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the process that results in changes in a population as the environment changes is called | Evolution - wikipedia
Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. Evolutionary processes give rise to biodiversity at every level of biological organisation, including the levels of species, individual organisms, and molecules.
Repeated formation of new species (speciation), change within species (anagenesis), and loss of species (extinction) throughout the evolutionary history of life on Earth are demonstrated by shared sets of morphological and biochemical traits, including shared DNA sequences. These shared traits are more similar among species that share a more recent common ancestor, and can be used to reconstruct a biological "tree of life '' based on evolutionary relationships (phylogenetics), using both existing species and fossils. The fossil record includes a progression from early biogenic graphite, to microbial mat fossils, to fossilised multicellular organisms. Existing patterns of biodiversity have been shaped both by speciation and by extinction.
In the mid-19th century, Charles Darwin formulated the scientific theory of evolution by natural selection, published in his book On the Origin of Species (1859). Evolution by natural selection is a process demonstrated by the observation that more offspring are produced than can possibly survive, along with three facts about populations: 1) traits vary among individuals with respect to morphology, physiology, and behaviour (phenotypic variation), 2) different traits confer different rates of survival and reproduction (differential fitness), and 3) traits can be passed from generation to generation (heritability of fitness). Thus, in successive generations members of a population are replaced by progeny of parents better adapted to survive and reproduce in the biophysical environment in which natural selection takes place.
This teleonomy is the quality whereby the process of natural selection creates and preserves traits that are seemingly fitted for the functional roles they perform. The processes by which the changes occur, from one generation to another, are called evolutionary processes or mechanisms. The four most widely recognised evolutionary processes are natural selection (including sexual selection), genetic drift, mutation and gene migration due to genetic admixture. Natural selection and genetic drift sort variation; mutation and gene migration create variation.
Consequences of selection can include meiotic drive (unequal transmission of certain alleles), nonrandom mating and genetic hitchhiking. In the early 20th century the modern evolutionary synthesis integrated classical genetics with Darwin 's theory of evolution by natural selection through the discipline of population genetics. The importance of natural selection as a cause of evolution was accepted into other branches of biology. Moreover, previously held notions about evolution, such as orthogenesis, evolutionism, and other beliefs about innate "progress '' within the largest - scale trends in evolution, became obsolete. Scientists continue to study various aspects of evolutionary biology by forming and testing hypotheses, constructing mathematical models of theoretical biology and biological theories, using observational data, and performing experiments in both the field and the laboratory.
All life on Earth shares a common ancestor known as the last universal common ancestor (LUCA), which lived approximately 3.5 -- 3.8 billion years ago. A December 2017 report stated that 3.45 billion year old Australian rocks once contained microorganisms, the earliest direct evidence of life on Earth. Nonetheless, this should not be assumed to be the first living organism on Earth; a study in 2015 found "remains of biotic life '' from 4.1 billion years ago in ancient rocks in Western Australia. In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the LUCA of all organisms living on Earth. More than 99 percent of all species that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct. Estimates of Earth 's current species range from 10 to 14 million, of which about 1.9 million are estimated to have been named and 1.6 million documented in a central database to date. More recently, in May 2016, scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one - thousandth of one percent described.
In terms of practical application, an understanding of evolution has been instrumental to developments in numerous scientific and industrial fields, including agriculture, human and veterinary medicine, and the life sciences in general. Discoveries in evolutionary biology have made a significant impact not just in the traditional branches of biology but also in other academic disciplines, including biological anthropology, and evolutionary psychology. Evolutionary computation, a sub-field of artificial intelligence, involves the application of Darwinian principles to problems in computer science.
The proposal that one type of organism could descend from another type goes back to some of the first pre-Socratic Greek philosophers, such as Anaximander and Empedocles. Such proposals survived into Roman times. The poet and philosopher Lucretius followed Empedocles in his masterwork De rerum natura (On the Nature of Things).
In contrast to these materialistic views, Aristotelianism considered all natural things as actualisations of fixed natural possibilities, known as forms. This was part of a medieval teleological understanding of nature in which all things have an intended role to play in a divine cosmic order. Variations of this idea became the standard understanding of the Middle Ages and were integrated into Christian learning, but Aristotle did not demand that real types of organisms always correspond one - for - one with exact metaphysical forms and specifically gave examples of how new types of living things could come to be.
In the 17th century, the new method of modern science rejected the Aristotelian approach. It sought explanations of natural phenomena in terms of physical laws that were the same for all visible things and that did not require the existence of any fixed natural categories or divine cosmic order. However, this new approach was slow to take root in the biological sciences, the last bastion of the concept of fixed natural types. John Ray applied one of the previously more general terms for fixed natural types, "species, '' to plant and animal types, but he strictly identified each type of living thing as a species and proposed that each species could be defined by the features that perpetuated themselves generation after generation. The biological classification introduced by Carl Linnaeus in 1735 explicitly recognised the hierarchical nature of species relationships, but still viewed species as fixed according to a divine plan.
Other naturalists of this time speculated on the evolutionary change of species over time according to natural laws. In 1751, Pierre Louis Maupertuis wrote of natural modifications occurring during reproduction and accumulating over many generations to produce new species. Georges - Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon suggested that species could degenerate into different organisms, and Erasmus Darwin proposed that all warm - blooded animals could have descended from a single microorganism (or "filament ''). The first full - fledged evolutionary scheme was Jean - Baptiste Lamarck 's "transmutation '' theory of 1809, which envisaged spontaneous generation continually producing simple forms of life that developed greater complexity in parallel lineages with an inherent progressive tendency, and postulated that on a local level these lineages adapted to the environment by inheriting changes caused by their use or disuse in parents. (The latter process was later called Lamarckism.) These ideas were condemned by established naturalists as speculation lacking empirical support. In particular, Georges Cuvier insisted that species were unrelated and fixed, their similarities reflecting divine design for functional needs. In the meantime, Ray 's ideas of benevolent design had been developed by William Paley into the Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity (1802), which proposed complex adaptations as evidence of divine design and which was admired by Charles Darwin.
The crucial break from the concept of constant typological classes or types in biology came with the theory of evolution through natural selection, which was formulated by Charles Darwin in terms of variable populations. Partly influenced by An Essay on the Principle of Population (1798) by Thomas Robert Malthus, Darwin noted that population growth would lead to a "struggle for existence '' in which favorable variations prevailed as others perished. In each generation, many offspring fail to survive to an age of reproduction because of limited resources. This could explain the diversity of plants and animals from a common ancestry through the working of natural laws in the same way for all types of organism. Darwin developed his theory of "natural selection '' from 1838 onwards and was writing up his "big book '' on the subject when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him a version of virtually the same theory in 1858. Their separate papers were presented together at an 1858 meeting of the Linnean Society of London. At the end of 1859, Darwin 's publication of his "abstract '' as On the Origin of Species explained natural selection in detail and in a way that led to an increasingly wide acceptance of Darwin 's concepts of evolution at the expense of alternative theories. Thomas Henry Huxley applied Darwin 's ideas to humans, using paleontology and comparative anatomy to provide strong evidence that humans and apes shared a common ancestry. Some were disturbed by this since it implied that humans did not have a special place in the universe.
The mechanisms of reproductive heritability and the origin of new traits remained a mystery. Towards this end, Darwin developed his provisional theory of pangenesis. In 1865, Gregor Mendel reported that traits were inherited in a predictable manner through the independent assortment and segregation of elements (later known as genes). Mendel 's laws of inheritance eventually supplanted most of Darwin 's pangenesis theory. August Weismann made the important distinction between germ cells that give rise to gametes (such as sperm and egg cells) and the somatic cells of the body, demonstrating that heredity passes through the germ line only. Hugo de Vries connected Darwin 's pangenesis theory to Weismann 's germ / soma cell distinction and proposed that Darwin 's pangenes were concentrated in the cell nucleus and when expressed they could move into the cytoplasm to change the cells structure. De Vries was also one of the researchers who made Mendel 's work well - known, believing that Mendelian traits corresponded to the transfer of heritable variations along the germline. To explain how new variants originate, de Vries developed a mutation theory that led to a temporary rift between those who accepted Darwinian evolution and biometricians who allied with de Vries. In the 1930s, pioneers in the field of population genetics, such as Ronald Fisher, Sewall Wright and J.B.S. Haldane set the foundations of evolution onto a robust statistical philosophy. The false contradiction between Darwin 's theory, genetic mutations, and Mendelian inheritance was thus reconciled.
In the 1920s and 1930s the so - called modern synthesis connected natural selection and population genetics, based on Mendelian inheritance, into a unified theory that applied generally to any branch of biology. The modern synthesis explained patterns observed across species in populations, through fossil transitions in palaeontology, and complex cellular mechanisms in developmental biology. The publication of the structure of DNA by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953 demonstrated a physical mechanism for inheritance. Molecular biology improved our understanding of the relationship between genotype and phenotype. Advancements were also made in phylogenetic systematics, mapping the transition of traits into a comparative and testable framework through the publication and use of evolutionary trees. In 1973, evolutionary biologist Theodosius Dobzhansky penned that "nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution, '' because it has brought to light the relations of what first seemed disjointed facts in natural history into a coherent explanatory body of knowledge that describes and predicts many observable facts about life on this planet.
Since then, the modern synthesis has been further extended to explain biological phenomena across the full and integrative scale of the biological hierarchy, from genes to species. One extension, known as evolutionary developmental biology and informally called "evo - devo, '' emphasises how changes between generations (evolution) acts on patterns of change within individual organisms (development). Since the beginning of the 21st century and in light of discoveries made in recent decades, some biologists have argued for an extended evolutionary synthesis, which would account for the effects of non-genetic inheritance modes, such as epigenetics, parental effects, ecological and cultural inheritance, and evolvability.
Evolution in organisms occurs through changes in heritable traits -- the inherited characteristics of an organism. In humans, for example, eye colour is an inherited characteristic and an individual might inherit the "brown - eye trait '' from one of their parents. Inherited traits are controlled by genes and the complete set of genes within an organism 's genome (genetic material) is called its genotype.
The complete set of observable traits that make up the structure and behaviour of an organism is called its phenotype. These traits come from the interaction of its genotype with the environment. As a result, many aspects of an organism 's phenotype are not inherited. For example, suntanned skin comes from the interaction between a person 's genotype and sunlight; thus, suntans are not passed on to people 's children. However, some people tan more easily than others, due to differences in genotypic variation; a striking example are people with the inherited trait of albinism, who do not tan at all and are very sensitive to sunburn.
Heritable traits are passed from one generation to the next via DNA, a molecule that encodes genetic information. DNA is a long biopolymer composed of four types of bases. The sequence of bases along a particular DNA molecule specify the genetic information, in a manner similar to a sequence of letters spelling out a sentence. Before a cell divides, the DNA is copied, so that each of the resulting two cells will inherit the DNA sequence. Portions of a DNA molecule that specify a single functional unit are called genes; different genes have different sequences of bases. Within cells, the long strands of DNA form condensed structures called chromosomes. The specific location of a DNA sequence within a chromosome is known as a locus. If the DNA sequence at a locus varies between individuals, the different forms of this sequence are called alleles. DNA sequences can change through mutations, producing new alleles. If a mutation occurs within a gene, the new allele may affect the trait that the gene controls, altering the phenotype of the organism. However, while this simple correspondence between an allele and a trait works in some cases, most traits are more complex and are controlled by quantitative trait loci (multiple interacting genes).
Recent findings have confirmed important examples of heritable changes that can not be explained by changes to the sequence of nucleotides in the DNA. These phenomena are classed as epigenetic inheritance systems. DNA methylation marking chromatin, self - sustaining metabolic loops, gene silencing by RNA interference and the three - dimensional conformation of proteins (such as prions) are areas where epigenetic inheritance systems have been discovered at the organismic level. Developmental biologists suggest that complex interactions in genetic networks and communication among cells can lead to heritable variations that may underlay some of the mechanics in developmental plasticity and canalisation. Heritability may also occur at even larger scales. For example, ecological inheritance through the process of niche construction is defined by the regular and repeated activities of organisms in their environment. This generates a legacy of effects that modify and feed back into the selection regime of subsequent generations. Descendants inherit genes plus environmental characteristics generated by the ecological actions of ancestors. Other examples of heritability in evolution that are not under the direct control of genes include the inheritance of cultural traits and symbiogenesis.
An individual organism 's phenotype results from both its genotype and the influence from the environment it has lived in. A substantial part of the phenotypic variation in a population is caused by genotypic variation. The modern evolutionary synthesis defines evolution as the change over time in this genetic variation. The frequency of one particular allele will become more or less prevalent relative to other forms of that gene. Variation disappears when a new allele reaches the point of fixation -- when it either disappears from the population or replaces the ancestral allele entirely.
Natural selection will only cause evolution if there is enough genetic variation in a population. Before the discovery of Mendelian genetics, one common hypothesis was blending inheritance. But with blending inheritance, genetic variance would be rapidly lost, making evolution by natural selection implausible. The Hardy -- Weinberg principle provides the solution to how variation is maintained in a population with Mendelian inheritance. The frequencies of alleles (variations in a gene) will remain constant in the absence of selection, mutation, migration and genetic drift.
Variation comes from mutations in the genome, reshuffling of genes through sexual reproduction and migration between populations (gene flow). Despite the constant introduction of new variation through mutation and gene flow, most of the genome of a species is identical in all individuals of that species. However, even relatively small differences in genotype can lead to dramatic differences in phenotype: for example, chimpanzees and humans differ in only about 5 % of their genomes.
Mutations are changes in the DNA sequence of a cell 's genome. When mutations occur, they may alter the product of a gene, or prevent the gene from functioning, or have no effect. Based on studies in the fly Drosophila melanogaster, it has been suggested that if a mutation changes a protein produced by a gene, this will probably be harmful, with about 70 % of these mutations having damaging effects, and the remainder being either neutral or weakly beneficial.
Mutations can involve large sections of a chromosome becoming duplicated (usually by genetic recombination), which can introduce extra copies of a gene into a genome. Extra copies of genes are a major source of the raw material needed for new genes to evolve. This is important because most new genes evolve within gene families from pre-existing genes that share common ancestors. For example, the human eye uses four genes to make structures that sense light: three for colour vision and one for night vision; all four are descended from a single ancestral gene.
New genes can be generated from an ancestral gene when a duplicate copy mutates and acquires a new function. This process is easier once a gene has been duplicated because it increases the redundancy of the system; one gene in the pair can acquire a new function while the other copy continues to perform its original function. Other types of mutations can even generate entirely new genes from previously noncoding DNA.
The generation of new genes can also involve small parts of several genes being duplicated, with these fragments then recombining to form new combinations with new functions. When new genes are assembled from shuffling pre-existing parts, domains act as modules with simple independent functions, which can be mixed together to produce new combinations with new and complex functions. For example, polyketide synthases are large enzymes that make antibiotics; they contain up to one hundred independent domains that each catalyse one step in the overall process, like a step in an assembly line.
In asexual organisms, genes are inherited together, or linked, as they can not mix with genes of other organisms during reproduction. In contrast, the offspring of sexual organisms contain random mixtures of their parents ' chromosomes that are produced through independent assortment. In a related process called homologous recombination, sexual organisms exchange DNA between two matching chromosomes. Recombination and reassortment do not alter allele frequencies, but instead change which alleles are associated with each other, producing offspring with new combinations of alleles. Sex usually increases genetic variation and may increase the rate of evolution.
The two-fold cost of sex was first described by John Maynard Smith. The first cost is that in sexually dimorphic species only one of the two sexes can bear young. (This cost does not apply to hermaphroditic species, like most plants and many invertebrates.) The second cost is that any individual who reproduces sexually can only pass on 50 % of its genes to any individual offspring, with even less passed on as each new generation passes. Yet sexual reproduction is the more common means of reproduction among eukaryotes and multicellular organisms. The Red Queen hypothesis has been used to explain the significance of sexual reproduction as a means to enable continual evolution and adaptation in response to coevolution with other species in an ever - changing environment.
Gene flow is the exchange of genes between populations and between species. It can therefore be a source of variation that is new to a population or to a species. Gene flow can be caused by the movement of individuals between separate populations of organisms, as might be caused by the movement of mice between inland and coastal populations, or the movement of pollen between heavy metal tolerant and heavy metal sensitive populations of grasses.
Gene transfer between species includes the formation of hybrid organisms and horizontal gene transfer. Horizontal gene transfer is the transfer of genetic material from one organism to another organism that is not its offspring; this is most common among bacteria. In medicine, this contributes to the spread of antibiotic resistance, as when one bacteria acquires resistance genes it can rapidly transfer them to other species. Horizontal transfer of genes from bacteria to eukaryotes such as the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and the adzuki bean weevil Callosobruchus chinensis has occurred. An example of larger - scale transfers are the eukaryotic bdelloid rotifers, which have received a range of genes from bacteria, fungi and plants. Viruses can also carry DNA between organisms, allowing transfer of genes even across biological domains.
Large - scale gene transfer has also occurred between the ancestors of eukaryotic cells and bacteria, during the acquisition of chloroplasts and mitochondria. It is possible that eukaryotes themselves originated from horizontal gene transfers between bacteria and archaea.
From a Neo-Darwinian perspective, evolution occurs when there are changes in the frequencies of alleles within a population of interbreeding organisms. For example, the allele for black colour in a population of moths becoming more common. Mechanisms that can lead to changes in allele frequencies include natural selection, genetic drift, genetic hitchhiking, mutation and gene flow.
Evolution by means of natural selection is the process by which traits that enhance survival and reproduction become more common in successive generations of a population. It has often been called a "self - evident '' mechanism because it necessarily follows from three simple facts:
More offspring are produced than can possibly survive, and these conditions produce competition between organisms for survival and reproduction. Consequently, organisms with traits that give them an advantage over their competitors are more likely to pass on their traits to the next generation than those with traits that do not confer an advantage.
The central concept of natural selection is the evolutionary fitness of an organism. Fitness is measured by an organism 's ability to survive and reproduce, which determines the size of its genetic contribution to the next generation. However, fitness is not the same as the total number of offspring: instead fitness is indicated by the proportion of subsequent generations that carry an organism 's genes. For example, if an organism could survive well and reproduce rapidly, but its offspring were all too small and weak to survive, this organism would make little genetic contribution to future generations and would thus have low fitness.
If an allele increases fitness more than the other alleles of that gene, then with each generation this allele will become more common within the population. These traits are said to be "selected for. '' Examples of traits that can increase fitness are enhanced survival and increased fecundity. Conversely, the lower fitness caused by having a less beneficial or deleterious allele results in this allele becoming rarer -- they are "selected against. '' Importantly, the fitness of an allele is not a fixed characteristic; if the environment changes, previously neutral or harmful traits may become beneficial and previously beneficial traits become harmful. However, even if the direction of selection does reverse in this way, traits that were lost in the past may not re-evolve in an identical form (see Dollo 's law). However, a re-activation of dormant genes, as long as they have not been eliminated from the genome and were only suppressed perhaps for hundreds of generations, can lead to the re-occurrence of traits thought to be lost like hindlegs in dolphins, teeth in chickens, wings in wingless stick insects, tails and additional nipples in humans etc. "Throwbacks '' such as these are known as atavisms.
Natural selection within a population for a trait that can vary across a range of values, such as height, can be categorised into three different types. The first is directional selection, which is a shift in the average value of a trait over time -- for example, organisms slowly getting taller. Secondly, disruptive selection is selection for extreme trait values and often results in two different values becoming most common, with selection against the average value. This would be when either short or tall organisms had an advantage, but not those of medium height. Finally, in stabilising selection there is selection against extreme trait values on both ends, which causes a decrease in variance around the average value and less diversity. This would, for example, cause organisms to eventually have a similar height.
A special case of natural selection is sexual selection, which is selection for any trait that increases mating success by increasing the attractiveness of an organism to potential mates. Traits that evolved through sexual selection are particularly prominent among males of several animal species. Although sexually favoured, traits such as cumbersome antlers, mating calls, large body size and bright colours often attract predation, which compromises the survival of individual males. This survival disadvantage is balanced by higher reproductive success in males that show these hard - to - fake, sexually selected traits.
Natural selection most generally makes nature the measure against which individuals and individual traits, are more or less likely to survive. "Nature '' in this sense refers to an ecosystem, that is, a system in which organisms interact with every other element, physical as well as biological, in their local environment. Eugene Odum, a founder of ecology, defined an ecosystem as: "Any unit that includes all of the organisms... in a given area interacting with the physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure, biotic diversity and material cycles (ie: exchange of materials between living and nonliving parts) within the system. '' Each population within an ecosystem occupies a distinct niche, or position, with distinct relationships to other parts of the system. These relationships involve the life history of the organism, its position in the food chain and its geographic range. This broad understanding of nature enables scientists to delineate specific forces which, together, comprise natural selection.
Natural selection can act at different levels of organisation, such as genes, cells, individual organisms, groups of organisms and species. Selection can act at multiple levels simultaneously. An example of selection occurring below the level of the individual organism are genes called transposons, which can replicate and spread throughout a genome. Selection at a level above the individual, such as group selection, may allow the evolution of cooperation, as discussed below.
In addition to being a major source of variation, mutation may also function as a mechanism of evolution when there are different probabilities at the molecular level for different mutations to occur, a process known as mutation bias. If two genotypes, for example one with the nucleotide G and another with the nucleotide A in the same position, have the same fitness, but mutation from G to A happens more often than mutation from A to G, then genotypes with A will tend to evolve. Different insertion vs. deletion mutation biases in different taxa can lead to the evolution of different genome sizes. Developmental or mutational biases have also been observed in morphological evolution. For example, according to the phenotype - first theory of evolution, mutations can eventually cause the genetic assimilation of traits that were previously induced by the environment.
Mutation bias effects are superimposed on other processes. If selection would favor either one out of two mutations, but there is no extra advantage to having both, then the mutation that occurs the most frequently is the one that is most likely to become fixed in a population. Mutations leading to the loss of function of a gene are much more common than mutations that produce a new, fully functional gene. Most loss of function mutations are selected against. But when selection is weak, mutation bias towards loss of function can affect evolution. For example, pigments are no longer useful when animals live in the darkness of caves, and tend to be lost. This kind of loss of function can occur because of mutation bias, and / or because the function had a cost, and once the benefit of the function disappeared, natural selection leads to the loss. Loss of sporulation ability in Bacillus subtilis during laboratory evolution appears to have been caused by mutation bias, rather than natural selection against the cost of maintaining sporulation ability. When there is no selection for loss of function, the speed at which loss evolves depends more on the mutation rate than it does on the effective population size, indicating that it is driven more by mutation bias than by genetic drift. In parasitic organisms, mutation bias leads to selection pressures as seen in Ehrlichia. Mutations are biased towards antigenic variants in outer - membrane proteins.
Genetic drift is the change in allele frequency from one generation to the next that occurs because alleles are subject to sampling error. As a result, when selective forces are absent or relatively weak, allele frequencies tend to "drift '' upward or downward randomly (in a random walk). This drift halts when an allele eventually becomes fixed, either by disappearing from the population, or replacing the other alleles entirely. Genetic drift may therefore eliminate some alleles from a population due to chance alone. Even in the absence of selective forces, genetic drift can cause two separate populations that began with the same genetic structure to drift apart into two divergent populations with different sets of alleles.
It is usually difficult to measure the relative importance of selection and neutral processes, including drift. The comparative importance of adaptive and non-adaptive forces in driving evolutionary change is an area of current research.
The neutral theory of molecular evolution proposed that most evolutionary changes are the result of the fixation of neutral mutations by genetic drift. Hence, in this model, most genetic changes in a population are the result of constant mutation pressure and genetic drift. This form of the neutral theory is now largely abandoned, since it does not seem to fit the genetic variation seen in nature. However, a more recent and better - supported version of this model is the nearly neutral theory, where a mutation that would be effectively neutral in a small population is not necessarily neutral in a large population. Other alternative theories propose that genetic drift is dwarfed by other stochastic forces in evolution, such as genetic hitchhiking, also known as genetic draft.
The time for a neutral allele to become fixed by genetic drift depends on population size, with fixation occurring more rapidly in smaller populations. The number of individuals in a population is not critical, but instead a measure known as the effective population size. The effective population is usually smaller than the total population since it takes into account factors such as the level of inbreeding and the stage of the lifecycle in which the population is the smallest. The effective population size may not be the same for every gene in the same population.
Recombination allows alleles on the same strand of DNA to become separated. However, the rate of recombination is low (approximately two events per chromosome per generation). As a result, genes close together on a chromosome may not always be shuffled away from each other and genes that are close together tend to be inherited together, a phenomenon known as linkage. This tendency is measured by finding how often two alleles occur together on a single chromosome compared to expectations, which is called their linkage disequilibrium. A set of alleles that is usually inherited in a group is called a haplotype. This can be important when one allele in a particular haplotype is strongly beneficial: natural selection can drive a selective sweep that will also cause the other alleles in the haplotype to become more common in the population; this effect is called genetic hitchhiking or genetic draft. Genetic draft caused by the fact that some neutral genes are genetically linked to others that are under selection can be partially captured by an appropriate effective population size.
Gene flow involves the exchange of genes between populations and between species. The presence or absence of gene flow fundamentally changes the course of evolution. Due to the complexity of organisms, any two completely isolated populations will eventually evolve genetic incompatibilities through neutral processes, as in the Bateson - Dobzhansky - Muller model, even if both populations remain essentially identical in terms of their adaptation to the environment.
If genetic differentiation between populations develops, gene flow between populations can introduce traits or alleles which are disadvantageous in the local population and this may lead to organisms within these populations evolving mechanisms that prevent mating with genetically distant populations, eventually resulting in the appearance of new species. Thus, exchange of genetic information between individuals is fundamentally important for the development of the biological species concept.
During the development of the modern synthesis, Sewall Wright developed his shifting balance theory, which regarded gene flow between partially isolated populations as an important aspect of adaptive evolution. However, recently there has been substantial criticism of the importance of the shifting balance theory.
Evolution influences every aspect of the form and behaviour of organisms. Most prominent are the specific behavioural and physical adaptations that are the outcome of natural selection. These adaptations increase fitness by aiding activities such as finding food, avoiding predators or attracting mates. Organisms can also respond to selection by cooperating with each other, usually by aiding their relatives or engaging in mutually beneficial symbiosis. In the longer term, evolution produces new species through splitting ancestral populations of organisms into new groups that can not or will not interbreed.
These outcomes of evolution are distinguished based on time scale as macroevolution versus microevolution. Macroevolution refers to evolution that occurs at or above the level of species, in particular speciation and extinction; whereas microevolution refers to smaller evolutionary changes within a species or population, in particular shifts in gene frequency and adaptation. In general, macroevolution is regarded as the outcome of long periods of microevolution. Thus, the distinction between micro - and macroevolution is not a fundamental one -- the difference is simply the time involved. However, in macroevolution, the traits of the entire species may be important. For instance, a large amount of variation among individuals allows a species to rapidly adapt to new habitats, lessening the chance of it going extinct, while a wide geographic range increases the chance of speciation, by making it more likely that part of the population will become isolated. In this sense, microevolution and macroevolution might involve selection at different levels -- with microevolution acting on genes and organisms, versus macroevolutionary processes such as species selection acting on entire species and affecting their rates of speciation and extinction.
A common misconception is that evolution has goals, long - term plans, or an innate tendency for "progress '', as expressed in beliefs such as orthogenesis and evolutionism; realistically however, evolution has no long - term goal and does not necessarily produce greater complexity. Although complex species have evolved, they occur as a side effect of the overall number of organisms increasing and simple forms of life still remain more common in the biosphere. For example, the overwhelming majority of species are microscopic prokaryotes, which form about half the world 's biomass despite their small size, and constitute the vast majority of Earth 's biodiversity. Simple organisms have therefore been the dominant form of life on Earth throughout its history and continue to be the main form of life up to the present day, with complex life only appearing more diverse because it is more noticeable. Indeed, the evolution of microorganisms is particularly important to modern evolutionary research, since their rapid reproduction allows the study of experimental evolution and the observation of evolution and adaptation in real time.
Adaptation is the process that makes organisms better suited to their habitat. Also, the term adaptation may refer to a trait that is important for an organism 's survival. For example, the adaptation of horses ' teeth to the grinding of grass. By using the term adaptation for the evolutionary process and adaptive trait for the product (the bodily part or function), the two senses of the word may be distinguished. Adaptations are produced by natural selection. The following definitions are due to Theodosius Dobzhansky:
Adaptation may cause either the gain of a new feature, or the loss of an ancestral feature. An example that shows both types of change is bacterial adaptation to antibiotic selection, with genetic changes causing antibiotic resistance by both modifying the target of the drug, or increasing the activity of transporters that pump the drug out of the cell. Other striking examples are the bacteria Escherichia coli evolving the ability to use citric acid as a nutrient in a long - term laboratory experiment, Flavobacterium evolving a novel enzyme that allows these bacteria to grow on the by - products of nylon manufacturing, and the soil bacterium Sphingobium evolving an entirely new metabolic pathway that degrades the synthetic pesticide pentachlorophenol. An interesting but still controversial idea is that some adaptations might increase the ability of organisms to generate genetic diversity and adapt by natural selection (increasing organisms ' evolvability).
Adaptation occurs through the gradual modification of existing structures. Consequently, structures with similar internal organisation may have different functions in related organisms. This is the result of a single ancestral structure being adapted to function in different ways. The bones within bat wings, for example, are very similar to those in mice feet and primate hands, due to the descent of all these structures from a common mammalian ancestor. However, since all living organisms are related to some extent, even organs that appear to have little or no structural similarity, such as arthropod, squid and vertebrate eyes, or the limbs and wings of arthropods and vertebrates, can depend on a common set of homologous genes that control their assembly and function; this is called deep homology.
During evolution, some structures may lose their original function and become vestigial structures. Such structures may have little or no function in a current species, yet have a clear function in ancestral species, or other closely related species. Examples include pseudogenes, the non-functional remains of eyes in blind cave - dwelling fish, wings in flightless birds, the presence of hip bones in whales and snakes, and sexual traits in organisms that reproduce via asexual reproduction. Examples of vestigial structures in humans include wisdom teeth, the coccyx, the vermiform appendix, and other behavioural vestiges such as goose bumps and primitive reflexes.
However, many traits that appear to be simple adaptations are in fact exaptations: structures originally adapted for one function, but which coincidentally became somewhat useful for some other function in the process. One example is the African lizard Holaspis guentheri, which developed an extremely flat head for hiding in crevices, as can be seen by looking at its near relatives. However, in this species, the head has become so flattened that it assists in gliding from tree to tree -- an exaptation. Within cells, molecular machines such as the bacterial flagella and protein sorting machinery evolved by the recruitment of several pre-existing proteins that previously had different functions. Another example is the recruitment of enzymes from glycolysis and xenobiotic metabolism to serve as structural proteins called crystallins within the lenses of organisms ' eyes.
An area of current investigation in evolutionary developmental biology is the developmental basis of adaptations and exaptations. This research addresses the origin and evolution of embryonic development and how modifications of development and developmental processes produce novel features. These studies have shown that evolution can alter development to produce new structures, such as embryonic bone structures that develop into the jaw in other animals instead forming part of the middle ear in mammals. It is also possible for structures that have been lost in evolution to reappear due to changes in developmental genes, such as a mutation in chickens causing embryos to grow teeth similar to those of crocodiles. It is now becoming clear that most alterations in the form of organisms are due to changes in a small set of conserved genes.
Interactions between organisms can produce both conflict and cooperation. When the interaction is between pairs of species, such as a pathogen and a host, or a predator and its prey, these species can develop matched sets of adaptations. Here, the evolution of one species causes adaptations in a second species. These changes in the second species then, in turn, cause new adaptations in the first species. This cycle of selection and response is called coevolution. An example is the production of tetrodotoxin in the rough - skinned newt and the evolution of tetrodotoxin resistance in its predator, the common garter snake. In this predator - prey pair, an evolutionary arms race has produced high levels of toxin in the newt and correspondingly high levels of toxin resistance in the snake.
Not all co-evolved interactions between species involve conflict. Many cases of mutually beneficial interactions have evolved. For instance, an extreme cooperation exists between plants and the mycorrhizal fungi that grow on their roots and aid the plant in absorbing nutrients from the soil. This is a reciprocal relationship as the plants provide the fungi with sugars from photosynthesis. Here, the fungi actually grow inside plant cells, allowing them to exchange nutrients with their hosts, while sending signals that suppress the plant immune system.
Coalitions between organisms of the same species have also evolved. An extreme case is the eusociality found in social insects, such as bees, termites and ants, where sterile insects feed and guard the small number of organisms in a colony that are able to reproduce. On an even smaller scale, the somatic cells that make up the body of an animal limit their reproduction so they can maintain a stable organism, which then supports a small number of the animal 's germ cells to produce offspring. Here, somatic cells respond to specific signals that instruct them whether to grow, remain as they are, or die. If cells ignore these signals and multiply inappropriately, their uncontrolled growth causes cancer.
Such cooperation within species may have evolved through the process of kin selection, which is where one organism acts to help raise a relative 's offspring. This activity is selected for because if the helping individual contains alleles which promote the helping activity, it is likely that its kin will also contain these alleles and thus those alleles will be passed on. Other processes that may promote cooperation include group selection, where cooperation provides benefits to a group of organisms.
Speciation is the process where a species diverges into two or more descendant species.
There are multiple ways to define the concept of "species. '' The choice of definition is dependent on the particularities of the species concerned. For example, some species concepts apply more readily toward sexually reproducing organisms while others lend themselves better toward asexual organisms. Despite the diversity of various species concepts, these various concepts can be placed into one of three broad philosophical approaches: interbreeding, ecological and phylogenetic. The Biological Species Concept (BSC) is a classic example of the interbreeding approach. Defined by Ernst Mayr in 1942, the BSC states that "species are groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations, which are reproductively isolated from other such groups. '' Despite its wide and long - term use, the BSC like others is not without controversy, for example because these concepts can not be applied to prokaryotes, and this is called the species problem. Some researchers have attempted a unifying monistic definition of species, while others adopt a pluralistic approach and suggest that there may be different ways to logically interpret the definition of a species.
Barriers to reproduction between two diverging sexual populations are required for the populations to become new species. Gene flow may slow this process by spreading the new genetic variants also to the other populations. Depending on how far two species have diverged since their most recent common ancestor, it may still be possible for them to produce offspring, as with horses and donkeys mating to produce mules. Such hybrids are generally infertile. In this case, closely related species may regularly interbreed, but hybrids will be selected against and the species will remain distinct. However, viable hybrids are occasionally formed and these new species can either have properties intermediate between their parent species, or possess a totally new phenotype. The importance of hybridisation in producing new species of animals is unclear, although cases have been seen in many types of animals, with the gray tree frog being a particularly well - studied example.
Speciation has been observed multiple times under both controlled laboratory conditions and in nature. In sexually reproducing organisms, speciation results from reproductive isolation followed by genealogical divergence. There are four primary geographic modes of speciation. The most common in animals is allopatric speciation, which occurs in populations initially isolated geographically, such as by habitat fragmentation or migration. Selection under these conditions can produce very rapid changes in the appearance and behaviour of organisms. As selection and drift act independently on populations isolated from the rest of their species, separation may eventually produce organisms that can not interbreed.
The second mode of speciation is peripatric speciation, which occurs when small populations of organisms become isolated in a new environment. This differs from allopatric speciation in that the isolated populations are numerically much smaller than the parental population. Here, the founder effect causes rapid speciation after an increase in inbreeding increases selection on homozygotes, leading to rapid genetic change.
The third mode is parapatric speciation. This is similar to peripatric speciation in that a small population enters a new habitat, but differs in that there is no physical separation between these two populations. Instead, speciation results from the evolution of mechanisms that reduce gene flow between the two populations. Generally this occurs when there has been a drastic change in the environment within the parental species ' habitat. One example is the grass Anthoxanthum odoratum, which can undergo parapatric speciation in response to localised metal pollution from mines. Here, plants evolve that have resistance to high levels of metals in the soil. Selection against interbreeding with the metal - sensitive parental population produced a gradual change in the flowering time of the metal - resistant plants, which eventually produced complete reproductive isolation. Selection against hybrids between the two populations may cause reinforcement, which is the evolution of traits that promote mating within a species, as well as character displacement, which is when two species become more distinct in appearance.
Finally, in sympatric speciation species diverge without geographic isolation or changes in habitat. This form is rare since even a small amount of gene flow may remove genetic differences between parts of a population. Generally, sympatric speciation in animals requires the evolution of both genetic differences and non-random mating, to allow reproductive isolation to evolve.
One type of sympatric speciation involves crossbreeding of two related species to produce a new hybrid species. This is not common in animals as animal hybrids are usually sterile. This is because during meiosis the homologous chromosomes from each parent are from different species and can not successfully pair. However, it is more common in plants because plants often double their number of chromosomes, to form polyploids. This allows the chromosomes from each parental species to form matching pairs during meiosis, since each parent 's chromosomes are represented by a pair already. An example of such a speciation event is when the plant species Arabidopsis thaliana and Arabidopsis arenosa crossbred to give the new species Arabidopsis suecica. This happened about 20,000 years ago, and the speciation process has been repeated in the laboratory, which allows the study of the genetic mechanisms involved in this process. Indeed, chromosome doubling within a species may be a common cause of reproductive isolation, as half the doubled chromosomes will be unmatched when breeding with undoubled organisms.
Speciation events are important in the theory of punctuated equilibrium, which accounts for the pattern in the fossil record of short "bursts '' of evolution interspersed with relatively long periods of stasis, where species remain relatively unchanged. In this theory, speciation and rapid evolution are linked, with natural selection and genetic drift acting most strongly on organisms undergoing speciation in novel habitats or small populations. As a result, the periods of stasis in the fossil record correspond to the parental population and the organisms undergoing speciation and rapid evolution are found in small populations or geographically restricted habitats and therefore rarely being preserved as fossils.
Extinction is the disappearance of an entire species. Extinction is not an unusual event, as species regularly appear through speciation and disappear through extinction. Nearly all animal and plant species that have lived on Earth are now extinct, and extinction appears to be the ultimate fate of all species. These extinctions have happened continuously throughout the history of life, although the rate of extinction spikes in occasional mass extinction events. The Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event, during which the non-avian dinosaurs became extinct, is the most well - known, but the earlier Permian -- Triassic extinction event was even more severe, with approximately 96 % of all marine species driven to extinction. The Holocene extinction event is an ongoing mass extinction associated with humanity 's expansion across the globe over the past few thousand years. Present - day extinction rates are 100 -- 1000 times greater than the background rate and up to 30 % of current species may be extinct by the mid 21st century. Human activities are now the primary cause of the ongoing extinction event; global warming may further accelerate it in the future.
The role of extinction in evolution is not very well understood and may depend on which type of extinction is considered. The causes of the continuous "low - level '' extinction events, which form the majority of extinctions, may be the result of competition between species for limited resources (the competitive exclusion principle). If one species can out - compete another, this could produce species selection, with the fitter species surviving and the other species being driven to extinction. The intermittent mass extinctions are also important, but instead of acting as a selective force, they drastically reduce diversity in a nonspecific manner and promote bursts of rapid evolution and speciation in survivors.
The Earth is about 4.54 billion years old. The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates from at least 3.5 billion years ago, during the Eoarchean Era after a geological crust started to solidify following the earlier molten Hadean Eon. Microbial mat fossils have been found in 3.48 billion - year - old sandstone in Western Australia. Other early physical evidence of a biogenic substance is graphite in 3.7 billion - year - old metasedimentary rocks discovered in Western Greenland as well as "remains of biotic life '' found in 4.1 billion - year - old rocks in Western Australia. According to one of the researchers, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth... then it could be common in the universe. ''
More than 99 percent of all species, amounting to over five billion species, that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct. Estimates on the number of Earth 's current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.9 million are estimated to have been named and 1.6 million documented in a central database to date, leaving at least 80 percent not yet described.
Highly energetic chemistry is thought to have produced a self - replicating molecule around 4 billion years ago, and half a billion years later the last common ancestor of all life existed. The current scientific consensus is that the complex biochemistry that makes up life came from simpler chemical reactions. The beginning of life may have included self - replicating molecules such as RNA and the assembly of simple cells.
All organisms on Earth are descended from a common ancestor or ancestral gene pool. Current species are a stage in the process of evolution, with their diversity the product of a long series of speciation and extinction events. The common descent of organisms was first deduced from four simple facts about organisms: First, they have geographic distributions that can not be explained by local adaptation. Second, the diversity of life is not a set of completely unique organisms, but organisms that share morphological similarities. Third, vestigial traits with no clear purpose resemble functional ancestral traits and finally, that organisms can be classified using these similarities into a hierarchy of nested groups -- similar to a family tree. However, modern research has suggested that, due to horizontal gene transfer, this "tree of life '' may be more complicated than a simple branching tree since some genes have spread independently between distantly related species.
Past species have also left records of their evolutionary history. Fossils, along with the comparative anatomy of present - day organisms, constitute the morphological, or anatomical, record. By comparing the anatomies of both modern and extinct species, paleontologists can infer the lineages of those species. However, this approach is most successful for organisms that had hard body parts, such as shells, bones or teeth. Further, as prokaryotes such as bacteria and archaea share a limited set of common morphologies, their fossils do not provide information on their ancestry.
More recently, evidence for common descent has come from the study of biochemical similarities between organisms. For example, all living cells use the same basic set of nucleotides and amino acids. The development of molecular genetics has revealed the record of evolution left in organisms ' genomes: dating when species diverged through the molecular clock produced by mutations. For example, these DNA sequence comparisons have revealed that humans and chimpanzees share 98 % of their genomes and analysing the few areas where they differ helps shed light on when the common ancestor of these species existed.
Prokaryotes inhabited the Earth from approximately 3 -- 4 billion years ago. No obvious changes in morphology or cellular organisation occurred in these organisms over the next few billion years. The eukaryotic cells emerged between 1.6 -- 2.7 billion years ago. The next major change in cell structure came when bacteria were engulfed by eukaryotic cells, in a cooperative association called endosymbiosis. The engulfed bacteria and the host cell then underwent coevolution, with the bacteria evolving into either mitochondria or hydrogenosomes. Another engulfment of cyanobacterial - like organisms led to the formation of chloroplasts in algae and plants.
The history of life was that of the unicellular eukaryotes, prokaryotes and archaea until about 610 million years ago when multicellular organisms began to appear in the oceans in the Ediacaran period. The evolution of multicellularity occurred in multiple independent events, in organisms as diverse as sponges, brown algae, cyanobacteria, slime moulds and myxobacteria. In January 2016, scientists reported that, about 800 million years ago, a minor genetic change in a single molecule called GK - PID may have allowed organisms to go from a single cell organism to one of many cells.
Soon after the emergence of these first multicellular organisms, a remarkable amount of biological diversity appeared over approximately 10 million years, in an event called the Cambrian explosion. Here, the majority of types of modern animals appeared in the fossil record, as well as unique lineages that subsequently became extinct. Various triggers for the Cambrian explosion have been proposed, including the accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere from photosynthesis.
About 500 million years ago, plants and fungi colonised the land and were soon followed by arthropods and other animals. Insects were particularly successful and even today make up the majority of animal species. Amphibians first appeared around 364 million years ago, followed by early amniotes and birds around 155 million years ago (both from "reptile '' - like lineages), mammals around 129 million years ago, homininae around 10 million years ago and modern humans around 250,000 years ago. However, despite the evolution of these large animals, smaller organisms similar to the types that evolved early in this process continue to be highly successful and dominate the Earth, with the majority of both biomass and species being prokaryotes.
Concepts and models used in evolutionary biology, such as natural selection, have many applications.
Artificial selection is the intentional selection of traits in a population of organisms. This has been used for thousands of years in the domestication of plants and animals. More recently, such selection has become a vital part of genetic engineering, with selectable markers such as antibiotic resistance genes being used to manipulate DNA. Proteins with valuable properties have evolved by repeated rounds of mutation and selection (for example modified enzymes and new antibodies) in a process called directed evolution.
Understanding the changes that have occurred during an organism 's evolution can reveal the genes needed to construct parts of the body, genes which may be involved in human genetic disorders. For example, the Mexican tetra is an albino cavefish that lost its eyesight during evolution. Breeding together different populations of this blind fish produced some offspring with functional eyes, since different mutations had occurred in the isolated populations that had evolved in different caves. This helped identify genes required for vision and pigmentation.
Many human diseases are not static phenomena, but capable of evolution. Viruses, bacteria, fungi and cancers evolve to be resistant to host immune defences, as well as pharmaceutical drugs. These same problems occur in agriculture with pesticide and herbicide resistance. It is possible that we are facing the end of the effective life of most of available antibiotics and predicting the evolution and evolvability of our pathogens and devising strategies to slow or circumvent it is requiring deeper knowledge of the complex forces driving evolution at the molecular level.
In computer science, simulations of evolution using evolutionary algorithms and artificial life started in the 1960s and were extended with simulation of artificial selection. Artificial evolution became a widely recognised optimisation method as a result of the work of Ingo Rechenberg in the 1960s. He used evolution strategies to solve complex engineering problems. Genetic algorithms in particular became popular through the writing of John Henry Holland. Practical applications also include automatic evolution of computer programmes. Evolutionary algorithms are now used to solve multi-dimensional problems more efficiently than software produced by human designers and also to optimise the design of systems.
In the 19th century, particularly after the publication of On the Origin of Species in 1859, the idea that life had evolved was an active source of academic debate centred on the philosophical, social and religious implications of evolution. Today, the modern evolutionary synthesis is accepted by a vast majority of scientists. However, evolution remains a contentious concept for some theists.
While various religions and denominations have reconciled their beliefs with evolution through concepts such as theistic evolution, there are creationists who believe that evolution is contradicted by the creation myths found in their religions and who raise various objections to evolution. As had been demonstrated by responses to the publication of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation in 1844, the most controversial aspect of evolutionary biology is the implication of human evolution that humans share common ancestry with apes and that the mental and moral faculties of humanity have the same types of natural causes as other inherited traits in animals. In some countries, notably the United States, these tensions between science and religion have fuelled the current creation -- evolution controversy, a religious conflict focusing on politics and public education. While other scientific fields such as cosmology and Earth science also conflict with literal interpretations of many religious texts, evolutionary biology experiences significantly more opposition from religious literalists.
The teaching of evolution in American secondary school biology classes was uncommon in most of the first half of the 20th century. The Scopes Trial decision of 1925 caused the subject to become very rare in American secondary biology textbooks for a generation, but it was gradually re-introduced later and became legally protected with the 1968 Epperson v. Arkansas decision. Since then, the competing religious belief of creationism was legally disallowed in secondary school curricula in various decisions in the 1970s and 1980s, but it returned in pseudoscientific form as intelligent design (ID), to be excluded once again in the 2005 Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District case.
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who was the ruler of france during the revolution how was he responsible for the revolution | Louis XVI of France - wikipedia
Louis XVI (French pronunciation: (lwi sɛːz); 23 August 1754 -- 21 January 1793), born Louis - Auguste, was the last King of France before the French Revolution; during which he was also known as Louis Capet. In 1765, at the death of his father, Louis, son and heir apparent of Louis XV, Louis - Auguste became the new Dauphin of France. Upon his grandfather 's death on 10 May 1774, he assumed the title "King of France and Navarre '', which he used until 4 September 1791, when he received the title of "King of the French '' until the monarchy was abolished on 21 September 1792. Louis XVI was guillotined on 21 January 1793.
The first part of his reign was marked by attempts to reform France in accordance with Enlightenment ideas. These included efforts to abolish serfdom, remove the taille, and increase tolerance toward non-Catholics. The French nobility reacted to the proposed reforms with hostility, and successfully opposed their implementation. Louis implemented deregulation of the grain market, advocated by his liberal minister Turgot, but it resulted in an increase in bread prices. In periods of bad harvests, it would lead to food scarcity which would prompt the masses to revolt. From 1776, Louis XVI actively supported the North American colonists, who were seeking their independence from Great Britain, which was realized in the 1783 Treaty of Paris.
The ensuing debt and financial crisis contributed to the unpopularity of the Ancien Régime. This led to the convening of the Estates - General of 1789. Discontent among the members of France 's middle and lower classes resulted in strengthened opposition to the French aristocracy and to the absolute monarchy, of which Louis and his wife, Queen Marie Antoinette, were viewed as representatives. In 1789, the storming of the Bastille during riots in Paris marked the beginning of the French Revolution.
Louis 's indecisiveness and conservatism led some elements of the people of France to view him as a symbol of the perceived tyranny of the Ancien Régime, and his popularity deteriorated progressively. His disastrous flight to Varennes in June 1791, four months before the constitutional monarchy was declared, seemed to justify the rumors that the king tied his hopes of political salvation to the prospects of foreign invasion. The credibility of the king was deeply undermined, and the abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of a republic became an ever - increasing possibility. Despite his lack of popular approbation, Louis XVI did abolish the death penalty as well as the labor tax, which had compelled the French lower classes to spend two weeks out of the year working on buildings and roads.
