005 season, Vikings lost quarterback Daunte Culpepper to a season - ending knee injury. This injury was a very significant part to this Minnesota Vikings team due to the fact they also lost Moss. The dynamic duo from years earlier were now gone and a new leader would eventually emerge. The Vikings finished the 2005 season with a 9 -- 7 record. However, this season would be more notable for off - the - field events. In October, 17 team members were part of a party of about 90 that went out on a pleasure cruise on local Lake Minnetonka. The incident erupted into scandal when media reported that a number of the players had performed sex acts and that prostitutes had been flown in. Four players were ultimately charged with misdemeanors related to the party.
Mike Tice was let go after the 2005 season and was replaced by Brad Childress. This was one of many significant front office moves made by the new ownership team, led by Zygi Wilf.
Minnesota began the 2006 season 4 -- 2 (with Childress becoming the first Vikings coach to start his career 2 -- 0), but would finish the year at 6 -- 10, receiving the 7th pick in the NFL Draft; with it, the Vikings selected Adrian Peterson out of the University of Oklahoma.
Peterson 's first career touchdown was a 60 - yard screen pass against the Atlanta Falcons in his first career game. When the Vikings played the Chicago Bears in Week 6, Peterson broke the record for single game All - Purpose (rushing, receiving, kick returning) yards (361 total yards, 224 rushing). In Week 9, Peterson broke the NFL single game rushing record set by Jamal Lewis in 2003 by rushing for 296 yards against the San Diego Chargers. Despite a strong push in the middle of the season, winning five straight games, the Vikings lost their final two games to finish the season at 8 -- 8 and missed the playoffs.
In Week 13 of the 2008 season against the Bears, Gus Frerotte hooked up with Bernard Berrian and set the record for longest play in franchise history with a 99 - yard touchdown pass. In the 2009 season, Adrian Peterson led the NFL with 1760 rushing yards, breaking the franchise record. The Vikings clinched the NFC North championship for the first time after defeating the New York Giants 20 -- 19 in Week 17, when kicker Ryan Longwell made the game - winning field goal. Peterson had 19 carries for 109 yards and added a touchdown during the game.
On January 4, 2009, the Vikings hosted the Philadelphia Eagles for the Wild Card round, their first home playoff game in eight years. The Eagles led the Viking 16 -- 14 at halftime and, coming off a 44 -- 6 victory over the Dallas Cowboys, went on to defeat the Vikings 26 -- 14. The Eagles would go on to defeat the defending Super Bowl champion New York Giants in the Divisional round, only to lose to the Arizona Cardinals in the NFC Championship Game.
Since 2006, the Vikings have been known especially for their strong run defense (# 1 in the NFL in 2006, 2007, and 2008; they are the first NFL team to accomplish this since the AFL -- NFL merger in 1970), anchored by the Williams Wall consisting of defensive tackle Kevin Williams and nose tackle Pat Williams (no relation). With the addition of sack - leader Jared Allen in 2008, the dominant front four began being called by several nicknames, including "Thunder and Plunder '' and "Shock and AWE '' (an acronym of their surname initials).
On August 18, 2009, after months of speculation and negotiations, twice - retired veteran quarterback Brett Favre, who until 2007 had played 16 years for division archrival Green Bay Packers, signed a two - year, $25 million deal with the Vikings.
On October 5, 2009, the Vikings hosted the Green Bay Packers as Favre played his former team for the first time. With a 30 -- 23 victory on Monday Night Football, the Vikings moved to a 4 -- 0 record. Favre became the first quarterback in NFL history to defeat all 32 current teams as a starter. Over 21.8 million viewers tuned in to watch the game, beating the previous record for a cable television program set by a game between the Philadelphia Eagles and the Dallas Cowboys in 2008 (18.6 million viewers).
The Vikings beat the New York Giants, 44 -- 7, in Week 17 to help the team clinch the second seed in the conference and a first round - bye with an Eagles loss later that same day. The Vikings ended the regular season with a 12 -- 4 record, their best record since 2000 and the first 11 - plus win season since their record - setting 1998 campaign. The Vikings played the Dallas Cowboys in the divisional round on January 17, 2010, and won the game by a score of 34 -- 3, advancing the Vikings to the NFC Championship game, the ninth in franchise history. This would also be the first NFC Championship game for the team since the 2000 season. Minnesota would travel to New Orleans the following week to face the top - seeded Saints in the first conference championship game held at the Superdome. Despite out - gaining the Saints on offense by nearly a twofold margin, the Vikings were severely hindered by five turnovers, including a Favre interception in the final minute of the fourth quarter in Saints territory. They were ousted in overtime, 31 -- 28, as the Saints won the coin toss and kicked a 40 - yard field goal on the first possession of overtime.
In the first week of the 2010 NFL regular season, the Vikings played the defending Super Bowl champions, the New Orleans Saints. The Vikings lost 14 -- 9. In Week 2, the Vikings played the Miami Dolphins and lost 14 -- 10. The Vikings defeated the Detroit Lions 24 -- 10 in the third week of the season. After a week four bye - week, the Vikings received star wide receiver Randy Moss in a trade with the New England Patriots. Even with the addition of Moss, the Vikings lost to the New York Jets 29 -- 20 in Week 5. The Vikings won a crucial victory against another struggling team in the form of the Dallas Cowboys 24 -- 21, but in Week 7 the Vikings lost to the arch - rival Green Bay Packers 28 -- 24. In Week 9, the Vikings played the Arizona Cardinals at home and won 27 -- 24 in overtime, coming back from a 24 -- 10 deficit in the final four minutes of regulation. Favre threw for a career - high 446 passing yards. The Vikings then went on to face the Chicago Bears, but were defeated, and then went on to be blown out 31 -- 3 at home by the Packers the following game. Head coach Brad Childress was fired the following Monday. With Leslie Frazier filling in for the fired Childress, the Vikings won two games in a row. One against the Washington Redskins on the road, and a blowout win over the Buffalo Bills at home.
After a winter storm dropped nearly 17 inches of snow in the Minneapolis / St Paul area the Saturday before the Vikings December 12 home game versus the New York Giants and 30 mph gusts drove snow removers off the dome 's roof overnight, several panels were damaged as the weight of the snow caused the roof to collapse. After viewing the damage, Vikings management and the NFL decided to move the game to Monday and play it at Ford Field in Detroit, Michigan. Because of on - going repairs to the roof of the Metrodome, the Vikings played their December 20 game versus the Chicago Bears at TCF Bank Stadium. Favre threw the final touchdown pass of his career (to Percy Harvin) in this game. The game was played 29 years to the day after the last outdoor game at old Met Stadium. On December 26, the NFL announced that the game versus the Philadelphia Eagles was being postponed to Tuesday, December 28, 2010 because of blizzard conditions. This marks the third consecutive venue or date change for a Vikings game and was the first NFL game played on a Tuesday since 1964. The Vikings proceeded to upset the dynamic Eagles offense, led by a resurgent Michael Vick, 24 -- 14 with rookie Joe Webb at the helm. The Vikings finished the season 6 -- 10 with a 20 -- 13 loss against the Detroit Lions.
The 2010 -- 11 season was a step down for the Minnesota Vikings. After coming within a few plays of Super Bowl XLIV, Minnesota ended the 2010 season with a 6 -- 10 record and a last place finish in the NFC North for the first time since 1990. During the season, the Vikings had many distractions, including trading for Randy Moss and then waiving him only a month later, Brett Favre 's NFL investigation for allegedly sending inappropriate text messages to Jets ' employee Jenn Sterger while he was with the team in 2008, the Metrodome 's collapse and resulting venue changes, and finally head coach Brad Childress ' firing on November 22 following a 31 -- 3 loss at the hands of the rival Green Bay Packers.
After serving as the interim head coach for the final six games of the season (finishing with a 3 -- 3 record), defensive coordinator Leslie Frazier was officially named the head coach on January 3, 2011, after signing a three - year contract. On January 17, Brett Favre retired for the third, and officially last, time, leaving the team in search for a long term replacement at the quarterback position. Wasting no time after being appointed head coach, Frazier began to restructure the team 's coaching staff, including letting go of offensive coordinator Darrell Bevell and hiring Mike Singletary as linebackers coach and Bill Musgrave as the new offensive coordinator. Their first round draft pick was Christian Ponder, a quarterback from Florida State University. The team finished with a 3 -- 13 record, tied with the 1984 Vikings for the second worst record in franchise history.
During the 2012 NFL Draft, the team selected USC lineman Matt Kalil with the 4th overall pick after a trade with the Cleveland Browns, and Notre Dame safety Harrison Smith in the first round. Both players were instrumental in helping the Vikings reach the playoffs for the 27th time in franchise history, as was fellow draftee, sixth - round selection Blair Walsh. After beating the Packers in the final game of 2012 to reach the playoffs as the NFC 's sixth seed, the Vikings lost 24 -- 10 to the Packers in the rematch at Lambeau Field in the Wild Card round. The team was forced to play backup Joe Webb during the game after Ponder was sidelined due to an arm injury sustained from the previous week. Peterson was later named the league 's MVP, after rushing for 2,097 yards, the second most rushing yards in a season in NFL history.
In the 2013 season, the Vikings finished with five wins, ten losses, and one tie, with no road wins. Notable moments include acquired free agent Matt Cassel outplaying Christian Ponder at the quarterback position and the defense allowing a league - worst 480 points, coming within four points of matching the franchise 's worst set in 1984. This was also the last season played at the Metrodome as a new stadium deal was reached. Leslie Frazier was fired after the regular season ended.
The team hired former Cincinnati Bengals defensive coordinator Mike Zimmer to replace Leslie Frazier as head coach on January 16, 2014. Former Cleveland Browns offensive coordinator Norv Turner replaced Bill Musgrave, and George Edwards replaced Alan Williams as defensive coordinator. In the 2014 NFL Draft, the Vikings selected Anthony Barr, a linebacker out of UCLA, and Teddy Bridgewater, a quarterback out of the University of Louisville. Bridgewater would later lose the starting job to Matt Cassel only to become the starter for the Vikings when Cassel was lost to a season - ending foot injury in week 3. Star running back Adrian Peterson only played in one regular season game due to his ongoing child abuse trial, with NFL commissioner Roger Goodell placing Peterson on the Commissioner 's Exempt List indefinitely. On April 16, 2015, the league released a statement issuing Peterson 's reinstatement to occur on April 17, 2015. The Vikings concluded their season with seven wins and nine losses, winning only one game against a divisional opponent, although Bridgewater set a franchise record for wins by a rookie starting quarterback. On January 3, 2016, the Vikings beat divisional rival Green Bay 20 -- 13 to win the NFC North for the first time since 2009. The Vikings, led by their top 5 defense, ended the 2015 season with an 11 -- 5 record, and a # 3 seed in the playoffs. However, they lost to the Seattle Seahawks 10 -- 9 after Blair Walsh missed a 27 - yard field goal in the third coldest game in NFL playoff history.
The Vikings were responsible for a historic milestone in the late rounds of the 2016 NFL draft. Their sixth - round selection, German wide receiver Moritz Böhringer, was the first European player ever to be drafted by an NFL team without having previously played at any level in North America. After Teddy Bridgewater went down with a knee injury in the preseason of 2016, the Vikings traded their 2017 first round pick and a conditional fourth round pick to the Philadelphia Eagles for quarterback Sam Bradford, who threw for 20 touchdowns, 5 interceptions, 3,877 yards, and led the Vikings to an 8 - 8 season. Following the knee injury, the Vikings declined to pick up the 5th year option for Teddy Bridgewater. Running back Adrian Peterson went down to injury in Week 2 against the Green Bay Packers with a torn meniscus and was placed on the Injured Reserve until Week 15. On February 28, 2017, the Vikings announced they would not exercise Peterson 's 2017 contract option which made him a free agent. Had they exercised the option, Peterson would be owed $18 million for the 2017 season. On April 25, 2017, the New Orleans Saints signed Peterson to a 2 - year, $7 million contract, ending his tenure with the Vikings since his debut in 2007 as a rookie. He holds several Vikings records including most career rushing touchdowns, career rushing yards, and most rushing yards in a season.
In the summer of 2017, the Vikings ownership announced they would end the 52 year annual tradition of summer training camp in Mankato, Minnesota at Minnesota State University, Mankato as they built a large new headquarters, training facility and area property development in Eagan, Minnesota on the site of the former Northwest Airlines offices to be completed in the spring of 2018 in time for the 2018 summer training camp.
The Minneapolis Miracle was the final play of the 2017 / 18 Divisional Round game against the New Oreans Saints. The Vikings were trailing by one point and needed a touchdown to secure a trip to the NFC Chamionship Game. With less than ten seconds remaining in the game quarterback Case Keenum lobbed the ball to wide receiver Stefon Diggs, which became the game winning touchdown. This also happens to be the very first walk - off victory in NFL playoff history. On KFAN 100.3, radio announcer, Paul Allen dubbed the play the ' Minneapolis Miraracle '.
The Vikings ' trademark horned helmet and purple - and - gold uniforms were designed by Los Angeles Examiner cartoonist Karl Hubenthal. Bert Rose and Norm Van Brocklin both knew Hubenthal from their days with the Los Angeles Rams organization. Hubenthal also designed the original Norseman logo.
From the team 's debut in 1961 to 1995, the Vikings ' logos and uniforms essentially remained the same. Reflecting Minnesota 's Scandinavian cultural heritage, one of the team 's two primary logos consists of a profile of a blond norseman, while the other consists of a white Viking horn.
The team 's helmet is purple with a Viking horn logo on each side. Each horn is outlined in gold. The horn logo was slightly revised in 2006. The original uniform design consisted of white pants, gold trim, and either purple or white jerseys. From 1962 to 1964, the Vikings wore purple pants with their white jerseys (The Vikings, with their new uniform, still wear, on occasion, purple pants with yellow and white trim). In a design that was unique among American football teams, the white jerseys had a completely different stripe pattern, which was over the shoulders, than the purple ones, which was around the sleeve cuff. These unique shoulder stripes on the white jerseys did not appear until 1969, the year they went to their first Super Bowl. There have also been minor changes to the uniform design throughout the years, such as changing the color of the facemask from gray to white (1980), and then to purple (1985); and adding the Norseman logo to the sleeves (1996). The Vikings continued to wear black shoes until Les Steckel became head coach in 1984. In 2006, the team returned to black shoes for first time since the 1983 season.
The Vikings tweaked their Norseman logo, which involved updating the shading, altering the shape and base of the horns, thickening the mustache and face, making the gold tones brighter, and shortening the braid. The new logo was unveiled on February 14, 2013. On March 28, the team reported that new uniforms will be unveiled on April 25.
On April 25, 2013, the Minnesota Vikings unveiled the club 's new uniforms during its annual NFL Draft party.
From 1969 through 1973, the Vikings had an alternate purple jersey without stripes for warm - weather games.
The team 's uniforms were redesigned in 2006, the first significant change in the franchise 's 46 - year history. Although the team colors remained the same, trim lines were added to the outside shoulders and sleeves, and the sides of the jerseys and pants. In addition the horn on the helmet was slightly more defined. Included in the new design are both white and purple pants, the purple pants have not been regularly used since 2007, but resurfaced twice in 2010.
The team wore black armbands for the last four games in 1978 in memory of Jack "Jocko '' Nelson, an assistant coach who died during the season. In 1985 the team wore a 25 years patch on their jerseys. In 1989, they wore a "40 for 60 '' patch honoring the 1969 NFL championship team. They wore a 35 years patch in 1995, 40 years in 2000 and 45 years in 2005. They also wore patches in 1999 for assistant coach Chip Myers who died in the offseason and in 2001 for Korey Stringer. The Vikings, like other teams, wore NFL 50th and 75th anniversary patches in 1969 and 1994.
In the 1960s the Vikings wore purple pants with road white jerseys. On October 11, 1964 the Vikings played the Detroit Lions at Metropolitan Stadium and the Lions mistakenly only brought their white jerseys to Minnesota. Both teams started the game in white, but by the second quarter the Vikings were able to obtain their purple tops. The Vikings changed jerseys on the sidelines during the 2nd quarter, finishing the game in purple jerseys and purple pants. It was n't until 43 years later, on December 17, 2007 (a Monday Night Football game versus the Chicago Bears) that the Vikings again donned both purple jerseys and purple pants -- the first time the Vikings wore all - purple intentionally. Three years later, the Vikings played the November 7, 2010 home game against the Arizona Cardinals in the all - purple uniform.
The NFL added new Color Rush uniforms for all 32 teams during the 2016 - 17 season, specifically for Thursday Night Football games. The Vikings showed off an all purple look with gold numbers and stripes on the pants, debuting their own Color Rush uniform on December 1 versus the Dallas Cowboys at U.S. Bank Stadium.
After several failed attempts at developing an official team - owned mascot, the Vikings finally introduced Viktor the Viking during the 2007 Vikings ' season. Team officials had long indicated that they were after a mascot concept that would primarily appeal to the team 's younger fan base. Viktor the Viking, a muscle - bound, blond - haired and mustachioed character, wears a Vikings ' # 1 jersey and an oversized Vikings helmet with protruding horns and a small yellow nose guard.
From 1970 to 1992, Hub Meeds dressed as a Viking and served as the team mascot. Meeds asked to become the mascot after being accidentally let onto the field by security during Super Bowl IV.
From 1994 to 2015, the team mascot was Ragnar (played by Joseph Juranitch) and was based on the legendary Viking Ragnar Lodbrok. Juranitch admits to being somewhat of an eccentric -- he holds the current world record for fastest time shaving a beard with an axe, but has n't shaved his beard since he won the Ragnar job among 3,000 applicants. Ragnar drove onto the field at the beginning of a game dressed in Viking garb, on a motorcycle, while a cheerleader used to ride a snowmobile. Although never one to shy away from confrontations with opposing players, notably Chad "Ochocinco '' Johnson, he had a soft spot for Brett Favre while the quarterback started for the rival Green Bay Packers. In 2015, the Vikings announced that they were not able to reach a new contract agreement with Juranitch which he wanted $20,000 per game, and released him.
Another mascot associated with the Vikings was "Vikadontis Rex '', a purple foam dinosaur. Vikadontis was the official mascot of the Minnesota Vikings Children 's Fund and took part in the 1995 Celebrity Mascot Olympics. Vikadontis was retired starting with the 2000 season. The team also had an NFL Huddles mascot in the mid-1980s, (somewhat similar to Viktor the Viking). Krazy George was also employed as a cheerleader from 1982 to 1985.
"Skol, Vikings '' is the fight song of the Minnesota Vikings. It was introduced around the time the team was founded in 1961. It is always played whenever the team scores a touchdown, field goal or safety, and at the end of each half.
The song "Purple and Gold '' was recorded in 2010 by Prince to be used as a fight song for the Minnesota Vikings.
Due to geographic and cultural proximity, the Vikings ' foremost rival is the Green Bay Packers. Some sources cite this rivalry as the biggest overall in the NFC North apart from the Packers - Bears rivalry (which dates back several more decades, i.e. to 1920).
Vikings fans are known to dress up in "Helga hats '', purple hats with white horns and blonde braids, mimicking the helmets popularly believed to have been worn by Viking warriors. The original Helga Hats are still hand assembled in the Twin Cities area.
During home games, the Vikings ' Gjallarhorn is loudly played and sounds often after the team has made a big play, gets a first down, or scores a touchdown. The team often also uses the horn during its pre-game ceremonies. In addition, a flash cannon fires upon Vikings touchdowns.
Running backs
Wide receivers
Tight ends
Defensive linemen
Defensive backs
Special teams
Unrestricted FAs
Restricted FAs
Exclusive - Rights FAs
Roster updated February 12, 2018 Depth chart Transactions 42 Active, 10 Inactive, 19 FAs
italics = played only a minor portion of their career with the Vikings, and are recognized primarily based upon achievements with other teams
In connection with the team 's 50th anniversary, the Vikings announced a group of 50 top players on December 19, 2010.
Offense
Defense
Special teams
Head Coach
→ Coaching Staff → Management → More NFL staffs
The Vikings ' flagship radio station is KFXN - FM (100.3), which uses the branding "KFAN '' based on its former calls on 1130 AM before a format flip between the AM and FM stations before the 2011 season; 1130 AM also continues to broadcast game play - by - play as KTLK.
The games are also heard on the "KFAN Radio Network '' in Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, South Dakota, and North Dakota, as well as many other outlets. Paul Allen has been the play - by - play announcer since the 2002 NFL season with Pete Bercich filling in as analyst, who began his first season in 2007.
Telecasts of preseason games not shown on national networks are aired on KMSP (Channel 9) in the Twin Cities with a simulcast of KFAN 's radio broadcast while Fox Sports North shows a tape delay later.
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what is the current diameter of hurricane irma | Hurricane Irma - wikipedia
Hurricane Irma was an extremely powerful and catastrophic Cape Verde - type hurricane, the strongest observed in the Atlantic since Wilma in 2005 in terms of maximum sustained winds. It was the first Category 5 hurricane to strike the Leeward Islands on record, followed by Hurricane Maria only two weeks later. It was also the most intense Atlantic hurricane to strike the United States since Katrina in 2005, and the first major hurricane to make landfall in Florida since Wilma in 2005. The ninth named storm, fourth hurricane, second major hurricane, and first Category 5 hurricane of the 2017 Atlantic hurricane season, Irma caused widespread and catastrophic damage throughout its long lifetime, particularly in parts of the northeastern Caribbean and the Florida Keys.
Irma developed on August 30, 2017 near the Cape Verde Islands, from a tropical wave that had moved off the west African coast three days prior. Under favorable conditions, Irma rapidly intensified shortly after formation, becoming a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir -- Simpson scale within a mere 24 hours. Irma became a Category 3 hurricane (and therefore a major hurricane) shortly afterward; however, the intensity fluctuated between Categories 2 and 3 for the next several days due to a series of eyewall replacement cycles. On September 4, Irma resumed intensifying, becoming a Category 5 hurricane by early the next day. On September 6, Irma reached its peak intensity with 185 mph (295 km / h) winds and a minimum pressure of 914 hPa (27.0 inHg), making it the second most intense tropical cyclone worldwide so far in 2017, behind only Hurricane Maria, and the strongest worldwide in 2017 in terms of wind speed. Another eyewall replacement cycle caused Irma to weaken back to a Category 4 hurricane, but the storm attained Category 5 status for a second time before making landfall in Cuba. After dropping to Category 3 intensity due to land interaction, the storm re-intensified to Category 4 status as it crossed warm waters between Cuba and Florida, before making landfall on Cudjoe Key with maximum sustained winds at 130 mph (215 km / h). Irma dropped back to Category 3 by the time it made a second Florida landfall on Marco Island. Irma weakened to a Category 2 hurricane later that day, the first time it weakened below major hurricane status in over a week, and eventually dissipated off the coast of New England on September 16.
The storm caused catastrophic damage in Barbuda, Saint Barthélemy, Saint Martin, Anguilla, and the Virgin Islands as a Category 5 hurricane. As of October 10, the hurricane has caused at least 134 deaths: one in Anguilla, one in Barbados, three in Barbuda, four in the British Virgin Islands, 10 in Cuba, 11 in the French West Indies, one in Haiti, three in Puerto Rico, four on the Dutch side of Sint Maarten, 90 in the contiguous United States, four in the U.S. Virgin Islands, and two others in unknown locations in the Caribbean.
The National Hurricane Center (NHC) began monitoring a tropical wave over western Africa on August 26. This wave moved off the coast of the continent late on August 27. Throughout the next two days, showers and thunderstorms associated with the wave became better organized and gradually coalesced into a low pressure area, as the system passed just south of and then through the Cape Verde Islands on August 29, with the NHC stating that any significant organization of the disturbance would result in the classification of a tropical depression. Further organization over the next 24 hours or so led to classification of the disturbance as Tropical Storm Irma, at 15: 00 UTC on August 30, based on scatterometer data and satellite estimates. With warm sea surface temperatures and low wind shear, strengthening was anticipated, with the only hindrance being slightly cooler waters and drier air.
The nascent storm began developing upper - level poleward outflow as an anticyclone became established over the system, with banding features becoming increasingly evident in satellite images. Early on August 31, shortly after the development of a central dense overcast (CDO) and an eye feature, Irma rapidly intensified beginning at 09: 00 UTC on August 31, with winds increasing from 70 mph (110 km / h) to 115 mph (185 km / h) in only 12 hours. On September 2, a ship passed 60 mi (90 km) to the west of the center of Irma, recording maximum winds of 45 mph (70 km / h), which indicated that the eye of Irma remained compact. A strengthening subtropical ridge over the central North Atlantic pushed Irma from a western to southwestern direction on September 2 and 3. The first aircraft reconnaissance mission departed from Barbados on the afternoon of September 3, discovering an eye 29 mi (47 km) in diameter and surface winds of 115 mph (185 km / h).
On September 4, after moving into more favorable conditions, Irma strengthened into a Category 4 hurricane. As it continued approaching the Leeward Islands, Irma underwent a second and more robust period of rapid intensification, becoming a Category 5 hurricane by 11: 45 UTC on the following day, with winds of 175 mph (280 km / h). As it began to take on annular characteristics, the extremely powerful hurricane continued to intensify, with maximum sustained winds peaking at 185 mph (295 km / h) near 00: 00 UTC on September 6 -- which would remain steady and unchanged for the next 37 hours. Six hours later, Irma made landfall along the northern coast of Barbuda near peak strength. Later that day, around 21: 00 UTC, the storm 's pressure bottomed out at 914 hPa (27.0 inHg) -- this was the lowest in the Atlantic since Dean in 2007. While maintaining its intensity, Irma made successive landfalls at approximately 12: 00 UTC on Sint Maarten, and at 17: 00 UTC on Ginger Island and Tortola, in the British Virgin Islands.
Shortly before 06: 00 UTC on September 8, Irma made landfall on the Bahamian island Little Inagua. About three hours later, an eyewall replacement cycle caused Irma to weaken to a Category 4 hurricane, but the storm regained Category 5 status 18 hours later before making landfall in Cuba. After weakening to a Category 3 due to land interaction with Cuba, Irma reintensified into a Category 4 hurricane while crossing over the Straits of Florida. At 13: 10 UTC on September 10, Irma made landfall in Cudjoe Key, Florida with maximum sustained winds of 130 mph (215 km / h) and a central pressure of 929 hPa (27.4 inHg). Later that day, at 19: 35 UTC, Irma made landfall in Marco Island with maximum sustained winds of 115 mph (185 km / h) and a central pressure of 940 hPa (28 inHg); the Marco Island Police Department recorded a wind gust of 130 mph (215 km / h). The Naples, FL Municipal Airport measured wind gusts up to 142 mph (229 km / h). About a half an hour later, Irma made landfall in Naples at the same intensity. Irma weakened into a Category 2 storm once inland, and below hurricane intensity at 12: 00 UTC on September 11. At 03: 00 UTC on September 12, Irma weakened to a tropical depression over the Georgia - Alabama border, and degenerated into a post-tropical low about 24 hours later north of Tupelo, Mississippi. Irma 's remnants continued moving towards the northwest over the next day, before turning northward and then accelerating to the northeast on September 14. Early on September 15, Irma 's remnants began moving off the New England coastline, becoming increasingly disorganized while continuing to weaken. Later on the same day, Irma 's remnants began interacting with a cold front stretching over Newfoundland. On September 16, Irma 's remnant circulation collapsed, and the majority of Irma 's remnant moisture was absorbed into Hurricane Jose later that day.
Data collected by NASA showed that ocean surface temperatures in the path of Irma were above 30 ° C (86 ° F) at the time, more than enough to sustain a Category 5 hurricane. Additionally, ocean surface temperatures in areas along the Strait of Florida extended to 32 ° C (90 ° F), which could support a maximum potential intensity of 200 miles per hour (320 km / h), if ideal conditions had been met.
Given that Irma 's forecast track was along much of the Caribbean island chain, hurricane warnings were issued for the northern Leeward Islands, Puerto Rico and parts of Hispaniola on September 5.
On September 4, Puerto Rico declared a state of emergency. By September 6, the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency had deployed response teams in Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands. Supplies, including food rations, medical supplies, and blankets, were pre-staged in strategic locations on the islands for distribution.
In Antigua and Barbuda, residents safeguarded their homes and cleaned up their properties in anticipation of strong winds. Emergency crews were put on standby at public shelters and hospitals by September 5 to assist with any evacuations. Expecting a direct hit, more than half of the residents on Barbuda took shelter, and relief supplies were preemptively mobilized.
In Guadeloupe, low - lying and cliff - edge homes were evacuated at the threat of flooding and erosion. Schools and public businesses closed on September 5 and 6. Hospitals stocked up on three days ' worth of supplies and checked the functionality of their generators. Of the island 's 32 municipalities, 22 activated their emergency plans; 1,500 people were urged to take shelter. The island sustained relatively minor damage and became the base for relief efforts on St. Martin (Collectivity of Saint Martin) and St. Barts (Saint Barthélemy).
Though the core of the hurricane was expected to remain north of the island, a yellow alert was issued for Martinique due to the likelihood of rough seas. The island dispatched relief supplies and military reinforcements to its neighboring islands of Guadeloupe, Saint Martin and Saint Barthélemy, which faced a greater risk of a direct impact. The National Emergency Management Organization on Saint Lucia urged small craft operators and swimmers to be mindful of forecasts for high surf. Small Craft Warnings and High Surf Advisories were hoisted for Dominica, where residents were urged to remain vigilant of the potential for high waves, landslides, and flooding.
In the Turks and Caicos, evacuation orders were issued for low - lying areas starting September 5. Schools were closed, government buildings were boarded up, and shelters were opened. Officials spread warnings to residents in English, Creole, and Spanish via social media, radio, SMS text, and WhatsApp.
On September 5, the Dominican Republic activated the International Charter on Space and Major Disasters, thus providing for humanitarian satellite coverage; the United States and Haiti followed suit two days later. According to officials, 11,200 people were evacuated from vulnerable areas prior to the storm 's arrival. 7,400 tourists were moved to Santo Domingo, away from beach resorts.
In Haiti, government officials and aid organizations struggled with early preparation and evacuation efforts. While some officials blamed reluctance and indifference on the part of the population, others "admitted they were not prepared for the onslaught and no mandatory evacuation orders were in place ahead of Irma 's approach, '' per The Guardian. Local officials contended that they had not received promised funds, supplies, or equipment from the national government. The United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti prepared its 1,000 peacekeepers and engineers to assist.
In The Bahamas, the government began preparations the week prior to the hurricane 's arrival, including securing national sports facilities to use as shelters. By September 7, the government had evacuated 1,609 people by air from the southern islands, including 365 from Bimini. Controlled cutting of the power supply to southern and central Bahamian islands was conducted in advance of the storm. Shelters were made available, though usage was low due to most evacuees staying with family on other islands. Of the 2,679 foreign tourists still in The Bahamas on September 7, about 1,200 were being housed at Atlantis Paradise Island, one of the most hurricane - ready structures in the country.
In Cuba, meteorologists did not initially predict a direct hit. Fuel conservation was enacted in Camagüey Province to ensure that enough would be available during post-storm power outages. The Civil Defense evacuated nearly one million people from low - lying areas, including thousands of Canadian and European tourists in the Jardines del Rey. Dolphins at a Cayo Guillermo resort were evacuated by helicopter.
On September 4, Florida Governor Rick Scott declared a state of emergency for Florida, and placed 100 members of the Florida National Guard on duty to assist in preparations. All 7,000 troops were ordered to be on duty by September 8. Officials advised residents to stock their hurricane kits. Governor Scott suspended tolls on all toll roads in Florida, including Florida 's Turnpike, starting at 5: 00 p.m. on September 5. All state offices in Florida were closed on September 8. All schools in the Florida Keys were ordered closed from September 6 until further notice. Mandatory evacuations for the islands were expected, with tourists to leave on September 6 and residents the following day; an estimated 25 % of residents stayed. Schools and colleges were closed in 44 of the state 's 67 counties, before Governor Scott ordered all state colleges, universities, schools, and offices to be closed from September 8 to 11.
On September 6, the mayor of Fort Lauderdale ordered mandatory evacuations for all residents east of US 1. The city of Tampa, on the west coast of Florida, declared a local state of emergency. The University of Central Florida canceled classes from September 7 to 17, and its Orlando campuses closed from September 8 to 17. Shelters were opened in the following counties: Broward, Flagler, Hardee, Hendry, Hillsborough, Manatee, Marion, Miami - Dade, Orange, Palm Beach, and Pasco, Pinellas and Brevard. Brevard has 3 types of shelters: pet friendly, general population, and special needs. While not every shelter opens for every emergency, there were four pet friendly shelters, 11 general population shelters, and five special needs shelters which were not advertised. A special needs shelter "provides more care and supervision than a general shelter to help meet your special needs during an evacuation. ''
At around 15: 00 UTC on September 7, a hurricane watch was issued for parts of South Florida, from the Jupiter Inlet to Bonita Beach, including the Florida Keys. At 02: 00 UTC, Friday September 8, a hurricane warning was issued for the Florida Keys, extending as far north as Miami. As of 00: 51 UTC September 8, the governor ordered all public schools and colleges statewide to be closed Friday and Monday. Most commercial airports, including Fort Lauderdale -- Hollywood International Airport, Miami International Airport, and Orlando International Airport, ceased commercial operations by late Saturday. The storm surge was predicted at 10 to 15 ft at Florida 's southern tip and above 9 feet along the west coast.
For the fifth time in its 45 - year history, the Walt Disney World Resort was completely closed due to the storm. Its theme parks, water parks, and Disney Springs were all closed by 9: 00 pm on September 9. Due to Hurricane Irma, the parks did not open on September 10 or 11. Other Orlando - area theme parks, including Universal Orlando Resort and SeaWorld Orlando, were also closed. Kennedy Space Center closed until September 13, and sustained the storm with minor damage. However the space center is currently without water utilities.
By the evening of September 8, hundreds of thousands of Floridians had evacuated, making it the largest evacuation in the state 's history. Evacuees caused significant traffic congestion on northbound Interstate 95, Interstate 75, and Florida 's Turnpike, exacerbated by the fact that the entire Florida peninsula was within the cone of uncertainty in the National Hurricane Center 's forecast path in the days before the storm, so evacuees from both coasts headed north, as evacuees would not be safer by fleeing to the opposite coast. Fuel was in short supply throughout peninsular Florida during the week before Irma 's arrival, especially along evacuation routes, leading to hours - long lines at fuel stations and even escorts of fuel trucks by the Florida Highway Patrol. Use of the left shoulder as a lane for moving traffic was allowed on northbound Interstate 75 from Wildwood to the Georgia state line (about 150 miles / 250 km) beginning September 8 and on eastbound Interstate 4 from Tampa to State Road 429 near Celebration for a few hours on September 9. It was the first time that the shoulder - use plan, which was introduced at the start of the 2017 hurricane season, was implemented by the state for hurricane evacuations. The shoulder - use plan was implemented in place of labor - and resource - intensive contraflow lane reversal, in which both sides of an interstate highway are used for one direction of traffic.
Officials from the Environmental Protection Agency, which had been criticized for its response to Hurricane Harvey, took special measures to inspect and secure hazardous materials, especially at Superfund sites.
Georgia Governor Nathan Deal declared a state of emergency initially for all six coastal counties on September 6; however, the state of emergency was expanded to cover 30 counties in southeast and east central Georgia, and Governor Deal ordered mandatory evacuations for all areas east of Interstate 95 on September 7. Contraflow lane reversal for Interstate 16 took effect on September 9 at 8: 00 a.m. from Savannah to Dublin, Georgia. On September 8, Governor Deal further expanded the state of emergency to cover 94 counties south of the Atlanta metropolitan area, with mandatory evacuations expanded to include the entirety of Chatham County as well as low - lying areas west of I - 95. In total, 540,000 people on the Georgia coast were ordered to leave. On September 10, the state of emergency for Georgia was extended to cover the entire state, while Atlanta was placed under its first - ever tropical storm warning.
All Georgia state parks were open for free to evacuees, as was the 800 - acre camping area at Atlanta Motor Speedway. Reversible HOT lanes on Interstate 75 in Georgia through south metro Atlanta were open 24 hours northbound with no tolls.
North Carolina Governor Roy Cooper declared a state of emergency on September 6, with South Carolina Governor Henry McMaster following suit the same day. Governor of Virginia Terry McAuliffe declared a state of emergency on September 8 in order to protect Virginia residents and to mobilize resources in support of neighboring states.
Officials in New Orleans stated that there would not be much time for preparations if Irma failed to make the projected northward turn, but that South Texas or Florida would not be a good evacuation destination. Talladega Superspeedway near Talladega, Alabama, opened their campgrounds to evacuees free of charge.
On September 10, 2017 Tennessee Governor Bill Haslam issued an executive order allowing medical professionals in other states to practice in Tennessee to aid Hurricane Irma evacuees. This order also allowed pharmacies to give out 14 - day supplies of medicine, and gave women and children from outside the state the ability to participate in the Tennessee Department of Health programs.
In professional sports, the Miami Dolphins -- Tampa Bay Buccaneers game scheduled for September 10 at Hard Rock Stadium in Miami was postponed to November 19 due to the storm 's threat. The Tampa Bay Rays and New York Yankees had their September 11 -- 13 series moved from Tropicana Field in St. Petersburg to Citi Field, in Queens. Minor League Baseball 's Florida State League, Carolina League, and Southern League called off their championship finals and as a result, named their division series winners league co-champions. Miami FC played a 3 -- 3 tie with New York Cosmos on September 7 at home. Their fixture at San Francisco Deltas on September 10 was cancelled so the players and staff could prepare for the storm with their families. The Orlando Pride of the National Women 's Soccer League rescheduled their September 9 match to September 7. Orlando City SC of Major League Soccer did not have any scheduled home games in September, but was unable to return to training in Orlando due to Hurricane Irma.
In college football, the UCF Knights - Memphis Tigers game set to take place at 20: 00 EDT on September 9 was moved to September 30, replacing UCF 's game against Maine and Memphis game against Georgia State, after originally being moved up by 25.5 hours. UCF also cancelled their game against Georgia Tech originally scheduled for September 16, while UCF 's stadium hosted the National Guard. The USF Bulls - Connecticut Huskies football game was also cancelled. The Miami Hurricanes -- Arkansas State Redwolves game scheduled for September 9 at Centennial Bank Stadium in Arkansas was canceled due to travel concerns for the University of Miami. The Florida Gators - Northern Colorado Bears match in Gainesville, originally scheduled for September 9 was cancelled. The Florida State Seminoles contest against the Louisiana -- Monroe Warhawks was canceled on September 8. The Seminoles ' rivalry game with the Hurricanes in Tallahassee, originally scheduled for the following Saturday, September 16, was postponed three weeks later to October 7. The FIU Panthers game against the Alcorn State Braves was moved up a day and relocated to Legion Field in Birmingham, Alabama. The Georgia Southern Eagles game against the New Hampshire Wildcats on September 9 was also moved to Legion Field for that day.
As of September 5, Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) funding was running dangerously low due to its response to Hurricane Harvey in Texas the previous week, prompting the Trump administration to request an immediate $8 billion in additional funding as Irma approached Florida. Given the rate that current funds are being consumed and the catastrophic damage, the United States Senate almost doubled the requested amount to $15.3 billion, with the understanding that this would only be about 10 % of what will be required for responding to Harvey.
Hurricane Irma 's path was such that its impact was both far - reaching and devastating, with confirmed landfalls in Antigua and Barbuda, Saint Martin, Anguilla, Turks and Caicos, The Bahamas, Cuba, and the United States. Furthermore, the size of the storm system meant that destruction was prevalent even in territories well removed from landfall occurrences.
The eyewall of the hurricane moved over Barbuda near its record peak intensity during the night of September 5 -- 6; a local anemometer reportedly measured an unofficial gust of 155 mph (250 km / h) before being blown away. Though some reports of structural damage such as blown off roofs surfaced shortly after, the exact state of the island remained unclear for hours after Irma 's passage, as downed phone lines ceased all communication with nearby islands. Later that afternoon, Prime Minister Gaston Browne surveyed the territory by helicopter, revealing an effectively uninhabitable island. Irma damaged or destroyed 95 % of the structures on Barbuda, including its hospital, schools and both of its hotels; it completely flattened some residential blocks while submerging others. The destruction rendered the island 's sole airport and much of its infrastructure inoperative -- including water and telecommunication services -- which further hampered relief efforts. Preliminary assessments on Barbuda suggest property damage of at least $150 million. A total of three storm - related deaths have been reported on the island.
In addition to the catastrophic impact on Barbuda 's human residents, concern turned to the storm 's effects on the island 's wildlife. The island 's only endemic bird, the near - threatened Barbuda warbler, numbered less than 2,000 individuals prior to the hurricane. It is unknown if the warbler survived the hurricane or its aftermath. Barbuda 's Codrington Lagoon, home to the largest colony of magnificent frigatebirds in the Caribbean, with an estimated 2,500 nesting pairs, was also inundated by the storm surge.
Remaining just outside of Irma 's strongest windfield, Antigua sustained minimal damage in the form of leveled roofs and fences, downed power poles and lines, and uprooted trees. Some street flooding also took place in low - lying areas. Three people were treated for minor storm - related injuries. Forensic disaster analysts from the Center for Disaster Management and Risk Reduction Technology (CEDIM), a Germany - based risk management agency, estimate that economic losses for Antigua and Barbuda will exceed $120 million.
On the morning of September 6, Irma 's center crossed the island of Saint Martin while the storm was near peak intensity, sweeping away entire structures, submerging roads and cars, and triggering an island - wide blackout. Irma 's extreme winds ripped trees out of the ground and sent vehicles and debris from damaged structures scattered across the territory. On the French side of Saint - Martin, entire marinas around Marigot were left in ruins, littered with the stranded remnants of boats that had smashed into each other. A hotel caught on fire, but dangerous conditions and impassable roads prevented firefighters from putting out the blaze. Another hotel lost nearly all of its ground floor. Media images depicted devastated room interiors with furniture hurled around after the winds had shattered their windows. Irma killed four people on the French side of the island and injured 50 others, one of whom was in critical condition. As many as 95 % of the buildings there were damaged to some degree; 60 % of those were totally uninhabitable. Estimates from CEDIM indicate a minimum of $950 million worth of economic losses.
A similar situation unfolded in Sint Maarten, Saint Martin 's Dutch half, as intense winds ripped through buildings and lifted vehicles aloft "as if they were matches ''. The hurricane wreaked havoc on Princess Juliana International Airport, with "huge chunks of the building (strewn) across the runway and a jet bridge snapped in half. '' It demolished or severely damaged about 70 % of Sint Maarten 's houses, forcing thousands of residents into public shelters. There were two deaths and 23 injuries, 11 of which were serious, in the Dutch territory. Irma is considered the worst natural disaster to hit Sint Maarten; the extent of its damage far exceeded that of any previous hurricane. Prime Minister William Marlin estimates that at least € 1 billion ($1.2 billion) will be necessary to restore the destruction, while disaster analysts from CEDIM predict losses will exceed $1.5 billion. By September 9, 2017, the death count rose to 4 with one death due to natural causes.
Irma left widespread destruction and disastrous flooding along its path over the French island of Saint Barthélemy, southeast of Saint Martin. Describing the extent of the destruction, one local compared it to "a bomb that burned all vegetation, '' while another said that it were as if the hurricane had effectively "erased the island from the map ''. Violent seas swept away entire coastal establishments, with one hotel being stripped of all but its foundation. Streets in the capital of Gustavia were turned into rushing rivers, which carried away vehicles and pieces of furniture. The island 's fire station was inundated with up to 6.4 ft (2.0 m) of flood waters. With scores of homes and much of the infrastructure destroyed, the majority of the island 's population was left stranded and without water, electricity or phone service. The associated economic losses could exceed $480 million according to CEDIM 's analysts.
Preliminary assessments from the French government indicate that Hurricane Irma caused a combined € 1.2 billion ($1.44 billion) in insured losses across the French territories of Saint - Martin and Saint Barts. This total covered private property such as homes, vehicles and businesses (including lost revenue); the extent of the damage to infrastructural and public facilities remains undetermined. Nonetheless, this made Irma one of the costliest natural disasters to hit the French Republic in 35 years.
The British Overseas Territory of Anguilla had the eye of the storm pass over it on September 6. Many homes and schools were destroyed, and the island 's only hospital was badly damaged. The devastation was particularly severe in East End, where the winds uprooted scores of trees and power poles and demolished a number of houses. In The Valley, the island 's capital, the hurricane blew out the windows of government buildings. Rough seas inflicted heavy damage upon several bays and harbors, and a seaside restaurant was completely eradicated. About 90 % of roads were left impassable. The island 's air traffic control tower was damaged, exacerbating the already poor communication with the island. One death was reported on the island. According to CEDIM, Anguilla 's economy could suffer at least $190 million in losses from the hurricane.
Large swells ahead of Irma washed ashore debris and sea life in Castries, Saint Lucia, blocking some roads. Seaside roads were inundated with water. One surfer was killed amid rough surf in Barbados after hitting a reef and breaking his neck. Trees were also destroyed. The hurricane 's effects, such as violent seas and rattling trees, were intense enough to be detected by seismographs in Guadeloupe. Several houses were damaged. Around 8,000 households and a water supply network on that island lost power during the storm, leaving several communes in the dark without running water. Overall damage was limited to external parts of houses and trees that were blown onto roads and three unmanned ships wrecked by rough seas.
Saint Kitts and Nevis endured similar conditions to other islands. Blustery rainstorms triggered scattered power outages and disabled the island 's water system, but per the International Red Cross, the islands were spared the level of destruction seen elsewhere. Still, Prime Minister Timothy Harris stated that property and infrastructure had sustained "significant damage. '' The Dutch territories of Saba and Sint Eustatius were also struck by the hurricane 's winds, resulting in infrastructural damage, water shortages and telecommunication outages. Several houses were left uninhabitable. On Saba, the hurricane also defoliated trees and injured a few people. CEDIM 's analysts expect economic losses of $20 -- 65 million for the two islands.
Damage in the British Virgin Islands was extensive. Numerous buildings and roads were destroyed on the island of Tortola, which bore the brunt of the hurricane 's core. Four people were confirmed dead. Along Cane Garden Bay, the storm surge submerged several seaside bars and a gas station. Satellite images revealed many of the island 's residential zones had been left in ruins. The hurricane passed over Necker Island, also causing severe damage and destroying the mansion of Richard Branson.
Most homes and businesses were destroyed on the island of Jost Van Dyke, the smallest of the B.V.I. 's four main islands. The Governor, Gus Jaspert, who had only been sworn into office 13 days previously, declared a state of emergency - the first time this has ever happened in the Territory. After the storm authorities estimated that it would take 6 months to restore public electricity to the entire country.
Irma 's effects in the U.S. Virgin Islands were most profound on Saint Thomas, where at least 12 inches (305 mm) of rain fell, and on Saint John. Saint Thomas island suffered widespread structural damage, including to its police station and airport. Patients from the fourth and third floors of Charlotte Amalie 's hospital had to be relocated to lower floors due to flooding from roof leaks. Three deaths were attributed to Irma on the island. On nearby Saint Croix, there were communication issues and some damage to the infrastructure. Saint John lost access to ferry and cargo services, along with access to the local airport. Due to its normal reliance on electricity from Saint Thomas, the island was left without power.
Waves in Puerto Rico reached 30 feet (9.1 m) in height; a 111 miles (179 km) per hour gust was measured on Culebra. Two people died due to rainstorms ahead of the hurricane: one man died in Orocovis after falling off his ladder while repairing his roof; another man on the coast in Capitanejo died after being struck by lightning. Three nearby fishermen were burned by the same lightning strike, but survived. Two other people died during the hurricane: a woman died while being evacuated from her house in a wheelchair and fell from the same hitting her head; another person died in a car accident in Canóvanas. In rural Loíza, 79 homes were destroyed. More than a million residents lost power due to damages caused by the storm, according to former Puerto Rican Governor Alejandro García Padilla. Governor Ricardo Rosselló declared the islands of Culebra and Vieques to be disaster areas.
Although spared a direct hit, both the Dominican Republic and Haiti were affected by high winds and heavy rains. A bridge over the Dajabón River connecting the two countries was broken.
In the Dominican Republic, the fishing community of Nagua sustained damage from waves that destroyed homes. 55,000 soldiers were deployed to affected areas to help with the clean - up efforts. By the evening of September 7, the government had counted 2,721 damaged homes.
In Haiti, flooding one meter deep sat in residential neighborhoods in places like Cap - Haïtien, Ouanaminthe, and Gonaives. Mudslides, destroyed homes, flooded crops, and infrastructure damage were reported in the northern part of the country. The total expanse of the flooding stretched from Môle - Saint - Nicolas in the west to the eastern border with the Dominican Republic.
On the evening of September 7, at 7: 30 pm AST (23: 30 UTC), Hurricane Irma reached the Turks and Caicos Islands. While the eye passed just south of the main islands, crossing over South Caicos and the Ambergris Cays, the most powerful winds on the northern side of the eye swept all of the islands for more than two hours. Communications infrastructure was destroyed.
On September 8, Minister of Infrastructure Goldray Ewing confirmed that damage to Providenciales was extensive, with the northwestern neighborhood of Blue Hill being "gone. '' He estimated that damage on Providenciales alone would total US $500 million. The hospital in the capital, Cockburn Town, was damaged, but no deaths or injuries have been reported as of yet. On South Caicos, 75 % of roofs were lost.
In the Bahamas, the eye of the storm passed over Duncan Town, the major settlement of the Ragged Islands chain, on September 8. It also passed "almost directly over '' Inagua and South Acklins, according to the Bahamas Department of Meteorology.
Damages were largely confined to the southern islands starting the morning of September 8. On Mayaguana and Great Inagua, downed power lines knocked out communications. On Great Inagua, 70 % of homes sustained roof damage, and the island 's school lost its roof entirely. The Morton Salt Company 's signature production facility, one of the major employers in the country, experienced millions of dollars in damages. The Acklins settlement of Salina Point was cut off from the rest of the island by flooding, while Crooked Island had widespread roof damage. In the northern Bahamas, the worst property damage came on September 10 as the outer bands of the system produced tornadic activity on Grand Bahama and Bimini.
Late on September 8, Irma reintensified into a Category 5 hurricane and made landfall on the Camagüey Archipelago off the northern coast of Cuba, with maximum sustained winds of 160 mph (260 km / h).
The weather station at Esmeralda, Camagüey was damaged, with the wind gauge destroyed. According to The New York Times, northern Cuba experienced "waves more than 16 feet high, and damage to hospitals, factories and warehouses. ''
By late morning on September 9, Irma had weakened to Category 3 due to the Cuban topography but continued to cause significant damage. The tourist areas of Cayo Coco, Cayo Guillermo and Cayo Santa María and the nearby town of Caibarién received the brunt of the storm, with waves rolling through town and the characteristic one - story homes completely flooded. Flooding worsened as the hurricane moved west, pushing the storm surge along to the regions around Havana. By the afternoon, limited flooding was occurring in Havana, including around the Malecón. Widespread destruction of housing was reported in the provinces of Ciego de Ávila and Villa Clara. In the city of Santa Clara, 39 buildings collapsed. Overall, Irma is estimated to have caused at least $2.2 billion (2017 USD) in damage and at least 10 deaths across the country.
Hurricane Irma directly impacted a major colony of American flamingos on Cuba 's northern Cayo Coco. Early reports from Diario de Cuba indicated that several hundred flamingos had been killed by the storm, though other estimates ranged as high as several thousand birds.
Preliminary estimates place the amount of damage that Hurricane Irma caused in the US at a minimum of $50 billion. Hurricane Irma affected multiple states in the South, notably Florida. Except for the Florida Keys, the total damage it caused was not as great as government officials and forecasters had warned. The Florida Keys suffered the worst of the damage in the US. After surveying the aftermath of Irma, Florida governor Rick Scott said "I thought we would see more damage '' (on the mainland) but said "he witnessed devastation in the Keys ''. Hurricane Irma weakened after making landfall in Cuba, but strengthened back into a Category 4 prior to hitting the Keys. President Donald Trump commented on Twitter that the devastation in some places was "far greater than anyone thought ''.
At least 90 people died throughout the United States in relation to Hurricane Irma: 82 in Florida, 5 in South Carolina, and 3 in Georgia.
Throughout Florida, at least 82 people died in storm - related incidents. The majority of deaths occurred from drowning, trauma, and carbon monoxide poisoning. At least 12 people died throughout the Florida Keys. One death occurred during preparations when a man fell off a ladder, while installing hurricane shutters in Davie. Another death occurred in a traffic accident in tropical storm force winds in Monroe County. A man in Coconut Grove died while riding out the storm on his houseboat. Three deaths occurred in Polk County. In the hurricane 's aftermath, lack of power and possible criminal negligence led to 14 deaths at The Rehabilitation Center at Hollywood Hills, a Hollywood nursing home. The patients died from sweltering heat worsened by the lack of air conditioning.
After crossing the Straits of Florida and being upgraded to a Category 4 hurricane, initial landfall took place at Cudjoe Key at 9: 10 am. EDT on September 10, where an estimated 10 ft (3 m) storm surge occurred during the afternoon. In the Keys, the hurricane caused major damage to buildings, trailer parks, boats, roads, the electricity supply, mobile phone coverage, internet access, sanitation, the water supply and the fuel supply. Key West, Sugarloaf Key, Summerland Key, Ramrod Key, Little Torch Key, Big Pine Key and Marathon were also flooded by storm surge, and tornadoes were reported at Sugarloaf Key.
A second landfall was made, as a Category 3 hurricane, at Marco Island at 3: 35 pm. EDT the same day. A 7 ft (2.1 m) storm surge occurred in Naples, which Irma passed over as a Category 2 hurricane after being downgraded at 5 pm. EDT. Part of Tampa Bay (at Hillsborough Bay) was drained in a reverse storm surge caused by strong offshore winds, prior to the arrival of the eye of the hurricane. Sarasota Bay was also drained, resulting in the stranding of two manatees which were then rescued. The hurricane was downgraded to Category 1, prior to reaching Tampa.
Away from the path of the eye, a wind gust of 109 mph (175 km / h) was recorded in Pembroke Pines. In Miami, storm surge inundated Brickell Avenue with waist - deep water, and two high - rise tower cranes collapsed. A further construction crane collapsed in Fort Lauderdale. There were sporadic reports of looting and burglaries at several Miami Metro area businesses with the theft of non-essential items such as sports apparel and athletic shoes during the height of the storm. In Jacksonville, flooding surpassed the record set by Hurricane Dora.
At 1: 00 pm. EDT, on September 10, almost 730,000 customers were without power in Miami - Dade County alone, with almost 500,000 without power in Broward County, over 225,000 out in Palm Beach County, and in total approximately 1,572,000 customers were without power across the state. As of 6: 41 pm. EDT on September 10 over 2.6 million homes in Florida were without power. Air traffic was reduced; at one point on September 10, there were no airliners over Florida.
In the days after the hurricane, due to the heavy rainfall, numerous rivers had flooded their surrounding land, including residential areas. Public health risks, such as diarrheal infections and mosquito - borne illnesses, remain from the flooding that resulted in the aftermath of the hurricane. A large concern from flooding is contamination because people become exposed to dirty floodwaters and the potential for contaminated water to get into the local water supply is significant. One example of an illness that can get into the water supply is leptospirosis, which is caused by rat urine being in the floodwaters. If people are exposed to leptospirosis and do not get treatment, it can cause kidney damage, meningitis, and liver failure. Noroviruses and other infections are also a risk.
Three deaths were reported in Georgia due to falling trees and debris, along with widespread wind damage and power outages throughout the state primarily due to fallen trees. On Tybee Island, the storm surge caused extensive flooding.
In Charleston, South Carolina, the third highest storm surge on record was recorded, reaching a height of approximately 10 ft (3 m). By of September 12, almost 100,000 had lost power in Upstate South Carolina. Five people died in storm - related incidents across South Carolina, all from indirect incidents.
Light damage occurred in other areas, including Tennessee. About 75,000 customers in North Carolina lost power due to Irma.
In the immediate aftermath of Hurricane Irma 's path through the West Indies and Caribbean, the devastation to roads, harbors and airports significantly impeded the transportation and distribution of relief supplies. Foreign countries moved to provide much of the initial aid. The British, Dutch, French, and United States governments sent warships and planes with supplies and manpower to the region. International leaders, including Dutch King Willem - Alexander and French President Emmanuel Macron, quickly moved to visit affected territories.
Some of the affected countries and territories also offered assistance to each other. Cuba, which sustained extensive damage from the storm, sent 750 health workers to Antigua and Barbuda, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, The Bahamas, Dominica, and Haiti. Government officials and members of the public in Puerto Rico delivered assistance and evacuated people stranded on other islands. The U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services granted special 30 - day humanitarian visas for British Virgin Islanders to stay in Puerto Rico. Hundreds of people stranded on Saint Martin were flown to the Dominican Republic on humanitarian grounds.
In response to Hurricane Jose 's approach, the Government of Antigua and Barbuda issued a mandatory evacuation on September 9 for any remaining residents on Barbuda. A Miami cargo plane landed on Antigua later that day, carrying over 60 tons (120,000 lbs) of relief supplies for the displaced storm victims -- including bottled water, canned food and power generators.
RFA Mounts Bay stationed itself near Anguilla and provided support and relief work to the island with its helicopters and 40 marines and army engineers. The ship delivered 6 tonnes of emergency aid to Anguilla and army engineers repaired a fuel leak at Anguilla 's main petrol dump, restored power to the island 's hospital and provided shelters for those left homeless by the hurricane. The ship arrived in the British Virgin Islands on September 8, 2017 to provide emergency relief to the islands, including providing shelters, food and water. HMS Ocean was diverted from the Mediterranean to provide relief from Gibraltar to the affected British Overseas Territories of Anguilla, British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos on September 7, 2017, and aid is also being supplied by the Department for International Development from their disaster response centre at Kemble Airfield. As part of a £ 32 million operation named Operation Ruman, nearly 500 UK military personnel with emergency relief were dispatched from RAF Brize Norton. This included the first deployment of No. 38 Expeditionary Air Wing with 3 RAF aircraft; 2 Airbus A400M Atlas and 1 C130J hercules to support relief efforts.
The British government also drafted 2 members of the UK police calibre into the region on September 10, 2017 and 53 police officers are to be drafted from RAF Brize Norton to the affected British Overseas Territories on September 15, 2017 to help maintain order. UK politicians, including the chairs of the foreign affairs and development select committees, criticized both the government 's preparations for the storm and its response as inadequate.
By September 12, 2017, the Department for International Development had delivered more than 40 tonnes of aid into the region, including into Turks and Caicos, and 1,000 UK military troops were deployed in the region as part of relief efforts. The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Theresa May, pledged an additional £ 25 million worth of funding as part of relief efforts in the region on September 13, 2017 and the Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, Boris Johnson, said that a further 250 UK military personnel would be deployed into the area within the next few days. Anguilla 's Chief Minister, Victor Banks, praised the British government 's response to the storm and said that Boris Johnson 's visit to the island "sends a very positive signal to Anguillans that the British are serious about their response to this very severe hurricane '', but went on to say that the current financial commitment from the UK was not substantial enough.
By September 15, 2017, the United Kingdom had over 70 military personnel and 4 police officers in Anguilla and had delivered 15 tonnes of aid to the island. In the British Virgin Islands, Royal Marines had cleared the airfield so that it was operational for the delivery of aid into the islands, with more than 200 British military personnel and 54 UK police officers on the ground and 8 tonnes of aid delivered to the islands. 120 British military personnel were on the ground in Turks and Caicos and over 150 shelter kits and 720 litres of water were delivered to the islands on September 15.
By the afternoon of September 9, Bahamas Power and Light Company had dispatched crews across the archipelago to repair infrastructure damage. The southernmost islands, which were most severely affected by Irma 's eye, remained largely inaccessible for days. Assessments showed that 15 % of the national telecommunications network had been affected, with at least one tower destroyed. Bahamasair resumed a limited domestic schedule on September 10, with international flights still cancelled due to existing and anticipated destruction at other destinations.
The worst devastation occurred on Ragged Island, over which Irma 's eye had directly passed. After days of the National Emergency Management Agency not being able to physically reach the island, officials were finally able to inspect it; they promptly declared it uninhabitable. Prime Minister Hubert Minnis said that it was the worst disaster area he or his officials had ever seen, and that all remaining residents would need to leave, potentially permanently. Business leaders and other officials called for a new long - term development model to shift the population away from such sparsely - settled islands.
On Grand Bahama and Bimini, where tornadoes associated with Irma touched down on September 10, more than 100 people were left displaced. Infrastructure damage included docks, parks, and the power system.
Aside from tangible asset losses, Irma brought significant economic damages. International freight shipping was projected to be offline for a week, and costs for rebuilding supplies were inflated due to demand in the U.S.
Swollen rivers contributed to worsening flooding in the days after the storm system left, resulting in additional evacuations. Officials resorted to using inflatable rafts to access affected areas. The national electrical infrastructure was said to be extensively damaged.
In the Dominican Republic, flooding worsened following Irma 's departure, leading the number of displaced persons to increase to more than 24,000 by September 8. President Danilo Medina ordered further evacuations due to at - risk dams, while the government banned swimming in rivers and ordered boats kept in port. More than 422,000 people were left without water due to 28 aqueducts being damaged.
In Haiti, officials stated that losses were greater than they could have been since people largely did not heed early preparation and evacuation warnings. At least 5,000 homes were flooded. One man died trying to cross a flooded river; another went missing and 17 were injured. The trash - and waste - contaminated floodwaters in places like Cap - Haïtien, Ouanaminthe, and Gonaives led to fears of cholera outbreaks. Flooding continued to worsen days after the storm, as runoff from the mountains swelled rivers in low - lying farming communities. United Nations peacekeepers from Brazil were able to gain access to the flooded northwest region to provide urgent aid, but non-governmental organizations and Haitian economists warned that the estimated 30,000 victims would need longer - term assistance as well. Prime Minister Jack Guy Lafontant appointed a government commission to address Irma 's effects, with Action Against Hunger in charge of humanitarian coordination.
By September 9, more than one million Puerto Ricans were still without power, tens of thousands were without water, and several thousand were still in shelters. Hospitals were operating on generator power. The government was struggling to establish contact with the islands of Culebra and Vieques.
By September 10, the main island had recovered enough to serve as a refuge for people stranded on other islands, including 1,200 tourists from Saint Martin and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Airlifts had brought more than 50 patients to Puerto Rico.
Damage to Sint Maarten 's harbour and to Princess Juliana International Airport left the Dutch part of Saint Martin unreachable, although the smaller Grand Case - Espérance Airport on the French side could be reopened by September 7 for supply aid by helicopter and airplane. The French armed forces based in Guadeloupe and French Guyana flew equipment and troops on board a CASA / IPTN CN - 235.
The following day, the Dutch military was able to airlift dialysis patients off the island while also dropping leaflets to warn islanders about the rapidly approaching Hurricane Jose. Although the airport was closed, 435 students and faculty of the American University of the Caribbean were evacuated by the U.S. military. On September 10, Dutch King Willem - Alexander departed for the region, with intentions to visit Sint Maarten and other affected Dutch territories and commonwealth members.
French President Emmanuel Macron followed this announcement by stating his intentions to visit the French part of the island on September 12 in order to bring aid supplies. In response to criticism of the French handling of the disaster, 1,000 troops, police, and other emergency workers were sent to Saint Martin and Saint Barthélemy.
On both sides of Saint Martin, desperate conditions combined with food and water shortages in Irma 's aftermath led to reports of violence, scavenging, and theft. In response, the French government increased its troop deployment to 2,200 and the Dutch government sent more than 600 military and police personnel.
The day after the hurricane hit Saint Barthelemy the French armed forces based in Guadeloupe and French Guyana flew equipment and troops into the reopened Grand Case - Espérance Airport. On September 7 and 9, equipment and personnel were flown from France to Guadeloupe and Martinique.
On September 11, Florida Governor Rick Scott conducted an aerial tour to survey the damage to the Keys. The Overseas Highway remained closed while authorities assessed the integrity of the 42 bridges along the route. Residents returning to the Keys were faced with a police roadblock, to the south of Florida City. USS Iwo Jima, USS New York and aircraft carrier USS Abraham Lincoln were sent to the Keys area to aid with the recovery.
On the morning of September 12, some residents were allowed to return into the Keys as far as Islamorada. Although road damage blocked entry any further than Islamorada, bridges had been inspected and found safe to Sugarloaf Key. FEMA 's initial estimate indicated that 25 % of buildings in the Keys were destroyed, 65 % were significantly damaged, and 90 % of houses sustained "some damage ''. By the evening, the Overseas Highway had been repaired and the bridges inspected as safe for first responders to travel to Key West. On September 16, residents were free to return to Marathon. Residents were allowed to return to Key West the following day, although the Keys remained closed to tourists and a checkpoint remained in place in Florida City.