In a context of civil and international war, Louis XVI was suspended and arrested at the time of the insurrection of 10 August 1792; one month later, the constitutional monarchy was abolished; the First French Republic was proclaimed on 21 September 1792. He was tried by the National Convention (self - instituted as a tribunal for the occasion), found guilty of high treason, and executed by guillotine on 21 January 1793, as a desacralized French citizen under the name of "Citizen Louis Capet '', in reference to Hugh Capet, the founder of the Capetian dynasty -- which the revolutionaries interpreted as Louis ' family name. Louis XVI was the only King of France ever to be executed, and his death brought an end to more than a thousand years of continuous French monarchy.
Louis - Auguste de France, who was given the title Duc de Berry at birth, was born in the Palace of Versailles. One of seven children, he was the second son of Louis, the Dauphin of France, and thus the grandson of Louis XV of France and of his consort, Maria Leszczyńska. His mother was Marie - Josèphe of Saxony, the daughter of Frederick Augustus II of Saxony, Prince - Elector of Saxony and King of Poland.
Louis - Auguste was overlooked by his parents who favored his older brother, Louis, duc de Bourgogne, who was regarded as bright and handsome but who died at the age of nine in 1761. Louis - Auguste, a strong and healthy boy but very shy, excelled in his studies and had a strong taste for Latin, history, geography, and astronomy and became fluent in Italian and English. He enjoyed physical activities such as hunting with his grandfather and rough play with his younger brothers, Louis - Stanislas, comte de Provence, and Charles - Philippe, comte d'Artois. From an early age, Louis - Auguste was encouraged in another of his interests, locksmithing, which was seen as a useful pursuit for a child.
Upon the death of his father, who died of tuberculosis on 20 December 1765, the eleven - year - old Louis - Auguste became the new Dauphin. His mother never recovered from the loss of her husband and died on 13 March 1767, also from tuberculosis. The strict and conservative education he received from the Duc de La Vauguyon, "gouverneur des Enfants de France '' (governor of the Children of France), from 1760 until his marriage in 1770, did not prepare him for the throne that he was to inherit in 1774 after the death of his grandfather, Louis XV. Throughout his education, Louis - Auguste received a mixture of studies particular to religion, morality, and humanities. His instructors may have also had a good hand in shaping Louis - Auguste into the indecisive king that he became. Abbé Berthier, his instructor, taught him that timidity was a value in strong monarchs, and Abbé Soldini, his confessor, instructed him not to let people read his mind.
On 16 May 1770, at the age of fifteen, Louis - Auguste married the fourteen - year - old Habsburg Archduchess Maria Antonia (better known by the French form of her name, Marie Antoinette), his second cousin once removed and the youngest daughter of the Holy Roman Emperor Francis I and his wife, the formidable Empress Maria Theresa.
This marriage was met with hostility from the French public. France 's alliance with Austria had pulled the country into the disastrous Seven Years ' War, in which it was defeated by the British and the Prussians, both in Europe and in North America. By the time that Louis - Auguste and Marie - Antoinette were married, the French people generally disliked the Austrian alliance, and Marie - Antoinette was seen as an unwelcome foreigner. For the young couple, the marriage was initially amiable but distant. Louis - Auguste 's shyness and, among other factors, the young age and inexperience of the newlyweds (who were near total strangers to each other: they had met only two days before their wedding) meant that the 15 - year - old bridegroom failed to consummate the union with his 14 - year - old bride. His fear of being manipulated by her for imperial purposes caused him to behave coldly towards her in public. Over time, the couple became closer, though while their marriage was reportedly consummated in July 1773, it did not actually happen until 1777.
The couple 's failure to produce any children for several years placed a strain upon their marriage, exacerbated by the publication of obscene pamphlets (libelles) mocking their infertility. One questioned, "Can the King do it? Ca n't the King do it? ''
The reasons for the couple 's initial failure to have children were debated at that time, and they have continued to be debated since. One suggestion is that Louis - Auguste suffered from a physiological dysfunction, most often thought to be phimosis, a suggestion first made in late 1772 by the royal doctors. Historians adhering to this view suggest that he was circumcised (a common treatment for phimosis) to relieve the condition seven years after their marriage. Louis 's doctors were not in favour of the surgery -- the operation was delicate and traumatic, and capable of doing "as much harm as good '' to an adult male. The argument for phimosis and a resulting operation is mostly seen to originate from Stefan Zweig.
Most modern historians agree that Louis had no surgery -- for instance, as late as 1777, the Prussian envoy, Baron Goltz, reported that the King of France had definitely declined the operation. Louis was frequently declared to be perfectly capable of sexual intercourse, as confirmed by Joseph II, and during the time he was supposed to have had the operation, he went out hunting almost every day, according to his journal. This would not have been possible if he had undergone a circumcision; at the very least, he would have been unable to ride to the hunt for a few weeks afterwards. The couple 's sexual problems are now attributed to other factors. Antonia Fraser 's biography of the queen discusses Joseph II 's letter on the matter to one of his brothers after he visited Versailles in 1777. In the letter, Joseph describes in astonishingly frank detail Louis ' inadequate performance in the marriage bed and Antoinette 's lack of interest in conjugal activity. Joseph described the couple as "complete fumblers ''; however, with his advice, Louis began to apply himself more effectively to his marital duties, and in the third week of March 1777 Marie Antoinette became pregnant.
Eventually, the royal couple became the parents of four children. According to Madame Campan, Marie Antoinette 's lady - in - waiting, the queen also suffered two miscarriages. The first one, in 1779, a few months after the birth of her first child, is mentioned in a letter to her daughter, written in July by empress Maria Theresa. Madame Campan states that Louis spent an entire morning consoling his wife at her bedside, and swore to secrecy everyone who knew of the occurrence. Marie Antoinette suffered a second miscarriage on the night of 2 -- 3 November 1783.
Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette were the parents of four live - born children:
When Louis XVI acceded to the throne in 1774, he was nineteen years old. He had an enormous responsibility, as the government was deeply in debt, and resentment of "despotic '' monarchy was on the rise. He himself felt woefully unqualified to resolve the situation.
As king, Louis XVI focused primarily on religious freedom and foreign policy. While none doubted his intellectual ability to rule France, it was quite clear that, although raised as the Dauphin since 1765, he lacked firmness and decisiveness. His desire to be loved by his people is evident in the prefaces of many of his edicts that would often explain the nature and good intention of his actions as benefiting the people, such as reinstating the parlements. When questioned about his decision, he said, "It may be considered politically unwise, but it seems to me to be the general wish and I want to be loved. '' In spite of his indecisiveness, Louis XVI was determined to be a good king, stating that he "must always consult public opinion; it is never wrong. '' He, therefore, appointed an experienced advisor, Jean - Frédéric Phélypeaux, Comte de Maurepas who, until his death in 1781, would take charge of many important ministerial functions.
Among the major events of Louis XVI 's reign was his signing of the Edict of Versailles, also known as the Edict of Tolerance, on 7 November 1787, which was registered in the parlement on 29 January 1788. Granting non-Roman Catholics -- Huguenots and Lutherans, as well as Jews -- civil and legal status in France and the legal right to practice their faiths, this edict effectively nullified the Edict of Fontainebleau that had been law for 102 years. The Edict of Versailles did not legally proclaim freedom of religion in France -- this took two more years, with the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1789 -- however, it was an important step in eliminating religious tensions and it officially ended religious persecution within his realm.
Radical financial reforms by Turgot and Malesherbes angered the nobles and were blocked by the parlements who insisted that the King did not have the legal right to levy new taxes. So, in 1776, Turgot was dismissed and Malesherbes resigned, to be replaced by Jacques Necker. Necker supported the American Revolution, and he carried out a policy of taking out large international loans instead of raising taxes. He attempted to gain public favor in 1781 when he had published the first ever statement of the French Crown 's expenses and accounts, the Compte rendu au Roi. This allowed the people of France to view the king 's accounts in modest surplus. When this policy failed miserably, Louis dismissed him, and then replaced him in 1783 with Charles Alexandre de Calonne, who increased public spending to "buy '' the country 's way out of debt. Again this failed, so Louis convoked the Assembly of Notables in 1787 to discuss a revolutionary new fiscal reform proposed by Calonne. When the nobles were informed of the extent of the debt, they were shocked into rejecting the plan. After this, Louis XVI tried, along with his new Controller - General des finances, Étienne - Charles de Loménie de Brienne, to force the Parlement de Paris to register the new laws and fiscal reforms. Upon the denial of the members of the Parlement, Louis XVI tried to use his absolute power to subjugate them by every means: enforcing in many occasions the registration of his reforms (6 August 1787, 19 November 1787, and 8 May 1788), exiling all Parlement magistrates to Troyes as a punishment on 15 August 1787, prohibiting six members from attending parliamentary sessions on 19 November, arresting two very important members of the Parlement, who opposed his reforms, on 6 May 1788, and even dissolving and depriving of all power the "Parlement, '' replacing it with a Plenary Court, on 8 May 1788. All of these measures and shows of royal power failed mainly for three reasons. First: the majority of the population stood in favor of the Parlement against the king, and thus continuously rebelled against him. Second: the royal treasury was literally running out of money, in which case it would be incapable of sustaining its own imposed reforms. And third: although the king had as much absolute power as his predecessors, he lacked one crucial trait for absolutism to function properly: authority. Having become unpopular to both the commoners and the aristocracy, Louis XVI was, therefore, able to impose his decisions and reforms only for very short periods of time, ranging from 2 to 4 months, before revoking them.
As authority drifted from him and reforms were becoming necessary, there were increasingly loud calls for him to convoke the Estates - General, which had not met since 1614, at the beginning of the reign of Louis XIII. As a last - ditch attempt to get new monetary reforms approved, Louis XVI convoked the Estates - General on 8 August 1788, setting the date of their opening on 1 May 1789. With the convocation of the Estates - General, as in many other instances during his reign, Louis XVI placed his reputation and public image in the hands of those who were perhaps not as sensitive to the desires of the French population as he was. Because it had been so long since the Estates - General had been convened, there was some debate as to which procedures should be followed. Ultimately, the Parlement de Paris agreed that "all traditional observances should be carefully maintained to avoid the impression that the Estates - General could make things up as it went along. '' Under this decision, the king agreed to retain many of the divisive customs which had been the norm in 1614 and before, but which was intolerable to a Third Estate buoyed by the recent proclamations of equality. For example, the First and Second Estates proceeded into the assembly wearing their finest garments, while the Third Estate was required to wear plain, oppressively somber black, an act of alienation that Louis XVI would likely have not condoned. He seemed to regard the deputies of the Estates - General with at least respect: in a wave of self - important patriotism, members of the Estates refused to remove their hats in the King 's presence, so Louis removed his to them. This convocation was one of the events that transformed the general economic and political malaise of the country into the French Revolution. In June 1789, the Third Estate unilaterally declared itself the National Assembly. Louis XVI 's attempts to control it resulted in the Tennis Court Oath (serment du jeu de paume), on 20 June, the declaration of the National Constituent Assembly on 9 July, and eventually led to the storming of the Bastille on 14 July, which started the French Revolution. (Louis ' "diary '' entry for 14 July, the single word rien (nothing) has been used to show how out of touch with reality he was, but the document was a hunting log, not a personal journal. When he did not go hunting, he wrote "rien, '' which did not mean that nothing important had happened that day). Within three short months, the majority of the king 's executive authority had been transferred to the elected representatives of the Nation.
French involvement in the Seven Years ' War had left Louis XVI a disastrous inheritance. Britain 's victories had seen them capture most of France 's colonial territories. While some were returned to France at the 1763 Treaty of Paris a vast swathe of North America was ceded to the British.
This had led to a strategy amongst the French leadership of seeking to rebuild the French military in order to fight a war of revenge against Britain, in which it was hoped the lost colonies could be recovered. France still maintained a strong influence in the West Indies, and in India maintained five trading posts, leaving opportunities for disputes and power - play with Great Britain.
In the spring of 1776, Vergennes, the Foreign Secretary, saw an opportunity to humiliate France 's long - standing enemy, Great Britain, and to recover territory lost during the Seven Years ' War, by supporting the American Revolution. In the same year Louis XVI was persuaded by Pierre Beaumarchais to send supplies, ammunition, and guns to the rebels secretly, then to sign a formal Treaty of Alliance in early 1778, and later that year to go to war with Britain. In deciding in favor of war, despite France 's large financial problems, the King was materially influenced by alarmist reports after the Battle of Saratoga, which suggested that Britain was preparing to make huge concessions to the thirteen colonies and then, allied with them, to strike at French and Spanish possessions in the West Indies. Spain and the Netherlands soon joined the French in an anti-British coalition. After 1778, Great Britain switched its focus to the West Indies, as defending the sugar islands was considered more important than trying to recover the thirteen colonies. France and Spain planned to invade the British Isles themselves with the Armada of 1779, but the operation never went ahead.
France 's initial military assistance to the American rebels was a disappointment, with defeats at Rhode Island and Savannah. In 1780, France sent Rochambeau and Grasse to help the Americans, along with large land and naval forces. The French expeditionary force arrived in North America in July 1780. The appearance of French fleets in the Caribbean was followed by the capture of a number of the sugar islands, including Tobago and Grenada. In October 1781, the French naval blockade was instrumental in forcing a British army under Cornwallis to surrender at the Siege of Yorktown. When news of this reached London in March 1782, the government of Lord North fell and Great Britain immediately sued for peace terms; however, France delayed the end of the war until September 1783 in the hope of overrunning more British colonies in India and the West Indies.
Great Britain recognised the independence of the thirteen colonies as the United States of America, and the French war ministry rebuilt its army. However, the British defeated the main French fleet in 1782 and successfully defended Jamaica and Gibraltar. France gained little from the 1783 Treaty of Paris that ended the war, except the colonies of Tobago and Senegal. Louis XVI was wholly disappointed in his aims of recovering Canada, India, and other islands in the West Indies from Britain, as they were too well defended and the Royal Navy made any attempted invasion of Britain impossible. The war cost 1,066 million livres, financed by new loans at high interest (with no new taxes). Necker concealed the crisis from the public by explaining only that ordinary revenues exceeded ordinary expenses, and not mentioning the loans. After he was forced from office in 1781, new taxes were levied.
This intervention in America was not possible without France adopting a neutral position in European affairs in order not to be drawn into a continental war which would be simply a repetition of the French policy mistakes in the Seven Years ' War. Vergennes supported by King Louis refused to go to War to support Austria in the Bavarian Succession crisis in 1778, when Austrian Holy Roman Emperor, Joseph, tried to control parts of Bavaria. Vergennes and Maurepas refused to support the Austrian position, but the intervention of Marie Antoinette in favor of Austria obliged France to adopt a position more favorable to Austria, which in the treaty of Teschen was able to get in compensation a territory whose population numbered around 100,000 persons. However, this intervention was a disaster for the image of the Queen, who was named "l'Autrichienne '' (a pun in French meaning "Austrian '', but the "chienne '' suffix can mean "bitch '') on account of it.
Louis XVI hoped to use the American Revolutionary War as an opportunity to expel the British from India. In 1782, he sealed an alliance with the Peshwa Madhu Rao Narayan. As a consequence, Bussy moved his troops to the Isle de France (now Mauritius) and later contributed to the French effort in India in 1783. Suffren became the ally of Hyder Ali in the Second Anglo - Mysore War against British rule in India, in 1782 -- 1783, fighting the British fleet along the coasts of India and Ceylon.
France also intervened in Cochinchina following Mgr Pigneau de Béhaine 's intervention to obtain military aid. A France - Cochinchina alliance was signed through the Treaty of Versailles of 1787, between Louis XVI and Prince Nguyễn Ánh.
Louis XVI also encouraged major voyages of exploration. In 1785, he appointed La Pérouse to lead a sailing expedition around the world.
There is a great lack of scholarship on the subject of Louis XVI 's time as a constitutional monarch, though it was a significant length of time. The reason as to why many biographers have not elaborated extensively on this time in the king 's life is due to the uncertainty surrounding his actions during this period, as Louis XVI 's declaration that was left behind in the Tuileries stated that he regarded his actions during constitutional reign provisional; he reflected that his "palace was a prison ''. This time period was exemplary in its demonstration of an institution 's deliberation while in their last standing moments.
Louis XVI 's time in his previous palace came to an end on 5 October 1789, when an angry mob of Parisian working women was incited by revolutionaries and marched on the Palace of Versailles, where the royal family lived. At dawn, they infiltrated the palace and attempted to kill the queen, who was associated with a frivolous lifestyle that symbolized much that was despised about the Ancien Régime. After the situation had been defused by Lafayette, head of the Garde nationale, the king and his family were brought by the crowd to the Tuileries Palace in Paris, the reasoning being that the king would be more accountable to the people if he lived among them in Paris.
The Revolution 's principles of popular sovereignty, though central to democratic principles of later eras, marked a decisive break from the centuries - old principle of divine right that was at the heart of the French monarchy. As a result, the Revolution was opposed by many of the rural people of France and by all the governments of France 's neighbors. Still, within the city of Paris and amongst the philosophers of the time, many of which sat in the National Assembly, the monarchy had next to no support. As the Revolution became more radical and the masses more uncontrollable, several of its leading figures began to doubt its benefits. Some, like Honoré Mirabeau, secretly plotted with the Crown to restore its power in a new constitutional form.
Beginning in 1791, Montmorin, Minister of Foreign Affairs, started to organize covert resistance to the revolutionary forces. Thus, the funds of the Liste Civile, voted annually by the National Assembly, were partially assigned to secret expenses in order to preserve the monarchy. Arnault Laporte, who was in charge of the Civil list, collaborated with both Montmorin and Mirabeau. After the sudden death of Mirabeau, Maximilien Radix de Sainte - Foix, a noted financier, took his place. In effect, he headed a secret council of advisers to Louis XVI, which tried to preserve the monarchy; these schemes proved unsuccessful, and were exposed later when the armoire de fer was discovered. Regarding the financial difficulties facing France, the Assembly created the Comité des Finances, and while Louis XVI attempted to declare his concern and interest in remedying the economic situations, inclusively offering to melt crown silver as a dramatic measure, it appeared to the public that the king did not understand that such statements no longer held the same meaning as they did before and that doing such a thing could not restore the economy of a country.
Mirabeau 's death on 7 April, and Louis XVI 's indecision, fatally weakened negotiations between the Crown and moderate politicians. The Third Estate leaders also had no desire in turning back or remaining moderate after their hard efforts to change the politics of the time, and so the plans for a constitutional monarchy did not last long. On one hand, Louis was nowhere near as reactionary as his brothers, the comte de Provence and the comte d'Artois, and he repeatedly sent messages to them requesting a halt to their attempts to launch counter-coups. This was often done through his secretly nominated regent, the Cardinal Loménie de Brienne. On the other hand, Louis was alienated from the new democratic government both by its negative reaction to the traditional role of the monarch and in its treatment of him and his family. He was particularly irked by being kept essentially as a prisoner in the Tuileries, and by the refusal of the new regime to allow him to have confessors and priests of his choice rather than ' constitutional priests ' pledged to the state and not the Roman Catholic Church.
On 21 June 1791, Louis XVI attempted to flee secretly with his family from Paris to the royalist fortress town of Montmédy on the northeastern border of France, where he would join the émigrés and be protected by Austria. The voyage was planned by the Swedish nobleman, and often assumed secret lover of Queen Marie - Antoinette, Axel von Fersen. While the National Assembly worked painstakingly towards a constitution, Louis and Marie - Antoinette were involved in plans of their own. Louis had appointed Breteuil to act as plenipotentiary, dealing with other foreign heads of state in an attempt to bring about a counter-revolution. Louis himself held reservations against depending on foreign assistance. Like his mother and father, he thought that the Austrians were treacherous and the Prussians were overly ambitious. As tensions in Paris rose and he was pressured to accept measures from the Assembly against his will, Louis XVI and the queen plotted to secretly escape from France. Beyond escape, they hoped to raise an "armed congress '' with the help of the émigrés, as well as assistance from other nations with which they could return and, in essence, recapture France. This degree of planning reveals Louis ' political determination; unfortunately, it was for this determined plot that he was eventually convicted of high treason. He left behind (on his bed) a 16 - page written manifesto, Déclaration du roi, adressée à tous les François, à sa sortie de Paris, traditionally known as the Testament politique de Louis XVI ("Political Testament of Louis XVI ''), explaining his rejection of the constitutional system as illegitimate; it was printed in the newspapers. However, his indecision, many delays, and misunderstanding of France were responsible for the failure of the escape. Within 24 hours, the royal family was arrested at Varennes - en - Argonne shortly after Jean - Baptiste Drouet, who recognised the king from his profile on a 50 livres assignat (paper money), had given the alert. Louis XVI and his family were taken back to Paris where they arrived on 25 June. Viewed suspiciously as traitors, they were placed under tight house arrest upon their return to the Tuileries.
At the microscopic level, the failure of the escape plans was due to a series of misadventures, delays, misinterpretations, and poor judgments. In a wider perspective, the failure was attributable to the king 's indecision -- he repeatedly postponed the schedule, allowing for smaller problems to become severe. Furthermore, he totally misunderstood the political situation. He thought only a small number of radicals in Paris were promoting a revolution that the people as a whole rejected. He thought, mistakenly, that he was beloved by the peasants and the common folk. The king 's flight in the short term was traumatic for France, inciting a wave of emotions that ranged from anxiety to violence to panic. Everyone realized that war was imminent. The deeper realization, that the king had in fact repudiated the Revolution, was an even greater shock for people who until then had seen him as a good king who governed as a manifestation of God 's will. They felt betrayed, and as a result, Republicanism now burst out of the coffee houses and became a dominating philosophy of the rapidly radicalized French Revolution.
The other monarchies of Europe looked with concern upon the developments in France, and considered whether they should intervene, either in support of Louis or to take advantage of the chaos in France. The key figure was Marie Antoinette 's brother, the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II. Initially, he had looked on the Revolution with equanimity. However, he became more and more disturbed as it became more and more radical. Despite this, he still hoped to avoid war.
On 27 August, Leopold and Frederick William II of Prussia, in consultation with émigrés French nobles, issued the Declaration of Pillnitz, which declared the interest of the monarchs of Europe in the well - being of Louis and his family, and threatened vague but severe consequences if anything should befall them. Although Leopold saw the Pillnitz Declaration as an easy way to appear concerned about the developments in France without committing any soldiers or finances to change them, the revolutionary leaders in Paris viewed it fearfully as a dangerous foreign attempt to undermine France 's sovereignty.
In addition to the ideological differences between France and the monarchical powers of Europe, there were continuing disputes over the status of Austrian estates in Alsace, and the concern of members of the National Constituent Assembly about the agitation of émigrés nobles abroad, especially in the Austrian Netherlands and the minor states of Germany.
In the end, the Legislative Assembly, supported by Louis XVI, declared war on Austria ("the King of Bohemia and Hungary '') first, voting for war on 20 April 1792, after a long list of grievances was presented to it by the foreign minister, Charles François Dumouriez. Dumouriez prepared an immediate invasion of the Austrian Netherlands, where he expected the local population to rise against Austrian rule. However, the Revolution had thoroughly disorganised the army, and the forces raised were insufficient for the invasion. The soldiers fled at the first sign of battle and, in one case, on 28 April 1792, murdered their general, Irish - born comte Théobald de Dillon, whom they accused of treason.
While the revolutionary government frantically raised fresh troops and reorganised its armies, a Prussian - Austrian army under Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick assembled at Coblenz on the Rhine. In July, the invasion began, with Brunswick 's army easily taking the fortresses of Longwy and Verdun. The duke then issued on 25 July a proclamation called the Brunswick Manifesto, written by Louis 's émigré cousin, the Prince de Condé, declaring the intent of the Austrians and Prussians to restore the king to his full powers and to treat any person or town who opposed them as rebels to be condemned to death by martial law.
Contrary to its intended purpose of strengthening Louis XVI 's position against the revolutionaries, the Brunswick Manifesto had the opposite effect of greatly undermining his already highly tenuous position. It was taken by many to be the final proof of collusion between the king and foreign powers in a conspiracy against his own country. The anger of the populace boiled over on 10 August when an armed mob -- with the backing of a new municipal government of Paris that came to be known as the Insurrectional Paris Commune -- marched upon and invaded the Tuileries Palace. The royal family took shelter with the Legislative Assembly.
Louis was officially arrested on 13 August 1792, and sent to the Temple, an ancient fortress in Paris that was used as a prison. On 21 September, the National Assembly declared France to be a Republic and abolished the monarchy. Louis was stripped of all of his titles and honours, and from this date was known as Citoyen Louis Capet.
The Girondins were partial to keeping the deposed king under arrest, both as a hostage and a guarantee for the future. Members of the Commune and the most radical deputies, who would soon form the group known as the Mountain, argued for Louis 's immediate execution. The legal background of many of the deputies made it difficult for a great number of them to accept an execution without the due process of law, and it was voted that the deposed monarch be tried before the National Convention, the organ that housed the representatives of the sovereign people. In many ways, the former king 's trial represented the trial of the monarchy by the revolution. It was seen as such, with the death of one came the life of the other. Michelet argued that the death of the former king would lead to the acceptance of violence as a tool for happiness. He said, "If we accept the proposition that one person can be sacrificed for the happiness of the many, it will soon be demonstrated that two or three or more could also be sacrificed for the happiness of the many. Little by little, we will find reasons for sacrificing the many for the happiness of the many, and we will think it was a bargain. ''
There were two events that led up to the trial for Louis XVI. First, after the Battle of Valmy on 22 September 1792, General Dumouriez negotiated with the Prussians who evacuated France. Louis could no longer be considered a hostage or as leverage in negotiations with the invading forces. Second, in November 1792, the armoire de fer (iron chest) incident took place at the Tuileries Palace, when the existence, in the king 's bedroom, of the hidden safe containing compromising documents and correspondence, was revealed by François Gamain, the Versailles locksmith who had installed it. Gamain went to Paris on 20 November and told Jean - Marie Roland, Girondinist Minister of the Interior, who ordered it opened. The resulting scandal served to discredit the king. Following these two events the Girondins could no longer keep the king from trial.
On 11 December, among crowded and silent streets, the deposed king was brought from the Temple to stand before the Convention and hear his indictment, an accusation of high treason and crimes against the State. On 26 December, his counsel, Raymond Desèze, delivered Louis ' response to the charges, with the assistance of François Tronchet and Malesherbes. Before the trial started and Louis mounted his defense to the Convention, he told his lawyers that he knew he would be found guilty and be killed, but to prepare and act as though they could win. He was resigned to and accepted his fate before the verdict was determined, but he was willing to fight to be remembered as a good king for his people.
The Convention would be voting on three questions: first, Is Louis guilty; second, whatever the decision, should there be an appeal to the people; and third, if found guilty, what punishment should Louis suffer? The order of the voting on each question was a compromise between the Girondins and Jacobins; neither were satisfied but both accepted.
On 15 January 1793, the Convention, composed of 721 deputies, voted on the verdict. Given overwhelming evidence of Louis 's collusion with the invaders, the verdict was a foregone conclusion -- with 693 deputies voting guilty, none for acquittal, with 23 abstaining. The next day, a roll - call vote was carried out to decide upon the fate of the former king, and the result was uncomfortably close for such a dramatic decision. 288 of the deputies voted against death and for some other alternative, mainly some means of imprisonment or exile. 72 of the deputies voted for the death penalty, but subject to a number of delaying conditions and reservations. The voting took a total of 36 hours. 361 of the deputies voted for Louis 's immediate execution. Louis was condemned to death by a majority of one vote. Philippe Égalité, formerly the duke of Orléans and Louis ' own cousin, voted for Louis ' execution, a cause of much future bitterness among French monarchists; he would himself be guillotined on the same scaffold, Place de la Révolution, before the end of the same year, on 6 November 1793.
The next day, a motion to grant Louis XVI reprieve from the death sentence was voted down: 310 of the deputies requested mercy, but 380 voted for the immediate execution of the death penalty. This decision would be final. Malsherbes wanted to break the news to Louis and bitterly lamented the verdict, but Louis told him he would see him again in a happier life and he would regret leaving a friend like Malsherbes behind. The last thing Louis said to him was that he needed to control his tears because all eyes would be upon him.
On Monday, 21 January 1793, Louis XVI was beheaded by guillotine on the Place de la Révolution. As Louis XVI mounted the scaffold, he appeared dignified and resigned. He delivered a short speech in which he pardoned "... those who are the cause of my death... ". He then declared himself innocent of the crimes of which he was accused, praying that his blood would not fall back on France. Many accounts suggest Louis XVI 's desire to say more, but Antoine - Joseph Santerre, a general in the National Guard, halted the speech by ordering a drum roll. The former king was then quickly beheaded. Some accounts of Louis 's beheading indicate that the blade did not sever his neck entirely the first time. There are also accounts of a blood - curdling scream issuing from Louis after the blade fell but this is unlikely, since the blade severed Louis 's spine. The executioner, Charles Henri Sanson, testified that the former king had bravely met his fate.
Immediately after his execution, Louis XVI 's corpse was transported in a cart to the nearby Madeleine cemetery, located rue d'Anjou, where those guillotined at the Place de la Révolution were buried in mass graves. Before his burial, a short religious service was held in the Madeleine church (destroyed in 1799) by two priests who had sworn allegiance to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. Afterwards, Louis XVI, his severed head placed between his feet, was buried in an unmarked grave, with quicklime spread over his body. The Madeleine cemetery was closed in 1794. In 1815 Louis XVIII had the remains of his brother Louis XVI and of his sister - in - law Marie - Antoinette transferred and buried in the Basilica of St Denis, the Kings of France necropolis. Between 1816 and 1826, a commemorative monument, the Chapelle expiatoire was erected at the location of the former cemetery and church.
While Louis 's blood dripped to the ground, several onlookers ran forward to dip their handkerchiefs in it. This account was proven true in 2012, after a DNA comparison linked blood thought to be from Louis XVI 's beheading to DNA taken from tissue samples originating from what was long thought to be the mummified head of Henry IV of France. The blood sample was taken from a squash gourd carved to commemorate the heroes of the French Revolution that had, according to legend, been used to house one of the handkerchiefs dipped in Louis 's blood.
The 19th - century historian Jules Michelet attributed the restoration of the French monarchy to the sympathy that had been engendered by the execution of Louis XVI. Michelet 's Histoire de la Révolution Française and Alphonse de Lamartine 's Histoire des Girondins, in particular, showed the marks of the feelings aroused by the revolution 's regicide. The two writers did not share the same sociopolitical vision, but they agreed that, even though the monarchy was rightly ended in 1792, the lives of the royal family should have been spared. Lack of compassion at that moment contributed to a radicalization of revolutionary violence and to greater divisiveness among Frenchmen. For the 20th century novelist Albert Camus the execution signaled the end of the role of God in history, for which he mourned. For the 20th century philosopher Jean - François Lyotard the regicide was the starting point of all French thought, the memory of which acts as a reminder that French modernity began under the sign of a crime.
Louis ' daughter, Marie - Thérèse - Charlotte, the future Duchess of Angoulême, survived the French Revolution, and she lobbied in Rome energetically for the canonization of her father as a saint of the Catholic Church. Despite his signing of the "Civil Constitution of the Clergy '', Louis had been described as a martyr by Pope Pius VI in 1793. In 1820, however, a memorandum of the Congregation of Rites in Rome, declaring the impossibility of proving that Louis had been executed for religious rather than political reasons, put an end to hopes of canonization.
King Louis XVI has been portrayed in numerous films. In Marie Antoinette (1938), he was played by Robert Morley. Jean - François Balmer portrayed him in the 1989 two - part miniseries La Révolution française. More recently, he was depicted in the 2006 film Marie Antoinette by Jason Schwartzman. In Sacha Guitry 's Si Versailles m'était conté, Louis was portrayed by one of the film 's producers, Gilbert Bokanowski, using the alias Gilbert Boka. Several portrayals have upheld the image of a bumbling, almost foolish king, such as that by Jacques Morel in the 1956 French film Marie - Antoinette reine de France and that by Terence Budd in the Lady Oscar live action film. In Start the Revolution Without Me, Louis XVI is portrayed by Hugh Griffith as a laughable cuckold. Mel Brooks played a comic version of Louis XVI in The History of the World Part 1, portraying him as a libertine who has such distaste for the peasantry he uses them as targets in skeet shooting. In the 1996 film Ridicule; Urbain Cancelier plays Louis.
Louis XVI has been the subject of novels as well, including two of the alternate histories anthologized in If It Had Happened Otherwise (1931): "If Drouet 's Cart Had Stuck '' by Hilaire Belloc and "If Louis XVI Had Had an Atom of Firmness '' by André Maurois, which tell very different stories but both imagine Louis surviving and still reigning in the early 19th century. Louis appears in the children 's book Ben and Me by Robert Lawson but does not appear in the 1953 animated short film based on the same book.
Louis 's formal style before the revolution was "Louis XVI, par la grâce de Dieu, roi de France et de Navarre '', or "Louis XVI, by the Grace of God, King of France and of Navarre ''.
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william wordsworth poems she dwelt among the untrodden ways | She Dwelt among the Untrodden Ways - wikipedia
"She Dwelt Among the Untrodden Ways '' is a three - stanza poem written by the English Romantic poet William Wordsworth in 1798 when he was 28 years old. The verse was first printed in Lyrical Ballads, 1800, a volume of Wordsworth 's and Samuel Taylor Coleridge 's poems that marked a climacteric in the English Romantic movement. The poem is the best known of Wordsworth 's series of five works which comprise his "Lucy '' series, and was a favorite amongst early readers. It was composed both as a meditation on his own feelings of loneliness and loss, and as an ode to the beauty and dignity of an idealized woman who lived unnoticed by all others except by the poet himself. The title line implies Lucy lived unknown and remote, both physically and intellectually. The poet 's subject 's isolated sensitivity expresses a characteristic aspect of Romantic expectations of the human, and especially of the poet 's, condition.
According to the literary critic Kenneth Ober, the poem describes the "growth, perfection, and death '' of Lucy. Whether Wordsworth has declared his love for her is left ambivalent, and even whether she had been aware of the poet 's affection is unsaid. However the poet 's feelings remain unrequited, and his final verse reveals that the subject of his affections has died alone. Lucy 's "untrodden ways '' are symbolic to the poet of both her physical isolation and the unknown details of her mind and life. In the poem, Wordsworth is concerned not so much with his observation of Lucy, but with his experience when reflecting on her death.
"She dwelt among the untrodden ways '' consists of three quatrains, and describes Lucy who lives in solitude near the source of the River Dove. In order to convey the dignity and unaffected flowerlike naturalness of his subject, Wordsworth uses simple language, mainly words of one syllable. In the opening quatrain, he describes the isolated and untouched area where Lucy lived, while her innocence is explored in the second, during which her beauty is compared to that of a hidden flower. The final stanza laments Lucy 's early and lonesome death, which only he notices.
Throughout the poem, sadness and ecstasy are intertwined, emphasised by the exclamation marks in the second and third verses. The effectiveness of the concluding line in the concluding stanza has divided critics and has variously been described as "a masterstroke of understatement '' and overtly sentimental. Wordsworth 's voice remains largely muted, and he was equally silent about the poem and series throughout his life. This fact was often mentioned by 19th century critics, however they disagreed as to its value. A critic, writing in 1851, remarked on the poem 's "deep but subdued and silent devour. ''
This is written with an economy and spareness intended to capture the simplicity the poet sees in Lucy. Lucy 's femininity is described in the verse in girlish terms, a fact that has drawn criticism from some critics that see a female icon, in the words of John Woolford "represented in Lucy by condemning her to death while denying her the actual or symbolic fulfillment of maternity ''. To evoke the "loveliness of body and spirit '', a pair of complementary but opposite images are employed in the second stanza: a solitary violet, unseen and hidden, and Venus, emblem of love, and the first star of evening, public and visible to all. Wondering which Lucy most resembled -- the violet or the star -- the critic Cleanth Brooks concluded that although Wordsworth likely viewed her as "the single star, completely dominating (his) world, not arrogantly like the sun, but sweetly and modestly ''. Brooks considered the metaphor only vaguely relevant, and a conventional and anomalous complement. For Wordsworth, Lucy 's appeal is closer to the violet and lies in her seclusion, and her perceived affinity with nature.
Wordsworth purchased a copy of Thomas Percy 's collection of British ballad material "Reliques of Ancient English Poetry '' in Hamburg a few months before he began to compose the Lucy series. The influence of traditional English folk ballad is evident in the meter, rhythm, and structure of the poem. She Dwelt among the Untrodden Ways follows the variant ballad stanza a4 -- b3 -- a4 b3, and in keeping with ballad tradition seeks to tell its story in a dramatic manner. As the critic Kenneth Ober observed, "To confuse the mode of the ' Lucy ' poems with that of the love lyric is to overlook their structure, in which, as in the traditional ballad, a story is told as boldly and briefly as possible. '' Ober compares the opening lines of She Dwelt among the Untrodden Ways to the traditional ballad Katharine Jaffray and notes the similarities in rhythm and structure, as well as in theme and imagery:
There livd a lass in yonder dale, And doun in yonder glen, O. And Katherine Jaffray was her name, Well known by many men, O.
According to the critic Carl Woodring, "She Dwelt '' can also be read as an elegy. He views the poem and the Lucy series in general as elegiac "in the sense of sober meditation on death or a subject related to death '', and that they have "the economy and the general air of epitaphs in the Greek Anthology... if all elegies are mitigations of death, the Lucy poems are also meditations on simple beauty, by distance made more sweet and by death preserved in distance ''.
One passage was originally intended for the poem "Michael '' -- "Renew 'd their search begun where from Dove Crag / Ill home for bird so gentle / they look 'd down / On Deep - dale Head, and Brothers - water ''.
Wordsworth wrote his series of "Lucy '' poems during a stay with his sister Dorothy in Hamburg, Germany, between October 1798 and April 1801. The real life identity of Lucy has never been identified, and it is probable that she was not modeled on any one historical person. Wordsworth himself never addressed the matter of her persona, and was reticent about commenting on the series. Although a great detail is known of the circumstances and details of Wordsworth 's life, from the time he spend during of his stay in Germany comparatively little record survives. Only one known mention from the poet that references the series survives, and that mentions the series only, and not any of the individual verses.
The literary historian Kenneth Johnson concluded that Lucy was created as the personification of Wordsworth 's muse,
and the group as a whole is a series of invocations to a Muse feared dead. As epitaphs, they are not sad, a very inadequate word to describe them, but breathlessly, almost aware of what such a loss would mean to the speaker: ' oh, the difference to me! '
Writing in the mid-19th century, Thomas De Quincey said that Wordsworth,
always preserved a mysterious silence on the subject of that ' Lucy ', repeatedly alluded to or apostrophised in his poems, and I have heard, from gossiping people about Hawkshead, some snatches of tragic story, which, after all, might be an idle semi-fable, improved out of slight materials.
Lucy 's identity has been the subject of much speculation, and some have guessed that the poems are an attempt by Wordsworth to voice his affection for Dorothy; this line of thought reasoning that the poems dramatise Wordsworth 's feelings of grief for her inevitable death. Soon after the series was completed, Coleridge wrote, "Some months ago Wordsworth transmitted to me a most sublime Epitaph / whether it had any reality, I can not say. - Most probably, in some gloomier moment he had fancied the moment in which his Sister might die. ''
Reflecting on the importance and relevance of Lucy 's identity, the 19th - century literary critic Frederic Myers said, "Here it was that the memory of some emotion prompted the lines on Lucy. Of the history of that emotion, he has told us nothing; I forbear, therefore, to inquire concerning it, or even to speculate. That it was to the poet 's honour, I do not doubt; but who ever learned such secrets rightly? Or who should wish to learn? It is best to leave the sanctuary of all hearts inviolate, and to respect the reserve not only of the living but of the dead. Of these poems, almost alone, Wordsworth in his autobiographical notes has said nothing whatever. '' According to Karl Kroeber,
Lucy is thought by others to represent his childhood friend Peggy Hutchinson, with whom he was in love before her early death in 1796 -- Wordsworth later married Peggy 's sister, Mary.
Wordsworth established himself, according to the critic Norman Lacey, as a ' poet of nature ' in his volume Lyrical Ballads in which "She Dwelt '' first appeared. Early works, such as Tintern Abbey, can be seen as an ode to his experience of nature (though he preferred to avoid this interpretation), or as a lyrical meditation on the fundamental character of the natural world. Wordsworth later recalled that as a youth nature once stirred in him, "an appetite, a feeling and a love '', but by the time he wrote "Lyrical Ballads '', it evoked "the still sad music of humanity ''.
The five ' Lucy ' poems are often interpreted as representing both his apposing views of nature and a meditation on natural cycle of life. "Strange fits '' presents "Kind Nature 's gentlest boon '', "Three years '' its duality, and "A slumber '', according to the American literary critic Cleanth Brooks, the clutter of natural object. In Jones view, "She dwelt '', along with "I travelled '', represents its "rustication and disappearance ''.
"She dwelt... '' has been parodied numerous times since it was first published. In part, parodies of earlier works were intended to remark on the simplification of textual complexities and deliberate ambiguities in poetry, and on the way many 19th - century critics sought to establish a ' definitive ' reasonings. According to Jones, such parodies sought to comment in a "meta - critical '' manner, and to present an alternative mode of criticism to the then mainstream mode.
Among the more notable are those by Hartley Coleridge ("A Bard whom there were none to praise, / And very few to read '') in 1834, and Samuel Butler 's 1888 murder - mystery reading of the poem. Butler believed Wordsworth 's use of the phrase "the difference to me! '' was overtly terse, and remarked that the poet was "most careful not to explain the nature of the difference which the death of Lucy will occasion him to be... The superficial reader takes it that he is very sorry she was dead... but he has not said this. ''
These parodies were intended to question definitive interpretation of the verse, and highlight its indeterminacies.
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who sings i'm gonna hire a wino | I 'm Gonna Hire a Wino to Decorate Our Home - Wikipedia
"I 'm Gonna Hire a Wino to Decorate Our Home '' is a song written by Dewayne Blackwell and recorded by American country music artist David Frizzell. It was released in April 1982 as the first single from the album The Family 's Fine, But This One 's All Mine. "I 'm Gonna Hire a Wino to Decorate Our Home '' was David Frizzell 's only number one on the country chart as a solo artist. The single went to number one for one week and spent a total of 14 weeks in country music 's top 40.
The song also became an unexpected mainstream pop hit in Canada, peaking at No. 20 on the RPM Top Singles chart (in addition to peaking at No. 3 on the magazine 's Top Country Tracks chart).
The song talks of a wife who grows tired of her husband 's barhopping (and spending his entire paycheck doing so).
But instead of ending the marriage, she comes up with a unique plan -- she decides to redecorate their house into a bar, and play the part of bartender / waitress as an inducement to get her husband to stay at home (and possibly bring his friends along with him, so they can spend their paychecks). While he recovers from his hangover the following morning, she will deposit the proceeds in their bank account.
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how many times have the warriors won the finals | Golden State Warriors - wikipedia
The Golden State Warriors are an American professional basketball team based in Oakland, California. The Warriors compete in the National Basketball Association (NBA) as a member of the league 's Western Conference Pacific Division. The Warriors play their home games at the Oracle Arena in Oakland. The Warriors have reached nine NBA Finals, winning five NBA championships in 1947, 1956, 1975, 2015 and 2017. Golden State 's five NBA championships are tied for fourth-most in NBA history with the San Antonio Spurs, and behind only the Boston Celtics (17), Los Angeles Lakers (16) and Chicago Bulls (6). As of 2017, the Warriors are the third most valuable NBA franchise according to Forbes, with an estimated value of $2.6 billion.
The team was established in 1946 as the Philadelphia Warriors based in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, a founding member of the Basketball Association of America (BAA). In 1962, the franchise relocated to the San Francisco Bay Area and was renamed the San Francisco Warriors. In 1971, the team changed its geographic moniker to Golden State, California 's state nickname. The team is nicknamed the Dubs as a shortening of "W 's ''.
Wilt Chamberlain and Stephen Curry have both been named the NBA 's Most Valuable Player while playing for the Warriors, for a total of three MVP awards. 18 Hall of Famers have played for the Warriors, while four have coached the team. Golden State holds the NBA records for best regular season with 73 -- 9 and most wins in a season (regular season and postseason combined) with 88 in 2015 -- 16, as well as best postseason with 16 -- 1 (. 941 winning percentage) in 2016 -- 17.
The Warriors were founded in 1946 as the Philadelphia Warriors, a charter member of the Basketball Association of America. They were owned by Peter A. Tyrrell, who also owned the Philadelphia Rockets of the American Hockey League. Tyrrell hired Eddie Gottlieb, a longtime basketball promoter in the Philadelphia area, as coach and general manager. The owners named the team after the Philadelphia Warriors, an old basketball team who played in the American Basketball League in 1925.
Led by early scoring sensation Joe Fulks, the team won the championship in the league 's inaugural 1946 -- 47 season by defeating the Chicago Stags, four games to one. The NBA, which was created by a 1949 merger, officially recognizes that as its own first championship. Gottlieb bought the team in 1951.
The Warriors won its other championship in Philadelphia in the 1955 -- 56 season, defeating the Fort Wayne Pistons four games to one. The Warrior stars of this era were future Hall of Famers Paul Arizin, Tom Gola and Neil Johnston. In 1959, the team signed draft pick Wilt Chamberlain. Known as "Wilt the Stilt '', he led the team in scoring six times, quickly began shattering NBA scoring records and changed the NBA style of play forever. On March 2, 1962, in a Warrior "home '' game played on a neutral court in Hershey, Pennsylvania, Chamberlain scored 100 points against the New York Knicks, a single - game record the NBA ranks among its finest moments.
In 1962, Franklin Mieuli purchased the majority shares of the team and relocated the franchise to the San Francisco Bay Area, renaming them the San Francisco Warriors. The Warriors played most of their home games at the Cow Palace in Daly City (the facility lies just south of the San Francisco city limits) from 1962 to 1964 and the San Francisco Civic Auditorium from 1964 to 1966, though occasionally playing home games in nearby cities such as Oakland and San Jose.
Prior to the 1963 -- 64 NBA season, the Warriors drafted big man Nate Thurmond to go along with Chamberlain. The Warriors won the Western Division crown that season, but lost the 1964 NBA Finals to the Boston Celtics, four games to one. In the 1964 -- 65 season, the Warriors traded Chamberlain to the Philadelphia 76ers for Connie Dierking, Lee Shaffer, Paul Neumann and $150,000 and won only 17 games. In 1965, they drafted Rick Barry in the first round who went on to become NBA Rookie of the Year that season and then led the Warriors to the NBA finals in the 1966 -- 67 season, losing (four games to two) to Chamberlain 's new team that had replaced the Warriors in Philadelphia, the 76ers.
Angered by management 's failure to pay him certain incentive bonuses he felt were due him, Barry sat out the 1967 -- 68 season and signed with the Oakland Oaks of the rival American Basketball Association for the following year, but after four seasons in the ABA rejoined the Warriors in 1972. During Barry 's absence, the Warriors were no longer title contenders, and the mantle of leadership fell to Thurmond, Jeff Mullins and Rudy LaRusso. They began scheduling more home games in Oakland with the opening of the Oakland Coliseum Arena in 1966 and the 1970 -- 71 season would be the team 's last as the San Francisco Warriors.
The franchise adopted its brand name Golden State Warriors prior to the 1971 -- 72 season, in order to suggest that the team represented the entire state of California. Almost all home games were played in Oakland that season; six were played in San Diego, but none in San Francisco or Daly City. Oakland Arena became the team 's exclusive home court in 1971.
The Warriors made the playoffs from 1971 to 1977 except in 1974, and won their first NBA championship on the West Coast in 1974 -- 75. In what many consider the biggest upset in NBA history, Golden State not only defeated the heavily favored Washington Bullets but humiliated them in a four - game sweep. That team was coached by former Warrior Al Attles, and led on the court by Rick Barry and Jamaal Wilkes. Barry was named MVP of the finals.
At 59 - 23, the Warriors had the league 's best record during the 1975 -- 76 season. They were upset, however, by the 42 - 40 Phoenix Suns in seven games in the Western Conference Finals.
Because of the loss of key players such as Barry, Wilkes and Thurmond to trades and retirements, the Warriors struggled to put a competitive team on the court from 1978 to 1987 after being one of the NBA 's dominant teams in the 1960s and most of the 1970s. Through the NBA draft, however, they acquired some players such as high - scoring forward Purvis Short (1978), former Purdue center Joe Barry Carroll (1980) and center Robert Parish (1976), who was traded to the Boston Celtics in 1980 along with the draft pick that would become Kevin McHale for the pick used to draft Carroll. In 1983, the Warriors matched the New York Knicks ' offer for free - agent Bernard King, but, unable to pay his high salary, quickly traded him to the Knicks for guard Micheal Ray Richardson, whom they soon shipped to New Jersey in exchange for former Georgetown Hoya point guard Eric "Sleepy '' Floyd, and journeyman forward Mickey Johnson. (Floyd once scored 29 points for the Warriors in the fourth quarter of a playoff game against the Lakers, though he was later traded to the Houston Rockets).
The departure of these players for various reasons symbolized the franchise 's futility during this period, as head coach Attles moved up to the front office as general manager in 1980 and the team made several coaching changes. New owners Jim Fitzgerald and Dan Finane finally managed to return the team to respectability by hiring former Cleveland Cavaliers head coach George Karl as head coach in 1986 after selecting St. John 's small forward Chris Mullin in the 1985 NBA draft.
After a subpar stretch in the late 1970s and early 1980s, the team had a brief resurgence under coach Karl, culminating in a 1987 Western Conference Semifinal match against Magic Johnson and the Los Angeles Lakers which is still shown on TV in the NBA 's Greatest Games series. In the game, Warriors ' All - Star point guard Sleepy Floyd 's performance in the second half still stands as the NBA playoff record for points scored in a quarter (29) and in a half (39). His six consecutive field goals in the fourth quarter led to a 51 - point finish for him and a victory for the Warriors.
The "Sleepy Floyd game '' was a catalyst for increased interest in the NBA in the Bay Area which was furthered by new coach Don Nelson, who engineered another successful string of wins in the late 1980s and early 1990s with the high - scoring trio of point guard Tim Hardaway, guard Mitch Richmond and forward Chris Mullin (collectively known as "Run TMC '' after the rap group Run - D.M.C.). But "Run TMC '' stayed together for only two seasons (winning only one playoff series), when coach Nelson, in a move to get a promising young front - court player to complement his run - and - gun system, sent Richmond to the Sacramento Kings for rookie power forward Billy Owens. Nelson had been brought to the Warriors from the Milwaukee Bucks by Jim Fitzgerald, who along with Dan Finnane owned the team between 1986 and 1995. In 1993 -- 94, with first - round draft pick and Rookie of the Year power forward Chris Webber playing alongside off - guard Latrell Sprewell, the Warriors made the playoffs.
At the start of the next season, however, a rift formed between Webber and Sprewell on the one hand and Nelson on the other. All three soon left the team, and the organization went into a tailspin. 1994 -- 95 was the first season under new team owner Chris Cohan, who had bought out Fitzgerald and Finnane. The Warriors selected power forward prospect Joe Smith as their first overall draft pick in 1995 and hired Rick Adelman as the new head coach. They sent Tim Hardaway and Chris Gatling to the Miami Heat for Kevin Willis and Bimbo Coles midway through the 1995 -- 96 season, and ended up with a 36 -- 46 record, three wins short of making the playoffs. While their home court, the Oakland Coliseum Arena, was being extensively renovated, the 1996 -- 97 Warriors played their home games in the San Jose Arena and struggled to a 30 -- 52 finish.
Longtime Seton Hall college coach P.J. Carlesimo, who had been recently fired by the Portland Trail Blazers, replaced Adelman as head coach for 1997 -- 98. Sprewell was suspended for the remainder of the 1997 -- 98 season for losing his temper and choking Carlesimo during a team practice in December, generating the glaring newspaper headline "WARRIORS HIT ROCK BOTTOM '' and the declaration by general manager Garry St. Jean that Sprewell would never play for the Warriors again. He would not play in the NBA again until he was dealt in January 1999 to the New York Knicks for John Starks, Chris Mills and Terry Cummings.
St. Jean had become the new Warriors ' general manager in July 1997; he and his predecessor Dave Twardzik received much of the blame for the Warriors ' struggles early in Cohan 's turbulent tenure as owner in addition to Cohan himself. St. Jean brought in players such as Terry Cummings, John Starks and Mookie Blaylock who were well past their primes. Twardzik drafted several flops, such as Todd Fuller (while Kobe Bryant was still available as well as Steve Nash and Jermaine O'Neal) and Steve Logan (who never played an NBA game). In the following draft, the team selected Adonal Foyle while Tracy McGrady was still available. St. Jean did, however, draft future two - time NBA slam dunk champion off - guard Jason Richardson (from Michigan State), a Warriors ' star scorer through the 2006 -- 07 season.
For a few years, with rising stars Richardson, small forward Antawn Jamison and point guard Gilbert Arenas leading the team, the Warriors seemed like a team on the rise; but the young Warriors did not have enough in the competitive Western Conference to make the playoffs. After the 2002 -- 03 season, St. Jean 's earlier mistakes of committing money to players like Danny Fortson, Adonal Foyle and Erick Dampier were painfully felt by Warriors ' fans when the team was unable to re-sign Arenas despite his desire to stay in the Bay Area. A new rule was implemented in response to second - round draft picks who quickly become superstars. Chris Mullin succeeded St. Jean with the title of Executive Vice President of Basketball Operations in 2004. He hoped to build a winning team around Jason Richardson, Mike Dunleavy Jr and Troy Murphy, and drafted 7 - foot center Andris Biedriņš from Latvia (11th overall). At the 2005 trading deadline, he bolstered to the team with the acquisition of point guard Baron Davis, bringing to the team its first superstar since Mullin himself. The Warriors enjoyed a great start to the 2005 -- 06 season, entering the new year with a plus. 500 winning percentage for the first time since 1994, but managed to win only 13 more games through the end of March due to injuries. Davis often found himself at odds with new head coach Mike Montgomery (used to dealing with college players in his long tenure at Stanford) and failed to remain healthy, playing in just 54 games. On April 5, 2006, the Warriors were officially eliminated from playoff contention in a 114 -- 109 overtime loss to the Hornets, extending their playoff drought to 12 seasons.
Entering the 2006 -- 07 season, the Warriors held the active record (12) for the most consecutive seasons without a playoff appearance (see Active NBA non-playoff appearance streaks). During the 2006 off - season, Golden State announced that it had bought out the remaining two years of coach Montgomery 's contract and hired previous Golden State and former Dallas Mavericks coach Don Nelson to take over for him. During training camp, small forward Matt Barnes established himself in the rotation. On January 17, 2007, the Warriors traded the disappointing Murphy and Dunleavy with promising young power forward Ike Diogu and Keith McLeod to the Indiana Pacers for forward Al Harrington, forward / guard Stephen Jackson, guard Šarūnas Jasikevičius and forward Josh Powell. This trade allowed the Warriors to "run and gun '' their way to the playoffs with a more athletic and talented team. On March 4, 2007, the Warriors suffered a 106 -- 107 loss in Washington, the Wizards handing them their 6th straight loss when former Warrior Arenas hit a technical free throw with less than one second remaining after Nelson had protested a controversial call with the Warriors ahead by a slim margin. The loss dropped them to 26 -- 35.
March 4 marked the turning point for the Warriors. The Warriors closed out the regular season (42 -- 40) at 16 -- 5 in their last 21 games. "We Believe '' became the Warriors ' slogan for the last two months of the season and the playoffs.
Led by a healthy Baron Davis, an ever - improving Jason Richardson and young future star off - guard Monta Ellis as well as center Biedriņš, the Warriors immediately dashed the highly favored top - seed Dallas Mavericks ' expectations of a short and easy series win with a Game 1 victory in Dallas thanks to Davis ' frantic style of play. The Mavericks came back to win Game 2 easily to tie the series at a game apiece, but the Warriors won both Games 3 & 4 with a huge lift from the home crowd at Oracle Arena. A close Game 5 saw the Mavericks eke out a 118 -- 112 victory with a last - minute surge led by superstar forward Dirk Nowitzki to send the series back to California at 3 -- 2. In Game 6, the Warriors engineered a third - quarter 18 -- 0 run to eliminate the Mavericks and become the NBA 's first No. 8 seed to beat a No. 1 seed in a seven - game series (and the first NBA No. 8 seed to beat the top seed since 1999 when the New York Knicks eliminated the Miami Heat). It was an upset in name only, given the fact that the Warriors had swept the Mavericks in the regular season series.
The Warriors went on to play the Utah Jazz in the second round of the 2006 -- 07 playoffs, where they dropped two close games at EnergySolutions Arena to open the series. The series then shifted to the Oracle Arena, where the Warriors won Game 3 in a convincing blowout. Davis scored 32 points and electrified the crowd with a monster dunk on Jazz forward Andrei Kirilenko late in the fourth quarter, but they lost Game 4 at home, their first loss in Oakland in well over a month and the Jazz closed them out in Game 5 in Salt Lake City.
The Warriors faced early difficulties in their attempt to return to the playoffs. Richardson was traded to the Charlotte Bobcats for rookie Brandan Wright. To make things even worse, Jackson was suspended for seven games over a firearm incident. They opened the 2007 -- 08 season with six straight losses, but Ellis ' rise, Davis ' solid injury - free season (21.6 points, 8 assists, 4.6 rebounds per game), and an overall improvement in team chemistry brought them back to playoff contention; but in the end the Warriors failed to make the playoffs despite a 48 -- 34 season, which is the best record in NBA history for a non-playoff team since the NBA playoffs had expanded to eight teams per conference. The Western Conference was very strong that season; every playoff team won 50 games, leaving the Warriors two games out of the last playoff spot. The Warriors sold out nearly every home game during the season averaging 19,631 per game, the highest in team history.
In the offseason, Baron Davis opted to return to his home town and sign with the Los Angeles Clippers. With the 14th pick of the 2008 NBA draft, the Warriors selected and signed Anthony Randolph out of LSU. To compensate for the loss of Davis, the Warriors signed free agents Corey Maggette and Ronny Turiaf and re-signed Ellis and Andris Biedriņš to long - term contracts.
The Warriors had a disappointing 2008 -- 2009 season, finishing 29 -- 53. Ellis was injured in a moped accident, and suspended for 30 games for riding the vehicle against the terms of his contract, depriving the Warriors of their top player. They traded disenchanted forward Al Harrington to the New York Knicks for guard Jamal Crawford, and were undone by injuries and the minimal experience of their young players such as Anthony Morrow and Brandan Wright. Coach Nelson often had to make adjustments to the starting lineups since many of the original starters missed games due to injuries. Despite the team 's losing record, the Warriors were hard to beat when they had a healthy lineup and a strong bench. With leadership and improvement in their young players, they were sometimes able to defeat powerhouse teams such as the Boston Celtics, 99 - 89.
During the 2009 off - season, Warrior ownership declined to renew the contract of general manager Mullin. Larry Riley, Nelson 's longtime assistant coach, was promoted in his place and drafted Stephen Curry as an outstanding 7th lottery pick, but dubiously traded Jamal Crawford to the Atlanta Hawks for Acie Law and Speedy Claxton.
The Warriors had another injury - prone year in 2009 -- 10. as they were consistently unable to field their ideal starting lineup. In November, a malcontented Stephen Jackson and seldom - used Acie Law were traded to the Charlotte Bobcats for Raja Bell (out for the season with an injury) and Vladimir Radmanovic. Four days later, they signed center Chris Hunter. Starting in January 2010, they issued multiple 10 - day contracts, most notably to power forward Anthony Tolliver from the Idaho Stampede. Due to their multiple injuries, they were granted an exception allowing them to sign Reggie Williams from the Sioux Falls Skyforce to a 10 - day contract on March 2, making it their fifth D - League call - up that season, tying an NBA record. They eventually waived the injured Bell to sign Williams for the rest of the year, and finished the season 26 -- 56, fourth in the Pacific Division.
On June 24, the Warriors selected Ekpe Udoh, a power forward from Baylor, as the 6th pick of the 2010 NBA draft. They also introduced a modernized version of their "The City '' logo depicting the new eastern span of the San Francisco - Oakland Bay Bridge, and switched to a simplified color scheme of royal blue and gold. They also introduced new uniforms reminiscent of the 1969 -- 71 "The City '' uniforms. The Warriors made an offseason trade that sent Turiaf, Randolph and Kelenna Azubuike to the New York Knicks in return for star high - scoring power forward David Lee via a sign - and - trade. Lee agreed to a six - year, $80 million deal, on a framework contingent on the decision of superstar forward LeBron James to leave the Cleveland Cavaliers to sign with the Miami Heat that same day. Following Morrow 's departure after he signed the New Jersey Nets ' offer sheet, the Warriors signed Dorell Wright, formerly with the Miami Heat, to a three - year, $11 million deal.
On July 15, owner Chris Cohan sold the Warriors to Peter Guber of Mandalay Entertainment and his partner Joe Lacob for a then - record $450 million. On November 15, the Warriors announced the new 19 - person ownership group composed of Joe Lacob, Peter Guber, Vivek Ranadivé, Erika Glazer, Fred Harman, Bob Piccinini, Larry Bowman, Danny German, Marty Glick, Chad Hurley, Craig R. Johnson, Bruce Karsh, Jeffrey A. Miller, Paul Schaeffer, David Scially, Nick Swinmurn, Harry Tsao, John Walecka and Dennis Wong.
The Warriors continued their signing spree by adding Harvard guard Jeremy Lin to their roster with a one - year partially guaranteed contract containing a second - year team option, the first Taiwanese - American player in NBA history. Louis Amundson was then added for little under $5 million in mid-September. Keith Smart was hired as head coach that same month after Nelson had resigned before the start of training camp.
In February 2011, the Warriors traded Brandan Wright and Dan Gadzuric for Troy Murphy and a 2011 second - round pick. On February 27, Murphy and the Warriors reached a buyout agreement and he was waived.
During a steady season without making any real ground in the playoff race, the Warriors broke franchise records with 21 made 3 's in a win against the Orlando Magic. In April 2011, Dorell Wright made a franchise record of 184 3 's in a season in a home win versus Los Angeles Lakers, surpassing Richardson 's 183 in 2005 -- 06. He then broke another NBA record, as the first player to have scored more points in his seventh season than in all his first six seasons combined in a win against the Portland Trail Blazers. He ended the season with the most three - pointers made in the NBA that season with 194, as well as the most 3s attempted with 516, both of which set new Warrior franchise records.
The Warriors failed to make the playoffs after a 36 - win season in 2010 -- 11, and coach Smart was dismissed on April 27 due to the change in ownership. 17 - year NBA veteran and former ABC and ESPN commentator Mark Jackson replaced him as head coach on June 6. On December 19, they traded Amundson to the Indiana Pacers for small forward Brandon Rush.
The Warriors did not improve in the 2011 -- 12 NBA season under coach Jackson, finishing the lockout - shorted season with a 23 -- 43 record, 13th in the conference. The team suffered several injuries to key players, and due to the lockout, Jackson could not establish his system in training camp. They then entered into another chaotic rebuilding phase.
Team leader Monta Ellis was traded in mid-March 2012, along with Kwame Brown and Ekpe Udoh, to the Milwaukee Bucks for center Andrew Bogut (out injured for the season) and former Warrior small forward Stephen Jackson, who without playing a game for the Warriors was quickly traded to the San Antonio Spurs for Richard Jefferson and a conditional first - round pick on March 15. These moves saw the rise of Stephen Curry and David Lee to team co-captains, and saw off - guard Klay Thompson, the 11th overall pick of the 2011 NBA draft, move into a starting role. On July 11, they acquired point guard Jarrett Jack from the New Orleans Hornets in a three - team trade also including the Philadelphia 76ers, who received Dorell Wright from Golden State. On August 1, they signed forward Carl Landry on the termination of his one - year contract with the Hornets. In the 2012 NBA draft, they selected small forward Harrison Barnes with the 7th overall pick, center Festus Ezeli with the 30th pick, small forward Draymond Green 35th overall, and 7 - foot 1 - inch center Ognjen Kuzmic 52nd overall. In early November, swingman Rush was lost for the year with a torn ACL after falling awkwardly on the court early in the second game of the season, and less than a month later the team announced that Bogut was out indefinitely with a foot injury that was more serious than originally reported. Bogut did not return to regular play until late in the season.
Coming out of this maelstrom of trades and injuries with a team starting two rookies (Barnes and Ezeli), the Warriors had one of their best starts in decades, earning their 20th win before hitting the 30 - game mark for the first time since 1992. The Warriors also achieved a milestone by completing their first ever 6 -- 1 road trip in franchise history, including a 97 -- 95 win over the defending champion Heat in Miami. On April 9, 2013, with a win over the Minnesota Timberwolves, the Warriors clinched the playoffs for the second time in 19 years and the first time since the 2006 -- 07 "We Believe '' Warriors. This time, the local battlecry was "We Belong ''.
The team finished the season with a record of 47 -- 35, earning the sixth seed in the Western Conference, and defeated the Denver Nuggets in the first round of the playoffs by winning four out of six games. They lost in the second round to the San Antonio Spurs, four games to two. This was the first playoff experience for all of the starters of this group except for Andrew Bogut.
Other highlights of the season included Stephen Curry 's 272 three - point baskets to set an NBA single - season record, giving him the nickname "baby - faced assassin '', and the naming of forward David Lee to the 2013 NBA All - Star Game as a reserve, ending the team 's 16 - year drought without an All Star selection, dating back to Latrell Sprewell in the 1997 season. Curry and Klay Thompson, dubbed the "Splash Brothers '' by team employee Brian Witt for their backcourt shooting prowess, combined for 483 three - pointers during the season, easily besting the prior record of 435 set by the Orlando Magic 's Nick Anderson and Dennis Scott in 1995 -- 96.
With their lone selection in the 2013 NBA draft, the Warriors made 22 - year - old Serbian combo - guard Nemanja Nedovic the 30th and final pick of the first round. In early July 2013, Golden State signed former Denver Nuggets swingman and free agent Andre Iguodala to a four - year, $48 million deal. To make room under their salary cap, the Warriors traded Richard Jefferson, Andris Biedriņš and Brandon Rush, along with multiple draft picks, including their 2014 and 2017 first - round picks, to the Utah Jazz. The Warriors lost free - agent guard Jarrett Jack, who departed for the Cleveland Cavaliers, and free agent power forward Carl Landry, who went to the Sacramento Kings. To help fill the void left by Landry, the Warriors signed forward - center Marreese Speights to a three - year, $10 million contract. The team also signed one - year deals with veteran center Jermaine O'Neal ($2 million) and point guard Toney Douglas ($1.6 million). On August 21, the Warriors signed 7 ft 1 in Serbian center Ognjen Kuzmic, who had been playing in Europe since his selection in the 2012 NBA draft, to a guaranteed two - year deal.
The Warriors began the 2013 -- 14 season showing flashes of brilliance and also plenty of lapses. In early December their record was 12 -- 9, as compared to 17 -- 4 the year before. One challenging factor was a tough starting schedule that saw them play 14 of their first 22 games on the road, including 10 games against teams holding playoff spots in the standings. A stream of injuries also held the team back, including injuries to Festus Ezeli (off - season surgery to repair the right knee, out for the season), Toney Douglas (left tibia stress reaction, out nearly a month from mid-November to December), and Jermaine O'Neal (right wrist injury and surgery, out from mid-November to early February). Stephen Curry and Harrison Barnes were also out for at least four games before the all - star break, each with minor injuries. Most prominently of all, Iguodala suffered a hamstring pull in late November that kept him out for over a month, during which time the Warriors ' performance suffered significantly on both the defensive and offensive ends of the court, and the team posted a losing 5 -- 7 record while revealing a lack of depth on their bench. With Iguodala back in the lineup, the Warriors went on a 10 - game winning streak, which included six consecutive wins on a single road trip, tying an NBA record. The winning streak was the longest for the franchise since the 1975 championship year, and just one short of the team record of 11 consecutive wins, set in the 1971 -- 72 season.
To strengthen their underperforming bench, the Warriors made a three - team trade on January 15, sending Douglas to the Miami Heat and picking up guards Jordan Crawford and MarShon Brooks from the Boston Celtics and then, a day before the trade deadline, trading Kent Bazemore and Brooks to the Los Angeles Lakers in exchange for veteran point guard Steve Blake. Thanks in part to the improved effectiveness of their backup squad, boosted by the additions of Blake and Crawford and the play of 35 - year - old Jermaine O'Neal (who returned sooner than expected from wrist surgery), the Warriors were one of the winningest teams in the NBA after the all - star break. Nonetheless, and despite several victories over top contenders, the team displayed a pattern of losing games to inferior teams even at their home arena. On April 11, in a 112 -- 95 stomping of the Los Angeles Lakers at the Staples Center, the Warriors clinched a playoff berth in consecutive seasons for the first time since 1991 and 1992. However, just one day earlier in a loss against the Portland Trail Blazers, Andrew Bogut suffered a cracked rib that would keep him out of the post-season, a big blow to the sixth - seed Warriors ' playoff hopes.
The Warriors ended the season 51 -- 31, winning more than 50 games for only the fourth time in franchise history, finishing 20 games over. 500 for the first time in 22 years, and tying the 1991 -- 92 squad for the franchise 's all - time mark of 24 wins on the road. Even without Bogut, in the first round of the playoffs the Warriors battled the third - seed Los Angeles Clippers to a seventh and deciding game, which the Warriors lost, bringing their 2013 -- 14 season to an end. It was season of many thrilling moments in which the Warriors ' played in 17 regular - season games decided by 2 points or less, 6 games with winning shots in the final 3 seconds, and 7 comeback wins in which the Warriors had been behind by 15 points or more.
In other noteworthy occurrences for the season, Curry was named to the starting lineup for the 2014 NBA All - Star Game. For Curry, the only Warrior named to the team, this was his first all - star appearance in five seasons as an NBA player. Curry hit another notable milestone in posting 4 triple - doubles for the season, tying a franchise record unequaled since Wilt Chamberlain in 1963 -- 64. Curry also averaged career - bests in points and assists; averaging 24.0 points and 8.5 assists in the season. Curry and Klay Thompson continued to set league records in three - point shooting. On February 7, in a 102 -- 87 win over the Chicago Bulls, the backcourt duo became the first teammates to each make a three - pointer in 30 consecutive games. Curry, who finished the season with 261 threes, set an individual record for most three - pointers in a span of two seasons with 533, surpassing the previous mark of 478 set by Seattle Supersonic Ray Allen in 2004 -- 05 and 2005 -- 06. Together, Thompson and Curry combined for 484 threes on the year, besting by one the NBA record they had set the year before.
Even as the team rolled towards the post-season, signs emerged of trouble in the Warriors ' front office. On March 25, the team reassigned assistant coach Brian Scalabrine to the team 's NBA Development League Affiliate in Santa Cruz because of what head coach Mark Jackson called a "difference in philosophies '' and what unnamed league sources cited by Yahoo! Sports called "an increasingly dysfunctional atmosphere '' on the Warriors ' coaching staff. Fewer than two weeks later, assistant coach Darren Erman was fired for secretly recording conversations between coaches, staff and players. During the post season, rumors persisted in the press that Mark Jackson 's job as head coach was in jeopardy, leading the players to make a unanimous declaration of support for Jackson 's return only minutes after the Warriors ' first - round, game seven playoff loss to the Clippers. Nonetheless, three days later, on May 6, the team announced the firing of Mark Jackson as head coach. In his three - season tenure as head coach, Jackson compiled a 121 - 109 (. 526) record, overseeing a terrific turnaround. When Jackson took the helm in 2011, the franchise had made the playoffs only one time over the prior 17 seasons, averaging 30.2 wins per season during that period. Jackson, 49, became just the third head coach in franchise history to lead a team to at least 50 wins in a season, joining Don Nelson and Alvin Attles, who both hit the mark twice with the Warriors. With 121 wins overall, Jackson ranks fourth on the franchise 's all - time wins list, trailing Attles (557), Nelson (422) and Eddie Gottlieb (263). On May 14, 2014, the Golden State Warriors named Steve Kerr the team 's head coach, in a reported $25 million deal over five years. It was a first - time head - coaching position for Kerr, 48, a five - time NBA champion point guard who holds the all - time career record for accuracy in three - point shooting (. 454). Kerr formerly served as president and general manager for the Phoenix Suns basketball team (2007 to 2010), and had most recently been working as an NBA broadcast analyst for Turner Network Television (TNT).
The Warriors completed the regular season with a record of 67 - 15, the best in the league and the most wins in franchise history. The Warriors also finished with a home record of 39 -- 2, the second best in NBA history. They were first in defensive efficiency for the season and second in offensive efficiency, barely missing the mark that the Julius Erving led Sixers achieved by being first in both offensive and defensive efficiency. On May 4, Stephen Curry was named the 2014 -- 15 NBA Most Valuable Player, the first Warrior to do so since Wilt Chamberlain in 1960. In the first round of the playoffs, they swept the New Orleans Pelicans, defeated Memphis Grizzlies in the second round in six games and defeated Houston Rockets in five games of the Western Conference Finals. The Warriors advanced to their first NBA Finals since 1975, where they defeated the Cleveland Cavaliers in six games to win their fourth NBA title, and their first in 40 years. Andre Iguodala was named Finals MVP.
Other highlights of the season included Stephen Curry breaking his own record for three - pointers made in a single season with 286. He and Klay Thompson made a combined 525 three - pointers, the most by a duo in NBA history. In the postseason, Curry shattered Reggie Miller 's record of 58 made three - pointers in a single postseason with 98. On January 23, 2015, Klay Thompson broke an NBA record for points in a quarter with 37 in the third. Curry was also the leader in the voting polls for the 2015 NBA All - Star Game, won the 2014 -- 15 NBA Most Valuable Player award and the 2015 ESPYs Best Male Athlete award.
The Warriors began the season by winning their first 24 games, eclipsing the previous best start in NBA history, set by the 1993 -- 94 Houston Rockets and the 1948 -- 49 Washington Capitols at 15 -- 0. The Warriors surpassed the 1969 -- 70 New York Knicks for the best road start in NBA history at 14 -- 0, which is also the joint - third longest road win streak. Their record - setting start ended when they were defeated by the Milwaukee Bucks on December 12, 2015. The Warriors broke a 131 - year - old record of 20 -- 0 set by the 1884 St. Louis Maroons baseball team, to claim the best start to a season in all of the major professional sports in America. Golden State also won 28 consecutive regular - season games dating back to the 2014 -- 15 season, eclipsing the 2012 -- 13 Miami Heat for the second longest winning streak in NBA history. The team set an NBA record 54 - straight regular season home game winning streak, which spanned from January 31, 2015 to March 29, 2016. The previous record of 44 was held by the 1995 -- 96 Chicago Bulls team led by Michael Jordan.
Stephen Curry, Draymond Green and Klay Thompson were all named to the All - Star Game, the first time the Warriors have had three All - Stars since 1976. Green broke the Golden State franchise record of nine triple - doubles in a season. Curry broke numerous three - point records during the season, including his own NBA record for made three - pointers in a season of 286; he finished the season with 402 three pointers. He made a three - pointer in 151 consecutive games, which broke the NBA record of 127 set by Kyle Korver in 2014. On February 27, 2016, Curry also tied the NBA record of twelve three - pointers made in a single game, jointly holding it with Donyell Marshall and Kobe Bryant.
On April 13, 2016, Golden State set the record for most wins in a single season, beating Memphis, and finishing 73 -- 9. On May 10, 2016, Stephen Curry was named the NBA 's Most Valuable Player (MVP) for the second straight season. Curry is the 11th player to win back - to - back MVP honors and became the first player in NBA history to win the MVP award by unanimous vote, winning all 131 first - place votes. The Golden State Warriors went to their second consecutive appearance in the finals with a rematch against the Cleveland Cavaliers. The Warriors went to a 3 -- 1 advantage but the Cavaliers made a comeback to tie the series at 3 wins apiece. In Game 7 the Golden State Warriors lost the championship series on their homecourt, and earned the unfortunate distinction of becoming the first team to give up a 3 -- 1 lead in the NBA finals.
On July 4, 2016, Kevin Durant announced he would leave the Oklahoma City Thunder in order to sign a two - year contract with the Golden State Warriors. On July 7, Durant signed his contract, which gave the Warriors a fourth All - NBA player on their team. The Durant signing made the Warriors the prohibitive favorites to win the NBA championship, according to oddsmakers.
The Warriors posted many notable achievements during the 2016 -- 17 regular season. On November 7, 2016, Stephen Curry set the NBA record for most 3 - pointers in a game with 13, in a 116 -- 106 win over the Pelicans. On December 5, 2016, Klay Thompson scored 60 points in 29 minutes, in a 142 -- 106 victory over the Pacers. In doing so, Thompson became the first player in NBA history to score 60 or more points in fewer than 30 minutes of playing time. Stephen Curry, Kevin Durant, Draymond Green, and Klay Thompson were all named to the 2017 NBA All - Star Game, making the Warriors only the eighth team in NBA history to have four All - Stars. On February 10, 2017, Draymond Green recorded a triple - double with 12 rebounds, 10 assists, and 10 steals, becoming the first player in NBA history to post a triple - double with fewer than 10 points. On March 2, 2017, the Warriors ' streak for most games without back - to - back losses ended at 146 with a 94 -- 87 loss to the Chicago Bulls. The streak eclipsed the previous record of 95 held by the Utah Jazz.
The Warriors earned home - court advantage throughout the 2017 playoffs, thanks to a 2016 -- 17 regular season record of 67 -- 15. They were the first team in NBA playoff history to start 12 -- 0, defeating in order the Trail Blazers, the Jazz, and the Spurs. The 2017 Finals once again pitted the Warriors against the Cavaliers, becoming the first time in NBA history that two teams met in the Finals for three consecutive years. The Warriors won the championship after going 4 -- 1 in the Finals, and their 16 -- 1 playoff record garnered the best winning percentage (. 941) in NBA playoffs history.
After the Warriors announced that they were uncertain if they would make the customary visit to the White House by playoff champions, President Donald Trump rescinded his invitation. The team still planned to travel to Washington, D.C. to "celebrate equality, diversity and inclusion. '' Planned activities include meeting with local youth and a visit to the National Museum of African - American History and Culture.
In April 2014, the Warriors began the purchase process for a 12 - acre site in Mission Bay, San Francisco, to hold a new 18,000 - seat arena which is expected to be ready for the 2019 -- 20 NBA season, with construction to begin in early 2016. The sale was finalized in October 2015. The location was selected after an original proposal to construct the arena on Piers 30 and 32, just south of the Bay Bridge, met with vocal opposition due to concerns about traffic, environmental impacts and obstruction of views. The new location, which still faces some vocal opposition in San Francisco, apparently eliminates the need for any voter approval, which would have been required with the original site. Some type of waterfront park is planned across from the projected arena, which will be located at an already - existing Muni T - Third stop. The Central Subway, planned to open in 2018, may provide a direct connection between the new site and the downtown Powell Street Muni / BART station. The Golden State Warriors may consider a concurrent name change, possibly returning to their former name of San Francisco Warriors, although the team 's recent success has them reconsidering that decision. On January 27, 2016, it was announced that the Warriors ' new arena would be called Chase Center as part of an agreement with JPMorgan Chase.
Bob Fitzgerald has done television play - by - play, and former Warrior guard Jim Barnett has done color commentary for the Warriors for more than 15 years, currently on NBC Sports Bay Area, where they telecast more than 70 Warrior games a year. They also host Roundtable Live, a half - hour pre-game show leading up to the broadcast of select Golden State home games. Fitzgerald is in his 20th season as the Warriors ' play - by - play man, while Barnett is in his 32nd season as color man. Greg Papa, Garry St. Jean, and Kelenna Azubuike are also members of the telecast team, specializing in in - game, halftime and post-game analysis, while Kerith Burke serves as the sideline reporter.
Tim Roye has done the radio play - by - play for Warrior games since 1995. He is joined in the booth by former Warriors forward Tom Tolbert for home games only. On August 25, 2016, the Warriors announced they were leaving long time station KNBR and all of their games will be broadcast on KGMZ. After each game, Roye, Fitzgerald and Barnett get together for post-game radio analysis and a next - game preview.
Roster Transactions Last transaction: 2017 - 10 - 17
The Warriors hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player, either an international draftee or a college draftee, who is n't signed by the team that drafted him, is allowed to sign with any non-NBA teams. In this case, the team retains the player 's draft rights in the NBA until one year after the player 's contract with the non-NBA team ends. This list includes draft rights that were acquired from trades with other teams.
Notes:
Arizin, Fulks, Gola, Johnston and Phillip played all or most of their tenure with the Warriors in Philadelphia. Rodgers ' tenure was evenly divided between Philadelphia and San Francisco, and Chamberlain 's nearly so. King (Knicks), Lucas (Knicks), Parish (Celtics), Richmond (Kings), Sampson (University of Virginia and Rockets), White (Celtics), and Wilkes (Lakers) were elected mostly for their performances with other teams. Marčiulionis played most of his NBA career with Golden State, but his induction is also for his distinguished international career (Statyba, USSR, and Lithuania). Of those elected to the hall primarily as Warriors, only Thurmond, Barry and Mullin spent significant time with the team since the 1971 move to Oakland and the name change to "Golden State ''.
Most Valuable Player
NBA Finals MVP
NBA Scoring Champion
NBA Defensive Player of the Year
NBA Rookie of the Year
NBA Most Improved Player of the Year
NBA Executive of the Year
NBA Coach of the Year
NBA Sportsmanship Award
NBA Community Assist Award
All - NBA First Team
All - NBA Second Team
All - NBA Third Team
NBA All - Defensive First Team
NBA All - Defensive Second Team
NBA All - Rookie First Team
NBA All - Rookie Second Team
NBA All - Star selections
NBA All - Star Game head coach
NBA All - Star Game MVP
Slam Dunk Contest
Three - Point Contest
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how long is the roosevelt bridge in stuart fl | Roosevelt bridge (Florida) - Wikipedia
The Roosevelt Bridge is a major highway segmental bridge across the St. Lucie River in Stuart, Florida. Carrying U.S. Route 1 (Federal Highway; unsigned State Road 5), it was built to supersede the old Roosevelt Bridge, which had twin parallel drawbridges, one for northbound traffic (opened in 1934, 27 ° 12 ′ 12 '' N 80 ° 15 ′ 35 '' W / 27.203228 ° N 80.259612 ° W / 27.203228; - 80.259612) and the other for southbound (opened in 1964, 27 ° 12 ′ 09 '' N 80 ° 15 ′ 35 '' W / 27.202475 ° N 80.259762 ° W / 27.202475; - 80.259762). The new bridge, completed in 1996, is raised and much longer than the older twin drawbridges. The southbound span of the old bridge is still functional for road and boat traffic and now carries two - way road traffic for what is now known as Dixie Highway, County Road 707. The new high - level Roosevelt Bridge is approximately one mile long and is made of two three - lane sections running parallel to each other. The northbound bridge was completed first, and housed two lanes of both north and south - bound traffic until the second bridge was finished.
Coordinates: 27 ° 12 ′ 26 '' N 80 ° 15 ′ 32 '' W / 27.207198 ° N 80.258979 ° W / 27.207198; - 80.258979
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who tried to kill bart bass in gossip girl | Chuck Bass - Wikipedia
Charles Bartholomew "Chuck '' Bass is a fictional character in the novel and television series Gossip Girl. In the TV series, he is portrayed by English actor Ed Westwick. Although he is a secondary antagonist in the original book series, the TV series elevates him to an antiheroic main character, where he is noted for his financial ambition, hedonism and personal style.
Since they were children, Chuck has been best friends with Nate Archibald, Serena van der Woodsen and Blair Waldorf, who is his main romantic interest throughout the series. In the TV series, step - brother to Serena and Eric van der Woodsen.
Chuck Bass is introduced by author Cecily von Ziegesar in her Gossip Girl series of teen novels, the first of which was published in 2002. In the novels, Chuck is a relatively minor character, and has a series of flings with male and female characters across the course of the series. He got his name, Chuck Bass, from his signature chuckle in a bass tone, which often sounds like a raspy whisper. Chuck 's role is initially that of an antagonist to the main characters. Chuck resides with his family at the Plaza Hotel on the Upper East Side and attends school at the Riverside Preparatory School for Boys on the Upper East Side, along with scholarship student Dan Humphrey. Chuck is largely friendless, but is tolerated by the others because of his family 's enormous wealth. He is described as having flamboyant fashion sense, with a penchant for scarves, and has a pet monkey named Sweetie whom he carries around with him everywhere. Lazy, and vain, Chuck 's only interests are sex and money, and he is frequently chided by his father for lacking ambition and performing poorly in school. Following flings with numerous females and males, his only serious relationship comes near the end of the series, when he begins dating Blair Waldorf, a self - obsessed, luxury loving teenager. In the twelfth book in the series, Gossip Girl: It Had To Be You (2007), Chuck is rejected from colleges because of poor grades and is sent to military school by his father. When next mentioned in Gossip Girl spin - off, The Carlyles (2008), it is stated that Chuck never showed up to military school, and his whereabouts thereafter are unknown. In the thirteenth Gossip Girl novel, I Will Always Love You (2009), it is revealed that Chuck went off to school in California and returned a changed man, and to have dated main character Blair Waldorf in Oxford, England for a year.
Constance Billiard School is an exaggerated version of Gossip Girl author Cecily von Ziegesar 's alma mater, the Nightingale - Bamford School. It was revealed in preparation for the 2007 TV series debut, Josh Schwartz hired recent graduates of Ziegesar 's alma mater to retool several characters.
Chuck Bass was then reconfigured as a more central character, an antiheroic playboy whose on - off relationship with Blair Waldorf serves as one of the show 's major ongoing storylines. Chuck is the resident "bad boy '' of the Upper East Side, and like Blair, is both vengeful and manipulative; the two often scheme elaborate plans together. As the show progresses, Chuck develops a softer side, specifically towards Lily, Eric, and Serena, his adoptive mother, brother, and sister.
Chuck grew up on the Upper East Side with his three best friends and fellow elites Nate Archibald, Blair Waldorf, and future - stepsister Serena van der Woodsen. His father is Bart Bass, a self - made billionaire, which is irregular, compared to the Bass ' old money friends. Chuck is often described as the "bad boy of his circle. '' Chuck is a playboy and womanizer who sees women as recreational tools. Chuck frequently skips class and smokes cannabis.
In the pilot episode, Chuck attempts to rape both Serena and Jenny Humphrey. When speaking about Serena in the pilot episode, Chuck says, "Serena looked effin ' hot last night. There 's something wrong with that level of perfection. It needs to be violated. '' With time, he attenuates his behaviors as a sexual predator and becomes more of a manipulating womanizer, however, his lecherous attitude continues as he makes multiple advances on his step - sister at the time, Serena.
In episode seven, "Victor / Victrola '', Chuck purchases a burlesque club, Victrola. After Nate and Blair break up, Blair visits Chuck at Victrola where she ends up performing on stage. She later loses her virginity to him in the back of his limousine. Though she tries to deny the encounter, Chuck buys a necklace for her and admits that he feels "butterflies '' in her presence, leading to a clandestine sexual relationship. Despite this, Nate and Blair rekindle their relationship, leading to a jealous Chuck revealing to the anonymous "Gossip Girl '' that Blair and Chuck had a sexual relationship. This leads Chuck to have a temporary rift with both Blair and Nate.
As Bart Bass and Lily van der Woodsen 's relationship progresses, they decide to move their families in together. Chuck and Eric van der Woodsen, Lily 's son and Serena 's younger brother, become especially close. When Serena begins receiving mysterious packages (pornography in the mail, alcohol delivered to her at school), she automatically blames Chuck. Given the creepy remarks Chuck has made about "bathing together '' and "turning that onepiece into a no - piece. '' Serena is not to blame. Bart subsequently forces Chuck to move out of the family home. Serena discovers that the culprit was actually Georgina Sparks, a past classmate of both Serena and Chuck. It is later revealed that Chuck lost his virginity to Georgina in the sixth grade. Chuck and Blair join together to prevent Georgina from further harming and embarrassing Serena. This process rekindles their bond, and they succeed in getting rid of Georgina.
At Bart and Lily 's wedding at the end of Season 1, Chuck apologizes and confesses to Nate that he was in love with Blair. During the wedding reception, Chuck gives a speech about forgiveness that is implied to be directed towards Blair. She accepts his apology and the two kiss. However, as they are about to embark on a trip to Tuscany together, Chuck gets cold feet. Blair leaves for Tuscany without him, as Chuck has decided to seduce Amelia, tossing the roses for Blair in the trash can.
In the season premiere, "Summer Kind of Wonderful '', we learn Blair has stayed in Europe. Chuck regretted his actions but told this to Blair too late as she was already dating Lord Marcus Beaton. Blair asks Chuck to tell her he loves her, but his fear of commitment stops him.
In order to gather material for a story, Dan tags along with Chuck for a night, ending with the two of them in jail after a fistfight. While in jail, Chuck tells Dan in confidence that Chuck 's mother died while giving birth to him, and that his father blames him for her death, which explains their icy relationship. When Chuck later discovers that Dan was using him for a story, he feels betrayed and tells Dan that he was lying about all of it.
Chuck 's storyline throughout season 2 mainly deals with his inability to tell Blair that he loves her. Eventually, his father is killed in a car accident. Lily adopts him so that he 's able to own Bass Industries, making Serena and Eric his sister and brother. When Blair begins dating Nate again, Chuck realizes his true feelings for her. The two team up to take down Poppy Lifton, and Blair realizes that she still has feelings for Chuck as well. She breaks up with Nate. In the final episode of season 2, Chuck admits to Blair his true feelings and the two finally begin a relationship.
When Season 3 returns, Chuck and Blair are very happy and very much in love. Chuck struggles to run Bass Industries to his deceased father 's impeccably high standards. He buys The Empire Hotel. Halfway through the season, Chuck meets a woman claiming to be his mother called Elizabeth Fisher. After initially rejecting her, Chuck finally accepts Elizabeth and is then met with a sexual harassment claim from his former employees. Despite his innocence, he settles to keep the scandal out of the media. Jack Bass, Chuck 's sinister uncle, informs the media anyway and necessitates Chuck signing the hotel over to Elizabeth to appease the public. She betrays him and signs the hotel over to Jack, whom she loves. However, she calls Chuck to say goodbye and reveals that Jack chose the hotel over her. She then reveals to Chuck that she is not his mother and she does not know whether his real mother is alive or dead.
Chuck and Blair agree to team up to take down Jack to get the hotel back. Jack tells them both (separately) that he will only give up the hotel if he has sex with Blair. Unbeknown to Blair, Chuck sets the situation up and Blair goes to Jack 's. After a kiss, Jack tells Blair the truth about Chuck 's involvement. Blair breaks up with Chuck and he gets the hotel back, vowing to get Blair back too. Chuck tries desperately to win Blair back, doing everything from banning all of the other Upper East Side men from dating her to asking her to meet him on top of the Empire State Building. Blair decides that Chuck is her true love and she 's going to meet him, but Dorota suddenly goes into labor and she ends up being two hours late. Chuck, thinking she is finally over him, leaves the building heartbroken and nearly suicidal. When he gets home, he sees that Jenny Humphrey has arrived looking for Nate. The two drunkenly sleep together, heartbroken that their true loves do n't return their feelings.
Blair appears later in Chuck 's suite, apologizing for being late, and the two reunite (sleep together). Chuck is about to propose to Blair at the hospital, as they visit Dorota and her new baby, when Dan appears and rashly delivers a punch to Chuck 's face. He then forces Chuck to tell Blair what happened between him and Jenny. Blair breaks things off with Chuck and informs him that it 's over for good. She also threatens to ruin Jenny 's life if she does n't leave Manhattan immediately. Chuck then travels to Prague to escape New York for a while, feeling as though he has nothing left. He gets robbed by two muggers who insist on taking the ring that Chuck intended on proposing to Blair with and when Chuck puts up a fight, he gets shot. The last shot of season 3 is him lying in an alley, presumably dying.
In the first episode of season four, we find that Chuck is alive and well, having been rescued by Czech girl, Eva (Clémence Poésy) who has no idea of his wealth or who he is. He creates a fake name and persona as he no longer wants to be the manipulative Chuck Bass. He eventually reveals who he really is and returns to New York City with her, at the request of Blair and Serena. Blair insists she no longer loves him, but still schemes to undermine his new relationship. He eventually falls for one of her schemes and breaks up with Eva. He realizes his mistake and begs her to take him back, but she refuses, saying that he showed his true feelings by continuing to believe Blair over anyone else.
Chuck asks Blair whether she still has feelings for him, and she denies it, prompting him to declare "war '' on her. He tries to "take '' Columbia from her, and arranges for Jenny Humphrey to return to the city in order to stir up trouble for Blair, who still has n't told her minions why she banished Jenny from the Upper East Side in the first place. After Jenny declares that it 's only a matter of time before they both destroy each other, Chuck and Blair agree to a truce. They even draw up a contract, with the stipulation "no touching, '' but their mutual attraction proves too powerful and they soon fall into an enemies - with - benefits relationship.
In "The Witches of Bushwick '', Chuck accidentally tells Blair during foreplay that he loves her and, not knowing whether his words are true, Blair chooses to gloss over the moment. Although Chuck and Blair spend the episode striving for different ends which will eventually alienate each other (Blair to become the face of Anne Archibald 's charity, Girls Inc, and Chuck to increase the revenue of The Empire by returning to his bad boy persona), Blair makes the decision to attend Chuck 's Saints and Sinners party in order to confront him. Chuck confesses that he loves her, and the pair kiss in front of everyone after the curtain concealing them is pulled down. Anne tells Blair that she can no longer be a part of Girls Inc just as Chuck 's publicist KC tells Chuck that she thinks Blair will be good for business. Blair re-thinks her decision to sacrifice it all for their relationship, and she and Chuck break up once again. Chuck promises he 'll wait for her, and both affirm their belief that their love will reunite them in the end.
On Thanksgiving Chuck and Blair run into each other at Serena 's house, Chuck offers to leave but she tells him that she was heading to JFK anyway and came to drop off the traditional pie and that they should get used to this. They hear about Serena being hospitalized and while they 're sharing that maybe nothing can change between them, Jenny walks in and interrupts their conversation. While driving Blair home, Chuck tells her that he showed up only for Serena. When she told him that what happened with Serena made her question what she told him after the Saints & Sinners party; Chuck tells her that he can not be her friend now as much as he wishes he could. After that Blair still sends him her traditional pie, saying that even if they ca n't be friends it does n't mean that they are n't.
In "The Townie '' episode, It was revealed that Lily was going to sell Bass Industries instead of giving Chuck the company back. So he sets off to New Zealand, where his uncle Jack Bass is currently living. In the following episodes Chuck returns to the Upper East Side with revenge for Lily. Chuck 's new love interest is Raina and her father is Russell Thorpe, a former rival of Chuck 's late father Bart Bass. Russell is the main contender to buy Bass industries. Chuck, however, manages to save the company after it is revealed that Russell accidentally killed his wife in a building fire that Bart was originally accused of.
In "The Princess and the Frog '' he learns that Blair 's relationship with Louis is serious, and that there is talk about them getting engaged. He gets drunk and embarrasses Blair in front of Louis ' mother, and later tries to force himself on her, while pushing her down and smashing a glass window right next to her face, after she tells him about her engagement. Blair ends up with her cheek being cut.
Later, Blair is kidnapped by Russell, but Chuck saves her, and the two go to a Bar Mitzah. There, the two are seen dancing and smiling happily. Blair pulls him off the dance floor into a private room and the two have sex. Blair decides she is going to leave Louis, but Chuck stops her, telling her that she needs to be with Louis because he makes her happy. At the end of the episode, Chuck decides to spend the summer traveling with Nate.
Following the 20th episode of Season 4, Safran spoke on behalf of the series regarding the scene in which Chuck became violent with Blair.
The way we viewed it, I think it 's very clear that Blair is not afraid in those moments, for herself. They have a volatile relationship, they always have, but I do not believe -- or I should say we do not believe -- that it is abuse when it 's the two of them. Chuck does not try to hurt Blair. He punches the glass because he has rage, but he has never, and will never, hurt Blair. He knows it and she knows it, and I feel it 's very important to know that she is not scared -- if anything, she is scared for Chuck -- and what he might do to himself, but she is never afraid of what he might do to her. Leighton and I were very clear about that.
In the first episode of season 5, we find out that Chuck has spent his summer traveling the world with Nate. The two arrive in Los Angeles to meet up with Serena, who is working as an assistant on a film set. Seemingly over his break up with Blair, Chuck exhibits a positive outlook on life, telling Serena and Nate that he 's seeking to experience everything he can in life. However, his heartbreak soon becomes apparent when he receives an invitation to Blair 's upcoming wedding, which causes him to drive recklessly and get into a motorbike accident. In the following episode, it is revealed that Chuck has an emotional disorder as a result of his losing Blair, and which now causes him to be numb to physical and emotional stimuli. Dan decides to help Chuck break through this emotional barrier, and gets him a dog, hoping to spark some emotion. However, it is only when Blair reveals to him that she is pregnant with Louis 's baby does Chuck begin feel again -- he is shown crying over the revelation at the end of the episode. He names the dog "Monkey '' (a homage to the pet monkey Chuck 's character had in the books). He forms a reluctant friendship with Dan from here on.