By September 12, almost 4.4 million homes and businesses in Florida were without power, according to state officials. Due mainly to the widespread loss of power, cell phone service was also significantly impacted after battery backup power for cell phone towers ran out and backup generators ran out of fuel. In an impact report by the FCC, as of 11 AM EDT on September 12, 89 of 108 (82 %) cell phone towers were non-functioning in Monroe County (Florida Keys), 154 of 212 (73 %) were non-functioning in Collier County (Naples), 36 of 46 (78 %) were non-functioning in Hendry County, and an additional six counties had 41 - 60 % of cell phone towers not functioning, including Lee County (Ft. Myers) and Miami - Dade County.
From September 12, NOAA released map - format aerial reconnaissance image data along the length of the Keys, and the coast around Naples and Fort Myers.
Following Irma 's passage, a 15 ft (4.6 m) hand - carved wooden canoe was discovered on the banks of the Indian River and could be several hundred years old. The state has removed the canoe for examination and safe keeping.
Due to Irma 's and Hurricane Harvey 's impact in Florida and Texas, the U.S. employment declined in September for the first time since September 2010. The leisure and hospitality industries were especially hard hit, losing 111,000 jobs in the month of September.
In the U.S. Virgin Islands, residents and tourists alike were described as being in a state of traumatic shock. By September 7, the USS Wasp amphibious assault ship had arrived in the U.S. Virgin Islands to provide supplies, damage assessment, and evacuation assistance. Four additional warships, some of which had already been on their way to Texas to assist with Hurricane Harvey relief, were redirected to the region. The National Guard was delayed in reaching Saint John due to the number of overturned boats left in the harbor.
At a September 10 news conference, Governor Kenneth Mapp described Irma as a "horrific disaster '' for which "(t) here will be no restorations or solutions in days or weeks. '' The Federal Emergency Management Agency airlifted in goods for residents, who were subjected to a curfew. Norwegian Cruise Lines and Royal Caribbean Cruise Line agreed to transport tourists to Florida, contingent upon port availability following the state 's own experience with Irma.
On Saint John, which was described by The Washington Post as "perhaps the site of Irma 's worst devastation on American soil, '' it took six days for an active - theater disaster zone to be established, leading to criticism of the U.S. government response. The National Guard was brought in to maintain order, while the Coast Guard brought evacuees to cruise ships bound for San Juan and Miami.
When Irma reached Category 5 intensity with winds of 175 mph (280 km / h) at 11: 45 UTC on September 5 at 57.7 ° W, it became the easternmost Atlantic hurricane of this strength on record, surpassing Hurricane David of 1979. By 00: 15 UTC on September 6, Irma reached peak intensity with 185 mph (295 km / h) winds and a minimum pressure of 914 mbar (914 hPa; 27.0 inHg). This ties it as the second - strongest Atlantic hurricane by wind speed, surpassed only by Allen of 1980 which reached wind speeds of 190 mph (305 km / h). Irma sustained these 185 mph (295 km / h) winds for 37 hours, becoming the only tropical cyclone worldwide to have had winds that speed for that long, breaking the previous record of 24 hours set by Typhoon Haiyan of 2013. Only four other Atlantic hurricanes have been recorded with wind speeds of 185 mph (295 km / h) or higher: Wilma of 2005, the 1935 Labor Day hurricane, Hurricane Allen of 1980, and Hurricane Gilbert of 1988. Upon reaching peak intensity, Irma also became the strongest hurricane ever recorded in the Atlantic basin outside the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico, as well as the strongest Atlantic hurricane since Wilma in terms of maximum sustained winds, and the most intense in terms of pressure since Dean in 2007. In addition, Irma achieved one of the longest durations of Category 5 strength winds, and the third - highest accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) index for a tropical cyclone in the Atlantic basin, with a value of 66.6 units. Only the 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane and Hurricane Ivan in 2004 achieved higher values.
On September 6, Irma made landfall on the islands of Barbuda, Saint Martin, Ginger Island, and Tortola at peak strength. This made Irma the third - strongest tropical cyclone to make landfall globally -- in terms of sustained winds -- along with the 1935 Labor Day hurricane and Typhoon Joan of 1959, trailing only typhoons Haiyan of 2013 and Meranti of 2016, which bore winds of 195 mph (315 km / h) at landfall. Irma is tied with the 1935 Labor Day hurricane as the strongest landfalling cyclone on record in the Atlantic basin, and is the first hurricane to make landfall anywhere in the Atlantic at Category 5 status since Felix in 2007. Irma is the first recorded Category 5 hurricane to affect the northern Leeward Islands, and was one of the worst storms to hit the region on record, along with Hurricane Donna in 1960 and Hurricane Luis in 1995. In addition, Irma was only the second hurricane on record to make landfall in Cuba at Category 5 intensity, with the other being a hurricane in 1924.
Irma made landfall in the Florida Keys with winds of 130 mph (215 km / h) and a pressure of 929 mbar (hPa; 27.43 inHg), making it the strongest hurricane to strike Florida in terms of windspeed since Charley in 2004, and the most intense to strike the state in terms of barometric pressure since Andrew in 1992. In the span of two weeks, two Category 4 hurricanes -- Harvey and Irma -- struck the continental United States, the first time on record two Atlantic tropical cyclones of such strength made landfall on the country in the same hurricane season. This also marked only the third occurrence of two consecutive Atlantic storms making landfall in the United States as major hurricanes. The other two instances were the Great Charleston / Cheniere Caminada hurricanes in 1893 and Hurricanes Ivan / Jeanne in 2004.
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when did the first land plants originate and what name was given to the oldest plant fossil | Timeline of plant evolution - wikipedia
This article attempts to place key plant innovations in a geological context. It concerns itself only with novel adaptations and events that had a major ecological significance, not those that are of solely anthropological interest. The timeline displays a graphical representation of the adaptations; the text attempts to explain the nature and robustness of the evidence.
Plant evolution is an aspect of the study of biological evolution, involving predominantly evolution of plants suited to live on land, greening of various land masses by the filling of their niches with land plants, and diversification of groups of land plants.
In the strictest sense, the name plant refers to those land plants that form the clade Embryophyta, comprising the bryophytes and vascular plants. However, the clade Viridiplantae or green plants includes some other groups of photosynthetic eukaryotes, including red and green algae that have evolutionary significance to modern plants and are included in the plant kingdom, Plantae.
Chloroplasts in plants evolved from an endosymbiotic relationship between a cyanobacterium, a photosynthesising prokaryote and a non-photosynthetic eukaryotic organism, producing a lineage of photosynthesizing eukaryotic organisms in marine and freshwater environments. These earliest photosynthesizing single - celled autotrophs evolved into multicellular organisms such as the Charophyta, a group of freshwater green algae.
Scientists start the search for fossil evidence of plants with indirect evidence of oxygen - producing photosynthesis in the geological record, primary evidence for which comes from around 3000 Ma, in chemical and isotopic signatures in rocks and fossil evidence of colonies of cyanobacteria, photosynthesizing prokaryotic organisms. Cyanobacteria use water as a reducing agent, producing atmospheric oxygen as a byproduct, and they thereby profoundly changed the early reducing atmosphere of the earth to one in which modern aerobic organisms eventually evolved. This oxygen liberated by cyanobacteria then oxidized dissolved iron in the oceans, the iron precipitated out of the sea water, and fell to the ocean floor to form sedimentary layers of oxidized iron called Banded Iron Formations (BIFs). These BIFs are part of the geological record of evidence for the evolutionary history of plants by identifying when photosynthesis originated. This also provides deep time constraints upon when enough oxygen could have been available in the atmosphere to produce the ultraviolet blocking stratospheric ozone layer. The oxygen concentration in the ancient atmosphere subsequently rose, acting as a poison for anaerobic organisms, and resulting in a highly oxidizing atmosphere, and opening up niches on land for occupation by aerobic organisms.
Fossil evidence for cyanobacteria also comes from the presence of stromatolites in the fossil record deep into the Precambrian. Stromatolites are layered structures formed by the trapping, binding, and cementation of sedimentary grains by microbial biofilms, such as those produced by cyanobacteria. The direct evidence for cyanobacteria is less certain than the evidence for their presence as primary producers of atmospheric oxygen. Modern stromatolites containing cyanobacteria can be found on the west coast of Australia.
Early plants were small, unicellular or filamentous, with simple branching. The identification of plant fossils in Cambrian strata is an uncertain area in the evolutionary history of plants because of the small and soft - bodied nature of these plants. It is also difficult in a fossil of this age to distinguish among various similar appearing groups with simple branching patterns, and not all of these groups are plants. One exception to the uncertainty of fossils from this age is the group of calcareous green algae, Dasycladales found in the fossil record since the middle Cambrian. These algae do not belong to the lineage that is ancestral to the land plants. Other major groups of green algae had been established by this time, but there were no land plants with vascular tissues until the mid-Silurian.
The evidence of plant evolution changes dramatically in the Ordovician with the first extensive appearance of spores in the fossil record (Cambrian spores have been found, also). The first terrestrial plants were probably in the form of tiny plants resembling liverworts when, around the Middle Ordovician, evidence for the beginning of the terrestrialization of the land is found in the form of tetrads of spores with resistant polymers in their outer walls. These early plants did not have conducting tissues, severely limiting their size. They were, in effect, tied to wet terrestrial environments by their inability to conduct water, like extant liverworts, hornworts, and mosses, although they reproduced with spores, important dispersal units that have hard protective outer coatings, allowing for their preservation in the fossil record, in addition to protecting the future offspring against the desiccating environment of life on land. With spores, plants on land could have sent out large numbers of spores that could grow into an adult plant when sufficient environmental moisture was present.
The first fossil records of vascular plants, that is, land plants with vascular tissues, appeared in the Silurian period. The earliest known representatives of this group (mostly from the northern hemisphere) are placed in the genus Cooksonia. They had very simple branching patterns, with the branches terminated by flattened sporangia. By the end of the Silurian much more complex vascular plants, the zosterophylls, had diversified and primitive lycopods, such as Baragwanathia (originally discovered in Silurian deposits in Victoria, Australia), had become widespread.
By the Devonian Period, life was well underway in its colonization of the land. The bacterial and algal mats were joined early in the period by primitive plants that created the first recognizable soils and harbored some arthropods like mites, scorpions and myriapods. Early Devonian plants did not have roots or leaves like the plants most common today, and many had no vascular tissue at all. They probably relied on arbuscular mycorrhizal symbioses with fungi to provide them with water and mineral nutrients such as phosphorus. They probably spread by a combination of vegetative reproduction forming clonal colonies, and sexual reproduction via spores and did not grow much more than a few centimeters tall.
By the Late Devonian, forests of large, primitive plants existed: lycophytes, sphenophytes, ferns, and progymnosperms had evolved. Most of these plants have true roots and leaves, and many were quite tall. The tree - like Archaeopteris, ancestral to the gymnosperms, and the giant cladoxylopsid trees had true wood. These are the oldest known trees of the world 's first forests. Prototaxites was the fruiting body of an enormous fungus that stood more than 8 meters tall. By the end of the Devonian, the first seed - forming plants had appeared. This rapid appearance of so many plant groups and growth forms has been called the "Devonian Explosion ''. The primitive arthropods co-evolved with this diversified terrestrial vegetation structure. The evolving co-dependence of insects and seed - plants that characterizes a recognizably modern world had its genesis in the late Devonian. The development of soils and plant root systems probably led to changes in the speed and pattern of erosion and sediment deposition.
The ' greening ' of the continents acted as a carbon dioxide sink, and atmospheric concentrations of this greenhouse gas may have dropped. This may have cooled the climate and led to a massive extinction event. see Late Devonian extinction.
Also in the Devonian, both vertebrates and arthropods were solidly established on the land.
Early Carboniferous land plants were very similar to those of the preceding Latest Devonian, but new groups also appeared at this time.
The main Early Carboniferous plants were the Equisetales (Horse - tails), Sphenophyllales (scrambling plants), Lycopodiales (Club mosses), Lepidodendrales (arborescent clubmosses or scale trees), Filicales (Ferns), Medullosales (previously included in the "seed ferns '', an artificial assemblage of a number of early gymnosperm groups) and the Cordaitales. These continued to dominate throughout the period, but during late Carboniferous, several other groups, Cycadophyta (cycads), the Callistophytales (another group of "seed ferns ''), and the Voltziales (related to and sometimes included under the conifers), appeared.
The Carboniferous lycophytes of the order Lepidodendrales, which were cousins (but not ancestors) of the tiny club - mosses of today, were huge trees with trunks 30 meters high and up to 1.5 meters in diameter. These included Lepidodendron (with its fruit cone called Lepidostrobus), Halonia, Lepidophloios and Sigillaria. The roots of several of these forms are known as Stigmaria.
The fronds of some Carboniferous ferns are almost identical with those of living species. Probably many species were epiphytic. Fossil ferns include Pecopteris and the tree ferns Megaphyton and Caulopteris. Seed ferns or Pteridospermatophyta include Cyclopteris, Neuropteris, Alethopteris, and Sphenopteris.
The Equisetales included the common giant form Calamites, with a trunk diameter of 30 to 60 cm and a height of up to 20 meters. Sphenophyllum was a slender climbing plant with whorls of leaves, which was probably related both to the calamites and the modern horsetails.
Cordaites, a tall plant (6 to over 30 meters) with strap - like leaves, was related to the cycads and conifers; the catkin - like inflorescence, which bore yew - like berries, is called Cardiocarpus. These plants were thought to live in swamps and mangroves. True coniferous trees (Walchia, of the order Voltziales) appear later in the Carboniferous, and preferred higher drier ground.
The Permian began with the Carboniferous flora still flourishing. About the middle of the Permian there was a major transition in vegetation. The swamp - loving lycopod trees of the Carboniferous, such as Lepidodendron and Sigillaria, were replaced by the more advanced conifers, which were better adapted to the changing climatic conditions. Lycopods and swamp forests still dominated the South China continent because it was an isolated continent and it sat near or at the equator. The Permian saw the radiation of many important conifer groups, including the ancestors of many present - day families. The ginkgos and cycads also appeared during this period. Rich forests were present in many areas, with a diverse mix of plant groups. The gigantopterids thrived during this time; some of these may have been part of the ancestral flowering plant lineage, though flowers evolved only considerably later.
On land, the holdover plants included the lycophytes, the dominant cycads, Ginkgophyta (represented in modern times by Ginkgo biloba) and glossopterids. The spermatophytes, or seed plants came to dominate the terrestrial flora: in the northern hemisphere, conifers flourished. Dicroidium (a seed fern) was the dominant southern hemisphere tree during the Early Triassic period.
The arid, continental conditions characteristic of the Triassic steadily eased during the Jurassic period, especially at higher latitudes; the warm, humid climate allowed lush jungles to cover much of the landscape. Conifers dominated the flora, as during the Triassic; they were the most diverse group and constituted the majority of large trees. Extant conifer families that flourished during the Jurassic included the Araucariaceae, Cephalotaxaceae, Pinaceae, Podocarpaceae, Taxaceae and Taxodiaceae. The extinct Mesozoic conifer family Cheirolepidiaceae dominated low latitude vegetation, as did the shrubby Bennettitales. Cycads were also common, as were ginkgos and tree ferns in the forest. Smaller ferns were probably the dominant undergrowth. Caytoniaceous seed ferns were another group of important plants during this time and are thought to have been shrub to small - tree sized. Ginkgo - like plants were particularly common in the mid - to high northern latitudes. In the Southern Hemisphere, podocarps were especially successful, while Ginkgos and Czekanowskiales were rare.
Flowering plants, also known as angiosperms, spread during this period, although they did not become predominant until near the end of the period (Campanian age). Their evolution was aided by the appearance of bees; in fact angiosperms and insects are a good example of coevolution. The first representatives of many modern trees, including figs, planes and magnolias, appeared in the Cretaceous. At the same time, some earlier Mesozoic gymnosperms, like Conifers continued to thrive, although other taxa like Bennettitales died out before the end of the period.
The Cenozoic is just as much the age of savannas, or the age of co-dependent flowering plants and insects. At 35 Ma, grasses evolved from among the angiosperms. About ten thousand years ago, humans in the Fertile Crescent of the Middle East develop agriculture. Plant domestication begins with cultivation of Neolithic founder crops. This process of food production, coupled later with the domestication of animals caused a massive increase in human population that has continued to the present. In Jericho (modern Israel), there is a settlement with about 19,000 people. At the same time, Sahara is green with rivers, lakes, cattle, crocodiles and monsoons. At 8 ka, Common (Bread) wheat (Triticum aestivum) originates in southwest Asia due to hybridisation of emmer wheat with a goat - grass, Aegilops tauschii. At 6.5 ka, two rice species are domesticated: Asian rice, Oryza sativa, and African rice Oryza glaberrima.
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who became minister after the witch trials were over | Samuel Parris - wikipedia
Samuel Parris (1653 -- February 27, 1720) was the Puritan minister in Salem, Massachusetts during the Salem witch trials. He was also the father of one of the afflicted girls, and the uncle of another.
Samuel Parris, son of Thomas Parris, was born in London, England to a family of modest financial success and religious nonconformity. Samuel immigrated to Boston in the early 1660s, where he attended Harvard College at his father 's behest. When his father died in 1673, Samuel left Harvard to take up his inheritance in Barbados, where he maintained a sugar plantation.
In 1680, after a hurricane hit Barbados, damaging much of his property, Parris sold a little of his land and returned to Boston, where he brought his slave Tituba and married Elizabeth Eldridge. Eldridge was noted by many as being incredibly beautiful, and was said to be one of the most beautiful women in Salem Village. Together they had three children, Thomas Parris, Elizabeth Parris, and Susannah Parris. Although the plantation supported his merchant ventures, Parris was dissatisfied with his lack of financial security and began to look to the ministry. In July 1689, he became minister of Salem Village (now Danvers), Massachusetts.
Salem Village was a contentious place to live and was known to be quarrelsome by neighbouring towns and villages. Its dispersed settlement pattern may have resulted in a lack of a sense of common purpose that may have united more orderly and arranged communities. Parris was the fourth minister appointed in a series of unsuccessful attempts to keep a permanent minister. James Bayley (1673 -- 79) and George Burroughs (1680 -- 83) each stayed only a few years, departing after the congregation failed to pay their full rates. Deodat Lawson (1684 -- 88) left with less contention. Further tension was caused by Parris ' delay in accepting the position and his inability to resolve his parishioners ' disputes. There were also disputes over Parris ' compensation. In October 1691, the town decided to stop paying his wages. The issue was further antagonized by Parris ' perceived arrogance when he purchased gold candlesticks for the meetinghouse and new vessels for the sacraments. These issues, and others that were more personal between the villagers, continued to grow unabated.
The events which led to the Salem witch trials began when Parris ' daughter, Betty, and her cousin, Abigail Williams, accused Parris ' slave Tituba of witchcraft. Parris beat Tituba until she confessed herself a witch, and John Indian, her husband, began accusing others. The delusion spread, many were apprehended, most of whom were imprisoned. During the 16 - month duration of the Salem witch trials phenomenon, 19 persons were hanged, and one, Giles Corey, was pressed to death.
During a 1692 sermon, Parris declared that "as in our text (John 6: 10) there was one (devil) among the 12 (disciples)... so in our churches God knows how many Devils there are, '' encouraging antagonistic villagers to locate and destroy "witches '' who, as it happened, were frequently individuals with whom Parris and his key allies, the Putnam family, had taken umbrage.
As Parris had been an active prosecutor in the witchcraft cases, in 1693, his parish brought charges against Parris for his part in the trials. Parris apologized in his essay Meditations for Peace, which he presented in November 1694. Increase Mather led a church council which then vindicated him.
Parris was then involved in a dispute with his congregation over parsonage land he had seized to compensate himself for salary he was owed. The dispute found its way to an Ipswich court, which, in 1697, ordered his salary to be paid and the land to be returned. By 1696, however, he had found his situation untenable. He resigned that year and left Salem. Records in the Suffolk Deeds indicate it likely he returned to business in Boston in 1697.
His wife Elizabeth died in 1696. In 1699, he remarried, to Dorothy Noyes, in Sudbury. He preached two or three years at Stow. He then moved to Concord (1704 / 05). He also preached six months in Dunstable in 1711. He died on February 27, 1720, in Sudbury.
Parris features in Arthur Miller 's play The Crucible, set against the backdrop of the witch trials. In the play, his daughter Elizabeth Parris is the first to become ill because of supposed and she is accused of witchcraft. In the 1957 and 1996 film adaptations of Miller 's play, he was portrayed by Jean Debucourt and Bruce Davison, respectively.
Parris is also a character in Tituba of Salem Village by Ann Petry, another work of fiction relating to the witch trials.
In the novel Supernatural: One Year Gone, Parris is portrayed as having been manipulated by the real witches into starting the trials and also manipulated the girls to accuse his enemies and rivals to get rid of them. At the end of the novel, after the truth is revealed, he swears to put an end to the innocent women.
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who played raymond's brother in everybody loves raymond | Brad Garrett - wikipedia
Brad Garrett (born Brad H. Gerstenfeld; April 14, 1960) is an American stand - up comedian, actor, voice actor and professional poker player. He has appeared in numerous television and film roles.
Garrett was initially successful as a stand - up comedian in the early 1980s. Taking advantage of that success in the late 1980s, Garrett began appearing in television and film, in minor and guest roles. His first major role was Robert Barone on the CBS sitcom Everybody Loves Raymond. The series debuted September 13, 1996 and ran for nine seasons.
Garrett 's film roles include Pocahontas II: Journey to a New World (1998), An Extremely Goofy Movie (2000), Stuart Little 2 (2002), Finding Nemo (2003), Garfield (2004), The Pacifier (2005), Night at the Museum (2006), Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian (2009), Tangled (2010), Hoodwinked Too! Hood vs. Evil (2011) and Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Out of the Shadows (2016). Garrett also played the leading role of Eddie Stark on the Fox sitcom ' Til Death from 2006 to 2010.
Garrett has won three Primetime Emmy Awards, with three other nominations. He is still prominent within stand - up comedy and is also a professional poker player. Garrett is recognized for his imposing height of 6 ' 8.5 ", and his deep voice.
Garrett was born in Woodland Hills, California. He is the son of Barbara (née Colton), a homemaker, and Albert "Al '' Gerstenfeld, a hearing aid salesman. He is Jewish, and celebrates both Christmas and Hanukkah. Garrett has two older brothers, Jeff and Paul. He attended George Ellery Hale Middle School and graduated from El Camino Real High School, both in Woodland Hills. Garrett attended UCLA for less than two months before dropping out to pursue his comedy career.
Garrett started out at various improv clubs in Los Angeles, including The Improv in Hollywood and The Ice House in Pasadena. In 1984, he became the first $100,000 grand champion winner in the comedy category of the TV show Star Search. This led to his first appearance, at age 23, on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, making him one of the youngest comedians ever to perform on the show. His appearance with Carson brought Garrett a lot of national attention, and soon he was appearing as an opening act for such headliners as Diana Ross and Liza Minnelli. He also opened in Las Vegas for Frank Sinatra, David Copperfield, Smokey Robinson, Sammy Davis, Jr., the Beach Boys, The Righteous Brothers and Julio Iglesias.
After achieving a strong measure of success with stand - up comedy, Garrett decided to change gears and try his luck with performing on TV. From 1985 -- 1986, he was the voice of Hulk Hogan (in a voice similar to Rodney Dangerfield) for the cartoon series Hulk Hogan 's Rock ' n Wrestling, He was featured on Family Feud during Ray Combs 's tenure in a "Funny Men vs. Funny Women Week '' during November sweeps. He also appeared for a week on the game show Super Password in 1987. He also appeared on Hollywood Squares including a memorable moment when he impersonated Bill Cosby during a question about Jell - o. He then appeared in the short - lived summer comedy First Impressions (CBS, 1988), in which he was a divorced father who makes a living doing impressions, in a one - time spot as a bank loan officer on Roseanne (ABC), and The Pursuit of Happiness (NBC, 1995 -- 96), in which he was the hero 's gay best friend. Though prior to these roles, Garrett had also had a minor part on Transformers, voicing the Decepticon base Trypticon in season three and as an ill - fated thug in Suicide Kings. He soon won the role of Ray Romano 's brother Robert Barone on the long - running family - oriented comedy hit Everybody Loves Raymond. Garrett has also made an appearance on The Fresh Prince of Bel - Air playing a hitman who attempts to kill Will Smith 's character.
Garrett 's distinctive deep voice has landed him prolific work as a voice actor, such as on Mighty Ducks: The Animated Series, 2 Stupid Dogs, The Spooktacular New Adventures of Casper, Project Geeker, Biker Mice from Mars, Steven Spielberg Presents: Toonsylvania, A Bug 's Life, Finding Nemo, Ratatouille, Asterix and the Vikings, Superman: The Animated Series, and Justice League as Lobo.
His role on Everybody Loves Raymond won him five Emmy Award nominations, and the 2002, 2003 and 2005 Emmy Awards for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series.
In 1990, Garrett appeared as a semi-regular panelist on the revival of Match Game. On the May 2, 1996 episode of the sitcom Seinfeld, called "The Bottle Deposit '', Garrett played a deranged auto mechanic who steals Jerry Seinfeld 's car.
In 2003, he was also nominated for the Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Miniseries or Movie for Gleason. With his Raymond castmates, he won the 2003 Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series. He won the fifth season championship of Celebrity Poker Showdown, and played in the 2005, 2006 and 2007 World Series of Poker. Garrett was hoping to do a spin - off with his character Robert Barone from Everybody Loves Raymond when the show ended its nine - year run in 2005, but he withdrew in October 2005 due to inaction from CBS that led to a number of the writers from Raymond leaving and taking other jobs.
In 2005, Garrett appeared on Broadway playing Murray the Cop in the revival of Neil Simon 's The Odd Couple with Nathan Lane and Matthew Broderick. He understudied Lane in the role of Oscar Madison, and substituted for him in January 2006, during Mr. Lane 's illness. In 2006, Fox network announced they would pick up a new sitcom called ' Til Death starring Garrett in the lead role. The plot revolves around a long married couple whose new next door neighbors are a pair of feisty newlyweds. Joely Fisher plays Garrett 's wife in the series. He also appeared onstage on American Idol season six (2007) during judging on week 11, to which Ryan Seacrest said, "And the next person off American Idol is -- Brad, you 're out. ''
In the fall of 2008, Garrett starred in, and was the executive producer for, an online reality show called Dating Brad Garrett. In 2008, Garrett hosted a celebrity roast of Cheech & Chong, which was aired on TBS.
In 2009, Garrett entered the main event at the World Series of Poker, losing on the second day of the event. Garrett has starred in commercials for 7 - Up, where he portrays a more happy, cheerful version of himself because of the soda.
In June 2010, he opened Brad Garrett 's Comedy Club in the Tropicana Resort and Casino in Las Vegas, Nevada. In December 2010, he was one of the narrators during performances of the Candlelight Processional at Epcot.
In June 2011, I Kid with Brad Garrett, a candid kids show, premiered on TLC. On December 12, 2011, Garrett closed his club at the Tropicana. He started a new club with the same name across the street at the MGM Grand, and is active as of April 2016.
In the summer of 2013, Garrett played Chug in the movie Planes. Planes marked the 4th time he starred in a movie with John Ratzenberger. In the fall of 2013, Garrett played a recurring character in The Crazy Ones. On May 19, 2016, he was confirmed to appear as the voice of Krang, in the sci - fi action comedy film Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Out of the Shadows.
In November 2016, Garrett portrayed Frankenstein 's monster in a Christmas commercial for Apple 's iPhone 7. The ad itself has received over seven million views.
In 1998, Garrett proposed to his then - girlfriend, Jill Diven, on the set of Everybody Loves Raymond, and they were married on May 18, 1999; together they have two children, Maxwell and Hope. Garrett and Diven separated in 2005, and Diven filed for divorce in July 2006. The divorce was finalized in November 2007. As of December 2015, Garrett is currently engaged to long - time girlfriend, IsaBeall Quella.
In 2007, Garrett struck a TMZ photographer 's camera, which the photographer claimed hit him in the face. The Los Angeles District Attorney declined to file assault charges against Garrett, because the DA felt Garrett was provoked in the incident.
Garrett was the grand marshal for the Auto Club 500 on February 24, 2008.
Garrett appeared on Are You Smarter Than a 5th Grader? and played for his charity, the Maximum Hope Foundation (named after his kids). He answered every single question correctly winning $25,000 and walked away with that after being asked to play for $250,000 with the bonus subject being U.S. History.
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the war between england and russia started in | Russia -- United Kingdom relations - wikipedia
Russia -- United Kingdom relations, also Anglo - Russian relations, is the bilateral relationship between Russia and the United Kingdom. The formal ties between the courts of Moscow and London go back to 1553. Russia and Britain were allies against Napoleon in the early 19th century, enemies in the Crimean War of the 1850s, and rivals in the Great Game for control of central Asia in the latter half of 19th century. They were allies again in World Wars I and II, although relations were strained by the Russian Revolution of 1917. They were at sword 's point during the Cold War (1947 -- 1989). Russia ′ s big businesses and tycoons developed strong ties with the UK ′ s financial institutions in the 1990s, after the dissolution of the USSR in 1991. The countries share a history of intense espionage activities against each other, with the Soviet Union succeeding in penetration of top echelons of British intelligence and security establishment in the 1930s -- 1950s. Conversely, British Intelligence asset Oleg Penkovsky run by London and British agent Oleg Gordievsky allegedly contributed to averting the threat of thermonuclear war during the Cuban Missile Crisis. Since the 19th century, England has been a popular destination for Russian political exiles, refugees, and wealthy fugitives from the Russian speaking world.
In the 2000s, especially following the poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko in 2006, relations became strained, and since 2014 have grown unfriendly due to the Ukrainian crisis and other activities by Russia such as poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal, seen as hostile by the UK.
The Kingdom of England and Tsardom of Russia established relations in 1553 when English navigator Richard Chancellor arrived in Arkhangelsk -- at which time Mary I ruled England and Ivan the Terrible ruled Russia. He returned to England and was sent back to Russia in 1555, the same year the Muscovy Company was established. The Muscovy Company held a monopoly over trade between England and Russia until 1698. Tsar Alexei was outraged by the execution of King Charles I of England in 1649, and expelled all English traders and residents from Russia in retaliation.
In 1697 -- 1698 during the Grand Embassy of Peter I the Russian tsar visited England for three months. He improved relations and learned the best new technology especially regarding ships and navigation.
The Kingdom of Great Britain (1707 -- 1800) and later the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (1800 -- 1922) had increasingly important ties with the Russian Empire (1721 -- 1917), after Tsar Peter I brought Russia into European affairs and declared himself an emperor. From the 1720s Peter invited British engineers to Saint Petersburg, leading to the establishment of a small but commercially influential Anglo - Russian expatriate merchant community from 1730 to 1921. During the series of general European wars of the 18th century, the two empires found themselves as sometime allies and sometime enemies. The two states fought on the same side during War of the Austrian Succession (1740 -- 48), but on opposite sides during Seven Years ' War (1756 -- 63), although did not at any time engage in the field.
Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger was alarmed at Russian expansion in Crimea in the 1780s at the expense of his Ottoman ally. He tried to get Parliamentary support for reversing it. In peace talks with the Ottomans, Russia refused to return the key Ochakov fortress. Pitt wanted to threaten military retaliation. However Russia 's ambassador Semyon Vorontsov organised Pitt 's enemies and launched a public opinion campaign. Pitt won the vote so narrowly that he gave up and Vorontsov secured a renewal of the commercial treaty between Britain and Russia.
The outbreak of the French Revolution and its attendant wars temporarily united constitutionalist Britain and autocratic Russia in an ideological alliance against French republicanism. Britain and Russia attempted to halt the French but the failure of their joint invasion of the Netherlands in 1799 precipitated a change in attitudes.
Britain occupied Malta, while the Emperor Paul I of Russia was Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller. That led to the never - executed Indian March of Paul, which was a secret project of a planned allied Russo - French expedition against the British possessions in India.
The two countries fought each other (albeit only with some very limited naval combat) during the Anglo - Russian War (1807 -- 12), after which Britain and Russia became allies against Napoleon in the Napoleonic Wars. They both played major cooperative roles at the Congress of Vienna in 1814 - 1815.
From 1820 to 1907, a new element emerged: Russophobia. British elite sentiment turned increasingly hostile to Russia, with a high degree of anxiety for the safety of India, with the fear that Russia would push south through Afghanistan. The result was a long - standing rivalry in central Asia. In addition, there was a growing concern that Russia would destabilise Eastern Europe by its attacks on the faltering Ottoman Empire. This fear was known as the Eastern Question. Russia was especially interested in getting a warm water port that would enable its navy. Getting access out of the Black Sea into the Mediterranean was a goal, which meant access through the Straits controlled by the Ottomans.
Both intervened in the Greek War of Independence (1821 -- 1829), eventually forcing the London peace treaty on the belligerents. The events heightened Russophobia. In 1851 the Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations held in London 's Crystal Palace, including over 100,000 exhibits from forty nations. It was the world 's first international exposition. Russia took the opportunity to dispel growing Russophobia by refuting stereotypes of Russia as a backward, militaristic repressive tyranny. Its sumptuous exhibits of luxury products and large ' objets d'art ' with little in the way of advanced technology, however, did little to change its reputation. Britain considered its navy too weak to worry about, but saw its large army as a major threat.
The Russian pressures on the Ottoman Empire continued, leaving Britain and France to ally with the Ottomans and push back against Russia in the Crimean War (1853 -- 1856). Russophobia was an element in generating popular British support for the far - off war. Elite opinion in Britain, especially among Liberals, supported Poles against Russia ′ s rule, after the uprising of 1830. The British government watched nervously as Saint Petersburg suppressed the subsequent Polish revolts in the early 1860s, yet refused to intervene.
London was where the first Russian - language censorship - free periodicals -- Polyarnaya Zvezda, Golosa iz Rossii, and Kolokol ('' The Bell '') -- were published by Alexander Herzen and Nikolai Ogaryov in 1855 -- 1865, which were of exceptional influence on Russian liberal intellectuals in the first several years of publication. The periodicals were published by the Free Russian Press set up by Herzen in 1853, on the eve of the Crimean War, financed by the funds Herzen had managed to expatriate from Russia with the help of his bankers, the Paris branch of the Rothschild family.
At midcentury British observers and travellers tended to present a negative view of Russia as a barbaric and backward nation. The English media depicted the Russians as superstitious, passive, and deserving of their autocratic tsar. Thus "barbarism '' stood in contrast to "civilised '' Britain. In 1874, tension lessened as Queen Victoria 's second son married the only daughter of Tsar Alexander II, followed by a cordial state visit by the tsar. The goodwill lasted no more than three years, when structural forces again pushed the two nations to the verge of war.
Rivalry between Britain and Russia grew steadily over Central Asia in the Great Game of the late 19th century. Russia desired warm - water ports on the Indian Ocean while Britain wanted to prevent Russian troops from gaining a potential invasion route to India. In 1885 Russia annexed part of Afghanistan in the Panjdeh incident, which caused a war scare. However Russia 's foreign minister Nikolay Girs and its ambassador to London Baron de Staal set up an agreement in 1887 which established a buffer zone in Central Asia. Russian diplomacy thereby won grudging British acceptance of its expansionism. Persia was also an arena of tension, but without warfare.
There was cooperation in Asia, however, as the two countries joined many others to protect their interests in China during the Boxer Rebellion (1899 -- 1901).
Britain was an ally of Japan after 1902, but remained strictly neutral and did not participate in the Russo - Japanese War of 1904 - 5.
However, there was a brief war scare in the Dogger Bank incident in October 1905 when the main Russian battle fleet, headed to fight Japan, mistakenly engaged a number of British fishing vessels in the North Sea fog. The Russians thought they were Japanese torpedo boats, and sank one, killing three fishermen. The British public was angry but Russia apologised and damages were levied through arbitration.
Diplomacy became delicate in the early 20th century. Russia was troubled by the Entente Cordiale between Great Britain and France signed in 1904. Russia and France already had a mutual defense agreement that said France was obliged to threaten Britain with an attack if Britain declared war on Russia, while Russia was to concentrate more than 300,000 troops on the Afghan border for an incursion into India in the event that Britain attacked France. The solution was to bring Russia into the British - French alliance. The Anglo - Russian Entente and the Anglo - Russian Convention of 1907 made both countries part of the Triple Entente. Both countries were then part of the subsequent alliance against the Central Powers in the First World War. In the summer of 1914, Austria threatened Serbia, Russia promised to help Serbia, Germany promised to help Austria, and war broke out between Russia and Germany. France supported Russia. Britain was neutral until Germany suddenly invaded neutral Belgium, then Britain joined France and Russia in World War I against Germany and Austria.
In 1918, with the Germans advancing toward Moscow, the Russians under Lenin accepted the German ultimatum and switched sides in the war, and supported Germany. The Allies felt betrayed by the Treaty of Brest Litovsk signed on 3 March 1918. Britain sent troops to Russian ports in the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War, which was designed to limit Soviet aid to the German war effort.
Following the withdrawal of British troops from Russia, negotiations for trade began, and on 16 March 1921, the Anglo - Soviet Trade Agreement was concluded between the two countries. Lenin 's New Economic Policy downplayed socialism and emphasised business dealings with capitalist countries, in an effort to restart the sluggish Russian economy. Britain was the first country to accept Lenin 's offer of a trade agreement. It ended the British blockade, and Russian ports were opened to British ships. Both sides agreed to refrain from hostile propaganda. It amounted to de facto diplomatic recognition and opened a period of extensive trade.
Throughout the 1920s, distrust and contention marked Anglo - Soviet relations, culminating in the diplomatic break in 1927. Britain formally recognised the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR or Soviet Union, 1922 -- 1991) on 1 February 1924. Diplomatic relations between the two countries were severed at the end of May 1927 after a police raid on the All Russian Co-operative Society whereafter prime minister Stanley Baldwin presented the House of Commons with deciphered Soviet telegrams that proved Soviet espionage activities. In 1929, the incoming Labour government successfully established permanent diplomatic relations.
In 1938, Britain and France negotiated the Munich Agreement with Nazi Germany. Stalin opposed to the pact and refused to recognise the German annexation of the Czechoslovak Sudetenland.
Stalin felt excluded from Western consideration. But he eagerly took up a German offer after a few days negotiations to invade and split control of Eastern Europe including Poland and the Baltic nations. The USSR and Germany signed the Non-aggression Pact in late August 1939, which promised the Soviets control of about half of Eastern Europe, and removed the risk to Germany of a two front war. Germany invaded Poland on 1 September, and the Soviets followed sixteen days later. Many members of the Communist Party in Britain and sympathisers were outraged and quit. Those who remained strove to undermine the British war effort and campaigned for what the Party called a ' people 's peace ', i.e. a negotiated settlement with Hitler. Britain, along with France, declared war on Germany, but not the USSR. The British people were sympathetic to Finland in her Winter War war against the USSR. The USSR furthermore supplied oil to the Germans which Hitler 's Luftwaffe needed in its Blitz against Britain in 1940.
In June 1941, Germany launched Operation Barbarossa, attacking the USSR. The USSR thereafter became one of the Allies of World War II along with Britain, fighting against the Axis Powers. The Anglo - Soviet invasion of Iran secured the oil fields in Iran from falling into Axis hands. The Arctic convoys transported supplies between Britain and the USSR during the war. Britain was quick to provide limited material aid to the Soviet Union - including tanks and aircraft - via these convoys in order to try to keep her new ally in the war against Germany and her allies.
Britain signed a treaty with the USSR and sent military supplies. One major conduit for supplies was through Iran. The two nations agreed on a joint occupation of Iran, to neutralize German influence. After the war, there were disputes about the Soviet delayed departure from Iran, and speculation that it planned to set up a puppet state along its border. That problem was resolved completely in 1946.
In August 1942, Churchill, accompanied by American W. Averell Harriman, went to Moscow and met Stalin for the first time. The British were nervous that Stalin and Hitler might make separate peace terms; Stalin insisted that would not happen. Churchill explained how Arctic convoys bringing munitions to Russia had been intercepted by the Germans; There was a delay now so that future convoys would be better protected. He apologetically explained there would be no second front this year -- no British - American invasion of France -- which Stalin had been urgently requesting for months. The will was there, said Churchill, but there was not enough American troops, not enough tanks, not enough shipping, not enough air superiority. Instead the British, and soon the Americans, would step up bombing of German cities and railways. Furthermore, there would be "Operation Torch '' in November. It would be a major Anglo - American invasion of North Africa, which would set the stage for an invasion of Italy and perhaps open the Mediterranean for munitions shipments to Russia through the Black Sea. The talks started out on a very sour note but after many hours of informal conversations, the two men understood each other and knew they could cooperate smoothly.
Stalin was adamant about British support for new boundaries for Poland, and Britain went along. They agreed that after victory Poland 's boundaries would be moved westward, so that the USSR took over lands in the east while Poland gained lands in the west that had been under German control.
They agreed on the "Curzon Line '' as the boundary between Poland and the Soviet Union) and the Oder - Neisse line would become the new boundary between Germany and Poland. The proposed changes angered the Polish government in exile in London, which did not want to lose control over its minorities. Churchill was convinced that the only way to alleviate tensions between the two populations was the transfer of people, to match the national borders. As he told Parliament on 15 December 1944, "Expulsion is the method which... will be the most satisfactory and lasting. There will be no mixture of populations to cause endless trouble... A clean sweep will be made. ''
The U.S. and Britain each approached Moscow in its own way; there was little coordination. Churchill wanted specific, pragmatic deals, typified by the percentage arrangement. Roosevelt 's highest priority was to have the Soviets eagerly and energetically participate in the new United Nations, and he also wanted them to enter the war against Japan.
In October 1944, Churchill and foreign minister Anthony Eden met Stalin and his foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov in Moscow. They discussed who would control what in the rest of postwar Eastern Europe. The Americans were not present, were not given shares, and were not fully informed. After lengthy bargaining the two sides settled on a long - term plan for the division of the region, The plan was to give 90 % of the influence in Greece to Britain and 90 % in Romania to Russia. Russia gained an 80 % / 20 % division in Bulgaria and Hungary. There was a 50 / 50 division in Yugoslavia, and no Russian share in Italy.
Following the end of the Second World War, relations between the Soviet and the Western Bloc deteriorated quickly. Former British Prime Minister Churchill claimed that the Soviet occupation of Eastern Europe after World War II amounted to ' an iron curtain has descended across the continent. ' Relations were generally tense during the ensuing Cold War, typified by spying and other covert activities. The British and American Venona Project was established in 1942 for cryptanalysis of messages sent by Soviet intelligence. Soviet spies were later discovered in Britain, such as Kim Philby and the Cambridge Five spy ring, which was operating in England until 1963.
The Soviet spy agency, the KGB, was suspected of the murder of Georgi Markov in London in 1978. A High ranking KGB official, Oleg Gordievsky, defected to London in 1985.
British prime minister Margaret Thatcher pursued a strong anti-communist policy in concert with Ronald Reagan during the 1980s, in contrast with the détente policy of the 1970s.
Relations improved considerably after Mikhail Gorbachev came to power in the Soviet Union in 1985 and launched perestroika. They remained relatively warm after the collapse of the USSR in 1991 -- with Russia taking over the international obligations and status from the demised superpower.
In October 1994, Queen Elizabeth II made a state visit to Russia, the first time ever a British monarch set foot on Russian soil.
Relations between the countries began to grow tense again shortly after Vladimir Putin was elected as President of the Russian Federation in 2000, with the Kremlin pursuing a more assertive foreign policy and imposing more controls domestically. The major irritant in the early - 2000s was the UK ′ s refusal to extradite Russian citizens, self - exiled businessman Boris Berezovsky and Chechen separatist leader Akhmed Zakayev, whom the UK granted political asylum.
In late 2006, former FSB officer Alexander Litvinenko was poisoned in London by radioactive metalloid, Polonium - 210 and died three weeks later. The UK requested the extradition of Andrei Lugovoy from Russia to face charges over Litvinenko 's death. Russia refused, stating their constitution does not allow extradition of their citizens to foreign countries. As a result of this, the United Kingdom expelled four Russian diplomats, shortly followed by Russia expelling four British diplomats. The Litvinenko affair remains a major irritant in British - Russian relations.
In July 2007, The Crown Prosecution Service announced that Boris Berezovsky would not face charges in the UK for talking to The Guardian about plotting a "revolution '' in his homeland. Kremlin officials called it a "disturbing moment '' in Anglo - Russian relations. Berezovsky remained a wanted man in Russia until his death in March 2013; having been accused of embezzlement and money laundering.
Russia re-commenced long range air patrols of the Tupolev Tu - 95 bomber aircraft in August 2007. These patrols neared British airspace, requiring RAF fighter jets to "scramble '' and intercept them.
In January 2008, Russia ordered two offices of the British Council situated in Russia to shut down, accusing them of tax violations. Eventually, work was suspended at the offices, with the council citing "intimidation '' by the Russian authorities as the reason. However, later in the year a Moscow court threw out most of the tax claims made against the British Council, ruling them invalid.
During the 2008 South Ossetia war between Russia and Georgia, then - UK Foreign Secretary, David Miliband, visited the Georgian capital city of Tbilisi to meet with the Georgian President and said the UK 's government and people "stood in solidarity '' with the Georgian people.
Earlier in 2009, then Solicitor - General, Vera Baird, personally decided that the property of the Russian Orthodox Church in the United Kingdom, which had been the subject of a legal dispute following the decision of the administering Bishop and half its clergy and lay adherents to move to the jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate, would have to remain with the Moscow Patriarchate. She was forced to reassure concerned Members of Parliament that her decision had been made only on legal grounds, and that diplomatic and foreign policy questions had played no part. Baird 's determination of the case was however endorsed by the Attorney - General Baroness Patricia Scotland. It attracted much criticism. However, questions continue to be raised that Baird 's decision was designed not to offend the Putin government in Russia.
In November 2009, David Miliband visited Russia and described the state of relations between the two countries as "respectful disagreement ''.
In 2014, relations soured drastically following the Ukrainian crisis, with the British government, along with the US and the EU, imposing punitive sanctions on Russia. In March 2014, The UK suspended all military cooperation with Russia and halted all extant licences for direct military export to Russia. In September 2014, there were more rounds of sanctions imposed by the EU, targeted at Russian banking and oil industries, and at high officials. Russia responded by cutting off food imports from the UK and other countries imposing sanctions. David Cameron, the UK prime minister (2010 -- 2016), and U.S. president Obama jointly wrote for The Times in early September: '' Russia has ripped up the rulebook with its illegal, self - declared annexation of Crimea and its troops on Ukrainian soil threatening and undermining a sovereign nation state ''.
In early 2017, during her meeting with U.S. president Donald Trump, the UK prime minister Theresa May appeared to take a line harsher than that of the U.S. on the Russian sanctions.
In April 2017, Moscow 's ambassador to the UK Alexander Yakovenko said UK - Russia relations were at an all - time low.
In mid-November 2017, in her Guildhall speech at the Lord Mayor 's Banquet, prime minister May called Russia '' chief among those today, of course '' who sought to undermine the '' open economies and free societies '' Britain was committed to, according to her. She went on to elaborate: '' (Russia) is seeking to weaponise information. Deploying its state - run media organisations to plant fake stories and photo - shopped images in an attempt to sow discord in the West and undermine our institutions. So I have a very simple message for Russia. We know what you are doing. And you will not succeed. '' In response, Russian parliamentarians said Theresa May was "making a fool of herself '' with a "counterproductive '' speech; Russia ′ s embassy reacted to the speech by posting a photograph of her from the Banquet drinking a glass of wine, with the tweet: "Dear Theresa, we hope, one day you will try Crimean # Massandra red wine ''. Theresa May ′ s Banquet speech was compared by some Russian commentators to Winston Churchill ′ s speech in Fulton in March 1946; it was hailed by Andrew Rosenthal in a front - page article run by The New York Times that contrasted May ′ s message against some statements about Putin made by Donald Trump, who, according to Rosenthal, '' far from denouncing Putin 's continuous assaults on human rights and free speech in Russia, (...) praised (Putin) as being a better leader than Obama. ''
In December 2017 Boris Johnson became the first UK foreign secretary to visit Russia in 5 years.
In March 2018, as a result of the poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal in Salisbury, relations between the countries deteriorated still further, both countries expelling 23 diplomats each and taking other punitive measures against one another. Within days of the incident, the UK government 's assessment that it was '' highly likely '' that the Russian state was responsible for the incident received the backing of the EU, the US, and Britain ′ s other allies. In what the Foreign Secretary Boris Johnson called the "extraordinary international response '' on the part of the UK 's allies, on 26 and 27 March 2018 there followed a concerted action by the U.S., most of the EU member states, Albania, Australia, Canada, Macedonia, Moldova, and Norway, as well as NATO to expel a total of over 140 Russian accredited diplomats (including those expelled by the UK).
In June 2010, UK intelligence officials were saying that Russian spying activity in the UK was back at the Cold War level and that MI5 had been for a few years building up its counter-espionage capabilities against Russians; it was also noted that Russia ′ s focus was '' largely directed on ex-patriots. '' In mid-August 2010, Sir Stephen Lander, Director - General of MI5 (1996 -- 2002), said this of the level of Russian intelligence ′ s activity in the UK: '' If you go back to the early 90s, there was a hiatus. Then the spying machine got going again and the SVR (formerly the KGB), they 've gone back to their old practices with a vengeance. I think by the end of the last century they were back to where they had been in the Cold War, in terms of numbers. ''
In January 2012, Jonathan Powell, prime minister Tony Blair 's chief of staff in 2006, admitted Britain was behind a plot to spy on Russia with a device hidden in a fake rock that was discovered in 2006 in a case that was publicised by Russian authorities; he said: '' Clearly they had known about it for some time and had been saving it up for a political purpose. '' Back in 2006, the Russian security service, the FSB, linked the rock case to British intelligence agents making covert payments to NGOs in Russia; shortly afterwards, president Vladimir Putin introduced a law that tightened regulation of funding non-governmental organisations in Russia.
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who wrote the niv translation of the bible | New International Version - wikipedia
The New International Version (NIV) is an English translation of the Bible first published in 1978 by Biblica (formerly the International Bible Society). The NIV was published to meet the need for a modern translation done by Bible scholars using the earliest, highest quality manuscripts available. Of equal importance was that the Bible be expressed in broadly understood modern English.
A team of 15 biblical scholars, representing a variety of denominations, worked from the oldest copies of reliable texts, variously written in Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek. Each section was subjected to multiple translations and revisions, and those assessed in detail to produce the best option. Everyday Bible readers were used to provide feedback on ease of understanding and comprehensibility. Finally, plans were made to continue revision of the Bible as new discoveries were made and as changes in the use of the English language occurred.
The NIV is published by Zondervan in the United States and Hodder & Stoughton in the UK. The NIV was updated in 1984 and 2011, and has become one of the most popular and best selling modern translations.
The NIV began in 1956 with the formation of a small committee to study the value of producing a translation in the common language of the American people. The project was formally started after a meeting in 1965 at Trinity Christian College in Palos Heights, Illinois, of the Christian Reformed Church, National Association of Evangelicals, and a group of international scholars. The initial "Committee on Bible Translation '' consisted of E. Leslie Carlson, Edmund Clowney, Ralph Earle, Jr., Burton L. Goddard, R. Laird Harris, Earl S. Kalland, Kenneth Kantzer, Robert H. Mounce, Charles F. Pfeiffer, Charles Caldwell Ryrie, Francis R. Steele, John H. Stek, J.C. Wenger, Stephen W. Paine, and Marten Woudstra. The New York Bible Society (now Biblica) was selected to do the translation. The New Testament was released in 1973 and the full Bible in 1978.
The NIV underwent a minor revision in 1984. In 1997 a new version was published in the UK as the New International Version Inclusive Language Edition, but was not published in the U.S. because of opposition from conservative evangelical groups there to inclusive language.
A revised English edition titled Today 's New International Version (TNIV) released a New Testament in March 2002, with the complete Bible published February 2005.
In 2011, an updated version of the NIV was released. The update modified and dropped some of the gender - neutral language of the TNIV (such as going back to using "mankind '' and "man '' instead of "human beings '' and "people ''), along with other changes. Translational issues with Paul 's letters were also addressed. Keith Danby, president and chief executive officer of Biblica, speaking of the TNIV, said they had failed to convince people revisions were needed and underestimated readers ' loyalty to the 1984 edition.
An ' easy - reader ' version, New International Reader 's Version (NIrV), was published in 1996; it was written at a third grade reading level.
In 1979 it was decided to produce a version of the New Testament in Spanish with the title La Santa Biblia, Nueva Versión Internacional (often abbreviated NVI) though at this point this version was based only on the former English translation of the historic manuscripts. In 1990 the committee on Bible translation headed by Drs. René Padilla and Luciano Jaramillo conducted a translation from the historic manuscripts directly into Spanish of both testaments, bypassing English altogether and producing a complete Spanish NVI Bible in 1999.
The manuscript base for the Old Testament was the Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia Masoretic Hebrew Text. Other ancient texts consulted were the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Aquila, Symmachus and Theodotion, the Latin Vulgate, the Syriac Peshitta, the Aramaic Targum, and for the Psalms the Juxta Hebraica of Jerome. The manuscript base for the New Testament was the Koine Greek language editions of the United Bible Societies and of Nestle - Aland. The deuterocanonical books are not included in the translation.
The core translation group consisted of fifteen Biblical scholars using Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek texts whose goal was to produce a more modern English language text than the King James Version. The translation took ten years and involved a team of over 100 scholars. from the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. The range of those participating included many different denominations such as Anglicans, Assemblies of God, Baptist, Christian Reformed, Lutheran and Presbyterian.
The NIV is a balance between word - for - word and thought - for - thought or literal and phrase by phrase translations.
Recent archaeological and linguistic discoveries helped in understanding passages that have traditionally been difficult to translate. Familiar spellings of traditional translations were generally retained.
In Genesis 2: 19 a translation such as the NRSV uses "formed '' in a plain past tense "So out of the ground the LORD God formed every animal... ''. Some have questioned the NIV choice of pluperfect "Now the LORD God had formed out of the ground all the wild animals... '' to try to make it appear that the animals had already been created. Theologian John Sailhamer states "Not only is such a translation... hardly possible... but it misses the very point of the narrative, namely, that the animals were created in response to God 's declaration that it was not good that the man should be alone. ''
Biblical scholar Bruce M. Metzger criticized the NIV 1984 edition for the addition of just into Jeremiah 7: 22 so the verse becomes "For when I brought your forefathers / ancestors out of Egypt and spoke to them, I did not just give them commands about burnt offerings and sacrifices. '' Metzger also criticized the addition of your into Matthew 13: 32, so it becomes "Though it (the mustard seed) is the smallest of all your seeds. '' The usage of your was removed in the TNIV and did not return in the 2011 revision.
According to the Association for Christian Retail (CBA), the New International Version has become the most popular selling English translation of the Bible in CBA bookstores, having sold more than 450 million copies worldwide.
There are numerous study Bibles available with extensive notes on the text and background information to make the Biblical stories more comprehensible. Among these are the NIV Spirit of the Reformation Study Bible, Concordia Study Bible, the Zondervan published NIV Study Bible, the Wesleyan revision, Reflecting God Study Bible, as well as the Life Application Study Bible.
In 2009, the New Testament scholar N.T. Wright wrote that the NIV obscured what Paul the Apostle was saying, making sure that Paul 's words conformed to Protestant and Evangelical tradition. Wright believes that due to paraphrasing and interpretation, Protestants and Evangelicals will never understand what Paul was talking about if they rely on the NIV. According to Wright, this happens in several of Paul 's letters, including Galatians and Romans.
Professor of New Testament Studies Daniel B. Wallace has praised the 2011 update, stating: "it is a well - thought out translation, with checks and balances through rigorous testing, overlapping committees to ensure consistency and accuracy ''. The Southern Baptist Convention rejected the 2011 update because of gender - neutral language, although it had dropped some gender - neutral language of the 2005 revision. Southern Baptist publisher LifeWay declined the SBC 's censor request to remove the NIV from their stores. While the Lutheran Church -- Missouri Synod rejected its use, some in the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod (WELS) believe many of the translations changes are right and defensible. Si Cochran of World Magazine said the NIV 2011 is an "egalitarian '' translation that "obscures the (meaning of) the text, '' concluding that he "can not recommend this translation, and... actually encourage others to avoid it as a reading / study Bible. ''
Professor of New Testament Studies, Rodney J. Decker wrote in Themelios Journal review of the NIV 2011 that,
By taking a mediating position between formal and functional equivalence (though tending, I think, closer to the formal end of the spectrum), the NIV has been able to produce a text that is clearer than many translations, especially those weighted more heavily with formal equivalence... If we are serious about making the word of God a vital tool in the lives of English - speaking Christians, then we must aim for a translation that communicates clearly in the language of the average English - speaking person. It is here that the NIV excels. It not only communicates the meaning of God 's revelation accurately, but does so in English that is easily understood by a wide range of English speakers. It is as well - suited for expository preaching as it is for public reading and use in Bible classes and children 's ministries. ''
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who is rose related to in fuller house | Fuller House (TV series) - wikipedia
Fuller House is an American sitcom created by Jeff Franklin that airs as a Netflix original series, and is a sequel to the 1987 -- 1995 television series Full House. It centers around D.J. Tanner - Fuller, a veterinarian and widowed mother of three sons, whose sister Stephanie and best friend Kimmy -- along with her teenage daughter -- live together at the Tanner 's childhood home in San Francisco, California. Most of the original series ensemble cast have reprised their roles on Fuller House, either as regular cast members or in guest appearances, with the exception of Mary - Kate and Ashley Olsen, who alternated the role of Michelle Tanner in Full House. The show is produced by Jeff Franklin Productions and Miller - Boyett Productions, in association with Warner Horizon Television.
Netflix ordered an initial 13 episodes which were released on February 26, 2016 worldwide. The third season is split into two parts, with the first half of nine episodes being released on September 22, 2017, and the second half on December 22, 2017. While the first season reception was generally negative, the second and third seasons received mostly positive reviews.
Like the original series, the show is set in the same house in San Francisco, California. Recently widowed D.J. Tanner - Fuller is a veterinarian and the mother of three young boys. After the unexpected death of her husband, Tommy, who was following his hazardous duties as a firefighter, D.J. accepts the help of her sister Stephanie and best friend Kimmy to move in and take part in raising her three sons, 13 - year - old Jackson, 7 - year - old Max, and baby Tommy Jr. Kimmy 's teenage daughter Ramona also moves in.
In August 2014, reports circulated that Warner Bros. Television was considering a series reboot. John Stamos, who had an ownership stake in the show, headed up the attempt to get the series back into production. Creator Jeff Franklin returned as executive producer and showrunner with the collaboration of original executive producers Thomas L. Miller and Robert L. Boyett under their Miller - Boyett Productions label.
In April 2015, it was reported that Netflix was close to closing a deal to produce a 13 - episode sequel series tentatively titled Fuller House. A representative for Netflix said that the report was "just a rumor ''. In response to the report, Bure tweeted, "While you all ponder over whether the Fuller House show is true or is an April Fools joke, check out (link to her upcoming TV movie) '', and Stamos tweeted, "Believe none of what you hear, and only half of what you see. '' On April 20, he appeared on Jimmy Kimmel Live!, confirming the spin - off series had been green - lit by Netflix. On April 21, Netflix confirmed the series was in development.
In a parallel to the original series, Fuller House focuses on D.J., who is a recently widowed mother of three boys, with her sister Stephanie and best friend Kimmy moving in to help raise the boys. The series starts off with a special episode featuring a Tanner family reunion. Filming of the series began in July 2015 and lasted until November 2015. In December 2015, the series ' release date was revealed as February 26, 2016. Later in the month, Carly Rae Jepsen revealed she and Butch Walker recreated the Full House theme song, "Everywhere You Look '' (which was originally performed by Jesse Frederick, who co-wrote the song with Bennett Salvay), for the series as its opening theme.
On March 2, 2016, the series was renewed for a second season, and production for the second season began on May 5, 2016. Thirteen new episodes were ordered and were released on December 9, 2016. On December 24, 2016, the series was renewed for a third season, to be released in 2017. and On December 31, 2016, it was confirmed that the season was given an 18 - episode order. Production for the third season began on March 18, 2017, and ended on September 2, 2017. It was announced on June 26, 2017 that the third season would be split into two parts, with the release of the first part on September 22, 2017 to consist of nine episodes. It was announced on November 13, 2017 that the second half, which will also feature nine episodes, will be released on December 22, 2017.
In addition to Cameron Bure, Sweetin, and Barber reprising their roles, the other main roles went to Michael Campion, Elias Harger, and Soni Bringas, as their children: Jackson and Max Fuller, and Ramona Gibbler, respectively. It was disclosed that John Stamos would have a recurring role as Jesse Katsopolis and would also be producing. Other original main cast members who would be reprising their roles periodically are Lori Loughlin as Becky Katsopolis, Bob Saget as Danny Tanner, and Dave Coulier as Joey Gladstone. Dylan and Blake Tuomy - Wilhoit also make an appearance reprising their roles as Nicky and Alex Katsopolis, respectively. On April 19, 2016, it was announced Ashley Liao, who plays Ramona 's best friend, had been upgraded to a series regular.
Additional cast members recurring regularly throughout the series include Juan Pablo Di Pace, playing Kimmy 's ex-husband, Fernando, and Scott Weinger, reprising the role of Steve Hale, D.J. 's high school boyfriend. Eva LaRue portrays Danny 's wife Teri, and Michael Sun Lee makes an appearance as the adult version of Nathan Nishiguchi 's character, Harry Takayama, who was Stephanie 's childhood friend.
Shortly after announcing the spin - off series, it was uncertain whether Mary - Kate and Ashley Olsen, who shared the role of Michelle Tanner, would choose to participate. The Olsen twins ultimately rejected the offer because Ashley has not acted in years with no intentions to restart, and Mary - Kate initially considered the part but later declined as it was not feasible with her fashion career at the time. Subsequently, the producers decided to have Michelle reside in New York City, where she is highly focused on her fashion enterprise. By January 2016, they asked the Olsen twins ' younger sister, Elizabeth, if she had any ambitions to take the part of Michelle, but she ultimately declined as well. Nonetheless, the producers are still prodding the Olsen twins to return and were confident that one of the twins would ultimately decide to reappear during the second season although this did not end up happening. In September 2016, it was announced that the character Nelson will re-appear on Fuller House, with the character recast to be portrayed by Hal Sparks, who replaces Nelson 's original portrayer, Jason Marsden.
The first season of Fuller House received generally negative reviews, with most noting the series was very derivative of its source material and was oriented toward fans of the original show. On Rotten Tomatoes, the series has a rating of 32 %, based on 41 reviews, with an average rating of 4.2 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "After the initial dose of nostalgia, Fuller House has little to offer to anyone except the original series ' most diehard fans. '' On Metacritic the series has an average score of 35 out of 100, based on 28 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''.
Dan Fienberg of The Hollywood Reporter panned the show, calling it "a mawkish, grating, broadly played chip off the Full House block. '' He also added that "It 's doubtful that there will be a more painful 2016 TV episode than the Fuller House pilot, which takes an inexcusable 35 minutes to establish a plot that is just an inversion of the original Full House premise. '' David Weigand of the San Francisco Chronicle reacted similarly, writing: "The episodes are predictable because they 're unoriginal and the writing is painful. The canned laughter is perhaps the greatest reminder of the ' good old days '. If only all those recorded voices had something legitimate to laugh at. '' Maureen Ryan of Variety wrote that the show "continually goes to the well of having cute kids mug for the camera as they practically yell their lines, and just a little of its self - congratulatory, blaring obviousness goes a long way. ''
Some parents have complained that the reboot is not family friendly unlike its predecessor because it includes cursing and references to sex and drugs.
In a more positive review, Verne Gay from Newsday wrote that the show is like "Full House 2.0 '' and that while it has the "same premise, same vibe, mostly same cast '', it is "a winner, strictly for fans. ''
The second season saw more positive reviews. Jenny Varner of "IGN '' gave the season a mixed 6.5 / 10 score. She noted that "Fuller House Season 2 brings a fuller cast, a fuller plot, and a lot more cringe - worthy pop culture jokes. Love it or hate it, the staying power of this heartwarming Netflix staple is stronger than ever. ''
Warner Home Video released the first season of the series on DVD in Region 1 on February 28, 2017. The second season was released on DVD on December 12, 2017.
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where was season 2 of the affair filmed | The Affair (TV series) - Wikipedia
The Affair is an American television drama series created by Sarah Treem and Hagai Levi. The series premiered on Showtime on October 12, 2014. A TV - 14 version of the pilot episode was made available online beginning on October 6, 2014, via YouTube, SHO.com, and several other on - demand formats.