He meets a psychiatrist, Eliza Barnes, who tells him that he acts out because he never had a childhood, and needs help. When he finds himself falling back into his old patterns, he calls Dr. Barnes, ready to seek that help. However, it is revealed that Blair 's fiance, Louis, gives Dr. Barnes money to upset Chuck, in hopes that he will do something reckless and drive Blair away forever. When Chuck finds this out, he publicly exposes both Dr. Barnes and Louis, leaving Blair devastated. Later that same night, he goes to Blair 's apartment to finally apologize to her for all the times he 's hurt her and let her down. His apology recounts all the obstacles Chuck and Blair have faced in their relationship thus far, and prompts an emotional Blair to thank him. Chuck assures her that she is going to be "an amazing mother '', having come to terms with her relationship with Louis.
He resolves to keep his distance from her after that, but in "The Big Sleep No More '', a conflicted Blair seduces him in the hope to prove that his efforts to be a better man is just a ploy to win her back. When he kisses her, she slaps him, and tells him that he will never change. It is later revealed that he conspired with Dorota and kissed Blair in order to confirm her suspicions of him, and push her back to Louis. In the episode "Riding in Town Cars with Boys '' he admits to Blair that he still loves her. They profess their love for one another in Chuck 's limo. This occurs whilst the limo is being chased by paparazzi on motorbikes and results in a car crash. Lily reveals at the conclusion of the episode that Blair is awake and doing fine, but whether or not Chuck has survived was not revealed.
We later discover that Chuck did indeed survive the accident after a blood transfusion was donated to him. He wakes up to a very distant Blair, very opposite to the one he got into an accident with. For the next few episodes he chases her to discover what has changed her mind -- unbeknownst to him, Blair has made a pact with God over his life, where if she breaks her promise to Louis, Chuck will surely die. This leads to Blair going to Chuck 's penthouse in the episode "The End of the Affair '' where she tells him what a good man he has become and to not let the ending of their relationship destroy him.
In G.G., Chuck is willing to accept the fact that Blair is marrying another man, when Blair 's mother tries to convince him to stop the wedding. He makes one final play for Blair, but Blair -- despite saying that she "loves him more and more every day, if it 's even possible to love somebody that much '' -- once more rebuffs him, saying that she 's actually doing this for him. Their conversation is unknowingly recorded, and released in a blast by Gossip Girl during the wedding. Despite this, Blair still marries Louis, but flees the reception with Dan when Louis reveals that their relationship is now strictly business.
With the help of Dan, Blair tries to leave for the Dominican Republic to get a divorce from Louis without his consent due to a loophole in the Dominican Republic 's law, but forgets her passport. Chuck, Nate and Serena eventually find Blair hiding out in a hotel room with Dan. However, Sophia finds Blair and threatens to forcefully sell Eleanor 's company as dowry if Blair chooses not to return. Blair reluctantly goes back to Louis, despite an offer from Chuck to pay her dowry.
In "Cross Rhodes '', Blair realizes she now has feelings for Dan, and Chuck and Serena struggle with watching their loves with their friends.
In "The Princess Dowry '', Chuck pays Blair 's dowry so she can be free, but wishes for it to remain a secret. She finds out and accuses him of wanting to own her. He admits that he paid the dowry, but for her freedom and her freedom only. At the end of the episode, Blair begins a relationship with Dan.
In "Con Heir '', Chuck invites his uncle, Jack, back to New York to thank him for saving his life in the car accident by donating blood, but starts to doubt Jack 's story when Chuck investigates and learns that Jack was recently diagnosed positive with Hepatitis C, and a test on Chuck turns to be negative. This kicks off a lot of "mother / father '' issues for Chuck -- he believes that it was Elizabeth Fisher who donated the blood, then Diana says that she is his mother when Bart cheated on Elizabeth with her (she claims that an arrangement was made with Diana leaving town alone, leaving Chuck to be raised by Bart and Elizabeth because Elizabeth could n't get pregnant), but in "Despicable B '', Nate receives a picture from Elizabeth that indeed shows her pregnant with Chuck. Chuck is more interested in the man in the picture with Elizabeth -- his face is cut out, but his tattooed arm is still visible. Jack Bass has exactly the same tattoo.
It all comes to a head in "Raiders of the Lost Art '', when he, Blair, Serena, Nate and Lola team together to crack the code in Diana 's day planner -- the code they believe will lead them to Jack Bass. They end up at a brothel that Diana is in charge of. Diana realizes that they are there and has the event shut down. During the chaos, Blair searches one of the rooms, still looking for Jack, and is shocked by what she sees. Blair later tells Chuck to re-enter the building once everyone is gone, which he does, and it is revealed that Bart Bass is still alive.
Bart reveals that he faked his death to save Chuck and Lily, and has been hiding from everyone for the past three years. The car crash actually happened, and that it was ordered by one of Bart 's enemies. When he was in the hospital, he paid the doctor to say he died and then recruited Diana Payne to help him hide. Diana kept Bart informed of when Chuck was in trouble, so when Chuck was in the hospital, Bart was the one who donated his blood to save Chuck.
In "The Return of the Ring '', Bart drops the bombshell that he will be returning to Bass Industries as "the only Bass in Bass Industries '', pushing Chuck out of the company. Bart tells Chuck that the most he did was ' redecorate ' and give everything up for Blair. After this, Blair declares her love for Chuck, admitting she finally really wants them to be together. Chuck rejects her in anger, shadowing the words she once said to him: "I do n't want to be Mr. Blair Waldorf. ''
Chuck pairs up with an unlikely partner -- Jack -- to take down his father. They meet in a casino in Monte Carlo. Blair turns up, informed by Jack of Chuck 's whereabouts. Blair reveals she is ' all in ' and one hundred per cent ready to be with him. His decision on the matter is thus far unknown.
At the beginning of the season Chuck and Blair make a pact not to be together until Blair succeeds at Waldorf designs and Chuck takes down Bart. After many failed attempts of taking down Bart, Bart and Chuck end up in a fight. This leads to Bart falling off a building and dying. Blair is the only witness to this event and so Chuck and Blair get married so Blair does not have to testify against Chuck.
In the 5 - year flash forward, Chuck and Blair are happily married with a son (Henry). They are all gathered at the Bass house for Dan and Serena 's wedding.
Ed Westwick who portrays the character on the television series said: "As the (first) season 's progressed, I think everyone 's had sympathy for him. I think he 's an alluring character; he 's very interesting. He has these slices of his personality. He can be the devil, but at times he can be very charming. It can be a very dangerous concoction. I think he has a good heart, but his heart is often tempted by corrupt desires. '' He later added: "He 's intelligent and quite slimy in the way he manipulates to his gain. He goes after what he wants. Sometimes that 's not a good thing. He 's got a long way to go before he 's a nice guy. '' Westwick also said: "Chuck 's just this vain kind of metrosexual Manhattan eccentric living in a flash world. '' While describing Chuck as "mischievous '', Westwick noted the second season displayed a "more good - guy '' side of him. Ultimately, he said Chuck is a "kid trying to find his way in the world. ''
Denise Martin of the Los Angeles Times characterizes him as more of "a would - be Casanova than a seasoned predator. He 's the charming devil at the center of all the intrigues, the go - to guy when something naughty needs to be said and he 's the most self - aware of the Upper East Side high schoolers.
Stephanie Savage, one of the television series ' creators, described him as "entertaining and observationally smart, he 's the friend who says all the things you want to say but ca n't, and he tempts you in ways, at that age, you want to be tempted. '' She compared his relationship with Blair to Glenn Close and John Malkovich 's in Dangerous Liaisons. She found Westwick 's portrayal of Chuck was similar to James Spader of Pretty in Pink and Robert Downey, Jr...
Savage said about the character 's evolution during the six seasons: "I feel like Chuck has gone on the biggest journey of any one on the show. In the pilot, he 's pretty much a pure villain. He 's not a character that has a lot of layers. That was something Ed Westwick really brought as an actor. And his chemistry with Leighton (Meester) -- when we saw them together on screen and the power of the two of them working together but also being attracted to each other, which really inspired us to grow that character and give him some more layers. ''
Entertainment Weekly named Chuck Bass and Blair Waldorf number one in their "Best Dressed TV characters of 2008 '' list, as well as in their "Best Performances '' list for Ed Westwick, alongside co-star Leighton Meester. His relationship with Blair was included in TV Guide 's list of "The Best TV Couples of All Time '' as well as Entertainment Weekly 's "30 Best ' Will They / Wo n't They? ' TV Couples ''. The character also made the "Forbes Fictional 15 '' ranking at number 13 with an estimated $1.1 billion fortune.
In February 2012, Zap2it held a poll to determine TV 's Most Crushworthy. Chuck was elected TV 's Most Crushworthy 1 % Male over Oliver Queen of Smallville. The 1 percenters are people that "have everything going for them with their fantastic good looks and their opulent lifestyle ''.
THE SCARF from CHUCK BASS: http://www.the-scarf.com/xoxo/
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pain on right side of back when inhaling | Pleurisy - wikipedia
Pleurisy, also known as pleuritis, is inflammation of the membranes that surround the lungs and line the chest cavity (pleurae). This can result in a sharp chest pain with breathing. Occasionally the pain may be a constant dull ache. Other symptoms may include shortness of breath, cough, fever or weight loss, depending on the underlying cause.
The most common cause is a viral infection. Other causes include pneumonia, pulmonary embolism, autoimmune disorders, lung cancer, following heart surgery, pancreatitis, chest trauma, and asbestosis. Occasionally the cause remains unknown. The underlying mechanism involves the rubbing together of the pleurae instead of smooth gliding. Other conditions that can produce similar symptoms include pericarditis, heart attack, cholecystitis, and pneumothorax. Diagnosis may include a chest X-ray, electrocardiogram (ECG), and blood tests.
Treatment depends on the underlying cause. Paracetamol (acetaminophen) and ibuprofen may be used to decrease pain. Incentive spirometry may be recommended to encourage larger breaths. About one million people are affected in the United States each year. Descriptions of the condition date from at least as early as 400 BC by Hippocrates.
The defining symptom of pleurisy is a sudden sharp, stabbing, burning or dull pain in the right or left side of the chest during breathing, especially when one inhales and exhales. It feels worse with deep breathing, coughing, sneezing, or laughing. The pain may stay in one place, or it may spread to the shoulder or back. Sometimes, it becomes a fairly constant dull ache.
Depending on its cause, pleuritic chest pain may be accompanied by other symptoms:
The pleural space can be invaded by fluid, air, and particles from other parts of the body, which fairly complicates diagnosis. Viral infection (coxsackie B virus, HRSV, CMV, adenovirus, EBV, parainfluenza, influenza) is the most common cause of pleurisy. However, many other different conditions can cause pleuritic chest pain:
When the space between the pleurae starts to fill with fluid, as in pleural effusion, the chest pain can be eased but a shortness of breath can result, since the lungs need room to expand during breathing. Some cases of pleuritic chest pain are idiopathic, which means that the exact cause can not be determined.
A diagnosis of pleurisy or another pleural condition is based on a medical history, physical examinations, and diagnostic tests. The goals are to rule out other sources of the symptoms and to find the cause of the pleurisy so that the underlying disorder can be treated.
A doctor uses a stethoscope to listen to the breathing. This method detects any unusual sounds in the lungs. A person with pleurisy may have inflamed layers of the pleurae that make a rough, scratchy sound as they rub against each other during breathing. This is called pleural friction rub.
Depending on the results of the physical examination, diagnostic tests are sometimes performed.
A chest X-ray takes a picture of the heart and lungs. It may show air or fluid in the pleural space. It also may show the cause (e.g., pneumonia, a fractured rib, or a lung tumor) of the pleurisy.
Sometimes an x-ray is taken while lying on the painful side. This may show fluid, as well as changes in fluid position, that did not appear in the vertical x-ray.
Blood tests can detect bacterial or viral infections, pneumonia, rheumatic fever, a pulmonary embolism, or lupus.
Electrocardiography test can determine if a heart condition contributes to the symptoms.
Ultrasonography uses sound waves to create an image. It may show where fluid is located in the chest. It also can show some tumors. Although ultrasound may detect fluid around the lungs, also known as a pleural effusion, sound waves are scattered by air. Therefore, an actual picture of the lungs can not be obtained with ultrasonography.
A CT scan provides a computer - generated picture of the lungs that can show pockets of fluid. It also may show signs of pneumonia, a lung abscess, or a tumor.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), also called nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) scanning, uses powerful magnets to show pleural effusions and tumors.
In arterial blood - gas sampling, a small amount of blood is taken from an artery, usually in the wrist. The blood is then checked for oxygen and carbon - dioxide levels. This test shows how well the lungs are taking in oxygen.
Once the presence of an excess fluid in the pleural cavity, or pleural effusion, is suspected and location of fluid is confirmed, a sample of fluid can be removed for testing. The procedure to remove fluid in the chest is called a diagnostic thoracentesis. The doctor inserts a small needle or a thin, hollow, plastic tube in the chest wall and withdraws fluid.
Thoracentesis can be done in the doctor 's office or at the hospital. Ultrasound is used to guide the needle to the fluid that is trapped in small pockets around the lungs.
Thoracentesis usually does not cause serious complications. Generally, a chest x-ray is done after the procedure to evaluate the lungs. Possible complications of thoracentesis include the following:
The lung fluid is examined under a microscope and is evaluated for the presence of chemicals and for its color and texture. The degree of clarity is an indicator of infection, cancer, or other conditions that may be causing the buildup of fluid or blood in the pleural space.
If tuberculosis or cancer is suspected, a small piece of the pleura may be examined under a microscope to make a definitive diagnosis. This is called a biopsy.
Several approaches to taking tissue samples are available
Treatment has several goals:
If large amounts of fluid, air, or blood are not removed from the pleural space, they may cause the lung to collapse.
The surgical procedures used to drain fluid, air, or blood from the pleural space are as follows:
A couple of medications are used to relieve pleurisy symptoms:
There may be a role for the use of corticosteroids (for tuberculous pleurisy), tacrolimus (Prograf) and methotrexate (Trexall, Rheumatrex) in the treatment of pleurisy. Further studies are needed.
The following may be helpful in the management of pleurisy:
Ideally, the treatment of pleurisy is aimed at eliminating the underlying cause of the disease.
The treatment for pleurisy depends on its origin and is prescribed by a physician on a base of an individual assessment. Paracetamol (acetaminophen) and amoxicillin, or other antibiotics in case of bacterial infections, are common remedies dispensed by doctors to relieve the initial symptoms and pain in the chest, while viral infections are self - limited. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), preferably indometacin, are usually employed as pain control agents.
A number of alternative or complementary medicines are being investigated for their anti-inflammatory properties, and their use in pleurisy. At this time, clinical trials of these compounds have not been performed.
Extracts from the Brazilian folk remedy Wilbrandia ebracteata ("Taiuia '') have been shown to reduce inflammation in the pleural cavity of mice. The extract is thought to inhibit the same enzyme, cyclooxygenase - 2 (COX - 2), as the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.
Pleurisy is often associated with complications that affect the pleural space.
In some cases of pleurisy, excess fluid builds up in the pleural space. This is called a pleural effusion. The buildup of fluid usually forces the two layers of the pleura apart so they do n't rub against each other when breathing. This can relieve the pain of pleurisy. A large amount of extra fluid can push the pleura against the lung until the lung, or a part of it, collapses. This can make it hard to breathe.
In some cases of pleural effusion, the extra fluid gets infected and turns into an abscess. This is called an empyema.
Pleural effusion involving fibrinous exudates in the fluid may be called fibrinous pleurisy. It sometimes occurs as a later stage of pleurisy.
A person can develop a pleural effusion in the absence of pleurisy. For example, pneumonia, heart failure, cancer, or a pulmonary embolism can lead to a pleural effusion.
Air or gas also can build up in the pleural space. This is called a pneumothorax. It can result from acute lung injury or a lung disease like emphysema. Lung procedures, like surgery, drainage of fluid with a needle, examination of the lung from the inside with a light and a camera, or mechanical ventilation, also can cause a pneumothorax.
The most common symptom is sudden pain in one side of the lung and shortness of breath. A pneumothorax also can put pressure on the lung and cause it to collapse.
If the pneumothorax is small, it may go away on its own. If large, a chest tube is placed through the skin and chest wall into the pleural space to remove the air.
Blood also can collect in the pleural space. This is called hemothorax. The most common cause is injury to the chest from blunt force or surgery on the heart or chest. Hemothorax also can occur in people with lung or pleural cancer.
Hemothorax can put pressure on the lung and force it to collapse. It also can cause shock, a state of hypoperfusion in which an insufficient amount of blood is able to reach the organs.
Pleurisy and other disorders of the pleurae can be serious, depending on what caused them. Generally, pleurisy treatment has an excellent prognosis, but if left untreated it can cause severe complications. For example, a resulting pulmonary heart disease cor pulmonale, which manifests itself with an inflammation of the arms and legs, can lead to heart failure. If the conditions that caused the pleurisy or other pleural disorders were adequately diagnosed and treated early, one can expect a full recovery. Help of a pulmonologist (respiratory physician in the U.K. and Australia) may be enlisted to address the underlying cause and chart post-illness rehabilitation.
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when were the first modern olympic games held | 1896 Summer Olympics - wikipedia
The 1896 Summer Olympics (Modern Greek: Θερινοί Ολυμπιακοί Αγώνες 1896, Therinoí Olympiakoí Agó̱nes 1896), officially known as the Games of the I Olympiad, was the first international Olympic Games held in modern history. Organised by the International Olympic Committee (IOC), which had been created by Pierre de Coubertin, it was held in Athens, Greece, from 6 to 15 April 1896.
Winners were given a silver medal, while runners - up received a copper medal. Retroactively, the IOC has converted these to gold and silver, and awarded bronze medals to third placed athletes. Ten of the 14 participating nations earned medals. The United States won the most gold medals, 11; host nation Greece won the most medals overall, 46. The highlight for the Greeks was the marathon victory by their compatriot Spyridon Louis. The most successful competitor was German wrestler and gymnast Carl Schuhmann, who won four events.
Athens had been unanimously chosen to stage the inaugural modern Games during a congress organised by Coubertin in Paris on 23 June 1894, during which the IOC was also created, because Greece was the birthplace of the Ancient Olympic Games. The main venue was the Panathenaic Stadium, where athletics and wrestling took place; other venues included the Neo Phaliron Velodrome for cycling, and the Zappeion for fencing. The opening ceremony was held in the Panathenaic Stadium on 6 April, during which most of the competing athletes were aligned on the infield, grouped by nation. After a speech by the president of the organising committee, Crown Prince Constantine, his father officially opened the Games. Afterwards, nine bands and 150 choir singers performed an Olympic Hymn, composed by Spyridon Samaras, with words by poet Kostis Palamas.
The 1896 Olympics were regarded as a great success. The Games had the largest international participation of any sporting event to that date. The Panathenaic Stadium, the only Olympic stadium used in the 1800s, overflowed with the largest crowd ever to watch a sporting event. After the Games, Coubertin and the IOC were petitioned by several prominent figures, including Greece 's King George and some of the American competitors in Athens, to hold all the following Games in Athens. However, the 1900 Summer Olympics were already planned for Paris and, except for the Intercalated Games of 1906, the Olympics did not return to Greece until the 2004 Summer Olympics, 108 years later.
During the 19th century, several small - scale sports festivals across Europe were named after the Ancient Olympic Games. The 1870 Olympics at the Panathenaic stadium, which had been refurbished for the occasion, had an audience of 30,000 people. Pierre de Coubertin, a French pedagogue and historian, adopted Dr William Penny Brookes ' idea to establish a multi-national and multi-sport event -- the ancient games only allowed male athletes of Greek origin to participate. In 1890, Coubertin wrote an article in La Revue Athletique, which espoused the importance of Much Wenlock -- a rural market town in the English county of Shropshire. It was here that, in October 1850, the local physician William Penny Brookes had founded the Wenlock Olympian Games, a festival of sports and recreations that included athletics and team sports, such as cricket, football and quoits. Coubertin also took inspiration from the earlier Greek games organised under the name of Olympics by businessman and philanthropist Evangelis Zappas in 1859, 1870 and 1875. The 1896 Athens Games was funded by the legacies of Evangelis Zappas and his cousin Konstantinos Zappas and by George Averoff who had been specifically requested by the Greek government, through crown prince Constantine, to sponsor the second refurbishment of the Panathenaic Stadium. This the Greek government did despite the fact that the cost of refurbishing the stadium in marble had already been funded in full by Evangelis Zappas forty years earlier.
With deep feeling towards Baron de Coubertin 's courteous petition, I send him and the members of the Congress, with my sincere thanks, my best wishes for the revival of the Olympic Games.
On 18 June 1894, Coubertin organised a congress at the Sorbonne, Paris, to present his plans to representatives of sports societies from 11 countries. Following his proposal 's acceptance by the congress, a date for the first modern Olympic Games needed to be chosen. Coubertin suggested that the Games be held concurrently with the 1900 Universal Exposition of Paris. Concerned that a six - year waiting period might lessen public interest, congress members opted instead to hold the inaugural Games in 1896. With a date established, members of the congress turned their attention to the selection of a host city. It remains a mystery how Athens was finally chosen to host the inaugural Games. In the following years both Coubertin and Demetrius Vikelas would offer recollections of the selection process that contradicted the official minutes of the congress. Most accounts hold that several congressmen first proposed London as the location, but Coubertin dissented. After a brief discussion with Vikelas, who represented Greece, Coubertin suggested Athens. Vikelas made the Athens proposal official on 23 June, and since Greece had been the original home of the Olympics, the congress unanimously approved the decision. Vikelas was then elected the first president of the newly established International Olympic Committee (IOC).
News that the Olympic Games would return to Greece was well received by the Greek public, media, and royal family. According to Coubertin, "the Crown Prince Constantine learned with great pleasure that the Games will be inaugurated in Athens. '' Coubertin went on to confirm that, "the King and the Crown Prince will confer their patronage on the holding of these games. '' Constantine later conferred more than that; he eagerly assumed the presidency of the 1896 organising committee.
However, the country had financial troubles and was in political turmoil. The job of prime minister alternated between Charilaos Trikoupis and Theodoros Deligiannis frequently during the last years of the 19th century. Because of this financial and political instability, both prime minister Trikoupis and Stephanos Dragoumis, the president of the Zappas Olympic Committee, which had attempted to organise a series of national Olympiads, believed that Greece could not host the event. In late 1894, the organising committee under Stephanos Skouloudis presented a report that the cost of the Games would be three times higher than originally estimated by Coubertin. They concluded the Games could not be held, and offered their resignation. The total cost of the Games was 3,740,000 gold drachmas.
With the prospect of reviving the Olympic games very much in doubt, Coubertin and Vikelas commenced a campaign to keep the Olympic movement alive. Their efforts culminated on 7 January 1895 when Vikelas announced that crown prince Constantine would assume the presidency of the organising committee. His first responsibility was to raise the funds necessary to host the Games. He relied on the patriotism of the Greek people to motivate them to provide the required finances. Constantine 's enthusiasm sparked a wave of contributions from the Greek public. This grassroots effort raised 330,000 drachmas. A special set of postage stamps were commissioned; the sale of which raised 400,000 drachmas. Ticket sales added 200,000 drachmas. At the request of Constantine, businessman George Averoff agreed to pay for the restoration of the Panathenaic Stadium. Averoff would donate 920,000 drachmas to this project. As a tribute to his generosity, a statue of Averoff was constructed and unveiled on 5 April 1896 outside the stadium. It stands there to this day.
Some of the athletes would take part in the Games because they happened to be in Athens at the time the Games were held, either on holiday or for work (e.g., some of the British competitors worked for the British embassy). A designated Olympic Village for the athletes did not appear until the 1932 Summer Olympics. Consequently, the athletes had to provide their own lodging.
The first regulation voted on by the new IOC in 1894 was to allow only amateur athletes to participate in the Olympic Games. The various contests were thus held under amateur regulations with the exception of fencing matches. The rules and regulations were not uniform, so the Organising Committee had to choose among the codes of the various national athletic associations. The jury, the referees and the game director bore the same names as in antiquity (Ephor, Helanodic and Alitarc). Prince George acted as final referee; according to Coubertin, "his presence gave weight and authority to the decisions of the ephors. ''
Seven venues were used for the 1896 Summer Olympics. Panathenaic Stadium was the main venue, hosting four of the nine sports contested. The city of Marathon served as host to the marathon event and the individual road race events. Swimming was held in the Bay of Zea, fencing at the Zappeion, sport shooting at Kallithea, and tennis at the Athens Lawn Tennis Club. Tennis was a sport unfamiliar to Greeks at the time of the 1896 Games.
The Bay of Zea is a seaport and marina in the Athens area; it was used as the swimming venue because the organizers of the Games wanted to avoid spending money on constructing a special purpose swimming venue.
Four of the 1896 venues were reused as competition venues for the 2004 Games. The velodrome would be renovated into a football stadium in 1964 and was known as Karaiskakis Stadium. This venue was renovated in 2003 for use as a football venue for the 2004 Games. During the 2004 Games, Panathinaiko Stadium served as host for archery competitions and was the finish line for the athletic marathon event. The city of Marathon itself served as the starting point for both marathon events during the 2004 Games. The Zappeion served as the first home of the organizing committee (ATHOC) for the 2004 Games from 1998 to 1999, and served as the main communications center during those Games.
On 6 April (25 March according to the Julian calendar then in use in Greece), the games of the First Olympiad were officially opened; it was Easter Monday for both the Western and Eastern Christian Churches and the anniversary of Greece 's independence. The Panathenaic Stadium was filled with an estimated 80,000 spectators, including King George I of Greece, his wife Olga, and their sons. Most of the competing athletes were aligned on the infield, grouped by nation. After a speech by the president of the organising committee, Crown Prince Constantine, his father officially opened the Games with the words (in Greek):
"I declare the opening of the first international Olympic Games in Athens. Long live the Nation. Long live the Greek people. ''
Afterwards, nine bands and 150 choir singers performed an Olympic Hymn, composed by Spyridon Samaras, with words by poet Kostis Palamas. Thereafter, a variety of musical offerings provided the backgrounds to the Opening Ceremonies until 1960, since which time the Samaras / Palamas composition has become the official Olympic Anthem (decision taken by the IOC Session in 1958). Other elements of current Olympic opening ceremonies were initiated later: the Olympic flame was first lit in 1928, the first athletes ' oath was sworn at the 1920 Summer Olympics, and the first officials ' oath was taken at the 1972 Olympic Games.
At the 1894 Sorbonne congress, a large roster of sports were suggested for the program in Athens. The first official announcements regarding the sporting events to be held featured sports such as football and cricket, but these plans were never finalised, and these sports did not make the final list for the Games. Rowing and yachting were scheduled, but had to be cancelled due to poor weather on the planned day of competition. As a result, the 1896 Summer Olympics programme featured 9 sports encompassing 10 disciplines and 43 events. The number of events in each discipline is noted in parentheses.
The athletics events had the most international field of any of the sports. The major highlight was the marathon, held for the first time in international competition. Spyridon Louis, a previously unrecognised water carrier, won the event to become the only Greek athletics champion and a national hero. Although Greece had been favoured to win the discus and the shot put, the best Greek athletes finished just behind the American Robert Garrett in both events.
No world records were set, as few top international competitors had elected to compete. In addition, the curves of the track were very tight, making fast times in the running events virtually impossible. Despite this, Thomas Burke, of the United States, won the 100 - meter race in 12.0 seconds and the 400 - meter race in 54.2 seconds. Burke was the only one who used the "crouch start '' (putting his knee on soil), confusing the jury. Eventually, he was allowed to start from this "uncomfortable position ''.
Australian competitor Edwin Flack came to Athens to watch the games, but decided to compete in the athletics events. He won two races -- the 800 - meter and the 1500 - meter.
Chile claims one athlete, Luis Subercaseaux, competed for the nation at the 1896 Summer Olympics. This makes Chile one of the 14 nations to appear at the inaugural Summer Olympic Games. Subercaseaux 's results are not listed in the official report, though that report typically includes only winners and Subercaseaux won no medals. A study conducted by Chilean forensic police decided (by use of facial recognition), that Subercaseaux was the participant in a famous photo of 100 meter 's second series.
The rules of the International Cycling Association were used for the cycling competitions. The track cycling events were held at the newly built Neo Phaliron Velodrome. Only one road event was held, a race from Athens to Marathon and back (87 kilometres).
In the track events, the best cyclist was Frenchman Paul Masson, who won the one lap time trial, the sprint event, and the 10,000 meters. In the 100 kilometres event, Masson entered as a pacemaker for his compatriot Léon Flameng. Flameng won the event, after a fall, and after stopping to wait for his Greek opponent Georgios Kolettis to fix a mechanical problem. The Austrian fencer Adolf Schmal won the 12 - hour race, which was completed by only two cyclists, while the road race event was won by Aristidis Konstantinidis.
The fencing events were held in the Zappeion, which, built with money Evangelis Zappas had given to revive the ancient Olympic Games, had never seen any athletic contests before. Unlike other sports (in which only amateurs were allowed to take part at the Olympics), professionals were allowed to compete in fencing, though in a separate event. These professionals were considered gentlemen athletes, just as the amateurs.
Four events were scheduled, but the épée event was cancelled for unknown reasons. The foil event was won by a Frenchman, Eugène - Henri Gravelotte, who beat his countryman, Henri Callot, in the final. The other two events, the sabre and the masters foil, were won by Greek fencers. Leonidas Pyrgos, who won the latter event, became the first Greek Olympic champion in the modern era.
The gymnastics competition was carried out on the infield of the Panathinaiko Stadium. Germany had sent an 11 - man team, which won five of the eight events, including both team events. In the team event on the horizontal bar, the German team was unopposed. Three Germans added individual titles: Hermann Weingärtner won the horizontal bar event, Alfred Flatow won the parallel bars; and Carl Schuhmann, who also competed successfully in wrestling, won the vault. Louis Zutter, a Swiss gymnast, won the pommel horse, while Greeks Ioannis Mitropoulos and Nikolaos Andriakopoulos were victorious in the rings and rope climbing events, respectively.
A regatta of sailing boats was on the program of the Games of the First Olympiad for 31 March 1896. However this event had to be given up.
The Official English report states:
The Regatta could not take place because some special boats embarkation had not been provided for.
The German version gives a bit more clues:
Die Wettkämpfe im Segeln wurden vereitelt, da man weder bei uns die besonderen Boote dafür besass, noch fremde Bewerber sich gemeldet hatten.
Held at a range at Kallithea, the shooting competition consisted of five events -- two using a rifle and three with the pistol. The first event, the military rifle, was won by Pantelis Karasevdas, the only competitor to hit the target with all of his shots. The second event, for military pistols, was dominated by two American brothers: John and Sumner Paine became the first siblings to finish first and second in the same event. To avoid embarrassing their hosts, the brothers decided that only one of them would compete in the next pistol event, the free pistol. Sumner Paine won that event, thereby becoming the first relative of an Olympic champion to become Olympic champion himself.
The Paine brothers did not compete in the 25 - meter pistol event, as the event judges determined that their weapons were not of the required calibre. In their absence, Ioannis Phrangoudis won. The final event, the free rifle, began on the same day. However, the event could not be completed due to darkness and was finalised the next morning, when Georgios Orphanidis was crowned the champion.
The swimming competition was held in the open sea because the organizers had refused to spend the money necessary for a specially constructed stadium. Nearly 20,000 spectators lined the Bay of Zea off the Piraeus coast to watch the events. The water in the bay was cold, and the competitors suffered during their races. There were three open events (men 's 100 - metre freestyle, men 's 500 - metre freestyle, and men 's 1200 metre freestyle), in addition to a special event open only to Greek sailors, all of which were held on the same day (11 April).
For Alfréd Hajós of Hungary, this meant he could only compete in two of the events, as they were held too close together, which made it impossible for him to adequately recuperate. Nevertheless, he won the two events in which he swam, the 100 and 1200 meter freestyle. Hajós later became one of only two Olympians to win a medal in both the athletic and artistic competitions, when he won a silver medal for architecture in 1924. The 500 - meter freestyle was won by Austrian swimmer Paul Neumann, who defeated his opponents by more than a minute and a half.
Although tennis was already a major sport by the end of the 19th century, none of the top players turned up for the tournament in Athens. The competition was held at the courts of the Athens Lawn Tennis Club, and the infield of the velodrome used for the cycling events. John Pius Boland, who won the event, had been entered in the competition by a fellow - student of his at Oxford; the Greek, Konstantinos Manos. As a member of the Athens Lawn Tennis sub-committee, Manos had been trying, with the assistance of Boland, to recruit competitors for the Athens Games from among the sporting circles of Oxford University. In the first round, Boland defeated Friedrich Traun, a promising tennis player from Hamburg, who had been eliminated in the 100 - meter sprint competition. Boland and Traun decided to team up for the doubles event, in which they reached the final and defeated their Greek and Egyptian opponents after losing the first set.
The sport of weightlifting was still young in 1896, and the rules differed from those in use today. Competitions were held outdoors, in the infield of the main stadium, and there were no weight limits. The first event was held in a style now known as the "clean and jerk ''. Two competitors stood out: Scotsman Launceston Elliot and Viggo Jensen of Denmark. Both of them lifted the same weight; but the jury, with Prince George as the chairman, ruled that Jensen had done so in a better style. The British delegation, unfamiliar with this tie - breaking rule, lodged a protest. The lifters were eventually allowed to make further attempts, but neither lifter improved, and Jensen was declared the champion.
Elliot got his revenge in the one hand lift event, which was held immediately after the two - handed one. Jensen had been slightly injured during his last two - handed attempt, and was no match for Elliot, who won the competition easily. The Greek audience was charmed by the Scottish victor, whom they considered very attractive. A curious incident occurred during the weightlifting event: a servant was ordered to remove the weights, which appeared to be a difficult task for him. Prince George came to his assistance; he picked up the weight and threw it a considerable distance with ease, to the delight of the crowd.
No weight classes existed for the wrestling competition, held in the Panathenaic Stadium, which meant that there would only be one winner among competitors of all sizes. The rules used were similar to modern Greco - Roman wrestling, although there was no time limit, and not all leg holds were forbidden (in contrast to current rules).
Apart from the two Greek contestants, all the competitors had previously been active in other sports. Weightlifting champion Launceston Elliot faced gymnastics champion Carl Schuhmann. The latter won and advanced into the final, where he met Georgios Tsitas, who had previously defeated Stephanos Christopoulos. Darkness forced the final match to be suspended after 40 minutes; it was continued the following day, when Schuhmann needed only fifteen minutes to finish the bout.
On the morning of Sunday 12 April (3 April, according to Julian calendar then used in Greece) King George the great organised a banquet for officials and athletes (even though some competitions had not yet been held). During his speech, he made clear that, as far as he was concerned, the Olympics should be held in Athens permanently. The official closing ceremony was held the following Wednesday, after being postponed from Tuesday due to rain. Again the royal family attended the ceremony, which was opened by the national anthem of Greece and an ode composed in ancient Greek by George S. Robertson, a British athlete and scholar.
Afterwards, the king awarded prizes to the winners. Unlike today, the first - place winners received silver medals, an olive branch and a diploma. Athletes who placed second received copper medals, a branch of laurel and a diploma. Third place winners did not receive a medal. Some winners also received additional prizes, such as Spyridon Louis, who received a cup from Michel Bréal, a friend of Coubertin, who had conceived the marathon event. Louis then led the medalists on a lap of honour around the stadium, while the Olympic Hymn was played again. The King then formally announced that the first Olympiad was at an end, and left the Stadium, while the band played the Greek national hymn and the crowd cheered.
Like the Greek king, many others supported the idea of holding the next Games in Athens; most of the American competitors signed a letter to the Crown Prince expressing this wish. Coubertin, however, was heavily opposed to this idea, as he envisioned international rotation as one of the cornerstones of the modern Olympics. According to his wish, the next Games were held in Paris, although they would be somewhat overshadowed by the concurrently held Universal Exposition.
The concept of national teams was not a major part of the Olympic movement until the Intercalated Games 10 years later, though many sources list the nationality of competitors in 1896 and give medal counts. There are significant conflicts with regard to which nations competed. The International Olympic Committee gives a figure of 14, but does not list them. The following 14 are most likely the ones recognised by the IOC. Some sources list 12, excluding Chile and Bulgaria; others list 13, including those two but excluding Italy. Egypt is also sometimes included because of Dionysios Kasdaglis ' participation. Belgium and Russia had entered the names of competitors, but withdrew.
Ten of the 14 participating nations earned medals, in addition to three medals won by mixed teams, i.e. teams made up of athletes from multiple nations. The United States won the most gold medals * (11), while host nation Greece won the most medals overall (46) as well as the most silver * (17) and bronze * (19) medals, finishing with one fewer gold medal than the United States.
During these inaugural Olympics, winners were given a silver medal, an olive branch, and a diploma, while runners - up received a copper medal, laurel branch, and diploma. The IOC has retroactively assigned gold, silver and bronze medals to the three best placed athletes in each event to comport with more recent traditions.
To sort this table by nation, total medal count, or any other column, click on the icon next to the column title.
Key Host nation (Greece)
Women were not allowed to compete at the 1896 Summer Olympics, because de Coubertin felt that their inclusion would be "impractical, uninteresting, unaesthetic and incorrect ''. However, one woman, Stamata Revithi, ran the marathon course on 11 April, the day after the men had run the official race. Although she was not allowed to enter the stadium at the end of her race, Revithi finished the marathon in about five hours and 30 minutes, and found witnesses to sign their names and verify the starting and finishing times. Revithi intended to present this documentation to the Hellenic Olympic Committee, hoping that they would recognise her achievement. Neither her reports nor documents from the Hellenic Olympic Committee have been discovered to provide corroboration.
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who created battle of the sexes board game | Battle of the sexes - wikipedia
Battle of the Sexes refers to a conflict between male and female gender roles. It may also refer to:
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when did oceanography begin to develop as a modern science | History of science - wikipedia
The history of science is the study of the development of science and scientific knowledge, including both the natural sciences and social sciences. (The history of the arts and humanities is termed the history of scholarship.) Science is a body of empirical, theoretical, and practical knowledge about the natural world, produced by scientists who emphasize the observation, explanation, and prediction of real world phenomena. Historiography of science, in contrast, studies the methods by which historians study the history of science.
The English word scientist is relatively recent -- first coined by William Whewell in the 19th century. Previously, people investigating nature called themselves "natural philosophers ''. While empirical investigations of the natural world have been described since classical antiquity (for example, by Thales and Aristotle), and scientific method has been employed since the Middle Ages (for example, by Ibn al - Haytham and Roger Bacon), modern science began to develop in the early modern period, and in particular in the scientific revolution of 16th - and 17th - century Europe. Traditionally, historians of science have defined science sufficiently broadly to include those earlier inquiries.
From the 18th century through late 20th century, the history of science, especially of the physical and biological sciences, was often presented in a progressive narrative in which true theories replaced false beliefs. Some more recent historical interpretations, such as those of Thomas Kuhn, tend to portray the history of science in different terms, such as that of competing paradigms or conceptual systems in a wider matrix that includes intellectual, cultural, economic and political themes outside of science.
In prehistoric times, advice and knowledge was passed from generation to generation in an oral tradition. For example, the domestication of maize for agriculture has been dated to about 9,000 years ago in southern Mexico, before the development of writing systems. Similarly, archaeological evidence indicates the development of astronomical knowledge in preliterate societies. The development of writing enabled knowledge to be stored and communicated across generations with much greater fidelity.
Many ancient civilizations collected astronomical information in a systematic manner through observation. The physical structure and chemical makeup of the planets and stars was not a consideration for ancient people; the emphasis instead tended to be on the relative positions of celestial bodies, with inferences often being made about the effect of this positioning on seemingly unconnected Earthly factors. This demonstrates a peculiarity of modern science by comparison: where its ancient equivalents generally incorproated intuition and had the concept of an assumed interconnectedness between all things at their centre, intuition and general assumptions are, in modern science, not considered appropriate or productive.
Basic facts about human physiology were known in some places, and alchemy was practiced in several civilizations. Considerable observation of macroscopic flora and fauna was also performed.
Ancient Egypt made significant advances in astronomy, mathematics and medicine. Their development of geometry was a necessary outgrowth of surveying to preserve the layout and ownership of farmland, which was flooded annually by the Nile river. The 3 - 4 - 5 right triangle and other rules of geometry were used to build rectilinear structures, and the post and lintel architecture of Egypt. Egypt was also a center of alchemy research for much of the Mediterranean. The Edwin Smith papyrus is one of the first medical documents still extant, and perhaps the earliest document that attempts to describe and analyse the brain: it might be seen as the very beginnings of modern neuroscience. However, while Egyptian medicine had some effective practices, it was not without its ineffective and sometimes harmful practices. Medical historians believe that ancient Egyptian pharmacology, for example, was largely ineffective. Nevertheless, it applies the following components to the treatment of disease: examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis, which display strong parallels to the basic empirical method of science and according to G.E.R. Lloyd played a significant role in the development of this methodology. The Ebers papyrus (c. 1550 BC) also contains evidence of traditional empiricism.
From their beginnings in Sumer (now Iraq) around 3500 BC, the Mesopotamian people began to attempt to record some observations of the world with numerical data. But their observations and measurements were seemingly taken for purposes other than for elucidating scientific laws. A concrete instance of Pythagoras ' law was recorded, as early as the 18th century BC: the Mesopotamian cuneiform tablet Plimpton 322 records a number of Pythagorean triplets (3, 4, 5) (5, 12, 13)..., dated 1900 BC, possibly millennia before Pythagoras, but an abstract formulation of the Pythagorean theorem was not.
In Babylonian astronomy, records of the motions of the stars, planets, and the moon are left on thousands of clay tablets created by scribes. Even today, astronomical periods identified by Mesopotamian proto - scientists are still widely used in Western calendars such as the solar year and the lunar month. Using these data they developed arithmetical methods to compute the changing length of daylight in the course of the year and to predict the appearances and disappearances of the Moon and planets and eclipses of the Sun and Moon. Only a few astronomers ' names are known, such as that of Kidinnu, a Chaldean astronomer and mathematician. Kiddinu 's value for the solar year is in use for today 's calendars. Babylonian astronomy was "the first and highly successful attempt at giving a refined mathematical description of astronomical phenomena. '' According to the historian A. Aaboe, "all subsequent varieties of scientific astronomy, in the Hellenistic world, in India, in Islam, and in the West -- if not indeed all subsequent endeavour in the exact sciences -- depend upon Babylonian astronomy in decisive and fundamental ways. ''
In Classical Antiquity, the inquiry into the workings of the universe took place both in investigations aimed at such practical goals as establishing a reliable calendar or determining how to cure a variety of illnesses and in those abstract investigations known as natural philosophy. The ancient people who are considered the first scientists may have thought of themselves as natural philosophers, as practitioners of a skilled profession (for example, physicians), or as followers of a religious tradition (for example, temple healers).
The earliest Greek philosophers, known as the pre-Socratics, provided competing answers to the question found in the myths of their neighbors: "How did the ordered cosmos in which we live come to be? '' The pre-Socratic philosopher Thales (640 - 546 BC), dubbed the "father of science '', was the first to postulate non-supernatural explanations for natural phenomena. For example, that land floats on water and that earthquakes are caused by the agitation of the water upon which the land floats, rather than the god Poseidon. Thales ' student Pythagoras of Samos founded the Pythagorean school, which investigated mathematics for its own sake, and was the first to postulate that the Earth is spherical in shape. Leucippus (5th century BC) introduced atomism, the theory that all matter is made of indivisible, imperishable units called atoms. This was greatly expanded on by his pupil Democritus and later Epicurus.
Subsequently, Plato and Aristotle produced the first systematic discussions of natural philosophy, which did much to shape later investigations of nature. Their development of deductive reasoning was of particular importance and usefulness to later scientific inquiry. Plato founded the Platonic Academy in 387 BC, whose motto was "Let none unversed in geometry enter here '', and turned out many notable philosophers. Plato 's student Aristotle introduced empiricism and the notion that universal truths can be arrived at via observation and induction, thereby laying the foundations of the scientific method. Aristotle also produced many biological writings that were empirical in nature, focusing on biological causation and the diversity of life. He made countless observations of nature, especially the habits and attributes of plants and animals in the world around him, classified more than 540 animal species, and dissected at least 50. Aristotle 's writings profoundly influenced subsequent Islamic and European scholarship, though they were eventually superseded in the Scientific Revolution.
The important legacy of this period included substantial advances in factual knowledge, especially in anatomy, zoology, botany, mineralogy, geography, mathematics and astronomy; an awareness of the importance of certain scientific problems, especially those related to the problem of change and its causes; and a recognition of the methodological importance of applying mathematics to natural phenomena and of undertaking empirical research. In the Hellenistic age scholars frequently employed the principles developed in earlier Greek thought: the application of mathematics and deliberate empirical research, in their scientific investigations. Thus, clear unbroken lines of influence lead from ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophers, to medieval Muslim philosophers and scientists, to the European Renaissance and Enlightenment, to the secular sciences of the modern day. Neither reason nor inquiry began with the Ancient Greeks, but the Socratic method did, along with the idea of Forms, great advances in geometry, logic, and the natural sciences. According to Benjamin Farrington, former Professor of Classics at Swansea University:
and again:
The astronomer Aristarchus of Samos was the first known person to propose a heliocentric model of the solar system, while the geographer Eratosthenes accurately calculated the circumference of the Earth. Hipparchus (c. 190 -- c. 120 BC) produced the first systematic star catalog. The level of achievement in Hellenistic astronomy and engineering is impressively shown by the Antikythera mechanism (150 - 100 BC), an analog computer for calculating the position of planets. Technological artifacts of similar complexity did not reappear until the 14th century, when mechanical astronomical clocks appeared in Europe.
In medicine, Hippocrates (c. 460 BC -- c. 370 BC) and his followers were the first to describe many diseases and medical conditions and developed the Hippocratic Oath for physicians, still relevant and in use today. Herophilos (335 -- 280 BC) was the first to base his conclusions on dissection of the human body and to describe the nervous system. Galen (129 -- c. 200 AD) performed many audacious operations -- including brain and eye surgeries -- that were not tried again for almost two millennia.
In Hellenistic Egypt, the mathematician Euclid laid down the foundations of mathematical rigor and introduced the concepts of definition, axiom, theorem and proof still in use today in his Elements, considered the most influential textbook ever written. Archimedes, considered one of the greatest mathematicians of all time, is credited with using the method of exhaustion to calculate the area under the arc of a parabola with the summation of an infinite series, and gave a remarkably accurate approximation of Pi. He is also known in physics for laying the foundations of hydrostatics, statics, and the explanation of the principle of the lever.
Theophrastus wrote some of the earliest descriptions of plants and animals, establishing the first taxonomy and looking at minerals in terms of their properties such as hardness. Pliny the Elder produced what is one of the largest encyclopedias of the natural world in 77 AD, and must be regarded as the rightful successor to Theophrastus. For example, he accurately describes the octahedral shape of the diamond, and proceeds to mention that diamond dust is used by engravers to cut and polish other gems owing to its great hardness. His recognition of the importance of crystal shape is a precursor to modern crystallography, while mention of numerous other minerals presages mineralogy. He also recognises that other minerals have characteristic crystal shapes, but in one example, confuses the crystal habit with the work of lapidaries. He was also the first to recognise that amber was a fossilized resin from pine trees because he had seen samples with trapped insects within them.
Mathematics: The earliest traces of mathematical knowledge in the Indian subcontinent appear with the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 4th millennium BC ~ c. 3rd millennium BC). The people of this civilization made bricks whose dimensions were in the proportion 4: 2: 1, considered favorable for the stability of a brick structure. They also tried to standardize measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy. They designed a ruler -- the Mohenjo - daro ruler -- whose unit of length (approximately 1.32 inches or 3.4 centimetres) was divided into ten equal parts. Bricks manufactured in ancient Mohenjo - daro often had dimensions that were integral multiples of this unit of length.
Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata (476 - 550), in his Aryabhatiya (499) introduced a number of trigonometric functions (including sine, versine, cosine and inverse sine), trigonometric tables, and techniques and algorithms of algebra. In 628 AD, Brahmagupta suggested that gravity was a force of attraction. He also lucidly explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal digit, along with the Hindu - Arabic numeral system now used universally throughout the world. Arabic translations of the two astronomers ' texts were soon available in the Islamic world, introducing what would become Arabic numerals to the Islamic World by the 9th century. During the 14th -- 16th centuries, the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics made significant advances in astronomy and especially mathematics, including fields such as trigonometry and analysis. In particular, Madhava of Sangamagrama is considered the "founder of mathematical analysis ''.
Astronomy: The first textual mention of astronomical concepts comes from the Vedas, religious literature of India. According to Sarma (2008): "One finds in the Rigveda intelligent speculations about the genesis of the universe from nonexistence, the configuration of the universe, the spherical self - supporting earth, and the year of 360 days divided into 12 equal parts of 30 days each with a periodical intercalary month. ''. The first 12 chapters of the Siddhanta Shiromani, written by Bhāskara in the 12th century, cover topics such as: mean longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of the planets; the three problems of diurnal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar eclipses; latitudes of the planets; risings and settings; the moon 's crescent; conjunctions of the planets with each other; conjunctions of the planets with the fixed stars; and the patas of the sun and moon. The 13 chapters of the second part cover the nature of the sphere, as well as significant astronomical and trigonometric calculations based on it.
Nilakantha Somayaji 's astronomical treatise the Tantrasangraha similar in nature to the Tychonic system proposed by Tycho Brahe had been the most accurate astronomical model until the time of Johannes Kepler in the 17th century.
Linguistics: Some of the earliest linguistic activities can be found in Iron Age India (1st millennium BC) with the analysis of Sanskrit for the purpose of the correct recitation and interpretation of Vedic texts. The most notable grammarian of Sanskrit was Pāṇini (c. 520 -- 460 BC), whose grammar formulates close to 4,000 rules which together form a compact generative grammar of Sanskrit. Inherent in his analytic approach are the concepts of the phoneme, the morpheme and the root.
Medicine: Findings from Neolithic graveyards in what is now Pakistan show evidence of proto - dentistry among an early farming culture. Ayurveda is a system of traditional medicine that originated in ancient India before 2500 BC, and is now practiced as a form of alternative medicine in other parts of the world. Its most famous text is the Suśrutasamhitā of Suśruta, which is notable for describing procedures on various forms of surgery, including rhinoplasty, the repair of torn ear lobes, perineal lithotomy, cataract surgery, and several other excisions and other surgical procedures.
Metallurgy: The wootz, crucible and stainless steels were invented in India, and were widely exported in Classic Mediterranean world. It was known from Pliny the Elder as ferrum indicum. Indian Wootz steel was held in high regard in Roman Empire, was often considered to be the best. After in Middle Age it was imported in Syria to produce with special techniques the "Damascus steel '' by the year 1000.
The Hindus excel in the manufacture of iron, and in the preparations of those ingredients along with which it is fused to obtain that kind of soft iron which is usually styled Indian steel (Hindiah). They also have workshops wherein are forged the most famous sabres in the world.
Mathematics: From the earliest the Chinese used a positional decimal system on counting boards in order to calculate. To express 10, a single rod is placed in the second box from the right. The spoken language uses a similar system to English: e.g. four thousand two hundred seven. No symbol was used for zero. By the 1st century BC, negative numbers and decimal fractions were in use and The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art included methods for extracting higher order roots by Horner 's method and solving linear equations and by Pythagoras ' theorem. Cubic equations were solved in the Tang dynasty and solutions of equations of order higher than 3 appeared in print in 1245 AD by Ch'in Chiu - shao. Pascal 's triangle for binomial coefficients was described around 1100 by Jia Xian.
Although the first attempts at an axiomatisation of geometry appear in the Mohist canon in 330 BC, Liu Hui developed algebraic methods in geometry in the 3rd century AD and also calculated pi to 5 significant figures. In 480, Zu Chongzhi improved this by discovering the ratio 355 113 (\ displaystyle (\ tfrac (355) (113))) which remained the most accurate value for 1200 years.
Astronomy: Astronomical observations from China constitute the longest continuous sequence from any civilisation and include records of sunspots (112 records from 364 BC), supernovas (1054), lunar and solar eclipses. By the 12th century, they could reasonably accurately make predictions of eclipses, but the knowledge of this was lost during the Ming dynasty, so that the Jesuit Matteo Ricci gained much favour in 1601 by his predictions. By 635 Chinese astronomers had observed that the tails of comets always point away from the sun.
From antiquity, the Chinese used an equatorial system for describing the skies and a star map from 940 was drawn using a cylindrical (Mercator) projection. The use of an armillary sphere is recorded from the 4th century BC and a sphere permanently mounted in equatorial axis from 52 BC. In 125 AD Zhang Heng used water power to rotate the sphere in real time. This included rings for the meridian and ecliptic. By 1270 they had incorporated the principles of the Arab torquetum.
Seismology: To better prepare for calamities, Zhang Heng invented a seismometer in 132 CE which provided instant alert to authorities in the capital Luoyang that an earthquake had occurred in a location indicated by a specific cardinal or ordinal direction. Although no tremors could be felt in the capital when Zhang told the court that an earthquake had just occurred in the northwest, a message came soon afterwards that an earthquake had indeed struck 400 km (248 mi) to 500 km (310 mi) northwest of Luoyang (in what is now modern Gansu). Zhang called his device the ' instrument for measuring the seasonal winds and the movements of the Earth ' (Houfeng didong yi 候 风 地动仪), so - named because he and others thought that earthquakes were most likely caused by the enormous compression of trapped air. See Zhang 's seismometer for further details.
There are many notable contributors to the field of Chinese science throughout the ages. One of the best examples would be Shen Kuo (1031 -- 1095), a polymath scientist and statesman who was the first to describe the magnetic - needle compass used for navigation, discovered the concept of true north, improved the design of the astronomical gnomon, armillary sphere, sight tube, and clepsydra, and described the use of drydocks to repair boats. After observing the natural process of the inundation of silt and the find of marine fossils in the Taihang Mountains (hundreds of miles from the Pacific Ocean), Shen Kuo devised a theory of land formation, or geomorphology. He also adopted a theory of gradual climate change in regions over time, after observing petrified bamboo found underground at Yan'an, Shaanxi province. If not for Shen Kuo 's writing, the architectural works of Yu Hao would be little known, along with the inventor of movable type printing, Bi Sheng (990 - 1051). Shen 's contemporary Su Song (1020 -- 1101) was also a brilliant polymath, an astronomer who created a celestial atlas of star maps, wrote a pharmaceutical treatise with related subjects of botany, zoology, mineralogy, and metallurgy, and had erected a large astronomical clocktower in Kaifeng city in 1088. To operate the crowning armillary sphere, his clocktower featured an escapement mechanism and the world 's oldest known use of an endless power - transmitting chain drive.
The Jesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th centuries "learned to appreciate the scientific achievements of this ancient culture and made them known in Europe. Through their correspondence European scientists first learned about the Chinese science and culture. '' Western academic thought on the history of Chinese technology and science was galvanized by the work of Joseph Needham and the Needham Research Institute. Among the technological accomplishments of China were, according to the British scholar Needham, early seismological detectors (Zhang Heng in the 2nd century), the water - powered celestial globe (Zhang Heng), matches, the independent invention of the decimal system, dry docks, sliding calipers, the double - action piston pump, cast iron, the blast furnace, the iron plough, the multi-tube seed drill, the wheelbarrow, the suspension bridge, the winnowing machine, the rotary fan, the parachute, natural gas as fuel, the raised - relief map, the propeller, the crossbow, and a solid fuel rocket, the multistage rocket, the horse collar, along with contributions in logic, astronomy, medicine, and other fields.
However, cultural factors prevented these Chinese achievements from developing into what we might call "modern science ''. According to Needham, it may have been the religious and philosophical framework of Chinese intellectuals which made them unable to accept the ideas of laws of nature:
It was not that there was no order in nature for the Chinese, but rather that it was not an order ordained by a rational personal being, and hence there was no conviction that rational personal beings would be able to spell out in their lesser earthly languages the divine code of laws which he had decreed aforetime. The Taoists, indeed, would have scorned such an idea as being too naïve for the subtlety and complexity of the universe as they intuited it.
With the division of the Roman Empire, the Western Roman Empire lost contact with much of its past. In the Middle East, Greek philosophy was able to find some support under the newly created Arab Empire. With the spread of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship, known as the Islamic Golden Age, lasted until the 13th century. This scholarship was aided by several factors. The use of a single language, Arabic, allowed communication without need of a translator. Access to Greek texts from the Byzantine Empire, along with Indian sources of learning, provided Muslim scholars a knowledge base to build upon.
While the Byzantine Empire still held learning centers such as Constantinople, Western Europe 's knowledge was concentrated in monasteries until the development of medieval universities in the 12th and 13th centuries. The curriculum of monastic schools included the study of the few available ancient texts and of new works on practical subjects like medicine and timekeeping.
Scientific method began developing in the Muslim world, where significant progress in methodology was made, beginning with the experiments of Ibn al - Haytham (Alhazen) on optics from c. 1000, in his Book of Optics. The most important development of the scientific method was the use of experiments to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation, which began among Muslim scientists. Ibn al - Haytham is also regarded as the father of optics, especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light. Some have also described Ibn al - Haytham as the "first scientist '' for his development of the modern scientific method.
In mathematics, the mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al - Khwarizmi gave his name to the concept of the algorithm, while the term algebra is derived from al - jabr, the beginning of the title of one of his publications. What is now known as Arabic numerals originally came from India, but Muslim mathematicians did make several refinements to the number system, such as the introduction of decimal point notation. Mathematician Al - Battani (850 - 929) contributed to astronomy and mathematics, while scholar Al - Razi contributed to chemistry and medicine.
In astronomy, Al - Battani improved the measurements of Hipparchus, preserved in the translation of Ptolemy 's Hè Megalè Syntaxis (The great treatise) translated as Almagest. Al - Battani also improved the precision of the measurement of the precession of the Earth 's axis. The corrections made to the geocentric model by al - Battani, Ibn al - Haytham, Averroes and the Maragha astronomers such as Nasir al - Din al - Tusi, Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi and Ibn al - Shatir are similar to Copernican heliocentric model. Heliocentric theories may have also been discussed by several other Muslim astronomers such as Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al - Balkhi, Abu - Rayhan Biruni, Abu Said al - Sijzi, Qutb al - Din al - Shirazi, and Najm al - Dīn al - Qazwīnī al - Kātibī.
Muslim chemists and alchemists played an important role in the foundation of modern chemistry. Scholars such as Will Durant and Fielding H. Garrison considered Muslim chemists to be the founders of chemistry. In particular, Jābir ibn Hayyān is "considered by many to be the father of chemistry ''. The works of Arabic scientists influenced Roger Bacon (who introduced the empirical method to Europe, strongly influenced by his reading of Persian writers), and later Isaac Newton.
Ibn Sina (Avicenna) is regarded as the most influential philosopher of Islam. He pioneered the science of experimental medicine and was the first physician to conduct clinical trials. His two most notable works in medicine are the Kitāb al - shifāʾ ("Book of Healing '') and The Canon of Medicine, both of which were used as standard medicinal texts in both the Muslim world and in Europe well into the 17th century. Amongst his many contributions are the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases, and the introduction of clinical pharmacology.
Some of the other famous scientists from the Islamic world include al - Farabi (polymath), Abu al - Qasim al - Zahrawi (pioneer of surgery), Abū Rayhān al - Bīrūnī (pioneer of Indology, geodesy and anthropology), Nasīr al - Dīn al - Tūsī (polymath), and Ibn Khaldun (forerunner of social sciences such as demography, cultural history, historiography, philosophy of history and sociology), among many others.
Islamic science began its decline in the 12th or 13th century, before the Renaissance in Europe, and due in part to the 11th -- 13th century Mongol conquests, during which libraries, observatories, hospitals and universities were destroyed. The end of the Islamic Golden Age is marked by the destruction of the intellectual center of Baghdad, the capital of the Abbasid caliphate in 1258.
An intellectual revitalization of Europe started with the birth of medieval universities in the 12th century. The contact with the Islamic world in Spain and Sicily, and during the Reconquista and the Crusades, allowed Europeans access to scientific Greek and Arabic texts, including the works of Aristotle, Ptolemy, Jābir ibn Hayyān, al - Khwarizmi, Alhazen, Avicenna, and Averroes. European scholars had access to the translation programs of Raymond of Toledo, who sponsored the 12th century Toledo School of Translators from Arabic to Latin. Later translators like Michael Scotus would learn Arabic in order to study these texts directly. The European universities aided materially in the translation and propagation of these texts and started a new infrastructure which was needed for scientific communities. In fact, European university put many works about the natural world and the study of nature at the center of its curriculum, with the result that the "medieval university laid far greater emphasis on science than does its modern counterpart and descendent. ''
As well as this, Europeans began to venture further and further east (most notably, perhaps, Marco Polo) as a result of the Pax Mongolica. This led to the increased awareness of Indian and even Chinese culture and civilization within the European tradition. Technological advances were also made, such as the early flight of Eilmer of Malmesbury (who had studied Mathematics in 11th century England), and the metallurgical achievements of the Cistercian blast furnace at Laskill.
At the beginning of the 13th century, there were reasonably accurate Latin translations of the main works of almost all the intellectually crucial ancient authors, allowing a sound transfer of scientific ideas via both the universities and the monasteries. By then, the natural philosophy contained in these texts began to be extended by notable scholastics such as Robert Grosseteste, Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus and Duns Scotus. Precursors of the modern scientific method, influenced by earlier contributions of the Islamic world, can be seen already in Grosseteste 's emphasis on mathematics as a way to understand nature, and in the empirical approach admired by Bacon, particularly in his Opus Majus. Pierre Duhem 's provocative thesis of the Catholic Church 's Condemnation of 1277 led to the study of medieval science as a serious discipline, "but no one in the field any longer endorses his view that modern science started in 1277 ''. However, many scholars agree with Duhem 's view that the Middle Ages were a period of important scientific developments.
The first half of the 14th century saw much important scientific work being done, largely within the framework of scholastic commentaries on Aristotle 's scientific writings. William of Ockham introduced the principle of parsimony: natural philosophers should not postulate unnecessary entities, so that motion is not a distinct thing but is only the moving object and an intermediary "sensible species '' is not needed to transmit an image of an object to the eye. Scholars such as Jean Buridan and Nicole Oresme started to reinterpret elements of Aristotle 's mechanics. In particular, Buridan developed the theory that impetus was the cause of the motion of projectiles, which was a first step towards the modern concept of inertia. The Oxford Calculators began to mathematically analyze the kinematics of motion, making this analysis without considering the causes of motion.
In 1348, the Black Death and other disasters sealed a sudden end to the previous period of massive philosophic and scientific development. Yet, the rediscovery of ancient texts was improved after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, when many Byzantine scholars had to seek refuge in the West. Meanwhile, the introduction of printing was to have great effect on European society. The facilitated dissemination of the printed word democratized learning and allowed a faster propagation of new ideas. New ideas also helped to influence the development of European science at this point: not least the introduction of Algebra. These developments paved the way for the Scientific Revolution, which may also be understood as a resumption of the process of scientific inquiry, halted at the start of the Black Death.
The renewal of learning in Europe, that began with 12th century Scholasticism, came to an end about the time of the Black Death, and the initial period of the subsequent Italian Renaissance is sometimes seen as a lull in scientific activity. The Northern Renaissance, on the other hand, showed a decisive shift in focus from Aristoteleian natural philosophy to chemistry and the biological sciences (botany, anatomy, and medicine). Thus modern science in Europe was resumed in a period of great upheaval: the Protestant Reformation and Catholic Counter-Reformation; the discovery of the Americas by Christopher Columbus; the Fall of Constantinople; but also the re-discovery of Aristotle during the Scholastic period presaged large social and political changes. Thus, a suitable environment was created in which it became possible to question scientific doctrine, in much the same way that Martin Luther and John Calvin questioned religious doctrine. The works of Ptolemy (astronomy) and Galen (medicine) were found not always to match everyday observations. Work by Vesalius on human cadavers found problems with the Galenic view of anatomy.
The willingness to question previously held truths and search for new answers resulted in a period of major scientific advancements, now known as the Scientific Revolution. The Scientific Revolution is traditionally held by most historians to have begun in 1543, when the books De humani corporis fabrica (On the Workings of the Human Body) by Andreas Vesalius, and also De Revolutionibus, by the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, were first printed. The thesis of Copernicus ' book was that the Earth moved around the Sun. The period culminated with the publication of the Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica in 1687 by Isaac Newton, representative of the unprecedented growth of scientific publications throughout Europe.
Other significant scientific advances were made during this time by Galileo Galilei, Edmond Halley, Robert Hooke, Christiaan Huygens, Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler, Gottfried Leibniz, and Blaise Pascal. In philosophy, major contributions were made by Francis Bacon, Sir Thomas Browne, René Descartes, and Thomas Hobbes. The scientific method was also better developed as the modern way of thinking emphasized experimentation and reason over traditional considerations.
The Age of Enlightenment was a European affair. The 17th century brought decisive steps towards modern science, which accelerated during the 18th century. Directly based on the works of Newton, Descartes, Pascal and Leibniz, the way was now clear to the development of modern mathematics, physics and technology by the generation of Benjamin Franklin (1706 -- 1790), Leonhard Euler (1707 -- 1783), Mikhail Lomonosov (1711 -- 1765) and Jean le Rond d'Alembert (1717 -- 1783). Denis Diderot 's Encyclopédie, published between 1751 and 1772 brought this new understanding to a wider audience. The impact of this process was not limited to science and technology, but affected philosophy (Immanuel Kant, David Hume), religion (the increasingly significant impact of science upon religion), and society and politics in general (Adam Smith, Voltaire). The early modern period is seen as a flowering of the European Renaissance, in what is often known as the Scientific Revolution, viewed as a foundation of modern science.
The Romantic Movement of the early 19th century reshaped science by opening up new pursuits unexpected in the classical approaches of the Enlightenment. Major breakthroughs came in biology, especially in Darwin 's theory of evolution, as well as physics (electromagnetism), mathematics (non-Euclidean geometry, group theory) and chemistry (organic chemistry). The decline of Romanticism occurred because a new movement, Positivism, began to take hold of the ideals of the intellectuals after 1840 and lasted until about 1880.
The scientific revolution established science as a source for the growth of knowledge. During the 19th century, the practice of science became professionalized and institutionalized in ways that continued through the 20th century. As the role of scientific knowledge grew in society, it became incorporated with many aspects of the functioning of nation - states.
The scientific revolution is a convenient boundary between ancient thought and classical physics. Nicolaus Copernicus revived the heliocentric model of the solar system described by Aristarchus of Samos. This was followed by the first known model of planetary motion given by Johannes Kepler in the early 17th century, which proposed that the planets follow elliptical orbits, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse. Galileo ("Father of Modern Physics '') also made use of experiments to validate physical theories, a key element of the scientific method. William Gilbert did some of the earliest experiments with electricity and magnetism, establishing that the Earth itself is magnetic.
In 1687, Isaac Newton published the Principia Mathematica, detailing two comprehensive and successful physical theories: Newton 's laws of motion, which led to classical mechanics; and Newton 's Law of Gravitation, which describes the fundamental force of gravity.
During the early 19th century, the behavior of electricity and magnetism was studied by Faraday, Ohm, and others. These studies led to the unification of the two phenomena into a single theory of electromagnetism, by James Clerk Maxwell (known as Maxwell 's equations).
The beginning of the 20th century brought the start of a revolution in physics. The long - held theories of Newton were shown not to be correct in all circumstances. Beginning in 1900, Max Planck, Albert Einstein, Niels Bohr and others developed quantum theories to explain various anomalous experimental results, by introducing discrete energy levels. Not only did quantum mechanics show that the laws of motion did not hold on small scales, but even more disturbingly, the theory of general relativity, proposed by Einstein in 1915, showed that the fixed background of spacetime, on which both Newtonian mechanics and special relativity depended, could not exist. In 1925, Werner Heisenberg and Erwin Schrödinger formulated quantum mechanics, which explained the preceding quantum theories. The observation by Edwin Hubble in 1929 that the speed at which galaxies recede positively correlates with their distance, led to the understanding that the universe is expanding, and the formulation of the Big Bang theory by Georges Lemaître.
In 1938 Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann discovered nuclear fission with radiochemical methods, and in 1939 Lise Meitner and Otto Robert Frisch wrote the first theoretical interpretation of the fission process, which was later improved by Niels Bohr and John A. Wheeler. Further developments took place during World War II, which led to the practical application of radar and the development and use of the atomic bomb. Around this time, Chien - Shiung Wu was recruited by the Manhattan Project to help develop a process for separating uranium metal into U-235 and U-238 isotopes by Gaseous diffusion. She was an expert experimentalist in beta decay and weak interaction physics. Wu designed an experiment (see Wu experiment) that enabled theoretical physicists Tsung - Dao Lee and Chen - Ning Yang to disprove the law of parity experimentally, winning them Nobel Prize in 1957.
Though the process had begun with the invention of the cyclotron by Ernest O. Lawrence in the 1930s, physics in the postwar period entered into a phase of what historians have called "Big Science '', requiring massive machines, budgets, and laboratories in order to test their theories and move into new frontiers. The primary patron of physics became state governments, who recognized that the support of "basic '' research could often lead to technologies useful to both military and industrial applications.
Currently, general relativity and quantum mechanics are inconsistent with each other, and efforts are underway to unify the two.
Modern chemistry emerged from the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries through the material practices and theories promoted by alchemy, medicine, manufacturing and mining. A decisive moment came when ' chemistry ' was distinguished from alchemy by Robert Boyle in his work The Sceptical Chymist, in 1661; although the alchemical tradition continued for some time after his work. Other important steps included the gravimetric experimental practices of medical chemists like William Cullen, Joseph Black, Torbern Bergman and Pierre Macquer and through the work of Antoine Lavoisier (Father of Modern Chemistry) on oxygen and the law of conservation of mass, which refuted phlogiston theory. The theory that all matter is made of atoms, which are the smallest constituents of matter that can not be broken down without losing the basic chemical and physical properties of that matter, was provided by John Dalton in 1803, although the question took a hundred years to settle as proven. Dalton also formulated the law of mass relationships. In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev composed his periodic table of elements on the basis of Dalton 's discoveries.
The synthesis of urea by Friedrich Wöhler opened a new research field, organic chemistry, and by the end of the 19th century, scientists were able to synthesize hundreds of organic compounds. The later part of the 19th century saw the exploitation of the Earth 's petrochemicals, after the exhaustion of the oil supply from whaling. By the 20th century, systematic production of refined materials provided a ready supply of products which provided not only energy, but also synthetic materials for clothing, medicine, and everyday disposable resources. Application of the techniques of organic chemistry to living organisms resulted in physiological chemistry, the precursor to biochemistry. The 20th century also saw the integration of physics and chemistry, with chemical properties explained as the result of the electronic structure of the atom. Linus Pauling 's book on The Nature of the Chemical Bond used the principles of quantum mechanics to deduce bond angles in ever - more complicated molecules. Pauling 's work culminated in the physical modelling of DNA, the secret of life (in the words of Francis Crick, 1953). In the same year, the Miller -- Urey experiment demonstrated in a simulation of primordial processes, that basic constituents of proteins, simple amino acids, could themselves be built up from simpler molecules.
Geology existed as a cloud of isolated, disconnected ideas about rocks, minerals, and landforms long before it became a coherent science. Theophrastus ' work on rocks, Peri lithōn, remained authoritative for millennia: its interpretation of fossils was not overturned until after the Scientific Revolution. Chinese polymath Shen Kua (1031 -- 1095) first formulated hypotheses for the process of land formation. Based on his observation of fossils in a geological stratum in a mountain hundreds of miles from the ocean, he deduced that the land was formed by erosion of the mountains and by deposition of silt.
Geology did not undergo systematic restructuring during the Scientific Revolution, but individual theorists made important contributions. Robert Hooke, for example, formulated a theory of earthquakes, and Nicholas Steno developed the theory of superposition and argued that fossils were the remains of once - living creatures. Beginning with Thomas Burnet 's Sacred Theory of the Earth in 1681, natural philosophers began to explore the idea that the Earth had changed over time. Burnet and his contemporaries interpreted Earth 's past in terms of events described in the Bible, but their work laid the intellectual foundations for secular interpretations of Earth history.
Modern geology, like modern chemistry, gradually evolved during the 18th and early 19th centuries. Benoît de Maillet and the Comte de Buffon saw the Earth as much older than the 6,000 years envisioned by biblical scholars. Jean - Étienne Guettard and Nicolas Desmarest hiked central France and recorded their observations on some of the first geological maps. Aided by chemical experimentation, naturalists such as Scotland 's John Walker, Sweden 's Torbern Bergman, and Germany 's Abraham Werner created comprehensive classification systems for rocks and minerals -- a collective achievement that transformed geology into a cutting edge field by the end of the eighteenth century. These early geologists also proposed a generalized interpretations of Earth history that led James Hutton, Georges Cuvier and Alexandre Brongniart, following in the steps of Steno, to argue that layers of rock could be dated by the fossils they contained: a principle first applied to the geology of the Paris Basin. The use of index fossils became a powerful tool for making geological maps, because it allowed geologists to correlate the rocks in one locality with those of similar age in other, distant localities. Over the first half of the 19th century, geologists such as Charles Lyell, Adam Sedgwick, and Roderick Murchison applied the new technique to rocks throughout Europe and eastern North America, setting the stage for more detailed, government - funded mapping projects in later decades.
Midway through the 19th century, the focus of geology shifted from description and classification to attempts to understand how the surface of the Earth had changed. The first comprehensive theories of mountain building were proposed during this period, as were the first modern theories of earthquakes and volcanoes. Louis Agassiz and others established the reality of continent - covering ice ages, and "fluvialists '' like Andrew Crombie Ramsay argued that river valleys were formed, over millions of years by the rivers that flow through them. After the discovery of radioactivity, radiometric dating methods were developed, starting in the 20th century. Alfred Wegener 's theory of "continental drift '' was widely dismissed when he proposed it in the 1910s, but new data gathered in the 1950s and 1960s led to the theory of plate tectonics, which provided a plausible mechanism for it. Plate tectonics also provided a unified explanation for a wide range of seemingly unrelated geological phenomena. Since 1970 it has served as the unifying principle in geology.
Geologists ' embrace of plate tectonics became part of a broadening of the field from a study of rocks into a study of the Earth as a planet. Other elements of this transformation include: geophysical studies of the interior of the Earth, the grouping of geology with meteorology and oceanography as one of the "earth sciences '', and comparisons of Earth and the solar system 's other rocky planets.
Aristarchus of Samos published work on how to determine the sizes and distances of the Sun and the Moon, and Eratosthenes used this work to figure the size of the Earth. Hipparchus later discovered the precession of the Earth.
Advances in astronomy and in optical systems in the 19th century resulted in the first observation of an asteroid (1 Ceres) in 1801, and the discovery of Neptune in 1846.
In 1925, Cecilia Payne - Gaposchkin determined that stars were composed mostly of Hydrogen and Helium. She was dissuaded by astronomer Henry Norris Russell from publishing this finding in her Ph. D. thesis because of the widely held belief that stars had the same composition as the Earth. However, four years later, in 1929, Henry Norris Russell came to the same conclusion through different reasoning and the discovery was eventually accepted.
George Gamow, Ralph Alpher, and Robert Herman had calculated that there should be evidence for a Big Bang in the background temperature of the universe. In 1964, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson discovered a 3 Kelvin background hiss in their Bell Labs radiotelescope (the Holmdel Horn Antenna), which was evidence for this hypothesis, and formed the basis for a number of results that helped determine the age of the universe.
Supernova SN1987A was observed by astronomers on Earth both visually, and in a triumph for neutrino astronomy, by the solar neutrino detectors at Kamiokande. But the solar neutrino flux was a fraction of its theoretically expected value. This discrepancy forced a change in some values in the standard model for particle physics.
William Harvey published De Motu Cordis in 1628, which revealed his conclusions based on his extensive studies of vertebrate circulatory systems. He identified the central role of the heart, arteries, and veins in producing blood movement in a circuit, and failed to find any confirmation of Galen 's pre-existing notions of heating and cooling functions.
The British Royal Society had received a letter from Antonie van Leeuwenhoek and published it in 1673, bringing to light the scientist 's observations of microscopic organisms with his custom crafted lenses.
In 1847, Hungarian physician Ignác Fülöp Semmelweis dramatically reduced the occurrency of puerperal fever by simply requiring physicians to wash their hands before attending to women in childbirth. This discovery predated the germ theory of disease. However, Semmelweis ' findings were not appreciated by his contemporaries and came into use only with discoveries by British surgeon Joseph Lister, who in 1865 proved the principles of antisepsis. Lister 's work was based on the important findings by French biologist Louis Pasteur. Pasteur was able to link microorganisms with disease, revolutionizing medicine. He also devised one of the most important methods in preventive medicine, when in 1880 he produced a vaccine against rabies. Pasteur invented the process of pasteurization, to help prevent the spread of disease through milk and other foods.
Perhaps the most prominent, controversial and far - reaching theory in all of science has been the theory of evolution by natural selection put forward by the British naturalist Charles Darwin in his book On the Origin of Species in 1859. Darwin proposed that the features of all living things, including humans, were shaped by natural processes over long periods of time. The theory of evolution in its current form affects almost all areas of biology. Implications of evolution on fields outside of pure science have led to both opposition and support from different parts of society, and profoundly influenced the popular understanding of "man 's place in the universe ''. In the early 20th century, the study of heredity became a major investigation after the rediscovery in 1900 of the laws of inheritance developed by the Moravian monk Gregor Mendel in 1866. Mendel 's laws provided the beginnings of the study of genetics, which became a major field of research for both scientific and industrial research. By 1953, James D. Watson, Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins clarified the basic structure of DNA, the genetic material for expressing life in all its forms. In the late 20th century, the possibilities of genetic engineering became practical for the first time, and a massive international effort began in 1990 to map out an entire human genome (the Human Genome Project).
The discipline of ecology typically traces its origin to the synthesis of Darwinian evolution and Humboldtian biogeography, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Equally important in the rise of ecology, however, were microbiology and soil science -- particularly the cycle of life concept, prominent in the work Louis Pasteur and Ferdinand Cohn. The word ecology was coined by Ernst Haeckel, whose particularly holistic view of nature in general (and Darwin 's theory in particular) was important in the spread of ecological thinking. In the 1930s, Arthur Tansley and others began developing the field of ecosystem ecology, which combined experimental soil science with physiological concepts of energy and the techniques of field biology. The history of ecology in the 20th century is closely tied to that of environmentalism; the Gaia hypothesis, first formulated in the 1960s, and spreading in the 1970s, and more recently the scientific - religious movement of Deep Ecology have brought the two closer together.
Successful use of the scientific method in the physical sciences led to the same methodology being adapted to better understand the many fields of human endeavor. From this effort the social sciences have been developed.
Political science is a late arrival in terms of social sciences. However, the discipline has a clear set of antecedents such as moral philosophy, political philosophy, political economy, history, and other fields concerned with normative determinations of what ought to be and with deducing the characteristics and functions of the ideal form of government. The roots of politics are in prehistory. In each historic period and in almost every geographic area, we can find someone studying politics and increasing political understanding.
In Western culture, the study of politics is first found in Ancient Greece. The antecedents of European politics trace their roots back even earlier than Plato and Aristotle, particularly in the works of Homer, Hesiod, Thucydides, Xenophon, and Euripides. Later, Plato analyzed political systems, abstracted their analysis from more literary - and history - oriented studies and applied an approach we would understand as closer to philosophy. Similarly, Aristotle built upon Plato 's analysis to include historical empirical evidence in his analysis.
An ancient Indian treatise on statecraft, economic policy and military strategy by Kautilya and Viṣhṇugupta, who are traditionally identified with Chāṇakya (c. 350 -- - 283 BCE). In this treatise, the behaviors and relationships of the people, the King, the State, the Government Superintendents, Courtiers, Enemies, Invaders, and Corporations are analysed and documented. Roger Boesche describes the Arthaśāstra as "a book of political realism, a book analysing how the political world does work and not very often stating how it ought to work, a book that frequently discloses to a king what calculating and sometimes brutal measures he must carry out to preserve the state and the common good. ''
During the rule of Rome, famous historians such as Polybius, Livy and Plutarch documented the rise of the Roman Republic, and the organization and histories of other nations, while statesmen like Julius Caesar, Cicero and others provided us with examples of the politics of the republic and Rome 's empire and wars. The study of politics during this age was oriented toward understanding history, understanding methods of governing, and describing the operation of governments.
With the fall of the Western Roman Empire, there arose a more diffuse arena for political studies. The rise of monotheism and, particularly for the Western tradition, Christianity, brought to light a new space for politics and political action. During the Middle Ages, the study of politics was widespread in the churches and courts. Works such as Augustine of Hippo 's The City of God synthesized current philosophies and political traditions with those of Christianity, redefining the borders between what was religious and what was political. Most of the political questions surrounding the relationship between Church and State were clarified and contested in this period.
In the Middle East and later other Islamic areas, works such as the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam and Epic of Kings by Ferdowsi provided evidence of political analysis, while the Islamic Aristotelians such as Avicenna and later Maimonides and Averroes, continued Aristotle 's tradition of analysis and empiricism, writing commentaries on Aristotle 's works.
During the Italian Renaissance, Niccolò Machiavelli established the emphasis of modern political science on direct empirical observation of political institutions and actors. Later, the expansion of the scientific paradigm during the Enlightenment further pushed the study of politics beyond normative determinations. In particular, the study of statistics, to study the subjects of the state, has been applied to polling and voting.
In the 20th century, the study of ideology, behaviouralism and international relations led to a multitude of ' pol - sci ' subdisciplines including rational choice theory, voting theory, game theory (also used in economics), psephology, political geography / geopolitics, political psychology / political sociology, political economy, policy analysis, public administration, comparative political analysis and peace studies / conflict analysis.
Historical linguistics emerged as an independent field of study at the end of the 18th century. Sir William Jones proposed that Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, Gothic, and Celtic languages all shared a common base. After Jones, an effort to catalog all languages of the world was made throughout the 19th century and into the 20th century. Publication of Ferdinand de Saussure 's Cours de linguistique générale created the development of descriptive linguistics. Descriptive linguistics, and the related structuralism movement caused linguistics to focus on how language changes over time, instead of just describing the differences between languages. Noam Chomsky further diversified linguistics with the development of generative linguistics in the 1950s. His effort is based upon a mathematical model of language that allows for the description and prediction of valid syntax. Additional specialties such as sociolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, and computational linguistics have emerged from collaboration between linguistics and other disciplines.
The basis for classical economics forms Adam Smith 's An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, published in 1776. Smith criticized mercantilism, advocating a system of free trade with division of labour. He postulated an "invisible hand '' that regulated economic systems made up of actors guided only by self - interest. Karl Marx developed an alternative economic theory, called Marxian economics. Marxian economics is based on the labor theory of value and assumes the value of good to be based on the amount of labor required to produce it. Under this assumption, capitalism was based on employers not paying the full value of workers labor to create profit. The Austrian school responded to Marxian economics by viewing entrepreneurship as driving force of economic development. This replaced the labor theory of value by a system of supply and demand.
In the 1920s, John Maynard Keynes prompted a division between microeconomics and macroeconomics. Under Keynesian economics macroeconomic trends can overwhelm economic choices made by individuals. Governments should promote aggregate demand for goods as a means to encourage economic expansion. Following World War II, Milton Friedman created the concept of monetarism. Monetarism focuses on using the supply and demand of money as a method for controlling economic activity. In the 1970s, monetarism has adapted into supply - side economics which advocates reducing taxes as a means to increase the amount of money available for economic expansion.
Other modern schools of economic thought are New Classical economics and New Keynesian economics. New Classical economics was developed in the 1970s, emphasizing solid microeconomics as the basis for macroeconomic growth. New Keynesian economics was created partially in response to New Classical economics, and deals with how inefficiencies in the market create a need for control by a central bank or government.
The above "history of economics '' reflects modern economic textbooks and this means that the last stage of a science is represented as the culmination of its history (Kuhn, 1962). The "invisible hand '' mentioned in a lost page in the middle of a chapter in the middle of the "Wealth of Nations '', 1776, advances as Smith 's central message. It is played down that this "invisible hand '' acts only "frequently '' and that it is "no part of his (the individual 's) intentions '' because competition leads to lower prices by imitating "his '' invention. That this "invisible hand '' prefers "the support of domestic to foreign industry '' is cleansed -- often without indication that part of the citation is truncated. The opening passage of the "Wealth '' containing Smith 's message is never mentioned as it can not be integrated into modern theory: "Wealth '' depends on the division of labour which changes with market volume and on the proportion of productive to Unproductive labor.
The end of the 19th century marks the start of psychology as a scientific enterprise. The year 1879 is commonly seen as the start of psychology as an independent field of study. In that year Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research (in Leipzig). Other important early contributors to the field include Hermann Ebbinghaus (a pioneer in memory studies), Ivan Pavlov (who discovered classical conditioning), William James, and Sigmund Freud. Freud 's influence has been enormous, though more as cultural icon than a force in scientific psychology.
The 20th century saw a rejection of Freud 's theories as being too unscientific, and a reaction against Edward Titchener 's atomistic approach of the mind. This led to the formulation of behaviorism by John B. Watson, which was popularized by B.F. Skinner. Behaviorism proposed epistemologically limiting psychological study to overt behavior, since that could be reliably measured. Scientific knowledge of the "mind '' was considered too metaphysical, hence impossible to achieve.
The final decades of the 20th century have seen the rise of a new interdisciplinary approach to studying human psychology, known collectively as cognitive science. Cognitive science again considers the mind as a subject for investigation, using the tools of psychology, linguistics, computer science, philosophy, and neurobiology. New methods of visualizing the activity of the brain, such as PET scans and CAT scans, began to exert their influence as well, leading some researchers to investigate the mind by investigating the brain, rather than cognition. These new forms of investigation assume that a wide understanding of the human mind is possible, and that such an understanding may be applied to other research domains, such as artificial intelligence.
Ibn Khaldun can be regarded as the earliest scientific systematic sociologist. The modern sociology, emerged in the early 19th century as the academic response to the modernization of the world. Among many early sociologists (e.g., Émile Durkheim), the aim of sociology was in structuralism, understanding the cohesion of social groups, and developing an "antidote '' to social disintegration. Max Weber was concerned with the modernization of society through the concept of rationalization, which he believed would trap individuals in an "iron cage '' of rational thought. Some sociologists, including Georg Simmel and W.E.B. Du Bois, utilized more microsociological, qualitative analyses. This microlevel approach played an important role in American sociology, with the theories of George Herbert Mead and his student Herbert Blumer resulting in the creation of the symbolic interactionism approach to sociology.
American sociology in the 1940s and 1950s was dominated largely by Talcott Parsons, who argued that aspects of society that promoted structural integration were therefore "functional ''. This structural functionalism approach was questioned in the 1960s, when sociologists came to see this approach as merely a justification for inequalities present in the status quo. In reaction, conflict theory was developed, which was based in part on the philosophies of Karl Marx. Conflict theorists saw society as an arena in which different groups compete for control over resources. Symbolic interactionism also came to be regarded as central to sociological thinking. Erving Goffman saw social interactions as a stage performance, with individuals preparing "backstage '' and attempting to control their audience through impression management. While these theories are currently prominent in sociological thought, other approaches exist, including feminist theory, post-structuralism, rational choice theory, and postmodernism.
Anthropology can best be understood as an outgrowth of the Age of Enlightenment. It was during this period that Europeans attempted systematically to study human behaviour. Traditions of jurisprudence, history, philology and sociology developed during this time and informed the development of the social sciences of which anthropology was a part.
At the same time, the romantic reaction to the Enlightenment produced thinkers such as Johann Gottfried Herder and later Wilhelm Dilthey whose work formed the basis for the culture concept which is central to the discipline. Traditionally, much of the history of the subject was based on colonial encounters between Western Europe and the rest of the world, and much of 18th - and 19th - century anthropology is now classed as forms of scientific racism.
During the late 19th - century, battles over the "study of man '' took place between those of an "anthropological '' persuasion (relying on anthropometrical techniques) and those of an "ethnological '' persuasion (looking at cultures and traditions), and these distinctions became part of the later divide between physical anthropology and cultural anthropology, the latter ushered in by the students of Franz Boas.
In the mid-20th century, much of the methodologies of earlier anthropological and ethnographical study were reevaluated with an eye towards research ethics, while at the same time the scope of investigation has broadened far beyond the traditional study of "primitive cultures '' (scientific practice itself is often an arena of anthropological study).
The emergence of paleoanthropology, a scientific discipline which draws on the methodologies of paleontology, physical anthropology and ethology, among other disciplines, and increasing in scope and momentum from the mid-20th century, continues to yield further insights into human origins, evolution, genetic and cultural heritage, and perspectives on the contemporary human predicament as well.
During the 20th century, a number of interdisciplinary scientific fields have emerged. Examples include:
Communication studies combines animal communication, information theory, marketing, public relations, telecommunications and other forms of communication.
Computer science, built upon a foundation of theoretical linguistics, discrete mathematics, and electrical engineering, studies the nature and limits of computation. Subfields include computability, computational complexity, database design, computer networking, artificial intelligence, and the design of computer hardware. One area in which advances in computing have contributed to more general scientific development is by facilitating large - scale archiving of scientific data. Contemporary computer science typically distinguishes itself by emphasising mathematical ' theory ' in contrast to the practical emphasis of software engineering.
Environmental science is an interdisciplinary field. It draws upon the disciplines of biology, chemistry, earth sciences, ecology, geography, mathematics, and physics.
Materials science has its roots in metallurgy, mineralogy, and crystallography. It combines chemistry, physics, and several engineering disciplines. The field studies metals, ceramics, glass, plastics, semiconductors, and composite materials.
As an academic field, history of science and technology began with the publication of William Whewell 's History of the Inductive Sciences (first published in 1837). A more formal study of the history of science as an independent discipline was launched by George Sarton 's publications, Introduction to the History of Science (1927) and the Isis journal (founded in 1912). Sarton exemplified the early 20th - century view of the history of science as the history of great men and great ideas. He shared with many of his contemporaries a Whiggish belief in history as a record of the advances and delays in the march of progress. The history of science was not a recognized subfield of American history in this period, and most of the work was carried out by interested scientists and physicians rather than professional historians. With the work of I. Bernard Cohen at Harvard, the history of science became an established subdiscipline of history after 1945.
The history of mathematics, history of technology, and history of philosophy are distinct areas of research and are covered in other articles. Mathematics is closely related to but distinct from natural science (at least in the modern conception). Technology is likewise closely related to but clearly differs from the search for empirical truth.
History of science is an academic discipline, with an international community of specialists. Main professional organizations for this field include the History of Science Society, the British Society for the History of Science, and the European Society for the History of Science.
Much of the study of the history of science has been devoted to answering questions about what science is, how it functions, and whether it exhibits large - scale patterns and trends. The sociology of science in particular has focused on the ways in which scientists work, looking closely at the ways in which they "produce '' and "construct '' scientific knowledge. Since the 1960s, a common trend in science studies (the study of the sociology and history of science) has been to emphasize the "human component '' of scientific knowledge, and to de-emphasize the view that scientific data are self - evident, value - free, and context - free. The field of Science and Technology Studies, an area that overlaps and often informs historical studies of science, focuses on the social context of science in both contemporary and historical periods.
Humboldtian science refers to the early 19th century approach of combining scientific field work with the age of Romanticism sensitivity, ethics and aesthetic ideals. It helped to install natural history as a separate field, gave base for ecology and was based on the role model of scientist, naturalist and explorer Alexander von Humboldt. The later 19th century positivism asserted that all authentic knowledge allows verification and that all authentic knowledge assumes that the only valid knowledge is scientific.
A major subject of concern and controversy in the philosophy of science has been the nature of theory change in science. Karl Popper argued that scientific knowledge is progressive and cumulative; Thomas Kuhn, that scientific knowledge moves through "paradigm shifts '' and is not necessarily progressive; and Paul Feyerabend, that scientific knowledge is not cumulative or progressive and that there can be no demarcation in terms of method between science and any other form of investigation.
The mid 20th century saw a series of studies relying to the role of science in a social context, starting from Thomas Kuhn 's The Structure of Scientific Revolutions in 1962. It opened the study of science to new disciplines by suggesting that the evolution of science was in part sociologically determined and that positivism did not explain the actual interactions and strategies of the human participants in science. As Thomas Kuhn put it, the history of science may be seen in more nuanced terms, such as that of competing paradigms or conceptual systems in a wider matrix that includes intellectual, cultural, economic and political themes outside of science. "Partly by selection and partly by distortion, the scientists of earlier ages are implicitly presented as having worked upon the same set of fixed problems and in accordance with the same set of fixed canons that the most recent revolution in scientific theory and method made seem scientific. ''
Further studies, e.g. Jerome Ravetz 1971 Scientific Knowledge and its Social Problems referred to the role of the scientific community, as a social construct, in accepting or rejecting (objective) scientific knowledge. The Science wars of the 1990 were about the influence of especially French philosophers, which denied the objectivity of science in general or seemed to do so. They described as well differences between the idealized model of a pure science and the actual scientific practice; while scientism, a revival of the positivism approach, saw in precise measurement and rigorous calculation the basis for finally settling enduring metaphysical and moral controversies. However, more recently some of the leading critical theorists have recognized that their postmodern deconstructions have at times been counter-productive, and are providing intellectual ammunition for reactionary interests. Bruno Latour noted that "dangerous extremists are using the very same argument of social construction to destroy hard - won evidence that could save our lives. Was I wrong to participate in the invention of this field known as science studies? Is it enough to say that we did not really mean what we meant? ''
One recurring observation in the history of science involves the struggle for recognition of first - rate scientists working on the periphery of the scientific establishment. For instance, the great physicist Lord Rayleigh looked back (cited here) on John James Waterston 's seminal paper on the kinetic theory of gases. The history of the neglect of Waterston 's path - breaking article, Rayleigh felt, suggests that "a young author who believes himself capable of great things would usually do well to secure favourable recognition of the scientific world... before embarking upon higher flights. ''
William Harvey 's experiences led him to an even more pessimistic view:
"But what remains to be said about the quantity and source of the blood which thus passes, is of so novel and unheard - of character that I not only fear injury to myself from the envy of a few, but I tremble lest I have mankind at large for my enemies, so much doth wont and custom, that become as another nature, and doctrine once sown and that hath struck deep root, and respect for antiquity, influence all men. ''
In more general terms, Robert K. Merton remarks that "the history of science abounds in instances of basic papers having been written by comparatively unknown scientists, only to be rejected or neglected for years. ''
one of the features of positivism is precisely its postulate that scientific knowledge is the paradigm of valid knowledge, a postulate that indeed is never proved nor intended to be proved.
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when does the new episode of the handmaid's tale come out | The Handmaid 's Tale (TV series) - wikipedia
The Handmaid 's Tale is an American dystopian drama web television series created by Bruce Miller, based on the 1985 novel of the same name by Margaret Atwood. It was ordered by the streaming service Hulu as a straight - to - series order of 10 episodes, for which production began in late 2016. The plot follows a dystopian future following a Second American Civil War wherein fertile women, called "Handmaids '', are forced into sexual and child - bearing servitude.
The first three episodes of the series premiered on April 26, 2017; the subsequent seven episodes aired on a weekly basis every Wednesday. In May 2017, the series was renewed for a second season which premiered on April 25, 2018. At the 69th Primetime Emmy Awards, The Handmaid 's Tale won eight awards from thirteen nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series, becoming the first series on a streaming service to win an Emmy for Outstanding Series. It also won Golden Globe Awards for Best Television Series -- Drama and Best Actress for Elisabeth Moss.
In May 2018, Hulu announced that the series had been renewed for a third season.
In the near future, fertility rates collapse as a result of sexually transmitted diseases and environmental pollution. With this chaos, the totalitarian, theonomic government of "Gilead '' establishes rule in the former United States in the aftermath of a civil war. Society is organized by power - hungry leaders along with a new, militarized, hierarchical regime of fanaticism and newly created social classes, in which women are brutally subjugated, and by law are not allowed to work, own property, handle money, or read. Worldwide infertility has resulted in the conscription of the few remaining fertile women in Gilead, called "Handmaids '', according to an extremist interpretation of a Biblical account. They are assigned to the homes of the ruling elite, where they must submit to ritualized rape by their male masters in order to become pregnant and bear children for those men and their wives.
Alongside the red - clad Handmaids, much of society is now grouped into classes that dictate their freedoms and duties. Women are divided into a small range of social categories, each one signified by a similarly - styled plain dress in a specific color: Handmaids wear red, Marthas (who are housekeepers and cooks) wear green, and Wives (who are expected to run their households) wear blue. Econowives, the lower - class women who still have minimal agency, are sort of a mixture of all these categories, and they wear gray (a departure from the book in which Econowives wear stripes). Women prisoners are called Carols and are worked to death clearing toxic waste. Another class of women, Aunts (who train and oversee the Handmaids), wear brown. Additionally, the Eyes are a secret police watching over the general populace for signs of rebellion, Hunters track down people attempting to flee the country, and Jezebels are prostitutes in secret brothels catering to the elite ruling class.