A 12 - episode second season of The Affair premiered on October 4, 2015. On December 9, 2015, the series was renewed for a third season, which debuted on November 20, 2016. On January 9, 2017, Showtime renewed the series for a fourth season, which premiered on June 17, 2018. On July 26, 2018, Showtime announced it had renewed the series for a fifth and final season to debut in 2019.
The series won the Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series -- Drama and Ruth Wilson won for Best Actress -- Television Series Drama at the 72nd Golden Globe Awards in 2015. At the 73rd Golden Globe Awards in 2016, Maura Tierney won the award for Best Supporting Actress.
The Affair explores the emotional effects of an extramarital relationship between Noah Solloway and Alison Lockhart (Dominic West and Ruth Wilson) after they casually meet at the diner where Alison works. The show begins with the Solloway family packing up the family van to stay in the resort town of Montauk, New York. Noah is happily married with four children, but he resents their dependence on his wealthy father - in - law. Alison is a local waitress trying to piece her life and marriage back together in the wake of her young son 's tragic accidental death at the age of four. The story of the affair is depicted from Noah 's and Alison 's perspectives respectively, complete with memory bias which often results in vastly different scenarios. Each episode has two parts, one as remembered by Noah, the other by Alison. Noah 's perspective is of a vibrant, playful, and sexy Alison who comes on to him, while her perspective is more cautious, reserved, with a dulled conservative sense of self, and Noah coming on to her.
In the second season, the narrative is also expanded to include the perspectives of their original spouses, Helen Solloway and Cole Lockhart (Maura Tierney and Joshua Jackson), as they all move forward with the dissolution of their marriages and deal with the ramifications. The subsequent death of Alison 's brother - in - law, Scott (Colin Donnell), and the ensuing police investigation and criminal trial, are explored in flashforward scenes at the end of most episodes.
The third season is set three years later and introduces another perspective, Juliette Le Gall (Irène Jacob), Noah 's new love interest.
In the fourth season, Noah has moved to Los Angeles to be closer to his younger children Trevor (Jadon Sand) and Stacey (Abigail Dylan Harrison), as Helen and Vik (Omar Metwally) have moved there. Cole and Luisa (Catalina Sandino Moreno) are living together in Montauk, while Alison is working as a grief counselor. Season 4 also features a flashforward storyline and introduces Vik 's perspective.
On February 8, 2013, it was announced that Showtime had ordered a pilot for The Affair. The network officially picked up the series on January 16, 2014, with a 10 - episode order. On November 10, 2014, Showtime renewed the series for a 10 - episode second season; however, it was later changed to 12.
The first season received praise from critics. On the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the season has a rating of 90 %, based on 50 reviews, with an average rating of 8.18 / 10. The consensus reads: "Thanks to some smart, creative storytelling and spectacular performances, The Affair is a somber, bewitching exploration of truth and desire. '' On Metacritic, the first season has a score of 85 out of 100, based on 28 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim ''.
The second season received continued positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has a rating of 90 %, based on 21 reviews, with an average rating of 8.04 / 10. The consensus reads: "The Affair shifts its emphasis in season two, moving psychological drama to the foreground and expanding the show 's central crime story to include two new points of view. '' On Metacritic, it has a score of 78 out of 100 based on 15 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Gwen Ihnat of The A.V. Club gave it an "A - '' grade and wrote that "With its bold new move to double our number of perspectives, it appears that The Affair will sail over that sophomore slump that has felled so many other Showtime dramas.
The third season received continued positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has a rating of 79 %, based on 19 reviews, with an average rating of 7.67 / 10. The consensus reads: "The Affair adds to its cast of strong characters and deepens the mood, tension, and intrigue, even if the plot sometimes struggles to move forward. '' On Metacritic, it has a score of 72 out of 100 based on 8 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
The fourth season received continued positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has a rating of 90 %, based on 21 reviews, with an average rating of 7.8 / 10. The consensus reads: "The Affair 's captivating character study returns with fewer kinks than its previous outing, resulting in a more emotionally grounded season that regains much of the show 's initial allure. ''
The first season was released on DVD in region 1 on August 4, 2015. The set contains all 10 episodes, plus special features, including character profiles and costume featurettes. The second season was released on DVD in region 1 on August 16, 2016. The third season was released on DVD in region 1 on April 25, 2017.
In Canada, the series premiered simultaneously with the American broadcast on October 12, 2014, and airs on Movie Central and The Movie Network. The series premiered on Showcase in Australia on February 10, 2015. Sky Atlantic bought the rights to air The Affair in the UK with season one beginning in May 2015.
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which one of the following place receive the highest rainfall in the world | Cherrapunji - wikipedia
Cherrapunji (/ ˌtʃɛrəˈpʌndʒi, - ˈpʊn - / (listen); with the historic name Sohra being more commonly used, and can also be spelled Cherrapunjee or Cherrapunji) is a subdivisional town in the East Khasi Hills district in the Indian state of Meghalaya. It is the traditional capital of aNongkhlaw hima (Khasi tribal chieftainship constituting a petty state), both known as Sohra or Churra.
Cherrapunji has often been credited as being the wettest place on Earth, but for now nearby Mawsynram currently holds that distinction. Cherrapunji still holds the all - time record for the most rainfall in a calendar month and in a year, however: it received 9,300 millimetres (370 in; 30.5 ft) in July 1861 and 26,461 millimetres (1,041.8 in; 86.814 ft) between 1 August 1860 and 31 July 1861.
The history of the Khasi people -- native inhabitants of Cherrapunji -- may be traced from the early part of the 16th century. Between the 16th and 18th centuries, these people were ruled by their tribal ' Syiems (rajas or chiefs) of Khyriem ' in the Khasi Hills. The Khasis hills came under British authority in 1883 with the submission of the last of the important Syiems, Tirot Sing.
The main pivot on which the entire superstructure of Khasi society rests is the matrilineal system.
The original name for this town was Sohra (soh - ra), which was pronounced "Churra '' by the British. This name eventually evolved into the current name, Cherrapunji, meaning ' land of oranges ', which was first used by tourists from other parts of India.
Despite abundant rainfall, Cherrapunji faces an acute water shortage and the inhabitants often have to trek very long distances to obtain potable water. Irrigation is hampered due to excessive rain washing away the topsoil as a result of human encroachment into the forests.
The Meghalaya state government has renamed Cherrapunji back to its original name, "Sohra ''. There is a monument to David Scott (British Administrator in NE India, 1802 -- 31) in the Cherrapunji cemetery.
Cherrapunji is located at 25 ° 18 ′ N 91 ° 42 ′ E / 25.30 ° N 91.70 ° E / 25.30; 91.70. It has an average elevation of 1,484 metres (4,869 ft) and sits on a plateau in the southern part of the Khasi Hills, facing the plains of Bangladesh. The plateau rises 600 meters above the surrounding valleys.
Soils on the plateau are poor owing to deforestation and washout caused by heavy rainfall. Owing to winter droughts, the vegetation in this location is even xerophytic in spite of the fame of Cherrapunji as an extremely wet place. Additional pressure on local ecosystems is created by the rapid increase of the population -- from a Sohra - area population of 7,000 in 1960, it grew to over 100,000 by 2000.
Valleys around Cherrapunji, however, are covered with lush and very diverse vegetation, containing numerous endemic species of plants, including Meghalaya subtropical forests. Although there is heavy rainfall in Cherrapunji, there is a high scarcity of clean water.
There are some interesting living root bridges in Cherrapunjee like the Umshiang root bridge, Mawsaw root bridge, Ritymmen root bridge etc.
The Shillong Plateau is an uplifted horst - like feature, bounded by the E-W Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) to the North, the N-S Jamuna fault in the west, and the NW - SE kopilli fracture zone in the east.
Sohra or Cherrapunji has a mild subtropical highland climate (Köppen Cwb), with monsoonal influences typical of India. The city 's annual rainfall average stands at 11,777 millimetres (463.7 in). This figure places it behind only nearby Mawsynram, Meghalaya, whose average is 11,873 millimetres (467.4 in). Cherrapunji receives both the southwest and northeast monsoonal winds, giving it a single monsoon season. It lies on the windward side of the Khasi Hills, so the resulting orographic lift enhances precipitation. In the winter months it receives the northeast monsoon showers that travel down the Brahmaputra valley. The driest months are November, December, January and February.
Temperatures average 11.5 ° C (52.7 ° F) in January and 20.6 ° C (69.1 ° F) in August, and the annual mean is 17.3 ° C (63.1 ° F)
Cherrapunji holds two Guinness world records for receiving the maximum amount of rainfall in a single year: 26,471 millimetres (1,042.2 in) of rainfall between August 1860 and July 1861 and for receiving the maximum amount of rainfall in a single month: 9,300 millimetres (370 in) in July 1861.
Cherrapunji receives rains from the Bay of Bengal arm of the Indian summer monsoon. The monsoon clouds fly unhindered over the plains of Bangladesh for about 400 km. Thereafter, they hit the Khasi Hills which rise abruptly from the plains to a height of about 1,370 m above mean sea level within 2 to 5 km. The geography of the hills with many deep valley channels encompassing the low - flying (150 -- 300 m) moisture - laden clouds from a wide area converges over Cherrapunji. The winds push the rain clouds through these gorges and up the steep slopes. The rapid ascent of the clouds into the upper atmosphere hastens the cooling and helps vapours to condense. Most of Cherrapunji 's rain is the result of air being lifted as a large body of water vapour. The extreme amount of rainfall at Cherrapunji is perhaps the best - known feature of orographic rain in northeast India.
Occasionally, cloudbursts can occur in one part of Cherrapunji while other areas may be totally or relatively dry, reflecting the high spatial variability of the rainfall. Atmospheric humidity is extremely high during the peak monsoon period.
The major part of the rainfall at Cherrapunji can be attributed to the orographic features. When the clouds are blown over the hills from the south, they are funneled through the valley. The clouds strike Cherrapunjee perpendicularly and the low flying clouds are pushed up the steep slopes. It is not surprising to find that the heaviest rainfalls occur when the winds blow directly on the Khasi Hills.
A notable feature of monsoon rain at Cherrapunji is that most of it falls in the morning. This could be partly due to two air masses coming together. During the monsoon months, the prevailing winds along the Brahmaputra valley generally blow from the east or the northeast, but the winds over Meghalaya are from the south. These two winds systems usually come together in the vicinity of the Khasi Hills. Apparently, the winds that are trapped in the valley at night begin their upward ascent only after they are warmed during the day. This partially explains the frequency of morning rainfall. Apart from orographic features, atmospheric convection plays an important role during the monsoon and the period just preceding it.
As of 2001 India census, Cherrapunji had a population of 10,086, with males 48.75 % of the total population and females 51.25 %. Cherrapunji has an average literacy rate of 74 %, higher than the national average of 59.5 %, with a male literacy rate of 72.4 % and a female one of 73.9 %.
The locals living in and around Cherrapunji are known as Khasis. It is a matrilineal culture. After the wedding, the husband of the youngest daughter goes to live with his wife 's family, who own the property of the family, while others live on their own getting a bit of the share. The children take on the surname of the mother.
Cherrapunji is also famous for its living bridges. Over hundreds of years the people in Cherrapunji have developed techniques for growing roots of trees into large bridges. The process takes 10 to 15 years and the bridges typically last hundreds of years, the oldest ones in use being over 500 years old.
Sohra Government College is the only general degree college in Cherrapunji.
Cherrapunji has an All India Radio relay station known as Akashvani Cherrapunji. It broadcasts on FM frequencies.
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who is the man that acted as jesus | List of actors who have played Jesus - wikipedia
This is a list of actors who have played Jesus.
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when does meredith get rehired at seattle grace | Grey 's Anatomy (season 8) - wikipedia
The eighth season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy, commenced airing on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) on September 22, 2011, with a special two - hour episode and ended on May 17, 2012 with the eighth season having a total of 24 episodes. The season was produced by ABC Studios, in association with Shondaland Production Company and The Mark Gordon Company, and overseen by showrunner Shonda Rhimes.
This season follows the story - line of Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo) and Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey) as they try to save their marriage and adopt Zola after Meredith tampered with the Alzheimer 's trial in the previous season. Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson) also struggles to forgive Meredith because Richard Webber (James Pickens, Jr.) takes the blame for Meredith and stepping down, and Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd) takes his place as Chief of Surgery. Cristina Yang (Sandra Oh) decides to have an abortion, putting her relationship with Hunt at odds. Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez) and Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw) co-parent their baby with Mark Sloan (Eric Dane) who continues to have an on / off relationship with Lexie Grey (Chyler Leigh). Alex Karev (Justin Chambers) deals with the fallout of his decision to tell Owen about Meredith altering the Alzheimer 's trial, and becomes an outcast by the other residents. Teddy Altman (Kim Raver) marries Henry Burton (Scott Foley), who later dies of a heart condition, leaving her devastated.
The season hit the series ' low for ratings as it ended with an average of 10.92 million viewers ranking at no. 34 and in the 18 - 49 key demographic ranked at no. 12. Loretta Devine garnered critical acclaim for her portrayal of Adele Webber and earned numerous nominations including the Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series and the Critics ' Choice Television Awards. James Pickens, Jr. won Outstanding Supporting Actor at the NAACP Image Awards, and Chandra Wilson and Sandra Oh both received nominations for Outstanding Actress in a Drama. Stacy McKee was nominated for Humanitas Prize for writing White Wedding. Sara Ramirez was nominated at the 13th ALMA Awards for Favorite TV Supporting Actress. For the 38th People 's Choice Awards, the show was nominated for Favorite TV Drama, and Ellen Pompeo and Patrick Dempsey were respectively nominated for Favorite TV Drama Actress and Favorite TV Drama actor.
In season 8, Meredith and Derek try to save their marriage after the fallout due to Meredith 's tampering of the Alzheimer 's trial in Season 7. Their marital unrest, as well as Meredith 's professional fallout, threatens to destroy their chances of adopting Zola, but they eventually get full custody of her in episode 10, "Suddenly. '' After discovering the reason Meredith tampered with the trial was in attempt to deliver the drug to Adele and potentially cure her Alzheimer 's, Richard takes the blame, and steps down as Chief of Surgery. Owen is named the new Chief of Surgery (episode 3, "Take the Lead ''), which leaves Miranda angry. She blames Meredith for destroying Richard 's career, as well as Meredith 's.
April is named the new Chief resident, and struggles throughout the season to be taken seriously by the other residents, while also developing a much deeper friendship with Jackson until she finally has sex with him in episode 21, "Moment of Truth. '' Throughout the season, the fifth year surgical residents (Meredith, Cristina, Alex, April, and Jackson) prepare for their boards. Everyone passes, except for April, who gave her virginity to Jackson the night before the exam.
Cristina chooses to terminate her pregnancy (episode 1, "Free Falling ''), which Owen does not want because he wants to have children. He accompanies her to the abortion and supports her, but a huge rift has been made in their relationship. Owen ca n't accept that Cristina never wants to be a mother. Eventually, he cheats on Cristina (episode 17, "One Step Too Far). Callie, Arizona, and Mark co-parent baby Sofia. Mark and Lexie attempt to move on from one another, but ca n't. Ben returns (episode 4 "What Is It About Men? ''), after giving Miranda space to heal after being traumatized by the shooting in the season 6 finale, but is shocked and hurt to see that she is having a casual, but very physical, relationship with Eli. Miranda breaks things off with Eli, and eventually she and Ben reunite. In the season finale, "Flight, '' they become engaged. Adele 's Alzheimer 's progresses rapidly and Richard chooses to have her placed in a care facility, Rose Ridge, the same one Ellis was in before she died. Adele falls in love with another dementia patient (Episode 20) and the staff tell Richard he should not visit as much because it confuses her. Later in the season, he begins a romance with Catherine Avery. Lexie and Mark struggle to let each other go and attempt to date other people, but ca n't seem to move on. Tragically, they only confess their love to each other moments before Lexie 's death in episode 24 "Flight. ''
Teddy and her husband Henry (Scott Foley), now deeply in love, adjust to life not only as newlyweds, but with Henry 's health finally stable, the two adjust to the changing dynamics of their relationship. Henry begins planning for a future, and tells Teddy he wants to go to medical school (episode 8 "Heart Shaped Box ''). Teddy balks at the prospect of Henry being in school for the next 10 years, and they have their first big fight. Before they can make up, however, Henry falls suddenly ill due to a new tumor, and his condition is revealed to be extremely serious. At the hospital, Teddy is forced to leave his side because of an emergent heart surgery, and asks that Cristina perform the surgery on Henry to save his life (episode 9 "Dark Was the Night ''). Teddy and Owen agree that it may be too much pressure for Cristina if she knows who she is operating on, so they drape Henry 's face in the OR before bringing Cristina in. Henry ca n't be saved and dies in surgery. Because Teddy is still in surgery, and worried about Henry, Owen decides to lie to her and imply that Henry made it through and is recovering. After she learns the truth, Teddy is devastated by Henry 's death. She hates Owen for lying to her, and the friendship between the two is over, until he fires her in the season finale and she moves on to another job.
After the residents receive their board results, they weigh offers from other hospitals. When the season ends, Alex has accepted a fellowship at Johns Hopkins, Cristina has chosen to go to the Mayo Clinic, and Derek has been offered an endowment and an opportunity to continue Alzheimer 's research at Harvard, which sways Meredith 's decision to accept an elite fellowship at Brigham and Women 's Hospital in Boston. In the finale, Meredith, Cristina, Derek, Lexie, Arizona, and Mark board a small plane to fly to Boise, Idaho to perform a surgery separating conjoined twins. Alex was meant to be on the plane, but Arizona, furious at his decision to turn down the Seattle Grace pediatrics fellowship in favor of Johns Hopkins, Arizona boots him from the plane and takes his place. En route, the plane crashes. In "Flight '' the six doctors and the pilot fight to survive. Derek 's hand is severely injured, as is Arizona 's leg. Lexie is trapped and crushed beneath part of the plane. She and Mark finally confess their love to each other, and within moments, she dies. Mere seconds later, Meredith arrives too late, and is devastated by her sister 's death. They soon realize that Mark has severe internal injuries. The season ends with the 5 remaining surgeons in peril, lost in the woods and not knowing when or if help will come.
The season received mostly positive reviews. Tanner Stransky of Cinema Blend gave a fresh review to the season, "Juxtaposed against that nightmare that launched season 8 's two - hour season premiere was exactly what the show does portray rather accurately (most of the time) - the relationship drama. ''
Verne Gay of Newsday acknowledged the following for the show stating, "Grey 's has had a good season and has an intensely loyal fan base to prove it. '' TV Fanatic reviewing the episode Free Falling wrote, "This episode set the season in motion, and from the looks of it, it 's going to be good. ''
Carrie Raisler of The A.V. Club gave a negative review to the season 's alternate reality episode, "Just because a show is meant to be fun does n't mean it should n't have standards, and this episode just simply did n't measure up. ''
Poptimal's Tanya Lane regarding the season finale wrote, "Wow... just wow. Grey 's Anatomy has once again managed to shock with its season finale. '' While she appreciated the "realism and authenticity that Grey 's is known for '', she found the episode was "almost too much '' as it was "extremely gory and difficult to watch, initially because of the grisly wounds '' but later because of the "heavy and emotional things that transpired ''. She added that "Ellen Pompeo gave one of her best performances when her character learned that her sister was dead. ''
The number in the "No. in series '' column refers to the episode 's number within the overall series, whereas the number in the "No. in season '' column refers to the episode 's number within this particular season. "U.S. viewers in millions '' refers to the number of Americans in millions who watched the episodes live.
During marriage counselling sessions, Owen and Cristina are constantly engaging in heated arguments. Owen can not seem to move past the fact that Cristina does not want kids. Amelia arrives at Seattle Grace hoping to convince Derek to assist her with Erica 's (A.J. Langer) gliosarcoma. Lexie gets caught in between the two Shepherds, Meredith shows off her surgical skills, Alex learns the importance of people skills, Mark and Jackson teach Dr. Bailey a lesson, and the residents continue to prep for their oral boards.
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what happened to the boy who played damien in only fools and horses | Damien Trotter - Wikipedia
Damien Derek Trotter is a fictional character in the BBC series Only Fools and Horses. He is son to Derek Trotter and Raquel Turner.
Damien is the only child of Del and Raquel and nephew of Rodney Trotter. A recurring theme in the show was Rodney 's fixated belief that Damien was literally the Antichrist (an allusion to the Damien Thorn character from the Omen series of films) despite the fact that Damien shows no resentment nor intentions of harm toward anybody except Rodney himself.
Del and Raquel chide Rodney for his mad obsessions and believe Damien to be a perfect angel, spoiling him frequently. From the earliest ages, Damien shows signs of being a spoiled brat, such as throwing things at Rodney, throwing seeds on the floor, deliberately waking Uncle Albert up from a nap, placing Cassandra 's birth control pills inside an urn containing Albert 's ashes, urinating in a public swimming pool (from the top of the diving board), encouraging his father to physically fight someone at a funeral, and even hoping that his father might get sent to prison merely to fit in with his group of friends with imprisoned fathers. Although Del and Raquel seemed to remain oblivious to Damien 's bad behavior when he was younger, they did gradually become stricter with him in the final episodes and Rodney frequently calls him or refers to him as "Rat Boy ''.
He was named after Del and Raquel could not decide on a name for their unborn baby (Raquel thought of Aron, pronounced airon, but Uncle Albert thought the kids would nickname him "Aron a G - string '' and Del thought Troy, but the name Troy Trotter was instantly dismissed), so Rodney sarcastically suggested that they name him "Damien '' as Rodney was convinced that the baby would be born half - demon. To his horror, they adored the name and Rodney desperately tried to get them to change their minds, offering the name Derek which led to his middle name (and resulting in the initials D.D.T.) Damien was born under a full moon and during the birth, Rodney even went as so far as to ask Del if the baby had been born with the numbers ' 666 ' branded on its forehead.
After Damien was born, Rodney refused to hold him or share a room with him. In episodes when Damien was a child Rodney seemed more relaxed around him but his fear arose again when Damien became a handsome and popular teenager who delighted in tormenting Rodney. Sometimes it became somewhat apparent that Del Boy enjoyed Rodney 's fear of Damien, and on Rodney 's birthday once, Damien "sent '' him a card with the Devil on it. Cassandra shares Rodney 's view that Damien is the Antichrist and like Rodney she is tormented by Damien (such as spying on her whilst she was showering and hiding her birth control pills in the urn containing Albert 's ashes).
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senators who have laid in state at capitol | Lying in state - wikipedia
Lying in state is the tradition in which the body of a dead official is placed in a state building, either outside or inside a coffin, to allow the public to pay their respects. It traditionally takes place in the principal government building of a country, state, or city. While the practice differs among countries, a viewing in a location other than the principal government building may be referred to as lying in repose.
In Canada, official lying in state is a part of a state funeral, an honor generally reserved for former Governors General and former Prime Ministers. It is held in the Centre Block of Parliament Hill, in the national capital, Ottawa, Ontario. Ex-governors general lie in state in the Senate Chamber while former prime ministers lie in the Hall of Honour. During the period of lying in state, the coffins are flanked at each corner by a Guard of honour, made up of four members drawn from the Canadian Forces and Royal Canadian Mounted Police, as well as members of the Governor General 's Foot Guards for former governors general, and guards from the parliamentary security forces for former prime ministers. Guards stand at each corner with heads bowed and weapons inverted (resting on Arms reversed) with their backs turned towards the casket.
Provinces may also mount state funerals and have a lying in state for a distinguished former resident. For instance, Maurice Richard, nationally known hockey player, was given a state funeral by the province of Quebec when he died in 2000; his coffin lay in state at the Molson Centre. This process was repeated for fellow Canadiens legend Jean Béliveau in December 2014.
Municipalities may offer civic funerals to prominent deceased current or former politicians.
In North Korea, the body of the late leader Kim Jong - il was displayed in a glass coffin surrounded with red flowers at the Kumsusan Memorial Palace in Pyongyang prior to his funeral, which began and ended at the palace. An honor guard armed with AK - 47s was present. Jong - il 's father Kim Il - sung, the founding president, is on display elsewhere in the palace.
In Russia, during the time of the Soviet Union (1917 -- 1991), the state funerals of the most senior political and military leaders, such as Vladimir Lenin, Joseph Stalin, Leonid Brezhnev, Yuri Andropov, and Konstantin Chernenko all followed the same basic outline. They took place in Moscow, beginning with a public lying in state of the deceased in the House of the Unions, and ending with an interment at Red Square.
For the lying in state at the House of the Unions, the coffin would be placed on display in the Column Hall, which would be decorated by flowers, numerous red flags and other communist symbols. The mourners, which usually would be brought in by the thousands, shuffled up a marble staircase beneath chandeliers draped in black gauze. On the stage at the left side of the Column Hall, a full orchestra in black tailcoats played classical music. The deceased 's embalmed body, dressed in a black suit, white shirt and a tie, was displayed in an open coffin on a catafalque banked with carnations, red roses and tulips, facing the queue of mourners. A small guard of honour would be in attendance in the background. At the right side of the hall, seats were placed for guests of honour, with the front row reserved for the dead leader 's family.
On the day of the funeral, a military funeral parade would take place during which the coffin would be conveyed from the House of the Unions to Red Square where burial would take place. Lenin and Stalin were placed inside the Lenin Mausoleum, while Brezhnev, Andropov, and Chernenko were interred in individual graves in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis.
At state funerals in Singapore, the national flag is put on the coffin. The vigil guard may be deployed during the public lying in state of the deceased person at Parliament House. The deployment of the vigil guard is the highest form of respect accorded by the nation to the deceased. Similar to British traditions, the vigil guard is composed of groups of five commissioned officers from the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF) and Singapore Police Force (SPF) who stand guard around the clock in shifts of 30 minutes. One of the five officers stands facing outward at each of the four corners of the casket, while the fifth and most senior one stands in front and faces inward. Their heads are bowed and their ceremonial swords are inverted.
Vigil guards were stationed at the public lying in state of Goh Keng Swee in May 2010, Lee Kuan Yew in March 2015 as well as SR Nathan in August 2016.
Nelson Mandela was the first democratically elected president to lie in state in South Africa. The event took place at the Union Buildings, the same site where he was inaugurated as the President of South Africa on May 10, 1994. The body of Mandela was lying in State for three days, starting on Wednesday, December 11, 2013 and ending Friday, December 13. The body was viewed by thousands of South Africans before it was airlifted to Qunu in the Eastern Cape where Mandela was buried on December 15, 2013.
In state and ceremonial funerals in the United Kingdom, the lying - in - state takes place in Westminster Hall. The coffin is placed on a catafalque and is guarded, around the clock, by detachments, each of four men, from the following units:
Each unit mans the guard for a total of six hours, with each detachment standing post for twenty minutes. The four men stand at each corner with heads bowed and weapons inverted; their backs are turned towards the coffin.
On two occasions, the guard has been mounted by four male members of the Royal Family. At the lying in state of King George V in 1936, the guard was mounted by his four sons King Edward VIII, the Duke of York (George VI), the Duke of Gloucester and the Duke of Kent. For Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother 's lying - in - state in 2002, the guard was mounted by her four grandsons, the Prince of Wales, the Duke of York, the Earl of Wessex, and Viscount Linley.
Lying in state in the United States is the rare honor either authorized by a congressional resolution or approved by the congressional leadership, when permission is granted by survivors, to a deceased official whereby his or her remains are placed in the rotunda of the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. for public viewing. The casket is guarded by members of the armed forces. By regulation and custom, only Presidents, military commanders, and members of Congress are granted the honor of lying in state. Except for Presidents and former Presidents, the honor is not automatic. Not all those entitled to the honor have it accepted by their survivors. The first leader to receive this honor was Henry Clay, former Speaker of the House of Representatives, when he died in 1852. Since then, the honor has been extended to 27 people, including eleven Presidents, and to 4 Unknown Soldiers, representing U.S. service members who have died without their remains being identified. An additional four individuals have lain in honor, a similar privileged.
The process of lying in state at the Capitol is as follows. The coffin or casket is usually placed on a catafalque, usually the Lincoln catafalque, so named as it was constructed for lying in state upon the death of Abraham Lincoln, after his assassination in 1865. The casket is guarded at each of its corners by a serviceperson from each of the branches of the armed forces. In contrast to the practice in the United Kingdom and other countries of the Commonwealth, guards at the Capitol face the casket, hold their rifles with their right hand, and keep the rifle butt resting on the floor. After the viewing and ceremony at the Capitol, the remains are taken to the burial location.
To date, William Howard Taft and Robert Taft are the only father - and - son pair to have been so honored.
The United States Congress has created a similar -- though not identical -- privilege for distinguished Americans who do not qualify for a lying in state designation. In the process of "lying in honor, '' the honor guard in the Rotunda is provided by the Capitol Police or another suitable source.
In 1998, Chestnut and Gibson were killed while defending the Capitol against a shooter. Congress approved their remains to lie in honor in the Rotunda. Chestnut was the first African American to lie in honor. In 2005, upon the death of civil rights activist Rosa Parks, Congress authorized her remains to lie in honor at the Rotunda; Parks was the second African American and the first woman to lie in honor in the Capitol Rotunda. Graham was the first religious leader to be honored in this way.
Supreme Court Justices "lie in repose '' in the Great Hall of the United States Supreme Court Building.
Some U.S. states and cities extend similar honors. For example, in the state of Hawaii, three people have been laid in state at the Hawaii State Capitol, among which include famous Hawaiian singer Israel Kamakawiwoʻole upon his death in 1997, and the aforementioned Daniel Inouye, President pro tempore of the U.S. Senate and Senator from Hawaii. Similarly, after the death of U.S. Senator John McCain, it was announced that he would lie in state at the State Capitol in his home state of Arizona before receiving the same honor at the U.S. Capitol.
In the City of San Francisco, California, Mayor Ed Lee laid in state at the Rotunda of San Francisco City Hall after his death in office in 2017.
A deceased pope customarily lies in state in the chapel of the Apostolic Palace and then in St. Peter 's Basilica, between the holding of a Mass of Visitation and a Mass of Requiem. The funeral of Pope John Paul II was an example of this custom.
The Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria has a tradition of mummifying the deceased pope and placing his body on his throne to enable church followers to have a farewell look at him for a short period of time. This tradition is one of the ways that ancient Egyptian rituals have survived in the Egyptian church.
died in 1825, his remains were disinterred, he was honored by lying in state before reinterment
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is the drinking age 21 in all us states | U.S. history of alcohol minimum purchase age by State - wikipedia
The alcohol laws of the United States regarding minimum age for purchase have changed over time. The history is given in the table below. Unless otherwise noted, if different alcohol categories have different minimum purchase ages, the age listed below is set at the lowest age given (e.g. if the purchase age is 18 for beer and 21 for wine or spirits, as was the case in several states, the age in the table will read as "18 '', not "21 ''). In addition, the purchase age is not necessarily the same as the minimum age for consumption of alcoholic beverages, although they have often been the same.
As one can see in the table below, there has been much volatility in the states ' drinking ages since the repeal of Prohibition in 1933. Shortly after the ratification of the 21st amendment in December, most states set their purchase ages at 21 since that was the Voting age at the time. Most of these limits remained constant until the early 1970s. From 1969 to 1976, some 30 states lowered their purchase ages, generally to 18. This was primarily because the voting age was lowered from 21 to 18 in 1971 with the 26th amendment. A lot of states started to lower their minimum drinking age in response, most of this occurring in 1972 or 1973. Twelve states kept their purchase ages at 21 since repeal of Prohibition and never changed them.
From 1976 to 1983, several states voluntarily raised their purchase ages to 19 (or, less commonly, 20 or 21), in part to combat drunk driving fatalities. In 1984, Congress passed the National Minimum Drinking Age Act, which required states to raise their ages for purchase and public possession to 21 by October 1986 or lose 10 % of their federal highway funds. By mid-1988, all 50 states and the District of Columbia had raised their purchase ages to 21 (but not Puerto Rico, Guam, or the Virgin Islands, see Additional Notes below). South Dakota and Wyoming were the final two states to comply with the age 21 mandate. The current drinking age of 21 remains a point of contention among many Americans, because of it being higher than the age of majority (18 in most states) and higher than the drinking ages of most other countries. The National Minimum Drinking Age Act is also seen as a congressional sidestep of the tenth amendment. Although debates have not been highly publicized, a few states have proposed legislation to lower their drinking age, while Guam has raised its drinking age to 21 in July 2010.
94. Citation for Wisconsin drinking law: https://www.revenue.wi.gov/Pages/FAQS/ise-atundrg.aspx
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when was the last time chelsea won the champions league | Chelsea FC in European football - wikipedia
Chelsea Football Club is an English professional football club based in Fulham, London. The club 's involvement in European competition dates back to the 1950s. As champions of England, the club was invited to participate in the inaugural European Champions ' Cup in 1955, but withdrew after pressure from the Football League. Three years later, Chelsea made their European debut against Stævnet in the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup, on 30 September 1958.
Chelsea won their first European title in 1971, defeating Real Madrid to win the European Cup Winners ' Cup. In 1998, they won the trophy again, followed by the UEFA Super Cup later that year. In 2012 Chelsea won the UEFA Champions League, the fifth English team, and the first from London, to win the competition. In 2013 Chelsea won the UEFA Europa League to become the fourth club to win all three main UEFA club competitions. Chelsea are presently England 's third-most successful club in Europe, with five trophies in total.
John Terry holds the club record for appearances in European competitions with 124, while striker Didier Drogba is the club 's leading European goalscorer with 36 goals. Chelsea 's biggest European win is 13 -- 0, which came against Jeunesse Hautcharage in the Cup Winners ' Cup in 1971. Their 21 -- 0 aggregate win over the same opposition is a joint - record in European football.
Chelsea were invited to take part in the inaugural European Cup, now UEFA Champions League, in 1955 after they claimed their first league title the previous season. However, Chelsea were bullied into withdrawing from the tournament by the Football League FA. They had thus missed the chance to become the first English club to participate in and potentially win what is now the most prestigious club competition in European football. It was not until 44 years later that they would make their debut in the Champions League.
The 1999 -- 2000 season saw the club progress through the group stage and the second group stage to reach the quarter - finals where they faced Barcelona of Spain. Chelsea won the first leg 3 -- 1 at Stamford Bridge with Gianfranco Zola scoring the opener and Tore André Flo a brace. However, they were beaten 1 -- 5 in Spain two weeks later and knocked out of the competition 4 -- 6 on aggregate, thus ended their first Champions League journey.
Chelsea qualified for the 2003 -- 04 Champions League by finishing fourth in the 2002 -- 03 FA Premier League. Their place in the Champions League was secured on the final day of the season, beating fifth - place Liverpool 2 -- 1 at home. The game was dubbed ' the £ 20m match ' as Chelsea were only ahead of Liverpool on goal difference before kickoff; a win for either side would see them qualify for the following season 's Champions League at the expense of the other. Jesper Grønkjær scored the winner in the 26th minute. The goal would later seemed by many as the most important in the club 's history and said to be worth £ 1 billion, as many believe had Liverpool won on that day the subsequent takeover by Russian billionaire Roman Abramovich would never have happened.
Chelsea reached the semi-finals after defeating derby rivals Arsenal 2 -- 1 at Highbury. Having not beaten Arsenal since November 1998, they went into the second leg with a 1 -- 1 home draw. José Antonio Reyes ' goal before the half time gave the Gunners the lead, however Chelsea managed to come back and won in the second half through Frank Lampard 's goal within six minutes of the restart and Wayne Bridge 's winning goal in the 88th minute.
The first leg of the semi-final however turned out to be a disaster for Chelsea as they were defeated 1 -- 3 by ten - man Monaco at Stade Louis II stadium. Two weeks later at Stamford Bridge, they were leading 2 -- 0 shortly before the halftime. Had they kept this score to the final whistle, they would go through on away goals. However, Monaco eventually came back in the second half and the game ended a 2 -- 2 draw. As a consequence, Claudio Ranieri was sacked at the end of the season.
Chelsea came very close to winning the Champions League several times during the 2000s. The closest they came was in the 2008 UEFA Champions League Final, being held in the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow. This was the first ever all - English Champions League / European Cup Final, with Chelsea facing Manchester United. The game was tightly contested, with the final score after extra time 1 -- 1. In the penalty shootout, Chelsea were one kick away from winning the Champions League (Petr Čech having saved Cristiano Ronaldo 's penalty). But Chelsea 's captain John Terry slipped on his run up for the final penalty and his shot hit the post. Edwin van der Sar then saved Nicolas Anelka 's spot kick and Manchester United were crowned European Champions for the third time in their history.
The following season, Chelsea were on course to make their second final in two years. Following a 0 -- 0 draw at the Camp Nou, Chelsea were beating Barcelona 1 -- 0 at the Stamford Bridge. In a hugely controversial game, Barcelona managed to score an equaliser in the 94th minute of the game. With the score at 1 -- 1, Barcelona progressed to the 2009 UEFA Champions League Final on away goals. Numerous Chelsea players protested in fury after the final whistle, most notable José Bosingwa and Didier Drogba. Drogba shouted into television cameras that the game was "a fucking disgrace. '' Both players were handed bans by UEFA for their actions.
Chelsea would not feature in a Champions League Final again until the 2012 Final that was being held in Munich 's Allianz Arena. Following several nerve - wracking encounters en route against Napoli, Benfica and Barcelona, Chelsea faced a game against Bayern Munich, who would be playing the Final in their home ground. Bayern controlled the game for the most part, and took the lead in the Final in the 83rd minute through Thomas Müller. Didier Drogba equalised five minutes later with a header from a corner from Juan Mata. In extra time, Bayern missed several opportunities (including a penalty from former Chelsea player Arjen Robben) and the game was to be decided with a penalty shootout. Chelsea eventually triumphed 4 -- 3, despite Juan Mata missing their first penalty. Two Bayern Munich players, Ivica Olić and Bastian Schweinsteiger, failed to convert their penalties. Drogba scored the final penalty of the shootout for the first ever Champions League title for Chelsea. The importance of victory went beyond being the crown jewel of Europe, and meant that Chelsea would secure a place in next season 's Champions League after missing out of qualification, as a result of finishing sixth in the Premier League.
In each of their Champions League Final appearances (in 2008 and 2012), Chelsea were being managed by an interim / caretaker manager at the time (Avram Grant in 2008 and Roberto Di Matteo in 2012). Di Matteo did receive a permanent contract after winning the 2012 trophy, but was sacked on 21 November that year after just eight months in charge; he had also guided Chelsea to success in the FA Cup as well as the European Cup during his short tenure.
All results (home and away) list Chelsea 's goal tally first.
Key
Below is the list of all - time top goal scorers for Chelsea in the official UEFA competitions, including qualifying rounds. Names, that appear in italics, indicate players currently playing for the first team. Statistics are correct as of 25 October 2018.
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which type of technology encapsulates fibre channel communications over tcp/ip | Fibre Channel over Ethernet - wikipedia
Fibre Channel over Ethernet (FCoE) is a computer network technology that encapsulates Fibre Channel frames over Ethernet networks. This allows Fibre Channel to use 10 Gigabit Ethernet networks (or higher speeds) while preserving the Fibre Channel protocol. The specification was part of the International Committee for Information Technology Standards T11 FC - BB - 5 standard published in 2009.
FCoE transports Fibre Channel directly over Ethernet while being independent of the Ethernet forwarding scheme. The FCoE protocol specification replaces the FC0 and FC1 layers of the Fibre Channel stack with Ethernet. By retaining the native Fibre Channel constructs, FCoE was meant to integrate with existing Fibre Channel networks and management software.
Data centers used Ethernet for TCP / IP networks and Fibre Channel for storage area networks (SANs). With FCoE, Fibre Channel becomes another network protocol running on Ethernet, alongside traditional Internet Protocol (IP) traffic. FCoE operates directly above Ethernet in the network protocol stack, in contrast to iSCSI which runs on top of TCP and IP. As a consequence, FCoE is not routable at the IP layer, and will not work across routed IP networks.
Since classical Ethernet had no priority - based flow control, unlike Fibre Channel, FCoE required enhancements to the Ethernet standard to support a priority - based flow control mechanism (to reduce frame loss from congestion). The IEEE standards body added priorities in the data center bridging Task Group.
Fibre Channel required three primary extensions to deliver the capabilities of Fibre Channel over Ethernet networks:
Computers can connect to FCoE with converged network adapters (CNAs), which contain both Fibre Channel host bus adapter (HBA) and Ethernet network interface controller (NIC) functionality on the same physical card. CNAs have one or more physical Ethernet ports. FCoE encapsulation can be done in software with a conventional Ethernet network interface card, however FCoE CNAs offload (from the CPU) the low level frame processing and SCSI protocol functions traditionally performed by Fibre Channel host bus adapters.
The main application of FCoE is in data center storage area networks (SANs). FCoE has particular application in data centers due to the cabling reduction it makes possible, as well as in server virtualization applications, which often require many physical I / O connections per server.
With FCoE, network (IP) and storage (SAN) data traffic can be consolidated using a single network. This consolidation can:
FCoE is encapsulated over Ethernet with the use of a dedicated Ethertype, 0x8906. A single 4 - bit field (version) satisfies the IEEE sub-type requirements. The 802.1 Q tag is optional but may be necessary in a given implementation. The SOF (start of frame) and EOF (end of frame) are encoded as specified in RFC 3643. Reserved bits are present to guarantee that the FCoE frame meets the minimum length requirement of Ethernet. Inside the encapsulated Fibre Channel frame, the frame header is retained so as to allow connecting to a storage network by passing on the Fibre Channel frame directly after de-encapsulation.
The FIP (FCoE Initialization Protocol) is an integral part of FCoE. Its main goal is to discover and initialize FCoE capable entities connected to an Ethernet cloud. FIP uses a dedicated Ethertype of 0x8914.
In October 2003, Azul Technology developed early version and applied for a patent.
In April 2007, the FCoE standardization activity started.
In October 2007, the first public end - to - end FCoE demo occurred at Storage Network World including adapters from QLogic, switches from Nuova Systems, and storage from NetApp (none of the companies involved made any product announcements at the time).
In April 2008, an early implementor was Nuova Systems, a subsidiary of Cisco Systems, which announced a switch. Brocade Communications Systems also announced support in 2008. After the late - 2000s financial crisis, however, any new technology had a hard time getting established.
In June 2009, the FCoE technology that had been defined as part of the International Committee for Information Technology Standards (INCITS) T11 FC - BB - 5 standard was forwarded to ANSI for publication.
In May 2010, the FC - BB - 5 standard was published as ANSI / INCITS 462 - 2010. Some additional work was done in the INCITS.
By September 2011, a columnist was calling the technology "dead ''.
Data center switches from Force10 and Dell PowerConnect supported FCoE and in June 2013, Dell Networking, which is the new brand - name for all networking portfolio of Dell, introduced the S5000 series which can be a fully native FCoE switch with the option to include a native fibre channel module, allowing you to connect the S5000 directly to an FC SAN environment.
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in contrast to laws enacted by legislatures common law is based on | Common law - wikipedia
Common law is a body of law derived from judicial decisions (also known as judicial precedent or judge - made law or case law) as distinct from statutes or constitutions, and distinct from a civil law system and ecclesiastical law; in common law jurisdictions, it is the basic system of legal concepts, together with the techniques of applying them in courts of law. At the heart of all common law systems lies the principle, known as stare decisis, that judges should decide cases according to consistent principles and rules, so that similar facts will yield similar results.
Common law systems originated during the Middle Ages in England, and from there propagated to the colonies of the former British Empire and of the British "Thirteen Colonies '' in north America. England 's common law was stated in Halsbury 's Laws of England, to be nothing else but the common custom of the realm, and not to be confused with the jus commune of the Church of Rome. Today, one third of the world 's population live in common law jurisdictions or in systems mixed with civil law, including Antigua and Barbuda, Australia, Bahamas, Bangladesh, Barbados, Belize, Botswana, Burma, Cameroon, Canada (both the federal system and its provinces except Quebec), Cyprus, Dominica, Fiji, Ghana, Grenada, Guyana, Hong Kong, India, Ireland, Israel, Jamaica, Kenya, Liberia, Malaysia, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Namibia, Nauru, New Zealand, Nigeria, Pakistan, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Sierra Leone, Singapore, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Trinidad and Tobago, the United States (both the United States federal courts and 49 of its 50 states), and Zimbabwe.
Among lawyers the most frequent usages of the term common law are the first three described here. Other connotations occur in other contexts.
The first of four definitions of "common law '' given in the widely used U.S. law dictionary, Black 's Law Dictionary (10th edition, 2014, editor - in - chief Bryan A. Garner), is "the body of law derived from judicial decisions, rather than from statutes or constitutions '', and this is the usage characterized as the "most common '' among legal professionals in U.S. and frequently seen in court decisions, The law in common law jurisdictions includes "statutory law '' enacted by a legislature, "regulatory law '' (in the U.S.) or "delegated legislation '' (in the U.K.) promulgated by executive branch agencies pursuant to delegation of rule - making authority from the legislature, and common law or "case law '', i.e., decisions issued by courts. Publication of decisions, and indexing, is essential to the development of common law, and governments and private publishers publish law reports. Some decisions become the "leading cases '' or "landmark decisions '' that are cited and applied most frequently in later cases and discussed in academic commentaries.
The second of the definitions in Black 's Law Dictionary (10th Ed. 2014) differentiates "common law '' jurisdictions and legal systems from "civil law '' or "code '' jurisdictions. Common law systems place great weight on court decisions, which are considered "law '' with the same force of law as statutes -- for nearly a millennium, common law courts have had the authority to make law where no legislative statute exists, and statutes mean what courts interpret them to mean.
By contrast, in civil law jurisdictions (the legal tradition that prevails, or is combined with common law, in Europe and most non-Islamic, non-common law countries), courts lack authority to act if there is no statute. Judicial precedent is given less interpretive weight, which means that a judge deciding a given case has more freedom to interpret the text of a statute independently, and less predictably. For example, the Napoleonic code expressly forbade French judges to pronounce general principles of law. The role of providing overarching principles, which in common law jurisdictions is provided in judicial opinions, in civil law jurisdictions is filled by giving greater weight to scholarly literature.
Common law systems trace their history to England, while current civil law systems trace their history through the Napoleonic Code and back to the Corpus Juris Civilis of Roman law.
Black 's fourth definition differentiates common law from "equity ''. Before 1873, England had two complementary court systems: courts of "law '' which could only award money damages and recognized only the legal owner of property, and courts of "equity '' (courts of chancery) that could issue injunctive relief (that is, a court order to a party to do something, give something to someone, or stop doing something) and recognized trusts of property. This split propagated to many of the colonies, including the United States. For most purposes, most jurisdictions, including the U.S. federal system and most states, have merged the two courts. Nonetheless, the historical distinction between "law '' and "equity '' remains important today when the case involves issues such as the following:
Courts of equity rely on common law principles of binding precedent.
Historical uses of the term provide some background for the meaning of "common law ''.
In some contexts, "common law '' refers to the pre-Christian system of law, imported by the Saxons to England before the Norman conquest, and before there was any consistent law to be applied. This definition is found or alluded to in some internet dictionaries.
"Common law '' as the term is used today in common law countries contrasts with jus commune (or, frequently, ius commune). While historically the ius commune became a secure point of reference in continental European legal systems, in England it was not a point of reference at all.
The English Court of Common Pleas dealt with lawsuits in which the monarch had no interest, i.e., between commoners.
Black 's third definition is "General law common to a country as a whole, as opposed to special law that has only local application. '' From at least the 11th century and continuing for several centuries after that, there were several different circuits in the royal court system, served by itinerant judges who would travel from town to town dispensing the King 's justice in "assizes ''. The term "common law '' was used to describe the law held in common between the circuits and the different stops in each circuit. The more widely a particular law was recognized, the more weight it held, whereas purely local customs were generally subordinate to law recognized in a plurality of jurisdictions.
Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. cautioned that "the proper derivation of general principles in both common and constitutional law... arise gradually, in the emergence of a consensus from a multitude of particularized prior decisions. '' Justice Cardozo noted the "common law does not work from pre-established truths of universal and inflexible validity to conclusions derived from them deductively, '' but "(i) ts method is inductive, and it draws its generalizations from particulars. ''
The common law is more malleable than statutory law. First, common law courts are not absolutely bound by precedent, but can (when extraordinarily good reason is shown) reinterpret and revise the law, without legislative intervention, to adapt to new trends in political, legal and social philosophy. Second, the common law evolves through a series of gradual steps, that gradually works out all the details, so that over a decade or more, the law can change substantially but without a sharp break, thereby reducing disruptive effects. In contrast to common law incrementalism, the legislative process is very difficult to get started, as legislatures tend to delay action until a situation is totally intolerable. For these reasons, legislative changes tend to be large, jarring and disruptive (sometimes positively, sometimes negatively, and sometimes with unintended consequences).
One example of the gradual change that typifies evolution of the common law is the gradual change in liability for negligence. The traditional common law rule through most of the 19th century was that a plaintiff could not recover for a defendant 's negligent production or distribution of a harmful instrumentality unless the two were in privity of contract. Thus, only the immediate purchaser could recover for a product defect, and if a part was built up out of parts from parts manufacturers, the ultimate buyer could not recover for injury caused by a defect in the part. In an 1842 English case, Winterbottom v. Wright, the postal service had contracted with Wright to maintain its coaches. Winterbottom was a driver for the post. When the coach failed and injured Winterbottom, he sued Wright. The Winterbottom court recognized that there would be "absurd and outrageous consequences '' if an injured person could sue any person peripherally involved, and knew it had to draw a line somewhere, a limit on the causal connection between the negligent conduct and the injury. The court looked to the contractual relationships, and held that liability would only flow as far as the person in immediate contract ("privity '') with the negligent party.
A first exception to this rule arose in 1852, in the case of Thomas v. Winchester, when New York 's highest court held that mislabeling a poison as an innocuous herb, and then selling the mislabeled poison through a dealer who would be expected to resell it, put "human life in imminent danger. '' Thomas relied on this reason to create an exception to the "privity '' rule. In, 1909, New York held in Statler v. Ray Mfg. Co. that a coffee urn manufacturer was liable to a person injured when the urn exploded, because the urn "was of such a character inherently that, when applied to the purposes for which it was designed, it was liable to become a source of great danger to many people if not carefully and properly constructed. ''
Yet the privity rule survived. In Cadillac Motor Car Co. v. Johnson, (decided in 1915 by the federal appeals court for New York and several neighboring states), the court held that a car owner could not recover for injuries from a defective wheel, when the automobile owner had a contract only with the automobile dealer and not with the manufacturer, even though there was "no question that the wheel was made of dead and ' dozy ' wood, quite insufficient for its purposes. '' The Cadillac court was willing to acknowledge that the case law supported exceptions for "an article dangerous in its nature or likely to become so in the course of the ordinary usage to be contemplated by the vendor. '' However, held the Cadillac court, "one who manufactures articles dangerous only if defectively made, or installed, e.g., tables, chairs, pictures or mirrors hung on the walls, carriages, automobiles, and so on, is not liable to third parties for injuries caused by them, except in case of willful injury or fraud, ''
Finally, in the famous case of MacPherson v. Buick Motor Co., in 1916, Judge Benjamin Cardozo for New York 's highest court pulled a broader principle out of these predecessor cases. The facts were almost identical to Cadillac a year earlier: a wheel from a wheel manufacturer was sold to Buick, to a dealer, to MacPherson, and the wheel failed, injuring MacPherson. Judge Cardozo held:
It may be that Statler v. Ray Mfg. Co. have extended the rule of Thomas v. Winchester. If so, this court is committed to the extension. The defendant argues that things imminently dangerous to life are poisons, explosives, deadly weapons -- things whose normal function it is to injure or destroy. But whatever the rule in Thomas v. Winchester may once have been, it has no longer that restricted meaning. A scaffold (Devlin v. Smith, supra) is not inherently a destructive instrument. It becomes destructive only if imperfectly constructed. A large coffee urn (Statler v. Ray Mfg. Co., supra) may have within itself, if negligently made, the potency of danger, yet no one thinks of it as an implement whose normal function is destruction. What is true of the coffee urn is equally true of bottles of aerated water (Torgeson v. Schultz, 192 N.Y. 156). We have mentioned only cases in this court. But the rule has received a like extension in our courts of intermediate appeal. In Burke v. Ireland (26 App. Div. 487), in an opinion by CULLEN, J., it was applied to a builder who constructed a defective building; in Kahner v. Otis Elevator Co. (96 App. Div. 169) to the manufacturer of an elevator; in Davies v. Pelham Hod Elevating Co. (65 Hun, 573; affirmed in this court without opinion, 146 N.Y. 363) to a contractor who furnished a defective rope with knowledge of the purpose for which the rope was to be used. We are not required at this time either to approve or to disapprove the application of the rule that was made in these cases. It is enough that they help to characterize the trend of judicial thought.
We hold, then, that the principle of Thomas v. Winchester is not limited to poisons, explosives, and things of like nature, to things which in their normal operation are implements of destruction. If the nature of a thing is such that it is reasonably certain to place life and limb in peril when negligently made, it is then a thing of danger. Its nature gives warning of the consequences to be expected. If to the element of danger there is added knowledge that the thing will be used by persons other than the purchaser, and used without new tests then, irrespective of contract, the manufacturer of this thing of danger is under a duty to make it carefully... There must be knowledge of a danger, not merely possible, but probable.
Cardozo 's new "rule '' exists in no prior case, but is inferrable as a synthesis of the "thing of danger '' principle stated in them, merely extending it to "foreseeable danger '' even if "the purposes for which it was designed '' were not themselves "a source of great danger. '' MacPherson takes some care to present itself as foreseeable progression, not a wild departure. Cardozo continues to adhere to the original principle of Winterbottom, that "absurd and outrageous consequences '' must be avoided, and he does so by drawing a new line in the last sentence quoted above: "There must be knowledge of a danger, not merely possible, but probable. '' But while adhering to the underlying principle that some boundary is necessary, MacPherson overruled the prior common law by rendering the formerly dominant factor in the boundary, that is, the privity formality arising out of a contractual relationship between persons, totally irrelevant. Rather, the most important factor in the boundary would be the nature of the thing sold and the foreseeable uses that downstream purchasers would make of the thing.
This illustrates two crucial principles. (a) The evolution of the common law is in the hands of judges, and judges have "made law '' for hundreds of years. (b) The reasons given for a decision are often more important in the development of the law than the outcome in a particular case.
Common law decisions are published in law reports for use by lawyers, courts and the general public.
After the American Revolution, Massachusetts became the first state to establish an official Reporter of Decisions. As newer states needed law, they often looked first to the Massachusetts Reports for authoritative precedents as a basis for their own common law. The United States federal courts relied on private publishers until after the Civil War, and only began publishing as a government function in 1874. West Publishing in Minnesota is the largest private - sector publisher of law reports in the United States. Government publishers typically issue only decisions "in the raw, '' while private sector publishers often add indexing, editorial analysis, and similar finding aids.
In common law legal systems, the common law is crucial to understanding almost all important areas of law. For example, in England and Wales, in English Canada, and in most states of the United States, the basic law of contracts, torts and property do not exist in statute, but only in common law (though there may be isolated modifications enacted by statute). As another example, the Supreme Court of the United States in 1877, held that a Michigan statute that established rules for solemnization of marriages did not abolish pre-existing common - law marriage, because the statute did not affirmatively require statutory solemnization and was silent as to preexisting common law.
In almost all areas of the law (even those where there is a statutory framework, such as contracts for the sale of goods, or the criminal law), legislature - enacted statutes generally give only terse statements of general principle, and the fine boundaries and definitions exist only in the interstitial common law. To find out what the precise law is that applies to a particular set of facts, one has to locate precedential decisions on the topic, and reason from those decisions by analogy.
In common law jurisdictions (as opposed to "civil law ''), legislatures operate under the assumption that statutes will be interpreted against the backdrop of the pre-existing common law. As the United States Supreme Court explained in United States v Texas, 507 U.S. 529 (1993):
For example, in most U.S. states, the criminal statutes are primarily codification of pre-existing common law. (Codification is the process of enacting a statute that collects and restates pre-existing law in a single document -- when that pre-existing law is common law, the common law remains relevant to the interpretation of these statutes.) In reliance on this assumption, modern statutes often leave a number of terms and fine distinctions unstated -- for example, a statute might be very brief, leaving the precise definition of terms unstated, under the assumption that these fine distinctions will be inherited from pre-existing common law. (For this reason, many modern American law schools teach the common law of crime as it stood in England in 1789, because that centuries - old English common law is a necessary foundation to interpreting modern criminal statutes.)
With the transition from English law, which had common law crimes, to the new legal system under the U.S. Constitution, which prohibited ex post facto laws at both the federal and state level, the question was raised whether there could be common law crimes in the United States. It was settled in the case of United States v. Hudson, which decided that federal courts had no jurisdiction to define new common law crimes, and that there must always be a (constitutional) statute defining the offense and the penalty for it.
Still, many states retain selected common law crimes. For example, in Virginia, the definition of the conduct that constitutes the crime of robbery exists only in the common law, and the robbery statute only sets the punishment. Virginia Code section 1 - 200 establishes the continued existence and vitality of common law principles and provides that "The common law of England, insofar as it is not repugnant to the principles of the Bill of Rights and Constitution of this Commonwealth, shall continue in full force within the same, and be the rule of decision, except as altered by the General Assembly. ''
By contrast to statutory codification of common law, some statutes displace common law, for example to create a new cause of action that did not exist in the common law, or to legislatively overrule the common law. An example is the tort of wrongful death, which allows certain persons, usually a spouse, child or estate, to sue for damages on behalf of the deceased. There is no such tort in English common law; thus, any jurisdiction that lacks a wrongful death statute will not allow a lawsuit for the wrongful death of a loved one. Where a wrongful death statute exists, the compensation or other remedy available is limited to the remedy specified in the statute (typically, an upper limit on the amount of damages). Courts generally interpret statutes that create new causes of action narrowly -- that is, limited to their precise terms -- because the courts generally recognize the legislature as being supreme in deciding the reach of judge - made law unless such statute should violate some "second order '' constitutional law provision (cf. judicial activism).
Where a tort is rooted in common law, all traditionally recognized damages for that tort may be sued for, whether or not there is mention of those damages in the current statutory law. For instance, a person who sustains bodily injury through the negligence of another may sue for medical costs, pain, suffering, loss of earnings or earning capacity, mental and / or emotional distress, loss of quality of life, disfigurement and more. These damages need not be set forth in statute as they already exist in the tradition of common law. However, without a wrongful death statute, most of them are extinguished upon death.
In the United States, the power of the federal judiciary to review and invalidate unconstitutional acts of the federal executive branch is stated in the constitution, Article III sections 1 and 2: "The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish... The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority... '' The first famous statement of "the judicial power '' was Marbury v. Madison, 5 U.S. (1 Cranch) 137 (1803). Later cases interpreted the "judicial power '' of Article III to establish the power of federal courts to consider or overturn any action of Congress or of any state that conflicts with the Constitution.
The interactions between decisions of different courts is discussed further in the article on precedent.
The United States federal courts are divided into twelve regional circuits, each with a circuit court of appeals (plus a thirteenth, the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, which hears appeals in patent cases and cases against the federal government, without geographic limitation). Decisions of one circuit court are binding on the district courts within the circuit and on the circuit court itself, but are only persuasive authority on sister circuits. District court decisions are not binding precedent at all, only persuasive.
Most of the U.S. federal courts of appeal have adopted a rule under which, in the event of any conflict in decisions of panels (most of the courts of appeal almost always sit in panels of three), the earlier panel decision is controlling, and a panel decision may only be overruled by the court of appeals sitting en banc (that is, all active judges of the court) or by a higher court. In these courts, the older decision remains controlling when an issue comes up the third time.
Other courts, for example, the Court of Customs and Patent Appeals and the Supreme Court, always sit en banc, and thus the later decision controls. These courts essentially overrule all previous cases in each new case, and older cases survive only to the extent they do not conflict with newer cases. The interpretations of these courts -- for example, Supreme Court interpretations of the constitution or federal statutes -- are stable only so long as the older interpretation maintains the support of a majority of the court. Older decisions persist through some combination of belief that the old decision is right, and that it is not sufficiently wrong to be overruled.
The reliance on judicial opinion is a strength of common law systems, and is a significant contributor to the robust commercial systems in the United Kingdom and United States. Because there is reasonably precise guidance on almost every issue, parties (especially commercial parties) can predict whether a proposed course of action is likely to be lawful or unlawful, and have some assurance of consistency. As Justice Brandeis famously expressed it, "in most matters it is more important that the applicable rule of law be settled than that it be settled right. '' This ability to predict gives more freedom to come close to the boundaries of the law. For example, many commercial contracts are more economically efficient, and create greater wealth, because the parties know ahead of time that the proposed arrangement, though perhaps close to the line, is almost certainly legal. Newspapers, taxpayer - funded entities with some religious affiliation, and political parties can obtain fairly clear guidance on the boundaries within which their freedom of expression rights apply.
In contrast, in non-common - law countries, and jurisdictions with very weak respect for precedent, fine questions of law are redetermined anew each time they arise, making consistency and prediction more difficult, and procedures far more protracted than necessary because parties can not rely on written statements of law as reliable guides. In jurisdictions that do not have a strong allegiance to a large body of precedent, parties have less a priori guidance and must often leave a bigger "safety margin '' of unexploited opportunities, and final determinations are reached only after far larger expenditures on legal fees by the parties.
This is the reason for the frequent choice of the law of the State of New York in commercial contracts, even when neither entity has extensive contacts with New York -- and remarkably often even when neither party has contacts with the United States. Commercial contracts almost always include a "choice of law clause '' to reduce uncertainty. Somewhat surprisingly, contracts throughout the world (for example, contracts involving parties in Japan, France and Germany, and from most of the other states of the United States) often choose the law of New York, even where the relationship of the parties and transaction to New York is quite attenuated. Because of its history as the United States ' commercial center, New York common law has a depth and predictability not (yet) available in any other jurisdictions of the United States. Similarly, American corporations are often formed under Delaware corporate law, and American contracts relating to corporate law issues (merger and acquisitions of companies, rights of shareholders, and so on.) include a Delaware choice of law clause, because of the deep body of law in Delaware on these issues. Outside the United States, parties that are in different jurisdictions from each other often choose the law of England and Wales, particularly when the parties are each in former British colonies and members of the Commonwealth. The common theme in all cases is that commercial parties seek predictability and simplicity in their contractual relations, and frequently choose the law of a common law jurisdiction with a well - developed body of common law to achieve that result.
Likewise, for litigation of commercial disputes arising out of unpredictable torts (as opposed to the prospective choice of law clauses in contracts discussed in the previous paragraph), certain jurisdictions attract an unusually high fraction of cases, because of the predictability afforded by the depth of decided cases. For example, London is considered the pre-eminent centre for litigation of admiralty cases.
This is not to say that common law is better in every situation. For example, civil law can be clearer than case law when the legislature has had the foresight and diligence to address the precise set of facts applicable to a particular situation. For that reason, civil law statutes tend to be somewhat more detailed than statutes written by common law legislatures -- but, conversely, that tends to make the statute more difficult to read (the United States tax code is an example). Nonetheless, as a practical matter, no civil law legislature can ever address the full spectrum of factual possibilities in the breadth, depth and detail of the case law of the common law courts of even a smaller jurisdiction, and that deeper, more complete body of law provides additional predictability that promotes commerce.
Common law systems originated during the Middle Ages in England, and from there propagated to the colonies of the British Empire.
In the late 9th century, Alfred the Great assembled the Doom book (not to be confused with the more - famous Domesday Book from 200 years later), which collected the existing laws of Kent, Wessex, and Mercia, and attempted to blend in the Mosaic code, Christian principles, and Germanic customs dating as far as the 5th century.
Before the Norman conquest in 1066, justice was administered primarily by what is today known as the county courts (the modern "counties '' were referred to as "shires '' in pre-Norman times), presided by the diocesan bishop and the sheriff, exercising both ecclesiastical and civil jurisdiction. While in some sense an early form of jury came to be part of the procedure in the shire courts, the development of the common law grand jury and petty jury came later.
The main sources for the history of the common law in the Middle Ages are the plea rolls and the Year Books. The plea rolls, which were the official court records for the Courts of Common Pleas and King 's Bench, were written in Latin. The rolls were made up in bundles by law term: Hilary, Easter, Trinity, and Michaelmas, or winter, spring, summer, and autumn. They are currently deposited in the UK National Archives, by whose permission images of the rolls for the Courts of Common Pleas, King 's Bench, and Exchequer of Pleas, from the 13th century to the 17th, can be viewed online at the Anglo - American Legal Tradition site (The O'Quinn Law Library of the University of Houston Law Center).
The term "common law '' originally derives from the 1150s and 1160s, when Henry II of England established the secular English tribunals. The "common law '' was the law that emerged as "common '' throughout the realm (as distinct from the various legal codes that preceded it, such as Mercian law, the Danelaw and the law of Wessex) as the king 's judges followed each other 's decisions to create a unified common law throughout England. From at least the 11th century and continuing for several centuries after that, there were several different circuits in the royal court system, served by itinerant judges who would travel from town to town dispensing the King 's justice. The term "common law '' was used to describe the law held in common between the circuits and the different stops in each circuit. The more widely a particular law was recognized, the more weight it held, whereas purely local customs were generally subordinate to law recognized in a plurality of jurisdictions.