June Osborne, renamed Offred (Elisabeth Moss), is the Handmaid assigned to the home of the Gileadan Commander Fred Waterford (Joseph Fiennes) and his wife Serena Joy (Yvonne Strahovski). Offred is subject to strict rules and constant scrutiny; an improper word or deed on her part can lead to brutal punishment. Offred, who is named after her male master like all Handmaids, can remember the "time before '', when she was married and had a daughter, a job, a bank account, and her own name and identity, but all she can safely do now is follow the rules of Gilead in hopes that she can someday live free again and be reunited with her daughter. The Waterfords, key players in the rise of Gilead, have their own conflicts with the realities of the society they have helped create.
A straight - to - series order by Hulu of The Handmaid 's Tale was announced in April 2016, with Elisabeth Moss set to star. Based on the 1985 novel of the same name by Margaret Atwood, the series was created by Bruce Miller, who is also an executive producer with Daniel Wilson, Fran Sears, and Warren Littlefield. Atwood serves as consulting producer, giving feedback on some of the areas where the series expands upon or modernizes the book. She also played a small cameo role in the first episode. Moss is also a producer. In June 2016, Reed Morano was announced as director of the series. Samira Wiley, Max Minghella, and Ann Dowd joined the cast in July 2016. Joseph Fiennes, Madeline Brewer, and Yvonne Strahovski were cast in August 2016, followed by O.T. Fagbenle and Amanda Brugel in September 2016. In October 2016, Ever Carradine joined the cast, and Alexis Bledel was added in January 2017.
Filming on the series took place in Toronto, Mississauga, Hamilton, Oakville, and Cambridge, Ontario, from September 2016 to February 2017. The first full trailer of the TV series was released by Hulu on YouTube on March 23, 2017. The series premiered on April 26, 2017.
On May 3, 2017, The Handmaid 's Tale was renewed for a second season to premiere in 2018. Moss told the news media that the subsequent episodes would cover further developments in the story, filling in some of the unanswered questions and continuing the narrative already "finished '' in the book. The second season consists of 13 episodes and began filming in fall 2017. Alexis Bledel returned as a series regular. Showrunner Bruce Miller stated that he envisioned 10 seasons of the show, stating, "Well, you know, honestly, when I started, I tried to game out in my head what would ten seasons be like? If you hit a home run, you want energy to go around the bases, you want enough story to keep going, if you can hook the audience to care about these people enough that they 're actually crying at the finale. ''
The first three episodes of the series premiered on April 26, 2017; the subsequent seven episodes were released on a weekly basis. In Canada, the series is broadcast by Bravo; the first two episodes premiered on April 30, 2017. In Scandinavia, the series is available on HBO Nordic. In the United Kingdom, the series premiered on May 28, 2017, on Channel 4. In Ireland, the series premiered on February 5, 2018 on RTÉ2, with a showing of the first two episodes. RTÉ also become the first broadcaster in Europe to debut Season 2 following its broadcast in the US and Canada.
In New Zealand, the series was released on the subscription video on demand service Lightbox on June 8, 2017. In Australia, the series premiered on the TV channel SBS 's video streaming service SBS on Demand, on July 6, 2017.
The first season was released on Blu - ray and DVD on March 13, 2018.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the first season has an approval rating of 96 % based on 106 reviews, with an average rating of 8.71 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Haunting and vivid, The Handmaid 's Tale is an endlessly engrossing adaptation of Margaret Atwood 's dystopian novel that 's anchored by a terrific central performance from Elisabeth Moss. '' On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 92 out of 100 based on 41 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''.
Daniel Fienberg of The Hollywood Reporter called it "probably the spring 's best new show ''. Jen Chaney of Vulture gave it a highly positive review, and wrote that it is "A faithful adaptation of the book that also brings new layers to Atwood 's totalitarian, sexist world of forced surrogate motherhood '' and that "this series is meticulously paced, brutal, visually stunning, and so suspenseful from moment to moment that only at the end of each hour will you feel fully at liberty to exhale ''.
There was much debate on whether parallels could be drawn between the series (and by extension, the book it is based on) and American society following Donald Trump and Mike Pence 's elections as President and Vice President of the United States, respectively. A comparison has also been made to the Salafi / Wahabbi extremism of ISIL, under which enslaved women of religious minorities are passed around and utilized as sex objects and vessels to bear new jihadis.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the second season has an approval rating of 94 % based on 64 reviews, with an average rating of 8.34 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Beautifully shot but dishearteningly relevant, The Handmaid 's Tale centers its sophomore season tightly around its compelling cast of characters, making room for broader social commentary through more intimate lenses. '' On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 86 out of 100 based on 28 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''.
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what age can my daughter join girl scouts | Membership levels of the Girl Scouts of the USA - wikipedia
Since 2008, Girl Scouts of the USA have had five age levels: Daisy, Brownie, Junior, Cadette, and Senior. In 2011 they added the new sixth level of Ambassadors. Girl Scouts move or "bridge '' to the next level, usually at the end of the school year they reach the age of advancing. They are considered in the appropriate level based on their grade on October 1, the start of each new Girl Scout year. There are exceptions for "special needs '' but Girl Scouts who are "young in grade '' have not been specifically considered. Each year of membership in Girl Scouting is represented on the uniform by a small, golden, six - pointed membership star (one per year) with colored background discs which represent a level. Girl Scouts used to wear similar uniforms to other groups in WAGGGS. Now a white shirt and khaki bottom is accepted for all levels.
Daisy is the initial level of Girl Scouting. Named for Juliette "Daisy '' Gordon Low, they are in kindergarten and first grade (around ages 5 -- 7). They typically meet in groups of ten girls with two adult leaders who help the girls plan activities to introduce them to Girl Scouts.
Daisies earn the Promise Center and Petals, which focus on the Girl Scout Law and are placed on the front of the tunic in a daisy design. They also earn Leaves and Journey Leadership Awards. Their uniform consists of a light blue tunic. They may also wear their tunic with a white shirt and khaki bottoms or with an official Girl Scout Daisy uniform. The Girl Scout Membership Star is worn with blue membership disks and they wear the Girl Scout Daisy Membership Pin.
Daisies use the Girl 's Guide to Girl Scouting for Daisies and the National Leadership Journeys to work on activities, may camp only with a parent present, and have the option to sell Girl Scout cookies. They may earn the Daisy Safety Award and the Bridge to Brownies Award.
Brownies are in second and third grades (around ages 7 -- 9). and earn triangular shaped Brownie Leadership Journey Awards and National Proficiency Badges. Their uniform consists of a brown vest or sash which may be worn with a white shirt and khaki bottoms or with an official Brownie uniform. The Girl Scout Membership Star is worn with green membership disks, and they wear the Brownie Membership Pin.
Brownies use the Girl 's Guide to Girl Scouting for Brownies and the National Leadership Journeys to work on badges and activities. They may earn the Bridge to Juniors Award and the Brownie Safety Award.
Unlike some of the other levels, the name Brownie is commonly used with Girl Scout / Girl Guide organizations around the world and has its origin from Brownies in the British Girl Guides.
Juniors are in fourth and fifth grades (around ages 9 -- 11). Their uniform is a green vest or sash which may be worn with a white shirt and khaki bottoms.
Juniors are the first level to wear the official Girl Scout Membership Pin on their uniform. The Girl Scout Membership Star is worn with yellow membership disks. They use the Girl 's Guide to Girl Scouting for Juniors and the National Leadership Journeys to work on badges and activities. They earn circle shaped Junior Leadership Journey Awards and National Proficiency Badges. Badges require more skill at this level as the girls gain proficiency. They may earn the Girl Scout Junior Safety Award, the Junior Aide Award, and the Bridge to Cadettes Award.
Juniors are eligible to earn the Bronze Award, the highest award in Girl Scouting available at this level.
Cadettes are Girl Scouts who are in sixth, seventh, and eighth grades (around ages 11 -- 14). Their uniform is a khaki vest or sash with white shirts and khaki bottoms. They wear the official Girl Scout Membership Pin on their uniform. The Girl Scout Membership Star is worn with white membership disks.
Cadettes use the Girl 's Guide to Girl Scouting for Cadettes and the National Leadership Journeys to earn diamond shaped badges. Typically, Girl Scouts at this level are encouraged to assume leadership roles within them, such as assisting in leading and coordinating service unit or association events. They may also earn the Cadette Program Aide award, the Cadette Community Service Bar, the Cadette Service to Girl Scouting Bar, the Cadette Safety Award and the Bridge to Senior Award. They are eligible to earn the Silver Award, which is the highest award available to girls at this level.
Seniors are Girl Scouts who are in ninth and tenth grade (around ages 14 -- 16). Their wear the same uniform as Cadettes -- however, the disks for their membership stars are red and their badges are a rectangular shape.
Seniors use the Girl 's Guide to Girl Scouting for Seniors and the National Leadership Journeys to earn badges. They are typically encouraged to create and lead activities for the younger Girl Scouts, and to take a leadership role in organizing and assisting with Council and service unit / association events and activities. They may earn the Counselor - in - Training (CIT), the Volunteer - in - Training (VIT), the Girl Scout Senior Safety Award, the Gold Torch Award, the Senior Community Service Bar, the Senior Service to Girl Scouting Bar and the Bridge to Girl Scout Ambassador award.
Seniors are eligible to earn the Gold Award.
Ambassadors are Girl Scouts who are in eleventh and twelfth grade (around ages 16 - 18). They wear the same khaki colored vest or sash as Cadettes and Seniors. The Girl Scout Membership Star is worn with navy membership disks.
Ambassadors use the Girl 's Guide to Girl Scouting for Ambassadors and the National Leadership Journeys to earn badges that are shaped like an octagon. They may earn the Counselor - in - Training (CIT), the Counselor - in - Training (CIT) II, the Volunteer - in - Training (VIT), the Ambassador Community Service Bar, the Ambassador Service to Girl Scouting Bar, the Gold Torch Award, the Ambassador Safety Award, and the Bridge to Adult Award.
Ambassadors are eligible to earn the Gold Award.
Adults, both men and women, can join Girl Scouts and participate as leaders or in other volunteer roles. They do not need to have a child in the program in order to volunteer with Girl Scouts.
Young adults who attend an institute of higher learning may join or start a Campus Girl Scout group on their campus. While they are full adult members in Girl Scouts and do not form a troop or sell cookies, joining them allows them to get involved with their campus community and beyond. They may lead troops, volunteer for Council events, help with paperwork or the cookie sale, complete service projects - their activities are driven by the members of the group.
Initially the United States Girl Scout program, started in 1912, had one level for girls ages ten through seventeen, but it soon added two more levels. Brownies for younger girls was officially recognized in the mid-1920s though it had existed earlier. At the same time older girls (over eighteen or over sixteen if First Class Scouts) became known as Senior Scouts.
In 1938 age divisions were set as
In 1963 this was rearranged to
In the 1970s the age divisions were
In 1984, the Daisy program for kindergartners (age five) was introduced, and around 2003 the Studio 2B program for girls eleven through seventeen was introduced as a way to give older girls more options in Girl Scouts, although many girls still called themselves Cadettes and Seniors. STUDIO 2B was discontinued as a program option in 2007.
In 2008 another reorganization took place. The Ambassador level was added. All levels were changed to have Girl Scouts at the start of their name, e.g. "Girl Scout Brownies '' instead of "Brownie Girl Scouts '', and levels were changed to be by grade only instead of by age or grade.
Outside the age level programs, there have been somewhat separate programs for Mariner Scouts (1934 -- present) and Wing Scouts (1941 -- 1970s).
In addition, there are Girl Scouts known as Juliettes, who are independent of any troop due to lack of a troop to join or because other commitments do not allow them to actively participate with available troops. A Juliette is still placed in her appropriate grade level and works on program as would any other girl her age in a regular troop. A number of Girl Scout councils are discouraging the use of "Juliettes ''.
USA Girl Scouts Overseas
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when do they stop selling alcohol in virginia | List of alcohol laws of the United states - wikipedia
The following table of alcohol laws of the United States provides an overview of alcohol - related laws by first level jurisdictions throughout the US. This list is not intended to provide a breakdown of such laws by local jurisdiction within a state; see that state 's alcohol laws page for more detailed information.
On July 17, 1984, Congress passed the National Minimum Drinking Age Act. The bill would force all states to raise their drinking age from 18, 19, or 20 to 21. States that did not choose to raise their drinking age to 21 would risk losing 10 % (Changed to 8 % in 2012) of federal highway funding as a penalty. As of July 1988, all 50 states and the District of Columbia had a minimum purchase age of 21, with some grandfather clauses, and with the exception of Louisiana 's complicated legal situation that was not resolved until July 2, 1996. Prior to 1988, the minimum purchase age varied by jurisdiction. After Congress passed the National Minimum Drinking Age Act in July 1984, states not in compliance had a portion of their federal highway budget withheld. South Dakota and Wyoming were the final two states to comply, in mid-1988. However, most states continue to allow those under 21 to drink in certain circumstances. Examples are some states like Tennessee and Washington, which allow those under 21 to drink for religious purposes. States including Oregon and New York allow those under 21 to drink on private non-alcohol selling premises.
Unlike on the mainland, the U.S. territories of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands have a minimum purchase and drinking age of 18. The minimum purchase age is 21 in the Northern Mariana Islands, Guam, American Samoa, and US Minor Outlying Islands.
U.S. military reservations are exempt under federal law from state, county, and locally enacted alcohol beverage laws. Class Six stores in a base exchange facility, officers ' or NCO clubs, as well as other military commissaries which are located on a military reservation, may sell and serve alcohol beverages at any time during their prescribed hours of operation to authorized patrons. While the installation commander is free to set the drinking age, with some exceptions, most stateside military bases have a drinking age that mirrors the local community.
Individual states remain free to restrict or prohibit the manufacture of beer, mead, hard cider, wine, and other fermented alcoholic beverages at home. Homebrewing beer became legal in all 50 states in 2013 as the governor of Mississippi signed a bill legalizing homebrewing on March 19, 2013 and as the governor of Alabama signed a bill legalizing homebrewing of beer and wine which came into effect on May 9, 2013. The Mississippi bill went into effect July 1, 2013. Most states allow brewing 100 US gallons (380 L) of beer per adult per year and up to a maximum of 200 US gallons (760 L) per household annually when there are two or more adults residing in the household. Because alcohol is taxed by the federal government via excise taxes, homebrewers are prohibited from selling any beer they brew. This similarly applies in most Western countries. In 1979, President Jimmy Carter signed into law a bill allowing home beers, which was at the time not permitted without paying the excise taxes as a holdover from the prohibition of alcoholic beverages (repealed in 1933). This change also exempted home brewers from posting a "penal bond '' (which is currently $1000.00).
Production of distilled alcohols is regulated at the National level under USC Title 26 subtitle E Ch51. Numerous requirements must be met to do so and production carries an excise tax. Owning or operating a distillation apparatus without filing the proper paperwork and paying the taxes carries federal criminal penalties.
In land or property that is being rented or owned by the federal government, state, territory, and federal district alcohol laws do not apply. Instead, only laws made by the federal government apply.
Distilled spirits (liquor) are purchasable in either state - owned retail liquor stores, known as ABC Stores, or privately owned retail liquor stores. Privately owned retail liquor stores tend to be open on Sundays, public (federal & state) holidays, and later hours than state - owned liquor stores.
3.2 beer: 5 a.m. - midnight
Beer can be purchased at grocery / convenience stores. Spirits and wine can be purchased only at liquor stores.
No off - premises alcohol sales on Thanksgiving, Christmas Day, and New Year 's Day.
Open container law applies only to drivers, not passengers.
8 a.m. -- 3 a.m. Fri. -- Sat.
9 a.m. -- midnight daily * Grocery Stores: 9 a.m. - 12 a.m. daily
No singles sold, but stores in some areas may apply for an exemption. Certain wards may be made dry by the decision of the local ANC, but as of 2005 none are The day before a federal or district holiday, on - premises retailers may sell / serve from 8 a.m. - 3 a.m. On New Yer 's Eve, on - premises retailers may sell / serve until 4 a.m. on January 1.
No retail sale of wine in containers larger than 1 gallon. FS 564.05 Supermarkets and other licensed business establishments may sell beer, low - alcohol liquors, and wine. Liquor must be sold in dedicated liquor stores which may be in a separate part of a grocery or a drug store. As of July 1, 2015, the restriction on 64 ounce refillable containers, or growlers, has been lifted and beer may be sold in quantities of 64 ounces, in addition to the previously legal 32 and 128 ounce sizes.
Sunday off - premises sales from 12: 30 p.m. to 11: 30 p.m. allowed only by local referendum. In general, one may not be drunk in public. Though there is no state law prohibiting drinking in public, most municipal corporations and political subdivisions limit the possession of open containers of alcohol to private property, with notable exceptions being Savannah and Roswell. A charge of public drunkenness is only warranted when one is drunk in public and his acts are either loud or disorderly.
Minors, including babies, are not allowed to enter a liquor store.
Indiana has a photo identification requirement for all off - premises transactions to anyone who is or reasonably appears to be less than forty (40) years of age. (See IC 7.1 - 5 - 10 - 23).
Public intoxication is a class B misdemeanor. (IC 7.1 - 5 - 1 - 3)
Alcohol sale restriction and wet / dry (both by drink and package) allowed by both county and city local option. Approximately 39 counties in the state (mostly eastern and southern counties) are dry, all alcohol sale and possession prohibited; 22 "moist '' counties (with "wet '' cities allowing package liquor sales in counties otherwise dry); 29 counties that are otherwise dry but have communities with local option that allow sales of liquor by the drink or under special exemptions allowing sales at wineries. Majority of wet counties are around major metropolitan areas (Louisville, Lexington, Covington, Bowling Green). Note: Beginning in 2013 Liquor by the drink and beer by the drink are available on Sundays in Louisville, KY beginning at 10: 00 am. Bowling Green, KY recently began allowing Sunday sales in December 2013 for carry - out beer, wine, and liquor. Prohibition on liquor sales on Election Day was repealed effective June 24, 2013. Kentucky was one of only two states to still have Election Day prohibition, the other being South Carolina.
For an established religious purpose; When a person under twenty - one years of age is accompanied by a parent, spouse, or legal guardian twenty - one years of age or older; For medical purposes when purchased as an over the counter medication, or when prescribed or administered by a licensed physician, pharmacist, dentist, nurse, hospital, or medical institution; In a private residence, which shall include a residential dwelling and up to twenty contiguous acres, on which the dwelling is located, owned by the same person who owns the dwelling; The sale, handling, transport, or service in dispensing of any alcoholic beverage pursuant to lawful ownership of an establishment or to lawful employment of a person under twenty - one years of age by a duly licensed manufacturer, wholesaler, or retailer of beverage alcohol.
Alcohol can be consumed in the streets of New Orleans as long as it is in an "unbreakable container '' (no glass) and may be taken from club to club if both establishments allow it. Otherwise, it depends on the locality. Most parishes other than Orleans Parish do not permit alcoholic beverages served on premises to be carried out. However, many parishes and municipalities permit consumption of packaged beverages (for example, cans of beer) on the street. Glass bottles on the streets are prohibited. One can enter most bars at 18 years of age but must be 21 years old to purchase or consume alcohol. Also, it is legal in the state of Louisiana for a legal parent or guardian to purchase alcoholic beverages for their underaged child.
Drive - thru frozen daiquiri stands are legal and common, but the police can arrest you for driving with an open container, if you have put the straw in the cup
noon - 2 a.m. (Sunday) * sales may begin at 7 a.m. with special license extension
noon - 2 a.m. (Sunday) * sales may begin at 7 a.m. with special license extension,
11: 00 a.m. - 6: 00 p.m. (Sun)
No sales on Christmas Day. No state open container laws. Complimentary alcohol all day and night in coastal casinos. In most counties, alcohol can not be sold on Sundays. There are many dry counties in which it is illegal to possess alcoholic beverages, though some cities within dry counties have voted in beer sales.
(Mon -- Sat) 6: 00am -- 1: 30am
(Sunday) 9: 00am -- 12: 00pm
Special licenses in Kansas City and St. Louis:
(Daily) 6: 00am -- 3: 00am
(Sunday) 9: 00am -- 12: 00am
Sales permitted until 3: 00 am in those Kansas City and St. Louis bars grandfathered into the ability to double as liquor stores.
Missouri law recognizes two types of alcoholic beverage: liquor, which is any beverage containing more than 0.5 % alcohol except "non-intoxicating beer ''; and "non-intoxicating beer, '' which is beer containing between 0.5 % and 3.2 % alcohol. Liquor laws apply to all liquor, and special laws apply to "non-intoxicating beer. ''
State law also renders public intoxication legal, and explicitly prohibits any local or state law from making it a public offence. Alcohol purchase is only controlled in Panaca.
Though there is not a ban on selling alcoholic beverages at grocery stores, New Jersey limits each chain to two licenses, so with only a few exceptions, most supermarkets / convenience stores / gas stations / pharmacies do not sell alcoholic beverages. In addition, liquor sales are only permitted in a separate department or attached sister store. The ability of a "liquor store '' to sell other items, such as convenience store fare, is determined by municipality. Many towns permit beer / wine / liquor stores to sell non-alcohol items including convenience store items at the same register. In such towns, grocery stores including chains may theoretically apply for and receive a liquor license if the company does not already have two in the state. Bars are allowed to off - sale packaged goods. With the exception of Jersey City and Newark, all municipalities MUST allow off - sales of beer and wine at any time on - sales are permitted. However, since alcoholic beverages are generally only found in package stores, this right is rarely exercised. Alcoholic beverages by the drink as well as off - sales of beer and wine are permitted 24 hours a day in Atlantic City and Brigantine.
7 a.m. -- 11 p.m., except Sundays, for restaurants with beer and wine license.
Some counties may retain the Sunday morning beer prohibition which the state discontinued as of July 30, 2006. Twelve dry towns, mostly in western region of state. Many counties have more restrictive off - premises hours, such as bans on beer sales overnight (hours vary). All liquor stores must be owned by a single owner, who owns that store and lives within a certain distance of it -- effectively banning chain liquor stores from the state. New York City law does not allow open containers of alcohol in public.
Distilled spirits may not be sold within 200 feet of a school, church, synagogue or other place of worship.
Beverages with less than 0.5 % ABV can be sold / given to people under the age of eighteen if given by a physician in the regular line of his practice or given for established religious purposes, or the underage person is accompanied by a parent, spouse who is not an underage person, or legal guardian.
Sunday sales vary by county.
Grocery stores: 6 a.m. - 2 a.m. seven days a week including holidays.
9 a.m. -- 10 p.m. (Mon -- Sat) Noon -- 5 p.m. (Sun)
Grocery Stores:
7 a.m. - 10 p.m. (Mon -
Sat)
9 a.m. - 10pm
(Sun)
Beer (but not wine) to go can be purchased at beverage outlets in any quantity. Prior to 2015 beverage centers could only sell 24 pack cases or greater. The rules were relaxed to permit sales of beer in any quantity in 2016.
* Beer and wine to go can be purchased in restaurants and grocery stores (at a separate point of purchase for alcohol and prepared foods sales in grocery stores) (six and 12 packs / 192oz max. purchase (two six packs)) with Liquor Control Board -- issued licenses
Sunday sales were prohibited in LCB stores until 2003 (selected locations) and beverage outlets (owner 's option) until 2005.
Special permits may be purchased for certain organizations for fundraisers once per calendar year, and are valid for a total of six days under the same rules governing restaurants. Grain alcohol prohibited as a beverage.
Liquor: Mon - Sat: 8 am - Midnight, Sun: Prohibited
Nonalcoholic beer is not regulated by state law.
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when does season 2 of kim's convenience | Kim 's Convenience (TV series) - wikipedia
Kim 's Convenience is a Canadian television sitcom that premiered on CBC Television in October 2016. The series centres on the Korean Canadian Kim family who run a convenience store in the Regent Park neighbourhood of Toronto: parents "Appa '' (Paul Sun - Hyung Lee) and "Umma '' (Jean Yoon) -- Korean for "dad '' and "mom '' -- along with their daughter Janet (Andrea Bang) and estranged son Jung (Simu Liu). Additional characters include Jung 's friend and co-worker Kimchee (Andrew Phung) and his manager Shannon (Nicole Power). The series is based on Ins Choi 's 2011 play of the same name.
The first season was filmed from June to August 2016 at Showline Studios in Toronto. It is produced by Thunderbird Films in conjunction with Toronto 's Soulpepper Theatre Company, with Lee and Yoon reprising their roles from the play. Scripts were created by Choi and Kevin White, who had previously written for Corner Gas.
CBC announced on December 20, 2016 that it had renewed Kim 's Convenience for a second season of 13 episodes, starting September 26, 2017.
Interior scenes at the store, Handy Car Rental and home are shot at Showline Studios at 901 Lake Shore Boulevard East, where an exact replica of Mimi Variety, the model for the store, has been recreated. The studio is also used as the exterior of the car rental business. One episode was shot in Koreatown at Bloor and Christie Streets. Mimi Variety at 252 Queen Street East has had its signage replaced with "Kim 's Convenience '' signs and painted a mural on an exterior wall; while not used for shooting of scenes is used in the credit sequence and for stock transitional shots as well as for promotional shots. The owners of the store have retained the new signage although the business has not officially changed its name.
Originally set to premiere on October 4, 2016 on CBC, the series premiere was delayed to October 11, 2016 with back - to - back episodes, so it would not conflict with the Toronto Blue Jays ' American League Wild Card Game. The first season consists of 13 half - hour episodes.
CBC announced on December 20, 2016 that it had renewed Kim 's Convenience for a second season of 13 episodes, to air in the fall of 2017. Season 2 is scheduled to premiere on September 26, 2017.
John Doyle of the Globe and Mail wrote that the show "stays away from the pseudo-seriousness that could easily plague a comedy about immigrants and family dynamics. There is little obviousness and mugging, and moral lessons are few in the breezy speed of it. What 's it all about? Good jokes, mainly. Heartily recommended, Kim 's Convenience is a clever, generally engaging screwball comedy with an eye on entertainment ''.
The Toronto Star 's Tony Wong writes: "The show is good. Possibly even great. The dialogue is sharp, on point and borderline subversive. It has the potential to be a future classic. It has bite... It 's funny and true, but not a reality we typically see reflected on television. ''
Midway through its first season, Kim 's Convenience was estimated by Numeris to have an average audience of 933,000 per episode with 39 % of viewers between the ages of 25 and 54.
For the 5th Canadian Screen Awards in 2017, Kim 's Convenience garnered 11 nominations, including Best Comedy Series, Best Actor in a Comedy Series (Lee), Best Actress in a Comedy Series (Yoon and Bang), and Best Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series (Phung). Lee won the award for best actor in a continuing leading comedic role for his portrayal of Appa, and Phung won Best Supporting Actor for his portrayal of Kimchee.
Kim 's Convenience won two awards at the 2017 Toronto ACTRA Awards, Outstanding Performance - Female for actress Jean Yoon and the Members ' Choice Series Ensemble Award for Best Cast.
The first season episodes "Ddong Chim '' and "Janet 's Photos '' are 2017 Writers Guild of Canada 's Canadian Screenwriting Awards finalists in the TV comedy category.
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alex real name from orange is the new black | Laura Prepon - wikipedia
Laura Prepon (born March 7, 1980) is an American actress, director, and author. She rose to fame with her role as Donna Pinciotti in the Fox sitcom That ' 70s Show (1998 -- 2006). She is also known for her portrayal of Alex Vause in the Netflix comedy - drama series Orange Is the New Black (2013 -- present). Prepon made her film debut in 2001 with the independent drama Southlander. Her other films include the romantic drama Come Early Morning (2006), the comedy Lay the Favorite (2012), the thriller The Girl on the Train (2016), and the drama The Hero (2017).
Prepon was born on March 7, 1980, in Watchung, New Jersey. She is the youngest of five children of Marjorie (née Coll), a high school teacher, and Michael Prepon, an orthopedic surgeon. Prepon 's father died during heart surgery in 1993 at age 49; she was 13 years old at the time. She attended Watchung Hills Regional High School, and later studied at the Total Theatre Lab in New York City. Prepon is of Russian Jewish and Irish Catholic descent. Her maternal great - great - great - grandfather was Union Army General Joseph Bradford Carr.
Prepon appeared in plays such as A Woman of Property and Ascension Day while in New York. In 1996, she studied drama with acting teacher Caroline Thomas at Thomas ' Total Theatre Lab. Later, in September 1997, she premiered on a Levi Strauss - developed show called They Go On, an Internet - based soap opera. Prepon had also worked as a model and has done photo shoots in Paris, Milan, and Brazil.
Prepon starred as Donna Pinciotti on the Fox sitcom That ' 70s Show from 1998 to 2006. Donna became the girlfriend and next - door neighbor of Eric Forman (Topher Grace). Randy Pearson (Josh Meyers), who was introduced in the eighth and final season of the series, became Donna 's third love interest after Grace left the series. Prepon attended film school while she worked on That 70 's Show.
Prepon co-starred in the romantic comedy Slackers, which is about three best friends who try to scam their way through college and eventually get caught. She was nominated for a Teen Choice Award in 2002 for her role in That ' 70s Show. In 2001, she made her film debut in Steve Hanft 's musical comedy - drama Southlander with Beck, Beth Orton and Hank Williams III, where she played Seven = Five, a young TV telepathic. In 2004, Prepon worked on the independent drama film The Pornographer: A Love Story. The film tells the story of an obsessive relationship between a director and an actress.
Prepon was named one of Stuff magazine 's "102 Sexiest Women In The World '' in 2002 and one of Maxim magazine 's "Hot 100 '' in 2005. Prepon had a cameo voice appearance as a United Nations Space Command marine in Halo 2, which was released in 2004. Her first notable film role came in 2004 with the dark drama Lightning Bug with Bret Harrison, Kevin Gage and Ashley Laurence. Branching into other arenas than acting, Prepon also served as executive producer of the film. She also appeared on an episode of MTV 's Cribs in 2003.
In 2005, Prepon co-starred with Misha Collins in the psychological thriller Karla, based on the true story of Paul Bernardo and his wife Karla Homolka, a Canadian couple who kidnapped, sexually abused, and murdered three girls, marking a contrast to her usual lighthearted roles. She was also an executive producer of E! Hollywood Hold'em the same year. Prepon co-starred with Bryan Greenberg as Hannah Daniels in the ABC drama October Road, which debuted March 15, 2007. The show was canceled by ABC on May 12, 2008, despite strong ratings and a grassroots campaign from the show 's fanbase to keep the show alive. In April 2007, she starred in a dramatic short film Once Upon a Time. She also appeared in the 2005 Oxygen romantic comedy Romancing the Bride. She also was the original voice for Hayley Smith on the Fox animated sitcom American Dad! and voiced her in an unaired pilot. She appeared as Lauren, the long - lost sister of Mary Shannon (Mary McCormack) in the USA Network mystery drama In Plain Sight in the episode "A Frond in Need ''. On February 5, 2010, it was announced that Prepon signed on to star in Awkward Situations for Men, a pilot on ABC. In 2009, Prepon appeared in the CBS sitcom How I Met Your Mother as Karen, one of the girlfriends of Ted Mosby (Josh Radnor), in the episode "Sorry, Bro ''. She reprised her role in the episodes "The Front Porch '' in 2009 and "Say Cheese '' in 2010. She also appeared in the Fox medical drama House M.D. in the episode "Private Lives ''.
Prepon had been taking directing classes at the Art Center College of Design. She directed a short film, Abide with Me, about a 10 - year - old boy who, "upon bearing witness to his father 's murder, is rendered mute. '' Prepon stated she plans on making Abide with Me into a feature film.
In early 2011, Prepon guest - starred in an episode of the ABC police procedural drama Castle as an actress studying for the role of Nikki Heat, a character created by Nathan Fillion 's title character. Prepon had been working on a web series, Neighbros, which she directed and edited, starring her then - boyfriend Scott Michael Foster. They had sold the series to Comedy Central. In February 2011, she was cast as the title character Chelsea Newman on the NBC sitcom Are You There, Chelsea?, based on Chelsea Handler 's 2008 book Are You There, Vodka? It 's Me, Chelsea. NBC cancelled the show on May 11, 2012. She guest - starred in the TBS sitcom Men at Work. In mid-2012, Prepon signed on to play Alex Vause, a former drug importer and girlfriend of Piper Chapman, in the Netflix comedy - drama series Orange Is the New Black, based on Piper Kerman 's memoir Orange Is the New Black: My Year in a Women 's Prison. The series premiered in July 2013. Prepon was a regular in the first season, but appeared in only four of the 13 episodes in the second season. She returned as a series regular in the third season.
In 2016, Prepon and nutritionist Elizabeth Troy co-wrote The Stash Plan, a wellness book that draws on Prepon 's experiences eating organic foods since she was a child, and her struggles with weight, low energy, and digestive issues. The book debuted at # 10 under "Advice, How - To & Miscellaneous '' on The New York Times Best Seller list.
In 2016, Prepon appeared in the psychological thriller The Girl on the Train, based on Paula Hawkins ' novel of the same name. In 2017, she played Charlotte opposite Sam Elliott in The Hero. Prepon directed the tenth episode of Orange Is the New Black 's fifth season, titled "The Reverse Midas Touch ''.
Prepon dated Scott Michael Foster for several years, but said in 2013 they had broken up. In June 2017, a pregnant Prepon confirmed on Live with Kelly and Ryan that she and her fiancé, actor Ben Foster, were expecting a girl. In September 2017, Prepon talked of being a working mother. Prepon gave birth to their daughter Ella in August 2017. Prepon and Foster married in June 2018. They live in New York.
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who sang my give a damn's busted | My Give a Damn 's Busted - wikipedia
"My Give a Damn 's Busted '' is a song written by American country music artist Joe Diffie along with Tom Shapiro and Tony Martin. Diffie originally recorded the song on his 2001 album In Another World. The song was later recorded by Jo Dee Messina on her album Delicious Surprise. Released on January 3, 2005, Messina 's version spent two weeks at the top of the Billboard Hot Country Songs charts that year, and her first chart single since "I Wish '' in late 2003 -- early 2004. Canadian country music singer Michelle Wright included her version of the song on her 2006 album Everything and More.
A music video was released for the song, directed by Peter Zavadil. The video took place in the middle of a big city street, with Messina performing with her band behind her. Also included, are scenes of her walking down a sidewalk while being followed by a persistent man, to whom who she directs the spoken lines of the song.
Compiled from liner notes.
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who dies in home and away season finale 2014 | Home and Away - Wikipedia
Home and Away (often abbreviated as H&A) is an Australian television soap opera. It was created by Alan Bateman and commenced broadcast on the Seven Network on 17 January 1988. Bateman came up with the concept of the show during a trip to Kangaroo Point, New South Wales, where he noticed locals were complaining about the construction of a foster home and against the idea of foster children from the city living in the area. The soap opera was initially going to be called Refuge, but the name was changed to the "friendlier '' title of Home and Away once production began. The show premiered with a ninety - minute pilot episode (subsequently in re-runs known as Home and Away: The Movie). Since then, each subsequent episode has aired for a duration of twenty - two minutes and Home and Away has become the second longest - running drama series in Australian television. In Australia, it is currently broadcast from Mondays to Thursdays at 7: 00 pm.
Home and Away follows the lives and loves of the residents in Summer Bay, a fictional seaside town of New South Wales. The series initially focused on the Fletcher family -- Tom (Roger Oakley) and Pippa (Vanessa Downing), and their five foster children, Frank Morgan (Alex Papps), Carly Morris (Sharyn Hodgson), Lynn Davenport (Helena Bozich), Steven Matheson (Adam Willits) and Sally Fletcher (Kate Ritchie) -- who moved from the city into the Summer Bay House, where they assumed the new job of running the caravan park, and eventually took in a sixth foster child, Bobby Simpson (Nicolle Dickson). Home and Away was not without controversy. During the first season alone, it featured several adult - themed storylines such as teen pregnancy, rape, drug and alcohol addiction and drug overdose. The series has dealt with similar storylines over the years which have often exceeded its restricted time slot. Palm Beach in Sydney 's Northern Beaches district has been used as the location for Summer Bay since 1988. The exterior scenes are filmed mainly at Palm Beach, while the interior scenes are filmed at the Australian Technology Park in Redfern.
Home and Away has been sold to over eighty countries around the world, making it one of Australia 's successful media exports. It is popular in the United Kingdom, and is one of the highest - rating shows on RTÉ Television in Ireland and TV2 in New Zealand. In Australia, Home and Away is the most awarded program at the Logie Awards, with a total of forty - six wins, including Best Drama Program. Some cast members have won several other awards such as the Gold Logie for Most Popular Personality on Australian Television, Silver Logie for Most Popular Actor, and Most Popular Actress. In 2015, Home and Away was inducted into the Logie Hall of Fame.
After the Seven Network cancelled their soap opera Neighbours on 12 July 1985 due to low ratings, rival network Ten picked it up and turned it into a success. A couple of years later, Seven 's head of drama, Alan Bateman, became desperate to get back into the soap market and began to work out how to launch another soap that was not a copy of Neighbours. While on a trip to Kangaroo Point, New South Wales with his family, Bateman began talking to locals who were "up in arms '' over the construction of a foster home for children from the city. Seeing the degree of conflict the "influx of parentless children on a tight - knit community '' was having, Bateman came away with the idea for a new serial. He explained "Nobody in the community wanted them to move in and I began to wonder how streetwise city kids would adapt to the new lifestyle. Suddenly I thought, there is my slice of life in a community. '' Bateman began outlining the storyline and set the serial in the fictional town of Summer Bay. While Seven Network executives were unconvinced by the idea, audience research was positive. The soap opera was initially called Refuge, but the name was changed to the "friendlier '' title of Home and Away once production began.
Home and Away has since become the second - longest drama series in Australian television after Neighbours. During the show 's first season in 1988, a rape storyline for the character Carly Morris (Sharyn Hodgson) outraged the public and a protest erupted, as viewers deemed it an inappropriate subject to be covering in an early evening time slot. In 2002, several former characters such as Frank Morgan (Alex Papps), Carly Morris (Sharyn Hodgson), Steven Matheson (Adam Willits), Blake Dean (Les Hill) and Sophie Simpson (Rebekah Elmaloglou) returned for a special storyline to mark the 150th anniversary of settlement in Summer Bay. The storyline featured a majority of the cast boarded onto a ferry boat for a night cruise; however, a massive storm ruined the celebrations, leading the boat to sink. In July 2005, Home and Away celebrated its 4000th episode, which saw many former cast members return for Alf Stewart 's (Ray Meagher) surprise 60th birthday party. In March 2007, the commercial television industry 's Annual Code Complaint Report revealed that Home and Away was the eighth most complained about show on Australian television, and the only drama series in the top ten complaint list. From 1 July 2005 to 30 June 2006, there were 23 written complaints about the show as viewers thought it was inappropriate for it to be shown in its 7: 00 pm timeslot.
In March 2009, it was alleged that Seven had agreed to censor a then - upcoming lesbian kiss scene between Charlie Buckton (Esther Anderson) and Joey Collins (Kate Bell), after receiving many complaints from conservative groups and mothers who did not want their children exposed to same - sex relationships in a family show. Seven 's head of creative drama, Bevan Lee, later confirmed that the censorship allegations were in fact false and that the scene would still go to air as planned. Home and Away celebrated its 21st year in production in Sydney on 23 July 2009. The mayor of Sydney 's Pittwater Council presented cast members with the key to Palm Beach, the filming location for the show. At the end of 2011, Cameron Welsh left his role as the series producer. Welsh previously played the character Mitch McColl from 1999 until 2001 and then became the series producer for Home and Away in 2007. Former All Saints producer Lucy Addario took over as series producer in January 2012. In August 2012, Home and Away 's official Australian Facebook page reached one million likes, becoming the first Australian television show to reach this milestone. The Facebook page was established in November 2009 and is followed by fans mostly in Australia, Ireland, New Zealand, Norway and the United Kingdom. In 2013, Home and Away celebrated its 25th anniversary and former cast member Kate Ritchie (Sally Fletcher) returned for a special storyline to coincide with the celebrations. For the first time in the show 's history, Home and Away aired a two - hander episode, featuring only the characters Ricky Sharpe (Bonnie Sveen) and Darryl "Brax '' Braxton (Steve Peacocke), on 14 February 2016.
Home and Away is set in Summer Bay, a fictional seaside town of New South Wales. Locations within the town include the beach, a high school, diner, bait shop, garage and a surf club, which includes a gym, small kiosk and an upstairs restaurant. Characters in the show live at surrounding neighbouring areas such as the Summer Bay House, Summer Bay Caravan Park, Beach House, The Farmhouse, Pier Flat, and Saxon Avenue. Other fictional towns mentioned and sometimes seen in Home and Away are Mangrove River and Yabbie Creek.
Palm Beach in Sydney 's Northern Beaches district has been used as the location for Summer Bay since Home and Away began in 1988. It has since become popular with tourists, and tours to the show 's exterior sets at Palm Beach run throughout the year. The exterior scenes are filmed mainly at Palm Beach and at Fisherman 's Beach in Collaroy. Interior scenes for the show were filmed at the Seven Network 's Sydney studios in Epping until 2010. Following the closure of these studios in early 2010, the interiors are now filmed at the Australian Technology Park in Redfern. The Jackeroo Ranch estate in Kenthurst had been used for the exterior sets of the Summer Bay House and Caravan Park since 1988. After both sets were destroyed by a bushfire in December 2002, the caravan park set was moved and filmed at other locations such as the Waratah Park Earth Sanctuary between 2007 -- 09 and the Lane Cove River Tourist Park between 2010 -- 14. A replica of the Summer Bay House was rebuilt in its original location at the Kenthurst estate several years later, with the exception of a grey roof instead of a red one. The caravan park set moved back to the estate after the house was rebuilt, and both exterior sets made their on - screen returns in 2015. The Summer Bay House is the only house to still be seen on screen since the pilot episode.
Aside from New South Wales, Home and Away has also filmed scenes in other states of Australia. In May 2012, the show filmed scenes at Flinders Ranges and Nilpena Station in South Australia for a storyline in which Casey Braxton (Lincoln Younes) was kidnapped and taken to the outback by Kyle Braxton (Nic Westaway). The following month, Home and Away filmed scenes in Melbourne for the second time. In November 2014, the show filmed an episode at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra with several cast members, as a tribute to the Anzac Centenary. The episode centered around Alf Stewart (Ray Meagher), "who becomes upset with the younger generation 's perceived lack of respect for Anzac Day, and joins the school trip to Canberra to visit the War Memorial. '' Outside of Australia, Home and Away has filmed in Hawaii once and in the UK three times.
In Australia, Home and Away currently airs on the Seven Network at 7: 00 pm from Mondays to Thursdays, going up against rival current affairs shows A Current Affair on the Nine Network, and The Project on Network Ten. The show is on air for approximately 45 weeks each year. Each season is usually broadcast from January / February and conclude with the season finale in November / December, as it goes off air for a two months during the Christmas and New Year period. All aired episodes shown during the week are available to watch on the Seven Network 's 7plus app, as part of their catch up TV service. They are also broadcast in an omnibus edition each Sunday on Seven 's digital multichannel 7Two.
When the show first began in 1988, it aired at 5: 30 pm in Adelaide, at 6: 00 pm in Melbourne and Sydney, at 6: 30 pm in Brisbane, and at 7: 00 pm in Perth. In January 1992, Seven moved Home and Away to the 7: 00 pm timeslot across the network. On 3 November 2009, 7Two began airing repeat episodes of the show from the very beginning at 9: 30 am, before moving to 9: 00 am. Since its premiere, the show had been screened as a 22 - minute episode each weeknight. However, beginning in March 2013, Better Homes and Gardens began replacing Home and Away on Fridays to make way for Seven 's AFL coverage. Friday 's episodes of Home and Away now air on Thursdays at 7: 30 pm. As of 2018, Home and Away currently airs sporadically, with episodes consisting from four to six episodes per week.
Since 2000, Home and Away has ceased broadcast mid-season for two weeks during the Olympic Games and the episode to screen prior to this is referred to as an ' Olympic cliffhanger '. An Olympic cliffhanger episode would usually involve increased drama, with the peak of a storyline, similar to a season finale episode, and the outcome of the cliffhanger to conclude after the Olympics. Olympic cliffhangers have been broadcast in 2000, 2004, 2008 and 2016, with the exclusion of 2012, as the Seven Network did not have the rights to televise the 2012 London Olympics. In addition to this, Home and Away will take a transmission break on 3 April 2018 in order to broadcast the 2018 Commonwealth Games, and will return on 16 April 2018.
Home and Away has been sold to over 80 countries around the world, making it one of Australia 's successful media exports.
In the United Kingdom, Home and Away was first broadcast on ITV from 11 February 1989 until 8 June 2000. Home and Away was shown twice a day on ITV, with a lunchtime showing and a tea time repeat; many regions aired it at around 5: 10 pm, while others at 6: 00 pm or even 6: 30 pm. The show attracted up to eight million viewers, making it one of ITV 's top 30 rated programmes. It also helped boost audiences for ITV 's regional and early evening news bulletins. During the show 's last year on ITV, Home and Away attracted an average audience of 4.4 million for its early - evening repeats. In February 2000, it was announced that Home and Away would be moving to rival Channel 5 after they bought the rights to the show in a £ 40m auction deal. ITV reportedly offered twice the amount by Channel 5, but the Seven Network in Australia were swayed by Channel 5 's commitment to the long - term future of the show in a deal of more than five years. After its run on ITV ended, Home and Away went off air for 12 months as ITV had an exclusivity clause that prevented any other broadcaster from airing the show for a year. After a delay in screening, Home and Away made its debut on Channel 5 on 16 July 2001. Channel 5 currently airs Home and Away at 1: 15 pm each week day, with a repeat at 6: 00 pm. UK viewers are able to catch up with episodes on 5 * and online via Demand 5.
In Ireland, Home and Away is broadcast on RTÉ Television at 1: 30 pm on RTÉ One and repeated on RTÉ2 at 6: 30 pm each weekday. A repeat of the week 's episodes is aired on Saturdays and Sundays on RTÉ2. Viewers in the Republic of Irleand are also able to catch up with episodes on the RTÉ Player. Home and Away is one of RTÉ 's most popular drama series. It was the most watched programme of 2014 on the RTÉ Player with over four million viewers. As of 2014, the show is no longer available to view in Northern Ireland via the Sky platform, however, it can still be viewed on free view service Saorview. In New Zealand, Home and Away is broadcast on TVNZ 2 at 5: 30 pm each weekday. A repeat of the previous day 's episode is shown at 11: 00 am weekdays and an omnibus edition is shown on Sunday afternoons. The TVNZ website also offers viewers the chance to watch episodes online with its OnDemand service. Home and Away is one of New Zealand 's most popular TV series and is one of TVNZ 2 's highest - rating shows. The show had previously aired on TV3 since 2002, where it consistently won high ratings for TV3 and helped boost audiences for their 6pm news bulletin. However, on 5 July 2013, the show 's European distributor Endemol cancelled its agreement with TV3, causing them to lose the right to broadcast Home and Away. In the United States, Home and Away began streaming on the subscription service Hulu on 2 March 2015, beginning with the 2015 season. The service no longer receives new episodes, although the complete twenty - eighth season is currently available.
The launch of Home and Away in 1988 was hoped to help boost the Seven Network 's early evening ratings which had been underperforming in previous years. However, the show struggled to attract high ratings, particularly when compared to rival soap opera Neighbours, which was a huge ratings success at the time. By the end of 1988, Home and Away 's ratings had improved. In January 1992, when Neighbours ' high - rating era was over, Seven moved Home and Away to the 7: 00 pm timeslot, putting both shows up against each other. This caused Network Ten to move Neighbours to the 6.30 pm timeslot two months later. During the early 2000s, Home and Away was averaging 1.3 million viewers and in 2007, viewing figures rose to 1.4 million. However, by the end of the decade, the ratings had dropped to an average of 1.1 million viewers. During the early 2010s, viewing figures had further decreased to between 800,000 and 1 million an episode. In 2012, Home and Away was averaging 981,000 viewers, down from 1.039 million in 2011 and 1.021 million in 2010.
In 2015, the show began going through a serious ratings decline. A July 2015 report revealed that the ratings were down 14 % compared to the first six months of 2014, which translates to about 140,000 fewer viewers per episode. On 6 July 2015, Home and Away ranked 16th in OzTAM 's overnight ratings with 750,000 viewers. The following night, the show fell to an even lower figure of 701,000 viewers. A writer for the Australian Associated Press stated that one of the reasons for the ratings decline could be "the viewing habits of Gen Y, which the show is aimed at, have changed dramatically in recent times thanks to the launch of streaming services, Netflix, Stan and Presto. The exact age demographic that Home and Away targets are the same people who do not subscribe to appointment viewing. They prefer to watch shows when they want and do n't want to be dictated to by the commercial networks. '' A Seven spokeswoman commented that Home and Away was still performing well on digital and social platforms and that the overnight ratings were not the only measure of the show 's success.