The doctrine of precedent developed during the 12th and 13th centuries, as the collective judicial decisions that were based in tradition, custom and precedent.
The form of reasoning used in common law is known as casuistry or case - based reasoning. The common law, as applied in civil cases (as distinct from criminal cases), was devised as a means of compensating someone for wrongful acts known as torts, including both intentional torts and torts caused by negligence, and as developing the body of law recognizing and regulating contracts. The type of procedure practiced in common law courts is known as the adversarial system; this is also a development of the common law.
The early development of case - law in the thirteenth century has been traced to Bracton 's On the Laws and Customs of England and led to the yearly compilations of court cases known as Year Books, of which the first extant was published in 1268, the same year that Bracton died. The Year Books are known as the law reports of medieval England, and are a principal source for knowledge of the developing legal doctrines, concepts, and methods in the period from the 13th to the 16th centuries, when the common law developed into recognizable form.
In 1154, Henry II became the first Plantagenet king. Among many achievements, Henry institutionalized common law by creating a unified system of law "common '' to the country through incorporating and elevating local custom to the national, ending local control and peculiarities, eliminating arbitrary remedies and reinstating a jury system -- citizens sworn on oath to investigate reliable criminal accusations and civil claims. The jury reached its verdict through evaluating common local knowledge, not necessarily through the presentation of evidence, a distinguishing factor from today 's civil and criminal court systems.
Henry II developed the practice of sending judges from his own central court to hear the various disputes throughout the country. His judges would resolve disputes on an ad hoc basis according to what they interpreted the customs to be. The king 's judges would then return to London and often discuss their cases and the decisions they made with the other judges. These decisions would be recorded and filed. In time, a rule, known as stare decisis (also commonly known as precedent) developed, whereby a judge would be bound to follow the decision of an earlier judge; he was required to adopt the earlier judge 's interpretation of the law and apply the same principles promulgated by that earlier judge if the two cases had similar facts to one another. Once judges began to regard each other 's decisions to be binding precedent, the pre-Norman system of local customs and law varying in each locality was replaced by a system that was (at least in theory, though not always in practice) common throughout the whole country, hence the name "common law. ''
Henry II 's creation of a powerful and unified court system, which curbed somewhat the power of canonical (church) courts, brought him (and England) into conflict with the church, most famously with Thomas Becket, the Archbishop of Canterbury. The murder of the Archbishop gave rise to a wave of popular outrage against the King. Henry was forced to repeal the disputed laws and to abandon his efforts to hold church members accountable for secular crimes (see also Constitutions of Clarendon).
The English Court of Common Pleas was established after Magna Carta to try lawsuits between commoners in which the monarch had no interest. Its judges sat in open court in the Great Hall of the king 's Palace of Westminster, permanently except in the vacations between the four terms of the Legal year.
The term "common law '' is often used as a contrast to Roman - derived "civil law '', and the fundamental processes and forms of reasoning in the two are quite different. Nonetheless, there has been considerable cross-fertilization of ideas, while the two traditions and sets of foundational principles remain distinct.
By the time of the rediscovery of the Roman law in Europe in the 12th and 13th centuries, the common law had already developed far enough to prevent a Roman law reception as it occurred on the continent. However, the first common law scholars, most notably Glanvill and Bracton, as well as the early royal common law judges, had been well accustomed with Roman law. Often, they were clerics trained in the Roman canon law. One of the first and throughout its history one of the most significant treatises of the common law, Bracton 's De Legibus et Consuetudinibus Angliae (On the Laws and Customs of England), was heavily influenced by the division of the law in Justinian 's Institutes. The impact of Roman law had decreased sharply after the age of Bracton, but the Roman divisions of actions into in rem (typically, actions against a thing or property for the purpose of gaining title to that property; must be filed in a court where the property is located) and in personam (typically, actions directed against a person; these can affect a person 's rights and, since a person often owns things, his property too) used by Bracton had a lasting effect and laid the groundwork for a return of Roman law structural concepts in the 18th and 19th centuries. Signs of this can be found in Blackstone 's Commentaries on the Laws of England, and Roman law ideas regained importance with the revival of academic law schools in the 19th century. As a result, today, the main systematic divisions of the law into property, contract, and tort (and to some extent unjust enrichment) can be found in the civil law as well as in the common law.
The first attempt at a comprehensive compilation of centuries of common law was by Lord Chief Justice Edward Coke, in his treatise, Institutes of the Lawes of England in the 17th century.
The next definitive historical treatise on the common law is Commentaries on the Laws of England, written by Sir William Blackstone and first published in 1765 -- 1769.
A reception statute is a statutory law adopted as a former British colony becomes independent, by which the new nation adopts (i.e. receives) pre-independence English law, to the extent not explicitly rejected by the legislative body or constitution of the new nation. Reception statutes generally consider the English common law dating prior to independence, and the precedent originating from it, as the default law, because of the importance of using an extensive and predictable body of law to govern the conduct of citizens and businesses in a new state. All U.S. states, with the partial exception of Louisiana, have either implemented reception statutes or adopted the common law by judicial opinion.
Other examples of reception statutes in the United States, the states of the U.S., Canada and its provinces, and Hong Kong, are discussed in the reception statute article.
Yet, adoption of the common law in the newly - independent nation was not a foregone conclusion, and was controversial. Immediately after the American Revolution, there was widespread distrust and hostility to anything British, and the common law was no exception. Jeffersonians decried lawyers and their common law tradition as threats to the new republic. The Jeffersonians preferred a legislatively - enacted civil law under the control of the political process, rather than the common law developed by judges that -- by design -- were insulated from the political process. The Federalists believed that the common law was the birthright of Independence: after all, the natural rights to "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness '' were the rights protected by common law. Even advocates for the common law approach noted that it was not an ideal fit for the newly - independent colonies: judges and lawyers alike were severely hindered by a lack of printed legal materials. Before Independence, the most comprehensive law libraries had been maintained by Tory lawyers, and those libraries vanished with the loyalist expatriation, and the ability to print books was limited. Lawyer (later president) John Adams complained that he "suffered very much for the want of books. '' To bootstrap this most basic need of a common law system -- knowable, written law -- in 1803, lawyers in Massachusetts donated their books to found a law library. A Jeffersonian newspaper criticized the library, as it would carry forward "all the old authorities practiced in England for centuries back... whereby a new system of jurisprudence (will be founded) on the high monarchical system (to) become the Common Law of this Commonwealth... (The library) may hereafter have a very unsocial purpose. ''
Well into the 19th century, ancient maxims played a large role in common law adjudication. Many of these maxims had originated in Roman Law, migrated to England before the introduction of Christianity to the British Isles, and were typically stated in Latin even in English decisions. Many examples are familiar in everyday speech even today, "One can not be a judge in one 's own cause '' (see Dr. Bonham 's Case), rights are reciprocal to obligations, and the like. Judicial decisions and treatises of the 17th and 18th centuries, such at those of Lord Chief Justice Edward Coke, presented the common law as a collection of such maxims.
Reliance on old maxims and rigid adherence to precedent, no matter how old or ill - considered, was under full attack by the late 19th century. Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. in his famous article, "The Path of the Law '', commented, "It is revolting to have no better reason for a rule of law than that so it was laid down in the time of Henry IV. It is still more revolting if the grounds upon which it was laid down have vanished long since, and the rule simply persists from blind imitation of the past. '' Justice Holmes noted that study of maxims might be sufficient for "the man of the present, '' but "the man of the future is the man of statistics and the master of economics. '' In an 1880 lecture at Harvard, he wrote:
The life of the law has not been logic; it has been experience. The felt necessities of the time, the prevalent moral and political theories, intuitions of public policy, avowed or unconscious, even the prejudices which judges share with their fellow men, have had a good deal more to do than the syllogism in determining the rules by which men should be governed. The law embodies the story of a nation 's development through many centuries, and it can not be dealt with as if it contained only the axioms and corollaries of a book of mathematics.
In the early 20th century, Louis Brandeis, later appointed to the United States Supreme Court, became noted for his use of policy - driving facts and economics in his briefs, and extensive appendices presenting facts that lead a judge to the advocate 's conclusion. By this time, briefs relied more on facts than on Latin maxims.
Reliance on old maxims is now deprecated. Common law decisions today reflect both precedent and policy judgment drawn from economics, the social sciences, business, decisions of foreign courts, and the like. The degree to which these external factors should influence adjudication is the subject of active debate, but it is indisputable that judges do draw on experience and learning from everyday life, from other fields, and from other jurisdictions.
As early as the 15th century, it became the practice that litigants who felt they had been cheated by the common - law system would petition the King in person. For example, they might argue that an award of damages (at common law (as opposed to equity)) was not sufficient redress for a trespasser occupying their land, and instead request that the trespasser be evicted. From this developed the system of equity, administered by the Lord Chancellor, in the courts of chancery. By their nature, equity and law were frequently in conflict and litigation would frequently continue for years as one court countermanded the other, even though it was established by the 17th century that equity should prevail.
In England, courts of law (as opposed to equity) were combined with courts of equity by the Judicature Acts of 1873 and 1875, with equity prevailing in case of conflict.
In the United States, parallel systems of law (providing money damages, with cases heard by a jury upon either party 's request) and equity (fashioning a remedy to fit the situation, including injunctive relief, heard by a judge) survived well into the 20th century. The United States federal courts procedurally separated law and equity: the same judges could hear either kind of case, but a given case could only pursue causes in law or in equity, and the two kinds of cases proceeded under different procedural rules. This became problematic when a given case required both money damages and injunctive relief. In 1937, the new Federal Rules of Civil Procedure combined law and equity into one form of action, the "civil action. '' Fed. R. Civ. P. 2. The distinction survives to the extent that issues that were "common law (as opposed to equity) '' as of 1791 (the date of adoption of the Seventh Amendment) are still subject to the right of either party to request a jury, and "equity '' issues are decided by a judge.
Delaware, Mississippi, and Tennessee still have separate courts of law and equity, for example, the Court of Chancery. In many states there are separate divisions for law and equity within one court.
For centuries, through the 19th century, the common law recognized only specific forms of action, and required very careful drafting of the opening pleading (called a writ) to slot into exactly one of them: Debt, Detinue, Covenant, Special Assumpsit, General Assumpsit, Trespass, Trover, Replevin, Case (or Trespass on the Case), and Ejectment. To initiate a lawsuit, a pleading had to be drafted to meet myriad technical requirements: correctly categorizing the case into the correct legal pigeonhole (pleading in the alternative was not permitted), and using specific "magic words '' encrusted over the centuries. Under the old common law pleading standards, a suit by a pro se ("for oneself, '' without a lawyer) party was all but impossible, and there was often considerable procedural jousting at the outset of a case over minor wording issues.
One of the major reforms of the late 19th century and early 20th century was the abolition of common law pleading requirements. A plaintiff can initiate a case by giving the defendant "a short and plain statement '' of facts that constitute an alleged wrong. This reform moved the attention of courts from technical scrutiny of words to a more rational consideration of the facts, and opened access to justice far more broadly.
In the UK, since 2009, the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom has the authority to overrule and unify decisions of lower courts. From 1966 to 2009, this power lay with the House of Lords, granted by the Practice Statement of 1966.
The main alternative to the common law system is the civil law system, which is used in Continental Europe, and most of the rest of the world.
The primary contrast between the two systems is the role of written decisions and precedent.
In common law jurisdictions, nearly every case that presents a bona fide dispute on the law the court states the legal reasoning for the decision, known as ratio decidendi, that determines the court 's judgment between the parties in the case.
In common law systems, under the principle of stare decisis a single decided case is binding to the same extent as statute or regulation. In contrast, in civil law systems, individual decisions have advisory, not binding, effect. In civil law systems, case law only acquires weight when a long series of cases use consistent reasoning, called jurisprudence constante. Civil law lawyers consult case law to obtain their best prediction of how a court will rule, but comparatively, civil law judges are less bound to follow it.
For that reason, statutes in civil law systems are more comprehensive, detailed, and continuously updated, covering all matters capable of being brought before a court.
Common law systems tend to give more weight to separation of powers between the judicial branch and the executive branch (which promulgates regulatory law, called "administrative law '' in civil law systems). In contrast, civil law systems often allow individual officials to exercise both powers.
Common law courts usually use an adversarial system, in which two sides present their cases to a neutral judge. In contrast, civil law systems usually use an inquisitorial system in which an examining magistrate serves two roles by developing the evidence and arguments for one side and then the other during the investigation phase.
The examining magistrate then presents the dossier detailing his or her findings to the president of the bench that will adjudicate on the case where it has been decided that a trial shall be conducted. Therefore, the president of the bench 's view of the case is not neutral and may be biased while conducting the trial after the reading of the dossier. Unlike the common law proceedings, the president of the bench in the inquisitorial system is not merely an umpire and is entitled to directly interview the witnesses or express comments during the trial, as long as he or she does not express his or her view on the guilt of the accused.
The proceeding in the inquisitorial system is essentially by writing. Most of the witnesses would have given evidence in the investigation phase and such evidence will be contained in the dossier under the form of police reports. In the same way, the accused would have already put his or her case at the investigation phase but he or she will be free to change her or his evidence at trial. Whether the accused pleads guilty or not, a trial will be conducted. Unlike the adversarial system, the conviction and sentence to be served (if any) will be released by the trial jury together with the president of the trial bench, following their common deliberation.
There are many exceptions in both directions. For example, most proceedings before U.S. federal and state agencies are inquisitorial in nature, at least the initial stages (e.g., a patent examiner, a social security hearing officer, and so on), even though the law to be applied is developed through common law processes.
The contrast between civil law and common law legal systems has become increasingly blurred, with the growing importance of jurisprudence (similar to case law but not binding) in civil law countries, and the growing importance of statute law and codes in common law countries.
Examples of common law being replaced by statute or codified rule in the United States include criminal law (since 1812, U.S. federal courts and most but not all of the States have held that criminal law must be embodied in statute if the public is to have fair notice), commercial law (the Uniform Commercial Code in the early 1960s) and procedure (the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure in the 1930s and the Federal Rules of Evidence in the 1970s). But note that in each case, the statute sets the general principles, but the interstitial common law process determines the scope and application of the statute.
An example of convergence from the other direction is shown in Srl CILFIT and Lanificio di Gavardo SpA v Ministry of Health, in which the European Court of Justice held that questions it has already answered need not be resubmitted. This brought in a distinctly common law principle into an essentially civil law jurisdiction.
The former Soviet Bloc and other Socialist countries used a Socialist law system.
Much of the Muslim world uses Sharia (also called Islamic law).
The common law constitutes the basis of the legal systems of: England and Wales and Northern Ireland in the UK, Ireland, the United States (both the federal system and the individual states (with the partial exception of Louisiana)), Canada (both federal and the individual provinces (except Quebec)), Australia (both federal and individual states), New Zealand, South Africa, India, Myanmar, Malaysia, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Singapore, Hong Kong, Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Bahamas, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Jamaica, St Vincent and the Granadines, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Trinidad and Tobago, and many other generally English - speaking countries or Commonwealth countries (except the UK 's Scotland, where Scots law has civil and common law elements, and Malta). Essentially, every country that was colonised at some time by England, Great Britain, or the United Kingdom uses common law except those that were formerly colonised by other nations, such as Quebec (which follows the law of France in part), South Africa and Sri Lanka (which follow Roman Dutch law), where the prior civil law system was retained to respect the civil rights of the local colonists. Guyana and Saint Lucia have mixed Common Law and Civil Law systems.
Scotland is often said to use the civil law system, but it has a unique system that combines elements of an uncodified civil law dating back to the Corpus Juris Civilis with an element of its own common law long predating the Treaty of Union with England in 1707 (see Legal institutions of Scotland in the High Middle Ages), founded on the customary laws of the tribes residing there. Historically, Scottish common law differed in that the use of precedent was subject to the courts ' seeking to discover the principle that justifies a law rather than searching for an example as a precedent, and principles of natural justice and fairness have always played a role in Scots Law. From the 19th century, the Scottish approach to precedent developed into a stare decisis akin to that already established in England thereby reflecting a narrower, more modern approach to the application of case law in subsequent instances. This is not to say that the substantive rules of the common laws of both countries are the same although in many matters (particularly those of UK - wide interest) they are similar; for example, the 1932 decision on appeal to the House of Lords in Donoghue v Stevenson (the "Paisley snail in a bottle case ''), concerning liability for negligence in actions for delict in Scotland, and for tort in England and Wales, and in Northern Ireland.
Scotland maintains a separate criminal law system from the rest of the UK, with the High Court of Justiciary being the final court for criminal appeals. The highest court of appeal in civil cases brought in Scotland is now the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom.
The centuries old authority of the common law courts in England to develop law case by case and to apply statute law -- "legislating from the bench '' -- is a traditional function of courts, which was carried over into the U.S. system as an essential component of the "judicial power '' specified by Article III of the U.S. constitution. Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. summarized centuries of history in 1917, "judges do and must legislate. '' There are legitimate debates on how the powers of courts and legislatures should be balanced. However, a view that courts lack law - making power is historically inaccurate and constitutionally unsupportable.
The state of New York, which also has a civil law history from its Dutch colonial days, began a codification of its law in the 19th century. The only part of this codification process that was considered complete is known as the Field Code applying to civil procedure. The original colony of New Netherland was settled by the Dutch and the law was also Dutch. When the English captured pre-existing colonies they continued to allow the local settlers to keep their civil law. However, the Dutch settlers revolted against the English and the colony was recaptured by the Dutch. When the English finally regained control of New Netherland they forced, as a punishment unique in the history of the British Empire, the English imposed common law upon all the colonists, including the Dutch. This was problematic, as the patroon system of land holding, based on the feudal system and civil law, continued to operate in the colony until it was abolished in the mid-19th century. The influence of Roman - Dutch law continued in the colony well into the late 19th century. The codification of a law of general obligations shows how remnants of the civil law tradition in New York continued on from the Dutch days.
Under Louisiana 's codified system, the Louisiana Civil Code, private law -- that is, substantive law between private sector parties -- is based on principles of law from continental Europe, with some common law influences. These principles derive ultimately from Roman law, transmitted through French law and Spanish law, as the state 's current territory intersects the area of North America colonized by Spain and by France. Contrary to popular belief, the Louisiana code does not directly derive from the Napoleonic Code, as the latter was enacted in 1804, one year after the Louisiana Purchase. However, the two codes are similar in many respects due to common roots.
Louisiana 's criminal law largely rests on English common law. Louisiana 's administrative law is generally similar to the administrative law of the U.S. federal government and other U.S. states. Louisiana 's procedural law is generally in line with that of other U.S. states, which in turn is generally based on the U.S. Federal Rules of Civil Procedure.
Historically notable among the Louisiana code 's differences from common law is the role of property rights among women, particularly in inheritance gained by widows.
The U.S. state of California has a system based on common law, but it has codified the law in the manner of the civil law jurisdictions. The reason for the enactment of the California Codes in the 19th century was to replace a pre-existing system based on Spanish civil law with a system based on common law, similar to that in most other states. California and a number of other Western states, however, have retained the concept of community property derived from civil law. The California courts have treated portions of the codes as an extension of the common - law tradition, subject to judicial development in the same manner as judge - made common law. (Most notably, in the case Li v. Yellow Cab Co., 13 Cal. 3d 804 (1975), the California Supreme Court adopted the principle of comparative negligence in the face of a California Civil Code provision codifying the traditional common - law doctrine of contributory negligence.)
The United States federal courts only act as interpreters of statutes and the constitution by elaborating and more precisely defining broad statutory language but, unlike state courts, do not act as an independent source of common law.
Before 1938, the federal courts, like other common law courts, decided the law on any issue where the relevant legislature (either the U.S. Congress or state legislature), had not acted, by looking to courts in the same system, that is, other federal courts, even on issues of state law, and even where there was no express grant of authority from Congress or the Constitution.
In 1938, the U.S. Supreme Court in Erie Railroad Co. v. Tompkins 304 U.S. 64, 78 (1938), overruled earlier precedent, and held "There is no federal general common law, '' thus confining the federal courts to act only as interpreters of law originating elsewhere. E.g., Texas Industries v. Radcliff, 451 U.S. 630 (1981) (without an express grant of statutory authority, federal courts can not create rules of intuitive justice, for example, a right to contribution from co-conspirators). Post-1938, federal courts deciding issues that arise under state law are required to defer to state court interpretations of state statutes, or reason what a state 's highest court would rule if presented with the issue, or to certify the question to the state 's highest court for resolution.
Later courts have limited Erie slightly, to create a few situations where United States federal courts are permitted to create federal common law rules without express statutory authority, for example, where a federal rule of decision is necessary to protect uniquely federal interests, such as foreign affairs, or financial instruments issued by the federal government. See, e.g., Clearfield Trust Co. v. United States, 318 U.S. 363 (1943) (giving federal courts the authority to fashion common law rules with respect to issues of federal power, in this case negotiable instruments backed by the federal government); see also International News Service v. Associated Press, 248 U.S. 215 (1918) (creating a cause of action for misappropriation of "hot news '' that lacks any statutory grounding); but see National Basketball Association v. Motorola, Inc., 105 F. 3d 841, 843 -- 44, 853 (2d Cir. 1997) (noting continued vitality of INS "hot news '' tort under New York state law, but leaving open the question of whether it survives under federal law). Except on Constitutional issues, Congress is free to legislatively overrule federal courts ' common law.
Most executive branch agencies in the United States federal government have some adjudicatory authority. To greater or lesser extent, agencies honor their own precedent to ensure consistent results. Agency decision making is governed by the Administrative Procedure Act of 1946.
For example, the National Labor Relations Board issues relatively few regulations, but instead promulgates most of its substantive rules through common law (connotation 1).
The law of India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh are largely based on English common law because of the long period of British colonial influence during the period of the British Raj.
Ancient India represented a distinct tradition of law, and had an historically independent school of legal theory and practice. The Arthashastra, dating from 400 BCE and the Manusmriti, from 100 CE, were influential treatises in India, texts that were considered authoritative legal guidance. Manu 's central philosophy was tolerance and pluralism, and was cited across Southeast Asia. Early in this period, which finally culminated in the creation of the Gupta Empire, relations with ancient Greece and Rome were not infrequent. The appearance of similar fundamental institutions of international law in various parts of the world show that they are inherent in international society, irrespective of culture and tradition. Inter-State relations in the pre-Islamic period resulted in clear - cut rules of warfare of a high humanitarian standard, in rules of neutrality, of treaty law, of customary law embodied in religious charters, in exchange of embassies of a temporary or semi-permanent character.
When India became part of the British Empire, there was a break in tradition, and Hindu and Islamic law were supplanted by the common law. After the failed rebellion against the British in 1857, the British Parliament took over control of India from the British East India Company, and British India came under the direct rule of the Crown. The British Parliament passed the Government of India Act of 1858 to this effect, which set up the structure of British government in India. It established in Britain the office of the Secretary of State for India through whom the Parliament would exercise its rule, along with a Council of India to aid him. It also established the office of the Governor - General of India along with an Executive Council in India, which consisted of high officials of the British Government. As a result, the present judicial system of the country derives largely from the British system and has little correlation to the institutions of the pre-British era.
Post-partition, India retained its common law system. Much of contemporary Indian law shows substantial European and American influence. Legislation first introduced by the British is still in effect in modified form today. During the drafting of the Indian Constitution, laws from Ireland, the United States, Britain, and France were all synthesized to produce a refined set of Indian laws. Indian laws also adhere to the United Nations guidelines on human rights law and environmental law. Certain international trade laws, such as those on intellectual property, are also enforced in India.
The exception to this rule is in the state of Goa, annexed in stages in the 1960s through 1980s. In Goa, a Portuguese uniform civil code is in place, in which all religions have a common law regarding marriages, divorces and adoption.
Post-partition, Pakistan retained its common law system.
Post-partition, Bangladesh retained its common law system.
Canada has separate federal and provincial legal systems. The division of jurisdiction between the federal and provincial Parliaments is specified in the Canadian constitution.
Each province and territory is considered a separate jurisdiction with respect to common law matters. As such, only the provincial legislature may enact legislation to amend private law. Each has its own procedural law, statutorily created provincial courts and superior trial courts with inherent jurisdiction culminating in the Court of Appeal of the province. This is the highest court in provincial jurisdiction, only subject to the Supreme Court of Canada in terms of appeal of their decisions. All but one of the provinces of Canada use a common law system (the exception being Quebec, which uses a civil law system for issues arising within provincial jurisdiction, such as property ownership and contracts).
Canadian Federal Courts operate under a separate system throughout Canada and deal with narrower subject matter than superior courts in provincial jurisdiction. They hear cases reserved for federal jurisdiction by the Canadian constitution, such as immigration, intellectual property, judicial review of federal government decisions, and admiralty. The Federal Court of Appeal is the appellate level court in federal jurisdiction and hears cases in multiple cities, and unlike the United States, the Canadian Federal Court of Appeal is not divided into appellate circuits.
Criminal law is uniform throughout Canada. It is based on the constitution and federal statutory Criminal Code, as interpreted by the Supreme Court of Canada. The administration of justice and enforcement of the criminal code are the responsibilities of the provinces.
Canadian federal statutes must use the terminology of both the common law and civil law for those matters; this is referred to as legislative bijuralism.
Nicaragua 's legal system is also a mixture of the English Common Law and Civil Law. This situation was brought through the influence of British administration of the Eastern half of the Mosquito Coast from the mid-17th century until about 1894, the William Walker period from about 1855 through 1857, USA interventions / occupations during the period from 1909 to 1933, the influence of USA institutions during the Somoza family administrations (1933 through 1979) and the considerable importation between 1979 and the present of USA culture and institutions.
Israel has a common law legal system. Its basic principles are inherited from the law of the British Mandate of Palestine and thus resemble those of British and American law, namely: the role of courts in creating the body of law and the authority of the supreme court in reviewing and if necessary overturning legislative and executive decisions, as well as employing the adversarial system. One of the primary reasons that the Israeli constitution remains unwritten is the fear by whatever party holds power that creating a written constitution, combined with the common - law elements, would severely limit the powers of the Knesset (which, following the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty, holds near - unlimited power).
Roman Dutch Common law is a bijuridical or mixed system of law similar to the common law system in Scotland and Louisiana. Roman Dutch common law jurisdictions include South Africa, Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, Swaziland, Sri - Lanka and Zimbabwe. Many of these jurisdictions recognise customary law, and in some, such as South Africa the Constitution requires that the common law be developed in accordance with the Bill of Rights. Roman Dutch common law is a development of Roman Dutch law by courts in the Roman Dutch common law jurisdictions. During the Napoleonic wars the Kingdom of the Netherlands adopted the French code civil in 1809, however the Dutch colonies in the Cape of Good Hope and Sri Lanka, at the time called Ceylon, were seized by the British to prevent them being used as bases by the French Navy. The system was developed by the courts and spread with the expansion of British colonies in Southern Africa. Roman Dutch common law relies on legal principles set out in Roman law sources such as Justinian 's Institutes and Digest, and also on the writing of Dutch jurists of the 17th century such as Grotius and Voet. In practice, the majority of decisions rely on recent precedent.
Edward Coke, a 17th - century Lord Chief Justice of the English Court of Common Pleas and a Member of Parliament, wrote several legal texts that collected and integrated centuries of case law. Lawyers in both England and America learned the law from his Institutes and Reports until the end of the 18th century. His works are still cited by common law courts around the world.
The next definitive historical treatise on the common law is Commentaries on the Laws of England, written by Sir William Blackstone and first published in 1765 -- 1769. Since 1979, a facsimile edition of that first edition has been available in four paper - bound volumes. Today it has been superseded in the English part of the United Kingdom by Halsbury 's Laws of England that covers both common and statutory English law.
While he was still on the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court, and before being named to the U.S. Supreme Court, Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. published a short volume called The Common Law, which remains a classic in the field. Unlike Blackstone and the Restatements, Holmes ' book only briefly discusses what the law is; rather, Holmes describes the common law process. Law professor John Chipman Gray 's The Nature and Sources of the Law, an examination and survey of the common law, is also still commonly read in U.S. law schools.
In the United States, Restatements of various subject matter areas (Contracts, Torts, Judgments, and so on.), edited by the American Law Institute, collect the common law for the area. The ALI Restatements are often cited by American courts and lawyers for propositions of uncodified common law, and are considered highly persuasive authority, just below binding precedential decisions. The Corpus Juris Secundum is an encyclopedia whose main content is a compendium of the common law and its variations throughout the various state jurisdictions.
Scots common law covers matters including murder and theft, and has sources in custom, in legal writings and previous court decisions. The legal writings used are called Institutional Texts and come mostly from the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries. Examples include Craig, Jus Feudale (1655) and Stair, The Institutions of the Law of Scotland (1681).
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who stars in the man from snowy river | The Man from Snowy River (1982 film) - Wikipedia
The Man from Snowy River is a 1982 Australian drama film based on the Banjo Paterson poem "The Man from Snowy River ''. Released by 20th Century Fox, the film had a cast including Kirk Douglas in a dual role as the brothers Harrison (a character who appeared frequently in Paterson 's poems) and Spur, Jack Thompson as Clancy, Tom Burlinson as Jim Craig, Sigrid Thornton as Harrison 's daughter Jessica, Terence Donovan as Jim 's father Henry Craig, and Chris Haywood as Curly. Both Burlinson and Thornton later reprised their roles in the 1988 sequel, The Man from Snowy River II, which was released by Walt Disney Pictures.
When Jim Craig and his father Henry are discussing their finances, a herd of wild horses called the Brumby mob passes by, and Henry wants to shoot the black stallion leader, but Jim convinces his father to capture and sell them. The next morning the mob reappears and Henry is accidentally killed. Before Jim can inherit the station, a group of mountain men tell him that he must first earn the right -- and to do so he must go to the lowlands and work. Jim meets an old friend called Spur, a one - legged miner. Jim then gets a job on a station owned by Harrison, Spur 's brother, on a recommendation by Harrison 's friend. Meanwhile, Clancy appears at Spur 's mine and the two discuss their pasts and futures. Clancy goes to Harrison 's station to lead a cattle muster. At dinner, Harrison tells Clancy that "he has no brother '' when referring to Spur.
Harrison organizes a round - up of his cattle, but Jim is not allowed to go. While the others are gone, Harrison 's daughter Jessica asks Jim to help her break in a prize colt. The mob appears again, and Jim unsuccessfully gives chase to the valuable horse. When Harrison returns, he sends Jim to bring back 20 strays. Later, Harrison learns of Jim 's actions and tells Jessica that Jim will be fired and that she will be sent to a women 's college. Impulsively, she rides off into the mountains where she is caught in a storm.
Spur, meanwhile, finally strikes a large gold deposit. Jim finds Jessica 's horse and rescues her. She tells him that he 's going to be fired, but he still leaves to return the cattle. Jessica is surprised at meeting Spur, her uncle, whom she had never been told about. She is also confused when Spur mistakes her for her dead mother and refuses to tell her anything about his past. After returning, Jessica learns that Spur and Harrison both fell in love with her mother, Matilda. Matilda declared that the first to make his fortune would be her husband. Spur went looking for gold, while Harrison bet his life savings on a horse race. Harrison became rich overnight when the horse he bet on won. Having made his fortune, Harrison wed Matilda, but she died while delivering Jessica. Harrison is grateful to Jim for returning his daughter, but he becomes angry when Jim says he loves her. As Jim leaves, a prized colt is let loose by a farmhand in the hope that Jim will be blamed.
Later, while camping out, Spur tells Jim that he will inherit his father 's share of the mine. Clancy joins them and informs them of the colt, but Jim refuses to retrieve the animal. Meanwhile, Harrison offers a reward of ₤ 100, attracting riders and fortune - hunters from every station in the area. Clancy does eventually show, accompanied by Jim, whom Harrison finally allows to join the hunt. Several riders have accidents in pursuit and even Clancy is unable to contain the Brumby mob. The riders give up when the mob descends a seemingly impassable grade. However, Jim goes forward and returns the horses to Harrison 's farm. Harrison offers him the reward but he refuses. Having cleared his name, Jim would like to return some day for the horses and, looking at Jessica, "anything else that 's mine. '' He rides back up to the mountain country, knowing that he has earned his right to live there.
According to Geoff Burrowes, the idea to make the film came at a dinner party when someone suggested the poem would make a good movie. Burrowes developed a treatment with George Miller then hired John Dixon to write a screenplay. All three men had worked together in television; another former TV colleague, Simon Wincer, became involved as executive producer with Michael Edgley and succeeded in raising the budget.
The screenplay contains numerous references to Banjo Paterson, aside from using his poem "The Man from Snowy River '' as the source material and his inclusion as a character in the film. For example, the numerous references to the late Matilda are likely a reference to the song "Waltzing Matilda '', which was written by Paterson. In addition, the melody for "Waltzing Matilda '' can be heard near the end of the film. A Bible Passage from Genesis 30: 27, which talks about cattle, goats, and sheep is read aloud in a scene in the middle of the film.
The movie was not shot in the actual Snowy Mountains but in the Victorian High Country near Mansfield, Victoria, where Burrowes ' wife 's family had lived for several generations, which was logistically easier. Burt Lancaster and Robert Mitchum were considered for the dual role of Harrison and Spur before Kirk Douglas was cast in the roles.
Tom Burlinson has confirmed that it was definitely him who rode the horse over the side of the mountain for the "terrible descent '' during the dangerous ride -- commenting that he had been asked about this numerous times, and that he became known as "The Man from Snowy River '' because of his ride. Remarkably, Burlinson had never ridden a horse before being cast in the film and the "terrible descent '' was a one - take shot at full gallop down the cliff face. Burlinson performed all of his own stunts in the film.
The film "was released to a fair degree of critical acclaim '' and "moviegoers found it to be a likable and highly entertaining piece of filmmaking that made no effort to hide its Australian roots, despite the presence of American star Kirk Douglas in one of the principal roles. '' The film has a rating of 80 % on film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes. One review of the movie comments stated, "The Australian film industry has been responsible for many decent films for decades (and some utter crap, of course), but the percentage with international appeal is quite small. That is changing, and it is films such as The Man From Snowy River that have ensured ongoing interest. The film was inspired by the ' Banjo ' Paterson poem of the same name, and stars numerous respected local talents and a Hollywood big name star in Kirk Douglas, playing two roles. ' ' The two standouts of this film are the majestic mountain scenery, and the final chase scenes with that awe - inspiring horse ride down the mountainside. The film stars many big names and familiar faces including Gus Mercurio (Paul 's father), Lorraine Bayley (The Sullivans), Tony Bonner (Skippy) and Chris Haywood. The sets and costumes are also great, the script is strong, and the various threads that run through the film are well handled. ''
Bruce Rowland composed the music for both the film and the sequel.
The Man from Snowy River grossed $17,228,160 at the box office in Australia. Kirk Douglas later sued Burrowes for a share of the profits.
As indicated by its box office takings, The Man from Snowy River gained a very large audience, popularising the story and Banjo Paterson 's poem. Since 1995 the story has been re-enacted at The Man From Snowy River Bush Festival in Corryong, Victoria. Jack Thompson who played Clancy in the film has released recordings of a number of Banjo Paterson poems including Clancy of the Overflow and The Man from Snowy River on the album The Bush Poems of A.B. (Banjo) Paterson.
The Craigs ' Hut building was a permanent fixture created for the film. Located in Clear Hills, east of Mount Stirling, Victoria, the popular 4WD and hiking landmark was destroyed on 11 December 2006 in bushfires. The hut has since been rebuilt. The film was selected for preservation as part of the National Film and Sound Archive of Australia 's Kodak / Atlab Cinema Collection Restoration Project.
For the 2000 Summer Olympics Rowland composed a special Olympics version of The Man from Snowy River "Main Title '' for the Olympic Games, which were held in Sydney. The CD of the music for the Sydney Olympics includes the Bruce Rowland 's special Olympic version of the main title. Rowland composed special arrangements of some of the film soundtrack music for the 2002 musical version of The Man from Snowy River, The Man from Snowy River: Arena Spectacular.
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when was the last time houston astros won the world series | Houston Astros - wikipedia
The Houston Astros are an American professional baseball team based in Houston, Texas. The Astros compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the American League (AL) West division, having moved to the division in 2013 after spending their first 51 seasons in the National League (NL). The Astros have played their home games at Minute Maid Park since 2000.
The Astros were established as the Houston Colt. 45s and entered the National League as an expansion team in 1962 along with the New York Mets. The current name -- reflecting Houston 's role as the control center of the U.S. crewed space program -- was adopted three years later, when they moved into the Astrodome, the first domed sports stadium.
The Astros played in the NL from 1962 to 2012, first in the West Division from 1969 to 1993, followed by the Central Division from 1994 to 2012. While a member of the NL, the Astros played in one World Series, in 2005, against the Chicago White Sox, in which they were swept in four games. In 2017, they became the first franchise in MLB history to have won a pennant in both the NL and the AL, when they defeated the New York Yankees in the ALCS. They won the 2017 World Series against the Los Angeles Dodgers, winning four games to three, earning the team, and the state of Texas, its first World Series title.
From 1888 until 1961, Houston 's professional baseball club was the minor league Houston Buffaloes. Although expansion from the National League eventually brought an MLB team to Texas in 1962, Houston officials had been making efforts to do so for years prior. There were four men chiefly responsible for bringing Major League Baseball to Houston: George Kirksey and Craig Cullinan, who had led a futile attempt to purchase the St. Louis Cardinals in 1952; R.E. "Bob '' Smith, a prominent oilman and real estate magnate in Houston who was brought in for his financial resources; and Judge Roy Hofheinz, a former Mayor of Houston and Harris County Judge who was recruited for his salesmanship and political style. They formed the Houston Sports Association as their vehicle for attaining a big league franchise for the city of Houston.
Given MLB 's refusal to consider expansion, Kirksey, Cullinan, Smith, and Hofheinz joined forces with would - be owners from other cities and announced the formation of a new league to compete with the established National and American Leagues. They called the new league the Continental League. Wanting to protect potential new markets, both existing leagues chose to expand from eight teams to ten. However, plans eventually fell through for the Houston franchise after the Houston Buffaloes owner, Marty Marion, could not come to an agreement with the HSA to sell the team. To make matters worse, the Continental League as a whole folded in August 1960.
However, on October 17, 1960, the National League granted an expansion franchise to the Houston Sports Association in which their team could begin play in the 1962 season. According to the Major League Baseball Constitution, the Houston Sports Association was required to obtain territorial rights from the Houston Buffaloes in order to play in the Houston area, and again negotiations began to purchase the team. Eventually, the Houston Sports Association succeeded in purchasing the Houston Buffaloes, at this point majority - owned by William Hopkins, on January 17, 1961. The Buffs played one last minor league season as the top farm team of the Chicago Cubs in 1961 before being succeeded by the city 's NL club.
The new Houston team was named the Colt. 45s after a "Name The Team '' contest was won by William Irving Neder. The Colt. 45 was well known as "the gun that won the west. '' The colors selected were navy and orange. The first team was formed mostly through an expansion draft after the 1961 season. The Colt. 45s and their expansion cousins, the New York Mets, took turns choosing players left unprotected by the other National League franchises.
Many of those associated with the Houston Buffaloes organization were allowed by the ownership to continue in the major league. Manager Harry Craft, who had joined Houston in 1961, remained in the same position for the team until the end of the 1964 season. General manager Spec Richardson also continued with the organization as business manager, but was later promoted again to the same position with the Astros from 1967 until 1975. Although most players for the major league franchise were obtained through the 1961 Major League Baseball expansion draft, Buffs players J.C. Hartman, Pidge Browne, Jim Campbell, Ron Davis, Dave Giusti, and Dave Roberts were chosen to continue as major league ball players.
Similarly, the radio broadcasting team remained with the new Houston major league franchise. Loel Passe worked alongside Gene Elston as a color commentator until he retired from broadcasting in 1976. Elston continued with the Astros until 1986.
The Colt. 45s began their existence playing at Colt Stadium, a temporary venue built just north of the construction site of the indoor stadium.
The Colt. 45s started their inaugural season on April 10, 1962, against the Chicago Cubs with Harry Craft as the Colt. 45s ' manager. Bob Aspromonte scored the first run for the Colt. 45s on an Al Spangler triple in the first inning. They started the season with a three - game sweep of the Cubs but eventually finished eighth among the National League 's ten teams. The team 's best pitcher, Richard "Turk '' Farrell, lost 20 games despite an ERA of 3.02. A starter for the Colt. 45s, Farrell was primarily a relief pitcher prior to playing for Houston. He was selected to both All - Star Games in 1962.
The 1963 season saw more young talent mixed with seasoned veterans. Jimmy Wynn, Rusty Staub, and Joe Morgan all made their major league debuts in the 1963 season. However, Houston 's position in the standings did not improve, as the Colt. 45s finished in ninth place with a 66 -- 96 record. The team was still building, trying to find that perfect mix to compete. The 1964 campaign began on a sad note, as relief pitcher Jim Umbricht died of cancer at the age of 33 on April 8, just before Opening Day. Umbricht was the only Colt. 45s pitcher to post a winning record in Houston 's first two seasons. He was so well liked by players and fans that the team retired his jersey number, 32, in 1965.
Just on the horizon, the structure of the new domed stadium was more prevalent and it would soon change the way that baseball was watched in Houston and around the league. On December 1, 1964, the team announced the name change from Colt. 45s to "Astros. ''
With Judge Roy Hofheinz now the sole owner of the franchise and the new venue complete, the renamed "Astros '' moved into their new domed stadium, the Astrodome, in 1965. The name honored Houston 's position as the center of the nation 's space program; NASA 's new Manned Spacecraft Center had recently opened southeast of the city. The Astrodome, coined the "Eighth Wonder of the World '', did little to improve the home team 's results on the field. While several "indoor '' firsts were accomplished, the team still finished ninth in the standings. The attendance was high not because of the team accomplishments, but because people came from miles around to see the Astrodome.
Just as the excitement was settling down over the Astrodome, the 1966 season found something new to put the domed stadium in the spotlight once again -- the field. Grass would not grow in the new park, since the roof panels had been painted to reduce the glare that was causing players on both the Astros and the visiting teams to miss routine pop flies. A new artificial turf was created called "AstroTurf '' and Houston would be involved in yet another change in the way the game was played.
With new manager Grady Hatton, the Astros started the 1966 season strong. By May they were in second place in the National League and looked like a team that could contend. Joe Morgan was named as a starter on the All - Star Team. The success did not last as they lost Jimmy Wynn for the season after he crashed into an outfield fence in Philadelphia and Morgan had broken his knee cap. The 1967 season saw first baseman Eddie Mathews join the Astros. The slugger hit his 500th home run while in Houston. He would be traded late in the season and Doug Rader would be promoted to the big leagues. Rookie Don Wilson pitched a no - hitter on June 18. Wynn also provided some enthusiasm in 1967. The 5 ft 9 in Wynn was becoming known not only for how often he hit home runs, but also for how far he hit them. Wynn set club records with 37 home runs, and 107 RBIs. It was also in 1967 that Wynn hit his famous home run onto Interstate 75 in Cincinnati. As the season came to a close, the Astros found themselves again in ninth place and with a winning percentage below. 500. The team looked good on paper, but could not make it work on the field.
April 15, 1968 saw a pitching duel for the ages. The Astros ' Don Wilson and the Mets ' Tom Seaver faced each other in a battle that lasted six hours. Seaver went ten innings, allowing no walks and just two hits. Wilson went nine innings, allowing five hits and three walks. After the starters exited, eleven relievers (seven for the Mets and four for the Astros) tried to end the game. The game finally ended in the 24th inning when Aspromonte hit a shot toward Mets shortstop Al Weis. Weis had been perfect all night at short, but he was not quick enough to make the play. The ball zipped into left field, allowing Norm Miller to score.
With baseball expansion and trades, the Astros had dramatically changed in 1969. Aspromonte was sent to the Braves and Staub was traded to the expansion Montreal Expos, in exchange for outfielder Jesús Alou and first baseman Donn Clendenon. However, Clendenon refused to report to Houston, electing to retire and take job with a pen manufacturing company. The Astros asked Commissioner Bowie Kuhn to void the trade, but he refused. Instead, he awarded Jack Billingham and a left - handed relief pitcher to the Astros to complete the trade. Cuellar was traded to the Baltimore Orioles for Curt Blefary. Other new players included catcher Johnny Edwards, infielder Denis Menke and pitcher Denny Lemaster. Wilson continued to pitch brilliantly and on May 1 threw the second no - hitter of his career. In that game, he struck out 18 batters, tying what was then the all - time single - game mark. He was just 24 years of age and was second to only Sandy Koufax for career no - hit wins. Wilson 's no - hitter lit the Astros ' fire after a miserable month of April, and six days later the team tied a major league record by turning seven double plays in a game. By May 's end, the Astros had put together a ten - game winning streak. The Houston infield tandem of Menke and Joe Morgan continued to improve, providing power at the plate and great defense. Morgan had 15 homers and stole 49 bases while Menke led the Astros with 90 RBIs. The Menke / Morgan punch was beginning to come alive, and the team was responding to Walker 's management style. The Astros dominated the season series against their expansion twins, the New York Mets. In one game at New York, Denis Menke and Jimmy Wynn hit grand slams in the same inning, against a Mets team that would go on to win the World Series that same year. The Astros finished the 1969 season with a record of 81 wins, 81 losses, marking their first season of. 500 ball.
In 1970, the Astros were expected to be a serious threat in the National League West. In June, 19 - year - old César Cedeño was called up and immediately showed signs of being a superstar. The Dominican outfielder batted. 310 after being called up. Not to be outdone, Menke batted. 304 and Jesús Alou batted. 306. The Astros ' batting average was up by 19 points compared to the season before. The team looked good, but the Astros ' ERA was up. Larry Dierker and Wilson had winning records, but the pitching staff as a whole had an off season. Houston finished in fourth place in 1970.
The fashion trends of the 1970s had started taking root in baseball. Long hair and loud colors were starting to appear on team uniforms, including the Astros '. In 1971 the Astros made some changes to their uniform: they kept the same style they had in previous seasons, but inverted the colors. What was navy was now orange and what was orange was now a lighter shade of blue. The players ' last names were added to the back of the jerseys. In 1972, the uniform fabric was also changed to what was at the time revolutionizing the industry -- polyester. Belts were replaced by elastic waistbands, and jerseys zipped up instead of having buttons. The uniforms became popular with fans, but would last only until 1975, when the Astros would shock baseball and the fashion world.
The uniforms were about the only thing that did change in 1971. The acquisition of Roger Metzger from the Chicago Cubs in the off - season moved Menke to first base and Bob Watson to the outfield. The Astros got off to a slow start and the pitching and hitting averages were down. Larry Dierker was selected to the All - Star game in 1971, but due to an arm injury he could not make it. César Cedeño led the club with 81 RBIs and the league with 40 doubles, but batted just. 264 and had 102 strikeouts in his second season with the Astros. Pitcher J.R. Richard made his debut in September of the 1971 season against the Giants.
In November 1971 the Astros and Cincinnati Reds made one of the biggest blockbuster trades in the history of the sport, and helped create The Big Red Machine of the 1970s, with the Reds getting the better end of the deal. Houston sent second baseman Joe Morgan, infielder Denis Menke, pitcher Jack Billingham, outfielder César Gerónimo and prospect Ed Armbrister to Cincinnati for first baseman Lee May, second baseman Tommy Helms and infielder Jimmy Stewart. The trade left Astros fans and the baseball world scratching their heads as to why General Manager Spec Richardson would give up so much for so little. The Reds, on the other hand, would shore up many problems. They had an off year in 1971, but were the National League Pennant winner in 1972.
The Astros ' acquisition of Lee May added more power to the lineup in 1972. May, Wynn, Rader and Cedeño all had 20 or more home runs and Watson hit 16. Cedeño also led the Astros with a. 320 batting average, 55 stolen bases and made spectacular plays on the field. Cedeño made his first All - Star game in 1972 and became the first Astros player in team history to hit for the cycle in August versus the Reds. The Astros finished the strike - shortened season at 84 -- 69, their first winning season.
Astros fans had hoped for more of the same in 1973, but it was not to be. The Astros run production was down, even though the same five sluggers the year before were still punching the ball out of the park. Lee May led the Astros with 28 home runs and Cesar Cedeño batted. 320 with 25 home runs. Bob Watson hit the. 312 mark and drove in 94 runs. Doug Rader and Jimmy Wynn both had 20 or more home runs. However, injuries to their pitching staff limited the Astros to an 82 -- 80 fourth - place finish. The Astros again finished in fourth place the next year under new manager Preston Gómez.
With the $38 million deficit of the Astrodome, control of the Astrodomain was passed from Judge Roy Hofheinz to GE Credit and Ford Motor Credit. This included the Astros. The creditors were just interested in preserving asset value of the team, so any money spent had to be found or saved somewhere else. Tal Smith returned to the Astros from the New York Yankees to find a team that needed a lot of work and did not have a lot of money. However, there would be some bright spots that would prove to be good investments in the near future.
The year started on a sad note. Pitcher Don Wilson was found dead in the passenger seat of his car on January 5, 1975; the cause of death was asphyxiation by carbon monoxide. Wilson was 29 years old. Wilson 's number 40 was retired on April 13, 1975.
The 1975 season saw the introduction of the Astros ' new uniforms. Many teams were going away from the traditional uniform and the Astros were no exception. The uniforms had multishade stripes of orange, red and yellow in front and in back behind a large dark blue star over the midsection. The same stripes ran down the pant legs. Players numbers not only appeared on the back of the jersey, but also on the pant leg. The bright stripes were meant to appear as a fiery trail like a rocket sweeping across the heavens. The uniforms were panned by critics, but the public liked them and versions started appearing at the high school and little league level. The uniform was so different from what other teams wore that the Astros wore it both at home and on the road until 1980.
Besides the bright new uniforms there were some other changes. Lee May was traded to Baltimore for much talked about rookie second baseman Rob Andrews and utility player Enos Cabell. In Baltimore, Cabell was stuck behind third baseman Brooks Robinson, but he took advantage of his opportunity in Houston and became their everyday third baseman. Cabell would go on to become a big part of the team 's success in later years. With May gone, Bob Watson was able to move to first base and was a bright spot in the line up, batting. 324 with 85 RBI.
The two biggest moves the Astros made in the offseason were the acquisitions of Joe Niekro and José Cruz. The Astros bought Niekro from the Braves for almost nothing. Niekro had bounced around the big leagues with minimal success. His older brother Phil Niekro had started teaching Joe how to throw his knuckleball and Joe was just starting to use it when he came to the Astros. Niekro won six games, saved four games and had an ERA of 3.07. José Cruz was also a steal, in retrospect, from the Cardinals. Cruz became a fixture in the Astros ' outfield for several years and would eventually have his number 25 retired.
Despite high expectations, 1975 was among the Astros ' worst in franchise history. Their record of 64 -- 97 was far worse than even the expansion Colt. 45 's and would remain the worst record in franchise history until 2011. It was the worst record in baseball and manager Preston Gómez was fired late in the season and replaced by Bill Virdon. The Astros played. 500 ball under Virdon in the last 34 games of the season. With Virdon as the manager the Astros improved greatly in 1976 finishing in third place with an 80 -- 82 record. A healthy César Cedeño was a key reason for the Astros ' success in 1976. Bob Watson continued to show consistency and led the club with a. 313 average and 102 RBI. José Cruz became Houston 's everyday left fielder and hit. 303 with 28 stolen bases. 1976 saw the end of Larry Dierker 's playing career as an Astro, but before it was all over he would throw a no - hitter and win the 1,000 th game in the Astrodome. The Astros finished in third place again in 1977 with a record of 81 -- 81.
One of the big problems the Astros had in the late 1970s was that they were unable to compete in the free agent market. Ford Motor Credit Company was still in control of the team and was looking to sell the Astros, but they were not going to spend money on better players. Most of the talent was either farm grown or bought on the cheap.
The 1979 season would prove to be a big turnaround in Astros history. During the offseason, the Astros made an effort to fix some of their problem areas. They traded Floyd Bannister to Seattle for shortstop Craig Reynolds and acquired catcher Alan Ashby from Toronto for pitcher Mark Lemongello. Reynolds and Ashby were both solid in their positions and gave Houston some much needed consistency. The season started with a boost from pitcher Ken Forsch, who threw a no - hitter the Braves the second game of the season. In May 1979, New Jersey shipping tycoon Dr. John McMullen had agreed to buy the Astros. Now with an investor in charge, the Astros would be more likely to compete in the free agent market.
The Astros were playing great baseball throughout the season. José Cruz and Enos Cabell both stole 30 bases. Joe Niekro had a great year with 21 wins and 3.00 ERA. J.R. Richard won 18 games and set a new personal strikeout record at 313. Joe Sambito came into his own with 22 saves as the Astros closer. Things were going as they should for a team that could win the west. The Astros and Reds battled the final month of the season. The Reds pulled ahead of the Astros by a game and a half. Later that month they split a pair and the Reds kept the lead. That would be how it would end. The Astros finished with their best record to that point at 89 -- 73 and 11⁄2 games behind the NL winner Reds.
With Dr. McMullen as sole owner of the Astros, the team would now benefit in ways a corporation could not give them. The rumors of the Astros moving out of Houston started to crumble and the Astros were now able to compete in the free - agent market. McMullen showed the city of Houston that he too wanted a winning team, signing nearby Alvin, Texas native Nolan Ryan to the first million - dollar - a-year deal. Ryan had four career no - hitters already and had struck out 383 in one season.
Joe Morgan returned in 1980. Now back in Houston with two MVP awards and two World Series rings, Morgan wanted to help make the Astros a pennant winner.
The 1980 pitching staff was one of the best Houston ever had, with the fastball of Ryan, the knuckleball of Joe Niekro and the terrifying 6 ft 8 in frame of J.R. Richard. Teams felt lucky to face Ken Forsch, who was a double - digit winner in the previous two seasons. Richard became the first Astros pitcher to start an All - Star game. After a medical examination three days later, Richard was told to rest his arm and he collapsed during a July 30 workout. He had suffered a stroke after a blood clot in the arm apparently moved to his neck and cut off blood flow to the brain. Surgery was done to save his life, but the Astros had lost their ace pitcher after a 10 -- 4 start with a stingy 1.89 ERA. Richard attempted a comeback, but would never again pitch a big league game.
After the loss of Richard and some offensive struggles, the Astros slipped to third place in the division behind the Dodgers and the Reds. They bounced back to first with a ten - game winning streak, but the Dodgers had regained a two - game lead when they arrived in Houston on September 9. The Astros won the first two games of that series and the two teams were tied for the division lead. The Astros held a three - game lead over the Dodgers with three games left in the season against the Dodgers. The Dodgers swept the series games, forcing a one - game playoff the next day. The Astros would however win the one - game playoff 7 -- 1, and advance to their first post-season.
The team would face the Philadelphia Phillies in the 1980 National League Championship Series. The Phillies sent out Steve Carlton in game one of the NLCS after a six - hour flight the night before. The Phillies would win the opener after the Astros got out to a 1 -- 0 third - inning lead. Ken Forsch pitched particularly strong fourth and fifth innings, but Greg Luzinski hit a sixth - inning two - run bomb to the 300 level seats of Veterans Stadium. The Phillies added an insurance run on the way to a 3 -- 1 win. Houston bounced back to win games two and three. Game four went into extra innings, with the Phillies taking the lead and the win in the tenth inning. Pete Rose started a rally with a one - out single, then Luzinski doubled off the left field wall and Rose bowled over catcher Bruce Bochy to score the go - ahead run. The Phillies got an insurance run on the way to tying the series.
Rookie Phillies pitcher Marty Bystrom was sent out by Philadelphia manager Dallas Green to face veteran Nolan Ryan in Game Five. The rookie gave up a run in the first inning, then held the Astros at bay until the sixth inning. An Astros lead was lost when Bob Boone hit a two - out single in the second, but the Astros tied the game in the sixth with an Alan Ashby single scoring Denny Walling. Houston took a 5 -- 2 lead in the seventh, however the Phillies came back with five runs in the inning. The Astros came back against Tug McGraw with four singles and two two - out runs. Now in extra innings, Garry Maddox doubled in Del Unser with one out to give the Phillies an 8 -- 7 lead. The Astros failed to score in the bottom of the tenth.
A 1981 player strike ran between June 12 and August 10. Ultimately, the strike would help the Astros get into the playoffs. Nolan Ryan and Bob Knepper picked up steam in the second half of the season. Ryan threw his fifth no - hitter on September 26 and finished the season with a 1.69 ERA. Knepper finished with an ERA of 2.18. In the wake of the strike, Major League Baseball took the winners of each "half '' season and set up a best - of - five divisional playoff. The Reds won more games than any other team in the National League, but they won neither half of the strike - divided season. The Astros finished 61 -- 49 overall, which would have been third in the division behind the Reds and the Dodgers. Advancing to the playoffs as winners of the second half, Houston beat Los Angeles in their first two playoff games at home, but the Dodgers took the next three in Los Angeles to advance to the NLCS.
By 1982, only four players and three starting pitchers remained from the 1980 squad. The Astros were out of pennant contention by August and began rebuilding for the near future. Bill Virdon was fired as manager and replaced by original Colt. 45 Bob Lillis. Don Sutton asked to be traded and was sent to the Milwaukee Brewers for cash and the team gained three new prospects, including Kevin Bass. Minor league player Bill Doran was called up in September. Bass also got a look in the outfield. The Astros finished fourth in the west, but new talent was starting to appear.
Before the 1983 season, the Astros traded Danny Heep to the Mets for pitcher Mike Scott, a 28 - year - old who had struggled with New York. Art Howe sat out the 1983 season with an injury, forcing Phil Garner to third and Ray Knight to first. Doran took over at second, becoming the everyday second baseman for the next seven seasons. The Astros finished third in the National League West. The 1984 season started off badly when shortstop Dickie Thon was hit in the head by a pitch and was lost for the season. In September, the Astros called up rookie Glenn Davis after he posted impressive numbers in AAA. The Astros finished in second place. In 1985, Mike Scott learned a new pitch, the split - finger fastball. Scott, who was coming off of a 5 -- 11 season, had found his new pitch and would become one of Houston 's most celebrated hurlers. In June, Davis made the starting lineup at first base, adding power to the team. In September, Joe Niekro was traded to the Yankees for two minor league pitchers and lefty Jim Deshaies. The Astros finished in fourth place in 1985.
After finishing fourth in 1985, the Astros fired general manager Al Rosen and manager Bob Lillis. The former was supplanted by Dick Wagner, the man whose Reds defeated the Astros to win the 1979 NL West title. The latter was replaced by Hal Lanier who, like his manager mentor in St. Louis, Whitey Herzog, had a hard - nosed approach to managing and espoused a playing style that focused on pitching, defense, and speed rather than home runs to win games. This style of baseball, known as Whiteyball, took advantage of stadiums with deep fences and artificial turf, both of which were characteristics of the Astrodome. Lanier 's style of baseball took Houston by storm. Before Lanier took over, fans were accustomed to Houston 's occasional slow starts, but with Lanier leading the way, Houston got off to a hot start, winning 13 of their first 19 contests.
Prior to the start of the season the Astros acquired outfielder Billy Hatcher from the Cubs for Jerry Mumphrey. Lainer also made a change in the pitching staff, going with a three - man rotation to start the season. This allowed Lanier to keep his three starters (Nolan Ryan, Bob Knepper, and Mike Scott) sharp and to slowly work in rookie hurler Jim Deshaies. Bill Doran and Glenn Davis held down the right side of the field but Lainer rotated the left side. Denny Walling and Craig Reynolds faced the right - handed pitchers while Phil Garner and Dickie Thon batted against left - handers. Lainer knew the Astros had talent and he put it to work.
The Astrodome was host to the 1986 All - Star Game in which Astros Mike Scott, Kevin Bass, Glenn Davis, and Dave Smith represented the host field. The Astros kept pace with the NL West after the All - Star break. They went on a streak of five straight come - from - behind wins. Houston swept a key 3 - game series over the San Francisco Giants in late September to clinch the division title. Mike Scott took the mound in the final game of the series and pitched a no - hitter -- the only time in MLB history that any division was clinched via a no - hitter. Scott would finish the season with an 18 -- 10 record and a Cy Young Award.
The 1986 National League Championship Series against the New York Mets was noted for great drama and is considered one of the best postseason series ever. In Game 3, the Astros were ahead at Shea Stadium, 5 -- 4, in the bottom of the 9th when closer Dave Smith gave up a two - run home run to Lenny Dykstra, giving the Mets a dramatic 6 -- 5 win.
However, the signature game of the series was Game 6. Needing a win to get to Mike Scott (who had been dominant in the series) in Game 7, the Astros jumped off to a 3 -- 0 lead in the first inning but neither team would score again until the 9th inning. In the 9th, starting pitcher Bob Knepper would give up two runs, and once again the Astros would look to Dave Smith to close it out. However, Smith would walk Gary Carter and Darryl Strawberry, giving up a sacrifice fly to Ray Knight, tying the game. Despite having the go - ahead runs on base, Smith was able to escape the inning without any further damage.
There was no scoring until the 14th inning when the Mets would take the lead on a Wally Backman single and an error by left fielder Billy Hatcher. The Astros would get the run back in the bottom of the 14th when Hatcher (in a classic goat - to - hero - conversion - moment) hit one of the most dramatic home runs in NLCS history, off the left field foul pole. In the 16th inning, Darryl Strawberry doubled to lead off the inning and Ray Knight drove him home in the next at - bat. The Mets would score a total of three runs in the inning to take what appeared an insurmountable 7 -- 4 lead. With their season on the line, the Astros would nonetheless rally for two runs to come to within 7 -- 6. Kevin Bass came up with the tying and winning runs on base; however Jesse Orosco would strike him out, ending the game. At the time the 16 - inning game held the record for the longest in MLB postseason history. The Mets won the series, 4 -- 2.
After the 1986 season, the team had difficulty finding success again. Several changes occurred. The "rainbow '' uniforms were phased out, the team electing to keep a five - stripe "rainbow '' design on the sleeves. From 1987 to 1993, the Astros wore the same uniform for both home and away games; the only team in Major League Baseball to do so during that period. Its favorites Nolan Ryan and José Cruz moved on and the team entered a rebuilding phase. Craig Biggio debuted in June 1988, joining new prospects Ken Caminiti and Gerald Young. Biggio would become the everyday catcher by 1990. A trade acquiring Jeff Bagwell in exchange for Larry Andersen would become one of the biggest deals in Astros history. Glenn Davis was traded to Baltimore for Curt Schilling, Pete Harnisch and Steve Finley in 1990.
The early 1990s were marked by the Astros ' growing discontent with their home, the Astrodome. After the Astrodome was renovated for the primary benefit of the NFL 's Houston Oilers (who shared the Astrodome with the Astros since the 1960s), the Astros began to grow increasingly disenchanted with the facility. Faced with declining attendance at the Astrodome and the inability of management to obtain a new stadium, in the 1991 off - season Astros management announced its intention to sell the team and move the franchise to the Washington, D.C. area. However, the move was not approved by other National League owners, thus compelling the Astros to remain in Houston. Shortly thereafter, McMullen (who also owned the NHL 's New Jersey Devils) sold the team to Texas businessman Drayton McLane in 1993, who committed to keeping the team in Houston.
Shortly after McLane 's arrival, which coincided with the maturation of Bagwell and Biggio, the Astros began to show signs of consistent success. After finishing second in their division in 1994 (in a strike year), 1995, and 1996, the Astros won consecutive division titles in 1997, 1998, and 1999. In the 1998 season, the Astros set a team record with 102 victories. However, each of these titles was followed by a first - round playoff elimination, in 1998 by the San Diego Padres and in 1997 and 1999 against the Atlanta Braves. The manager of these title teams was Larry Dierker, who had previously been a broadcaster and pitcher for the Astros. During this period, Bagwell, Biggio, Derek Bell, and Sean Berry earned the collective nickname "The Killer Bs ''. In later seasons, the name came to include other Astros, especially Lance Berkman.
Coinciding with the change in ownership, the team switched uniforms and team colors after the 1993 season in order to go for a new, more serious image. The team 's trademark rainbow uniforms were retired, and the team 's colors changed to midnight blue and metallic gold. The "Astros '' font on the team logo was changed to a more aggressive one, and the team 's traditional star logo was changed to a stylized, "flying '' star with an open left end. It marked the first time since the team 's inception that orange was not part of the team 's colors. Despite general agreement that the rainbow uniforms identified with the team had become tired (and looked too much like a minor league team according to the new owners), the new uniforms and caps were never especially popular with many Astros fans.