Home and Away 's storylines have ranged from mild to serious issues throughout its run. While the central stories revolve around fostering children, family and teenage problem, school problems and romances, the series has covered several controversial, adult - themed and detailed issues not suitable for young audiences, despite its early evening time of 7: 00 pm. Storylines covered include abortion, accidental death, adultery, adoption, alcoholism, amnesia, amputation, arson, autism, bereavement, brain aneurysm, bulimia, bullying, cancer, cage fighting, career problems, child abuse, cults, cyberbullying, domestic violence, depression, drink driving, drug overdose, drug trafficking and drug use, gambling addiction, health problems, hit - and - runs, HIV and AIDS, homosexuality, Huntington 's disease, incest, miscarriage, murder, imprisonment, kidnapping, marriage problems, obsessive - compulsive disorder (OCD), paedophilia, post-natal depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, prostitution, racism, rape, revenge porn, robbery, self - harm, sex, shootings (including drive - by shootings), stabbings, stalking, stroke, SIDS (cot death), stillbirth, suicide, surrogacy, teacher - student relationships, teenage pregnancy, terminal illness, and witness protection. The show has also featured many natural disaster storylines, including a cyclone, storm, flood, landslide, earthquake, and bushfires. There have also been several storylines involving car, bus, plane and boating accidents. Furthermore, in addition to the show featuring scenes of moderate to strong violence in past episodes, the special episode, Home and Away: All or Nothing, which became available for online streaming in January 2017, is intended for "adult - only '' viewing as it is described as the most violent episode of the entire series, as it contains scenes of strong violence.
Since 1988, Home and Away has dealt with some controversial issues, despite being broadcast in a G - rated timezone. In 2007, the show breached broadcasting rules when they aired a number of episodes featuring Martha MacKenzie (Jodi Gordon) involved with pole - dancing in the G classification, as the Australian Communications and Media Authority (ACMA) said that these episodes should have been rated PG as they contained sexual scenes and references. Since 2008, every subsequent episode has been broadcast under the PG classification and often continues to exceed the rating. A 2010 episode which featured Martha McKenzie engaging in a sexual scene with Liam Murphy (Axle Whitehead) on a kitchen table was deemed "too raunchy '' by a television watchdog in New Zealand, as the series was also aired in a G - rated timezone at 5: 30 pm on TV3. From 2015, The Early Years episodes which broadcast on weekday mornings on 7Two have been re-rated PG.
When Home and Away began in 1988, it initially focused on the Fletcher family -- Tom (Roger Oakley) and his wife Pippa (Vanessa Downing), and their five foster children, Frank Morgan (Alex Papps), Carly Morris (Sharyn Hodgson), Steven Matheson (Adam Willits), Lynn Davenport (Helena Bozich), and Sally Fletcher (Kate Ritchie) -- who relocated from the city to live in the seaside town of Summer Bay. At the end of the first episode, Tom and Pippa take in their sixth foster child Bobby Simpson (Nicolle Dickson). The Fletchers bought the Summer Bay Caravan Park and moved into the Summer Bay House. They quickly built strong friendships with the locals, Ailsa Stewart (Judy Nunn), Alf Stewart (Ray Meagher), Donald Fisher (Norman Coburn), and Neville (Frank Lloyd) and Floss McPhee (Sheila Kennelly).
While Home and Away features a mix of young cast members and older, more experienced actors, the show has always had a definite youth focus, with the younger characters dominating much of the storylines. Many of the cast have spent several years on Home and Away, including original cast member Judy Nunn who left the series in 2000 after 12 years playing the co-owner of Summer Bay 's diner. Other original cast members Norman Coburn played high school principal Donald Fisher until 2003, and Kate Ritchie departed in 2008 after 20 years playing Sally Fletcher. Both Coburn and Ritchie along with Ray Meagher (Alf Stewart) entered the 2002 Guinness World Records as the longest - serving actors in an Australian drama series. Meagher now holds that record alone and he is the only remaining original cast member in the show. Meagher along with Lynne McGranger (Irene Roberts), Ada Nicodemou (Leah Patterson - Baker) and Emily Symons (Marilyn Chambers) are the longest - serving cast members currently in Home and Away. In 2010, Georgie Parker joined the cast of Home and Away as Alf 's daughter Roo Stewart, originally played by Justine Clarke in 1988 -- 89. Alf and Roo are currently the only two original characters in the series.
Throughout the years, Home and Away has featured several guest appearances from celebrities such as John Farnham, Johanna Griggs, Sia Furler, Michael Palin, Ian Thorpe, Lleyton Hewitt, Paulini, Nick Grimshaw, Eliza Doolittle, Ed Sheeran, and Jessica Mauboy.
The theme song to Home and Away was written by Mike Perjanik. There have been nine different versions of the theme song used throughout the years. The lyrics remained the same since the show 's inception, but a number of verses were gradually cut back over the years due to time restrictions. The original version was sung by Karen Boddington and Mark Williams, and was used from 1988 until mid-1995. Their version was released as a single in the UK in 1989 and peaked at number 73 on the UK Singles Chart. A new version performed by Doug Williams and Erana Clark debuted in 1995 and the opening theme was shortened in 1996; this version remained until 1999. From 2000 to 2003, the theme song to Home and Away was sung by The Robertson Brothers and it was the first version to use only male vocals. A 30 - second updated version by The Robertson Brothers was used from 2004 to 2006. In January 2007, a new version was introduced and performed by Israel Cannan, who played the character Wazza in the show. After Cannan 's version received many complaints from fans, the Seven Network decided to re-record the theme song in April 2007 with vocals provided by Luke Dolahenty. A shorter, 15 - second version sung by Dolahenty and Tarryn Stokes debuted in 2009.
From 2010 until 2017, the Home and Away theme song was not used in the opening titles and was replaced by a short instrumental version. However, Dolahenty and Stokes ' version was still used in the closing credits for international broadcasts. In 2018, two new eight - second versions of the theme song made a return to the opening titles after an eight - year absence. One version is sung by a male vocalist, while the other version is sung by a female vocalist; in the opening titles, both only sing the last two lines of the theme: "closer each day, Home and Away ''. An extended 30 - second version by the male vocalist was uploaded onto the Home and Away website.
The Home and Away opening titles sequence was initially used to introduce the regular characters in the show. The sequences often featured the characters in couple shots or with family and friends, and showed them in familiar settings around Summer Bay such as the beach. The titles for the show 's earlier years featured black brush stroke cutouts around the character shots. 2004 saw Home and Away introduce new picture frame - style opening titles, with characters shown posing in and out of large picture frames in front of beach backgrounds. In January 2007, the show debuted new opening titles along with a new version of the theme song. The picture - frame style was still used, but this time the titles featured framed pictures of the characters. In 2009, the opening was reduced to 15 seconds and the characters were removed from the titles for the first time in Home and Away 's history. They were replaced by a large photo collage showing various locations around Summer Bay. The decision to remove the cast and shorten the titles was due to time restrictions. Since then, many viewers in Australia and the UK have wanted the full - length title sequence with the cast to return.
From 2013 until 2017, Home and Away used a series of five - second opening titles, which changed every week. The various titles mostly featured scenes of bikini - clad women and shirtless men with surfboards at the beach. In 2018, a new series of eight - second titles were introduced along with the return of the show 's theme song. The new titles, which currently change during each week, mostly feature two men or two women running down to the ocean for a surf. A 30 - second version of the titles, not aired on Australian television, was released on the Home and Away website.
Home and Away has received many awards and nominations throughout the years. The show has won 46 Logie Awards from 153 nominations, making it the most awarded program in Logie history. In 2015, Home and Away was inducted into the Logie Hall of Fame. The show has also won twelve Australian Writers ' Guild Awards and five Australian Directors Guild Awards.
Since 1988, Home and Away has generated a range of merchandise, including books, magazines, VHS tapes, DVDs and soundtracks. Various annuals and books about the show and its cast and characters were released in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Between 2003 and 2005, several fictional books by Leon F. Saunders and Jane Anderson were released and based on characters from Home and Away. Episodes of the show have been released on several VHS and DVDs. Home and Away: The Movie was the first VHS released in 1989 and contained the 90 - minute pilot episode. Another VHS tape, Home and Away: The Official Summer Bay Special, was released in 1996. It celebrated 2,000 episodes of the show and looked back at memorable moments throughout its earlier years. Home and Away: Secrets and the City and Home and Away: Hearts Divided were the first DVDs released in October 2003, and both contained exclusive episodes that were never aired on television. Two further DVDs, Home and Away: Romances and Home and Away: Weddings were released in November 2005 and March 2006, respectively, and featured clips from the most popular romances and weddings in the series ' history. Romances featured the pilot episode, while Weddings featured two episodes containing Leah and Vinnie 's wedding as a bonus feature. Four soundtrack albums were released between 1996 and 2003 that featured music used on the show as well songs from some of the cast members.
Home and Away has also produced several spin - off episodes. headLand was a spin - off series focusing on a university. It ran from November 2005 until January 2006, when it was cancelled due to low ratings. In 2013, the show launched their first webisode series titled Home and Away Extras, which introduced new characters Andy (Tai Hara) and Josh Barrett (Jackson Gallagher) before they appeared on - air. The four - part websisode series was released on the show 's Yahoo! 7 website from 7 August 2013. On 19 August 2015, it was announced that former cast members Dan Ewing (Heath Braxton) and Lisa Gormley (Bianca Scott) would be returning for a special spin - off episode titled Home and Away: An Eye for an Eye. The episode was commissioned specially for the local streaming service Presto and did not air on the Seven Network. It centred around the Braxton family and was a feature - length episode running for over an hour. Home and Away: An Eye for an Eye was made available to watch on Presto from 9 December 2015. Following the success of Home and Away: An Eye for An Eye, it was announced on 6 May 2016 that two more feature - length episodes had been commissioned. The first episode became available on 19 December 2016 and is titled Home and Away: Revenge. The second special, Home and Away: All Or Nothing, became available for viewing on 26 January 2017.
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all the things you are by paul desmond and gerry mulligan | Two of a Mind - wikipedia
Two of a Mind is an album recorded by American jazz saxophonists Paul Desmond and Gerry Mulligan featuring performances recorded in 1962 which were released on the RCA Victor label.
Allmusic awarded the album 41⁄2 stars stating "Altoist Paul Desmond and baritonist Gerry Mulligan always made for a perfect team during their infrequent collaborations. Both of the saxophonists had immediately distinctive light tones, strong wits, and the ability to improvise melodically... the interplay between Desmond and Mulligan is consistently delightful. Highly recommended ''.
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what is needed to buy a gun in oregon | Gun laws in Oregon - wikipedia
Gun laws in Oregon regulate the sale, possession, and use of firearms and ammunition in the state of Oregon in the United States.
In 2011, the Oregon Court of Appeals ruled that public universities no longer have the authority to prohibit firearms on their grounds, however may still prohibit them inside buildings. This effectively legalized campus carry on grounds.
In Oregon, the right to bear arms is protected by Article 1, Section 27 of the Oregon Constitution.
Oregon is a shall - issue concealed - carry state. and is notable for having very few restrictions on where a concealed firearm may be carried. Oregon also has statewide preemption for its concealed - carry laws -- with limited exceptions, counties and cities can not place limits on the ability of people to carry concealed weapons beyond those provided by state law.
One is in unlawful possession of a firearm if one knowingly:
"(a) Carries any firearm concealed upon the person;
(b) Possesses a handgun that is concealed and readily accessible to the person within any vehicle; or
(c) Possesses a firearm and:
(A) Is under 18 years of age;
(B) (i) While a minor, was found to be within the jurisdiction of the juvenile court for having committed an act which, if committed by an adult, would constitute a felony or a misdemeanor involving violence, as defined in ORS 166.470; and
(ii) Was discharged from the jurisdiction of the juvenile court within four years prior to being charged under this section;
(C) Has been convicted of a felony or found guilty, except for insanity under ORS 161.295, of a felony;
(D) Was committed to the Department of Human Services under ORS 426.130; or
(E) Was found to be mentally ill and subject to an order under ORS 426.130 that the person be prohibited from purchasing or possessing a firearm as a result of that mental illness. ''
Unlawful possession of a firearm is a Class A misdemeanor.
There is one possible exception to the "shall issue '' state. The concealed - carry license is issued by each county 's sheriff, and is valid statewide. The sheriff is given personal discretion if that sheriff "has reasonable grounds to believe that the applicant has been or is reasonably likely to be a danger to self or others. '' There is no pure definition of what that reason must be. For instance it might be a statement from another law enforcement officer about an individual, and that statement might come from personal acquaintance. The burden, and perhaps the right to recover damages would then be on the applicant.
Oregon is also an open - carry state, but cities and counties are free to limit public possession of loaded firearms by individuals who do not have an Oregon Concealed Handgun License. The cities of Portland, Beaverton, Tigard, Oregon City, Salem, and Independence, as well as Multnomah County have banned loaded firearms in all public places for those without a license.
There is no reciprocity with other states ' concealed handgun licenses. Individuals wanting to carry a concealed handgun in Oregon will need an Oregon Concealed Handgun License.
In Oregon, firearm owners can be held liable in civil court if a firearms injury is caused by negligence, and can be held responsible for damages in a wrongful death claim if the firearm is used to kill someone.
If a person appears to be a risk to themselves or to others, a police officer or the person 's family or household member may petition the court for a one - year extreme risk protection order that would prohibit the person from possessing a deadly weapon. If a judge finds clear and convincing evidence that the person is in imminent danger of hurting themselves or another person, the respondent would have 24 hours to surrender all deadly weapons.
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when did latin america gain independence from spain | Latin American wars of independence - wikipedia
The Latin American wars of independence were the revolutions that took place during the late 18th and early 19th centuries and resulted in the creation of a number of independent countries in Latin America. These revolutions followed the American and French Revolutions, which had profound effects on the British, Spanish, Portuguese, and French colonies in the Americas. Haiti, a French slave colony, was the first to follow the United States; the Haitian Revolution lasted from 1791 to 1804, when they won their independence. The Peninsular War with France, which resulted from the Napoleonic occupation of Spain, caused Spanish Creoles in Spanish America to question their allegiance to Spain, stoking independence movements that culminated in the wars of independence, which lasted almost two decades. At the same time, the Portuguese monarchy relocated to Brazil during Portugal 's French occupation. After the royal court returned to Lisbon, the prince regent, Pedro, remained in Brazil and in 1822 successfully declared himself emperor of a newly independent Brazil.
Spain 's international wars at the second half of the 18th century evidenced the empire 's difficulties in reinforcing its colonial possessions and provide them with economic aid. This led to an increased local participation in the financing of the defense and an increased participation in the militias by the locally born. Such development was at odds with the ideals of the centralized absolute monarchy. The Spanish did also formal concessions to strengthen the defense: In Chiloé Spanish authorities promised freedom from the encomienda for those indigenous locals who settled near the new stronghold of Ancud (founded in 1768) and contributed to its defense. The increased local organization of the defenses would ultimately undermine metropolitan authority and bolster the independence movement.
Evolving from the wars that Revolutionary France fought with the rest of Europe, the Napoleonic Wars were a series of wars fought between France (led by Napoleon Bonaparte) and alliances involving Britain, Prussia, Spain, Portugal, Russia and Austria at different times, from 1799 to 1815.
In the case of Spain and its colonies, in May 1808, Napoleon captured Carlos IV and King Fernando VII and installed his own brother, Joseph Bonaparte on the Spanish Throne because he did n't want anyone outside of his own bloodline to rule Spain. This pivotal point greatly disrupted the political stability of both Spain and its colonies. Cities throughout Spain and its colonies in America each formed governing bodies primarily consisting of local elites. These ruling local elites were called juntas and their underlying principle in taking power over their communities was that "in absence of the king, Fernando VII, their sovereignty devolved temporarily back to the community. '' The juntas swore loyalty to the captive Fernando VII and each ruled different and diverse parts of the colony. Most of Fernando 's subjects were loyal to him in 1808, but after he was restored to the Spanish crown in 1814, his policy of restoring absolute power alienated both the juntas and his subjects. He abrogated the Cadiz Constitution of 1812 and persecuted anyone who had supported it. The violence used by royalist forces and the prospect of being ruled by Fernando shifted the majority of the colonist population in favor of separation from Spain.
The royalists were the American and European supporters of King Ferdinand. The Royalists ' were made up of a diversity of peoples loyal to the crown, with Americans composing 9 % of the royalist forces in all fronts. There were two types of units: the expeditionary units created in Spain and militias created in the Americas. The militias included some veteran units (called the disciplined militia). Only 11 % of the personnel in the militias were European or American whites.
After Rafael del Riego 's revolution, in 1820, no more Spanish soldiers were sent to the wars in the Americas. In 1820 there were only 10,001 Spanish soldiers in the Americas, and Spaniards formed only 10 % of all the royalist armies, and only half of the soldiers of the expeditionary units were European. By the Battle of Ayacucho in 1824, less than 1 % of the soldiers were European.
Other factors included Enlightenment thinking. The Enlightenment spurred the desire for social and economic reform to spread throughout Latin America and the Iberian Peninsula. Ideas about free trade and physiocratic economics were raised by the Enlightenment.
Independence movements in South America can be traced back to slave revolts in plantations in the northernmost part of the continent and Caribbean. In 1791, a massive slave revolt sparked a general insurrection against the plantation system and French colonial power. These events were followed by a violent uprising led by José Leonardo Chirino and José Caridad González that sprung up in 1795 Venezuela, allegedly inspired by the revolution in Haiti.
When Mexico achieved its independence in 1821 with the Treaty of Córdoba, the Captaincy General of Guatemala that had ruled Central America became politically independent as well, without the necessity of violent struggle. Guatemala declared its own independence September 15, 1821, likely to prevent the Mexican Army of the Three Guarantees from "liberating '' Guatemala and over-riding nascent local autonomy. However, Guatemala chose to the annexed to the First Mexican Empire, led by royalist - turned - insurgent military leader Agustín de Iturbide, who was proclaimed emperor of Mexico in 1822. When Iturbide abdicated from the monarchy and Mexico took steps to be a republic, Central America claimed its independence.
After several failed revolts, The Portuguese colony of Brazil declared independence, forming a separate, local Empire founded by Prince Regent Dom Pedro I. The war between the Brazilians and Portuguese lasted from February 1822, with the burst of first skirmishes between militias, to November 1823, when the last Portuguese garrisons surrendered. The Brazilian Empire lasted until a coup in 1889 overthrew the monarchy leading to its current status as a republic.
The crisis of political legitimacy in Spain with the Napoleonic invasion sparked reaction in Spain 's overseas empire. The outcome in Spanish America was that most of the region achieved political independence and instigated the creation of sovereign nations. The areas that were most recently formed as viceroyalties were the first to achieve independence, with the old centers of Spanish power in Mexico and Peru with strong and entrenched institutions and elites were the last to achieve independence in this era. The two exceptions to independence were the islands of Cuba and Puerto Rico, which with the Philippines, remained Spanish colonies until the 1898 Spanish - America War.
After the defeat of Spain in the Peninsular War and the abdication King Ferdinand VII, the Spanish colonial government of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, present - day Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay, Peru and Uruguay, became greatly weakened. Without a rightful king in the Spanish throne to render the office of the Viceroy as legitimate, the right of Viceroy Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros to govern came under fire. The local elites, tired of the Spanish trade restrictions and taxes, seized the opportunity and during the May Revolution of 1810, removed Cisneros and created the first local government, the Primera Junta.
Following a half a decade of battles and skirmishes with provincial royalist forces within the former Vice-royalty along with military expeditions across the Andes to Chile, Peru and Bolivia led by General José de San Martín to finally end Spanish rule in America, a formal declaration was signed on July 9, 1816 by an assembly in San Miguel de Tucumán, declaring full independence with provisions for a national constitution. The Argentine Constitution was signed in 1853, declaring the creation of the Argentine Republic.
Following upheaval caused by the May Revolution, along with the independence movements in Chile and Venezuela, local struggle for independence kicked off with two failed revolutions that. Over sixteen years of struggle followed before the first steps towards the establishment of a republic were taken.
Formally, it is considered that the fight for independence culminated in the Battle of Ayacucho, on December 9, 1824.
The Chilean Independence movement was led by the Liberator General Bernardo O'Higgins. This movement of Chilean - born criollos, who sought political and economic independence from Spain. The movement for independence was far from gaining unanimous support among Chileans, who became divided between independentists and royalists. What started as an elitist political movement against their colonial master, finally ended as a full - fledged civil war. Traditionally, the process is divided into three stages: Patria Vieja, Reconquista, and Patria Nueva.
The first uprising against Spanish rule took place in 1809, and criollos in Ecuador set up a junta on September 22, 1810 to rule in the name of the Bourbon monarch; but as elsewhere, it allowed assertion of their own power. Only in 1822 did Ecuador fully gain independence and became part of Gran Colombia, from which it withdrew in 1830. At the Battle of Pichincha, near present - day Quito, Ecuador on May 24, 1822, General Antonio José de Sucre 's forces defeated a Spanish force defending Quito. The Spanish defeat guaranteed the liberation of Ecuador.
Independence in Mexico was a protracted struggle from 1808 until the fall of royal government in 1821 and the establishment of independent Mexico. In the Viceroyalty of New Spain, as elsewhere in Spanish America in 1808, reacted to the unexpected French invasion of the Iberian peninsula and the ouster of the Bourbon king, replaced by Joseph Bonaparte. Local American - born Spaniards saw the opportunity to seize local control from Viceroy José de Iturrigaray, who may well have been sympathetic to creoles aspirations. Iturrigaray was ousted by pro-royalists. A few creole elites sought independence, including Juan Aldama, and Ignacio Allende, but especially secular parish priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla. Hidalgo made a proclamation in his home parish of Dolores, which was not recorded in writing at the time, but denounced bad government and gachupines (pejorative for peninsular - born Spaniards), and declared independence. The unorganized hordes following Hidalgo wrought destruction on property and the lives of whites in the region of the Bajío. Hidalgo was caught, defrocked, and executed in 1811, along with Allende. Their heads remained on display until 1821. His former student José María Morelos continued the rebellion and was himself caught and killed in 1815.
The struggle of Mexican insurgents continued under the leadership of Vicente Guerrero and Guadalupe Victoria. From 1815 to 1820 there was a stalemate in New Spain, with royalist forces unable to defeat the insurgents and the insurgents unable to expand beyond their narrow territory in the southern region. Again, events in Spain intervened, with an uprising of military men against Ferdinand VII and the restoration of the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812, which mandated a constitutional monarchy and curtailed the power of the Roman Catholic Church. The monarch had repudiated the constitution once the Spanish monarchy was restored in 1814. For conservatives in New Spain, these changed political circumstances threatened the institutions of church and state. Royal military officer Agustín de Iturbide seized the opportunity to lead, making an alliance with his former enemy Guerrero. Iturbide proclaimed the Plan de Iguala, which called for independence, equality of peninsular and American - born Spaniards, and a monarchy. He persuaded the insurgent Guerrero to form an alliance with him and creating the Army of the Three Guarantees. Crown rule in New Spain collapsed, with the incoming Viceroy Juan O'Donojú signing the Treaty of Córdoba, recognizing Mexico 's sovereignty. With no European monarch presenting himself for the crown of Mexico, Iturbide himself was proclaimed emperor Agustin I in 1822. He was overthrown in 1823 and Mexico was established as a republic. Decades of political and economic instability ensued.
Following the events of the May Revolution, in 1811 José Gervasio Artigas, launched a successful revolt against the Spanish forces in the Provincia Oriental, now Uruguay, joining the independentist movement that was taking place in the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata at the time. In 1821, the Provincia Oriental was invaded by Portugal, trying to annex it into Brazil under the name of Província Cisplatina.
The former Vice-royalty of the Río de la Plata, The United Provinces of the River Plate, fought back Brazil in a war that lasted over 2 years, eventually turning into a stalemate. The Brazilian forces withdrew with the United Provinces keeping them at bay but failing to win any decisive victory. With neither side gained the upper hand and the economic burden of the war crippling the United Provinces economy, the Treaty of Montevideo was signed in 1828, fostered by Britain, declaring Uruguay as an independent state.
Paraguay gained its independence on the night of May 14 and the morning of May 15, 1811, after a plan organized by various pro-independence nationalists including Fulgencio Yegros and José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia.
Spain initially had the support of the Lima oligarchs because of their opposition to the commercial interests of Buenos Aires and Chile. Therefore, the Viceroyalty of Peru became the last redoubt of the Spanish Monarchy in South America. Nevertheless, a Creole rebellion arose in 1812 in Huánuco and another in Cusco between 1814 and 1816. Both were suppressed. These rebellions were supported by the armies of Buenos Aires.
Peru finally succumbed after the decisive continental campaigns of José de San Martín (1820 -- 1823) and Simón Bolívar (1824). While San Martin was in charge of the land campaign, a newly built Chilean Navy led by Lord Cochrane transported the fighting troops and launched a sea campaign against the Spanish fleet in the Pacific. San Martín, who had displaced the royalists of Chile after the Battle of Maipú, and who had disembarked in Paracas in 1820, proclaimed the independence of Peru in Lima on July 28, 1821. Four years later, the Spanish Monarchy was defeated definitively at the Battle of Ayacucho.
After independence, the conflicts of interests that faced different sectors of Creole Peruvian society and the particular ambitions of the caudillos, made the organization of the country excessively difficult. Only three civilians -- Manuel Pardo, Nicolás de Piérola and Francisco García Calderón -- acceded to the presidency in the first seventy - five years of Peru 's independence. The Republic of Bolivia was created from Upper Peru. In 1837 a Peru - Bolivian Confederation was also created but was dissolved two years later due to Chilean military intervention.
According to the Encyclopedia Americana of 1865, General Francisco de Miranda, already a hero to the French, Prussians, English and Americans had garnered a series of successes against the Spanish between 1808 and 1812. He had effectively negated their access to all the ports on the Caribbean, thus preventing them from receiving reinforcements and supplies and was essentially conducting mopping - up operations throughout the country. At that point he convinced Simon Bolivar to join the struggle and put him in charge of the fort at Puerto Cabello. This was all at once a supply and arms depot, a strategic port and the central holding facility for Spanish prisoners. Through what amounts to a gross dereliction of duty, Simon Bolivar neglected to enforce the customary security dispositions before departing to a social event. During the night there was an uprising of the Spanish prisoners and they managed to subdue the Independentist garrison and gain control of the supplies, the arms and ammunition, and the port. The Loyalist forces progressively regained control of the country and eventually Monteverde 's successes forced the newly formed congress of the republic to ask of Miranda that he sign a capitulation at La Victoria in Aragua, on July 12, 1812, thus ending the first phase of the revolutionary war.
After the capitulation of 1812, Simón Bolívar turned over Francisco de Miranda to the Spanish authorities, secured a safe passage for himself and his closest officers and fled to New Granada. He later returned with a new army, while the war had entered a tremendously violent phase. After much of the local aristocracy had abandoned the cause of independence, blacks and mulattoes carried on the struggle. Elites reacted with open distrust and opposition to the efforts of these common people. Bolívar 's forces invaded Venezuela from New Granada in 1813, waging a campaign with a ferocity captured perfectly by their motto of "war to the death ''. Bolívar 's forces defeated Domingo Monteverde 's Spanish army in a series of battles, taking Caracas on August 6, 1813 and besieging Monteverde at Puerto Cabello in September 1813.
With loyalists displaying the same passion and violence, the rebels achieved only short - lived victories. The army led by the loyalist José Tomás Boves demonstrated the key military role that the Llaneros came to play in the region 's struggle. Turning the tide against independence, these highly mobile, ferocious fighters made up a formidable military force that pushed Bolívar out of his home country once more. In 1814, heavily reinforced Spanish forces in Venezuela lost a series of battles to Bolívar 's forces but then decisively defeated Bolivar at La Puerta on June 15, took Caracas on July 16, and again defeated his army at Aragua on August 18, at a cost of 2,000 Spanish casualties out of 10,000 soldiers as well as most of the 3,000 in the rebel army. Bolívar and other leaders then returned to New Granada. Later that year the largest expeditionary force ever sent by Spain to America arrived under the command of Pablo Morillo. This force effectively replaced the improvised llanero units, who were disbanded by Morillo.
Bolívar and other republican leaders returned to Venezuela in December 1816, leading a largely unsuccessful insurrection against Spain from 1816 to 1818 from bases in the Llanos and Ciudad Bolívar in the Orinoco River area.
In 1819 Bolívar successfully invaded New Granada, and returned to Venezuela in April 1821, leading a large army of 7,000. At Carabobo on June 24, his forces decisively defeated Spanish and colonial forces, winning Venezuelan independence, although hostilities continued.
Great Britain and the United States were rivals for influence in the newly independent sovereign nations. As a result of the successful revolutions which established so many new independent nations, United States President James Monroe and the Secretary of State John Quincy Adams drafted the Monroe Doctrine. It stated that the United States would not tolerate any European interference in the Western Hemisphere. This measure ostensibly was taken in order to safeguard the newfound liberties of these new countries, but it was also taken as a precautionary measure against the intrusion of European states. Since the United States was a newly founded nation, it lacked the capacity to prevent other European powers from interfering, for that the United States looked for Britain 's help and support to execute the Monroe Doctrine into action.
Great Britain 's trade with Latin America greatly expanded during the revolutionary period, which until then was restricted due to Spanish mercantilist trade policies. British pressure was sufficient to prevent Spain from attempting any serious reassertion of its control over its lost colonies.
Internal divisions also resulted in internecine wars. For example, Gran Colombia proved too fragile and the South American nation collapsed within ten years. Because many of the political strongmen of this period (caudillos), who came to power were from the military, a strong authoritarian streak marked many of the new governments. There were countless revolts, coup d'états and inter-state wars, which never allowed Latin America to become united. This was exacerbated by the fact that Latin America is a land of various and very diverse cultures that do not identify with, nor have a sense of unity, with one another.
The Spanish Empire in America was reduced to three Caribbean islands: Cuba and Puerto Rico. Santo Domingo was under Spanish rule for some years before definitive independence was achieved. After three independence wars in Cuba, the 1898 Spanish -- American War ended Spanish colonial rule.
Brazil achieved its independence peacefully in 1822, becoming a monarchy, the Empire of Brazil. It retained its territorial integrity following independence, as opposed to the fragmentation of Spanish America into separate republics. Brazil was an anomaly in Latin America as a large, successful and stable monarchy until 1889, when the monarchy was overthrown following the abolition of slavery, and República Velha ("Old Republic '') was founded.
The notion of closer Spanish American cooperation and unity was first put forward by the Liberator Simón Bolívar who, at the 1826 Congress of Panama, proposed the creation a league of American republics, with a common military, a mutual defense pact, and a supranational parliamentary assembly. This meeting was attended by representatives of Gran Colombia (comprising the modern - day nations of Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, and Venezuela), Peru, the United Provinces of Central America (Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica), and Mexico. Nevertheless, the great distances and geographical barriers, not to mention the different national and regional interests, made union impossible.
Sixty - three years later the Commercial Bureau of the American Republics was established. It was renamed the International Commercial Bureau at the Second International Conference of 1901 -- 1902. These two bodies, in existence as of 14 April 1890, represent the point of inception of today 's Organization of American States.
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why do food chains only have 4-5 levels | Food web - wikipedia
A food web (or food cycle) is a natural interconnection of food chains and a graphical representation (usually an image) of what - eats - what in an ecological community. Another name for food web is consumer - resource system. Ecologists can broadly lump all life forms into one of two categories called trophic levels: 1) the autotrophs, and 2) the heterotrophs. To maintain their bodies, grow, develop, and to reproduce, autotrophs produce organic matter from inorganic substances, including both minerals and gases such as carbon dioxide. These chemical reactions require energy, which mainly comes from the Sun and largely by photosynthesis, although a very small amount comes from hydrothermal vents and hot springs. A gradient exists between trophic levels running from complete autotrophs that obtain their sole source of carbon from the atmosphere, to mixotrophs (such as carnivorous plants) that are autotrophic organisms that partially obtain organic matter from sources other than the atmosphere, and complete heterotrophs that must feed to obtain organic matter. The linkages in a food web illustrate the feeding pathways, such as where heterotrophs obtain organic matter by feeding on autotrophs and other heterotrophs. The food web is a simplified illustration of the various methods of feeding that links an ecosystem into a unified system of exchange. There are different kinds of feeding relations that can be roughly divided into herbivory, carnivory, scavenging and parasitism. Some of the organic matter eaten by heterotrophs, such as sugars, provides energy. Autotrophs and heterotrophs come in all sizes, from microscopic to many tonnes - from cyanobacteria to giant redwoods, and from viruses and bdellovibrio to blue whales.
Charles Elton pioneered the concept of food cycles, food chains, and food size in his classical 1927 book "Animal Ecology ''; Elton 's ' food cycle ' was replaced by ' food web ' in a subsequent ecological text. Elton organized species into functional groups, which was the basis for Raymond Lindeman 's classic and landmark paper in 1942 on trophic dynamics. Lindeman emphasized the important role of decomposer organisms in a trophic system of classification. The notion of a food web has a historical foothold in the writings of Charles Darwin and his terminology, including an "entangled bank '', "web of life '', "web of complex relations '', and in reference to the decomposition actions of earthworms he talked about "the continued movement of the particles of earth ''. Even earlier, in 1768 John Bruckner described nature as "one continued web of life ''.
Food webs are limited representations of real ecosystems as they necessarily aggregate many species into trophic species, which are functional groups of species that have the same predators and prey in a food web. Ecologists use these simplifications in quantitative (or mathematical) models of trophic or consumer - resource systems dynamics. Using these models they can measure and test for generalized patterns in the structure of real food web networks. Ecologists have identified non-random properties in the topographic structure of food webs. Published examples that are used in meta analysis are of variable quality with omissions. However, the number of empirical studies on community webs is on the rise and the mathematical treatment of food webs using network theory had identified patterns that are common to all. Scaling laws, for example, predict a relationship between the topology of food web predator - prey linkages and levels of species richness.
Links in food webs map the feeding connections (who eats whom) in an ecological community. Food cycle is an obsolete term that is synonymous with food web. Ecologists can broadly group all life forms into one of two trophic layers, the autotrophs and the heterotrophs. Autotrophs produce more biomass energy, either chemically without the sun 's energy or by capturing the sun 's energy in photosynthesis, than they use during metabolic respiration. Heterotrophs consume rather than produce biomass energy as they metabolize, grow, and add to levels of secondary production. A food web depicts a collection of polyphagous heterotrophic consumers that network and cycle the flow of energy and nutrients from a productive base of self - feeding autotrophs.
The base or basal species in a food web are those species without prey and can include autotrophs or saprophytic detritivores (i.e., the community of decomposers in soil, biofilms, and periphyton). Feeding connections in the web are called trophic links. The number of trophic links per consumer is a measure of food web connectance. Food chains are nested within the trophic links of food webs. Food chains are linear (noncyclic) feeding pathways that trace monophagous consumers from a base species up to the top consumer, which is usually a larger predatory carnivore.
Linkages connect to nodes in a food web, which are aggregates of biological taxa called trophic species. Trophic species are functional groups that have the same predators and prey in a food web. Common examples of an aggregated node in a food web might include parasites, microbes, decomposers, saprotrophs, consumers, or predators, each containing many species in a web that can otherwise be connected to other trophic species.
Food webs have trophic levels and positions. Basal species, such as plants, form the first level and are the resource limited species that feed on no other living creature in the web. Basal species can be autotrophs or detritivores, including "decomposing organic material and its associated microorganisms which we defined as detritus, micro-inorganic material and associated microorganisms (MIP), and vascular plant material. '' Most autotrophs capture the sun 's energy in chlorophyll, but some autotrophs (the chemolithotrophs) obtain energy by the chemical oxidation of inorganic compounds and can grow in dark environments, such as the sulfur bacterium Thiobacillus, which lives in hot sulfur springs. The top level has top (or apex) predators which no other species kills directly for its food resource needs. The intermediate levels are filled with omnivores that feed on more than one trophic level and cause energy to flow through a number of food pathways starting from a basal species.
In the simplest scheme, the first trophic level (level 1) is plants, then herbivores (level 2), and then carnivores (level 3). The trophic level is equal to one more than the chain length, which is the number of links connecting to the base. The base of the food chain (primary producers or detritivores) is set at zero. Ecologists identify feeding relations and organize species into trophic species through extensive gut content analysis of different species. The technique has been improved through the use of stable isotopes to better trace energy flow through the web. It was once thought that omnivory was rare, but recent evidence suggests otherwise. This realization has made trophic classifications more complex.
The trophic level concept was introduced in a historical landmark paper on trophic dynamics in 1942 by Raymond L. Lindeman. The basis of trophic dynamics is the transfer of energy from one part of the ecosystem to another. The trophic dynamic concept has served as a useful quantitative heuristic, but it has several major limitations including the precision by which an organism can be allocated to a specific trophic level. Omnivores, for example, are not restricted to any single level. Nonetheless, recent research has found that discrete trophic levels do exist, but "above the herbivore trophic level, food webs are better characterized as a tangled web of omnivores. ''
A central question in the trophic dynamic literature is the nature of control and regulation over resources and production. Ecologists use simplified one trophic position food chain models (producer, carnivore, decomposer). Using these models, ecologists have tested various types of ecological control mechanisms. For example, herbivores generally have an abundance of vegetative resources, which meant that their populations were largely controlled or regulated by predators. This is known as the top - down hypothesis or ' green - world ' hypothesis. Alternatively to the top - down hypothesis, not all plant material is edible and the nutritional quality or antiherbivore defenses of plants (structural and chemical) suggests a bottom - up form of regulation or control. Recent studies have concluded that both "top - down '' and "bottom - up '' forces can influence community structure and the strength of the influence is environmentally context dependent. These complex multitrophic interactions involve more than two trophic levels in a food web.
Another example of a multi-trophic interaction is a trophic cascade, in which predators help to increase plant growth and prevent overgrazing by suppressing herbivores. Links in a food - web illustrate direct trophic relations among species, but there are also indirect effects that can alter the abundance, distribution, or biomass in the trophic levels. For example, predators eating herbivores indirectly influence the control and regulation of primary production in plants. Although the predators do not eat the plants directly, they regulate the population of herbivores that are directly linked to plant trophism. The net effect of direct and indirect relations is called trophic cascades. Trophic cascades are separated into species - level cascades, where only a subset of the food - web dynamic is impacted by a change in population numbers, and community - level cascades, where a change in population numbers has a dramatic effect on the entire food - web, such as the distribution of plant biomass.
Food webs depict energy flow via trophic linkages. Energy flow is directional, which contrasts against the cyclic flows of material through the food web systems. Energy flow "typically includes production, consumption, assimilation, non-assimilation losses (feces), and respiration (maintenance costs). '' In a very general sense, energy flow (E) can be defined as the sum of metabolic production (P) and respiration (R), such that E = P + R.
Biomass represents stored energy. However, concentration and quality of nutrients and energy is variable. Many plant fibers, for example, are indigestible to many herbivores leaving grazer community food webs more nutrient limited than detrital food webs where bacteria are able to access and release the nutrient and energy stores. "Organisms usually extract energy in the form of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. These polymers have a dual role as supplies of energy as well as building blocks; the part that functions as energy supply results in the production of nutrients (and carbon dioxide, water, and heat). Excretion of nutrients is, therefore, basic to metabolism. '' The units in energy flow webs are typically a measure mass or energy per m per unit time. Different consumers are going to have different metabolic assimilation efficiencies in their diets. Each trophic level transforms energy into biomass. Energy flow diagrams illustrate the rates and efficiency of transfer from one trophic level into another and up through the hierarchy.
It is the case that the biomass of each trophic level decreases from the base of the chain to the top. This is because energy is lost to the environment with each transfer as entropy increases. About eighty to ninety percent of the energy is expended for the organism 's life processes or is lost as heat or waste. Only about ten to twenty percent of the organism 's energy is generally passed to the next organism. The amount can be less than one percent in animals consuming less digestible plants, and it can be as high as forty percent in zooplankton consuming phytoplankton. Graphic representations of the biomass or productivity at each tropic level are called ecological pyramids or trophic pyramids. The transfer of energy from primary producers to top consumers can also be characterized by energy flow diagrams.
A common metric used to quantify food web trophic structure is food chain length. Food chain length is another way of describing food webs as a measure of the number of species encountered as energy or nutrients move from the plants to top predators. There are different ways of calculating food chain length depending on what parameters of the food web dynamic are being considered: connectance, energy, or interaction. In its simplest form, the length of a chain is the number of links between a trophic consumer and the base of the web. The mean chain length of an entire web is the arithmetic average of the lengths of all chains in a food web.
In a simple predator - prey example, a deer is one step removed from the plants it eats (chain length = 1) and a wolf that eats the deer is two steps removed from the plants (chain length = 2). The relative amount or strength of influence that these parameters have on the food web address questions about:
In a pyramid of numbers, the number of consumers at each level decreases significantly, so that a single top consumer, (e.g., a polar bear or a human), will be supported by a much larger number of separate producers. There is usually a maximum of four or five links in a food chain, although food chains in aquatic ecosystems are more often longer than those on land. Eventually, all the energy in a food chain is dispersed as heat.
Ecological pyramids place the primary producers at the base. They can depict different numerical properties of ecosystems, including numbers of individuals per unit of area, biomass (g / m), and energy (k cal m yr). The emergent pyramidal arrangement of trophic levels with amounts of energy transfer decreasing as species become further removed from the source of production is one of several patterns that is repeated amongst the planets ecosystems. \ The size of each level in the pyramid generally represents biomass, which can be measured as the dry weight of an organism. Autotrophs may have the highest global proportion of biomass, but they are closely rivaled or surpassed by microbes.
Pyramid structure can vary across ecosystems and across time. In some instances biomass pyramids can be inverted. This pattern is often identified in aquatic and coral reef ecosystems. The pattern of biomass inversion is attributed to different sizes of producers. Aquatic communities are often dominated by producers that are smaller than the consumers that have high growth rates. Aquatic producers, such as planktonic algae or aquatic plants, lack the large accumulation of secondary growth as exists in the woody trees of terrestrial ecosystems. However, they are able to reproduce quickly enough to support a larger biomass of grazers. This inverts the pyramid. Primary consumers have longer lifespans and slower growth rates that accumulates more biomass than the producers they consume. Phytoplankton live just a few days, whereas the zooplankton eating the phytoplankton live for several weeks and the fish eating the zooplankton live for several consecutive years. Aquatic predators also tend to have a lower death rate than the smaller consumers, which contributes to the inverted pyramidal pattern. Population structure, migration rates, and environmental refuge for prey are other possible causes for pyramids with biomass inverted. Energy pyramids, however, will always have an upright pyramid shape if all sources of food energy are included and this is dictated by the second law of thermodynamics.
Many of the Earth 's elements and minerals (or mineral nutrients) are contained within the tissues and diets of organisms. Hence, mineral and nutrient cycles trace food web energy pathways. Ecologists employ stoichiometry to analyze the ratios of the main elements found in all organisms: carbon (C), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P). There is a large transitional difference between many terrestrial and aquatic systems as C:P and C: N ratios are much higher in terrestrial systems while N:P ratios are equal between the two systems. Mineral nutrients are the material resources that organisms need for growth, development, and vitality. Food webs depict the pathways of mineral nutrient cycling as they flow through organisms. Most of the primary production in an ecosystem is not consumed, but is recycled by detritus back into useful nutrients. Many of the Earth 's microorganisms are involved in the formation of minerals in a process called biomineralization. Bacteria that live in detrital sediments create and cycle nutrients and biominerals. Food web models and nutrient cycles have traditionally been treated separately, but there is a strong functional connection between the two in terms of stability, flux, sources, sinks, and recycling of mineral nutrients.
Food webs are necessarily aggregated and only illustrate a tiny portion of the complexity of real ecosystems. For example, the number of species on the planet are likely in the general order of 10, over 95 % of these species consist of microbes and invertebrates, and relatively few have been named or classified by taxonomists. It is explicitly understood that natural systems are ' sloppy ' and that food web trophic positions simplify the complexity of real systems that sometimes overemphasize many rare interactions. Most studies focus on the larger influences where the bulk of energy transfer occurs. "These omissions and problems are causes for concern, but on present evidence do not present insurmountable difficulties. ''
There are different kinds or categories of food webs:
Within these categories, food webs can be further organized according to the different kinds of ecosystems being investigated. For example, human food webs, agricultural food webs, detrital food webs, marine food webs, aquatic food webs, soil food webs, Arctic (or polar) food webs, terrestrial food webs, and microbial food webs. These characterizations stem from the ecosystem concept, which assumes that the phenomena under investigation (interactions and feedback loops) are sufficient to explain patterns within boundaries, such as the edge of a forest, an island, a shoreline, or some other pronounced physical characteristic.
In a detrital web, plant and animal matter is broken down by decomposers, e.g., bacteria and fungi, and moves to detritivores and then carnivores. There are often relationships between the detrital web and the grazing web. Mushrooms produced by decomposers in the detrital web become a food source for deer, squirrels, and mice in the grazing web. Earthworms eaten by robins are detritivores consuming decaying leaves.
"Detritus can be broadly defined as any form of non-living organic matter, including different types of plant tissue (e.g. leaf litter, dead wood, aquatic macrophytes, algae), animal tissue (carrion), dead microbes, faeces (manure, dung, faecal pellets, guano, frass), as well as products secreted, excreted or exuded from organisms (e.g. extra-cellular polymers, nectar, root exudates and leachates, dissolved organic matter, extra-cellular matrix, mucilage). The relative importance of these forms of detritus, in terms of origin, size and chemical composition, varies across ecosystems. ''
Ecologists collect data on trophic levels and food webs to statistically model and mathematically calculate parameters, such as those used in other kinds of network analysis (e.g., graph theory), to study emergent patterns and properties shared among ecosystems. There are different ecological dimensions that can be mapped to create more complicated food webs, including: species composition (type of species), richness (number of species), biomass (the dry weight of plants and animals), productivity (rates of conversion of energy and nutrients into growth), and stability (food webs over time). A food web diagram illustrating species composition shows how change in a single species can directly and indirectly influence many others. Microcosm studies are used to simplify food web research into semi-isolated units such as small springs, decaying logs, and laboratory experiments using organisms that reproduce quickly, such as daphnia feeding on algae grown under controlled environments in jars of water.
While the complexity of real food webs connections are difficult to decipher, ecologists have found mathematical models on networks an invaluable tool for gaining insight into the structure, stability, and laws of food web behaviours relative to observable outcomes. "Food web theory centers around the idea of connectance. '' Quantitative formulas simplify the complexity of food web structure. The number of trophic links (t), for example, is converted into a connectance value:
where, S (S - 1) / 2 is the maximum number of binary connections among S species. "Connectance (C) is the fraction of all possible links that are realized (L / S) and represents a standard measure of food web complexity... '' The distance (d) between every species pair in a web is averaged to compute the mean distance between all nodes in a web (D) and multiplied by the total number of links (L) to obtain link - density (LD), which is influenced by scale dependent variables such as species richness. These formulas are the basis for comparing and investigating the nature of non-random patterns in the structure of food web networks among many different types of ecosystems.
Scaling laws, complexity, choas, and patterned correlates are common features attributed to food web structure.
Food webs are complex. Complexity is a measure of an increasing number of permutations and it is also a metaphorical term that conveys the mental intractability or limits concerning unlimited algorithmic possibilities. In food web terminology, complexity is a product of the number of species and connectance. Connectance is "the fraction of all possible links that are realized in a network ''. These concepts were derived and stimulated through the suggestion that complexity leads to stability in food webs, such as increasing the number of trophic levels in more species rich ecosystems. This hypothesis was challenged through mathematical models suggesting otherwise, but subsequent studies have shown that the premise holds in real systems.
At different levels in the hierarchy of life, such as the stability of a food web, "the same overall structure is maintained in spite of an ongoing flow and change of components. '' The farther a living system (e.g., ecosystem) sways from equilibrium, the greater its complexity. Complexity has multiple meanings in the life sciences and in the public sphere that confuse its application as a precise term for analytical purposes in science. Complexity in the life sciences (or biocomplexity) is defined by the "properties emerging from the interplay of behavioral, biological, physical, and social interactions that affect, sustain, or are modified by living organisms, including humans ''.
Several concepts have emerged from the study of complexity in food webs. Complexity explains many principals pertaining to self - organization, non-linearity, interaction, cybernetic feedback, discontinuity, emergence, and stability in food webs. Nestedness, for example, is defined as "a pattern of interaction in which specialists interact with species that form perfect subsets of the species with which generalists interact '', "-- that is, the diet of the most specialized species is a subset of the diet of the next more generalized species, and its diet a subset of the next more generalized, and so on. '' Until recently, it was thought that food webs had little nested structure, but empirical evidence shows that many published webs have nested subwebs in their assembly.