Off the field, in 1994, the Astros hired one of the first African American general managers, former franchise player Bob Watson. Watson would leave the Astros after the 1995 season to become general manager of the New York Yankees and helped to lead the Yankees to a World Championship in 1996. He would be replaced by Gerry Hunsicker, who until 2004 would continue to oversee the building of the Astros into one of the better and most consistent organizations in the Major Leagues.
However, in 1996, the Astros again nearly left Houston. By the mid-1990s, McLane (like McMullen before him) wanted his team out of the Astrodome and was asking the city to build the Astros a new stadium. When things did not progress quickly toward that end, he put the team up for sale. He had nearly finalized a deal to sell the team to businessman William Collins, who planned to move them to Northern Virginia. However, Collins was having difficulty finding a site for a stadium himself, so Major League owners stepped in and forced McLane to give Houston another chance to grant his stadium wish. Houston voters, having already lost the Houston Oilers in a similar situation, responded positively via a stadium referendum and the Astros stayed put.
The 2000 season saw a move to a new stadium. Originally to be named The Ballpark at Union Station due to being located on the site of Union Station (Houston), it was renamed Enron Field by the season opening after the naming rights were sold to energy corporation Enron. The stadium was to feature a retractable roof, a particularly useful feature with unpredictable Houston weather. The ballpark also featured more intimate surroundings than the Astrodome. In 2002, naming rights were purchased by Houston - based Minute Maid, after Enron went bankrupt. The park was built on the grounds of the old Union Station. A locomotive moves across the outfield and whistles after home runs, paying homage to a Houston history which had eleven railroad company lines running through the city by 1860. The ballpark previously contained quirks such as "Tal 's Hill '', which was a hill in deep center field on which a flagpole stood, all in fair territory. Tal 's Hill was replaced in the 2016 -- 2017 offseason. The wall was moved in to 409 feet, which the team hoped would generate more home runs. A similar feature was located in Crosley Field. Over the years, many highlight reel catches have been made by center fielders running up the hill to make catches. With the change in location also came a change in attire. Gone were the blue and gold uniforms of the 1990s in favor a more "retro '' look with pinstripes, a traditional baseball font, and the colors of brick red, sand and black. These colors were chosen because ownership originally wanted to rename the team the Houston Diesels. The "shooting star '' logo was modified but still retained its definitive look.
After two fairly successful seasons without a playoff appearance, the Astros were early favorites to win the 2004 NL pennant. They added star pitcher Andy Pettitte to a roster that already included standouts like Lance Berkman and Jeff Kent as well as veterans Bagwell and Biggio. Roger Clemens, who had retired after the 2003 season with the New York Yankees, agreed to join former teammate Pettitte on the Astros for 2004. The one - year deal included unique conditions, such as the option for Clemens to stay home in Houston on select road trips when he was n't scheduled to pitch. Despite the early predictions for success, the Astros had a mediocre 44 -- 44 record at the All - Star break. A lack of run production and a poor record in close games were major issues. After being booed at the 2004 All - Star Game held in Houston, manager Jimy Williams was fired and replaced by Phil Garner, a star on the division - winning 1986 Astros. The Astros enjoyed a 46 -- 26 record in the second half of the season under Garner and earned the NL wild card spot. The Astros defeated the Braves 3 -- 2 in the Division Series, but would lose the National League Championship Series to the St. Louis Cardinals in seven games. Clemens earned a record seventh Cy Young Award in 2004. Additionally, the mid-season addition of Carlos Beltrán in a trade with the Kansas City Royals helped the Astros tremendously in their playoff run. Despite midseason trade rumors, Beltrán would prove instrumental to the team 's hopes, hitting eight home runs in the postseason. Though he had asserted a desire to remain with the Astros, Beltrán signed a long - term contract with the New York Mets on January 9, 2005.
In 2005, the Astros started poorly and found themselves with a 15 -- 30 record in late May. The Houston Chronicle had written them off with a tombstone emblazoned with "RIP 2005 Astros ''. However, from that low point until the end of July, Houston went 42 -- 17 and found themselves in the lead for an NL wild card spot. July saw the best single - month record in the club 's history at 22 - 7. Offensive production had increased greatly after a slow start in the first two months. The Astros had also developed an excellent pitching staff, anchored by Roy Oswalt (20 -- 12, 2.94), Andy Pettitte (17 -- 9, 2.39), and Roger Clemens (13 -- 8 with a league - low ERA of only 1.87). The contributions of the other starters -- Brandon Backe (10 -- 8, 4.76) and rookie starters Ezequiel Astacio (3 -- 6, 5.67) and Wandy Rodríguez (10 -- 10, 5.53) -- were less remarkable, but enough to push the Astros into position for a playoff run. The Astros won a wild card berth on the final day of the regular season, becoming the first team since the world champion 1914 Boston Braves to qualify for the postseason after being 15 games under. 500.
The Astros won the National League Division Series against the Atlanta Braves, 3 -- 1, with a game four that set postseason records for most innings (18), most players used by a single team (23), and longest game time (5 hours and 50 minutes). Trailing by a score of 6 -- 1, Lance Berkman hit an eighth - inning grand slam to narrow the score to 6 -- 5. In the bottom of the ninth, catcher Brad Ausmus hit a game - tying home run that allowed the game to continue in extra innings. In the bottom of the tenth inning, Luke Scott hit a blast to left field that had home run distance, but was inches foul. This game remained scoreless for the next eight innings. In the top of the fifteenth inning, Roger Clemens made only his second career relief appearance, pitching three shutout innings, notably striking out Julio Franco, at the time the oldest player in the MLB at 47 years old; Clemens was himself 43. In the bottom of the eighteenth inning, Clemens came to bat again, indicating that he would be pitching in the nineteenth inning, if it came to that. Clemens struck out, but the next batter, Chris Burke, hit a home run to left field for the Astros win, 7 -- 6. Oddly enough, a fan in the "Crawford Boxes '' in left field had previously caught Berkman 's grand slam and this same fan caught Burke 's home run. The National League Championship Series featured a rematch of the 2004 NLCS. The Astros lost the first game in St. Louis, but would win the next three games, with Roy Oswalt getting the win. Though the Astros were poised to close out the series in Game Five in Houston, Brad Lidge gave up a monstrous two - out three - run home run to Albert Pujols, forcing the series to a sixth game in St. Louis, where the Astros clinched a World Series appearance. Roy Oswalt was named NLCS MVP, having gone 2 -- 0 with a 1.29 ERA in the series. Current honorary NL President William Y. Giles presented the league champion Astros with the Warren C. Giles Trophy. Warren Giles, William 's father and President of the National League from 1951 to 1969, had awarded an MLB franchise to the city of Houston in 1960.
The Astros faced the Chicago White Sox in the World Series. Chicago had been considered the slight favorite but would win all four games, the first two at U.S. Cellular Field in Chicago and the final two in Houston. Game 3 marked the first World Series game held in the state of Texas, and was the longest game in World Series history, lasting 5 hours and 41 minutes.
This World Series was marked by a controversy involving the Minute Maid Park roof. MLB & Commissioner Bud Selig insisted that the Astros must play with the roof open, which mitigated the intensity and enthusiasm of the cheering Astros fans.
In the 2006 offseason, the team signed Preston Wilson and moved Berkman to first base, ending the long tenure of Jeff Bagwell. The Astros renewed the contract with Clemens and traded two minor league prospects to the Tampa Bay Devil Rays for left - handed hitter Aubrey Huff. By August, Preston Wilson complained about his playing time after the return of Luke Scott from AAA Round Rock. The Astros released Wilson and he was signed by St. Louis. A dramatic season end included wins in 10 of their last 12 games, but the Astros missed a playoff appearance when they lost the final game of the season to the Atlanta Braves.
On October 31, the Astros declined a contract option on Jeff Bagwell for 2007, ending his 15 - year Astros career and leading to his retirement. Roger Clemens and Andy Pettitte filed for free agency. On December 12, the Astros traded Willy Taveras, Taylor Buchholz, and Jason Hirsh to the Colorado Rockies for Rockies pitchers Jason Jennings and Miguel Asencio. A trade with the White Sox, involving the same three Astros in exchange for Jon Garland, had been nixed a few days earlier when Buchholz reportedly failed a physical. In the end, Taveras continued to develop and Hirsh had a strong 2007 rookie campaign, while Jennings was often injured and generally ineffective.
On April 28, 2007, the Astros purchased the contract of top minor league prospect Hunter Pence. He debuted that night, getting a hit and scoring a run. By May 2007, the Astros had suffered one of their worst recent losing streaks (10 games). On June 28, second baseman Craig Biggio became the 27th MLB player to accrue 3,000 career hits. Biggio needed three hits to reach 3,000 and on that night he had five hits. That night, Carlos Lee hit a towering walk - off grand slam in the eleventh inning. Lee later quipped to the newsmedia that "he had hit a walk - off grand slam and he got second billing '', considering Biggio 's achievement. On July 24, Biggio announced that he would retire at the end of the season. He hit a grand slam in that night 's game which broke a 3 -- 3 tie and led to an Astros win. In Biggio 's last at bat, he grounded out to Chipper Jones of the Atlanta Braves.
On September 20, Ed Wade was named General Manager. In his first move, he traded Jason Lane to the Padres on September 24. On September 30, Craig Biggio retired after twenty years with the team. In November, the Astros traded RHP Brad Lidge and SS Eric Bruntlett to the Philadelphia Phillies for OF Michael Bourn, RHP Geoff Geary, and minor leaguer Mike Costanzo. Utility player Mark Loretta accepted Houston 's salary arbitration and Kazuo Matsui finalized a $16.5 million, three - year contract with the team. In December the Astros traded OF Luke Scott, RHP Matt Albers, RHP Dennis Sarfate, LHP Troy Patton, and minor - league 3B Mike Costanzo, to the Baltimore Orioles for SS Miguel Tejada. On December 14, they sent infielder Chris Burke, RHP Juan Gutiérrez, and RHP Chad Qualls to the Arizona Diamondbacks for RHP José Valverde. On December 27, the Astros came to terms on a deal with All - Star, Gold Glove winner Darin Erstad.
In January and February 2008, the Astros signed Brandon Backe, Ty Wigginton, Dave Borkowski and Shawn Chacón to one - year deals. The starting rotation would feature Roy Oswalt and Brandon Backe as numbers one and two. Wandy Rodríguez, Chacón and Chris Sampson rounded out the bottom three slots in the rotation. Woody Williams had retired after a 0 -- 4 spring training and Jason Jennings was now with Texas. On the other side of the roster, the Astros would start without Kazuo Matsui, who was on a minor league rehab assignment after a spring training injury.
The Astros regressed in 2008 and 2009, finishing with records of 86 -- 75 and 74 -- 88, respectively. Manager Cecil Cooper was fired after the 2009 season.
The 2010 season was the first season as Astros manager for Brad Mills, who was previously the bench coach of the Boston Red Sox. The Astros struggled throughout a season that was marked by trade - deadline deals that sent longtime Astros to other teams. On July 29, the Astros ' ace starting pitcher, Roy Oswalt, was dealt to the Philadelphia Phillies for J.A. Happ and two minor league players. On July 31, outfielder Lance Berkman was traded to the New York Yankees for minor leaguers Jimmy Paredes and Mark Melancon. The Astros finished with a record of 76 -- 86.
On July 30, 2011, the Astros traded OF Hunter Pence, the team 's 2010 leader in home runs, to the Philadelphia Phillies. On July 31, they traded OF Michael Bourn to the Atlanta Braves. On September 17, the Astros clinched their first 100 - loss season in franchise history, On September 28, the Astros ended the season with an 8 -- 0 home loss to the St. Louis Cardinals. Cardinals pitcher Chris Carpenter pitched a complete game, two - hit shutout in the game, enabling the Cardinals to win the National League Wild Card, where they went on to beat the Texas Rangers in the World Series, with Lance Berkman being a key player in their championship victory. The Astros finished with a record of 56 -- 106, the worst single - season record in franchise history (a record which would be broken the following season).
In November 2010, Drayton McLane announced that the Astros were being put up for sale. McLane stated that because the Astros were one of the few franchises in Major League Baseball with only one family as the owners, he was planning his estate. McLane was 75 years old as of November 2011. In March 2011, local Houston businessman Jim Crane emerged as the front - runner to purchase the franchise. In the 1980s, Crane founded an air freight business which later merged with CEVA Logistics, and later founded Crane Capital Group. McLane and Crane had a previous handshake agreement for the franchise in 2008, but Crane abruptly changed his mind and broke off discussions. Crane also attempted to buy the Chicago Cubs in 2008 and the Texas Rangers during their 2010 bankruptcy auction. Crane came under scrutiny because of previous allegations of discriminatory hiring practices regarding women and minorities, among other issues. This delayed MLB 's approval process. During the summer of 2011, a frustrated Crane hinted that the delays might threaten the deal. In October 2011, Crane met personally with MLB Commissioner Bud Selig, in a meeting that was described as "constructive ''.
On November 15, 2011, it was announced that Crane had agreed to move the franchise to the American League for the 2013 season. The move was part of an overall divisional realignment of MLB, with the National and American leagues each having 15 teams in three geographically balanced divisions. Crane was given a $70 million concession by MLB for agreeing to the switch; the move was a condition for the sale to the new ownership group. Two days later, the Astros were officially sold to Crane after the other owners unanimously voted in favor of the sale. It was also announced that 2012 would be the last season for the Astros in the NL. After over fifty years of the Astros being a part of the National League, this move was unpopular with many Astros fans.
In 2012, the Astros were eliminated from the playoffs before September 5. On September 27, the Astros named Bo Porter to be the manager for the 2013 season.
On October 3, the Astros ended over 50 years of NL play with a 5 -- 4 loss to the Chicago Cubs and began to look ahead to join the American League. Winning only 20 road games during the entire season, the Astros finished with a 55 -- 107 record, the worst record in all of Major League Baseball for the 2012 season, and surpassing the 2011 season for the worst record in Astros history.
On November 2, 2012, the Astros unveiled their new look in preparation for their move to the American League for the 2013 season. The uniform is navy and orange, going back to the original 1960s team colors, as well as debuting a new version of the classic navy hat with a white "H '' over an orange star.
On November 6, 2012, the Astros hired former Cleveland Indians director of baseball operations David Stearns as the team 's new assistant general manager. The Astros would also go on to hire former St. Louis Cardinals front office executive Jeff Luhnow as their general manager.
The Houston Astros played their first game as an American League team on March 31, 2013, where they were victorious over their in - state division competitor, the Texas Rangers, with a score of 8 -- 2.
On September 29, the Astros completed their first year in the American League, losing 5 -- 1 in a 14 - inning game to the New York Yankees. The Astros finished the season with a 51 -- 111 record (a franchise worst) with a season ending 15 - game losing streak, again surpassing their worst record from the previous season. The team finished 45 games behind the division winner Oakland Athletics, further adding to their futility. This marked three consecutive years that the Astros had lost more than 100 games in a single season. They also became the first team to have the first overall pick in the draft three years in a row. They improved on their season in 2014, going 70 -- 92, finishing 28 games back over the division winner Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim, and placing fourth in the AL West over the Texas Rangers.
After a slow start, the Astros took over first place in the AL West on April 19 and stayed there until shortly before the All - Star Break in mid-July. The Astros retook first place on July 29, but fell from first on September 15.
In September 2015, four men died who had been closely associated with the team: Yogi Berra, Gene Elston, Milo Hamilton, and John McMullen. McMullen and Hamilton passed on the same Thursday, September 17, 2015, Elston on September 5th, and Berra on September 22. McMullen, after being a co-owner of the New York Yankees, purchased the Astros in 1979. He also brought Nolan Ryan to the Astros. In 1980, the Astros played the Philadelphia Phillies for the NL pennant with Gene Elston on the radio. In 1985, McMullen brought Yogi Berra in to be a bench coach for the new Astros manager Hal Lanier for the 1986 season, with Milo Hamilton on the radio.
Dallas Keuchel led the AL with 20 victories, going 15 -- 0 at home, an MLB record. Key additions to the team included Scott Kazmir and SS Carlos Correa who hit 22 home runs, being called up in June 2015. 2B José Altuve picked up where he left off as the star of the Astros ' offense. On July 30, the Astros picked up Mike Fiers and Carlos Gómez from the Milwaukee Brewers. Fiers threw the 11th no - hitter in Astros history on August 21 against the Los Angeles Dodgers. Houston got the final AL playoff spot and faced the Yankees in the Wild Card Game on October 6 at New York. They defeated the Yankees 3 -- 0, but lost to the Kansas City Royals in the American League Division Series.
The Astros split the first two games of the ALDS best - of - five series in Kansas City. The Astros won the first game at Minute Maid to take a 2 -- 1 lead in the ALDS. In game 4, after 7 innings, the Astros had a 6 -- 2 lead. In the top half of the eighth inning, which took about 45 minutes to end, the Royals had taken a 7 -- 6 lead with a series of consecutive base hits. The Astros suffered a 9 -- 6 loss and the ALDS was tied at 2 -- 2. Then the series went back to Kansas City, where the Royals clinched the series in the fifth game, 7 -- 2.
The Astros entered the 2016 season as the favorites to win the AL West after a promising 2015 season. After a bad start to their season, with Houston going just 7 -- 17 in April, the Astros bounced back and went on to have a winning record in their next four months, including an 18 -- 8 record in June. But after going 12 -- 15 in September, the Astros were eliminated from playoff contention. They finished in third place in the American League West Division with a final record of 84 -- 78.
On August 10, 2016 Gómez was designated for assignment by the Astros after a dreadful campaign with the team. He was released on August 18, 2016. Gomez finished his Astros career batting a career low average of. 210 and only hitting 5 HR through 85 games with the club. Gómez later signed with division rival Texas.
The season was marked by the Astros 4 -- 15 record against their in - state division rival (and eventual division winner) Texas Rangers. The Astros finished the 2016 season eleven games behind the Rangers.
In 2014, Sports Illustrated predicted the Astros would win the 2017 World Series through their strategic rebuilding process. As of June 9, the Astros were 41 -- 16, which gave them a 13.5 - game lead over the rest of their division, and they had comfortable possession of the best record in the entire league. This was the best start in the Astros ' 55 - year history. As the games of June 23 concluded, the Astros had an 11.5 - game lead over the rest of the division. The Astros entered the All - Star Break with an American League - best 60 -- 29 record and a 16 - game lead in the division, although the overall best record in MLB had just barely slipped to the Dodgers shortly before the All - Star Break by just one game.
With Hurricane Harvey causing massive flooding throughout Houston and southeast Texas, the Astros ' three - game series against the Texas Rangers for August 29 -- 31, was relocated to Tropicana Field (home of the Tampa Bay Rays), in St. Petersburg, Florida. The Astros greatly improved against the Rangers in 2017, going 12 -- 7 against them and winning the season series.
At the August 31 waiver - trade deadline GM Jeff Luhnow acquired veteran starting pitcher and Cy Young Award winner Justin Verlander to bolster the starting rotation. Verlander won each of his 5 regular season starts with the Astros, yielding only 4 runs over this stretch. He carried his success into the playoffs, posting a record of 4 -- 1 in his 6 starts, and throwing a complete game in Game 2 of the ALCS. Verlander was named the 2017 ALCS MVP.
The Astros clinched their first division title as a member of the American League West division, and first division title overall since 2001. They also became the first team in Major League history to win three different divisions: National League West in 1980 and 1986, National League Central from 1997 to 1999 and 2001, and American League West in 2017. On September 29, the Astros won their 100th game of the season, the second time the Astros finished a season with over 100 wins, the first being in 1998. They finished 101 -- 61, with a 21 - game lead in the division, and faced the Red Sox in the first round of the AL playoffs. The Astros defeated the Red Sox three games to one, and advanced to the American League Championship Series against the New York Yankees. The Astros won the ALCS four games to three, and advanced to the World Series to play against the Los Angeles Dodgers. The Astros defeated the Dodgers in the deciding seventh game of the World Series, winning the first championship in franchise history.
The city of Houston celebrated the team 's accomplishment with a parade on the afternoon of November 3, 2017. Houston 's Independent School District gave the students and teachers the day off to watch the parade.
On November 16, 2017 José Altuve was named the American League Most Valuable Player, capping off a historic season in which he accumulated 200 hits for the fourth consecutive season, led the majors with a. 346 BA, and was the unquestioned clubhouse leader of the World Series champions.
On September 26, 2018, a victory by the Seattle Mariners over the Oakland A 's sealed a repeat of the Astros as AL West division champs. For the third time in franchise history, the team won over 100 games. On September 29, they swept a doubleheader against the Baltimore Orioles to set a new franchise record of 103 wins. They finished the regular season 103 - 59, and faced the Cleveland Indians in the ALDS. The Astros swept Cleveland and advanced to the ALCS to face the Boston Red Sox, ultimately losing in 5 games.
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Two awards are presented each year, one to a Houston Astro and one to a St. Louis Cardinal, each of whom exemplifies Kile 's virtues of being "a good teammate, a great friend, a fine father and a humble man. '' The winner is selected by each local chapter of the Baseball Writers ' Association of America.
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While not officially retired, the Astros have not reissued number 57 since 2002, when former Astros pitcher Darryl Kile died as an active player with the St. Louis Cardinals. In addition, the Astros have not issued the number 17 since Lance Berkman was traded in 2010. The number 42 is retired by Major League Baseball in honor of Jackie Robinson.
Nellie Fox
Jeff Bagwell Craig Biggio
Leo Durocher Randy Johnson
Eddie Mathews Joe Morgan
Robin Roberts Iván Rodríguez
Nolan Ryan Don Sutton
Gene Elston
Milo Hamilton
Harry Kalas
Pitchers
Catchers
Infielders
Outfielders
Manager
Coaches
35 active, 0 inactive, 0 non-roster invitees
7 - or 10 - day disabled list * Not on active roster Suspended list Roster, coaches, and NRIs updated October 30, 2018 Transactions Depth Chart → All MLB rosters
The Astros have held their spring training at FITTEAM Ballpark of the Palm Beaches in West Palm Beach, Florida since 2017. They share the stadium with the Washington Nationals.
From 1985 to 2016, the Astros held spring training at Osceola County Stadium in Kissimmee, Florida.
* In December 2016, the Astros agreed to a 30 - year deal to field a Class - A Advanced team in Fayetteville, North Carolina, beginning in 2019. The team will play the 2017 and 2018 seasons in Buies Creek while a new stadium is built in Fayetteville.
Since 2013, the Astros ' flagship radio station is KBME, Sportstalk 790 AM (a Fox Sports Radio affiliate). Previously, the team had a partnership with KTRH (740 AM) which went from 1999 to 2012 (both stations are owned by iHeartMedia). This change suddenly made it difficult for listeners outside of Houston itself to hear the Astros, as KTRH runs 50 kilowatts of power day and night, and KBME runs only five kilowatts. As a result, KTRH is audible across much of Central, East, and South Texas, whereas KBME can only be heard in Houston, especially after dark. Milo Hamilton, a veteran voice who was on the call for Hank Aaron 's 715th career home run in 1974, retired at the end of the 2012 season, after broadcasting play - by - play for the Astros since 1985. Dave Raymond and Brett Dolan shared play - by play duty for road games, while Raymond additionally worked as Hamilton 's color analyst (while Hamilton called home games only for the past few seasons before his retirement); they were not retained and instead brought in Robert Ford and Steve Sparks to begin broadcasting for the 2013 season.
Spanish language radio play - by - play is handled by Francisco Romero, and his play - by - play partner is Alex Treviño, a former backup catcher for the club.
During the 2012 season Astros games on television were announced by Bill Brown and Jim Deshaies. In the seven seasons before then, Astros games were broadcast on television by Fox Sports Houston, with select games shown on broadcast TV by KTXH. As part of a ten - year, $1 billion deal with Comcast that includes a majority stake jointly held by the Astros and the Houston Rockets, Houston Astros games moved to the new Comcast SportsNet Houston at the beginning of the 2013 season. On September 27, 2013 CSN Houston filed for Chapter 11 Bankruptcy and surprising the Astros who own the largest stake. After being brought out of bankruptcy by DirecTV Sports Networks and AT&T, the channel 's name was changed to Root Sports Southwest then later AT&T SportsNet Southwest.
The current television team consists of Todd Kalas and Geoff Blum.
Orbit is the name given to MLB 's Houston Astros mascot, a lime - green outer - space creature wearing an Astros jersey with antennae extending into baseballs. Orbit was the team 's official mascot from the 1990 through the 1999 seasons, where Junction Jack was introduced as the team 's mascot with the move from the Astrodome to then Enron Field in 2000. Orbit returned after 13 - year hiatus on November 2, 2012 at the unveiling of the Astros new look for their 2013 debut in the American League. The name Orbit pays homage to Houston 's association with NASA and nickname Space City.
The Astros had been represented by a trio of rabbit mascots named Junction Jack, Jesse and Julie from 2000 through 2012.
In April 1977, the Houston Astros introduced their very first mascot, Chester Charge. Created by Ed Henderson, Chester Charge was a Texas cavalry soldier on a horse. Chester appeared on the field at the beginning of each home game, during the seventh inning stretch and then ran around the bases at the conclusion of each win. At the blast of a bugle, the scoreboard would light up and the audience would yell, "Charge! ''
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See also: List of companies in Houston
See: List of colleges and universities in Houston
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how did dracula become a vampire in the book | Count Dracula - wikipedia
Count Dracula is the title character of Bram Stoker 's 1897 gothic horror novel Dracula. He is considered to be both the prototypical and the archetypal vampire in subsequent works of fiction. He is also depicted in the novel to be the origin of werewolf legends. Some aspects of the character are believed to have been inspired by the 15th - century Wallachian Prince Vlad the Impaler, who was also known as Dracula. Other character aspects have been added or altered in subsequent popular fictional works. The character has subsequently appeared frequently in popular culture, from films to animated media to breakfast cereals.
Bram Stoker 's novel takes the form of an epistolary tale, in which Count Dracula 's characteristics, powers, abilities and weaknesses are narrated by multiple narrators, from different perspectives.
Count Dracula is an undead, centuries - old vampire, and a Transylvanian nobleman who claims to be a Székely descended from Attila the Hun. He inhabits a decaying castle in the Carpathian Mountains near the Borgo Pass. Unlike the vampires of Eastern European folklore, which are portrayed as repulsive, corpse - like creatures, Dracula wears a veneer of aristocratic charm. In his conversations with Jonathan Harker, he reveals himself as deeply proud of his boyar heritage and nostalgic for the past, which he admits have become only a memory of heroism, honour and valour in modern times.
Details of his early life are obscure, but it is mentioned "he was in life a most wonderful man. Soldier, statesman, and alchemist. Which latter was the highest development of the science knowledge of his time. He had a mighty brain, a learning beyond compare, and a heart that knew no fear and no remorse... there was no branch of knowledge of his time that he did not essay. '' He studied the black arts at the academy of Scholomance in the Carpathian Mountains, overlooking the town of Sibiu (also known as Hermannstadt) and has a deep knowledge of alchemy and magic. Taking up arms, as befitting his rank and status as a voivode, he led troops against the Turks across the Danube. According to his nemesis Abraham Van Helsing, "He must indeed have been that Voivode Dracula who won his name against the Turk, over the great river on the very frontier of Turkey - land. If it be so, then was he no common man: for in that time, and for centuries after, he was spoken of as the cleverest and the most cunning, as well as the bravest of the sons of the land beyond the forest. '' Dead and buried in a great tomb in the chapel of his castle, Dracula returns from death as a vampire and lives for several centuries in his castle with three terrifyingly beautiful female vampires beside him.
In "Dracula 's Guest '', the narrative follows an unnamed Englishman traveller as he wanders around Munich before leaving for Transylvania. It is Walpurgis Night and the young Englishman foolishly leaves his hotel, in spite of the coachman 's warnings, and wanders through a dense forest alone. Along the way, he feels that he is being watched by a tall and thin stranger (possibly Count Dracula).
The short story climaxes in an old graveyard, where the Englishman encounters a sleeping female vampire called Countess Dolingen in a marble tomb with a large iron stake driven into it. This malevolent and beautiful vampire awakens from her marble bier to conjure a snowstorm before being struck by lightning and returning to her eternal prison. However, the Englishman 's troubles are not quite over, as he is dragged away by an unseen force and rendered unconscious. He awakens to find a "gigantic '' wolf lying on his chest and licking at his throat; however, the wolf merely keeps him warm and protects him until help arrives. When the Englishman is finally taken back to his hotel, a telegram awaits him from his expectant host Dracula, with a warning about "dangers from snow and wolves and night ''.
As the Dracula novel begins in the late 19th century, Dracula acts on a long - contemplated plan for world domination, and infiltrates London to begin his reign of terror. He summons Jonathan Harker, a newly qualified English solicitor, to provide legal support for a real estate transaction overseen by Harker 's employer. Dracula at first charms Harker with his cordiality and historical knowledge, and even rescues him from the clutches of the three female vampires in the castle. In truth, however, Dracula merely wishes to keep Harker alive long enough to complete the legal transaction and to learn as much as possible about England.
Dracula leaves his castle and boards a Russian ship, the Demeter, taking along with him 50 boxes of Transylvanian soil, which he needs in order to regain his strength and rest during daylight. During the voyage to Whitby, a coastal town in northern England, he sustains himself on the ship 's crew members. Only one body is later found, that of the captain, who is found tied up to the ship 's helm. The captain 's log is recovered and tells of strange events that had taken place during the ship 's journey. Dracula leaves the ship in the form of a dog.
Soon the Count is menacing Harker 's fiancée, Wilhelmina "Mina '' Murray, and her friend, Lucy Westenra. There is also a notable link between Dracula and Renfield, a patient in an insane asylum overseen by John Seward, who is compelled to consume insects, spiders, birds, and other creatures -- in ascending order of size -- in order to absorb their "life force ''. Renfield acts as a kind of sensor, reacting to Dracula 's proximity and supplying clues accordingly. Dracula begins to visit Lucy 's bed chamber on a nightly basis, draining her of blood while simultaneously infecting her with the curse of vampirism. Not knowing the cause for Lucy 's deterioration, her three suitors - Seward, Arthur Holmwood and Quincey Morris - call upon Seward 's mentor, the Dutch doctor Abraham Van Helsing. Van Helsing soon deduces her condition 's supernatural origins, but does not speak out. Despite an attempt at keeping the vampire at bay with garlic, Dracula attacks Lucy 's house one final time, killing her mother and transforming Lucy herself into one of the undead.
Harker escapes Dracula 's castle and returns to England, barely alive and deeply traumatized. On Seward 's suggestion, Mina seeks Van Helsing 's assistance in assessing Harker 's health. She reads his journal and passes it along to Van Helsing. This unfolds the first clue to the identity of Lucy 's assailant, which later prompts Mina to collect all of the events of Dracula 's appearance in news articles, saved letters, newspaper clippings and the journals of each member of the group. This assists the group in investigating Dracula 's movements and later discovering that Renfield 's behaviour is directly influenced by Dracula. They then discover that Dracula has purchased a residence just next door to Seward 's. The group gathers intelligence to track the location of Dracula for the purpose of destroying him.
After the undead Lucy attacks several children, Van Helsing, Seward, Holmwood and Morris enter her crypt and destroy her to save her soul. Later, Harker joins them and the party work to discover Dracula 's intentions. Harker aids the party in tracking down the locations of the boxes to the various residences of Dracula and discovers that Dracula purchased multiple real estate properties ' over the counter ' throughout the North, South, East and West sides of London under the alias ' Count De Ville '. Dracula 's main plan was to move each of his 50 boxes of earth to his various properties in order to arrange multiple lairs throughout and around the perimeter of London.
The party pries open each of the graves, places wafers of Sacramental bread within each of them, and seals them shut. This deprives the Count of his ability to seek safety in those boxes. Dracula gains entry into Seward 's residence by coercing an invitation out of Renfield. As he attempts to enter the room in which Harker and Mina are staying, Renfield tries to stop him; Dracula then mortally wounds him. With his dying breath, Renfield tells Seward and Van Helsing that Dracula is after Mina. Van Helsing and Seward discover Dracula biting Mina then forcing her to drink his blood. The group repel Dracula using crucifixes and sacramental bread, forcing Dracula to flee by turning into a dark vapor. The party continue to hunt Dracula to search for his remaining lairs. Although Dracula 's ' baptism ' of Mina grants him a telepathic link to her, it backfires when Van Helsing hypnotizes Mina and uses her supernatural link with Dracula to track him as he flees back to Transylvania.
The heroes follow Dracula back to Transylvania, and in a climactic battle with Dracula 's gypsy bodyguards, finally destroy him. Despite the popular image of Dracula having a stake driven through his heart to kill him, Mina 's narrative describes his decapitation by Harker 's kukri while Morris simultaneously pierced his heart with a Bowie knife (Mina Harker 's Journal, 6 November, Dracula Chapter 27). His body then turns into dust, but not before Mina sees an expression of peace on his face.
Although early in the novel Dracula dons a mask of cordiality, he often flies into fits of rage when his plans are frustrated. When the three vampire women who live in his castle attempt to seduce Jonathan Harker, Dracula physically assaults one and ferociously berates them for their insubordination. He then relents and talks to them more kindly, telling them that he does indeed love each of them.
He has an appreciation for ancient architecture, and when purchasing a home he prefers them to be aged, saying "A new home would kill me '', and that to make a new home habitable to him would take a century.
Dracula is very proud of his warrior heritage, proclaiming his pride to Harker on how the Székely people are infused with the blood of heroes. He also expresses an interest in the history of the British Empire, speaking admiringly of its people. He has a somewhat primal and predatory worldview; he pities ordinary humans for their revulsion to their darker impulses. He is not without human emotions, however; he often says that he too can love.
Though usually portrayed as having a strong Eastern European accent, the original novel only specifies that his spoken English is excellent, though strangely toned.
His appearance varies in age. He is described early in the novel as thin, with a long white mustache, pointed ears and sharp teeth. It is also noted later in the novel (Chapter 11 subsection "The Escaped Wolf '') by a zookeeper who sees him that he has a hooked nose and a pointed beard with a streak of white in it. He is dressed all in black and has hair on his palms. Jonathan Harker described him as an old man, "cruel looking '' and giving an effect of "extraordinary pallor ''. When angered, the Count showed his true bestial nature, his blue eyes flaming red.
I saw... Count Dracula... with red light of triumph in his eyes, and with a smile that Judas in hell might be proud of.
As the novel progresses, Dracula is described as taking on a more and more youthful appearance. After Harker strikes him with a shovel, he is left with a scar on his forehead which he bears throughout the course of the novel.
Dracula also possesses great wealth and having Gypsies in his homeland who are loyal to him as servants and protectors.
Count Dracula is portrayed in the novel using many different supernatural abilities, and is believed to have gained his abilities through dealings with the Devil. Chapter 18 of the novel describes many of the abilities, limitations and weaknesses of vampires and Dracula in particular. Dracula has superhuman strength which, according to Van Helsing, is equivalent to that of 20 strong men. He does not cast a shadow or have a reflection from mirrors. He is immune to conventional means of attack; a sailor tries to stab him in the back with a knife, but the blade goes through his body as though it is air. Why Harker 's and Morris ' physical attacks are able to harm him in other parts of the book is never explained although it is noteworthy that the failed stabbing by the sailor occurred at night and the successful attacks were during daylight hours. The Count can defy gravity to a certain extent and possesses superhuman agility, able to climb vertical surfaces upside down in a reptilian manner. He can travel onto "unhallowed '' ground such as the graves of suicides and those of his victims. He has powerful hypnotic, telepathic and illusionary abilities. He also has the ability to "within limitations '' vanish and reappear elsewhere at will. If he knows the path, he can come out from anything or into anything regardless of how close it is bound even if it is fused with fire.
He has amassed cunning and wisdom throughout centuries, and he is unable to die by the mere passing of time alone.
He can command animals such as rats, owls, bats, moths, foxes and wolves. However, his control over these animals is limited, as seen when the party first enters his house in London. Although Dracula is able to summon thousands of rats to swarm and attack the group, Holmwood summons his trio of terriers to do battle with the rats. The dogs prove very efficient rat killers, suggesting they are Manchester terriers trained for that purpose. Terrified by the dogs ' onslaught, the rats flee and any control which Dracula had over them is gone.
Dracula can also manipulate the weather and, within his range, is able to direct the elements, such as storms, fog and mist.
Dracula can shapeshift at will, able to grow and become small, his featured forms in the novel being that of a bat, a wolf, a large dog and a fog or mist. When the moonlight is shining, he can travel as elemental dust within its rays. He is able to pass through tiny cracks or crevices while retaining his human form or in the form of a vapour; described by Van Helsing as the ability to slip through a hairbreadth space of a tomb door or coffin. This is also an ability used by his victim Lucy as a vampire. When the party breaks into her tomb, they dismantle the secured coffin to find it completely empty; her corpse being no longer located within.
One of Dracula 's most mysterious powers is the ability to turn others into vampires by biting them. According to Van Helsing:
When they become such, there comes with the change the curse of immortality; they can not die, but must go on age after age adding new victims and multiplying the evils of the world. For all that die from the preying of the Un-dead become themselves Un-dead, and prey on their kind. And so the circle goes on ever widening, like as the ripples from a stone thrown in the water. Friend Arthur, if you had met that kiss which you know of before poor Lucy die, or again, last night when you open your arms to her, you would in time, when you had died, have become nosferatu, as they call it in Eastern Europe, and would for all time make more of those Un-Deads that so have filled us with horror.
The vampire bite itself does not cause death. It is the method vampires use to drain blood of the victim and to increase their influence over them. This is described by Van Helsing:
The Nosferatu do not die like the bees when they sting once. He is only stronger, and being stronger, have yet more power to work evil.
Victims who are bitten by a vampire and do not die, are hypnotically influenced by them:
Those children whose blood she suck are not yet so much worse; but if she live on, Un-Dead, more and more lose their blood and by her power over them they come to her.
Van Helsing later describes the aftermath of a bitten victim when the vampire has been killed:
But if she die in truth, then all cease; the tiny wounds of the throats disappear, and they go back to their plays unknowing of whatever has been.
As Dracula slowly drains Lucy 's blood, she dies from acute blood loss and later transforms into a vampire, despite the efforts of Seward and Van Helsing to provide her with blood transfusions.
He is aided by powers of necromancy and divination of the dead, that all who die by his hand may reanimate and do his bidding.
Dracula requires no other sustenance but fresh human blood, which has the effect of rejuvenating him and allowing him to grow younger. His power is drawn from the blood of others, and he can not survive without it. Although drinking blood can rejuvenate his youth and strength, it does not give him the ability to regenerate; months after being struck on the head by a shovel, he still bears a scar from the impact.
Dracula 's preferred victims are women. Harker states that he believes Dracula has a state of fasting as well as a state of feeding. Dracula does state to Mina however that exerting his abilities caused a desire to feed.
Count Dracula is depicted as the "King Vampire '', and can control other vampires. To punish Mina and the party for their efforts against him, Dracula bites her on at least three occasions. He also forces her to drink his blood; this act curses her with the effects of vampirism and gives him a telepathic link to her thoughts. However, hypnotism was only able to be done before dawn. Van Helsing refers to the act of drinking blood by both the vampire and the victim "the Vampire 's Baptism of Blood ''.
The effects changes Mina ' physically and mentally over time. A few moments after Dracula attacks her, Van Helsing takes a wafer of sacramental bread and places it on her forehead to bless her; when the bread touches her skin, it burns her and leaves a scar on her forehead. Her teeth start growing longer but do not grow sharper. She begins to lose her appetite, feeling repulsed by normal food, begins to sleep more and more during the day; can not wake unless at sunset and stops writing in her diary. When Van Helsing later crumbles the same bread in a circle around her, she is unable to cross or leave the circle, discovering a new form of protection.
Dracula 's death can release the curse on any living victim of eventual transformation into vampire. However, Van Helsing reveals that were he to successfully escape, his continued existence would ensure that even if he did not victimize Mina further, she would transform into a vampire upon her eventual natural death.
Dracula is much less powerful in daylight and is only able to shift his form at dawn, noon, and dusk (he can shift his form freely at night or if he is at his grave). The sun is not fatal to him, as sunlight does not burn and destroy him upon contact, though most of his abilities cease.
The sun that rose on our sorrow this morning guards us in its course. Until it sets to - night, that monster must retain whatever form he now has. He is confined within the limitations of his earthly envelope. He can not melt into thin air nor disappear through cracks or chinks or crannies. If he go through a doorway, he must open the door like a mortal.
His power ceases, as does that all of all evil things, at the coming of the day. Only at certain times can he have limited freedom. If he be not at the place whither he is bound, he can only change himself at noon or exact sunrise or sunset.
He is also limited in his ability to travel, as he can only cross running water at low or high tide. Due to this, he is unable to fly across a river in the form of a bat or mist or even by himself board a boat or step off a boat onto a dock unless he is physically carried over with assistance. He is also unable to enter a place unless invited to do so by someone of the household, even a visitor; once invited, he can enter and leave the premises at will.
Dracula has a bloodlust which he is seemingly unable to control. At the sight of blood he becomes enveloped in a demonic fury which is fueled by the need to feed. Other adaptations call this uncontrollable state ' the thirst '.
There are items which afflict him to the point he has no power and can even calm him from his insatiable appetite for blood. He is repulsed by garlic, as well as sacred items and symbols such as crucifixes, and sacramental bread.
at the instant I saw that the cut had bled a little, and the blood was trickling over my chin. I laid down the razor, turning as I did so half round to look for some sticking plaster. When the Count saw my face, his eyes blazed with a sort of demoniac fury, and he suddenly made a grab at my throat. I drew away and his hand touched the string of beads which held the crucifix. It made an instant change in him, for the fury passed so quickly that I could hardly believe that it was ever there.
Placing the branch of a wild rose upon the top of his coffin will render him unable to escape it; a sacred bullet fired into the coffin could kill him so that he remain true - dead.
Mountain Ash is also described as a form of protection from a vampire although the effects are unknown. This was believed to be used as protection against evil spirits and witches during the Victorian era.
The state of rest to which vampires are prone during the day is described in the novel as a deathlike sleep in which the vampire sleeps open - eyed, is unable to awaken or move, and also may be unaware of any presence of individuals who may be trespassing. Dracula is portrayed as being active in daylight at least once in order to pursue a victim. Dracula also purchases many properties throughout London ' over the counter ' which shows that he does have the ability to have some type of presence in daylight.
He requires Transylvanian soil to be nearby to him in a foreign land or to be entombed within his coffin within Transylvania in order to successfully rest; otherwise, he will be unable to recover his strength. This has forced him to transport many boxes of Transylvanian earth to each of his residences in London. It should be noted however that he is most powerful when he is within his Earth - Home, Coffin - Home, Hell - Home, or any place unhallowed.
Further, if Dracula or any vampire has had their fill in blood upon feeding, they will be caused to rest in this dead state even longer than usual.
While universally feared by the local people of Transylvania and even beyond, Dracula commands the loyalty of gypsies and a band of Slovaks who transport his boxes on their way to London and to serve as an armed convoy bringing his coffin back to his castle. The Slovaks and gypsies appear to know his true nature, for they laugh at Harker when he tries to communicate his plight, and betray Harker 's attempt to send a letter through them by giving it to the Count.
Dracula seems to be able to hold influence over people with mental disorders, such as Renfield, who is never bitten but who worships Dracula, referring to him over the course of the novel as "Master '' and "Lord ''. Dracula also afflicts Lucy with chronic sleepwalking, putting her into a trance - like state that allows them not only to submit to his will but also seek him and satisfy his need to feed.
Dracula 's powers and weaknesses vary greatly in the many adaptations. Previous and subsequent vampires from different legends have had similar vampire characteristics.
Dracula is one of the most famous characters in popular culture. He has been portrayed by more actors in more visual media adaptations of the novel than any other horror character. Actors who have played him include Max Schreck, Béla Lugosi, John Carradine, Christopher Lee, Francis Lederer, Denholm Elliott, Jack Palance, Louis Jourdan, Frank Langella, Klaus Kinski, Gary Oldman, Leslie Nielsen, George Hamilton, Keith - Lee Castle, Gerard Butler, Duncan Regehr, Richard Roxburgh, Marc Warren, Rutger Hauer, Stephen Billington, Thomas Kretschmann, Dominic Purcell, Luke Evans and Lon Chaney Jr... In 2003, Count Dracula, as portrayed by Lugosi in the 1931 film, was named as the 33rd greatest movie villain by the AFI.
The character is closely associated with the western cultural archetype of the vampire, and remains a popular Halloween costume.
Already in 1958, Cecil Kirtly proposed that Count Dracula shared his personal past with the historical Transylvanian - born Voivode Vlad III Dracula of Wallachia, also known as Vlad the Impaler or Vlad Țepeș. Following the publication of In Search of Dracula by Radu Florescu and Raymond McNally in 1972, this supposed connection attracted much popular attention. This work argued that Bram Stoker based his Dracula on Vlad the Impaler.
Historically, the name "Dracula '' is the given name of Vlad Țepeș ' family, a name derived from a secret fraternal order of knights called the Order of the Dragon, founded by Sigismund of Luxembourg (king of Hungary and Bohemia, and Holy Roman Emperor) to uphold Christianity and defend the Empire against the Ottoman Turks. Vlad II Dracul, father of Vlad III, was admitted to the order around 1431 because of his bravery in fighting the Turks and was dubbed Dracul (Dragon) thus his son became Dracula (son of the dragon). From 1431 onward, Vlad II wore the emblem of the order and later, as ruler of Wallachia, his coinage bore the dragon symbol.
Stoker came across the name Dracula in his reading on Romanian history, and chose this to replace the name (Count Wampyr) that he had originally intended to use for his villain. However, some Dracula scholars, led by Elizabeth Miller, have questioned the depth of this connection as early as 1998. They argue that Stoker in fact knew little of the historic Vlad III, Vlad the Impaler and that he used only the name "Dracula '' and some miscellaneous scraps of Romanian history. As well, and there are no comments about Vlad III in the author 's working notes.
While having a conversation with Jonathan Harker in Chapter 3, Dracula refers to his own background, and these speeches show elements which Stoker directly copied from Wilkinson 's book. Stoker mentions the Voivode of the Dracula race who fought against the Turks after the defeat in the Battle of Kosovo, and was later betrayed by his brother, historical facts which unequivocally point to Vlad III, described as "Voïvode Dracula '' by Wilkinson:
Who was it but one of my own race who as Voivode crossed the Danube and beat the Turk on his own ground? This was a Dracula indeed! Woe was it that his own unworthy brother, when he had fallen, sold his people to the Turk and brought the shame of slavery on them! Was it not this Dracula, indeed, who inspired that other of his race who in a later age again and again brought his forces over the great river into Turkey - land; who, when he was beaten back, came again, and again, though he had to come alone from the bloody field where his troops were being slaughtered, since he knew that he alone could ultimately triumph! (Chapter 3, pp. 19)
The Count 's intended identity is later commented by Professor Van Helsing, referring to a letter from his friend Arminius:
He must, indeed, have been that Voivode Dracula who won his name against the Turk, over the great river on the very frontier of Turkey - land. (Chapter 18, pp. 145)
This indeed encourages the reader to identify the Count with the Voivode Dracula first mentioned by him in Chapter 3, the one betrayed by his brother: Vlad III Dracula, betrayed by his brother Radu the Handsome, who had chosen the side of the Turks. But as noted by the Dutch author Hans Corneel de Roos, in Chapter 25, Van Helsing and Mina drop this rudimentary connection to Vlad III and instead describe the Count 's personal past as that of "that other of his race '' who lived "in a later age ''. By smoothly exchanging Vlad III for a nameless double, Stoker avoided that his main character could be unambiguously linked to a historical person traceable in any history book.
Similarly, the novelist did not want to disclose the precise site of the Count 's residence, Castle Dracula. As confirmed by Stoker 's own handwritten research notes, the novelist had a specific location for the Castle in mind while writing the narrative: an empty mountain top in the Transylvanian Kelemen Alps near the former border with Moldavia. Efforts to promote the Poenari Castle (ca. 200 km away from the novel 's place of action near the Borgo Pass) as the "real Castle Dracula '' have no basis in Stoker 's writing; Stoker did not know this building. Regarding the Bran Castle near Brașov, Stoker possibly saw an illustration of Castle Bran (Törzburg) in Charles Boner 's book on Transylvania. Although Stoker may have been inspired by its romantic appearance, neither Boner, nor Mazuchelli nor Crosse (who also mention Terzburg or Törzburg) associate it with Vlad III; for the site of his fictitious Castle Dracula, Stoker preferred an empty mountain top.
Furthermore, Stoker 's detailed notes reveal that the novelist was very well aware of the ethnic and geo - political differences between the "Roumanians '' or "Wallachs '' / "Wallachians '', descendants of the Dacians, and the Székelys or Szeklers, allies of the Magyars or Hungarians, whose interests were opposed to that of the Wallachians. In the novel 's original typewritten manuscript, the Count speaks of throwing off the "Austrian yoke '', which corresponds to the Szekler political point of view. This expression is crossed out, however, and replaced by "Hungarian yoke '' (as appearing in the printed version), which matches the historical perspective of the Wallachians. This has been interpreted by some to mean that Stoker opted for the Wallachian, not the Szekler interpretation, thus lending more consistency to the Romanian identity of his Count: although not identical with Vlad III, the Vampire is portrayed as one of the "Dracula race ''.
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john haines the stars the snow the fire summary | John Haines - wikipedia
John Meade Haines (June 29, 1924 -- March 2, 2011) was an American poet and educator who had served as the poet laureate of Alaska.
John Meade Haines, who was born in Norfolk, Virginia, published nine collections of poetry and numerous works of nonfiction, including his acclaimed Alaskan book The Stars, The Snow, The Fire. Haines received a Guggenheim fellowship twice. He was appointed the Poet Laureate of Alaska in 1969. A collection of critical essays about his poetry, The Wilderness of Vision, was published in 1998. Haines taught graduate level and honors English classes at the University of Alaska Fairbanks. He died in Fairbanks, Alaska. Tributes to John Haines by the author and literary critic John A. Murray were published in The Bloomsbury Review, July -- August 2011 and The Sewanee Review, Winter 2012. Murray also conducted a lengthy interview with John Haines in The Bloomsbury Review, July -- August 2004. There are lengthy discussions of John Haines in Murray 's book Abbey in America: A Philosopher 's Legacy in a New Century (University of New Mexico Press, Jun 15, 2015) in the essay ' The Age of Abbey ' and in the Afterword.
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youtube otis redding sitting at the dock of the bay | (Sittin ' on) the Dock of the Bay - wikipedia
"(Sittin ' On) The Dock of the Bay '' is a song co-written by soul singer Otis Redding and guitarist Steve Cropper. It was recorded by Redding twice in 1967, including once just days before his death in a plane crash. The song was released on Stax Records ' Volt label in 1968, becoming the first posthumous single to top the charts in the US. It reached number 3 on the UK Singles Chart.
Redding started writing the lyrics to the song in August 1967, while sitting on a rented houseboat in Sausalito, California. He completed the song with the help of Cropper, who was a Stax producer and the guitarist for Booker T. & the M.G. 's. The song features whistling and sounds of waves crashing on a shore.
While on tour with the Bar - Kays in August 1967, Redding wrote the first verse of the song, under the abbreviated title "Dock of the Bay, '' on a houseboat at Waldo Point in Sausalito, California. He had completed his famed performance at the Monterey Pop Festival just weeks earlier. While touring in support of the albums King & Queen (a collaboration with female vocalist Carla Thomas) and Live in Europe, he continued to scribble lines of the song on napkins and hotel paper. In November of that year, he joined producer and guitarist Steve Cropper at the Stax recording studio in Memphis, Tennessee, to record the song.
In a September 1990 interview on NPR 's Fresh Air, Cropper explained the origins of the song:
Otis was one of those the kind of guy who had 100 ideas. (...) He had been in San Francisco doing The Fillmore. And the story that I got he was renting boathouse or stayed at a boathouse or something and that 's where he got the idea of the ships coming in the bay there. And that 's about all he had: "I watch the ships come in and I watch them roll away again. '' I just took that... and I finished the lyrics. If you listen to the songs I collaborated with Otis, most of the lyrics are about him. (...) Otis did n't really write about himself but I did. Songs like "Mr. Pitiful, '' "Fa - Fa - Fa - Fa - Fa (Sad Song) ''; they were about Otis and Otis ' life. "Dock of the Bay '' was exactly that: "I left my home in Georgia, headed for the Frisco Bay '' was all about him going out to San Francisco to perform.
Together, they completed the music and melancholy lyrics of "(Sittin ' On) The Dock of the Bay. '' From those sessions emerged Redding 's final recorded work, including "Dock of the Bay, '' which was recorded on November 22, with additional overdubs on December 7. Redding 's restrained yet emotive delivery is backed by Cropper 's memorably succinct guitar playing. The song is somewhat different in style from most of Redding 's other recordings. While discussing the song with his wife, Redding stated that he had wanted to "be a little different '' with "The Dock of the Bay '' and "change his style ''. There were concerns that "The Dock of the Bay '' had too much of a pop feel for an Otis Redding record, and contracting the Stax gospel act the Staple Singers to record backing vocals was discussed but never carried out. Redding had considered the song to be unfinished and planned to record what he considered a final version, but never got the chance. The song features a whistled tune heard before the song 's fade. It was originally performed by Redding, who (according to Cropper) had "this little fadeout rap he was gon na do, an ad - lib. He forgot what it was so he started whistling. '' Redding continued to tour after the recording sessions. On December 10, his charter plane crashed into Lake Monona, outside Madison, Wisconsin. Redding and six others were killed.
After Redding 's death, Cropper mixed "Dock of the Bay '' at Stax Studios. He added the sound of seagulls and waves crashing to the background, as Redding had requested, recalling the sounds he heard when he was staying on the houseboat. The fade - out whistling was originally recorded by Redding and was re-recorded by his bandleader, Sam "Bluzman '' Taylor.
"The Dock of the Bay '' has been hugely popular, even after its stay at the top of the charts. The song has been recorded by many artists, from Redding 's peers, like Glen Campbell, Cher, Peggy Lee, David Allan Coe, Bob Dylan, Don Partridge, Percy Sledge, Dee Clark, and Sam & Dave, to artists in various genres, including Jimmy Velvit (whose cover version was included on his 2001 Grammy - nominated album Sun Sea & Sand), Widespread Panic (who opened their New Year 's Eve 2005 concert with the song), Waylon Jennings and Willie Nelson (whose duet peaked at number 13 on the U.S. Hot Country Songs chart), Kenny Rankin, Dennis Brown, Michel Pagliaro, Jacob Miller, Pearl Jam, the Format, T. Rex (as the B - side of "Dreamy Lady '', released in 1975), Brent Smith of Shinedown (during an acoustic set in 2008 and with Zach Myers in a 2014 EP), Justin Nozuka (2007), Sara Bareilles (2008), and Garth Brooks (for the 2013 Blue - Eyed Soul album in the Blame It All on My Roots: Five Decades of Influences compilation). Playing for Change recorded a version featuring Grandpa Elliott and other performers.
Sammy Hagar released a version of the song as a non-album single in 1979. His version features the song 's co-writer, Steve Cropper, on guitar and members of the band Boston -- Brad Delp, Sib Hashian and Barry Goudreau -- on backup vocals. Producer John S. Carter had the track recorded in May 1979 with Cropper, bassist Leland Sklar and drummer Alvin Taylor. Later, he added Hagar 's vocals with background harmonies by the three members of Boston, with whom Hagar had just toured. Although the single was a modest hit for Hagar, peaking at number 65 on the Billboard Hot 100, he considered it Carter 's efforts to manufacture a pop top 40 pop hit despite Hagar 's heavy metal roots. Hagar and Cropper 's work on the song was rated the thirty - seventh worst guitar solo in history by Pitchfork in 1998. The song was not released on an album until 1992, when it appeared on The Best of Sammy Hagar. The B - side of Hagar 's single was the first release of his studio version of "I 've Done Everything for You ''.
Michael Bolton included the song on his 1987 album The Hunger. His version peaked at number 11 on the Billboard Hot 100. Zelma Redding, Otis 's widow, said she was so moved by Bolton 's performance "that it brought tears to my eyes. It reminded me so much of my husband that I know if he heard it, he would feel the same. '' In a framed letter that hangs on the wall of Bolton 's office, she referred to the record as "my all - time favorite version of my husband 's classic. ''
In April 2013, Justin Timberlake performed the song as part of a tribute to Memphis soul music at the "In Performance '' concert series performed at the White House. The series was attended by President Barack Obama and First Lady Michelle Obama.
Many who first heard the final version had doubts about the song, the sound, and the production. Among the skeptics were Phil Walden and Jim Stewart. Redding accepted some of the criticisms and fine - tuned the song. He reversed the opening, which was Redding 's whistling part, and put it at the end as suggested. "The Dock of the Bay '' was released early in 1968 and topped the charts in the US and UK. Billboard ranked the record as the number 4 song for 1968.
"(Sittin ' On) The Dock of the Bay '' was released in January 1968, shortly after Redding 's death. R&B stations quickly added the song to their playlists, which had been saturated with Redding 's previous hits. The song shot to number one on the R&B charts in early 1968 and, starting in March, topped the pop charts for four weeks. The album, which shared the song 's title, became his largest - selling to date, peaking at number four on the pop albums chart. "Dock of the Bay '' was popular in countries across the world and became Redding 's most successful record, selling more than four million copies worldwide. The song went on to win two Grammy Awards: Best R&B Song and Best Male R&B Vocal Performance.
Redding 's body of work at the time of his death was immense, including a backlog of archived recordings as well as those created in November and December 1967, just before his death. In mid-1968, Stax Records severed its distribution contract with Atlantic Records, which retained the label 's back catalog and the rights to the unreleased Otis Redding masters. Through its Atco subsidiary (Atco had distributed Otis Redding 's releases from Stax 's Volt label), Atlantic issued three more albums of new Redding material, one live album, and eight singles between 1968 and 1970. Reprise Records issued a live album featuring Redding and Jimi Hendrix at the Monterey Pop Festival. Both studio albums and anthologies sold well in America and abroad. Redding was especially successful in the United Kingdom, where The Dock of the Bay went to number one, becoming the first posthumous album to reach the top spot there.
In 1999, BMI named the song as the sixth-most performed song of the twentieth century, with about six million performances. Rolling Stone ranked The Dock of the Bay number 161 on its 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, the third of five Redding albums on the list. "(Sittin ' On) The Dock of the Bay '' was ranked twenty - eighth on Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time, the second - highest of four Redding songs on the list, after "Respect '' (in this case the version recorded by Aretha Franklin).
Jim Morrison made reference to "Dock of the Bay '' in the Doors ' song "Runnin ' Blue '', written by Robby Krieger, from their 1969 album The Soft Parade. Morrison sings an a capella intro for the song, singing directly about Otis Redding. "Poor Otis dead and gone, left me here to sing his song, pretty little girl with a red dress on, poor Otis dead and gone. '' And during the verse, the lyrics "Got to find a dock and a bay '' appear more than once; as well as several other references to Redding 's song.
In addition to the original Otis Redding version, several other versions have charted on the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States. King Curtis 's version charted for five weeks starting in March 1968 and peaked at number 84 (during the same month, the original was number one). A year later, Sergio Mendes & Brasil ' 66 's version charted for five weeks starting in June 1969 and peaked at number 66. Sammy Hagar 's version charted for five weeks starting in April 1979, peaking at number 65. The Reddings, who included two of Otis Redding 's sons, released a version which charted for nine weeks starting in June 1982 and peaked at number 55. Michael Bolton 's rendition charted for 17 weeks starting in January 1988 and peaked at number 11, making it the highest - charting cover version. In 2016, the British coffee brand Nescafé remixed part of the song in a television advertisement featuring American musician will.i.am.
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how many seats does the majestic theater have | Majestic theatre (San Antonio) - wikipedia
www.majesticempire.com
The Majestic Theatre is San Antonio 's oldest and largest atmospheric theatre. The theatre seats 2,311 people and was designed by architect John Eberson, for Karl Hoblitzelle 's Interstate Theatres in 1929.
In 1975, the theatre was listed on the National Register of Historical Places and was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1993. The theatre was home to the San Antonio Symphony from 1989 to 2014. For many years, it remained the largest theatre in Texas and the second largest movie theatre in the United States. It was also the first theatre in the state to be totally air - conditioned.
The land on which the office building - theatre complex now stands was leased to Karl Hoblitzelle from J.M. Nix, who had purchased it in 1920 from the Enterprise Company of Dallas. The land came with the curious deed restriction that, until April 5, 1928, "' neither aforesaid land nor any building or improvement or any part thereon shall be used or occupied for theatrical, motion picture, or amusement purposes at any time... ' ''
Sufficiently exceeding the listed time restriction, the theatre 's opening on June 14, 1929, in many ways symbolized a progressiveness with which San Antonio wished to identify. The city actually deemed the month of the opening "Prosperity Month, '' celebrating the recent era of development Texas was experiencing. In size, the Greater Majestic was second in the nation only to Atlanta, Georgia 's Fox Theatre, and it was the first theatre in Texas to be fully air - conditioned, something that alone was a major attraction in the 1920s South. Advertisements heralding "' an acre of cool, comfortable seats ' '' were "further emphasized by the snow which topped the letters of the theatre 's name, '' prompting society women to wear fur coats to the June opening. The 4,000 - seat theatre was filled to capacity for opening day entertainment, which consisted of the musical film, Follies of 1929 and live performances by Mexican Troubador Don Galvan, "The Banjo Boy, '' the "Seven Nelsons '' acrobatic troupe, Eddie Sauer and his "Syncopaters, '' and the Father of Country Music, Jimmie Rodgers, who himself received 18 curtain calls. Each week, the program offered included a new film and a new lineup of star performers. In 1930, the Great Depression caused the Majestic to close for several weeks, until it was able to reopen "because Americans were turning to movies for escape. '' The Majestic provided that escape with a schedule of films and live entertainment through the 1940s and 50s.
Theatre features included a huge cast - iron canopy covering the sidewalk, a vertical sign 76 - feet tall topped with "a strutting peacock... walking as a huge ball rotated under his feet, '' and a cave - like single - story lobby that included copper lanterns, ceiling murals, and an aquarium filled with tropical fish. Inside the theatre 's auditorium were stuffed birds perched on balconies or frozen mid-flight via ceiling wire, replicas of well - known Greek, Roman, and Renaissance sculptures, and specially treated cypress trees brought from Spain and placed on upper - level niches. The Baroque tendency to decorate with mask - like faces is exemplified by carvings alongside the stage and under the mezzanine balcony, and in direct translation of atmospheric theater design, the Majestic 's blue ceiling "cloud scape '' disguises the interior dome as an evening sky in conjunction with a cloud projector and small bulbs simulating stars. The bulbs are actually positioned according to consultations with experts at the National Geographic Society, who instructed the designer as to the positioning of the real stars on the night of the theater 's opening.
In January 2017, the Majestic replaced the white peacock, which had tarnished gray and become "decrepit '' over the years with a new one purchased for $3,600 from Joel Donahue, a California taxidermist. There are twenty - seven other stuffed birds in the theatre, including a second less ostensible peacock on the opposite side of the new addition. At the Majestic grand opening in 1929, the facility was billed as having "one of the largest collections of stuffed birds in Texas, '' including a large white peacock. Later that year, the theatre hosted the San Antonio portions of Hand in Hand: A Benefit for Hurricane Relief.
The world premiere of West Point of the Air (1935) was held at the Majestic on March 22, 1935.
The world premiere of The Texans (1938) was held at the Majestic on July 16, 1938.
The world premiere of The Lusty Men (1952) was held at the Majestic in 1952 with stars Robert Mitchum, Arthur Kennedy and Arthur Hunnicutt attending. Selena (1997) starring Jennifer Lopez was filmed inside the theatre.
The world premiere of "To Hell and Back '' (1955) was held at the Majestic on August 17, 1955. In the movie Texan Audie Murphy plays himself as World War II 's most decorated combat soldier. The premiere was held on the tenth anniversary of Murphy 's army discharge at Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio.
The world premiere of The Alamo (2004) was held at the Majestic on March 27, 2004 with Dennis Quaid, Billy Bob Thornton, Jason Patric, Patrick Wilson, Emilio Echevarria, Jordi Molla, native Texan writer / director John Lee Hancock and Academy Award winning producer Mark Johnson in attendance.
See also: List of museums in Central Texas
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which of the following is not a characteristic feature of traditional eastern european folk music | Folk music - wikipedia
Folk music includes both traditional music and the genre that evolved from it during the 20th century folk revival. The term originated in the 19th century, but is often applied to music older than that. Some types of folk music are also called world music. Traditional folk music has been defined in several ways: as music transmitted orally, music with unknown composers, or music performed by custom over a long period of time. It has been contrasted with commercial and classical styles.
Starting in the mid-20th century, a new form of popular folk music evolved from traditional folk music. This process and period is called the (second) folk revival and reached a zenith in the 1960s. This form of music is sometimes called contemporary folk music or folk revival music to distinguish it from earlier folk forms. Smaller, similar revivals have occurred elsewhere in the world at other times, but the term folk music has typically not been applied to the new music created during those revivals. This type of folk music also includes fusion genres such as folk rock, folk metal and others. While contemporary folk music is a genre generally distinct from traditional folk music, in English it shares the same name, and it often shares the same performers and venues as traditional folk music.
A consistent definition of traditional folk music is elusive. The terms folk music, folk song, and folk dance are comparatively recent expressions. They are extensions of the term folklore, which was coined in 1846 by the English antiquarian William Thoms to describe "the traditions, customs, and superstitions of the uncultured classes ''. The term further derives from the German expression Volk, in the sense of "the people as a whole '' as applied to popular and national music by Johann Gottfried Herder and the German Romantics over half a century earlier. Traditional folk music also includes most indigenous music.
However, despite the assembly of an enormous body of work over some two centuries, there is still no certain definition of what folk music (or folklore, or the folk) is. Some do not even agree that the term Folk Music should be used. Folk music may tend to have certain characteristics but it can not clearly be differentiated in purely musical terms. One meaning often given is that of "old songs, with no known composers '', another is that of music that has been submitted to an evolutionary "process of oral transmission... the fashioning and re-fashioning of the music by the community that give it its folk character ''.
Such definitions depend upon "(cultural) processes rather than abstract musical types... '', upon "continuity and oral transmission... seen as characterizing one side of a cultural dichotomy, the other side of which is found not only in the lower layers of feudal, capitalist and some oriental societies but also in ' primitive ' societies and in parts of ' popular cultures ' ''. One widely used definition is simply "Folk music is what the people sing ''.
For Scholes, as well as for Cecil Sharp and Béla Bartók, there was a sense of the music of the country as distinct from that of the town. Folk music was already, "... seen as the authentic expression of a way of life now past or about to disappear (or in some cases, to be preserved or somehow revived) '', particularly in "a community uninfluenced by art music '' and by commercial and printed song. Lloyd rejected this in favour of a simple distinction of economic class yet for him true folk music was, in Charles Seeger 's words, "associated with a lower class '' in culturally and socially stratified societies. In these terms folk music may be seen as part of a "schema comprising four musical types: ' primitive ' or ' tribal '; ' elite ' or ' art '; ' folk '; and ' popular ' ''.
Music in this genre is also often called traditional music. Although the term is usually only descriptive, in some cases people use it as the name of a genre. For example, the Grammy Award previously used the terms "traditional music '' and "traditional folk '' for folk music that is not contemporary folk music.
From a historical perspective, traditional folk music had these characteristics:
As a side - effect, the following characteristics are sometimes present:
In folk music, a tune is a short instrumental piece, a melody, often with repeating sections, and usually played a number of times. A collection of tunes with structural similarities is known as a tune - family. America 's Musical Landscape says "the most common form for tunes in folk music is AABB, also known as binary form ''.
In some traditions, tunes may be strung together in medleys or "sets ''.
Throughout most of human prehistory and history, listening to recorded music was not possible. Music was made by common people during both their work and leisure, as well as during religious activities. The work of economic production was often manual and communal. Manual labor often included singing by the workers, which served several practical purposes. It reduced the boredom of repetitive tasks, it kept the rhythm during synchronized pushes and pulls, and it set the pace of many activities such as planting, weeding, reaping, threshing, weaving, and milling. In leisure time, singing and playing musical instruments were common forms of entertainment and history - telling -- even more common than today, when electrically enabled technologies and widespread literacy make other forms of entertainment and information - sharing competitive.
Some believe that folk music originated as art music that was changed and probably debased by oral transmission, while reflecting the character of the society that produced it. In many societies, especially preliterate ones, the cultural transmission of folk music requires learning by ear, although notation has evolved in some cultures. Different cultures may have different notions concerning a division between "folk '' music on the one hand and of "art '' and "court '' music on the other. In the proliferation of popular music genres, some traditional folk music became also referred to "World music '' or "Roots music ''.
The English term "folklore '', to describe traditional folk music and dance, entered the vocabulary of many continental European nations, each of which had its folk - song collectors and revivalists. The distinction between "authentic '' folk and national and popular song in general has always been loose, particularly in America and Germany -- for example popular songwriters such as Stephen Foster could be termed "folk '' in America. The International Folk Music Council definition allows that the term can also apply to music that, "... has originated with an individual composer and has subsequently been absorbed into the unwritten, living tradition of a community. But the term does not cover a song, dance, or tune that has been taken over ready - made and remains unchanged. ''
The post -- World War II folk revival in America and in Britain started a new genre, contemporary folk music, and brought an additional meaning to the term "folk music '': newly composed songs, fixed in form and by known authors, which imitated some form of traditional music. The popularity of "contemporary folk '' recordings caused the appearance of the category "Folk '' in the Grammy Awards of 1959: in 1970 the term was dropped in favor of "Best Ethnic or Traditional Recording (including Traditional Blues) '', while 1987 brought a distinction between "Best Traditional Folk Recording '' and "Best Contemporary Folk Recording ''. After that, they had a "Traditional music '' category that subsequently evolved into others. The term "folk '', by the start of the 21st century, could cover singer songwriters, such as Donovan from Scotland and American Bob Dylan, who emerged in the 1960s and much more. This completed a process to where "folk music '' no longer meant only traditional folk music.
Traditional folk music often includes sung words, although folk instrumental music occurs commonly in dance music traditions. Narrative verse looms large in the traditional folk music of many cultures. This encompasses such forms as traditional epic poetry, much of which was meant originally for oral performance, sometimes accompanied by instruments. Many epic poems of various cultures were pieced together from shorter pieces of traditional narrative verse, which explains their episodic structure, repetitive elements, and their frequent in medias res plot developments. Other forms of traditional narrative verse relate the outcomes of battles or describe tragedies or natural disasters.
Sometimes, as in the triumphant Song of Deborah found in the Biblical Book of Judges, these songs celebrate victory. Laments for lost battles and wars, and the lives lost in them, are equally prominent in many traditions; these laments keep alive the cause for which the battle was fought. The narratives of traditional songs often also remember folk heroes such as John Henry or Robin Hood. Some traditional song narratives recall supernatural events or mysterious deaths.
Hymns and other forms of religious music are often of traditional and unknown origin. Western musical notation was originally created to preserve the lines of Gregorian chant, which before its invention was taught as an oral tradition in monastic communities. Traditional songs such as Green grow the rushes, O present religious lore in a mnemonic form, as do Western Christmas carols and similar traditional songs.
Work songs frequently feature call and response structures and are designed to enable the laborers who sing them to coordinate their efforts in accordance with the rhythms of the songs. They are frequently, but not invariably, composed. In the American armed forces, a lively oral tradition preserves jody calls ("Duckworth chants '') which are sung while soldiers are on the march. Professional sailors made similar use of a large body of sea shanties. Love poetry, often of a tragic or regretful nature, prominently figures in many folk traditions. Nursery rhymes and nonsense verse used to amuse or quiet children also are frequent subjects of traditional songs.
Music transmitted by word of mouth through a community, in time, develops many variants, because this kind of transmission can not produce word - for - word and note - for - note accuracy. Indeed, many traditional singers are quite creative and deliberately modify the material they learn.
For example, the words of "I 'm a Man You Do n't Meet Every Day '' (Roud 975) are known from a broadside in the Bodleian Library. The date is almost certainly before 1900, and it seems to be Irish. In 1958 the song was recorded in Canada (My Name is Pat and I 'm Proud of That). Scottish traveler Jeannie Robertson from Aberdeen, made the next recorded version in 1961. She has changed it to make reference to "Jock Stewart '', one of her relatives, and there are no Irish references. In 1976 Scottish artist Archie Fisher deliberately altered the song to remove the reference to a dog being shot. In 1985 The Pogues took it full circle by restoring all the Irish references.
Because variants proliferate naturally, it is naïve to believe that there is such a thing as the single "authentic '' version of a ballad such as "Barbara Allen ''. Field researchers in traditional song (see below) have encountered countless versions of this ballad throughout the English - speaking world, and these versions often differ greatly from each other. None can reliably claim to be the original, and it is possible that the "original '' version ceased to be sung centuries ago. Many versions can lay an equal claim to authenticity.
The influential folklorist Cecil Sharp felt that these competing variants of a traditional song would undergo a process of improvement akin to biological natural selection: only those new variants that were the most appealing to ordinary singers would be picked up by others and transmitted onward in time. Thus, over time we would expect each traditional song to become aesthetically ever more appealing -- it would be collectively composed to perfection, as it were, by the community.
Literary interest in the popular ballad form dates back at least to Thomas Percy and William Wordsworth. English Elizabethan and Stuart composers had often evolved their music from folk themes, the classical suite was based upon stylised folk - dances, and Joseph Haydn 's use of folk melodies is noted. But the emergence of the term "folk '' coincided with an "outburst of national feeling all over Europe '' that was particularly strong at the edges of Europe, where national identity was most asserted. Nationalist composers emerged in Central Europe, Russia, Scandinavia, Spain and Britain: the music of Dvořák, Smetana, Grieg, Rimsky - Korsakov, Brahms, Liszt, de Falla, Wagner, Sibelius, Vaughan Williams, Bartók, and many others drew upon folk melodies.
While the loss of traditional folk music in the face of the rise of popular music is a worldwide phenomenon, it is not one occurring at a uniform rate throughout the world. The process is most advanced "where industrialization and commercialisation of culture are most advanced '' but also occurs more gradually even in settings of lower technological advancement. However, the loss of traditional music is slowed in nations or regions where traditional folk music is a badge of cultural or national identity, for instance in the case of Bangladesh, Hungary, India, Ireland, Pakistan, Scotland, Latvia, Turkey, Portugal, Brittany, Galicia, Greece and Crete. Tourism revenue can provide a potent incentive to preserve local cultural distinctives. Local government often sponsors and promotes performances during tourist seasons, and revives lost traditions.
Much of what is known about folk music prior to the development of audio recording technology in the 19th century comes from fieldwork and writings of scholars, collectors and proponents.
Starting in the 19th century, academics and amateur scholars, taking note of the musical traditions being lost, initiated various efforts to preserve the music of the people. One such effort was the collection by Francis James Child in the late 19th century of the texts of over three hundred ballads in the English and Scots traditions (called the Child Ballads), some of which predated the 16th century.
Contemporaneously with Child, the Reverend Sabine Baring - Gould and later Cecil Sharp worked to preserve a great body of English rural traditional song, music and dance, under the aegis of what became and remains the English Folk Dance and Song Society (EFDSS). Sharp campaigned with some success to have English traditional songs (in his own heavily edited and expurgated versions) to be taught to school children in hopes of reviving and prolonging the popularity of those songs. Throughout the 1960s and early to mid-1970s, American scholar Bertrand Harris Bronson published an exhaustive four - volume collection of the then - known variations of both the texts and tunes associated with what came to be known as the Child Canon. He also advanced some significant theories concerning the workings of oral - aural tradition.
Similar activity was also under way in other countries. One of the most extensive was perhaps the work done in Riga by Krisjanis Barons, who between the years 1894 and 1915 published six volumes that included the texts of 217,996 Latvian folk songs, the Latvju dainas. In Norway the work of collectors such as Ludvig Mathias Lindeman was extensively used by Edvard Grieg in his Lyric Pieces for piano and in other works, which became immensely popular.
Around this time, composers of classical music developed a strong interest in collecting traditional songs, and a number of outstanding composers carried out their own field work on traditional music. These included Percy Grainger and Ralph Vaughan Williams in England and Béla Bartók in Hungary. These composers, like many of their predecessors, both made arrangements of folk songs and incorporated traditional material into original classical compositions. The Latviju dainas are extensively used in the classical choral works of Andrejs Jurāns, Jānis Cimze, and Emilis Melngailis.
The advent of audio recording technology provided folklorists with a revolutionary tool to preserve vanishing musical forms. The earliest American folk music scholars were with the American Folklore Society (AFS), which emerged in the late 1800s. Their studies expanded to include Native American music, but still treated folk music as a historical item preserved in isolated societies as well. In North America, during the 1930s and 1940s, the Library of Congress worked through the offices of traditional music collectors Robert Winslow Gordon, Alan Lomax and others to capture as much North American field material as possible. Lomax was the first prominent scholar to study distinctly American folk music such as that of cowboys and southern blacks. His first major published work was in 1911, Cowboy Songs and Other Frontier Ballads. and was arguably the most prominent US folk music scholar of his time, notably during the beginnings of the folk music revival in the 1930s and early 1940s. Cecil Sharp also worked in America, recording the traditional songs of the Appalachian Mountains in 1916 -- 1918 in collaboration with Maud Karpeles and Olive Dame Campbell and is considered the first major scholar covering American folk music. Campbell and Sharp are represented under other names by actors in the modern movie Songcatcher.
One strong theme amongst folk scholars in the early decades of the 20th century was regionalism, the analysis of the diversity of folk music (and related cultures) based on regions of the US rather than based on a given song 's historical roots. Later, a dynamic of class and circumstances was added to this. The most prominent regionalists were literary figures with a particular interest in folklore. Carl Sandburg often traveled the U.S. as a writer and a poet. He also collected songs in his travels and, in 1927, published them in a book American Songbag. "In his collections of folk songs, Sandburg added a class dynamic to popular understandings of American folk music. This was the final element of the foundation upon which the early folk music revivalists constructed their own view of Americanism. Sandburg 's working class Americans joined with the ethnically, racially, and regionally diverse citizens that other scholars, public intellectuals, and folklorists celebrated their own definitions of the American folk, definitions that the folk revivalists used in constructing their own understanding of American folk music, and an overarching American identity ''.
Prior to the 1930s, the study of folk music was primarily the province of scholars and collectors. The 1930s saw the beginnings of larger scale themes, commonalities, themes and linkages in folk music developing in the populace and practitioners as well, often related to the Great Depression. Regionalism and cultural pluralism grew as influences and themes. During this time folk music began to become enmeshed with political and social activism themes and movements. Two related developments were the U.S. Communist Party 's interest in folk music as a way to reach and influence Americans, and politically active prominent folk musicians and scholars seeing communism as a possible better system, through the lens of the Great Depression. Woody Guthrie exemplifies songwriters and artists with such an outlook.
Folk music festivals proliferated during the 1930s. President Franklin Roosevelt was a fan of folk music, hosted folk concerts at the White House, and often patronized folk festivals. One prominent festival was Sarah Gertrude Knott 's National Folk Festival, established in St. Louis, Missouri in 1934. Under the sponsorship of the Washington Post, the festival was held in Washington, DC at Constitution Hall from 1937 -- 1942. The folk music movement, festivals, and the wartime effort were seen as forces for social goods such as democracy, cultural pluralism, and the removal of culture and race - based barriers.
The American folk music revivalists of the 1930s approached folk music in different ways. Three primary schools of thought emerged: "Traditionalists '' (e.g. Sarah Gertrude Knott and John Lomax) emphasized the preservation of songs as artifacts of deceased cultures. "Functional '' folklorists (e.g. Botkin and Alan Lomax) maintained that songs only retain relevance when utilized by those cultures which retain the traditions which birthed those songs. "Left - wing '' folk revivalists (e.g. Charles Seeger and Lawrence Gellert) emphasized music 's role "in ' people 's ' struggles for social and political rights ''. By the end of the 1930s these and others had turned American folk music into a social movement.
Sometimes folk musicians became scholars and advocates themselves. For example, Jean Ritchie (born in 1922) was the youngest child of a large family from Viper, Kentucky that had preserved many of the old Appalachian traditional songs. Ritchie, living in a time when the Appalachians had opened up to outside influence, was university educated and ultimately moved to New York City, where she made a number of classic recordings of the family repertoire and published an important compilation of these songs. (See also Hedy West)
In January 2012, the American Folklife Center at the Library of Congress, with the Association for Cultural Equity, announced that they would release Lomax 's vast archive of 1946 and later recording in digital form. Lomax spent the last 20 years of his life working on an interactive multimedia educational computer project he called the Global Jukebox, which included 5,000 hours of sound recordings, 400,000 feet of film, 3,000 videotapes, and 5,000 photographs. As of March 2012, this has been accomplished. Approximately 17,400 of Lomax 's recordings from 1946 and later have been made available free online. This material from Alan Lomax 's independent archive, begun in 1946, which has been digitized and offered by the Association for Cultural Equity, is "distinct from the thousands of earlier recordings on acetate and aluminum discs he made from 1933 to 1942 under the auspices of the Library of Congress. This earlier collection -- which includes the famous Jelly Roll Morton, Woody Guthrie, Lead Belly, and Muddy Waters sessions, as well as Lomax 's prodigious collections made in Haiti and Eastern Kentucky (1937) -- is the provenance of the American Folklife Center '' at the library of Congress.
Africa is a vast continent and its regions and nations have distinct musical traditions. The music of North Africa for the most part has a different history from Sub-Saharan African music traditions.
The music and dance forms of the African diaspora, including African American music and many Caribbean genres like soca, calypso and Zouk; and Latin American music genres like the samba, Cuban rumba, salsa; and other clave (rhythm) - based genres, were founded to varying degrees on the music of African slaves, which has in turn influenced African popular music.
Many Asian civilizations distinguish between art / court / classical styles and "folk '' music, though cultures that do not depend greatly upon notation and have much anonymous art music must distinguish the two in different ways from those suggested by western scholars. For example, the late Alam Lohar is a good example of a classical South Asian folk singer of great repute. Khunung Eshei / Khuland Eshei is an ancient folk song of Meiteis of Manipur who have maintained it for thousands of years.
Archaeological discoveries date Chinese folk music back 7000 years; it is largely based on the pentatonic scale.
Han traditional weddings and funerals usually include a form of oboe called a suona and apercussive ensembles called a chuigushou. Ensembles consisting of mouth organs (sheng), shawms (suona), flutes (dizi) and percussion instruments (especially yunluo gongs) are popular in northern villages; their music is descended from the imperial temple music of Beijing, Xi'an, Wutai shan and Tianjin. Xi'an drum music, consisting of wind and percussive instruments, is popular around Xi'an, and has received some commercial popularity outside of China. Another important instrument is the sheng, pipes, an ancient instrument that is ancestor of all Western free reed instruments, such as the accordion. Parades led by Western - type brass bands are common, often competing in volume with a shawm / chuigushou band.
In southern Fujian and Taiwan, Nanyin or Nanguan is a genre of traditional ballads. They are sung by a woman accompanied by a xiao and a pipa, as well as other traditional instruments. The music is generally sorrowful and typically deals with a love - stricken women. Further south, in Shantou, Hakka and Chaozhou, erxian and zheng ensembles are popular. Sizhu ensembles use flutes and bowed or plucked string instruments to make harmonious and melodious music that has become popular in the West among some listeners. These are popular in Nanjing and Hangzhou, as well as elsewhere along the southern Yangtze area. Sizhu has been secularized in cities but remains spiritual in rural areas. Jiangnan Sizhu (silk and bamboo music from Jiangnan) is a style of instrumental music, often played by amateur musicians in tea houses in Shanghai; it has become widely known outside of its place of origin. Guangdong Music or Cantonese Music is instrumental music from Guangzhou and surrounding areas. It is based on Yueju (Cantonese Opera) music, together with new compositions from the 1920s onwards. Many pieces have influences from jazz and Western music, using syncopation and triple time. This music tells stories, myths and legends.
The genre of Sri Lankan music is known as Oriental music. The art, music and dances of Sri Lanka derives from the elements of nature, and have been enjoyed and developed in the Buddhist environment. The music is of several types and uses only a few types of instruments. The folk songs and poems were used in social gatherings to work together. The Indian influenced classical music has grown to be unique. The traditional drama, music and songs are typically Sri Lankan. The temple paintings and carvings used birds, elephants, wild animals, flowers and trees, and the Traditional 18 Dances display the dancing of birds and animals. For example:
Musical types include:
The classical Sinhalese Orchestra consists of five categories of instruments, but among the percussion instruments, the drum is essential for dance. The vibrant beat of the rhythm of the drums form the basic of the dance. The dancers feet bounce off the floor and they leap and swirl in patterns that reflect the complex rhythms of the drum beat. This drum beat may seem simple on the first hearing but it takes a long time to master the intricate rhythms and variations, which the drummer sometimes can bring to a crescendo of intensity. There are six common types of drums falling within 3 styles (one - faced, two - faced, and flat - faced):
Other instruments include:
Folk song traditions were taken to Australia by early settlers from England, Scotland and Ireland and gained particular foothold in the rural outback. The rhyming songs, poems and tales written in the form of bush ballads often relate to the itinerant and rebellious spirit of Australia in The Bush, and the authors and performers are often referred to as bush bards. The 19th century was the golden age of bush ballads. Several collectors have catalogued the songs including John Meredith whose recording in the 1950s became the basis of the collection in the National Library of Australia.
The songs tell personal stories of life in the wide open country of Australia. Typical subjects include mining, raising and droving cattle, sheep shearing, wanderings, war stories, the 1891 Australian shearers ' strike, class conflicts between the landless working class and the squatters (landowners), and outlaws such as Ned Kelly, as well as love interests and more modern fare such as trucking. The most famous bush ballad is "Waltzing Matilda '', which has been called "the unofficial national anthem of Australia ''.
Indigenous Australian music includes the music of Australian Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders, who are collectively called Indigenous Australians; it incorporates a variety of distinctive traditional music styles practiced by Indigenous Australian peoples, as well as a range of contemporary musical styles of and fusion with European traditions as interpreted and performed by indigenous Australian artists. Music has formed an integral part of the social, cultural and ceremonial observances of these peoples, down through the millennia of their individual and collective histories to the present day. The traditional forms include many aspects of performance and musical instrumentation unique to particular regions or Indigenous Australian groups. Equal elements of musical tradition are common through much of the Australian continent, and even beyond. The culture of the Torres Strait Islanders is related to that of adjacent parts of New Guinea and so their music is also related. Music is a vital part of Indigenous Australians ' cultural maintenance.
Celtic music is a term used by artists, record companies, music stores and music magazines to describe a broad grouping of musical genres that evolved out of the folk musical traditions of the Celtic peoples. These traditions include Irish, Scottish, Manx, Cornish, Welsh, and Breton traditions. Asturian and Galician music is often included, though there is no significant research showing that this has any close musical relationship. Brittany 's Folk revival began in the 1950s with the "bagadoù '' and the "kan - ha - diskan '' before growing to world fame through Alan Stivell 's work since the mid-1960s.
In Ireland, The Clancy Brothers and Tommy Makem (although its members were all Irish - born, the group became famous while based in New York 's Greenwich Village), The Dubliners, Clannad, Planxty, The Chieftains, The Pogues, The Corrs, The Irish Rovers, and a variety of other folk bands have done much over the past few decades to revitalise and re-popularise Irish traditional music. These bands were rooted, to a greater or lesser extent, in a tradition of Irish music and benefited from the efforts of artists such as Seamus Ennis and Peter Kennedy.
In Scotland, The Corries, Silly Wizard, Capercaillie, Runrig, Jackie Leven, Julie Fowlis, Karine Polwart, Alasdair Roberts, Dick Gaughan, Wolfstone, Boys of the Lough, and The Silencers have kept Scottish folk vibrant and fresh by mixing traditional Scottish and Gaelic folk songs with more contemporary genres. These artists have also been commercially successful in continental Europe and North America. There is an emerging wealth of talent in the Scottish traditional music scene, with bands such as Mànran, Skipinnish, Barluath and Breabach and solo artists such as Patsy Reid, Robyn Stapleton and Mischa MacPherson gaining many successes in recent years.
During the Communist era national folk dancing in the Eastern Bloc was actively promoted by the state. Dance troupes from Russia and Poland toured non-communist Europe from about 1937 to 1990. The Red Army Choir recorded many albums. Eastern Europe is also the origin of the Jewish Klezmer tradition.
The polka is a central European dance and also a genre of dance music familiar throughout Europe and the Americas. It originated in the middle of the 19th century in Bohemia. Polka is still a popular genre of folk music in many European countries and is performed by folk artists in Poland, Latvia, Lithuania, Czech Republic, Netherlands, Croatia, Slovenia, Germany, Hungary, Austria, Switzerland, Italy, Ukraine, Belarus, Russia and Slovakia. Local varieties of this dance are also found in the Nordic countries, United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland, Latin America (especially Mexico), and in the United States.
German Volkslieder perpetuated by Liederhandschriften manuscripts like Carmina Burana date back to medieval Minnesang and Meistersinger traditions. Those folk songs revived in the late 18th century period of German Romanticism, first promoted by Johann Gottfried Herder and other advocates of the Enlightenment, later compiled by Achim von Arnim and Clemens Brentano (Des Knaben Wunderhorn) as well as by Ludwig Uhland.
The Volksmusik and folk dances genre, especially in the Alpine regions of Bavaria, Austria, Switzerland (Kuhreihen) and South Tyrol, up to today has clinged on rustic communities against the backdrop of industrialisation -- Low German shanties or the Wienerlied (Schrammelmusik) being notable exceptions. Slovene folk music in Upper Carniola and Styria also originated from the Alpine traditions. Traditional Volksmusik is not to be confused with commercial Volkstümliche Musik variations, strongly related to German Schlager music.
The Hungarian group Muzsikás played numerous American tours and participated in the Hollywood movie The English Patient while the singer Márta Sebestyén worked with the band Deep Forest. The Hungarian táncház movement, started in the 1970s, involves strong cooperation between musicology experts and enthusiastic amateurs. However, traditional Hungarian folk music and folk culture barely survived in some rural areas of Hungary, and it has also begun to disappear among the ethnic Hungarians in Transylvania. The táncház movement revived broader folk traditions of music, dance, and costume together and created a new kind of music club. The movement spread to ethnic Hungarian communities elsewhere in the world.
The Balkan folk music was influenced by the mingling of Balkan ethnic groups in the period of Ottoman Empire. It comprises the music of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, Serbia, Romania, Republic of Macedonia, Albania, Turkey, some of the historical states of Yugoslavia or the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro and geographical regions such as Thrace. Some music is characterised by complex rhythm.
A notable act is The Mystery Of The Bulgarian Voices, which won a Grammy Award in 1989.
An important part of the whole Balkan folk music is the music of the local Romani ethnic minority.
Nordic folk music includes a number of traditions in Northern European, especially Scandinavian, countries. The Nordic countries are generally taken to include Iceland, Norway, Finland, Sweden and Denmark. Sometimes it is taken to include Greenland and historically the Baltic countries of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.
The many regions of the Nordic countries share certain traditions, many of which have diverged significantly. It is possible to group together the Baltic states (or, sometimes, only Estonia) and parts of northwest Russia as sharing cultural similarities, contrasted with Norway, Sweden, Denmark and the Atlantic islands of, Iceland and the Faroe Islands. Greenland 's Inuit culture has its own musical traditions, influenced by Scandinavian culture. Finland shares many cultural similarities with both the Baltic nations and the Scandinavian nations. The Saami of Sweden, Norway, Finland and Russia have their own unique culture, with ties to the neighboring cultures.
Swedish folk music is a genre of music based largely on folkloric collection work that began in the early 19th century in Sweden. The primary instrument of Swedish folk music is the fiddle. Another common instrument, unique to Swedish traditions, is the nyckelharpa. Most Swedish instrumental folk music is dance music; the signature music and dance form within Swedish folk music is the polska. Vocal and instrumental traditions in Sweden have tended to share tunes historically, though they have been performed separately. Beginning with the folk music revival of the 1970s, vocalists and instrumentalists have also begun to perform together in folk music ensembles.
Folk music on the Americas consists on the encounter and union of three main musical types: European traditional music, traditional music of the American natives and tribal African music that arrived among the slaves, main differences consist on the particular type of each of these main slopes.
Particular case of Latin and South American music points to Andean music among other native musical styles (such as Caribbean, pampean and selvatic), Iberean music (Spain and Portugal) and generally speaking African tribal music, that fused together evolving in differentiated musical forms along South and Central America.
Andean music comes from the general area inhabited by Quechuas, Aymaras and other peoples that roughly in the area of the Inca Empire prior to European contact. It includes folklore music of parts of Argentina, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile, Colombia, Peru and Venezuela. Andean music is popular to different degrees across Latin America, having its core public in rural areas and among indigenous populations. The Nueva Canción movement of the 1970s revived the genre across Latin America and bought it to places where it was unknown or forgotten.
Nueva canción (Spanish for ' new song ') is a movement and genre within Latin American and Iberian music of folk music, folk - inspired music and socially committed music. It some respects its development and role is similar to the second folk music revival. This includes evolution of this new genre from traditional folk music, essentially contemporary folk music except that that English genre term is not commonly applied to it. Nueva cancion is recognized as having played a powerful role in the social upheavals in Portugal, Spain and Latin America during the 1970s and 1980s.
Nueva cancion first surfaced during the 1960s as "The Chilean New Song '' in Chile. The musical style emerged shortly afterwards in Spain and other areas of Latin America where it came to be known under similar names. Nueva canción renewed traditional Latin American folk music, and was soon associated with revolutionary movements, the Latin American New Left, Liberation Theology, hippie and human rights movements due to political lyrics. It would gain great popularity throughout Latin America, and is regarded as a precursor to Rock en español.
Cueca is a family of musical styles and associated dances from Chile, Bolivia, Peru, and Argentina.
Trova and Son are styles of traditional Cuban music originating in the province of Oriente that includes influences from Spanish song and dance such as Bolero and contradanza as well as Afro - Cuban rhythm and percussion elements.
Moda de viola is the name designed to Brazilian folk music. Is often performed with a 6 - string nylon acoustic guitar, but the most traditional instrument is the viola caipira. The songs basically detailed the hardness of life of those who work in the country. The themes are usually associated with the land, animals, folklore, impossible love and separation. Although there are some upbeat songs, most of them are nostalgic and melancholic.
Canada 's traditional folk music is particularly diverse. Even prior to liberalizing its immigration laws in the 1960s, Canada was ethnically diverse with dozens of different Indigenous and European groups present. In terms of music, academics do not speak of a Canadian tradition, but rather ethnic traditions (Acadian music, Irish - Canadian music, Blackfoot music, Innu music, Inuit music, Métis fiddle, etc.) and later in Eastern Canada regional traditions (Newfoundland music, Cape Breton fiddling, Quebecois music, etc.)
Traditional folk music of European origin has been present in Canada since the arrival of the first French and British settlers in the 16th and 17th centuries... They fished the coastal waters and farmed the shores of what became Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and the St Lawrence River valley of Quebec.
The fur trade and its voyageurs brought this farther north and west into Canada; later lumbering operations and lumberjacks continued this process.
Agrarian settlement in eastern and southern Ontario and western Quebec in the early 19th century established a favorable milieu for the survival of many Anglo - Canadian folksongs and broadside ballads from Great Britain and the US. Despite massive industrialization, folk music traditions have persisted in many areas until today. In the north of Ontario, a large Franco - Ontarian population kept folk music of French origin alive.
Populous Acadian communities in the Atlantic provinces contributed their song variants to the huge corpus of folk music of French origin centred in the province of Quebec. A rich source of Anglo - Canadian folk music can be found in the Atlantic region, especially Newfoundland. Completing this mosaic of musical folklore is the Gaelic music of Scottish settlements, particularly in Cape Breton, and the hundreds of Irish songs whose presence in eastern Canada dates from the Irish famine of the 1840s, which forced the large migrations of Irish to North America.
"Knowledge of the history of Canada '', wrote Isabelle Mills in 1974, "is essential in understanding the mosaic of Canadian folk song. Part of this mosaic is supplied by the folk songs of Canada brought by European and Anglo - Saxon settlers to the new land. '' She describes how the French colony at Québec brought French immigrants, followed before long by waves of immigrants from Great Britain, Germany, and other European countries, all bringing music from their homelands, some of which survives into the present day. Ethnographer and folklorist Marius Barbeau estimated that well over ten thousand French folk songs and their variants had been collected in Canada. Many of the older ones had by then died out in France.
Music as professionalized paid entertainment grew relatively slowly in Canada, especially remote rural areas, through the 19th and early 20th centuries. While in urban music clubs of the dance hall / vaudeville variety became popular, followed by jazz, rural Canada remained mostly a land of traditional music. Yet when American radio networks began broadcasting into Canada in the 1920s and 1930s, the audience for Canadian traditional music progressively declined in favour of American Nashville - style country music and urban styles like jazz. The Americanization of Canadian music led the Canadian Radio League to lobby for a national public broadcaster in the 1930s, eventually leading to the creation of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) in 1936. The CBC promoted Canadian music, including traditional music, on its radio and later television services, but the mid-century craze for all things "modern '' led to the decline of folk music relative to rock and pop. Canada was however influenced by the folk music revival of the 1960s, when local venues such as the Montreal Folk Workshop, and other folk clubs and coffee houses across the country, became crucibles for emerging songwriters and performers as well as for interchange with artists visiting from abroad.
American traditional music is also called roots music. Roots music is a broad category of music including bluegrass, country music, gospel, old time music, jug bands, Appalachian folk, blues, Cajun and Native American music. The music is considered American either because it is native to the United States or because it developed there, out of foreign origins, to such a degree that it struck musicologists as something distinctly new. It is considered "roots music '' because it served as the basis of music later developed in the United States, including rock and roll, contemporary folk music, rhythm and blues, and jazz. Some of these genres are considered to be traditional folk music.
Ketch Secor
"Folk music revival '' refers to either a period of renewed interest in traditional folk music, or to an event or period which transforms it; the latter usually includes a social activism component. A prominent example of the former is the British folk revival of approximately 1890 -- 1920. The most prominent and influential example of the latter (to the extent that it is usually called "the folk music revival '') is the folk revival of the mid 20th century, centered in the English - speaking world which gave birth to contemporary folk music. See the "Contemporary folk music '' article for a description of this revival.
One earlier revival influenced western classical music. Such composers as Percy Grainger, Ralph Vaughan Williams and Béla Bartók, made field recordings or transcriptions of folk singers and musicians.
In Spain, Isaac Albéniz (1860 -- 1909) produced piano works reflect his Spanish heritage, including the Suite Iberia (1906 -- 1909). Enrique Granados (1867 -- 1918) composed zarzuela, Spanish light opera, and Danzas Españolas -- Spanish Dances. Manuel de Falla (1876 -- 1946) became interested in the cante jondo of Andalusian flamenco, the influence of which can be strongly felt in many of his works, which include Nights in the Gardens of Spain and Siete canciones populares españolas ("Seven Spanish Folksongs '', for voice and piano). Composers such as Fernando Sor and Francisco Tarrega established the guitar as Spain 's national instrument. Modern Spanish folk artists abound (Mil i Maria, Russian Red, et al.) modernizing while respecting the traditions of their forebears.
Flamenco grew in popularity through the 20th century, as did northern styles such as the Celtic music of Galicia. French classical composers, from Bizet to Ravel, also drew upon Spanish themes, and distinctive Spanish genres became universally recognized.
Folk music revivals or roots revivals also encompass a range of phenomena around the world where there is a renewed interest in traditional music. This is often by the young, often in the traditional music of their own country, and often included new incorporation of social awareness, causes, and evolutions of new music in the same style. Nueva canción, a similar evolution of a new form of socially committed music occurred in several Spanish speaking countries.
The "first '' British folk revival was a roots revival which occurred approximately 1890 -- 1920 and was marked by heightened interest in traditional music and its preservation. It arose from earlier developments, perhaps combined with changes in the nature of British identity, led to a much more intensive and academic attempt to record what was seen as a vanishing tradition, and is now usually referred to as the first English or British folk revival.
It is sometimes claimed that the earliest folk festival was the Mountain Dance and Folk Festival, 1928, in Asheville, North Carolina, founded by Bascom Lamar Lunsford. The National Folk Festival (USA) is an itinerant folk festival in the United States. Since 1934, it has been run by the National Council for the Traditional Arts (NCTA) and has been presented in 26 communities around the nation. After leaving some of these communities, the National Folk Festival has spun off several locally run folk festivals in its wake including the Lowell Folk Festival, the Richmond Folk Festival, the American Folk Festival and, most recently, the Montana Folk Festival.
The Newport Folk Festival is an annual folk festival held near Newport, Rhode Island. It ran most year from 1959 to 1970, and 1985 to the present, with an attendance of approximately 10,000 persons.
The four - day Philadelphia Folk Festival began in 1962. It is sponsored by the non-profit Philadelphia Folksong Society. The event hosts contemporary and traditional artists in genres including World / Fusion, Celtic, Singer / Songwriter, Folk Rock, Country, Klezmer, and Dance. It is held annually on the third weekend in August. The event now hosts approximately 12,000 visitors, presenting bands on 6 stages.
The Feast of the Hunters ' Moon in Indiana draws approximately 60,000 visitors per year.
Sidmouth Festival began in 1954, and Cambridge Folk Festival began in 1965. The Cambridge Folk Festival in Cambridge, England is noted for having a very wide definition of who can be invited as folk musicians. The "club tents '' allow attendees to discover large numbers of unknown artists, who, for ten or 15 minutes each, present their work to the festival audience.
The National Folk Festival is Australia 's premier folk festival event and is attended by over 50,000 people. the Woodford Folk Festival, National Folk Festival and Port Fairy Folk Festival are amongst Australia 's largest major annual events, attracting top international folk performers as well as many local artists.
Stan Rogers is a lasting fixture of the Canadian folk festival Summerfolk, held annually in Owen Sound, Ontario, where the main stage and amphitheater are dedicated as the "Stan Rogers Memorial Canopy ''. The festival is firmly fixed in tradition, with Rogers ' song "The Mary Ellen Carter '' being sung by all involved, including the audience and a medley of acts at the festival. The Canmore Folk Music Festival is Alberta 's longest running folk music festival.
Urkult Näsåker, Ångermanland held August each year is purportedly Sweden 's largest world - music festival.
These references are cited above with multiple abbreviated cites with varying locations.
(does not include those used as references)
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meaning behind the song in the air tonight | In the Air Tonight - wikipedia
"In the Air Tonight '' is the debut solo single by the English singer - songwriter and drummer Phil Collins. It was released as the lead single from Collins ' debut solo album, Face Value, in January 1981.
Collins co-produced the single with Hugh Padgham, who became a frequent collaborator in the following years. The song was an instant hit, quickly climbing to No. 2 on the UK Singles chart but was held off the top spot by the posthumous release of John Lennon 's "Woman ''. It was also an international hit, achieving top 10 status in Australia, New Zealand and several European territories, reaching No. 1 in Austria, Germany, Switzerland and Sweden. It peaked at No. 19 on the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States, and was later certified Gold by the RIAA, representing 500,000 copies sold. The song 's music video, directed by Stuart Orme, received heavy play on MTV when the new cable music video channel launched in August 1981. It remains one of Collins ' best - known hits, often cited as his signature song, and is especially famous for his climactic drum break towards the end, which has been described as "the sleekest, most melodramatic drum break in history ''.
Collins wrote the song amid the grief he felt after divorcing his first wife Andrea Bertorelli in 1980. In a 2016 interview, Collins said of the song 's lyrics: "I wrote the lyrics spontaneously. I 'm not quite sure what the song is about, but there 's a lot of anger, a lot of despair and a lot of frustration. '' In a 1997 BBC Radio 2 documentary, the singer revealed that the divorce contributed to his 1979 hiatus from Genesis until the band regrouped in October of that year to record the album Duke.
The lyrics of the song take the form of a dark monologue directed towards an unnamed person:
Well if you told me you were drowning, I would not lend a hand I 've seen your face before, my friend, but I do n't know if you know who I am Well I was there and I saw what you did I saw it with my own two eyes So you can wipe off that grin I know where you 've been It 's all been a pack of lies
The recording is notable for its atmospheric production and macabre theme. It has been described as being "at the vanguard of experimental pop '' in 1981 and "a rock oddity classic '', having been influenced by "the unconventional studio predilections of Brian Eno and Peter Gabriel ''. Musically, the song consists of a series of ominous chords played by a Sequential Circuits Prophet - 5 over a simple drum machine pattern (the Roland CR - 78 Disco - 2 pattern, plus some programming); processed electric guitar sounds and vocoded vocals, an effect which is increased on key words to add additional atmosphere. The mood is one of restrained anger until the final chorus when an explosive burst of drums releases the musical tension, and the instrumentation builds to a thundering final chorus.
Collins has described obtaining the drum machine specifically to deal with personal issues relating to his divorce through songwriting, telling Mix magazine: "I had to start writing some of this music that was inside me. '' He improvised the lyrics during a songwriting session in the studio: "I was just fooling around. I got these chords that I liked, so I turned the mic on and started singing. The lyrics you hear are what I wrote spontaneously. That frightens me a bit, but I 'm quite proud of the fact that I sang 99.9 percent of those lyrics spontaneously. ''
Musically, it 's an extraordinarily striking record, because almost nothing happens in it... It 's the drum sound in particular that 's amazing. You do n't hear it at all for the first two minutes of the song... then there 's that great doo - dom doo - dom doo - dom comes in, and the drums come in half way through the song, setting the template for all the Eighties drum songs after that. -- Stuart Maconie
The means by which Collins attained the drum sound on this recording was long a source of mystery. The exact process was a result of serendipity: an unintended use of studio technology giving unexpectedly useful results.
In this case, the Solid State Logic 4000 mixing board had a "reverse talk - back '' circuit (labeled on the board as "Listen Mic ''). Normal "talkback '' is a button that the mixing engineer has to press in order to talk to the recording musicians (the recording and the mixing parts of a studio are, otherwise, completely sonically isolated). Reverse talkback is a circuit (also button - activated) for the engineer to listen to musicians in the studio. In order to compensate for sound level differences -- people can be close to the reverse talkback microphone or far off -- this circuit has a compressor on it, which minimizes the differences between loud and soft sounds. While recording "Intruder '' for his ex-bandmate Peter Gabriel 's third solo album, at some point Collins started playing the drums while the reverse talkback was activated. Engineer Hugh Padgham was amazed at the sound achieved. Overnight, they rewired the board so that the reverse talkback could be recorded in a more formal manner. Later models of the SSL 4000 allowed the listen mic to be recorded with the touch of a button.
When recording engineer Padgham was brought in to help develop Collins ' demos that would become Face Value they recreated the "Intruder '' sound using the reverse talkback microphone as well as heavily compressed and gated ambient mics. Padgham continued working with Genesis for Abacab later in 1981 and the same technique (generally referred to as gated reverb) was used, and the powerful drum sound has become synonymous with later Genesis projects and Collins ' solo career ever since.
The original single version of "In the Air Tonight '' features extra drums that play underneath the song until the signature drum crash (referred to by fans as the "magic break '') appears. These were added at the suggestion of Atlantic Records head Ahmet Ertegun. In 2007, Collins wrote:
Ahmet came down to the final mix in the cutting room in New York (...) The drums do n't come in until the end but Ahmet did n't know that at this point, because on the demo the drums had n't come in at all; it was only drum machine all the way. And he was saying, "Where 's the down beat, where 's the backbeat? '' I said, "The drums come in in a minute. '' "Yeah, you know that and I know that, but the kids do n't know that; you 've got to put the drums on earlier. '' So we added some drums to the mix and put it out as a single.
In 2007, Mike Gruss, former columnist for The Virginian - Pilot, referred to the song as a "soft rock classic. ''
Speaking about the song 's rapid ascension in the music charts, Collins wrote the following in 2007:
It was a surprise. The single came in at No. 36, I did Top of the Pops with Dave Lee Travis, and in one of the down moments he said, "This record is going to be a top three. '' I did n't believe him, because it had been made so haphazardly, but the next week, there it was at No. 3. And then Mark Chapman shot John Lennon and that was that.
An urban legend has arisen around "In the Air Tonight '', according to which the lyrics are based on a drowning incident in which someone who was close enough to save the victim did not help them, while Collins, who was too far away to help, looked on. Increasingly embellished variations on the legend emerged over time, with the stories often culminating in Collins singling out the guilty party while singing the song at a concert. Collins has denied all such stories; he commented on the legends about the song in a BBC World Service interview:
I do n't know what this song is about. When I was writing this I was going through a divorce. And the only thing I can say about it is that it 's obviously in anger. It 's the angry side, or the bitter side of a separation. So what makes it even more comical is when I hear these stories which started many years ago, particularly in America, of someone come up to me and say, "Did you really see someone drowning? '' I said, "No, wrong ''. And then every time I go back to America the story gets Chinese whispers, it gets more and more elaborate. It 's so frustrating, ' cause this is one song out of all the songs probably that I 've ever written that I really do n't know what it 's about, you know?
The urban legend is referenced in the song "Stan '' by Eminem. The reference is contained in the following lyrics:
You know the song by Phil Collins, "In the Air of the Night '' (sic) About that guy who coulda saved that other guy from drownin ' But did n't, then Phil saw it all, then at a show he found him?
The music video animates the photograph of Collins 's face from the cover of the Face Value album, slowly fading in through the introduction until it fills the screen, singing the first chorus. The video then cuts to Collins sitting in an empty room at night. Twice a spectral figure appears in the window, but only the second time does Collins get up to look at it, then is shown walking to the one door of the room.
Collins 's face returns for the second chorus. He is then shown leaving the room and entering a hallway full of doors. The first one is locked, then the second opens and Collins sees himself looking at the window again, only now the spectre has turned into his own reflection.
The third door is locked, but as the fourth one opens, the drum break sounds and the viewer is returned to Collins 's face again, this time in thermal coloring, which gradually reverts to black and white. Collins recedes into the darkness as the song repeats and fades.
In 1983 the music video was released on the home video Phil Collins available on VHS and LaserDisc which received a Grammy nomination for Best Video, Short Form.
"In the Air Tonight '' remains a popular selection on classic rock radio stations. It is the song most often associated with Collins ' solo career, and he has performed it at many events, including Live Aid, where he played the song on a piano on the same calendar day in both Philadelphia and London. He also performed the song at The Secret Policeman 's Ball, which was his first live performance as a solo artist. "I remember doing ' In the Air Tonight ' at Live Aid, '' he recalled, "and (Pete) Townshend saying, ' Are you going to do that fucking song again? ' as it was the only one I ever played. ''
"In the Air Tonight '' has also been licensed extensively for use in films, television and advertisements for various products.
The song has been sampled by many artists, including Shaquille O'Neal in his song "Edge of Night '', Nas in his song "One Mic '', and Tupac Shakur on his tracks "Starin ' Through My Rear View '' and "Letter to the President ''. Other tracks which include samples of "In the Air Tonight '' include DMX 's "I Can Feel It '', Krayzie Bone 's "Silent Warrior '', Joe Budden 's "Rest in Peace (In the Air) '', Sean Kingston 's "Can You Feel It '', Young Buck 's "New York City '', Big Audio Dynamite 's "Innocent Child '', Lil ' Kim 's "In the Air Tonite '', Kesha 's "Love Into the Light '', and Av LMKR 's "In The Air ''.
It was used in 2009 by Canadian rapper Roi Heenok in his song "La Mama Coca. ''
According to video game music composer David Wise, he sampled the percussion track of "In the Air Tonight '' for "Bayou Boogie '', a track in the 1995 SNES game Donkey Kong Country 2: Diddy 's Kong Quest.
It was also sampled by MiC LOWRY on their single "Oh Lord ''.
The song sampled by The Overall Ole in the song "Gig Paty Gig! ''.
U.S. author Mohja Kahf obtained permission to cite two lines from the song in her novel, The Girl in the Tangerine Scarf (Perseus Books, 2006). When the novel 's protagonist, a young Syrian American woman named Khadra who is coming of age during the 1970s and 1980s in America, performs the Muslim ritual pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca and views the Ka'ba for the first time, the author writes that: "Khadra tried to keep the joyous talbiya (ritual chant) in her mind and on her tongue: Here I am, O my Lord, Here I am! Labbaik, allahumma, labbaik! But she kept getting it crossed with Phil Collins in her head crooning, ' I can feel it coming in the air tonight, Oh Lo - ord... I 've been waiting for this moment for all my life, oh Lo - ord... ' ''
VSK102 UK Single Release (Martin H)
Sleeve includes a black and white 12 page cartoon storyboard drawn by Collins ' brother Clive Collins.
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A cover of the song appears on the Nonpoint album Recoil and in the film Miami Vice (2006), and a video was made to promote the track using clips from the film. Nonpoint 's version was also used in teasers for the fifth season of Dexter in 2010.
The song was also covered by American metal band In This Moment for their 2017 album Ritual.
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how many calderas are part of the yellowstone hot spot trendline | Yellowstone caldera - wikipedia
The Yellowstone Caldera is a volcanic caldera and supervolcano in Yellowstone National Park in the Western United States, sometimes referred to as the Yellowstone Supervolcano. The caldera and most of the park are located in the northwest corner of Wyoming. The major features of the caldera measure about 34 by 45 miles (55 by 72 km).
The caldera formed during the last of three supereruptions over the past 2.1 million years: the Huckleberry Ridge eruption 2.1 million years ago (which created the Island Park Caldera and the Huckleberry Ridge Tuff); the Mesa Falls eruption 1.3 million years ago (which created the Henry 's Fork Caldera and the Mesa Falls Tuff); and the Lava Creek eruption approximately 630,000 years ago (which created the Yellowstone Caldera and the Lava Creek Tuff).
Volcanism at Yellowstone is relatively recent, with calderas that were created during large eruptions that took place 2.1 million, 1.3 million, and 630,000 years ago. The calderas lie over a hotspot where light, hot, magma (molten rock) from the mantle rises toward the surface. While the Yellowstone hotspot is now under the Yellowstone Plateau, it did help to create the eastern Snake River Plain (to the west of Yellowstone) through a series of huge volcanic eruptions. The hotspot appears to move across terrain in the east - northeast direction, but in fact the hotspot is much deeper than terrain and remains stationary while the North American Plate moves west - southwest over it.
Over the past 18 million years or so, this hotspot has generated a succession of violent eruptions and less violent floods of basaltic lava. Together these eruptions have helped create the eastern part of the Snake River Plain from a once - mountainous region. At least a dozen of these eruptions were so massive that they are classified as supereruptions. Volcanic eruptions sometimes empty their stores of magma so swiftly that the overlying land collapses into the emptied magma chamber, forming a geographic depression called a caldera.
The oldest identified caldera remnant straddles the border near McDermitt, Nevada -- Oregon, although there are volcaniclastic piles and arcuate faults that define caldera complexes more than 60 km (37 mi) in diameter in the Carmacks Group of southwest - central Yukon, Canada, which are interpreted to have formed 70 million years ago by the Yellowstone hotspot. Progressively younger caldera remnants, most grouped in several overlapping volcanic fields, extend from the Nevada -- Oregon border through the eastern Snake River Plain and terminate in the Yellowstone Plateau. One such caldera, the Bruneau - Jarbidge caldera in southern Idaho, was formed between 10 and 12 million years ago, and the event dropped ash to a depth of one foot (30 cm) 1,000 miles (1,600 km) away in northeastern Nebraska and killed large herds of rhinoceros, camel, and other animals at Ashfall Fossil Beds State Historical Park. The United States Geological Survey ("USGS '') estimates there are one or two major caldera - forming eruptions and 100 or so lava extruding eruptions per million years, and "several to many '' steam eruptions per century.
The loosely defined term "supervolcano '' has been used to describe volcanic fields that produce exceptionally large volcanic eruptions. Thus defined, the Yellowstone Supervolcano is the volcanic field which produced the latest three supereruptions from the Yellowstone hotspot; it also produced one additional smaller eruption, thereby creating West Thumb Lake 174,000 years ago. The three supereruptions occurred 2.1 million, 1.3 million, and approximately 630,000 years ago, forming the Island Park Caldera, the Henry 's Fork Caldera, and Yellowstone calderas, respectively. The Island Park Caldera supereruption (2.1 million years ago), which produced the Huckleberry Ridge Tuff, was the largest, and produced 2,500 times as much ash as the 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption. The next biggest supereruption formed the Yellowstone Caldera (~ 630,000 years ago) and produced the Lava Creek Tuff. The Henry 's Fork Caldera (1.2 million years ago) produced the smaller Mesa Falls Tuff, but is the only caldera from the Snake River Plain - Yellowstone hotspot that is plainly visible today.
Non-explosive eruptions of lava and less - violent explosive eruptions have occurred in and near the Yellowstone caldera since the last supereruption. The most recent lava flow occurred about 70,000 years ago, while a violent eruption excavated the West Thumb of Lake Yellowstone around 150,000 years ago. Smaller steam explosions occur as well: an explosion 13,800 years ago left a 5 km (3.1 mi) diameter crater at Mary Bay on the edge of Yellowstone Lake (located in the center of the caldera). Currently, volcanic activity is exhibited via numerous geothermal vents scattered throughout the region, including the famous Old Faithful Geyser, plus recorded ground - swelling indicating ongoing inflation of the underlying magma chamber.
The volcanic eruptions, as well as the continuing geothermal activity, are a result of a great cove of magma located below the caldera 's surface. The magma in this cove contains gases that are kept dissolved by the immense pressure under which the magma is contained. If the pressure is released to a sufficient degree by some geological shift, then some of the gases bubble out and cause the magma to expand. This can cause a chain reaction. If the expansion results in further relief of pressure, for example, by blowing crust material off the top of the chamber, the result is a very large gas explosion.
According to analysis of earthquake data in 2013, the magma chamber is 80 km (50 mi) long and 20 km (12 mi) wide. It also has 4,000 km (960 cu mi) underground volume, of which 6 -- 8 % is filled with molten rock. This is about 2.5 times bigger than scientists had previously imagined it to be; however, scientists believe that the proportion of molten rock in the chamber is much too low to allow another supereruption.
The source of the Yellowstone hotspot is controversial. Some geoscientists hypothesize that the Yellowstone hotspot is the effect of an interaction between local conditions in the lithosphere and upper mantle convection. Others suggest an origin in the deep mantle (mantle plume). Part of the controversy is the relatively sudden appearance of the hotspot in the geologic record. Additionally, the Columbia Basalt flows appeared at the same approximate time in the same place, causing speculation about their common origin. As the Yellowstone hotspot traveled to the east and north, the Columbia disturbance moved northward and eventually subsided.
Volcanic and tectonic actions in the region cause between 1,000 and 2,000 measurable earthquakes annually. Most are relatively minor, measuring a magnitude of 3 or weaker. Occasionally, numerous earthquakes are detected in a relatively short period of time, an event known as an earthquake swarm. In 1985, more than 3,000 earthquakes were measured over a period of several months. More than 70 smaller swarms were detected between 1983 and 2008. The USGS states these swarms are likely caused by slips on pre-existing faults rather than by movements of magma or hydrothermal fluids.
In December 2008, continuing into January 2009, more than 500 quakes were detected under the northwest end of Yellowstone Lake over a seven - day span, with the largest registering a magnitude of 3.9. The most recent swarm started in January 2010, after the Haiti earthquake and before the Chile earthquake. With 1,620 small earthquakes between January 17, 2010, and February 1, 2010, this swarm was the second - largest ever recorded in the Yellowstone Caldera. The largest of these shocks was a magnitude 3.8 that occurred on January 21, 2010. This swarm reached the background levels by February 21. On March 30, 2014, at 6: 34 AM MST, a magnitude 4.8 earthquake struck Yellowstone, the largest recorded there since February 1980.
The last full - scale eruption of the Yellowstone Supervolcano, the Lava Creek eruption which happened approximately 640,000 years ago, ejected approximately 240 cubic miles (1,000 km) of rock, dust and volcanic ash into the sky.
Geologists are closely monitoring the rise and fall of the Yellowstone Plateau, which has been rising as fast as 0.6 inches (1.5 cm) per year, as an indication of changes in magma chamber pressure.
The upward movement of the Yellowstone caldera floor between 2004 and 2008 -- almost 3 inches (7.6 cm) each year -- was more than three times greater than ever observed since such measurements began in 1923. From 2004 to 2008, the land surface within the caldera moved upward as much as 8 inches (20 cm) at the White Lake GPS station. By the end of 2009, the uplift had slowed significantly and appeared to have stopped. In January 2010, the USGS stated that "uplift of the Yellowstone Caldera has slowed significantly '' and that uplift continues but at a slower pace. The U.S. Geological Survey, University of Utah and National Park Service scientists with the Yellowstone Volcano Observatory maintain that they "see no evidence that another such cataclysmic eruption will occur at Yellowstone in the foreseeable future. Recurrence intervals of these events are neither regular nor predictable. '' This conclusion was reiterated in December 2013 in the aftermath of the publication of a study by University of Utah scientists finding that the "size of the magma body beneath Yellowstone is significantly larger than had been thought ''. The Yellowstone Volcano Observatory issued a statement on its website stating,
Although fascinating, the new findings do not imply increased geologic hazards at Yellowstone, and certainly do not increase the chances of a ' supereruption ' in the near future. Contrary to some media reports, Yellowstone is not ' overdue ' for a supereruption.
Other media reports were more hyperbolic in their coverage.
A study published in GSA Today, the monthly news and science magazine of the Geological Society of America, identified three fault zones on which future eruptions are most likely to be centered. Two of those areas are associated with lava flows aged 174,000 -- 70,000 years, and the third is a focus of present - day seismicity.
Studies and analysis may indicate that the greater hazard comes from hydrothermal activity which occurs independently of volcanic activity. Over 20 large craters have been produced in the past 14,000 years, resulting in such features as Mary Bay, Turbid Lake, and Indian Pond which was created in an eruption about 1300 BC.
In a 2003 report, USGS researchers proposed that an earthquake may have displaced more than 77 million cubic feet (2,200,000 m) (576,000,000 US gallons) of water in Yellowstone Lake, creating colossal waves that unsealed a capped geothermal system and led to the hydrothermal explosion that formed Mary Bay.
Further research shows that very distant earthquakes reach and have effects upon the activities at Yellowstone, such as the 1992 7.3 magnitude Landers earthquake in California 's Mojave Desert that triggered a swarm of quakes from more than 800 miles (1,300 km) away, and the 2002 7.9 magnitude Denali fault earthquake 2,000 miles (3,200 km) away in Alaska that altered the activity of many geysers and hot springs for several months afterward.
In 2016, the United States Geological Survey announced plans to map the subterranean systems responsible for feeding the area 's hydrothermal activity. According to the researchers, these maps could help predict when another supereruption occurs.
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marine pollution by chemical thermal and radioactive wastes | Marine pollution - wikipedia
Marine pollution occurs when harmful, or potentially harmful, effects result from the entry into the ocean of chemicals, particles, industrial, agricultural, and residential waste, noise, or the spread of invasive organisms. Eighty percent of marine pollution comes from land. Air pollution is also a contributing factor by carrying off pesticides or dirt into the ocean. Land and air pollution have proven to be harmful to marine life and its habitats.
The pollution often comes from nonpoint sources such as agricultural runoff, wind - blown debris, and dust. Nutrient pollution, a form of water pollution, refers to contamination by excessive inputs of nutrients. It is a primary cause of eutrophication of surface waters, in which excess nutrients, usually nitrates or phosphates, stimulate algae growth. Many potentially toxic chemicals adhere to tiny particles which are then taken up by plankton and benthic animals, most of which are either deposit feeders or filter feeders. In this way, the toxins are concentrated upward within ocean food chains. Many particles combine chemically in a manner highly depletive of oxygen, causing estuaries to become anoxic.
When pesticides are incorporated into the marine ecosystem, they quickly become absorbed into marine food webs. Once in the food webs, these pesticides can cause mutations, as well as diseases, which can be harmful to humans as well as the entire food web. Toxic metals can also be introduced into marine food webs. These can cause a change to tissue matter, biochemistry, behaviour, reproduction, and suppress growth in marine life. Also, many animal feeds have a high fish meal or fish hydrolysate content. In this way, marine toxins can be transferred to land animals, and appear later in meat and dairy products.
Although marine pollution has a long history, significant international laws to counter it were only enacted in the twentieth century. Marine pollution was a concern during several United Nations Conventions on the Law of the Sea beginning in the 1950s. Most scientists believed that the oceans were so vast that they had unlimited ability to dilute, and thus render pollution harmless.
In the late 1950s and early 1960s, there were several controversies about dumping radioactive waste off the coasts of the United States by companies licensed by the Atomic Energy Commission, into the Irish Sea from the British reprocessing facility at Windscale, and into the Mediterranean Sea by the French Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique. After the Mediterranean Sea controversy, for example, Jacques Cousteau became a worldwide figure in the campaign to stop marine pollution. Marine pollution made further international headlines after the 1967 crash of the oil tanker Torrey Canyon, and after the 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill off the coast of California.
Marine pollution was a major area of discussion during the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, held in Stockholm. That year also saw the signing of the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, sometimes called the London Convention. The London Convention did not ban marine pollution, but it established black and gray lists for substances to be banned (black) or regulated by national authorities (gray). Cyanide and high - level radioactive waste, for example, were put on the black list. The London Convention applied only to waste dumped from ships, and thus did nothing to regulate waste discharged as liquids from pipelines.
There are many ways to categorize and examine the inputs of pollution into our marine ecosystems. Patin (n.d.) notes that generally there are three main types of inputs of pollution into the ocean: direct discharge of waste into the oceans, runoff into the waters due to rain, and pollutants released from the atmosphere.
One common path of entry by contaminants to the sea are rivers. The evaporation of water from oceans exceeds precipitation. The balance is restored by rain over the continents entering rivers and then being returned to the sea. The Hudson in New York State and the Raritan in New Jersey, which empty at the northern and southern ends of Staten Island, are a source of mercury contamination of zooplankton (copepods) in the open ocean. The highest concentration in the filter - feeding copepods is not at the mouths of these rivers but 70 miles south, nearer Atlantic City, because water flows close to the coast. It takes a few days before toxins are taken up by the plankton.
Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution. Point source pollution occurs when there is a single, identifiable, localized source of the pollution. An example is directly discharging sewage and industrial waste into the ocean. Pollution such as this occurs particularly in developing nations. Nonpoint source pollution occurs when the pollution comes from ill - defined and diffuse sources. These can be difficult to regulate. Agricultural runoff and wind blown debris are prime examples.
Pollutants enter rivers and the sea directly from urban sewerage and industrial waste discharges, sometimes in the form of hazardous and toxic wastes.
Inland mining for copper, gold, etc., is another source of marine pollution. Most of the pollution is simply soil, which ends up in rivers flowing to the sea. However, some minerals discharged in the course of the mining can cause problems, such as copper, a common industrial pollutant, which can interfere with the life history and development of coral polyps. Mining has a poor environmental track record. For example, according to the United States Environmental Protection Agency, mining has contaminated portions of the headwaters of over 40 % of watersheds in the western continental US. Much of this pollution finishes up in the sea.
Surface runoff from farming, as well as urban runoff and runoff from the construction of roads, buildings, ports, channels, and harbours, can carry soil and particles laden with carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and minerals. This nutrient - rich water can cause fleshy algae and phytoplankton to thrive in coastal areas; known as algal blooms, which have the potential to create hypoxic conditions by using all available oxygen.
Polluted runoff from roads and highways can be a significant source of water pollution in coastal areas. About 75 % of the toxic chemicals that flow into Puget Sound are carried by stormwater that runs off paved roads and driveways, rooftops, yards and other developed land.
Ships can pollute waterways and oceans in many ways. Oil spills can have devastating effects. While being toxic to marine life, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), found in crude oil, are very difficult to clean up, and last for years in the sediment and marine environment.
Oil spills are probably the most emotive of marine pollution events. However, while a tanker wreck may result in extensive newspaper headlines, much of the oil in the world 's seas comes from other smaller sources, such as tankers discharging ballast water from oil tanks used on return ships, leaking pipelines or engine oil disposed of down sewers.
Discharge of cargo residues from bulk carriers can pollute ports, waterways, and oceans. In many instances vessels intentionally discharge illegal wastes despite foreign and domestic regulation prohibiting such actions. It has been estimated that container ships lose over 10,000 containers at sea each year (usually during storms). Ships also create noise pollution that disturbs natural wildlife, and water from ballast tanks can spread harmful algae and other invasive species.
Ballast water taken up at sea and released in port is a major source of unwanted exotic marine life. The invasive freshwater zebra mussels, native to the Black, Caspian, and Azov seas, were probably transported to the Great Lakes via ballast water from a transoceanic vessel. Meinesz believes that one of the worst cases of a single invasive species causing harm to an ecosystem can be attributed to a seemingly harmless jellyfish. Mnemiopsis leidyi, a species of comb jellyfish that spread so it now inhabits estuaries in many parts of the world. It was first introduced in 1982, and thought to have been transported to the Black Sea in a ship 's ballast water. The population of the jellyfish grew exponentially and, by 1988, it was wreaking havoc upon the local fishing industry. "The anchovy catch fell from 204,000 tons in 1984 to 200 tons in 1993; sprat from 24,600 tons in 1984 to 12,000 tons in 1993; horse mackerel from 4,000 tons in 1984 to zero in 1993. '' Now that the jellyfish have exhausted the zooplankton, including fish larvae, their numbers have fallen dramatically, yet they continue to maintain a stranglehold on the ecosystem.
Invasive species can take over once occupied areas, facilitate the spread of new diseases, introduce new genetic material, alter underwater seascapes, and jeopardize the ability of native species to obtain food. Invasive species are responsible for about $138 billion annually in lost revenue and management costs in the US alone.
Another pathway of pollution occurs through the atmosphere. Wind - blown dust and debris, including plastic bags, are blown seaward from landfills and other areas. Dust from the Sahara moving around the southern periphery of the subtropical ridge moves into the Caribbean and Florida during the warm season as the ridge builds and moves northward through the subtropical Atlantic. Dust can also be attributed to a global transport from the Gobi and Taklamakan deserts across Korea, Japan, and the Northern Pacific to the Hawaiian Islands. Since 1970, dust outbreaks have worsened due to periods of drought in Africa. There is a large variability in dust transport to the Caribbean and Florida from year to year; however, the flux is greater during positive phases of the North Atlantic Oscillation. The USGS links dust events to a decline in the health of coral reefs across the Caribbean and Florida, primarily since the 1970s.
Climate change is raising ocean temperatures and raising levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. These rising levels of carbon dioxide are acidifying the oceans. This, in turn, is altering aquatic ecosystems and modifying fish distributions, with impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and the livelihoods of the communities that depend on them. Healthy ocean ecosystems are also important for the mitigation of climate change.
Deep sea mining is a relatively new mineral retrieval process that takes place on the ocean floor. Ocean mining sites are usually around large areas of polymetallic nodules or active and extinct hydrothermal vents at about 1,400 -- 3,700 meters below the ocean 's surface. The vents create sulfide deposits, which contain precious metals such as silver, gold, copper, manganese, cobalt, and zinc. The deposits are mined using either hydraulic pumps or bucket systems that take ore to the surface to be processed. As with all mining operations, deep sea mining raises questions about environmental damages to the surrounding areas
Because deep sea mining is a relatively new field, the complete consequences of full - scale mining operations are unknown. However, experts are certain that removal of parts of the sea floor will result in disturbances to the benthic layer, increased toxicity of the water column, and sediment plumes from tailings. Removing parts of the sea floor disturbs the habitat of benthic organisms, possibly, depending on the type of mining and location, causing permanent disturbances. Aside from direct impact of mining the area, leakage, spills, and corrosion would alter the mining area 's chemical makeup.
Among the impacts of deep sea mining, sediment plumes could have the greatest impact. Plumes are caused when the tailings from mining (usually fine particles) are dumped back into the ocean, creating a cloud of particles floating in the water. Two types of plumes occur: near - bottom plumes and surface plumes. Near - bottom plumes occur when the tailings are pumped back down to the mining site. The floating particles increase the turbidity, or cloudiness, of the water, clogging filter - feeding apparatuses used by benthic organisms. Surface plumes cause a more serious problem. Depending on the size of the particles and water currents the plumes could spread over vast areas. The plumes could impact zooplankton and light penetration, in turn affecting the food web of the area.
The oceans are normally a natural carbon sink, absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Because the levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide are increasing, the oceans are becoming more acidic. The potential consequences of ocean acidification are not fully understood, but there are concerns that structures made of calcium carbonate may become vulnerable to dissolution, affecting corals and the ability of shellfish to form shells.
Oceans and coastal ecosystems play an important role in the global carbon cycle and have removed about 25 % of the carbon dioxide emitted by human activities between 2000 and 2007 and about half the anthropogenic CO released since the start of the industrial revolution. Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification means that the capacity of the ocean carbon sink will gradually get weaker, giving rise to global concerns expressed in the Monaco and Manado Declarations.
A report from NOAA scientists published in the journal Science in May 2008 found that large amounts of relatively acidified water are upwelling to within four miles of the Pacific continental shelf area of North America. This area is a critical zone where most local marine life lives or is born. While the paper dealt only with areas from Vancouver to northern California, other continental shelf areas may be experiencing similar effects.
A related issue is the methane clathrate reservoirs found under sediments on the ocean floors. These trap large amounts of the greenhouse gas methane, which ocean warming has the potential to release. In 2004 the global inventory of ocean methane clathrates was estimated to occupy between one and five million cubic kilometres. If all these clathrates were to be spread uniformly across the ocean floor, this would translate to a thickness between three and fourteen metres. This estimate corresponds to 500 -- 2500 gigatonnes carbon (Gt C), and can be compared with the 5000 Gt C estimated for all other fossil fuel reserves.
Eutrophication is an increase in chemical nutrients, typically compounds containing nitrogen or phosphorus, in an ecosystem. It can result in an increase in the ecosystem 's primary productivity (excessive plant growth and decay), and further effects including lack of oxygen and severe reductions in water quality, fish, and other animal populations.
The biggest culprit are rivers that empty into the ocean, and with it the many chemicals used as fertilizers in agriculture as well as waste from livestock and humans. An excess of oxygen - depleting chemicals in the water can lead to hypoxia and the creation of a dead zone.
Estuaries tend to be naturally eutrophic because land - derived nutrients are concentrated where runoff enters the marine environment in a confined channel. The World Resources Institute has identified 375 hypoxic coastal zones around the world, concentrated in coastal areas in Western Europe, the Eastern and Southern coasts of the US, and East Asia, particularly in Japan. In the ocean, there are frequent red tide algae blooms that kill fish and marine mammals and cause respiratory problems in humans and some domestic animals when the blooms reach close to shore.
In addition to land runoff, atmospheric anthropogenic fixed nitrogen can enter the open ocean. A study in 2008 found that this could account for around one third of the ocean 's external (non-recycled) nitrogen supply and up to three per cent of the annual new marine biological production. It has been suggested that accumulating reactive nitrogen in the environment may have consequences as serious as putting carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
One proposed solution to eutrophication in estuaries is to restore shellfish populations, such as oysters. Oyster reefs remove nitrogen from the water column and filter out suspended solids, subsequently reducing the likelihood or extent of harmful algal blooms or anoxic conditions. Filter feeding activity is considered beneficial to water quality by controlling phytoplankton density and sequestering nutrients, which can be removed from the system through shellfish harvest, buried in the sediments, or lost through denitrification. Foundational work toward the idea of improving marine water quality through shellfish cultivation to was conducted by Odd Lindahl et al., using mussels in Sweden.
Marine debris is mainly discarded human rubbish which floats on, or is suspended in the ocean. Eighty percent of marine debris is plastic -- a component that has been rapidly accumulating since the end of World War II. The mass of plastic in the oceans may be as high as 100,000,000 tonnes (98,000,000 long tons; 110,000,000 short tons).
Discarded plastic bags, six pack rings, and other forms of plastic waste which finish up in the ocean present dangers to wildlife and fisheries. Aquatic life can be threatened through entanglement, suffocation, and ingestion. Fishing nets, usually made of plastic, can be left or lost in the ocean by fishermen. Known as ghost nets, these entangle fish, dolphins, sea turtles, sharks, dugongs, crocodiles, seabirds, crabs, and other creatures, restricting movement, causing starvation, laceration, infection, and, in those that need to return to the surface to breathe, suffocation.
Many animals that live on or in the sea consume flotsam by mistake, as it often looks similar to their natural prey. Plastic debris, when bulky or tangled, is difficult to pass, and may become permanently lodged in the digestive tracts of these animals. Especially when evolutionary adaptions make it impossible for the likes of turtles to reject plastic bags, which resemble jellyfish when immersed in water, as they have a system in their throat to stop slippery foods from otherwise escaping. Thereby blocking the passage of food and causing death through starvation or infection.
Plastics accumulate because they do n't biodegrade in the way many other substances do. They will photodegrade on exposure to the sun, but they do so properly only under dry conditions, and water inhibits this process. In marine environments, photodegraded plastic disintegrates into ever - smaller pieces while remaining polymers, even down to the molecular level. When floating plastic particles photodegrade down to zooplankton sizes, jellyfish attempt to consume them, and in this way the plastic enters the ocean food chain. Many of these long - lasting pieces end up in the stomachs of marine birds and animals, including sea turtles, and black - footed albatross.
Plastic debris tends to accumulate at the centre of ocean gyres. In particular, the Great Pacific Garbage Patch has a very high level of plastic particulate suspended in the upper water column. In samples taken in 1999, the mass of plastic exceeded that of zooplankton (the dominant animal life in the area) by a factor of six. Midway Atoll, in common with all the Hawaiian Islands, receives substantial amounts of debris from the garbage patch. Ninety percent plastic, this debris accumulates on the beaches of Midway where it becomes a hazard to the bird population of the island. Midway Atoll is home to two - thirds (1.5 million) of the global population of Laysan albatross. Nearly all of these albatross have plastic in their digestive system and one - third of their chicks die.
Toxic additives used in the manufacture of plastic materials can leach out into their surroundings when exposed to water. Waterborne hydrophobic pollutants collect and magnify on the surface of plastic debris, thus making plastic far more deadly in the ocean than it would be on land. Hydrophobic contaminants are also known to bioaccumulate in fatty tissues, biomagnifying up the food chain and putting pressure on apex predators. Some plastic additives are known to disrupt the endocrine system when consumed, others can suppress the immune system or decrease reproductive rates. Floating debris can also absorb persistent organic pollutants from seawater, including PCBs, DDT, and PAHs. Aside from toxic effects, when ingested some of these affect animal brain cells similarly to estradiol, causing hormone disruption in the affected wildlife.
A growing concern regarding plastic pollution in the marine ecosystem is the use of microplastics. Microplastics are little beads of plastic less than 5 millimeters wide, and they are commonly found in hand soaps, face cleansers, and other exfoliators. When these products are used, the microplastics go through the water filtration system and into the ocean, but because of their small size they are likely to escape capture by the preliminary treatment screens on wastewater plants. These beads are harmful to the organisms in the ocean, especially filter feeders, because they can easily ingest the plastic and become sick. The microplastics are such a concern because it is difficult to clean them up due to their size, so humans can try to avoid using these harmful plastics by purchasing products that use natural, environmentally safe exfoliates.
Apart from plastics, there are particular problems with other toxins that do not disintegrate rapidly in the marine environment. Examples of persistent toxins are PCBs, DDT, TBT, pesticides, furans, dioxins, phenols, and radioactive waste. Heavy metals are metallic chemical elements that have a relatively high density and are toxic or poisonous at low concentrations. Examples are mercury, lead, nickel, arsenic, and cadmium. Such toxins can accumulate in the tissues of many species of aquatic life in a process called bioaccumulation. They are also known to accumulate in benthic environments, such as estuaries and bay muds: a geological record of human activities of the last century.
Marine life can be susceptible to noise or the sound pollution from sources such as passing ships, oil exploration seismic surveys, and naval low - frequency active sonar. Sound travels more rapidly and over larger distances in the sea than in the atmosphere. Marine animals, such as cetaceans, often have weak eyesight, and live in a world largely defined by acoustic information. This applies also to many deeper sea fish, who live in a world of darkness. Between 1950 and 1975, ambient noise at one location in the Pacific Ocean increased by about ten decibels (that is a tenfold increase in intensity).
Noise also makes species communicate louder, which is called the Lombard vocal response. Whale songs are longer when submarine - detectors are on. If creatures do n't "speak '' loud enough, their voice can be masked by anthropogenic sounds. These unheard voices might be warnings, finding of prey, or preparations of net - bubbling. When one species begins speaking louder, it will mask other species voices, causing the whole ecosystem to eventually speak louder.
According to the oceanographer Sylvia Earle, "Undersea noise pollution is like the death of a thousand cuts. Each sound in itself may not be a matter of critical concern, but taken all together, the noise from shipping, seismic surveys, and military activity is creating a totally different environment than existed even 50 years ago. That high level of noise is bound to have a hard, sweeping impact on life in the sea. ''
Noise from ships and human activity can damage Cnidarians and Ctenophora, which are very important organisms in the marine ecosystem. They promote high diversity and they are used as models for ecology and biology because of their simple structures. When there is underwater noise, the vibrations in the water damage the cilia hairs in the Coelenterates. In a study, the organisms were exposed to sound waves for different numbers of times and the results showed that damaged hair cells were extruded or missing or presented bent, flaccid or missed kinocilia and stereocilia.
Much anthropogenic pollution ends up in the ocean. The 2011 edition of the United Nations Environment Programme Year Book identifies as the main emerging environmental issues the loss to the oceans of massive amounts of phosphorus, "a valuable fertilizer needed to feed a growing global population '', and the impact billions of pieces of plastic waste are having globally on the health of marine environments. Bjorn Jennssen (2003) notes in his article, "Anthropogenic pollution may reduce biodiversity and productivity of marine ecosystems, resulting in reduction and depletion of human marine food resources ''. There are two ways the overall level of this pollution can be mitigated: either the human population is reduced, or a way is found to reduce the ecological footprint left behind by the average human. If the second way is not adopted, then the first way may be imposed as world ecosystems falter.
The second way is for humans, individually, to pollute less. That requires social and political will, together with a shift in awareness so more people respect the environment and are less disposed to abuse it. At an operational level, regulations, and international government participation is needed. It is often very difficult to regulate marine pollution because pollution spreads over international barriers, thus making regulations hard to create as well as enforce.
Without appropriate awareness of marine pollution, the necessary global will to effectively address the issues may prove inadequate. Balanced information on the sources and harmful effects of marine pollution need to become part of general public awareness, and ongoing research is required to fully establish, and keep current, the scope of the issues. As expressed in Daoji and Dag 's research, one of the reasons why environmental concern is lacking among the Chinese is because the public awareness is low and therefore should be targeted.
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what is the role of local government in australia | Local government in Australia - wikipedia
Local government in Australia is the third tier of government in Australia administered by the states and territories, which in turn are beneath the federal tier. Local government is not mentioned in the Constitution of Australia and two referenda in the 1970s and 1980s to alter the Constitution relating to local government were unsuccessful. Every state government recognises local government in their respective constitutions. Unlike Canada or the United States, there is only one level of local government in each state, with no distinction such as cities and counties.
The local governing body is generally referred to as a council, and the territories governed are collectively referred to as "local government areas ''; however, terms such as "city '' or "shire '' also have a geographic interpretation. In August 2016 there were 547 local councils in Australia.
Despite the single level of local government in Australia, there are a number of extensive areas with relatively low populations which are not a part of any local government area. Powers of local governments in these areas may be exercised by special purpose bodies established outside the general legislation, as with Victoria 's alpine resorts, or directly by state governments. The area covered by local councils in Australia ranges from as small as 1.5 km (0.58 sq mi) for the Shire of Peppermint Grove in metropolitan Perth, to the Shire of East Pilbara in the Pilbara region of Western Australia, which covers 380,000 km (150,000 sq mi), an area larger than Germany or Japan.
Local government in Australia is subject to the exclusive jurisdiction of the states or territories. The functions and practices of local government councils are similar throughout Australia, but may vary to some degree between jurisdictions.
The Australian Capital Territory is not divided into territory and local government.
State departments oversee local government councils and may intervene in their affairs, subject to relevant legislation.
As of January 2017, the following table provides a summary of local government areas by states and territories by local government area types:
The Australian Classification of Local Governments (ACLG) categorises Australian local governing authorities using the population, the population density and the proportion of the population that is classified as urban for the council. The classification, at the two - digit level, is:
There is no mention of local government in the Constitution of Australia, though it is mentioned several times in the Annotated Constitution of Australia namely where "Municipal institutions and local government '' appears in Annotation 447, "Power of the Parliament of a Colony '' under "Residuary Legislative Powers '' on pages 935 and 936.
The first official local government in Australia was the Perth Town Trust, established in 1838, only three years after British settlement. The Adelaide Corporation followed, created by the province of South Australia in October 1840. The City of Melbourne and the Sydney Corporation followed, both in 1842. All of these early forms failed; it was not until the 1860s and 1870s that the various colonies established widespread stable forms of local government, mainly for the purpose of raising money to build roads in rural and outer - urban regions. Council representatives attended conventions before Federation, however local government was unquestionably regarded as outside the Constitutional realm.
In the 1970s, the Whitlam Government expanded the level of funding to local governments in Australia beyond grants for road construction. General purpose grants become available for the first time.
Significant reforms took place in the 1980s and 1990s in which state governments used metrics and efficiency analysis developed within the private sector in the local government arena. Each state conducted an inquiry into the benefits of council amalgamations during the 1990s. In the early 1990s, Victoria saw the number of local councils reduced from 210 to 78. South Australia, Tasmania and Queensland saw some reductions in the number of local governments while Western Australia and New South Wales rejected compulsory mergers. New South Wales eventually forced the merging of some councils. The main purpose of amalgamating councils was for greater efficiency and to improve operations, but forced amalgamation of councils is sometimes seen as a dilution of representative democracy.
An increase in the range of services offered by councils, but only minor cost savings of less than 10 % have been noted by academics as outcomes after mergers. The council mergers have resulted in widespread job losses and lingering resentment from some whose roles have experienced a larger workload.
The growth of the Regional Organisations of Councils has also been a factor in local government reform in Australia. In 1995, there were 50 such agreements across the country. A 2002 study identified 55 ROCs with the largest involving 18 councils.
Local governments are subdivisions of the states and the Northern Territory. The Australian Capital Territory has no separate local governments; and functions in Canberra and the surrounding area normally performed by state and local governments are performed there by the territorial government of the Australian Capital Territory.
Although they are all essentially identical in function, Australian local governments have a variety of names. The term "local government area '' is used to refer collectively to all local governments regardless of status, whilst the local governing body itself is generally known as a council. Today, the styles "borough '', "city '', "district '', "municipality '', "region '', "shire '', "town '', "community government '', "Aboriginal shire '' and "Island '' are used in addition to areas / councils without a specific style.
In general, an urban or suburban LGA is called a city, as in the City of Canada Bay or City of Bunbury, and is governed by a City Council. A rural LGA covering a larger rural area is usually called a shire, as in Shire of Mornington Peninsula or Lachlan Shire, and is governed by a Shire Council.
Sometimes words other than "City '' or "Shire '' will be used in the names of LGAs. The word "Municipality '' occurs in some states: in New South Wales, it is typically used for older urban areas and the word is also used for several rural towns in South Australia. Some rural areas in South Australia are known as "District Councils '', while larger rural towns and small metropolitan centres in Queensland and Western Australia simply use the term "Town ''. New South Wales and Queensland have introduced a new term, "Region '', for LGAs formed by the amalgamation of smaller shires and rural cities. Historically, the word "Borough '' was common for small towns and metropolitan areas in Victoria, but only the Borough of Queenscliffe remains. In New South Wales, where the Local Government Act does not require a designation, some local governments are legally known simply as "Councils '', such as Port Macquarie - Hastings Council, Inner West Council, or Federation Council. All the LGAs in Tasmania that were previously ' Municipalities ' have been renamed ' Councils. '
Almost all local councils have the same administrative functions and similar political structures, regardless of their naming, and retain a particular designation ("Shire '', "Borough '', "Town '', "City '') for historical reasons only. They will typically have an elected council and usually a mayor or shire president responsible for chairing meetings of the council. In some councils, the mayor is a directly elected figure, but in most cases the mayor is elected by their fellow councillors from among their own number. The powers of mayors vary as well. In some states such as Queensland, the mayors have broad executive functions, whereas in New South Wales mayors are essentially ceremonial figureheads who can only exercise power at the discretion of the council.
Most of the capital city LGAs administer only the central business districts and nearby central suburbs. A notable exception is the City of Brisbane, the most populous LGA in the country, which administers a significant part of the Brisbane metropolitan area. In most cases, when a city 's population statistics are used, it is the statistical division population rather than the local government area.
Local government powers are determined by state governments, and states have primary responsibility for funding and exclusive responsibility for supervision of local councils.
Local government is mentioned in the annotated Australian constitution, as a department of the State Governments, and they are mentioned in the constitutions of each of the six states. A 1988 referendum sought to explicitly insert mention of local government in the federal constitution but this was comprehensively defeated. A further referendum was proposed in 2013, but was cancelled due to the change in the election date.
Federal government interaction with local councils happens regularly through the provision of federal grants to help fund local government managed projects.
All local governments are approximately equal in their theoretical powers, although LGAs that encompass large cities such as Brisbane and the Gold Coast command more resources due to their larger population base. Unlike local governments in many other countries, services such as police, fire protection and schools are provided by state or territory government rather than by local councils.
The councils ' chief responsibility in the first half of the 20th century was the provision of physical infrastructure such as roads, bridges and sewerage. From the 1970s the emphasis changed to community facilities such as libraries and parks, maintenance of local roads, town planning and development approvals, and local services such as waste disposal. Child care, tourism and urban renewal were also beginning to be part of local governments ' role. These are financed by collection of local land taxes known as "rates, '' and grants from the state and Commonwealth governments. They are caricatured as being concerned only with the "three Rs '': Rates, Roads and Rubbish.
However, the roles of local government areas in Australia have recently expanded as higher levels of government have devolved activities to the third tier. Examples include the provision of community health services, regional airports and pollution control as well as community safety and accessible transport. The changes in services has been described as a shift from ' services to property ' towards ' services to people '. Community expectations of local government in Australia has risen in the 21st century partly as a result of wider participation in decision making and transparent management practices.
Recent years have seen some State governments devolving additional powers onto LGAs. In Queensland and Western Australia LGAs have been granted the power to independently enact their own local subsidiary legislation, in contrast to the previous system of by - laws. Councils also have organised their own representative structures such as Local Government Associations and Regional Organisations of Councils.
Doctrines of new public management have shaped state government legislation towards increased freedoms aiming to allow greater flexibility on the part of local governments.
Unlike many other countries, Australia has only one level of local government immediately beneath state and territorial governments. Aside from very sparsely populated areas and a few other special cases, almost all of Australia is part of a local government area. Unincorporated areas are often in remote locations, cover vast areas or have very small populations.
The Australian Capital Territory has no municipalities and is in some sense an unincorporated area. The ACT government is directly responsible for matters normally carried out by a local government.
New South Wales has 2 unincorporated areas:
In the Northern Territory, 1.45 % of the total area and 4.0 % of the population are in unincorporated areas, including Unincorporated Top End Region (Finniss - Mary, the largest), areas covered by the Darwin Rates Act -- Nhulunbuy, Alyangula on Groote Eylandt in the northern region, and Yulara in the southern region.
In South Australia, 60 % of the state 's area is unincorporated and communities located within receive municipal services provided by a state agency, the Outback Communities Authority.
Victoria has 10 unincorporated areas, which are either ski resorts or small islands:
Western Australia has 3 unincorporated areas:
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when did the beatles form and break up | Break - up of the Beatles - wikipedia
The break - up of the Beatles was a cumulative process throughout the period 1968 to 1970, marked by rumours of a split and ambiguous comments by the Beatles themselves regarding the future of the group. Although in September 1969 John Lennon privately informed the other Beatles that he was leaving the group, there was no public acknowledgement of the break - up until Paul McCartney announced on 10 April 1970 he was leaving the Beatles.
In the years after the break - up there were sporadic collaborative recording efforts among the band members (Ringo Starr 's 1973 album Ringo was the only time that the four -- albeit on separate tracks -- appeared on the same album post-break - up), although all four Beatles never simultaneously collaborated as a recording or performing group again; Starr 's 1976 album Ringo 's Rotogravure is the last post-break - up album on which all four Beatles contribute and are credited: besides Starr 's drumming and songwriting contributions, Lennon, McCartney and George Harrison all composed one track apiece. After Lennon 's death in 1980, McCartney and Starr appeared on Harrison 's single "All Those Years Ago '', and the trio reunited for the Anthology project in 1994, using two unfinished Lennon demos -- "Free as a Bird '' and "Real Love '' -- for what would be new songs to be recorded and released as the Beatles.
There were numerous causes for the Beatles ' break - up. It was not a single event but rather a long transition, including the cessation of touring in 1966, and the death of their manager, Brian Epstein, in 1967. Conflict arose from differences in artistic vision. Both Harrison and Starr temporarily left the group at various points during 1968 -- 69 and all four band members had begun working on solo projects by 1970 as they all realised the likelihood the band would not regroup. Ultimately, animosity made it impossible for the group to continue working together in the years following.
Arguably the most influential person in launching and promoting the band 's worldwide popularity, Brian Epstein also managed to hold the group together, as his management style was to let the group pursue their musical notions and projects while often mediating when there was a conflict. However, this role began to diminish after the band stopped touring in 1966, although he still exercised a strong influence, settling disputes among members and, most importantly, handling the group 's finances. When he died of a medical drug overdose in August 1967, there was a void left in the band. John Lennon had the closest personal relationship with Epstein and was the most affected by his death. Paul McCartney likely sensed the precarious situation and sought to initiate projects for the group. Lennon, George Harrison and Ringo Starr progressively became perturbed by his growing domination in musical as well as other group ventures. Lennon later reflected that McCartney 's efforts were important for the survival of the band, but he still believed that McCartney 's desire to help came from McCartney 's own misgivings about pursuing a solo career.
The foundation of Apple Corps was initiated under the oversight of Epstein as a tax shelter endeavour. His unexpected death left the future of Apple Corps in doubt. The lack of Epstein 's supervision and the Beatles ' inexperience as businessmen led to an unexpectedly chaotic venture that only added to stress when the band returned to the studio to produce their 1968 double album The Beatles, also known as the White Album. Epstein 's role as band manager would never be replaced, and ultimately the lack of strong managerial leadership would be a major cause of the break - up.
Another factor behind the Beatles ' eventual split was Harrison 's growth as a composer during the second half of their career. In the early years, Lennon and McCartney were the band 's primary songwriters and vocalists, as Harrison and Starr took more supporting roles. Lennon and McCartney would often compose one song per album for Starr to sing, while Harrison would either cover an old standard or record one of his own compositions. From 1965 onwards, Harrison 's compositions started to mature and become more appealing in their quality. Gradually, the other band members acknowledged his potential as a songwriter.
Although Harrison emerged as a talented songwriter and producer, he nonetheless continued to have many of his song ideas rejected by Lennon and McCartney, especially from 1968 onwards. While this was partly indicative of the increased competition for space on album sides, with three songwriters in the band, Harrison 's frustration fostered in him a sense of alienation from the Beatles. He was the first member of the group to release a solo album, with Wonderwall Music, much of which was recorded in Bombay in January 1968 and featured Indian classical musicians such as Aashish Khan, Shankar Ghosh and Shivkumar Sharma. Speaking to Melody Maker in September 1969, Lennon said: "The trouble is we 've got too much material. Now that George is writing a lot, we could put out a double album every month... ''
After the band had stopped touring in August 1966, each of the members, to varying degrees, began to pursue his own musical tastes. When the group convened to record Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band in November 1966, there was still a camaraderie and desire to collaborate as musicians. However, their individual differences were becoming more apparent. To a greater extent than the others, McCartney maintained a deep interest in the pop musical trends and styles emerging both in Britain and the United States, whereas Harrison developed an interest in Indian music, and Lennon 's compositions became more introspective and experimental. Consequently, McCartney began to assume the role of the initiator and leader of the artistic projects of the Beatles.
Each band member began to develop individual artistic agendas, which eventually compromised the enthusiasm among the musicians. Soon, each band member became impatient with the others. This became most evident on the White Album, in which personal artistic preferences began to dominate the recording sessions, which in turn further undermined the band 's unity.
Lennon was in a fragile state of mind after returning from the band 's sojourn in India in early 1968. He was disillusioned and resentful that their Transcendental Meditation guru, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, had not fulfilled his expectations.
Coupled with renewed drug use and deterioration in his marriage and family life, Lennon 's personal identity and artistic role within the Beatles was a source of discontent. He began to develop an intense interest in the work of Yoko Ono, a Japanese - American conceptual artist whom he had first met at one of her exhibitions in 1966. The pair maintained a platonic relationship until the spring of 1968. In May that year, they spent time together in his home studio while his wife, Cynthia, was away on holiday. They recorded an avant - garde tape that would eventually be released as Unfinished Music No. 1: Two Virgins, before consummating their new relationship. From that point on, the two were almost always together, even as Lennon was working with the rest of the band in the studio. This violated a previous tacit agreement between the members not to let wives or girlfriends into the studio.
In addition, as Lennon 's artistic infatuation with Ono grew, he desired that she would be allotted artistic input into the band 's recordings. Frequently, Ono would comment or make suggestions in the recording studio, which only served to increase the friction between her and Lennon 's bandmates. Ono 's intrusive presence was a source of rancour to Harrison, in particular, after his and Lennon 's shared experimentation with LSD and Indian spirituality -- two experiences that McCartney had approached with a level of caution -- had united the pair since 1965.
In May 1968, the band met at Harrison 's home in Esher to record demos of some of the songs that would be released in November as The Beatles. Contemporaneous reviews and retrospective commentary by the Beatles acknowledged that the double album reflected the development of autonomous composers, musicians and artists. Rolling Stone described it as "four solo albums in one roof ''.
Lennon and McCartney 's artistic venues for the Beatles became more disparate, with McCartney disapproving of Lennon and Ono 's experimental sound collage "Revolution 9 '', and Lennon contemptuous of light - hearted McCartney songs such as "Martha My Dear '' and "Honey Pie ''. Harrison continued to develop as a songwriter, yet he received little support from within the band during the sessions. Feeling resentment from Lennon and McCartney for his role in leading the Beatles to the Maharishi, Harrison 's composition "Not Guilty '' reflected his state of mind after their return from India. Starr began to develop and pursue acting opportunities during this period, yet as a drummer, he was becoming increasingly dissatisfied with the standard of his playing; according to author Mark Hertsgaard, this was "a feeling that (McCartney) in particular had done much to encourage ''. Distressed also by the sour and tense atmosphere that was characteristic of the recording sessions, Starr felt so isolated that he left the band for several weeks and holidayed with his family in Sardinia. He returned in early September to find his drum kit decorated with flowers, which were a gift from Harrison.
The strain of recording the White Album also took its toll on EMI recording engineer Geoff Emerick. Like Starr, he left during the sessions, which commenced in June and concluded in October. These were the first signs of the group 's emerging disunity and antipathy. Upon completion and release of The Beatles, the band no longer gave collective interviews or recorded appearances, and public relations were carried out individually. Other evidence of the group 's collective alienation came with the release of their 1968 Christmas fan club recording; the contributions were entirely individual and Lennon made disparaging remarks about his bandmates ' apparent disdain for Ono.
By the end of 1968, the Beatles ' status as a group entity was in limbo. McCartney suggested a group project involving rehearsing, recording and performing the songs in a live concert. The project soon adopted a working title of Get Back but would eventually see official release as the Let It Be album and film in 1970. Although the sessions for their double album had involved a degree of ensemble playing, the band were ill - prepared to settle comfortably back into this mode; in particular, Lennon had descended into heroin addiction, leaving him variously incommunicative or highly critical of the venture. On 10 January 1969, eight days after filmed rehearsals commenced at Twickenham Film Studios, Harrison 's frustration and resentment peaked and he informed his bandmates that he was leaving. Having enjoyed rewarding collaborations outside the Beatles during much of 1968, particularly with Eric Clapton, Bob Dylan and the Band, the combined patronising by McCartney and estrangement from Lennon had taken its toll. The band were therefore on the verge of potential collapse and at an impasse. In 2003, Rolling Stone magazine cited a recording that exists from the Twickenham sessions the day after Harrison 's departure in which Lennon suggests inviting Clapton to take over lead guitar duties.
Ultimately, complicated negotiations brought Harrison back into the group 's activities. At Harrison 's insistence, McCartney 's plans for a full concert were abandoned and the project was relocated to the band 's Apple Studio in Savile Row, with the focus now on merely completing a new album of some of the songs rehearsed at Twickenham. The Beatles gave their last public performance on the rooftop of Apple 's headquarters on 30 January 1969, as a substitute for an audience - based concert.
Apple Corps during this period was plagued by business problems. On 26 January 1969 Lennon and Ono met with Allen Klein regarding managerial advice. Lennon requested that Klein represent his business interests in the band. McCartney 's growing relationship with Linda Eastman, whom he married on 12 March, opened the opportunity for lawyers Lee and John Eastman, Linda 's father and brother, respectively, to become involved in advising the band 's financial and legal decision - making. In April, after a series of rancorous meetings between Klein, the Eastmans and the Beatles, Klein was appointed as the band 's business manager on an interim basis, with the Eastmans as the Beatles ' lawyers. However, the band members ' quarrels and disharmony over musical matters soon permeated their business discussions.
Dick James, who held substantial rights to Northern Songs (the Lennon -- McCartney song catalogue), became increasingly concerned over the band 's dissension and resentment towards him. Without informing the Beatles, he entertained offers to sell his substantial shareholding in Northern Songs. Klein and the Eastmans were caught off guard and their attempts to reclaim control of the Beatles (via Maclen Music) failed. It soon became evident that the Eastmans and Klein had developed an adversarial relationship given their disparate advice and counsel. Given a choice between Klein and the Eastmans, Harrison and Starr opted for Klein. The Eastmans were dismissed as the Beatles ' legal representation, and on 8 May, Lennon, Harrison and Starr signed a contract with Klein to be the band 's business manager. This further aggravated the underlying mistrust and antipathy experienced within the band. McCartney felt that the four members ' evolution from musicians to businessmen was the central reason for the band 's break - up.
With the troubled Get Back / Let It Be project put on hold, the group continued to record together sporadically during the spring and early summer of 1969. Otherwise, the band members became increasingly involved in activities outside the band; among these, Lennon launched an international peace campaign with Ono, spearheaded by their single "Give Peace a Chance '', Harrison continued to focus on producing Apple Records signings, including Jackie Lomax, Billy Preston and Radha Krishna Temple (London), and Starr began to establish himself as a film actor. Their occasional sessions together over the first half of the year ultimately paved the way for the Beatles ' last studio recording project, Abbey Road.
Soon after the sessions for Abbey Road, Lennon 's heroin use inspired him to record "Cold Turkey '' with his and Ono 's conceptual group, the Plastic Ono Band, after the Beatles had rejected the song for release as a single. The formation of the Plastic Ono Band was conceived as an artistic outlet for Lennon and Ono, but the enthusiastic reception afforded their performance at the Toronto Rock and Roll Revival on 13 September 1969 ostensibly crystallised Lennon 's decision to leave the Beatles, which he made on the flight back to London. During a band meeting at Apple on 20 September, he informed McCartney, Starr and Klein of his decision (Harrison was not present at the meeting), telling them he wanted a "divorce ''. That same day, the band signed a renegotiated recording contract with Capitol Records, guaranteeing them a higher royalty rate. This was the group 's last, transient demonstration of unity, and the sensitivity of the negotiations with Capitol led to Klein and McCartney urging Lennon to keep his announcement private until the release of the Let It Be album and film the following year, which Lennon agreed to do.
Having long attempted to maintain cohesiveness within the Beatles, McCartney secluded himself with his new family at his Scottish farm, distraught at Lennon 's departure. After being tracked down by reporters from Life magazine in late October, McCartney publicly acknowledged that "the Beatle thing is over '', although the full meaning of this remark was ignored. In early January 1970, he, Harrison and Starr briefly reconvened at Abbey Road Studios to record Harrison 's "I Me Mine '' and complete work on McCartney 's song "Let It Be ''. Both tracks were needed for the Let It Be album, as the threat of legal action by American film company United Artists led to a decision to finally prepare the Get Back recordings and footage for release. This project was then allowed to languish as before, until producer Phil Spector was invited to revisit the tapes. Although McCartney has claimed that he was unaware of Spector 's involvement until receiving an acetate of the Let It Be album in April, Peter Doggett writes of work being delayed for "several weeks '' until McCartney returned "a string of messages '' requesting his approval for Spector to start working on the tapes.
Effectively estranged from his bandmates and deeply depressed, McCartney had begun making a series of home recordings in London during December 1969. Operating under strict secrecy, McCartney privately agreed on a release date for this proposed solo album, titled McCartney, with Apple Records executive Neil Aspinall. The release was set for 17 April 1970. Once Lennon, Harrison and Starr became aware of it, however, the date was immediately deemed as problematic, due to the existing items on the Apple release schedule -- Let It Be and Starr 's own solo debut, Sentimental Journey. On 31 March, Starr went to McCartney 's house to tell him personally of the decision to delay the release of McCartney, news to which he reacted badly, dismissing Starr from his home, and refusing to cede the date agreed to with Aspinall. Stunned at his bandmate 's outburst, Starr relayed the situation to Harrison and Lennon, and McCartney 's album was reinstated on the release schedule for 17 April.
McCartney 's bitterness over this episode contributed to him publicly announcing his departure from the Beatles. He has also cited Spector 's treatment of some songs on the Let It Be album, particularly "The Long and Winding Road '', as another factor. The chronological relevance of the latter claim is disputed by Starr, however, who stated that, when acetates of the album were sent out for each of the Beatles ' approval, on 2 April: "We all said yes. Even at the beginning Paul said yes. I spoke to him on the phone, and said, ' Did you like it? ' and he said, ' Yeah, it 's OK. ' He did n't put it down. ''
McCartney 's announcement came via a press release distributed to select UK journalists on 9 April, with advance copies of McCartney. The press release took the form of a Q&A in which McCartney discussed his album and, with Lennon 's exit still being withheld from the public (for business reasons), matters pertaining to the Beatles ' immediate future. While McCartney did not state that the group had broken up, he talked of his "break with the Beatles '' and having no plans to work with the band in the future; he also emphasised his distance from Klein 's management and ruled out the likelihood of ever writing songs with Lennon again. Although McCartney has said that Apple 's press officer, Derek Taylor, submitted the questions, Taylor later insisted that those concerning the Beatles were added by McCartney. On 10 April, having been among the recipients of the Q&A, Don Short of The Daily Mirror reported on McCartney 's departure from the Beatles under the front page headline "Paul Quits The Beatles ''. Newspapers around the world then interpreted McCartney 's remarks as an announcement that the band had broken up.
Doggett writes that, amid the uproar following his announcement, McCartney returned to the issue of Spector 's work on Let It Be "like a dog obsessively licking a wound ''. McCartney had conceived of "The Long and Winding Road '' as a simple piano ballad, but Spector overdubbed orchestral and female choral accompaniment. On 14 April, McCartney sent a sharply worded letter to Klein demanding that the new instrumentation be reduced, the harp part removed, and added: "Do n't ever do it again. '' Arriving twelve days after Spector had distributed the acetates with a request for any of the Beatles to contact him immediately with proposed changes, McCartney 's demands went unheeded. Klein claimed to have sent McCartney a telegram in reply to the 14 April letter, since McCartney had changed his telephone number without informing Apple, but he received no response. Klein therefore went ahead with manufacturing the new Beatles album.
On 31 December 1970, McCartney filed a lawsuit against the other three Beatles in London 's High Court for dissolution of the Beatles ' contractual partnership, and subsequently a receiver was appointed. The legal process and negotiations were lengthy and the formal dissolution of the partnership took place on 9 January 1975.
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hum hain rahi pyar ke film all song | Hum Hain Rahi Pyar Ke - wikipedia
Hum Hain Rahi Pyar Ke (Hindi: हम हैं राही प्यार के translation: We Are Travelers on the Path of Love) is a 1993 Indian romantic comedy - drama film, directed by Mahesh Bhatt and produced by Tahir Hussain, with screenplay written by Aamir Khan and Robin Bhatt, and with a musical score by Nadeem - Shravan. It stars Aamir Khan and Juhi Chawla in the lead roles, with Sharokh Bharucha and Kunal Khemu in supporting roles. Upon release, the film fetched the Filmfare Best Actress Award for Juhi Chawla. The film has also garnered the National Film Award - Special Jury Award / Special Mention (Feature Film), and the Filmfare Best Film Award.
Rahul Malhotra (Aamir Khan) is the caretaker of a garment company that has a pending order of one lakh shirts to Mr Bijlani. Rahul is also the guardian of his deceased sister 's mischievous kids: Sunny, Munni, and Vicky. He finds it hard to control the kids, as he is new to this. When the kids cause trouble, Rahul punishes them by locking them in their room. However, the children escape and head for a carnival in town.
Vyjayanti (Juhi Chawla) is the bubbly daughter of a South Indian businessman and music - lover. Her father wants her to marry Natarajan, an Iyer - clan music legend, who is somewhat creepy. Vyjayanti refuses to marry him; as punishment, she is also locked up and escapes. She meets the three kids at the carnival and they become friends. Vyjayanti explains that she has no home so the children invite her to stay with them.
The children go to great lengths to hide Vyjayanti from Rahul. In a row of hilarious sequences, they are always one step ahead of Rahul before he can discover Vyjayanti. Two nights later however, Vyjayanti is revealed. Initially angry, Rahul sees that the children love her so he gives her a job as the children 's governess. Vyjayanti begins to live with Rahul and the kids and slowly falls in love with him.
And then there enters seductive, glitzy Maya, Bijlani 's daughter, is obsessed with Rahul. She wants to marry Rahul, and Rahul approves, deciding that it would benefit the children. When Vyjayanti and the children find out about Maya and Rahul 's upcoming engagement ceremony, Vyjayanti is heartbroken and the kids are upset, as they dislike Maya. On the day of the engagement, Vyjayanti explains to the kids that she loves Rahul and wants to marry him. The kids come up with a plan to stop the engagement. They crash the party with a dramatic act, which successfully postpones the engagement but angers Rahul. Back home, he scolds Vyjayanti and she admits that she loves him, shocking him.
The next morning, Bijlani comes with Maya to offer Rahul a second chance. Rahul defends Vyjayanti against their insults, thereby expressing his own love for her. The mischievous kids chase Bijlani and Maya out of the house with rotten eggs and tomatoes. As revenge, Bijlani and Maya set on auctioning Rahul 's house. Rahul asks his workers to work overtime to make up for the shirt orders, which the supportive workers agree to. A successful two lakh shirts are made and loaded onto a truck to be delivered to Bijlani. Bijlani hires some thugs to ensure that the truck does n't arrive on time. Much to their distaste, Rahul arrives on time with the order, and Bijlani and Maya are arrested.
Vyjayanti is reunited with her father, who disapproves of her marrying anyone outside the Iyer clan. All the factory workers, Rahul 's colleagues, and the children ask him to allow Rahul and Vyjayanti to marry. With so much persistence, he accepts and Vyjayanti and Rahul are married in a South Indian ceremony.
The soundtrack of the movie was composed by the music duo Nadeem Shravan and lyrics were contributed by Sameer. Songs like ' Ghunghat ki aad se '. ' Woh meri neend mera chain ' and ' Bombai se gayi Poona ' became extremely popular.
The film was a box office success.
Winner
Nominated
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where did the nuclear accident happened in 1986 | Chernobyl disaster - wikipedia
The Chernobyl disaster, also referred to as the Chernobyl accident, was a catastrophic nuclear accident. It occurred on 25 -- 26 April 1986 in the No. 4 light water graphite moderated reactor at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant near Pripyat, a town in northern Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic which was part of the Soviet Union (USSR), approximately 104 km north of Kiev.
The event occurred during a late - night safety test which simulated a station blackout power - failure, in the course of which safety systems were intentionally turned off. A combination of inherent reactor design flaws and the reactor operators arranging the core in a manner contrary to the checklist for the test, eventually resulted in uncontrolled reaction conditions. Water flashed into steam generating a destructive steam explosion and a subsequent open - air graphite fire. This fire produced considerable updrafts for about nine days. These lofted plumes of fission products into the atmosphere. The estimated radioactive inventory that was released during this very hot fire phase approximately equaled in magnitude the airborne fission products released in the initial destructive explosion. Practically all of this radioactive material would then go on to fall - out / precipitate onto much of the surface of the western USSR and Europe.
The Chernobyl accident dominates the energy accidents sub-category of most disastrous nuclear power plant accident in history, both in terms of cost and casualties. It is one of only two nuclear energy accidents classified as a level 7 event (the maximum classification) on the International Nuclear Event Scale, the other being the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in Japan in 2011. The struggle to safeguard against scenarios which were perceived, in many cases falsely, as having the potential for greater catastrophe, together with later decontamination efforts of the surroundings, ultimately involved over 500,000 workers and cost an estimated 18 billion rubles.
During the accident, blast effects caused two deaths within the facility; one immediately after the explosion, and the other later due to deadly doses of radiation. Later, 134 people were hospitalized with acute radiation symptoms, of which 28 firemen and employees died in the days - to - months afterward from the effects of acute radiation syndrome. In addition, approximately fourteen cancer deaths among this group of initially hospitalized survivors were to follow within the next ten years (1996). While among the wider population, an excess of 15 childhood thyroid cancer deaths had been documented as of 2011. It will take further time and investigative funding to definitively determine the elevated relative risk of cancer among both the surviving employees and the population at large.
The remains of the No. 4 reactor building were enclosed in a large cover which was named the "Object Shelter ''. It is often known as the sarcophagus, the purpose of which was to reduce the spread of the remaining radioactive dust and debris from the wreckage and the protection of the wreckage from further weathering. The sarcophagus was finished in December 1986 at a time when what was left of the reactor was entering the cold shut - down phase; the enclosure was not intended as a radiation shield, but was built quickly as occupational safety for the crews of the other undamaged reactors at the power station, with No. 3 continuing to produce electricity into 2000.
The accident motivated safety upgrades on all remaining Soviet - designed reactors in the RBMK (Chernobyl No. 4) family, of which eleven continued to power electric grids as of 2013.
The disaster began during a systems test on 26 April 1986 at reactor 4 of the Chernobyl plant near Pripyat and in proximity to the administrative border with Belarus and the Dnieper River. There was a sudden and unexpected power surge. When operators attempted an emergency shutdown, a much larger spike in power output occurred. This second spike led to a reactor vessel rupture and a series of steam explosions. These events exposed the graphite moderator of the reactor to air, causing it to ignite. For the next week, the resulting fire sent long plumes of highly radioactive fallout into the atmosphere over an extensive geographical area, including Pripyat. The plumes drifted over large parts of the western Soviet Union and Europe. According to official post-Soviet data, about 60 % of the fallout landed in Belarus.
Thirty - six hours after the accident, Soviet officials enacted a 10 - kilometre exclusion zone, which resulted in the rapid evacuation of 49,000 people primarily from Pripyat, the nearest large population centre. Although not communicated at the time, an immediate evacuation of the town following the accident was not advisable as the road leading out of the town had heavy nuclear fallout hotspots deposited on it. Initially, the town itself was comparatively safe due to the favourable wind direction. Until the winds began to change direction, shelter in place was considered the best safety measure for the town.
As plumes and subsequent fallout continued to be generated, the evacuation zone was increased from 10 to 30 km about one week after the accident. A further 68,000 persons were evacuated, including from the town of Chernobyl itself. The surveying and detection of isolated fallout hotspots outside this zone over the following year eventually resulted in 135,000 long - term evacuees in total agreeing to be moved. The near tripling in the total number of permanently resettled persons between 1986 and 2000 from the most severely contaminated areas to approximately 350,000 is regarded as largely political in nature, with the majority of the rest evacuated in an effort to redeem loss in trust in the government, which was most common around 1990. Many thousands of these evacuees would have been "better off staying home. '' Risk analysis in 2007, supported by DNA biomarkers, has determined that the "people still living unofficially in the abandoned lands around Chernobyl '' have a lower risk of dying as a result of the elevated doses of radiation in the rural areas than "if they were exposed to the air pollution health risk in a large city such as nearby Kiev. ''
In 2017 Philip Thomas, Professor of Risk Management at the University of Bristol used the Years of potential life lost metric to conclude that, "Relocation was unjustified for 75 % of the 335,000 people relocated after Chernobyl '', finding that just 900 people within the 220,000 relocated during the second evacuation would have lost 3 months ' of life expectancy by staying home and that, "none should have been asked to leave ''. For comparison, Thomas found that the average Londoner, a city of ~ 8 million, lose 4.5 months of life due to air pollution.
Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus have been burdened with the continuing and substantial decontamination and monthly compensation costs of the Chernobyl accident. Although certain initiatives are legitimate, as the director of the UN Development Program Kalman Mizsei noted, "an industry has been built on this unfortunate event, '' with a "vast interest in creating a false picture. ''
The accident raised the already heightened concerns about fission reactors worldwide, and while most concern was focused on those of the same unusual design, hundreds of disparate electric - power reactor proposals, including those under construction at Chernobyl, reactor No. 5 and 6, were eventually cancelled. With the worldwide issue generally being due to the ballooning in costs for new nuclear reactor safety system standards and the legal costs in dealing with the increasingly hostile / anxious public opinion. There was a precipitous drop in the prior rate of new startups after 1986.
The accident also raised concerns about the cavalier safety culture in the Soviet nuclear power industry, slowing industry growth and forcing the Soviet government to become less secretive about its procedures. The government coverup of the Chernobyl disaster was a catalyst for glasnost, which "paved the way for reforms leading to the Soviet collapse ''.
A report by the International Atomic Energy Agency examines the environmental consequences of the accident. Another UN agency, UNSCEAR, has estimated a global collective dose of radiation exposure from the accident "equivalent on average to 21 additional days of world exposure to natural background radiation ''; individual doses were far higher than the global mean among those most exposed, including 530,000 primarily male recovery workers (the Chernobyl liquidators) who averaged an effective dose equivalent to an extra 50 years of typical natural background radiation exposure each.
Estimates of the number of deaths that will eventually result from the accident vary enormously; disparities reflect both the lack of solid scientific data and the different methodologies used to quantify mortality -- whether the discussion is confined to specific geographical areas or extends worldwide, and whether the deaths are immediate, short term, or long term.
In 1994, Thirty - one deaths were directly attributed to the accident, all among the reactor staff and emergency workers. As of the 2008 UNSCEAR report, the total number of confirmed deaths from radiation was 64 and this is expected to continue to rise.
The Chernobyl Forum predicts that the eventual death toll could reach 4,000 among those exposed to the highest levels of radiation (200,000 emergency workers, 116,000 evacuees and 270,000 residents of the most contaminated areas); this figure is a total causal death toll prediction, combining the deaths of approximately 50 emergency workers who died soon after the accident from acute radiation syndrome, 15 children who have died of thyroid cancer and a future predicted total of 3935 deaths from radiation - induced cancer and leukaemia.
In a peer - reviewed paper in the International Journal of Cancer in 2006, the authors expanded the discussion on those exposed to all of Europe (but following a different conclusion methodology to the Chernobyl Forum study, which arrived at the total predicted death toll of 4,000 after cancer survival rates were factored in) they stated, without entering into a discussion on deaths, that in terms of total excess cancers attributed to the accident:
The risk projections suggest that by now (2006) Chernobyl may have caused about 1000 cases of thyroid cancer and 4000 cases of other cancers in Europe, representing about 0.01 % of all incident cancers since the accident. Models predict that by 2065 about 16,000 cases of thyroid cancer and 25,000 cases of other cancers may be expected due to radiation from the accident, whereas several hundred million cancer cases are expected from other causes.
Two anti-nuclear advocacy groups have publicized non-peer - reviewed estimates that include mortality estimates for those who were exposed to even smaller amounts of radiation. The Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS) calculated that, among the hundreds of millions of people exposed worldwide, there will be an eventual 50,000 excess cancer cases, resulting in 25,000 excess cancer deaths, excluding thyroid cancer. However, these calculations are based on a simple linear no - threshold model multiplication and the misapplication of the collective dose, which the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) states "should not be done '' as using the collective dose is "inappropriate to use in risk projections ''.
Along similar lines to the UCS approach, the 2006 TORCH report, commissioned by the European Greens political party, likewise simplistically calculates an eventual 30,000 to 60,000 excess cancer deaths in total, around the globe.
The Russian founder of that region 's chapter of Greenpeace authored a book titled Chernobyl: Consequences of the Catastrophe for People and the Environment, which suggests that among the billions of people worldwide who were exposed to radioactive contamination from the disaster, nearly a million premature cancer deaths occurred between 1986 and 2004. Greenpeace itself advocates a figure of at least 200,000 or more. The book was not peer reviewed prior to its publication, and it has been heavily criticized; of the five reviews published in the academic press, four considered the book severely flawed and contradictory, and one praised it while noting some shortcomings. The review by M.I. Balonov published by the New York Academy of Sciences concludes that the report is of negative value because it has very little scientific merit while being highly misleading to the lay reader. It characterized the estimate of nearly a million deaths as more in the realm of science fiction than science.
On 26 April 1986, at 01: 23 (UTC + 3), reactor four suffered a catastrophic power increase, leading to explosions in its core. As the reactor had not been encased by any kind of hard containment vessel, this dispersed large quantities of radioactive isotopes into the atmosphere and caused an open - air fire that increased the emission of radioactive particles carried by the smoke. Ironically, the accident occurred during an experiment scheduled to test the viability of a potential safety emergency core cooling feature, which required a normal reactor shutdown procedure.
In steady state operation, a significant fraction (over 6 %) of the power from a nuclear reactor is derived not from fission but from the decay heat of its accumulated fission products. This heat continues for some time after the chain reaction is stopped (e.g., following an emergency SCRAM) and active cooling may be required to prevent core damage. RBMK reactors like those at Chernobyl use water as a coolant. Reactor 4 at Chernobyl consisted of about 1,600 individual fuel channels, each of which required coolant flow of 28 metric tons (28,000 litres or 7,400 US gallons) per hour.
Since cooling pumps require electricity to cool a reactor after a SCRAM, in the event of a power grid failure, Chernobyl 's reactors had three backup diesel generators; these could start up in 15 seconds, but took 60 -- 75 seconds to attain full speed and reach the 5.5 ‐ megawatt (MW) output required to run one main pump.
To solve this one - minute gap -- considered an unacceptable safety risk -- it had been theorized that rotational energy from the steam turbine (as it wound down under residual steam pressure) could be used to generate the required electrical power. Analysis indicated that this residual momentum and steam pressure might be sufficient to run the coolant pumps for 45 seconds, bridging the gap between an external power failure and the full availability of the emergency generators.
This capability still needed to be confirmed experimentally, and previous tests had ended unsuccessfully. An initial test carried out in 1982 indicated that the excitation voltage of the turbine - generator was insufficient; it did not maintain the desired magnetic field after the turbine trip. The system was modified, and the test was repeated in 1984 but again proved unsuccessful. In 1985, the tests were attempted a third time but also yielded negative results. The test procedure would be repeated in 1986, and it was scheduled to take place during the maintenance shutdown of Reactor Four.
The test focused on the switching sequences of the electrical supplies for the reactor. The test procedure was expected to begin with an automatic emergency shutdown. No detrimental effect on the safety of the reactor was anticipated, so the test programme was not formally coordinated with either the chief designer of the reactor (NIKIET) or the scientific manager. Instead, it was approved only by the director of the plant (and even this approval was not consistent with established procedures).
According to the test parameters, the thermal output of the reactor should have been no lower than 700 MW at the start of the experiment. If test conditions had been as planned, the procedure would almost certainly have been carried out safely; the eventual disaster resulted from attempts to boost the reactor output once the experiment had been started, which was inconsistent with approved procedure.
The Chernobyl power plant had been in operation for two years without the capability to ride through the first 60 -- 75 seconds of a total loss of electric power, and thus lacked an important safety feature. The station managers presumably wished to correct this at the first opportunity, which may explain why they continued the test even when serious problems arose, and why the requisite approval for the test had not been sought from the Soviet nuclear oversight regulator (even though there was a representative at the complex of 4 reactors).
The experimental procedure was intended to run as follows:
The conditions to run the test were established before the day shift of 25 April 1986. The day - shift workers had been instructed in advance and were familiar with the established procedures. A special team of electrical engineers was present to test the new voltage regulating system. As planned, a gradual reduction in the output of the power unit was begun at 01: 06 on 25 April, and the power level had reached 50 % of its nominal 3200 MW thermal level by the beginning of the day shift.
At this point, another regional power station unexpectedly went offline, and the Kiev electrical grid controller requested that the further reduction of Chernobyl 's output be postponed, as power was needed to satisfy the peak evening demand. The Chernobyl plant director agreed, and postponed the test. Despite this delay, preparations for the test not affecting the reactor 's power were carried out, including the disabling of the emergency core cooling system or ECCS, a passive / active system of core cooling intended to provide water to the core in a loss - of - coolant accident. Given the other events that unfolded, the system would have been of limited use, but its disabling as a "routine '' step of the test is an illustration of the inherent lack of attention to safety for this test. In addition, had the reactor been shut down for the day as planned, it is possible that more preparation would have been taken in advance of the test.
At 23: 04, the Kiev grid controller allowed the reactor shutdown to resume. This delay had some serious consequences: the day shift had long since departed, the evening shift was also preparing to leave, and the night shift would not take over until midnight, well into the job. According to plan, the test should have been finished during the day shift, and the night shift would only have had to maintain decay heat cooling systems in an otherwise shut - down plant.
The night shift had very limited time to prepare for and carry out the experiment. A further rapid decrease in the power level from 50 % was executed during the shift change - over. Alexander Akimov was chief of the night shift, and Leonid Toptunov was the operator responsible for the reactor 's operational regimen, including the movement of the control rods. Toptunov was a young engineer who had worked independently as a senior engineer for approximately three months.
The test plan called for a gradual decrease in power output from reactor 4 to a thermal level of 700 -- 1000 MW. An output of 700 MW was reached at 00: 05 on 26 April. Due to the reactor 's production of a fission byproduct, xenon - 135, which is a reaction - inhibiting neutron absorber, core power continued to decrease without further operator action -- a process known as reactor poisoning. This continuing decrease in power occurred because in steady state operation, xenon - 135 is "burned off '' as quickly as it is created from decaying iodine - 135 by absorbing neutrons from the ongoing chain reaction to become highly stable xenon - 136. When the reactor power was lowered, previously produced high quantities of iodine - 135 decayed into the neutron - absorbing xenon - 135 faster than the reduced neutron flux could burn it off. As the reactor power output dropped further, to approximately 500 MW, Toptunov mistakenly inserted the control rods too far -- the exact circumstances leading to this are unknown because Akimov and Toptunov both died in the hospital on 10 and 14 May respectively. This combination of factors put the reactor into an unintended near - shutdown state, with a power output of 30 MW thermal or less.
The reactor was now producing 5 percent of the minimum initial power level established as safe for the test. Control - room personnel decided to restore power by disabling the automatic system governing the control rods and manually extracting the majority of the reactor control rods to their upper limits. Several minutes elapsed between their extraction and the point that the power output began to increase and subsequently stabilize at 160 -- 200 MW (thermal), a much smaller value than the planned 700 MW. The rapid reduction in the power during the initial shutdown, and the subsequent operation at a level of less than 200 MW led to increased poisoning of the reactor core by the accumulation of xenon - 135. This restricted any further rise of reactor power, and made it necessary to extract additional control rods from the reactor core in order to counteract the poisoning.
The operation of the reactor at the low power level and high poisoning level was accompanied by unstable core temperature and coolant flow, and possibly by instability of neutron flux, which triggered alarms. The control room received repeated emergency signals regarding the levels in the steam / water separator drums, and large excursions or variations in the flow rate of feed water, as well as from relief valves opened to relieve excess steam into a turbine condenser, and from the neutron power controller. Between 00: 35 and 00: 45, emergency alarm signals concerning thermal - hydraulic parameters were ignored, apparently to preserve the reactor power level.
When the power level of 200 MW was achieved, preparation for the experiment continued. As part of the test plan, extra water pumps were activated at 01: 05 on 26 April, increasing the water flow. The increased coolant flow rate through the reactor produced an increase in the inlet coolant temperature of the reactor core (the coolant no longer having sufficient time to release its heat in the turbine and cooling towers), which now more closely approached the nucleate boiling temperature of water, reducing the safety margin.
The flow exceeded the allowed limit at 01: 19, triggering an alarm of low steam pressure in the steam separators. At the same time, the extra water flow lowered the overall core temperature and reduced the existing steam voids in the core and the steam separators. Since water weakly absorbs neutrons (and the higher density of liquid water makes it a better absorber than steam), turning on additional pumps decreased the reactor power further still. The crew responded by turning off two of the circulation pumps to reduce feedwater flow, in an effort to increase steam pressure, and by removing more manual control rods to maintain power.
All these actions led to an extremely unstable reactor configuration. Nearly all of the control rods were removed manually, including all but 18 of the "fail - safe '' manually operated rods of the minimal 28 which were intended to remain fully inserted to control the reactor even in the event of a loss of coolant, out of a total 211 control rods. While the emergency SCRAM system that would insert all control rods to shut down the reactor could still be activated manually (through the "AZ - 5 '' button), the automated system that could do the same had been disabled to maintain the power level, and many other automated and even passive safety features of the reactor had been bypassed. Further, the reactor coolant pumping had been reduced, which had limited margin so any power excursion would produce boiling, thereby reducing neutron absorption by the water. The reactor was in an unstable configuration that was outside the safe operating envelope established by the designers. If anything pushed it into supercriticality, it was unable to recover automatically.
At 1: 23: 04 a.m., the experiment began. Four of the main circulating pumps (MCP) were active; of the eight total, six are normally active during regular operation. The steam to the turbines was shut off, beginning a run - down of the turbine generator. The diesel generators started and sequentially picked up loads; the generators were to have completely picked up the MCPs ' power needs by 01: 23: 43. In the interim, the power for the MCPs was to be supplied by the turbine generator as it coasted down. As the momentum of the turbine generator decreased, so did the power it produced for the pumps. The water flow rate decreased, leading to increased formation of steam voids (bubbles) in the core.
Because of the positive void coefficient of the RBMK reactor at low reactor power levels, it was now primed to embark on a positive feedback loop, in which the formation of steam voids reduced the ability of the liquid water coolant to absorb neutrons, which in turn increased the reactor 's power output. This caused yet more water to flash into steam, giving a further power increase. During almost the entire period of the experiment the automatic control system successfully counteracted this positive feedback, inserting control rods into the reactor core to limit the power rise. This system had control of only 12 rods, and nearly all others had been manually retracted.
At 1: 23: 40, as recorded by the SKALA centralized control system, a SCRAM (emergency shutdown) of the reactor was initiated. The SCRAM was started when the EPS - 5 button (also known as the AZ - 5 button) of the reactor emergency protection system was pressed: this engaged the drive mechanism on all control rods to fully insert them, including the manual control rods that had been withdrawn earlier. The reason why the EPS - 5 button was pressed is not known, whether it was done as an emergency measure in response to rising temperatures, or simply as a routine method of shutting down the reactor upon completion of the experiment.
There is a view that the SCRAM may have been ordered as a response to the unexpected rapid power increase, although there is no recorded data proving this. Some have suggested that the button was not manually pressed, that the SCRAM signal was automatically produced by the emergency protection system, but the SKALA registered a manual SCRAM signal. Despite this, the question as to when or even whether the EPS - 5 button was pressed has been the subject of debate. There have been assertions that the manual SCRAM was initiated due to the initial rapid power acceleration. Others have suggested that the button was not pressed until the reactor began to self - destruct, while others believe that it happened earlier and in calm conditions.
In any case, when the EPS - 5 button was pressed, the insertion of control rods into the reactor core began. The control rod insertion mechanism moved the rods at 0.4 m / s, so that the rods took 18 to 20 seconds to travel the full height of the core, about 7 metres. A bigger problem was the design of the RBMK control rods, each of which had a graphite neutron moderator rod attached to the end to boost reactor output by displacing water when the control rod section had been fully withdrawn from the reactor. Thus, when a control rod was at maximum extraction, a neutron - moderating graphite extension was centered in the core with a 1.25 m column of water above and below it. Therefore, injecting a control rod downward into the reactor during a SCRAM initially displaced (neutron - absorbing) water in the lower portion of the reactor with (neutron - moderating) graphite on its way out of the core. As a result, an emergency SCRAM initially increased the reaction rate in the lower part of the core as the graphite section of rods moving out of the reactor displaced water coolant. This behaviour was revealed when the initial insertion of control rods in another RBMK reactor at Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant in 1983 induced a power spike, but since the subsequent SCRAM of that reactor was successful, the information was disseminated but deemed of little importance.
A few seconds into the SCRAM, a power spike occurred, and the core overheated, causing some of the fuel rods to fracture, blocking the control rod columns and jamming the control rods at one - third insertion, with the graphite displacers still in the lower part of the core. Within three seconds the reactor output rose above 530 MW.
The subsequent course of events was not registered by instruments; it is known only as a result of mathematical simulation. Apparently, the power spike caused an increase in fuel temperature and steam buildup, leading to a rapid increase in steam pressure. This caused the fuel cladding to fail, releasing the fuel elements into the coolant, and rupturing the channels in which these elements were located.
Then, according to some estimations, the reactor jumped to around 30,000 MW thermal, ten times the normal operational output. The last reading on the control panel was 33,000 MW. It was not possible to reconstruct the precise sequence of the processes that led to the destruction of the reactor and the power unit building, but a steam explosion, like the explosion of a steam boiler from excess vapour pressure, appears to have been the next event. There is a general understanding that it was explosive steam pressure from the damaged fuel channels escaping into the reactor 's exterior cooling structure that caused the explosion that destroyed the reactor casing, tearing off and blasting the upper plate, to which the entire reactor assembly is fastened, through the roof of the reactor building. This is believed to be the first explosion that many heard. This explosion ruptured further fuel channels, as well as severing most of the coolant lines feeding the reactor chamber, and as a result the remaining coolant flashed to steam and escaped the reactor core. The total water loss in combination with a high positive void coefficient further increased the reactor 's thermal power.
A second, more powerful explosion occurred about two or three seconds after the first; this explosion dispersed the damaged core and effectively terminated the nuclear chain reaction. This explosion also compromised more of the reactor containment vessel and ejected hot lumps of graphite moderator. The ejected graphite and the demolished channels still in the remains of the reactor vessel caught fire on exposure to air, greatly contributing to the spread of radioactive fallout and the contamination of outlying areas.
According to observers outside Unit 4, burning lumps of material and sparks shot into the air above the reactor. Some of them fell onto the roof of the machine hall and started a fire. About 25 percent of the red - hot graphite blocks and overheated material from the fuel channels was ejected. Parts of the graphite blocks and fuel channels were out of the reactor building. As a result of the damage to the building an airflow through the core was established by the high temperature of the core. The air ignited the hot graphite and started a graphite fire.
After the larger explosion, a number of employees at the power station went outside to get a clearer view of the extent of the damage. One such survivor, Alexander Yuvchenko, recounts that once he stopped outside and looked up towards the reactor hall, he saw a "very beautiful '' LASER - like beam of light bluish light caused by the ionization of air that appeared to "flood up into infinity ''.
There were initially several hypotheses about the nature of the second explosion. One view was that the second explosion was caused by hydrogen, which had been produced either by the overheated steam - zirconium reaction or by the reaction of red - hot graphite with steam that produced hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Another hypothesis, by Checherov, published in 1998, was that the second explosion was a thermal explosion of the reactor as a result of the uncontrollable escape of fast neutrons caused by the complete water loss in the reactor core. A third hypothesis was that the second explosion was another steam explosion. According to this version, the first explosion was a more minor steam explosion in the circulating loop, causing a loss of coolant flow and pressure that in turn caused the water still in the core to flash to steam. This second explosion then did the majority of the damage to the reactor and containment building.
The force of the second explosion and the ratio of xenon radioisotopes released after the accident (a vital tool in nuclear forensics) indicated to Yuri V. Dubasov in a 2009 publication (suggested before him by Checherov in 1998), that the second explosion could have been a nuclear power transient resulting from core material melting in the absence of its water coolant and moderator. Dubasov argues that the reactor did not simply undergo a runaway delayed - supercritical / exponential increase in power into the multi-gigawatt power range, which is somewhat similar to the conditions of a normal reactor coming up to its commercial power level (with the notable exception that Chernoyl 's older RBMK reactor design had the largest positive void coefficient of reactivity of any reactor then operating commercially), permitting a dangerous "positive feedback '' / runaway condition, given the lack of inherent safety stops when power levels began to increase above the commercial level. Although a positive - feedback power excursion that increased until the reactor disassembled itself by means of its internal energy and external steam explosions is the more accepted explanation for the cause of the explosions, Dubasov argues instead that a runaway prompt supercriticality occurred, with the internal physics being more similar to the explosion of a fizzled nuclear weapon, and that this failed / fizzle event produced the second explosion.
This nuclear fizzle hypothesis, then mostly defended by Dubasov, was examined further in 2017 by retired physicist Lars - Erik De Geer in an analysis that puts the hypothesized fizzle event as the more probable cause of the first explosion. The more energetic second explosion, which produced the majority of the damage, has been estimated by Dubasov in 2009 as equivalent to 40 billion joules of energy, the equivalent of about ten tons of TNT. Both the 2009 and 2017 analyses argue that the nuclear fizzle event, whether producing the second or first explosion, consisted of a prompt chain reaction (as opposed to the consensus delayed neutron mediated chain - reaction) that was limited to a small portion of the reactor core, since expected self - disassembly occurs rapidly in fizzle events.
Contrary to safety regulations, bitumen, a combustible material, had been used in the construction of the roof of the reactor building and the turbine hall. Ejected material ignited at least five fires on the roof of the adjacent reactor 3, which was still operating. It was imperative to put those fires out and protect the cooling systems of reactor 3. Inside reactor 3, the chief of the night shift, Yuri Bagdasarov, wanted to shut down the reactor immediately, but chief engineer Nikolai Fomin would not allow this. The operators were given respirators and potassium iodide tablets and told to continue working. At 05: 00, Bagdasarov made his own decision to shut down the reactor, leaving only those operators there who had to work the emergency cooling systems.
Approximate radiation intensity levels at different locations at Chernobyl reactor site shortly after the explosion are shown in the below table. A dose of 500 roentgens (~ 5 Sv) delivered over an hour is usually lethal for human beings.
The radiation levels in the worst - hit areas of the reactor building have been estimated to be 5.6 roentgens per second (R / s), equivalent to more than 20,000 roentgens per hour. A lethal dose is around 500 roentgens (~ 5 Gy) over 5 hours, so in some areas, unprotected workers received fatal doses in less than a minute. However, a dosimeter capable of measuring up to 1000 R / s was buried in the rubble of a collapsed part of the building, and another one failed when turned on. All remaining dosimeters had limits of 0.001 R / s and therefore read "off scale ''. Thus, the reactor crew could ascertain only that the radiation levels were somewhere above 0.001 R / s (3.6 R / h), while the true levels were much higher in some areas.
Because of the inaccurate low readings, the reactor crew chief Alexander Akimov assumed that the reactor was intact. The evidence of pieces of graphite and reactor fuel lying around the building was ignored, and the readings of another dosimeter brought in by 04: 30 were dismissed under the assumption that the new dosimeter must have been defective. Akimov stayed with his crew in the reactor building until morning, sending members of his crew to try to pump water into the reactor. None of them wore any protective gear. Most, including Akimov, died from radiation exposure within three weeks.
Shortly after the accident, firefighters arrived to try to extinguish the fires. First on the scene was a Chernobyl Power Station firefighter brigade under the command of Lieutenant Volodymyr Pravik, who died on 9 May 1986 of acute radiation sickness. They were not told how dangerously radioactive the smoke and the debris were, and may not even have known that the accident was anything more than a regular electrical fire: "We did n't know it was the reactor. No one had told us. ''
Grigorii Khmel, the driver of one of the fire engines, later described what happened:
We arrived there at 10 or 15 minutes to two in the morning... We saw graphite scattered about. Misha asked: "Is that graphite? '' I kicked it away. But one of the fighters on the other truck picked it up. "It 's hot, '' he said. The pieces of graphite were of different sizes, some big, some small, enough to pick them up...
We did n't know much about radiation. Even those who worked there had no idea. There was no water left in the trucks. Misha filled a cistern and we aimed the water at the top. Then those boys who died went up to the roof -- Vashchik, Kolya and others, and Volodya Pravik... They went up the ladder... and I never saw them again.
Anatoli Zakharov, a fireman stationed in Chernobyl since 1980, offers a different description in 2008:
I remember joking to the others, "There must be an incredible amount of radiation here. We 'll be lucky if we 're all still alive in the morning. ''
He also said:
Of course we knew! If we 'd followed regulations, we would never have gone near the reactor. But it was a moral obligation -- our duty. We were like kamikaze.
The immediate priority was to extinguish fires on the roof of the station and the area around the building containing Reactor No. 4 to protect No. 3 and keep its core cooling systems intact. The fires were extinguished by 5: 00, but many firefighters received high doses of radiation. The fire inside reactor 4 continued to burn until 10 May 1986; it is possible that well over half of the graphite burned out.
The fire was extinguished by a combined effort of helicopters dropping over 5000 metric tons of sand, lead, clay, and neutron - absorbing boron onto the burning reactor and injection of liquid nitrogen. The Ukrainian filmmaker Vladimir Shevchenko captured film footage of an Mi - 8 helicopter as its main rotor collided with a nearby construction crane cable, causing the helicopter to fall near the damaged reactor building and killing its four - man crew. It is now known that virtually none of the neutron absorbers reached the core.
From eyewitness accounts of the firefighters involved before they died (as reported on the CBC television series Witness), one described his experience of the radiation as "tasting like metal '', and feeling a sensation similar to that of pins and needles all over his face. (This is similar to the description given by Louis Slotin, a Manhattan Project physicist who died days after a fatal radiation overdose from a criticality accident.)
The explosion and fire threw hot particles of the nuclear fuel and also far more dangerous fission products, radioactive isotopes such as caesium - 137, iodine - 131, strontium - 90 and other radionuclides, into the air: the residents of the surrounding area observed the radioactive cloud on the night of the explosion.
Equipment assembled included remote - controlled bulldozers and robot - carts that could detect radioactivity and carry hot debris. Valery Legasov (first deputy director of the Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy in Moscow) said, in 1987: "But we learned that robots are not the great remedy for everything. Where there was very high radiation, the robot ceased to be a robot -- the electronics quit working. ''
With the exception of the fire contained inside Reactor 4, which continued to burn for many days.
The nearby city of Pripyat was not immediately evacuated. The townspeople went about their usual business, completely oblivious to what had just happened. However, within a few hours of the explosion, dozens of people fell ill. Later, they reported severe headaches and metallic tastes in their mouths, along with uncontrollable fits of coughing and vomiting.
As the plant was run by authorities in Moscow, the government of Ukraine did not receive prompt information on the accident. Valentyna Shevchenko, then Chairman of the Presidium of Verkhovna Rada Supreme Soviet of the Ukrainian SSR, recalls that Ukraine 's acting Minister of Internal Affairs Vasyl Durdynets phoned her at work at 9 am to report current affairs; only at the end of the conversation did he add that there had been a fire at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, but it was extinguished and everything was fine. When Shevchenko asked "How are the people? '', he replied that there was nothing to be concerned about: "Some are celebrating a wedding, others are gardening, and others are fishing in the Pripyat River ''. Shevchenko then spoke over the phone to Volodymyr Shcherbytsky, Head of the Central Committee of the CPU and de facto head of state, who said he anticipated a delegation of the state commission headed by the deputy chairman of the Council of Ministers of USSR.
A commission was set up the same day (26 April) to investigate the accident. It was headed by Valery Legasov, First Deputy Director of the Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy, and included leading nuclear specialist Evgeny Velikhov, hydro - meteorologist Yuri Izrael, radiologist Leonid Ilyin and others. They flew to Boryspil International Airport and arrived at the power plant in the evening of 26 April. By that time two people had already died and 52 were hospitalized. The delegation soon had ample evidence that the reactor was destroyed and extremely high levels of radiation had caused a number of cases of radiation exposure. In the early hours of 27 April, over 24 hours after the initial blast, they ordered the evacuation of Pripyat. Initially it was decided to evacuate the population for three days; later this was made permanent.
By 11: 00 on 27 April, buses had arrived in Pripyat to start the evacuation. The evacuation began at 14: 00. A translated excerpt of the evacuation announcement follows:
For the attention of the residents of Pripyat! The City Council informs you that due to the accident at Chernobyl Power Station in the city of Pripyat the radioactive conditions in the vicinity are deteriorating. The Communist Party, its officials and the armed forces are taking necessary steps to combat this. Nevertheless, with the view to keep people as safe and healthy as possible, the children being top priority, we need to temporarily evacuate the citizens in the nearest towns of Kiev region. For these reasons, starting from April 27, 1986 2 pm each apartment block will be able to have a bus at its disposal, supervised by the police and the city officials. It is highly advisable to take your documents, some vital personal belongings and a certain amount of food, just in case, with you. The senior executives of public and industrial facilities of the city has decided on the list of employees needed to stay in Pripyat to maintain these facilities in a good working order. All the houses will be guarded by the police during the evacuation period. Comrades, leaving your residences temporarily please make sure you have turned off the lights, electrical equipment and water and shut the windows. Please keep calm and orderly in the process of this short - term evacuation.
To expedite the evacuation, residents were told to bring only what was necessary, and that they would remain evacuated for approximately three days. As a result, most personal belongings were left behind, and remain there today. By 15: 00, 53,000 people were evacuated to various villages of the Kiev region. The next day, talks began for evacuating people from the 10 km zone. Ten days after the accident, the evacuation area was expanded to 30 km (19 mi). This "exclusion zone '' has remained ever since, although its shape has changed and its size has been expanded.
Evacuation began long before the accident was publicly acknowledged by the Soviet Union. On the morning of 28 April, radiation levels set off alarms at the Forsmark Nuclear Power Plant in Sweden, over 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) from the Chernobyl Plant. Sweden determined that the radiation had originated elsewhere, and the Swedish government contacted the Soviet government, The Soviet government denied being the source of the radiation, until the Swedish government advised the Soviet government that a report was being made to the International Atomic Energy Authority.
At 21: 02 the evening of 28 April, a 20 - second announcement was read in the TV news programme Vremya:
There has been an accident at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant. One of the nuclear reactors was damaged. The effects of the accident are being remedied. Assistance has been provided for any affected people. An investigative commission has been set up.
This was the entirety of the announcement of the accident. The Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union (TASS) then discussed Three Mile Island and other American nuclear accidents, an example of the common Soviet tactic of emphasizing foreign disasters when one occurred in the Soviet Union. The mention of a commission, however, indicated to observers the seriousness of the incident, and subsequent state radio broadcasts were replaced with classical music, which was a common method of preparing the public for an announcement of a tragedy.
Around the same time, ABC News released its report about the disaster.
Shevchenko was the first of the Ukrainian state top officials to arrive at the disaster site early on 28 April. There she spoke with members of medical staff and people, who were calm and hopeful that they could soon return to their homes. Shevchenko returned home near midnight, stopping at a radiological checkpoint in Vilcha, one of the first that were set up soon after the accident.
There was a notification from Moscow that there was no reason to postpone the 1 May International Workers ' Day celebrations in Kiev (including the annual parade), but on 30 April a meeting of the Political bureau of the Central Committee of CPU took place to discuss the plan for the upcoming celebration. Scientists were reporting that the radiological background in Kiev city was normal. At the meeting, which was finished at 18: 00, it was decided to shorten celebrations from the regular 3.5 -- 4 to under 2 hours.
Several buildings in Pripyat were officially kept open after the disaster to be used by workers still involved with the plant. These included the Jupiter Factory which closed in 1996 and the Azure Swimming Pool which closed in 1998.
Two floors of bubbler pools beneath the reactor served as a large water reservoir for the emergency cooling pumps and as a pressure suppression system capable of condensing steam in case of a small broken steam pipe; the third floor above them, below the reactor, served as a steam tunnel. The steam released by a broken pipe was supposed to enter the steam tunnel and be led into the pools to bubble through a layer of water. After the disaster, the pools and the basement were flooded because of ruptured cooling water pipes and accumulated firefighting water, and constituted a serious steam explosion risk.
The smoldering graphite, fuel and other material above, at more than 1200 ° C, started to burn through the reactor floor and mixed with molten concrete from the reactor lining, creating corium, a radioactive semi-liquid material comparable to lava. If this mixture had melted through the floor into the pool of water, it was feared it could have created a serious steam explosion that would have ejected more radioactive material from the reactor. It became necessary to drain the pool.
The bubbler pool could be drained by opening its sluice gates. However, the valves controlling it were underwater, located in a flooded corridor in the basement. So volunteers in wetsuits and respirators (for protection against radioactive aerosols) and equipped with dosimeters, entered the knee - deep radioactive water and managed to open the valves. These were the engineers Alexei Ananenko and Valeri Bezpalov (who knew where the valves were), accompanied by the shift supervisor Boris Baranov. Upon succeeding and emerging from the water, according to many English language news articles, books and the prominent BBC docudrama Surviving Disaster -- Chernobyl Nuclear, the three knew it was a suicide - mission and began suffering from radiation sickness and died soon after. Some sources also incorrectly claimed that they died there in the plant. However, research by Andrew Leatherbarrow, author of the 2016 book Chernobyl 01: 23: 40, determined that the frequently recounted story is a gross exaggeration. Alexei Ananenko continues to work in the nuclear energy industry, and rebuffs the growth of the Chernobyl media sensationalism surrounding him. While Valeri Bezpalov was found to still be alive by Leatherbarrow, the 65 - year - old Baranov had lived until 2005 and had died of heart failure.
Once the bubbler pool gates were opened by the Ananenko team, fire brigade pumps were then used to drain the basement. The operation was not completed until 8 May, after 20,000 metric tons of highly radioactive water were pumped out.
With the bubbler pool gone, a meltdown was less likely to produce a powerful steam explosion. To do so, the molten core would now have to reach the water table below the reactor. To reduce the likelihood of this, it was decided to freeze the earth beneath the reactor, which would also stabilize the foundations. Using oil drilling equipment, the injection of liquid nitrogen began on 4 May. It was estimated that 25 metric tons of liquid nitrogen per day would be required to keep the soil frozen at − 100 ° C. This idea was soon scrapped and the bottom room where the cooling system would have been installed was filled with concrete.
It is likely that intense alpha radiation hydrolysed the water, generating a low - pH hydrogen peroxide (H O) solution akin to an oxidizing acid. Conversion of bubbler pool water to H O is confirmed by the presence in the Chernobyl lavas of studtite and metastudtite, the only minerals that contain peroxide.
The worst of the radioactive debris was collected inside what was left of the reactor. During clean - up operations, remotely controlled machinery were used to try to move the most highly radioactive debris, but these failed in the harsh conditions. Consequently, the most highly radioactive materials were shoveled by Chernobyl liquidators from the military wearing heavy protective gear (dubbed "bio-robots '' by the military); these soldiers could only spend a maximum of 40 seconds working on the rooftops of the surrounding buildings because of the extremely high doses of radiation given off by the blocks of graphite and other debris. Though the soldiers were only supposed to perform the role of the "bio-robot '' a maximum of once, some soldiers reported having done this task five or six times. The reactor itself was covered with bags of sand, lead and boric acid dropped from helicopters: some 5000 metric tons of material were dropped during the week that followed the accident.
At the time there was still fear that the reactor could re-enter a self - sustaining nuclear chain - reaction and explode again, and a new containment structure was planned to prevent rain entering and triggering such an explosion, and to prevent further release of radioactive material. This was the largest civil engineering task in history, involving a quarter of a million construction workers who all reached their official lifetime limits of radiation. By December 1986, a large concrete sarcophagus had been erected to seal off the reactor and its contents. A unique "clean up '' medal was given to the workers.
Many of the vehicles used by the liquidators remain parked in a field in the Chernobyl area.
During the construction of the sarcophagus, a scientific team re-entered the reactor as part of an investigation dubbed "Complex Expedition '', to locate and contain nuclear fuel in a way that could not lead to another explosion. These scientists manually collected cold fuel rods, but great heat was still emanating from the core. Rates of radiation in different parts of the building were monitored by drilling holes into the reactor and inserting long metal detector tubes. The scientists were exposed to high levels of radiation and radioactive dust.
After six months of investigation, in December 1986, they discovered with the help of a remote camera an intensely radioactive mass in the basement of Unit Four, more than two metres wide and weighing hundreds of tons, which they called "the elephant 's foot '' for its wrinkled appearance. The mass was composed of sand, glass and a large amount of nuclear fuel that had escaped from the reactor. The concrete beneath the reactor was steaming hot, and was breached by solidified lava and spectacular unknown crystalline forms termed chernobylite. It was concluded that there was no further risk of explosion.
Liquidators worked under deplorable conditions, poorly informed and with poor protection. Many, if not most of them, exceeded radiation safety limits. Some exceeded limits by over 100 times -- leading to rapid death.
The official contaminated zones became stage to a massive clean - up effort lasting seven months. The official reason for such early (and dangerous) decontamination efforts, rather than allowing time for natural decay, was that the land must be re-peopled and brought back into cultivation. Indeed, within fifteen months 75 % of the land was under cultivation, even though only a third of the evacuated villages were resettled. Defence forces must have done much of the work. Yet this land was of marginal agricultural value. According to historian David Marples, the administration had a psychological purpose for the clean - up: they wished to forestall panic regarding nuclear energy, and even to restart the Chernobyl power station.
There were two official explanations of the accident.
The first official explanation of the accident, later acknowledged to be erroneous, was published in August 1986. It effectively placed the blame on the power plant operators. To investigate the causes of the accident the IAEA created a group known as the International Nuclear Safety Advisory Group (INSAG), which in its report of 1986, INSAG - 1, on the whole also supported this view, based on the data provided by the Soviets and the oral statements of specialists. In this view, the catastrophic accident was caused by gross violations of operating rules and regulations. "During preparation and testing of the turbine generator under run - down conditions using the auxiliary load, personnel disconnected a series of technical protection systems and breached the most important operational safety provisions for conducting a technical exercise. ''
The operator error was probably due to their lack of knowledge of nuclear reactor physics and engineering, as well as lack of experience and training. According to these allegations, at the time of the accident the reactor was being operated with many key safety systems turned off, most notably the Emergency Core Cooling System (ECCS), LAR (Local Automatic control system), and AZ (emergency power reduction system). Personnel had an insufficiently detailed understanding of technical procedures involved with the nuclear reactor, and knowingly ignored regulations to speed test completion.
The developers of the reactor plant considered this combination of events to be impossible and therefore did not allow for the creation of emergency protection systems capable of preventing the combination of events that led to the crisis, namely the intentional disabling of emergency protection equipment plus the violation of operating procedures. Thus the primary cause of the accident was the extremely improbable combination of rule infringement plus the operational routine allowed by the power station staff.
In this analysis of the causes of the accident, deficiencies in the reactor design and in the operating regulations that made the accident possible were set aside and mentioned only casually. Serious critical observations covered only general questions and did not address the specific reasons for the accident.
The following general picture arose from these observations, and several procedural irregularities also helped to make the accident possible, one of which was insufficient communication between the safety officers and the operators in charge of the experiment being run that night.
The reactor operators disabled safety systems down to the generators, which the test was really about. The main process computer, SKALA, was running in such a way that the main control computer could not shut down the reactor or even reduce power. Normally the computer would have started to insert all of the control rods. The computer would have also started the "Emergency Core Protection System '' that introduces 24 control rods into the active zone within 2.5 seconds, which is still slow by 1986 standards. All control was transferred from the process computer to the human operators.
On the subject of the disconnection of safety systems, Valery Legasov said, in 1987, that "(i) t was like airplane pilots experimenting with the engines in flight ''.
This view is reflected in numerous publications and also artistic works on the theme of the Chernobyl accident that appeared immediately after the accident, and for a long time remained dominant in the public consciousness and in popular publications.
Ukraine has declassified a number of KGB documents from the period between 1971 and 1988 related to the Chernobyl plant, mentioning for example previous reports of structural damages caused by negligence during construction of the plant (such as splitting of concrete layers) that were never acted upon. They document over 29 emergency situations in the plant during this period, 8 of which were caused by negligence or poor competence on the part of personnel.
In 1991 a Commission of the USSR State Committee for the Supervision of Safety in Industry and Nuclear Power reassessed the causes and circumstances of the Chernobyl accident and came to new insights and conclusions. Based on it, in 1992 the IAEA Nuclear Safety Advisory Group (INSAG) published an additional report, INSAG - 7, which reviewed "that part of the INSAG - 1 report in which primary attention is given to the reasons for the accident, '' and was included the USSR State Commission report as Appendix I.
In this INSAG report, most of the earlier accusations against staff for breach of regulations were acknowledged to be either erroneous, based on incorrect information obtained in August 1986, or less relevant. This report reflected a different view of the main reasons for the accident, presented in Appendix I. According to this account, the operators ' actions in turning off the Emergency Core Cooling System, interfering with the settings on the protection equipment, and blocking the level and pressure in the separator drum did not contribute to the original cause of the accident and its magnitude, although they may have been a breach of regulations. In fact, turning off the emergency system designed to prevent the two turbine generators from stopping was not a violation of regulations.
Human factors, however, contributed to the conditions that led to the disaster. These included operating the reactor at a low power level -- less than 700 MW -- a level documented in the run - down test programme, and operating with a small operational reactivity margin (ORM). The 1986 assertions of Soviet experts notwithstanding, regulations did not prohibit operating the reactor at this low power level.
However, regulations did forbid operating the reactor with a small margin of reactivity. Yet "post-accident studies have shown that the way in which the real role of the ORM is reflected in the Operating Procedures and design documentation for the RBMK - 1000 is extremely contradictory '', and furthermore, "ORM was not treated as an operational safety limit, violation of which could lead to an accident ''.
According to the INSAG - 7 Report, the chief reasons for the accident lie in the peculiarities of physics and in the construction of the reactor. There are two such reasons:
While INSAG - 1 and INSAG - 7 reports both identified operator error as an issue of concern, the INSAG - 7 identified that there numerous other issues that were contributing factors that lead to the incident. These contributing factors include:
Both views were heavily lobbied by different groups, including the reactor 's designers, power plant personnel, and the Soviet and Ukrainian governments. According to the IAEA 's 1986 analysis, the main cause of the accident was the operators ' actions. But according to the IAEA 's 1993 revised analysis the main cause was the reactor 's design. One reason there were such contradictory viewpoints and so much debate about the causes of the Chernobyl accident was that the primary data covering the disaster, as registered by the instruments and sensors, were not completely published in the official sources.
Once again, the human factor had to be considered as a major element in causing the accident. INSAG notes that both the operating regulations and staff handled the disabling of the reactor protection easily enough: witness the length of time for which the ECCS was out of service while the reactor was operated at half power. INSAG 's view is that it was the operating crew 's deviation from the test programme that was mostly to blame. "Most reprehensibly, unapproved changes in the test procedure were deliberately made on the spot, although the plant was known to be in a very different condition from that intended for the test. ''
As in the previously released report INSAG - 1, close attention is paid in report INSAG - 7 to the inadequate (at the moment of the accident) "culture of safety '' at all levels. Deficiency in the safety culture was inherent not only at the operational stage but also, and to no lesser extent, during activities at other stages in the lifetime of nuclear power plants (including design, engineering, construction, manufacture, and regulation). The poor quality of operating procedures and instructions, and their conflicting character, put a heavy burden on the operating crew, including the chief engineer. "The accident can be said to have flowed from a deficient safety culture, not only at the Chernobyl plant, but throughout the Soviet design, operating and regulatory organizations for nuclear power that existed at that time. ''
Although no informing comparisons can be made between the accident and a strictly air burst - fuzed nuclear detonation, it has still been approximated that about four hundred times more radioactive material was released from Chernobyl than by the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. By contrast the Chernobyl accident released about one hundredth to one thousandth of the total amount of radioactivity released during the era of nuclear weapons testing at the height of the Cold War, 1950 -- 1960s, with the 1 / 100 to 1 / 1000 variance due to trying to make comparisons with different spectrums of isotopes released. Approximately 100,000 km2 of land was significantly contaminated with fallout, with the worst hit regions being in Belarus, Ukraine and Russia. Slighter levels of contamination were detected over all of Europe except for the Iberian Peninsula.
The initial evidence that a major release of radioactive material was affecting other countries came not from Soviet sources, but from Sweden. On the morning of 28 April workers at the Forsmark Nuclear Power Plant (approximately 1,100 km (680 mi) from the Chernobyl site) were found to have radioactive particles on their clothes.
It was Sweden 's search for the source of radioactivity, after they had determined there was no leak at the Swedish plant, that at noon on 28 April led to the first hint of a serious nuclear problem in the western Soviet Union. Hence the evacuation of Pripyat on 27 April 36 hours after the initial explosions, was silently completed before the disaster became known outside the Soviet Union. The rise in radiation levels had at that time already been measured in Finland, but a civil service strike delayed the response and publication.
Contamination from the Chernobyl accident was scattered irregularly depending on weather conditions, much of it deposited on mountainous regions such as the Alps, the Welsh mountains and the Scottish Highlands, where adiabatic cooling caused radioactive rainfall. The resulting patches of contamination were often highly localized, and water - flows across the ground contributed further to large variations in radioactivity over small areas. Sweden and Norway also received heavy fallout when the contaminated air collided with a cold front, bringing rain.
Rain was purposely seeded over 10,000 km of the Belorussian SSR by the Soviet air force to remove radioactive particles from clouds heading toward highly populated areas. Heavy, black - coloured rain fell on the city of Gomel. Reports from Soviet and Western scientists indicate that Belarus received about 60 % of the contamination that fell on the former Soviet Union. However, the 2006 TORCH report stated that half of the volatile particles had landed outside Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia. A large area in Russia south of Bryansk was also contaminated, as were parts of northwestern Ukraine. Studies in surrounding countries indicate that over one million people could have been affected by radiation.
Recently published data from a long - term monitoring program (The Korma Report II) shows a decrease in internal radiation exposure of the inhabitants of a region in Belarus close to Gomel. Resettlement may even be possible in prohibited areas provided that people comply with appropriate dietary rules.
In Western Europe, precautionary measures taken in response to the radiation included seemingly arbitrary regulations banning the importation of certain foods but not others. In France some officials stated that the Chernobyl accident had no adverse effects. Official figures in southern Bavaria in Germany indicated that some wild plant species contained substantial levels of caesium, which were believed to have been passed onto them during their consumption by wild boars, a significant number of which already contained radioactive particles above the allowed level.
Like many other releases of radioactivity into the environment, the Chernobyl release was controlled by the physical and chemical properties of the radioactive elements in the core. Particularly dangerous are the highly radioactive fission products, those with high nuclear decay rates that accumulate in the food chain, such as some of the isotopes of iodine, caesium and strontium. Iodine - 131 and caesium - 137 are responsible for most of the radiation exposure received by the general population.
Detailed reports on the release of radioisotopes from the site were published in 1989 and 1995, with the latter report updated in 2002.
At different times after the accident, different isotopes were responsible for the majority of the external dose. The remaining quantity of any radioisotope, and therefore the activity of that isotope, after 7 decay half - lives have passed, is less than 1 % of its initial magnitude, and it continues to reduce beyond 0.78 % after 7 half - lives to 0.098 % remaining after 10 half - lives have passed and so on. (Some radionuclides have decay products that are likewise radioactive, which is not accounted for here.) The release of radioisotopes from the nuclear fuel was largely controlled by their boiling points, and the majority of the radioactivity present in the core was retained in the reactor.
Two sizes of particles were released: small particles of 0.3 to 1.5 micrometres (aerodynamic diameter) and large particles of 10 micrometres. The large particles contained about 80 % to 90 % of the released nonvolatile radioisotopes zirconium - 95, niobium - 95, lanthanum - 140, cerium - 144 and the transuranic elements, including neptunium, plutonium and the minor actinides, embedded in a uranium oxide matrix.
The dose that was calculated is the relative external gamma dose rate for a person standing in the open. The exact dose to a person in the real world who would spend most of their time sleeping indoors in a shelter and then venturing out to consume an internal dose from the inhalation or ingestion of a radioisotope, requires a personnel specific radiation dose reconstruction analysis.
The Chernobyl nuclear power plant is located next to the Pripyat River, which feeds into the Dnieper reservoir system, one of the largest surface water systems in Europe, which at the time supplied water to Kiev 's 2.4 million residents, and was still in spring flood when the accident occurred. The radioactive contamination of aquatic systems therefore became a major problem in the immediate aftermath of the accident. In the most affected areas of Ukraine, levels of radioactivity (particularly from radionuclides I, Cs and Sr) in drinking water caused concern during the weeks and months after the accident, though officially it was stated that all contaminants had settled to the bottom "in an insoluble phase '' and would not dissolve for 800 -- 1000 years. Guidelines for levels of radioiodine in drinking water were temporarily raised to 3,700 Bq / L, allowing most water to be reported as safe, and a year after the accident it was announced that even the water of the Chernobyl plant 's cooling pond was within acceptable norms. Despite this, two months after the disaster the Kiev water supply was abruptly switched from the Dnieper to the Desna River. Meanwhile, massive silt traps were constructed, along with an enormous 30m - deep underground barrier to prevent groundwater from the destroyed reactor entering the Pripyat River.
Bio-accumulation of radioactivity in fish resulted in concentrations (both in western Europe and in the former Soviet Union) that in many cases were significantly above guideline maximum levels for consumption. Guideline maximum levels for radiocaesium in fish vary from country to country but are approximately 1000 Bq / kg in the European Union. In the Kiev Reservoir in Ukraine, concentrations in fish were several thousand Bq / kg during the years after the accident.
In small "closed '' lakes in Belarus and the Bryansk region of Russia, concentrations in a number of fish species varied from 100 to 60,000 Bq / kg during the period 1990 -- 92. The contamination of fish caused short - term concern in parts of the UK and Germany and in the long term (years rather than months) in the affected areas of Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia as well as in parts of Scandinavia.
Groundwater was not badly affected by the Chernobyl accident since radionuclides with short half - lives decayed away long before they could affect groundwater supplies, and longer - lived radionuclides such as radiocaesium and radiostrontium were adsorbed to surface soils before they could transfer to groundwater. However, significant transfers of radionuclides to groundwater have occurred from waste disposal sites in the 30 km (19 mi) exclusion zone around Chernobyl. Although there is a potential for transfer of radionuclides from these disposal sites off - site (i.e. out of the 30 km (19 mi) exclusion zone), the IAEA Chernobyl Report argues that this is not significant in comparison to current levels of washout of surface - deposited radioactivity.
After the disaster, four square kilometres of pine forest directly downwind of the reactor turned reddish - brown and died, earning the name of the "Red Forest ''. Some animals in the worst - hit areas also died or stopped reproducing. Most domestic animals were removed from the exclusion zone, but horses left on an island in the Pripyat River 6 km (4 mi) from the power plant died when their thyroid glands were destroyed by radiation doses of 150 -- 200 Sv. Some cattle on the same island died and those that survived were stunted because of thyroid damage. The next generation appeared to be normal.
A robot sent into the reactor itself has returned with samples of black, melanin - rich radiotrophic fungi that are growing on the reactor 's walls.
Of the 440,350 wild boar killed in the 2010 hunting season in Germany, over 1000 were found to be contaminated with levels of radiation above the permitted limit of 600 becquerels per kilogram, due to residual radioactivity from Chernobyl.
The Norwegian Agricultural Authority reported that in 2009 a total of 18,000 livestock in Norway needed to be given uncontaminated feed for a period of time before slaughter in order to ensure that their meat was safe for human consumption. This was due to residual radioactivity from Chernobyl in the plants they graze on in the wild during the summer. 1,914 sheep needed to be given uncontaminated feed for a period of time before slaughter during 2012, and these sheep were located in just 18 of Norway 's municipalities, a decrease of 17 from the 35 municipalities affected animals were located in during 2011 (117 municipalities were affected during 1986).
The after - effects of Chernobyl were expected to be seen for a further 100 years, although the severity of the effects would decline over that period. Scientists report this is due to radioactive caesium - 137 isotopes being taken up by fungi such as Cortinarius caperatus which is in turn eaten by sheep whilst grazing.
The United Kingdom was forced to restrict the movement of sheep from upland areas when radioactive caesium - 137 fell across parts of Northern Ireland, Wales, Scotland and northern England. In the immediate aftermath of the disaster in 1986, a total of 4,225,000 sheep had their movement restricted across a total of 9,700 farms, in order to prevent contaminated meat entering the human food chain. The number of sheep and the number of farms affected has decreased since 1986, Northern Ireland was released from all restrictions in 2000 and by 2009 369 farms containing around 190,000 sheep remained under the restrictions in Wales, Cumbria and northern Scotland. The restrictions applying in Scotland were lifted in 2010, whilst those applying to Wales and Cumbria were lifted during 2012, meaning no farms in the UK remain restricted because of Chernobyl fallout.
The legislation used to control sheep movement and compensate farmers (farmers were latterly compensated per animal to cover additional costs in holding animals prior to radiation monitoring) was revoked during October and November 2012 by the relevant authorities in the UK.
In the aftermath of the accident, 237 people suffered from acute radiation sickness (ARS), of whom 31 died within the first three months.
In 2005 the Chernobyl Forum, composed of the IAEA, other UN organizations and the governments of Belarus, Russia and Ukraine, published a report on the radiological environmental and health consequences of the Chernobyl accident.
On the death toll of the accident, the report states that 28 emergency workers ("liquidators '') died from acute radiation syndrome, including beta burns, and 15 patients died from thyroid cancer in the following years, and it roughly estimated that cancer deaths caused by Chernobyl may reach a total of about 4,000 among the 5 million persons residing in the contaminated areas. The report projected cancer mortality "increases of less than one per cent '' (~ 0.3 %) on a time span of 80 years, cautioning that this estimate was "speculative '' since at this time only a few cancer deaths are linked to the Chernobyl disaster. The report says it is impossible to reliably predict the number of fatal cancers arising from the incident as small differences in assumptions can result in large differences in the estimated health costs. The report says it represents the consensus view of the eight UN organizations.
Of all 66,000 Belarusian emergency workers, by the mid-1990s only 150 (roughly 0.2 %) were reported by their government as having died. In contrast, 5,722 casualties were reported among Ukrainian clean - up workers up to the year 1995, by the National Committee for Radiation Protection of the Ukrainian Population.
The four most harmful radionuclides spread from Chernobyl were iodine - 131, caesium - 134, caesium - 137 and strontium - 90, with half - lives of 8.02 days, 2.07 years, 30.2 years and 28.8 years respectively. The iodine was initially viewed with less alarm than the other isotopes, because of its short half - life, but it is highly volatile, and now appears to have travelled furthest and caused the most severe health problems in the short term. Strontium, on the other hand, is the least volatile of the four, and of main concern in the areas near Chernobyl itself. Iodine tends to become concentrated in thyroid and milk glands, leading, among other things, to increased incidence of thyroid cancers. Caesium tends to accumulate in vital organs such as the heart, while strontium accumulates in bones, and may thus be a risk to bone - marrow and lymphocytes. Radiation is most damaging to cells that are actively dividing. In adult mammals cell division is slow, except in hair follicles, skin, bone marrow and the gastrointestinal tract, which is why vomiting and hair loss are common symptoms of acute radiation sickness.
By the year 2000, the number of Ukrainians claiming to be radiation ' sufferers ' (poterpili) and receiving state benefits had jumped to 3.5 million, or 5 % of the population. Many of these are populations resettled from contaminated zones, or former or current Chernobyl plant workers. According to IAEA - affiliated scientific bodies, these apparent increases of ill health result partly from economic strains on these countries and poor health - care and nutrition; also, they suggest that increased medical vigilance following the accident has meant that many cases that would previously have gone unnoticed (especially of cancer) are now being registered.
The World Health Organization states, "children conceived before or after their father 's exposure showed no statistically significant differences in mutation frequencies ''. This statistically insignificant increase was also seen by independent researchers analyzing the children of the Chernobyl liquidators.
On farms in Narodychi Raion of Ukraine it is claimed that in the first four years of the disaster nearly 350 animals were born with gross deformities such as missing or extra limbs, missing eyes, heads or ribs, or deformed skulls; in comparison, only three abnormal births had been registered in the five years prior. The two primary individuals involved with the attempt to suggest that the mutation rate amongst animals was, and continues to be, higher in the Chernobyl zone, are the Anders Moller and Timothy Mousseau group. Apart from continuing to publish experimentally unrepeatable and discredited papers, Mousseau routinely gives talks at the Helen Caldicott organized "Physicians for Social Responsibility '' (PSR) symposiums, an ultra anti-nuclear group, devoted to bring about a "nuclear free planet ''. Moreover, in years past Moller was previously caught and reprimanded for publishing papers that crossed the scientific "misconduct '' / "fraud '' line. The duo have more recently attempted to publish meta - analyses in which the primary references they weigh - up, analyze and draw their conclusions from is their own prior papers along with the discredited book Chernobyl: Consequences of the Catastrophe for People and the Environment.
In 1996, geneticist colleagues Ronald Chesser and Robert Baker published a paper on the thriving vole population within the exclusion zone, in which the central conclusion of their work was essentially that "The mutation rate in these animals is hundreds and probably thousands of times greater than normal '', this claim occurred after they had done a comparison of the mitochondrial DNA of the "Chernobyl voles '' with that of a control group of voles from outside the region. These alarming conclusions led the paper to appear on the front cover of the prestigious journal Nature, however not long after publication Chesser & Baker discovered a fundamental error in their research in which they had incorrectly classified the species of vole, and therefore were comparing the genetics of two entirely different vole species to start with.
Following the accident, journalists mistrusted many medical professionals (such as the spokesman from the UK National Radiological Protection Board), and in turn encouraged the public to mistrust them. Throughout the European continent, due to this media - driven framing of the slight contamination and in nations where abortion is legal, many requests for induced abortions, of otherwise normal pregnancies, were obtained out of fears of radiation from Chernobyl, including an excess number of abortions in Denmark in the months following the accident. In Greece, following the accident many obstetricians were unable to resist requests from worried pregnant mothers over fears of radiation. Although it was determined that the effective dose to Greeks would not exceed 1 mSv (100 mrem), a dose much lower than that which could induce embryonic abnormalities or other non-stochastic effects, there was an observed 2500 excess of otherwise wanted pregnancies being terminated, probably out of fear in the mother of radiation risk. A "slightly '' above the expected number of requested induced abortions occurred in Italy.
Worldwide, an estimated excess of about 150,000 elective abortions may have been performed on otherwise healthy pregnancies out of unfounded fears of radiation from Chernobyl, according to Dr Robert Baker and ultimately a 1987 article published by Linda E. Ketchum in the Journal of Nuclear Medicine which mentions but does not reference an IAEA source on the matter.
The available statistical data excludes the Soviet / Ukraine / Belarus abortion rates, as they are presently unavailable. From the available data, an increase in the number of abortions in what were healthy developing human offspring in Denmark occurred in the months following the accident, at a rate of about 400 cases. In Greece, there was an observed 2500 excess of otherwise wanted pregnancies being terminated. In Italy, a "slightly '' above the expected number of induced abortions occurred, approximately 100.
As the increase in radiation in Denmark was so low... the public debate and anxiety among the pregnant women and their husbands "caused '' more fetal deaths in Denmark than the accident. This underlines the importance of public debate, the role of the mass media and of the way in which National Health authorities participate in this debate.
No evidence of changes in the prevalence of human deformities / birth congenital anomalies which might be associated with the accident, are apparent in Belarus or the Ukraine, the two republics which had the highest exposure to fallout. In Sweden, and Finland where no increase in abortion rates occurred, it was likewise determined that "no association between the temporal and spatial variations in radioactivity and variable incidence of congenital malformations (was found). '' A similar null increase in the abortion rate and a healthy baseline situation of no increase in birth defects was determined by assessing the Hungarian Congenital Abnormality Registry, Findings also mirrored in Austria. Larger, "mainly western European '' data sets approaching a million births in the EUROCAT database, divided into "exposed '' and control groups were assessed in 1999. As no Chernobyl impacts were detected, the researchers conclude "in retrospect the widespread fear in the population about the possible effects of exposure on the unborn fetus was not justified ''. Despite studies from Germany and Turkey, the only robust evidence of negative pregnancy outcomes that transpired after the accident were these elective abortion indirect effects, in Greece, Denmark, Italy etc., due to the anxieties created.
In very high doses, it was known at the time that radiation can cause a physiological increase in the rate of pregnancy anomalies, but unlike the dominant linear - no threshold model of radiation and cancer rate increases, it was known, by researchers familiar with both the prior human exposure data and animal testing, that the "Malformation of organs appears to be a deterministic effect with a threshold dose '' below which, no rate increase is observed. This teratology (birth defects) issue was discussed by Frank Castronovo of the Harvard Medical School in 1999, publishing a detailed review of dose reconstructions and the available pregnancy data following the Chernobyl accident, inclusive of data from Kiev 's two largest obstetrics hospitals. Castronovo concludes that "the lay press with newspaper reporters playing up anecdotal stories of children with birth defects '' is, together with dubious studies that show selection bias, the two primary factors causing the persistent belief that Chernobyl increased the background rate of birth defects. When the vast amount of pregnancy data does not support this perception as no women took part in the most radioactive liquidator operations, no pregnant individuals were exposed to the threshold dose.
The Chernobyl liquidators, essentially an all male civil defense emergency workforce, would go on to father normal children, without an increase in developmental anomalies or a statistically significant increase in the frequencies of germline mutations in their progeny. This normality is similarly seen in the children of the survivors of the Goiana accident.
Due in largest part from the ingestion of contaminated dairy products along with the inhalation of the short - lived and therefore highly radioactive isotope, Iodine - 131, the 2005 UN collaborative Chernobyl Forum revealed thyroid cancer among children to be one of the main health impacts from the Chernobyl accident. In that publication more than 4000 cases were reported, and that there was no evidence of an increase in solid cancers or leukemia. It said that there was an increase in psychological problems among the affected population. Dr Michael Repacholi, manager of WHO 's Radiation Program reported that the 4000 cases of thyroid cancer resulted in nine deaths.
According to UNSCEAR, up to the year 2005, an excess of over 6000 cases of thyroid cancer have been reported. That is, over the estimated pre-accident baseline thyroid cancer rate, more than 6000 casual cases of thyroid cancer have been reported in children and adolescents exposed at the time of the accident, a number that is expected to increase. They concluded that there is no other evidence of major health impacts from the radiation exposure.
Well - differentiated thyroid cancers are generally treatable, and when treated the five - year survival rate of thyroid cancer is 96 %, and 92 % after 30 years. UNSCEAR had reported 15 deaths from thyroid cancer in 2011. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) also states that there has been no increase in the rate of birth defects or abnormalities, or solid cancers (such as lung cancer) corroborating UNSCEAR 's assessments. UNSCEAR does raise the possibility of long term genetic defects, pointing to a doubling of radiation - induced minisatellite mutations among children born in 1994. However, the risk of thyroid cancer associated with the Chernobyl accident is still high according to published studies.
The German affiliate of the ultra-anti - nuclear energy organization, the International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War (IPPNW) attempt to suggest that 10,000 people are affected by thyroid cancer as of 2006 and that 50,000 cases are expected in the future.
Fred Mettler, a radiation expert at the University of New Mexico, puts the number of worldwide cancer deaths outside the highly contaminated zone at "perhaps '' 5000, for a total of 9000 Chernobyl - associated fatal cancers, saying "the number is small (representing a few percent) relative to the normal spontaneous risk of cancer, but the numbers are large in absolute terms ''. The same report outlined studies based in data found in the Russian Registry from 1991 to 1998 that suggested that "of 61,000 Russian workers exposed to an average dose of 107 mSv about 5 % of all fatalities that occurred may have been due to radiation exposure. ''
The report went into depth about the risks to mental health of exaggerated fears about the effects of radiation. According to the IAEA the "designation of the affected population as "victims '' rather than "survivors '' has led them to perceive themselves as helpless, weak and lacking control over their future ". The IAEA says that this may have led to behaviour that has caused further health effects.
Fred Mettler commented that 20 years later: "The population remains largely unsure of what the effects of radiation actually are and retain a sense of foreboding. A number of adolescents and young adults who have been exposed to modest or small amounts of radiation feel that they are somehow fatally flawed and there is no downside to using illicit drugs or having unprotected sex. To reverse such attitudes and behaviours will likely take years although some youth groups have begun programs that have promise. '' In addition, disadvantaged children around Chernobyl suffer from health problems that are attributable not only to the Chernobyl accident, but also to the poor state of post-Soviet health systems.
The United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR), part of the Chernobyl Forum, have produced their own assessments of the radiation effects. UNSCEAR was set up as a collaboration between various United Nation bodies, including the World Health Organization, after the atomic bomb attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, to assess the long - term effects of radiation on human health.
The number of potential deaths arising from the Chernobyl disaster is heavily debated. The WHO 's prediction of 4000 future cancer deaths in surrounding countries is based on the Linear no - threshold model (LNT), which assumes that the damage inflicted by radiation at low doses is directly proportional to the dose. Radiation epidemiologist Roy Shore contends that estimating health effects in a population from the LNT model "is not wise because of the uncertainties ''.
According to the Union of Concerned Scientists the number of excess cancer deaths worldwide (including all contaminated areas) is approximately 27,000 based on the same LNT.
Another study critical of the Chernobyl Forum report was commissioned by Greenpeace, which asserted that the most recently published figures indicate that in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine the accident could have resulted in 10,000 -- 200,000 additional deaths in the period between 1990 and 2004. The Scientific Secretary of the Chernobyl Forum criticized the report 's reliance on non-peer - reviewed locally produced studies. Although most of the study 's sources were from peer - reviewed journals, including many Western medical journals, the higher mortality estimates were from non-peer - reviewed sources, while Gregory Härtl (spokesman for the WHO) suggested that the conclusions were motivated by ideology.
Chernobyl: Consequences of the Catastrophe for People and the Environment is a 2007 Russian publication that concludes that there were 985,000 premature deaths as a result of the radioactivity released. The results were criticized by M.I. Balonov of the Institute of Radiation Hygiene in St. Petersburg, who described them as biased, drawing from sources which were difficult to independently verify and lacking a proper scientific base. Balanov expressed his opinion that "the authors unfortunately did not appropriately analyze the content of the Russian - language publications, for example, to separate them into those that contain scientific evidence and those based on hasty impressions and ignorant conclusions ''.
According to Kenneth Mossman, a Professor of Health Physics and member of the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission advisory committee, the "LNT philosophy is overly conservative, and low - level radiation may be less dangerous than commonly believed ''. Yoshihisa Matsumoto, a radiation biologist at the Tokyo Institute of Technology, cites laboratory experiments on animals to suggest there must be a threshold dose below which DNA repair mechanisms can completely repair any radiation damage. Mossman suggests that the proponents of the current model believe that being conservative is justified due to the uncertainties surrounding low level doses and it is better to have a "prudent public health policy ''.
Another significant issue is establishing consistent data on which to base the analysis of the impact of the Chernobyl accident. Since 1991 large social and political changes have occurred within the affected regions and these changes have had significant impact on the administration of health care, on socio - economic stability, and the manner in which statistical data is collected. Ronald Chesser, a radiation biologist at Texas Tech University, says that "the subsequent Soviet collapse, scarce funding, imprecise dosimetry, and difficulties tracking people over the years have limited the number of studies and their reliability ''.
It is difficult to establish the total economic cost of the disaster. According to Mikhail Gorbachev, the Soviet Union spent 18 billion rubles (the equivalent of US $18 billion at that time) on containment and decontamination, virtually bankrupting itself. In Belarus the total cost over 30 years is estimated at US $235 billion (in 2005 dollars). Ongoing costs are well known; in their 2003 -- 2005 report, The Chernobyl Forum stated that between 5 % and 7 % of government spending in Ukraine is still related to Chernobyl, while in Belarus over $13 billion is thought to have been spent between 1991 and 2003, with 22 % of national budget having been Chernobyl - related in 1991, falling to 6 % by 2002. Much of the current cost relates to the payment of Chernobyl - related social benefits to some 7 million people across the 3 countries.
A significant economic impact at the time was the removal of 784,320 ha (1,938,100 acres) of agricultural land and 694,200 ha (1,715,000 acres) of forest from production. While much of this has been returned to use, agricultural production costs have risen due to the need for special cultivation techniques, fertilizers and additives.
Politically, the accident gave great significance to the new Soviet policy of glasnost, and helped forge closer Soviet -- US relations at the end of the Cold War, through bioscientific cooperation. The disaster also became a key factor in the Union 's eventual 1991 dissolution, and a major influence in shaping the new Eastern Europe.
Both Ukraine and Belarus, in their first months of independence, lowered legal radiation thresholds from the Soviet Union 's previous, elevated thresholds (from 35 rems per lifetime under the USSR to 7 rems per lifetime in Ukraine and 0.1 rems per year in Belarus). This required an expansion of territories that were considered contaminated. In Ukraine, over 500,000 people have now been resettled, many of whom have become applicants for medical and other welfare. Ukraine also maintains the destroyed reactor, for which it employs a very large workforce in order to keep individual exposure times low. Many of these workers have since registered disabilities and enrolled for welfare. In Ukraine, the Chernobyl disaster was an icon of the nationalist movement, symbolic of all that was wrong with the Soviet Union, and welfare became a key platform for winning independence. Ukraine has since developed a massive and burdensome welfare system that has become increasingly corrupt and ineffective. It has presented its greatly increased welfare demands since 1991 as a demonstration of its own moral legitimacy, and as an argument for needing foreign aid. Belarus, on the other hand, was politically weak when it gained independence, and looked to Moscow for guidance; in many ways it has returned to the old Soviet policy of secrecy and denial.
Following the accident, questions arose about the future of the plant and its eventual fate. All work on the unfinished reactors 5 and 6 was halted three years later. However, the trouble at the Chernobyl plant did not end with the disaster in reactor 4. The damaged reactor was sealed off and 200 cubic meters (260 cu yd) of concrete was placed between the disaster site and the operational buildings. The work was managed by Grigoriy Mihaylovich Naginskiy, the deputy chief engineer of Installation and Construction Directorate -- 90. The Ukrainian government continued to let the three remaining reactors operate because of an energy shortage in the country.
In October 1991, a fire broke out in the turbine building of reactor 2; the authorities subsequently declared the reactor damaged beyond repair, and it was taken offline. Reactor 1 was decommissioned in November 1996 as part of a deal between the Ukrainian government and international organizations such as the IAEA to end operations at the plant. On 15 December 2000, then - President Leonid Kuchma personally turned off Reactor 3 in an official ceremony, shutting down the entire site.
The Chernobyl reactor is now enclosed in a large concrete sarcophagus, which was built quickly to allow continuing operation of the other reactors at the plant.
A New Safe Confinement was to have been built by the end of 2005; however, it has suffered ongoing delays and as of 2010, when construction finally began, was expected to be completed in 2013. This was delayed again to 2016, the end of the 30 - year lifespan of the sarcophagus. The structure was built adjacent to the existing shelter and in November 2016 was slid into place on rails. It is a metal arch 105 metres (344 ft) high and spanning 257 metres (843 ft), to cover both unit 4 and the hastily built 1986 structure. The Chernobyl Shelter Fund, set up in 1997, has received € 810 million from international donors and projects to cover this project and previous work. It and the Nuclear Safety Account, also applied to Chernobyl decommissioning, are managed by the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD).
As of 29 November 2016, Reactor No. 4 has been covered by the New Safe Confinement that covers the reactor and the unstable "sarcophagus ''. The huge steel arch was moved into place over several weeks, and the completion of this procedure was celebrated with a ceremony at the site, attended by the Ukrainian president, Petro Poroshenko, diplomats and site workers. Unlike the original sarcophagus, the New Safe Confinement is designed to allow the reactor to be safely dismantled using remotely operated equipment.
By 2002, roughly 15,000 Ukrainian workers were still working within the Zone of Exclusion, maintaining the plant and performing other containment - and research - related tasks, often in dangerous conditions. A handful of Ukrainian scientists work inside the sarcophagus, but outsiders are rarely granted access. In 2006 an Australian 60 Minutes team led by reporter Richard Carleton and producer Stephen Rice were allowed to enter the sarcophagus for 15 minutes and film inside the control room.
On 12 February 2013, a 600 m (6,500 sq ft) section of the roof of the turbine - building, adjacent to the sarcophagus, collapsed. At first it was assumed that the roof collapsed because of the weight of snow on it. However the amount of snow was not exceptional, and the report of a Ukrainian fact - finding panel concluded that the part collapse of the turbine - building was the result of sloppy repair work and aging of the structure. The report mentioned the possibility that the repaired part of the turbine - building added a larger strain on the total structure than expected, and the braces in the roof were damaged by corrosion and sloppy welding. Experts such as Valentin Kupny, former deputy director of the nuclear plant, did warn that the complex was on the verge of a collapse, leaving the building in an extremely dangerous condition. A proposed reinforcement in 2005 was cancelled by a superior official. After the 12 February incident, radioactivity levels were up to 19 becquerels per cubic meter of air: 12 times normal. The report assumed radioactive materials from inside the structure spread to the surroundings after the roof collapsed. All 225 workers employed by the Chernobyl complex and the French company that is building the new shelter were evacuated shortly after the collapse. According to the managers of the complex, radiation levels around the plant were at normal levels (between 5 and 6 μSv / h) and should not affect workers ' health. According to Kupny the situation was underestimated by the Chernobyl nuclear complex managers, and information was kept secret.
As of 2006, some fuel remained in the reactors at units 1 through 3, most of it in each unit 's spent fuel pool, as well as some material in a small spent fuel interim storage facility pond (ISF - 1).
In 1999 a contract was signed for construction of a radioactive waste management facility to store 25,000 used fuel assemblies from units 1 -- 3 and other operational wastes, as well as material from decommissioning units 1 -- 3 (which will be the first RBMK units decommissioned anywhere). The contract included a processing facility able to cut the RBMK fuel assemblies and to put the material in canisters, which were to be filled with inert gas and welded shut.
The canisters were to be transported to dry storage vaults, where the fuel containers would be enclosed for up to 100 years. This facility, treating 2500 fuel assemblies per year, would be the first of its kind for RBMK fuel. However, after a significant part of the storage structures had been built, technical deficiencies in the concept emerged, and the contract was terminated in 2007. The interim spent fuel storage facility (ISF - 2) will now be completed by others by mid-2013.
Another contract has been let for a liquid radioactive waste treatment plant, to handle some 35,000 cubic meters of low - and intermediate - level liquid wastes at the site. This will need to be solidified and eventually buried along with solid wastes on site.
In January 2008, the Ukrainian government announced a 4 - stage decommissioning plan that incorporates the above waste activities and progresses towards a cleared site.
According to official estimates, about 95 % of the fuel in Reactor 4 at the time of the accident (about 180 metric tons) remains inside the shelter, with a total radioactivity of nearly 18 million curies (670 PBq). The radioactive material consists of core fragments, dust, and lava - like "fuel containing materials '' (FCM) -- also called "corium '' -- that flowed through the wrecked reactor building before hardening into a ceramic form.
Three different lavas are present in the basement of the reactor building: black, brown, and a porous ceramic. The lava materials are silicate glasses with inclusions of other materials within them. The porous lava is brown lava that dropped into water and thus cooled rapidly.
It is unclear how long the ceramic form will retard the release of radioactivity. From 1997 to 2002 a series of published papers suggested that the self - irradiation of the lava would convert all 1,200 metric tons into a submicrometre and mobile powder within a few weeks. But it has been reported that the degradation of the lava is likely to be a slow and gradual process rather than sudden and rapid. The same paper states that the loss of uranium from the wrecked reactor is only 10 kg (22 lb) per year; this low rate of uranium leaching suggests that the lava is resisting its environment. The paper also states that when the shelter is improved, the leaching rate of the lava will decrease.
Some of the surfaces of the lava flows have started to show new uranium minerals such as čejkaite (Na 4 (UO 2) (CO 3) 3) and uranyl carbonate. However, the level of radioactivity is such that during 100 years, the lava 's self irradiation (7016200000000000000 ♠ 2 × 10 α decays per gram and 2 to 7005500000000000000 ♠ 5 × 10 Gy of β or γ) will fall short of the level required to greatly change the properties of glass (10 α decays per gram and 10 to 10 Gy of β or γ). Also the lava 's rate of dissolution in water is very low (10 g cm day), suggesting that the lava is unlikely to dissolve in water.
An area originally extending 30 kilometres (19 mi) in all directions from the plant is officially called the "zone of alienation ''. It is largely uninhabited, except for about 300 residents who have refused to leave. The area has largely reverted to forest, and has been overrun by wildlife because of a lack of competition with humans for space and resources. Even today, radiation levels are so high that the workers responsible for rebuilding the sarcophagus are only allowed to work five hours a day for one month before taking 15 days of rest. Ukrainian officials estimated the area would not be safe for human life again for another 20,000 years (although by 2016, 187 local Ukrainians had returned and were living permanently in the zone).
In 2011 Ukraine opened up the sealed zone around the Chernobyl reactor to tourists who wish to learn more about the tragedy that occurred in 1986.
If the forests that have been contaminated by radioactive material catch on fire, they will spread the radioactive material further outwards in the smoke.
The Chernobyl Shelter Fund was established in 1997 at the Denver 23rd G8 summit to finance the Shelter Implementation Plan (SIP). The plan calls for transforming the site into an ecologically safe condition by means of stabilization of the sarcophagus followed by construction of a New Safe Confinement (NSC). While the original cost estimate for the SIP was US $768 million, the 2006 estimate was $1.2 billion. The SIP is being managed by a consortium of Bechtel, Battelle, and Électricité de France, and conceptual design for the NSC consists of a movable arch, constructed away from the shelter to avoid high radiation, to be slid over the sarcophagus. The NSC was moved into position in November 2016 and is expected to be completed in late 2017, and is the largest movable structure ever built.
Dimensions:
The United Nations Development Programme has launched in 2003 a specific project called the Chernobyl Recovery and Development Programme (CRDP) for the recovery of the affected areas. The programme was initiated in February 2002 based on the recommendations in the report on Human Consequences of the Chernobyl Nuclear Accident. The main goal of the CRDP 's activities is supporting the Government of Ukraine in mitigating long - term social, economic, and ecological consequences of the Chernobyl catastrophe. CRDP works in the four most Chernobyl - affected areas in Ukraine: Kyivska, Zhytomyrska, Chernihivska and Rivnenska.
The International Project on the Health Effects of the Chernobyl Accident (IPEHCA) was created and received US $ 20 million, mainly from Japan, in hopes of discovering the main cause of health problems due to I radiation. These funds were divided among Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia, the three main affected countries, for further investigation of health effects. As there was significant corruption in former Soviet countries, most of the foreign aid was given to Russia, and no positive outcome from this money has been demonstrated.
Chernobyl Children International (CCI) is a United Nations - accredited, non-profit, international development, medical, and humanitarian organization that works with children, families and communities that continue to be affected by the economic outcome of the Chernobyl accident. The organization 's founder and chief executive is Adi Roche. The CCI was founded in 1991 in response to an appeal from Ukrainian and Belarusian doctors for aid. Roche then began organizing ' rest and recuperation ' holidays for a few Chernobyl children. Recruiting Irish families who would welcome and care for them, CCI expanded into the United States in 2001.
It works closely with the Belarusian government, the United Nations, and many thousands of volunteers worldwide to deliver a broad range of economic supports to the children and the wider community. It also acts as an advocate for the rights of those affected by the Chernobyl explosion, and engages in research and outreach activities to encourage the rest of the world to remember the victims and understand the long - term impact on their lives.
The Front Veranda (1986), a lithograph by Susan Dorothea White in the National Gallery of Australia, exemplifies worldwide awareness of the event. Heavy Water: A Film for Chernobyl was released by Seventh Art in 2006 to commemorate the disaster through poetry and first - hand accounts. The film secured the Best Short Documentary at Cinequest Film Festival as well as the Rhode Island "best score '' award along with a screening at Tate Modern.
Chernobyl Way is an annual rally run on 26 April by the opposition in Belarus as a remembrance of the Chernobyl disaster.
The Chernobyl accident attracted a great deal of interest. Because of the distrust that many people (both within and outside the USSR) had in the Soviet authorities, a great deal of debate about the situation at the site occurred in the First World during the early days of the event. Because of defective intelligence based on photographs taken from space, it was thought that unit number three had also suffered a dire accident.
Journalists mistrusted many professionals (such as the spokesman from the UK NRPB), and they in turn encouraged the public to mistrust them.
In Italy, the Chernobyl accident was reflected in the outcome of the 1987 referendum. As a result of that referendum, Italy began phasing out its nuclear power plants in 1988, a decision that was effectively reversed in 2008. A referendum in 2011 reiterated Italians ' strong objections to nuclear power, thus abrogating the government 's decision of 2008.
In Germany, the Chernobyl accident led to the creation of a federal environment ministry, after several states had already created such a post. The minister was given the authority over reactor safety as well, which the current minister still holds as of 2015. The events are also credited with strengthening the anti-nuclear power movement, which culminated in the decision to end the use of nuclear power that was made by the 1998 -- 2005 Schröder government.
Explanatory notes
Citations
Sources
The source documents relating to the emergency, published in unofficial sources:
Coordinates: 51 ° 23 ′ 23 '' N 30 ° 05 ′ 57 '' E / 51.38972 ° N 30.09917 ° E / 51.38972; 30.09917 (Chernobyl disaster)
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when is the ausculatory gap heard in some patients | Auscultatory gap - Wikipedia
An auscultatory gap is a period of diminished or absent Korotkoff sounds during the manual measurement of blood pressure. The improper interpretation of this gap may lead to blood pressure monitoring errors: namely, an underestimation of systolic blood pressure and / or an overestimation of diastolic blood pressure. In order to correct for an auscultatory gap the radial pulse should be monitored by palpation. It is therefore recommended to palpate and auscultate when manually recording a patient 's blood pressure. Typically the blood pressure obtained via palpation is around 10 mmHg lower than the pressure obtained via auscultation. In general, the examiner can avoid being confused by an auscultatory gap by always inflating a blood pressure cuff to 20 - 40 mmHg higher than the pressure required to occlude the brachial pulse.
There is evidence that auscultatory gaps are related to carotid atherosclerosis and to increased arterial stiffness in hypertensive patients, independent of age. Another cause is believed to be venous congestion within the limb that is being used for the measurement. Although these observations need to be confirmed prospectively, they suggest that auscultatory gaps may have prognostic relevance.
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