Food webs are complex networks. As networks, they exhibit similar structural properties and mathematical laws that have been used to describe other complex systems, such as small world and scale free properties. The small world attribute refers to the many loosely connected nodes, non-random dense clustering of a few nodes (i.e., trophic or keystone species in ecology), and small path length compared to a regular lattice. "Ecological networks, especially mutualistic networks, are generally very heterogeneous, consisting of areas with sparse links among species and distinct areas of tightly linked species. These regions of high link density are often referred to as cliques, hubs, compartments, cohesive sub-groups, or modules... Within food webs, especially in aquatic systems, nestedness appears to be related to body size because the diets of smaller predators tend to be nested subsets of those of larger predators (Woodward & Warren 2007; YvonDurocher et al. 2008), and phylogenetic constraints, whereby related taxa are nested based on their common evolutionary history, are also evident (Cattin et al. 2004). '' "Compartments in food webs are subgroups of taxa in which many strong interactions occur within the subgroups and few weak interactions occur between the subgroups. Theoretically, compartments increase the stability in networks, such as food webs. ''
Food webs are also complex in the way that they change in scale, seasonally, and geographically. The components of food webs, including organisms and mineral nutrients, cross the thresholds of ecosystem boundaries. This has led to the concept or area of study known as cross-boundary subsidy. "This leads to anomalies, such as food web calculations determining that an ecosystem can support one half of a top carnivore, without specifying which end. '' Nonetheless, real differences in structure and function have been identified when comparing different kinds of ecological food webs, such as terrestrial vs. aquatic food webs.
Food webs serve as a framework to help ecologists organize the complex network of interactions among species observed in nature and around the world. One of the earliest descriptions of a food chain was described by a medieval Afro - Arab scholar named Al - Jahiz: "All animals, in short, can not exist without food, neither can the hunting animal escape being hunted in his turn. '' The earliest graphical depiction of a food web was by Lorenzo Camerano in 1880, followed independently by those of Pierce and colleagues in 1912 and Victor Shelford in 1913. Two food webs about herring were produced by Victor Summerhayes and Charles Elton and Alister Hardy in 1923 and 1924. Charles Elton subsequently pioneered the concept of food cycles, food chains, and food size in his classical 1927 book "Animal Ecology ''; Elton 's ' food cycle ' was replaced by ' food web ' in a subsequent ecological text. After Charles Elton 's use of food webs in his 1927 synthesis, they became a central concept in the field of ecology. Elton organized species into functional groups, which formed the basis for the trophic system of classification in Raymond Lindeman 's classic and landmark paper in 1942 on trophic dynamics. The notion of a food web has a historical foothold in the writings of Charles Darwin and his terminology, including an "entangled bank '', "web of life '', "web of complex relations '', and in reference to the decomposition actions of earthworms he talked about "the continued movement of the particles of earth ''. Even earlier, in 1768 John Bruckner described nature as "one continued web of life ''.
Interest in food webs increased after Robert Paine 's experimental and descriptive study of intertidal shores suggesting that food web complexity was key to maintaining species diversity and ecological stability. Many theoretical ecologists, including Sir Robert May and Stuart Pimm, were prompted by this discovery and others to examine the mathematical properties of food webs.
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bbc news quiz of the year part 2 | BBC - wikipedia
The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) is a British public service broadcaster. Its headquarters are at Broadcasting House in Westminster, London and it is the world 's oldest national broadcasting organisation and the largest broadcaster in the world by number of employees. It employs over 20,950 staff in total, 16,672 of whom are in public sector broadcasting. The total number of staff is 35,402 when part - time, flexible, and fixed - contract staff are included.
The BBC is established under a Royal Charter and operates under its Agreement with the Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport. Its work is funded principally by an annual television licence fee which is charged to all British households, companies, and organisations using any type of equipment to receive or record live television broadcasts and iPlayer catch - up. The fee is set by the British Government, agreed by Parliament, and used to fund the BBC 's radio, TV, and online services covering the nations and regions of the UK. Since 1 April 2014, it has also funded the BBC World Service (launched in 1932 as the BBC Empire Service), which broadcasts in 28 languages and provides comprehensive TV, radio, and online services in Arabic and Persian.
Around a quarter of BBC revenues come from its commercial arm BBC Worldwide Ltd, which sells BBC programmes and services internationally and also distributes the BBC 's international 24 - hour English - language news services BBC World News, and from BBC.com, provided by BBC Global News Ltd.
Britain 's first live public broadcast from the Marconi factory in Chelmsford took place in June 1920. It was sponsored by the Daily Mail 's Lord Northcliffe and featured the famous Australian soprano Dame Nellie Melba. The Melba broadcast caught the people 's imagination and marked a turning point in the British public 's attitude to radio. However, this public enthusiasm was not shared in official circles where such broadcasts were held to interfere with important military and civil communications. By late 1920, pressure from these quarters and uneasiness among the staff of the licensing authority, the General Post Office (GPO), was sufficient to lead to a ban on further Chelmsford broadcasts.
But by 1922, the GPO had received nearly 100 broadcast licence requests and moved to rescind its ban in the wake of a petition by 63 wireless societies with over 3,000 members. Anxious to avoid the same chaotic expansion experienced in the United States, the GPO proposed that it would issue a single broadcasting licence to a company jointly owned by a consortium of leading wireless receiver manufactures, to be known as the British Broadcasting Company Ltd. John Reith, a Scottish Calvinist, was appointed its General Manager in December 1922 a few weeks after the company made its first official broadcast. The company was to be financed by a royalty on the sale of BBC wireless receiving sets from approved manufacturers. To this day, the BBC aims to follow the Reithian directive to "inform, educate and entertain ''.
The financial arrangements soon proved inadequate. Set sales were disappointing as amateurs made their own receivers and listeners bought rival unlicensed sets. By mid-1923, discussions between the GPO and the BBC had become deadlocked and the Postmaster - General commissioned a review of broadcasting by the Sykes Committee. The Committee recommended a short term reorganisation of licence fees with improved enforcement in order to address the BBC 's immediate financial distress, and an increased share of the licence revenue split between it and the GPO. This was to be followed by a simple 10 shillings licence fee with no royalty once the wireless manufactures protection expired. The BBC 's broadcasting monopoly was made explicit for the duration of its current broadcast licence, as was the prohibition on advertising. The BBC was also banned from presenting news bulletins before 19.00 and was required to source all news from external wire services.
Mid-1925 found the future of broadcasting under further consideration, this time by the Crawford committee. By now the BBC under Reith 's leadership had forged a consensus favouring a continuation of the unified (monopoly) broadcasting service, but more money was still required to finance rapid expansion. Wireless manufacturers were anxious to exit the loss making consortium with Reith keen that the BBC be seen as a public service rather than a commercial enterprise. The recommendations of the Crawford Committee were published in March the following year and were still under consideration by the GPO when the 1926 general strike broke out in May. The strike temporarily interrupted newspaper production, and with restrictions on news bulletins waived, the BBC suddenly became the primary source of news for the duration of the crisis.
The crisis placed the BBC in a delicate position. On one hand Reith was acutely aware that the Government might exercise its right to commandeer the BBC at any time as a mouthpiece of the Government if the BBC were to step out of line, but on the other he was anxious to maintain public trust by appearing to be acting independently. The Government was divided on how to handle the BBC but ended up trusting Reith, whose opposition to the strike mirrored the PM 's own. Thus the BBC was granted sufficient leeway to pursue the Government 's objectives largely in a manner of its own choosing. The resulting coverage of both striker and government viewpoints impressed millions of listeners who were unaware that the PM had broadcast to the nation from Reith 's home, using one of Reith 's sound bites inserted at the last moment, or that the BBC had banned broadcasts from the Labour Party and delayed a peace appeal by the Archbishop of Canterbury. Supporters of the strike nicknamed the BBC the BFC for British Falsehood Company. Reith personally announced the end of the strike which he marked by reciting from Blake 's "Jerusalem '' signifying that England had been saved.
While the BBC tends to characterise its coverage of the general strike by emphasising the positive impression created by its balanced coverage of the views of government and strikers, Jean Seaton, Professor of Media History and the Official BBC Historian has characterised the episode as the invention of "modern propaganda in its British form ''. Reith argued that trust gained by ' authentic impartial news ' could then be used. Impartial news was not necessarily an end in itself.
The BBC did well out of the crisis, which cemented a national audience for its broadcasting, and it was followed by the Government 's acceptance of the recommendation made by the Crawford Committee (1925 -- 26) that the British Broadcasting Company be replaced by a non-commercial, Crown - chartered organisation: the British Broadcasting Corporation.
The British Broadcasting Corporation came into existence on 1 January 1927, and Reith -- newly knighted -- was appointed its first Director General. To represent its purpose and (stated) values, the new corporation adopted the coat of arms, including the motto "Nation shall speak peace unto Nation ''.
British radio audiences had little choice apart from the upscale programming of the BBC. Reith, an intensely moralistic executive, was in full charge. His goal was to broadcast "All that is best in every department of human knowledge, endeavour and achievement... The preservation of a high moral tone is obviously of paramount importance. '' Reith succeeded in building a high wall against an American - style free - for - all in radio in which the goal was to attract the largest audiences and thereby secure the greatest advertising revenue. There was no paid advertising on the BBC; all the revenue came from a tax on receiving sets. Highbrow audiences, however, greatly enjoyed it. At a time when American, Australian and Canadian stations were drawing huge audiences cheering for their local teams with the broadcast of baseball, rugby and hockey, the BBC emphasized service for a national, rather than a regional audience. Boat races were well covered along with tennis and horse racing, but the BBC was reluctant to spend its severely limited air time on long football or cricket games, regardless of their popularity.
The success of broadcasting provoked animosities between the BBC and well established media such as theatres, concert halls and the recording industry. By 1929, the BBC complained that the agents of many comedians refused to sign contracts for broadcasting, because they feared it harmed the artist "by making his material stale '' and that it "reduces the value of the artist as a visible music - hall performer ''. On the other hand, the BBC was "keenly interested '' in a cooperation with the recording companies who "in recent years... have not been slow to make records of singers, orchestras, dance bands, etc. who have already proved their power to achieve popularity by wireless. '' Radio plays were so popular that the BBC had received 6,000 manuscripts by 1929, most of them written for stage and of little value for broadcasting: "Day in and day out, manuscripts come in, and nearly all go out again through the post, with a note saying ' We regret, etc. ' '' In the 1930s music broadcasts also enjoyed great popularity, for example the friendly and wide - ranging organ broadcasts at St George 's Hall, Langham Place, by Reginald Foort, who held the official role of BBC Staff Theatre Organist from 1936 to 1938; Foort continued to work for the BBC as a freelance into the 1940s and enjoyed a nationwide following.
Experimental television broadcasts were started in 1930, using an electromechanical 30 - line system developed by John Logie Baird. Limited regular broadcasts using this system began in 1934, and an expanded service (now named the BBC Television Service) started from Alexandra Palace in 1936, alternating between an improved Baird mechanical 240 line system and the all electronic 405 line Marconi - EMI system. The superiority of the electronic system saw the mechanical system dropped early the following year.
Television broadcasting was suspended from 1 September 1939 to 7 June 1946, during the Second World War, and it was left to BBC Radio broadcasters such as Reginald Foort to keep the nation 's spirits up. The BBC moved much of its radio operations out of London, initially to Bristol, and then to Bedford. Concerts were broadcast from the Corn Exchange; the Trinity Chapel in St Paul 's Church, Bedford was the studio for the daily service from 1941 to 1945, and, in the darkest days of the war in 1941, the Archbishops of Canterbury and York came to St Paul 's to broadcast to the UK and all parts of the world on the National Day of Prayer. BBC employees during the war included George Orwell who spent two years with the broadcaster.
During his role as Prime Minister during the Second World War, Winston Churchill would deliver 33 major wartime speeches by radio, all of which were carried by the BBC within the UK. On 18 June 1940, French general Charles de Gaulle, in exile in London as the leader of the Free French, made a speech, broadcast by the BBC, urging the French people not to capitulate to the Nazis.
There was a widely reported urban myth that, upon resumption of the BBC television service after the war, announcer Leslie Mitchell started by saying, "As I was saying before we were so rudely interrupted... '' In fact, the first person to appear when transmission resumed was Jasmine Bligh and the words said were "Good afternoon, everybody. How are you? Do you remember me, Jasmine Bligh...? '' The European Broadcasting Union was formed on 12 February 1950, in Torquay with the BBC among the 23 founding broadcasting organisations.
Competition to the BBC was introduced in 1955, with the commercial and independently operated television network of ITV. However, the BBC monopoly on radio services would persist until 8 October 1973 when under the control of the newly renamed Independent Broadcasting Authority (IBA), the UK 's first Independent local radio station, LBC came on - air in the London area. As a result of the Pilkington Committee report of 1962, in which the BBC was praised for the quality and range of its output, and ITV was very heavily criticised for not providing enough quality programming, the decision was taken to award the BBC a second television channel, BBC2, in 1964, renaming the existing service BBC1. BBC2 used the higher resolution 625 line standard which had been standardised across Europe. BBC2 was broadcast in colour from 1 July 1967, and was joined by BBC1 and ITV on 15 November 1969. The 405 line VHF transmissions of BBC1 (and ITV) were continued for compatibility with older television receivers until 1985.
Starting in 1964, a series of pirate radio stations (starting with Radio Caroline) came on the air and forced the British government finally to regulate radio services to permit nationally based advertising - financed services. In response, the BBC reorganised and renamed their radio channels. On 30 September 1967, the Light Programme was split into Radio 1 offering continuous "Popular '' music and Radio 2 more "Easy Listening ''. The "Third '' programme became Radio 3 offering classical music and cultural programming. The Home Service became Radio 4 offering news, and non-musical content such as quiz shows, readings, dramas and plays. As well as the four national channels, a series of local BBC radio stations were established in 1967, including Radio London. In 1969, the BBC Enterprises department was formed to exploit BBC brands and programmes for commercial spin - off products. In 1979, it became a wholly owned limited company, BBC Enterprises Ltd.
In 1974, the BBC 's teletext service, Ceefax, was introduced, created initially to provide subtitling, but developed into a news and information service. In 1978, BBC staff went on strike just before the Christmas of that year, thus blocking out the transmission of both channels and amalgamating all four radio stations into one. Since the deregulation of the UK television and radio market in the 1980s, the BBC has faced increased competition from the commercial sector (and from the advertiser - funded public service broadcaster Channel 4), especially on satellite television, cable television, and digital television services. In the late 1980s, the BBC began a process of divestment by spinning off and selling parts of its organisation. In 1988, it sold off the Hulton Press Library, a photographic archive which had been acquired from the Picture Post magazine by the BBC in 1957. The archive was sold to Brian Deutsch and is now owned by Getty Images. During the 1990s, this process continued with the separation of certain operational arms of the corporation into autonomous but wholly owned subsidiaries of the BBC, with the aim of generating additional revenue for programme - making. BBC Enterprises was reorganised and relaunched in 1995, as BBC Worldwide Ltd. In 1998, BBC studios, outside broadcasts, post production, design, costumes and wigs were spun off into BBC Resources Ltd.
The BBC Research Department has played a major part in the development of broadcasting and recording techniques. The BBC was also responsible for the development of the NICAM stereo standard. In recent decades, a number of additional channels and radio stations have been launched: Radio 5 was launched in 1990, as a sports and educational station, but was replaced in 1994, with Radio 5 Live, following the success of the Radio 4 service to cover the 1991 Gulf War. The new station would be a news and sport station. In 1997, BBC News 24, a rolling news channel, launched on digital television services and the following year, BBC Choice launched as the third general entertainment channel from the BBC. The BBC also purchased The Parliamentary Channel, which was renamed BBC Parliament. In 1999, BBC Knowledge launched as a multi media channel, with services available on the newly launched BBC Text digital teletext service, and on BBC Online. The channel had an educational aim, which was modified later on in its life to offer documentaries.
In 2002, several television and radio channels were reorganised. BBC Knowledge was replaced by BBC Four and became the BBC 's arts and documentaries channel. CBBC, which had been a programming strand as Children 's BBC since 1985, was split into CBBC and CBeebies, for younger children, with both new services getting a digital channel: the CBBC Channel and CBeebies Channel. In addition to the television channels, new digital radio stations were created: 1Xtra, 6 Music and BBC7. BBC 1Xtra was a sister station to Radio 1 and specialised in modern black music, BBC 6 Music specialised in alternative music genres and BBC7 specialised in archive, speech and children 's programming.
The following few years resulted in repositioning of some of the channels to conform to a larger brand: in 2003, BBC Choice was replaced by BBC Three, with programming for younger generations and shocking real life documentaries, BBC News 24 became the BBC News Channel in 2008, and BBC Radio 7 became BBC Radio 4 Extra in 2011, with new programmes to supplement those broadcast on Radio 4. In 2008, another channel was launched, BBC Alba, a Scottish Gaelic service.
During this decade, the corporation began to sell off a number of its operational divisions to private owners; BBC Broadcast was spun off as a separate company in 2002, and in 2005. it was sold off to Australian - based Macquarie Capital Alliance Group and Macquarie Bank Limited and rebranded Red Bee Media. The BBC 's IT, telephony and broadcast technology were brought together as BBC Technology Ltd in 2001, and the division was later sold to the German company Siemens IT Solutions and Services (SIS). SIS was subsequently acquired from Siemens by the French company Atos. Further divestments included BBC Books (sold to Random House in 2006); BBC Outside Broadcasts Ltd (sold in 2008. to Satellite Information Services); Costumes and Wigs (stock sold in 2008 to Angels The Costumiers); and BBC Magazines (sold to Immediate Media Company in 2011). After the sales of OBs and costumes, the remainder of BBC Resources was reorganised as BBC Studios and Post Production, which continues today as a wholly owned subsidiary of the BBC.
The 2004 Hutton Inquiry and the subsequent Report raised questions about the BBC 's journalistic standards and its impartiality. This led to resignations of senior management members at the time including the then Director General, Greg Dyke. In January 2007, the BBC released minutes of the board meeting which led to Greg Dyke 's resignation.
Unlike the other departments of the BBC, the BBC World Service was funded by the Foreign and Commonwealth Office. The Foreign and Commonwealth Office, more commonly known as the Foreign Office or the FCO, is the British government department responsible for promoting the interests of the United Kingdom abroad.
In 2006, BBC HD launched as an experimental service, and became official in December 2007. The channel broadcast HD simulcasts of programmes on BBC One, BBC Two, BBC Three and BBC Four as well as repeats of some older programmes in HD. In 2010, an HD simulcast of BBC One launched: BBC One HD. The channel uses HD versions of BBC One 's schedule and uses upscaled versions of programmes not currently produced in HD. The BBC HD channel closed in March 2013 and was replaced by BBC2 HD in the same month.
On 18 October 2007, BBC Director General Mark Thompson announced a controversial plan to make major cuts and reduce the size of the BBC as an organisation. The plans included a reduction in posts of 2,500; including 1,800 redundancies, consolidating news operations, reducing programming output by 10 % and selling off the flagship Television Centre building in London. These plans have been fiercely opposed by unions, who have threatened a series of strikes; however, the BBC have stated that the cuts are essential to move the organisation forward and concentrate on increasing the quality of programming.
On 20 October 2010, the Chancellor of the Exchequer George Osborne announced that the television licence fee would be frozen at its current level until the end of the current charter in 2016. The same announcement revealed that the BBC would take on the full cost of running the BBC World Service and the BBC Monitoring service from the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, and partially finance the Welsh broadcaster S4C.
Further cuts were announced on 6 October 2011, so the BBC could reach a total reduction in their budget of 20 %, following the licence fee freeze in October 2010, which included cutting staff by 2,000 and sending a further 1,000 to the MediaCityUK development in Salford, with BBC Three moving online only in 2016, the sharing of more programmes between stations and channels, sharing of radio news bulletins, more repeats in schedules, including the whole of BBC Two daytime and for some original programming to be reduced. BBC HD was closed on 26 March 2013, and replaced with an HD simulcast of BBC Two; however, flagship programmes, other channels and full funding for CBBC and CBeebies would be retained. Numerous BBC facilities have been sold off, including New Broadcasting House on Oxford Road in Manchester. Many major departments have been relocated to Broadcasting House and MediaCityUK, particularly since the closure of BBC Television Centre in March 2013. On 16 February 2016, the BBC Three television service was discontinued and replaced by an digital outlet under the same name, targeting its young adult audience with web series and other content.
Under the new royal charter instituted 2017, the corporation must publish an annual report to Ofcom, outlining its plans and public service obligations for the next year. In its 2017 -- 18 report, released July 2017, the BBC announced plans to "re-invent '' its output to better compete against commercial streaming services such as Netflix. These plans included increasing the diversity of its content on television and radio, a major increase in investments towards digital children 's content, and plans to make larger investments in other nations of the United Kingdom besides England to "rise to the challenge of better reflecting and representing a changing UK ''
The BBC is a statutory corporation, independent from direct government intervention, with its activities being overseen from April 2017 by the BBC Board and regulated by Ofcom. The Chairman is Sir David Clementi.
The BBC operates under a Royal Charter. The current Charter came into effect on 1 January 2017 and runs until 31 December 2026. The 2017 charter abolished the BBC Trust and replaced it with external regulation by Ofcom, with governance by the BBC Board.
Under the Royal Charter, the BBC must obtain a licence from the Home Secretary. This licence is accompanied by an agreement which sets the terms and conditions under which the BBC is allowed to broadcast.
The BBC Board was formed in April 2017. It replaced the previous governing body, the BBC Trust, which in itself had replaced the Board of Governors in 2007. The Board sets the strategy for the corporation, assesses the performance of the BBC Executive Board in delivering the BBC 's services, and appoints the Director - General. Regulation of the BBC is now the responsibility of Ofcom. The Board consists of the following members.
The Executive Committee is responsible for the day - to - day operations of the broadcaster. Consisting of senior managers of the BBC, the Committee meets once per month and is responsible for operational management and delivery of services within a framework set by the Board, and is chaired by the Director - General, currently Tony Hall.
The Director - General is chief executive and (from 1994) editor - in - chief.
The Corporation has the following in - house divisions covering the BBC 's output and operations:
The BBC also operates a number of wholly owned commercial divisions:
The BBC has the second largest budget of any UK - based broadcaster with an operating expenditure of £ 4.722 billion in 2013 / 14 compared to £ 6.471 billion for British Sky Broadcasting in 2013 / 14 and £ 1.843 billion for ITV in the calendar year 2013.
The principal means of funding the BBC is through the television licence, costing £ 147 per year per household since April 2017. Such a licence is required to legally receive broadcast television across the UK, the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man. No licence is required to own a television used for other means, or for sound only radio sets (though a separate licence for these was also required for non-TV households until 1971). The cost of a television licence is set by the government and enforced by the criminal law. A discount is available for households with only black - and - white television sets. A 50 % discount is also offered to people who are registered blind or severely visually impaired, and the licence is completely free for any household containing anyone aged 75 or over. As a result of the UK Government 's recent spending review, an agreement has been reached between the government and the corporation in which the current licence fee will remain frozen at the current level until the Royal Charter is renewed at the beginning of 2017.
The BBC pursues its licence fee collection and enforcement under the trading name "TV Licensing ''. The revenue is collected privately by Capita, an outside agency, and is paid into the central government Consolidated Fund, a process defined in the Communications Act 2003. Funds are then allocated by the Department of Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS) and the Treasury and approved by Parliament via legislation. Additional revenues are paid by the Department for Work and Pensions to compensate for subsidised licences for eligible over-75 - year - olds.
The licence fee is classified as a tax, and its evasion is a criminal offence. Since 1991, collection and enforcement of the licence fee has been the responsibility of the BBC in its role as TV Licensing Authority. Thus, the BBC is a major prosecuting authority in England and Wales and an investigating authority in the UK as a whole. The BBC carries out surveillance (mostly using subcontractors) on properties (under the auspices of the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000) and may conduct searches of a property using a search warrant. According to the BBC, "more than 204,000 people in the UK were caught watching TV without a licence during the first six months of 2012. '' Licence fee evasion makes up around one tenth of all cases prosecuted in magistrates ' courts.
Income from commercial enterprises and from overseas sales of its catalogue of programmes has substantially increased over recent years, with BBC Worldwide contributing some £ 145 million to the BBC 's core public service business.
According to the BBC 's 2013 / 14 Annual Report, its total income was £ 5 billion (£ 5.066 billion), which can be broken down as follows:
The licence fee has, however, attracted criticism. It has been argued that in an age of multi stream, multi-channel availability, an obligation to pay a licence fee is no longer appropriate. The BBC 's use of private sector company Capita Group to send letters to premises not paying the licence fee has been criticised, especially as there have been cases where such letters have been sent to premises which are up to date with their payments, or do not require a TV licence.
The BBC uses advertising campaigns to inform customers of the requirement to pay the licence fee. Past campaigns have been criticised by Conservative MP Boris Johnson and former MP Ann Widdecombe for having a threatening nature and language used to scare evaders into paying. Audio clips and television broadcasts are used to inform listeners of the BBC 's comprehensive database. There are a number of pressure groups campaigning on the issue of the licence fee.
The majority of the BBC 's commercial output comes from its commercial arm BBC Worldwide who sell programmes abroad and exploit key brands for merchandise. Of their 2012 / 13 sales, 27 % were centred on the five key "superbrands '' of Doctor Who, Top Gear, Strictly Come Dancing (known as Dancing with the Stars internationally), the BBC 's archive of natural history programming (collected under the umbrella of BBC Earth) and the (now sold) travel guide brand Lonely Planet.
The following expenditure figures are from 2012 / 13 and show the expenditure of each service they are obliged to provide:
A significantly large portion of the BBC 's income is spent on the corporation 's Television and Radio services with each service having a different budget based upon their content.
Broadcasting House in Portland Place, London, is the official headquarters of the BBC. It is home to six of the ten BBC national radio networks, BBC Radio 1, BBC Radio 1xtra, BBC Asian Network, BBC Radio 3, BBC Radio 4, and BBC Radio 4 Extra. It is also the home of BBC News, which relocated to the building from BBC Television Centre in 2013. On the front of the building are statues of Prospero and Ariel, characters from William Shakespeare 's play The Tempest, sculpted by Eric Gill. Renovation of Broadcasting House began in 2002, and was completed in 2013.
Until it closed at the end of March 2013, BBC Television was based at BBC Television Centre, a purpose built television facility and the second built in the country located in White City, London. This facility has been host to a number of famous guests and programmes through the years, and its name and image is familiar with many British citizens. Nearby, the BBC White City complex contains numerous programme offices, housed in Centre House, the Media Centre and Broadcast Centre. It is in this area around Shepherd 's Bush that the majority of BBC employees work.
As part of a major reorganisation of BBC property, the entire BBC News operation relocated from the News Centre at BBC Television Centre to the refurbished Broadcasting House to create what is being described as "one of the world 's largest live broadcast centres ''. The BBC News Channel and BBC World News relocated to the premises in early 2013. Broadcasting House is now also home to most of the BBC 's national radio stations, and the BBC World Service. The major part of this plan involves the demolition of the two post-war extensions to the building and construction of an extension designed by Sir Richard MacCormac of MJP Architects. This move will concentrate the BBC 's London operations, allowing them to sell Television Centre, which is expected to be completed by 2016.
In addition to the scheme above, the BBC is in the process of making and producing more programmes outside London, involving production centres such as Belfast, Cardiff, Glasgow, Newcastle and, most notably, in Greater Manchester as part of the "BBC North Project '' scheme where several major departments, including BBC North West, BBC Manchester, BBC Sport, BBC Children 's, CBeebies, Radio 5 Live, BBC Radio 5 Live Sports Extra, BBC Breakfast, BBC Learning and the BBC Philharmonic have all moved from their previous locations in either London or New Broadcasting House, Manchester to the new 200 - acre (80ha) MediaCityUK production facilities in Salford, that form part of the large BBC North Group division and will therefore become the biggest staffing operation outside London.
As well as the two main sites in London (Broadcasting House and White City), there are seven other important BBC production centres in the UK, mainly specialising in different productions. Broadcasting House Cardiff, has been home to BBC Cymru Wales, which specialises in drama production. Open since October 2011, and containing 7 new studios, Roath Lock is notable as the home of productions such as Doctor Who and Casualty. Broadcasting House Belfast, home to BBC Northern Ireland, specialises in original drama and comedy, and has taken part in many co-productions with independent companies and notably with RTÉ in the Republic of Ireland. BBC Scotland, based in Pacific Quay, Glasgow is a large producer of programmes for the network, including several quiz shows. In England, the larger regions also produce some programming.
Previously, the largest hub of BBC programming from the regions is BBC North West. At present they produce all Religious and Ethical programmes on the BBC, as well as other programmes such as A Question of Sport. However, this is to be merged and expanded under the BBC North project, which involved the region moving from New Broadcasting House, Manchester, to MediaCityUK. BBC Midlands, based at The Mailbox in Birmingham, also produces drama and contains the headquarters for the English regions and the BBC 's daytime output. Other production centres include Broadcasting House Bristol, home of BBC West and famously the BBC Natural History Unit and to a lesser extent, Quarry Hill in Leeds, home of BBC Yorkshire. There are also many smaller local and regional studios throughout the UK, operating the BBC regional television services and the BBC Local Radio stations.
The BBC also operates several news gathering centres in various locations around the world, which provide news coverage of that region to the national and international news operations.
In 2004, the BBC contracted out its former BBC Technology division to the German engineering and electronics company Siemens IT Solutions and Services (SIS), outsourcing its IT, telephony and broadcast technology systems. When Atos Origin acquired the SIS division from Siemens in December 2010 for € 850 million (£ 720m), the BBC support contract also passed to Atos, and in July 2011, the BBC announced to staff that its technology support would become an Atos service. Siemens staff working on the BBC contract were transferred to Atos and BBC technology systems (including the BBC website) are now managed by Atos. In 2011, the BBC 's Chief Financial Officer Zarin Patel stated to the House of Commons Public Accounts Committee that, following criticism of the BBC 's management of major IT projects with Siemens (such as the Digital Media Initiative), the BBC partnership with Atos would be instrumental in achieving cost savings of around £ 64 million as part of the BBC 's "Delivering Quality First '' programme. In 2012, the BBC 's Chief Technology Officer, John Linwood, expressed confidence in service improvements to the BBC 's technology provision brought about by Atos. He also stated that supplier accountability had been strengthened following some high - profile technology failures which had taken place during the partnership with Siemens.
The BBC operates several television channels in the UK. BBC One and BBC Two are the flagship television channels; others are BBC Four, BBC News, BBC Parliament, and two children 's channels, CBBC and CBeebies. Digital television is now entrenched in the UK, with analogue transmission completely phased out as of December 2012. It also operates the internet television service BBC Three, which ceased broadcasting as a linear television channel in February 2016.
BBC One is a regionalised TV service which provides opt - outs throughout the day for local news and other local programming. These variations are more pronounced in the BBC "Nations '', i.e. Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales, where the presentation is mostly carried out locally on BBC One and Two, and where programme schedules can vary greatly from that of the network. BBC Two variations exist in the Nations; however, English regions today rarely have the option to opt out as regional programming now only exists on BBC One. BBC Two was also the first channel to be transmitted on 625 lines in 1964, then carry a small - scale regular colour service from 1967. BBC One would follow in November 1969.
A new Scottish Gaelic television channel, BBC Alba, was launched in September 2008. It is also the first multi-genre channel to come entirely from Scotland with almost all of its programmes made in Scotland. The service was initially only available via satellite but since June 2011 has been available to viewers in Scotland on Freeview and cable television.
The BBC currently operates HD simulcasts of all its nationwide channels with the exception of BBC Parliament. Until 26 March 2013, a separate channel called BBC HD was available, in place of BBC Two HD. It launched on 9 June 2006, following a 12 - month trial of the broadcasts. It became a proper channel in 2007, and screened HD programmes as simulcasts of the main network, or as repeats. The corporation has been producing programmes in the format for many years, and stated that it hoped to produce 100 % of new programmes in HDTV by 2010. On 3 November 2010, a high - definition simulcast of BBC One was launched, entitled BBC One HD, and BBC Two HD launched on 26 March 2013, replacing BBC HD.
In the Republic of Ireland, Belgium, the Netherlands and Switzerland, the BBC channels are available in a number of ways. In these countries digital and cable operators carry a range of BBC channels. These include BBC One, BBC Two and BBC World News, although viewers in the Republic of Ireland may receive BBC services via overspill from transmitters in Northern Ireland or Wales, or via "deflectors '' -- transmitters in the Republic which rebroadcast broadcasts from the UK, received off - air, or from digital satellite.
Since 1975, the BBC has also provided its TV programmes to the British Forces Broadcasting Service (BFBS), allowing members of UK military serving abroad to watch them on four dedicated TV channels. From 27 March 2013, BFBS will carry versions of BBC One and BBC Two, which will include children 's programming from CBBC, as well as carrying programming from BBC Three on a new channel called BFBS Extra.
Since 2008, all the BBC channels are available to watch online through the BBC iPlayer service. This online streaming ability came about following experiments with live streaming, involving streaming certain channels in the UK.
In February 2014, Director - General Tony Hall announced that the corporation needed to save £ 100 million. In March 2014, the BBC confirmed plans for BBC Three to become an internet - only channel.
In December 2012, the BBC completed a digitisation exercise, scanning the listings of all BBC programmes from an entire run of about 4,500 copies of the Radio Times magazine from the first, 1923, issue to 2009 (later listings already being held electronically), the "BBC Genome project '', with a view to creating an online database of its programme output. An earlier ten months of listings are to be obtained from other sources. They identified around five million programmes, involving 8.5 million actors, presenters, writers and technical staff. The Genome project was opened to public access on 15 October 2014, with corrections to OCR errors and changes to advertised schedules being crowdsourced.
The BBC has ten radio stations serving the whole of the UK, a further six stations in the "national regions '' (Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland), and 40 other local stations serving defined areas of England. Of the ten national stations, five are major stations and are available on FM and / or AM as well as on DAB and online. These are BBC Radio 1, offering new music and popular styles and being notable for its chart show; BBC Radio 2, playing Adult contemporary, country and soul music amongst many other genres; BBC Radio 3, presenting classical and jazz music together with some spoken - word programming of a cultural nature in the evenings; BBC Radio 4, focusing on current affairs, factual and other speech - based programming, including drama and comedy; and BBC Radio 5 Live, broadcasting 24 - hour news, sport and talk programmes.
In addition to these five stations, the BBC also runs a further five stations that broadcast on DAB and online only. These stations supplement and expand on the big five stations, and were launched in 2002. BBC Radio 1Xtra sisters Radio 1, and broadcasts new black music and urban tracks. BBC Radio 5 Live Sports Extra sisters 5 Live and offers extra sport analysis, including broadcasting sports that previously were not covered. BBC Radio 6 Music offers alternative music genres and is notable as a platform for new artists.
BBC Radio 7, later renamed BBC Radio 4 Extra, provided archive drama, comedy and children 's programming. Following the change to Radio 4 Extra, the service has dropped a defined children 's strand in favour of family - friendly drama and comedy. In addition, new programmes to complement Radio 4 programmes were introduced such as Ambridge Extra, and Desert Island Discs revisited. The final station is the BBC Asian Network, providing music, talk and news to this section of the community. This station evolved out of Local radio stations serving certain areas, and as such this station is available on Medium Wave frequency in some areas of the Midlands.
As well as the national stations, the BBC also provides 40 BBC Local Radio stations in England and the Channel Islands, each named for and covering a particular city and its surrounding area (e.g. BBC Radio Bristol), county or region (e.g. BBC Three Counties Radio), or geographical area (e.g. BBC Radio Solent covering the central south coast). A further six stations broadcast in what the BBC terms "the national regions '': Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland. These are BBC Radio Wales (in English), BBC Radio Cymru (in Welsh), BBC Radio Scotland (in English), BBC Radio nan Gaidheal (in Scottish Gaelic), BBC Radio Ulster, and BBC Radio Foyle, the latter being an opt - out station from Radio Ulster for the north - west of Northern Ireland.
The BBC 's UK national channels are also broadcast in the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man (although these Crown dependencies are outside the UK), and in the former there are two local stations -- BBC Guernsey and BBC Radio Jersey. There is no BBC local radio station, however, in the Isle of Man, partly because the island has long been served by the popular independent commercial station, Manx Radio, which predates the existence of BBC Local Radio. BBC services in the dependencies are financed from television licence fees which are set at the same level as those payable in the UK, although collected locally. This is the subject of some controversy in the Isle of Man since, as well as having no BBC Local Radio service, the island also lacks a local television news service analogous to that provided by BBC Channel Islands.
For a worldwide audience, the BBC World Service provides news, current affairs and information in 28 languages, including English, around the world and is available in over 150 capital cities. It is broadcast worldwide on shortwave radio, DAB and online and has an estimated weekly audience of 192 million, and its websites have an audience of 38 million people per week. Since 2005, it is also available on DAB in the UK, a step not taken before, due to the way it is funded. The service is funded by a Parliamentary Grant - in - Aid, administered by the Foreign Office; however, following the Government 's spending review in 2011, this funding will cease, and it will be funded for the first time through the Licence fee. In recent years, some services of the World Service have been reduced; the Thai service ended in 2006, as did the Eastern European languages, with resources diverted instead into the new BBC Arabic Television.
Historically, the BBC was the only legal radio broadcaster based in the UK mainland until 1967, when University Radio York (URY), then under the name Radio York, was launched as the first, and now oldest, legal independent radio station in the country. However, the BBC did not enjoy a complete monopoly before this as several Continental stations, such as Radio Luxembourg, had broadcast programmes in English to Britain since the 1930s and the Isle of Man - based Manx Radio began in 1964. Today, despite the advent of commercial radio, BBC radio stations remain among the most listened to in the country, with Radio 2 having the largest audience share (up to 16.8 % in 2011 -- 12) and Radios 1 and 4 ranked second and third in terms of weekly reach.
BBC programming is also available to other services and in other countries. Since 1943, the BBC has provided radio programming to the British Forces Broadcasting Service, which broadcasts in countries where British troops are stationed. BBC Radio 1 is also carried in the United States and Canada on Sirius XM Radio (online streaming only).
The BBC is a patron of The Radio Academy.
BBC News is the largest broadcast news gathering operation in the world, providing services to BBC domestic radio as well as television networks such as the BBC News, BBC Parliament and BBC World News. In addition to this, news stories are available on the BBC Red Button service and BBC News Online. In addition to this, the BBC has been developing new ways to access BBC News, as a result has launched the service on BBC Mobile, making it accessible to mobile phones and PDAs, as well as developing alerts by e-mail, digital television, and on computers through a desktop alert.
Ratings figures suggest that during major incidents such as the 7 July 2005 London bombings or royal events, the UK audience overwhelmingly turns to the BBC 's coverage as opposed to its commercial rivals. On 7 July 2005, the day that there were a series of coordinated bomb blasts on London 's public transport system, the BBC Online website recorded an all time bandwidth peak of 11 Gb / s at 12.00 on 7 July. BBC News received some 1 billion total hits on the day of the event (including all images, text and HTML), serving some 5.5 terabytes of data. At peak times during the day there were 40,000 page requests per second for the BBC News website. The previous day 's announcement of the 2012 Olympics being awarded to London caused a peak of around 5 Gbit / s. The previous all - time high at BBC Online was caused by the announcement of the Michael Jackson verdict, which used 7.2 Gbit / s.
The BBC 's online presence includes a comprehensive news website and archive. It was launched as BBC Online, before being renamed BBCi, then bbc.co.uk, before it was rebranded back as BBC Online. The website is funded by the Licence fee, but uses GeoIP technology, allowing advertisements to be carried on the site when viewed outside of the UK. The BBC claims the site to be "Europe 's most popular content - based site '' and states that 13.2 million people in the UK visit the site 's more than two million pages each day. According to Alexa 's TrafficRank system, in July 2008 BBC Online was the 27th most popular English Language website in the world, and the 46th most popular overall.
The centre of the website is the Homepage, which features a modular layout. Users can choose which modules, and which information, is displayed on their homepage, allowing the user to customise it. This system was first launched in December 2007, becoming permanent in February 2008, and has undergone a few aesthetical changes since then. The Homepage then has links to other micro-sites, such as BBC News Online, Sport, Weather, TV and Radio. As part of the site, every programme on BBC Television or Radio is given its own page, with bigger programmes getting their own micro-site, and as a result it is often common for viewers and listeners to be told website addresses (URLs) for the programme website.
Another large part of the site also allows users to watch and listen to most Television and Radio output live and for seven days after broadcast using the BBC iPlayer platform, which launched on 27 July 2007, and initially used peer - to - peer and DRM technology to deliver both radio and TV content of the last seven days for offline use for up to 30 days, since then video is now streamed directly. Also, through participation in the Creative Archive Licence group, bbc.co.uk allowed legal downloads of selected archive material via the internet.
The BBC has often included learning as part of its online service, running services such as BBC Jam, Learning Zone Class Clips and also runs services such as BBC WebWise and First Click which are designed to teach people how to use the internet. BBC Jam was a free online service, delivered through broadband and narrowband connections, providing high - quality interactive resources designed to stimulate learning at home and at school. Initial content was made available in January 2006; however, BBC Jam was suspended on 20 March 2007 due to allegations made to the European Commission that it was damaging the interests of the commercial sector of the industry.
In recent years, some major on - line companies and politicians have complained that BBC Online receives too much funding from the television licence, meaning that other websites are unable to compete with the vast amount of advertising - free on - line content available on BBC Online. Some have proposed that the amount of licence fee money spent on BBC Online should be reduced -- either being replaced with funding from advertisements or subscriptions, or a reduction in the amount of content available on the site. In response to this the BBC carried out an investigation, and has now set in motion a plan to change the way it provides its online services. BBC Online will now attempt to fill in gaps in the market, and will guide users to other websites for currently existing market provision. (For example, instead of providing local events information and timetables, users will be guided to outside websites already providing that information.) Part of this plan included the BBC closing some of its websites, and rediverting money to redevelop other parts.
On 26 February 2010, The Times claimed that Mark Thompson, Director General of the BBC, proposed that the BBC 's web output should be cut by 50 %, with online staff numbers and budgets reduced by 25 % in a bid to scale back BBC operations and allow commercial rivals more room. On 2 March 2010, the BBC reported that it will cut its website spending by 25 % and close BBC 6 Music and Asian Network, as part of Mark Thompson 's plans to make "a smaller, fitter BBC for the digital age ''.
BBC Red Button is the brand name for the BBC 's interactive digital television services, which are available through Freeview (digital terrestrial), as well as Freesat, Sky (satellite), and Virgin Media (cable). Unlike Ceefax, the service 's analogue counterpart, BBC Red Button is able to display full - colour graphics, photographs, and video, as well as programmes and can be accessed from any BBC channel. The service carries News, Weather and Sport 24 hours a day, but also provides extra features related to programmes specific at that time. Examples include viewers to play along at home to gameshows, to give, voice and vote on opinions to issues, as used alongside programmes such as Question Time. At some points in the year, when multiple sporting events occur, some coverage of less mainstream sports or games are frequently placed on the Red Button for viewers to watch. Frequently, other features are added unrelated to programmes being broadcast at that time, such as the broadcast of the Doctor Who animated episode Dreamland in November 2009.
The BBC employs staff orchestras, a choir, and supports two amateur choruses, based in BBC venues across the UK; the BBC Symphony Orchestra, the BBC Singers, BBC Symphony Chorus and BBC Big Band based in London, the BBC Scottish Symphony Orchestra in Glasgow, the BBC Philharmonic in Manchester, the BBC Concert Orchestra based in Watford and the BBC National Orchestra of Wales in Cardiff. It also buys a selected number of broadcasts from the Ulster Orchestra in Belfast. Many famous musicians of every genre have played at the BBC, such as The Beatles (The Beatles Live at the BBC is one of their many albums). The BBC is also responsible for the United Kingdom coverage of the Eurovision Song Contest, a show with which the broadcaster has been associated for over 60 years. The BBC also operates the division of BBC Audiobooks sometimes found in association with Chivers Audiobooks.
The BBC operates other ventures in addition to their broadcasting arm. In addition to broadcasting output on television and radio, some programmes are also displayed on the BBC Big Screens located in several central - city locations. The BBC and the Foreign and Commonwealth Office also jointly run BBC Monitoring, which monitors radio, television, the press and the internet worldwide. The BBC also developed several computers throughout the 1980s, most notably the BBC Micro, which ran alongside the corporation 's educational aims and programming.
In 1951, in conjunction with Oxford University Press the BBC published The BBC Hymn Book which was intended to be used by radio listeners to follow hymns being broadcast. The book was published both with and without music, the music edition being entitled The BBC Hymn Book with Music. The book contained 542 popular hymns.
The BBC provided the world 's first teletext service called Ceefax (near - homonymous with "See Facts '') on 23 September 1974 until 23 October 2012 on the BBC 1 analogue channel then later on BBC 2. It showed informational pages such as News, Sport and the Weather. on New Year 's Eve in 1974, competition from ITV 's Oracle tried to compete with Ceefax. Oracle closed on New Year 's Eve, 1992. During its lifetime it attracted millions of viewers, right up to 2012, prior to the digital switchover in the United Kingdom. It ceased transmission at 23: 32: 19 BST on 23 October 2012 after 38 years. Since then, the BBC 's Red Button Service has provided a digital - like information system that replaced Ceefax.
In 2016 the BBC, in partnership with fellow UK Broadcasters ITV and Channel 4 (who later withdrew from the project), set up ' project kangaroo ' to develop an international online streaming service to rival services such as Netflix and Hulu. During the development stages ' Britflix ' was touted as a potential name. However, the service eventually launched as BritBox in March 2017. The online platform shows a catalogue of classic BBC and ITV shows, as well as making a number of programmes available shortly after their UK broadcast. As of 2017, BritBox is available in the United States with the potential availability for new markets in the future.
BBC Worldwide Limited is the wholly owned commercial subsidiary of the BBC, responsible for the commercial exploitation of BBC programmes and other properties, including a number of television stations throughout the world. It was formed following the restructuring of its predecessor, BBC Enterprises, in 1995.
The company owns and administers a number of commercial stations around the world operating in a number of territories and on a number of different platforms. The channel BBC Entertainment shows current and archive entertainment programming to viewers in Europe, Africa, Asia and the Middle East, with the BBC Worldwide channels BBC America and BBC Canada (Joint venture with Corus Entertainment) showing similar programming in the North America region and BBC UKTV in the Australasia region. The company also airs two channels aimed at children, an international CBeebies channel and BBC Kids, a joint venture with Knowledge Network Corporation, which airs programmes under the CBeebies and BBC K brands. The company also runs the channels BBC Knowledge, broadcasting factual and learning programmes, and BBC Lifestyle, broadcasting programmes based on themes of Food, Style and Wellbeing. In addition to this, BBC Worldwide runs an international version of the channel BBC HD, and provides HD simulcasts of the channels BBC Knowledge and BBC America.
BBC Worldwide also distributes the 24 - hour international news channel BBC World News. The station is separate from BBC Worldwide to maintain the station 's neutral point of view, but is distributed by BBC Worldwide. The channel itself is the oldest surviving entity of its kind, and has 50 foreign news bureaus and correspondents in nearly all countries in the world. As officially surveyed it is available to more than 294 million households, significantly more than CNN 's estimated 200 million. In addition to these international channels, BBC Worldwide also owns, together with Scripps Networks Interactive, the UKTV network of ten channels. These channels contain BBC archive programming to be rebroadcast on their respective channels: Alibi, crime dramas; Drama, drama, launched in 2013; Dave (slogan: "The Home of Witty Banter ''); Eden, nature; Gold, comedy; Good Food, cookery; Home, home and garden; Really, female programming; Watch, entertainment; and Yesterday, history programming.
In addition to these channels, many BBC programmes are sold via BBC Worldwide to foreign television stations with comedy, documentaries and historical drama productions being the most popular. In addition, BBC television news appears nightly on many Public Broadcasting Service stations in the United States, as do reruns of BBC programmes such as EastEnders, and in New Zealand on TVNZ 1.
In addition to programming, BBC Worldwide produces material to accompany programmes. The company maintained the publishing arm of the BBC, BBC Magazines, which published the Radio Times as well as a number of magazines that support BBC programming such as BBC Top Gear, BBC Good Food, BBC Sky at Night, BBC History, BBC Wildlife and BBC Music. BBC Magazines was sold to Exponent Private Equity in 2011, which merged it with Origin Publishing (previously owned by BBC Worldwide between 2004 and 2006) to form Immediate Media Company.
BBC Worldwide also publishes books, to accompany programmes such as Doctor Who under the BBC Books brand, a publishing imprint majority owned by Random House. Soundtrack albums, talking books and sections of radio broadcasts are also sold under the brand BBC Records, with DVDs also being sold and licensed in large quantities to consumers both in the UK and abroad under the 2 Entertain brand. Archive programming and classical music recordings are sold under the brand BBC Legends.
Until the development, popularisation, and domination of television, radio was the broadcast medium upon which people in the United Kingdom relied. It "reached into every home in the land, and simultaneously united the nation, an important factor during the Second World War ''. The BBC introduced the world 's first "high - definition '' 405 - line television service in 1936. It suspended its television service during the Second World War and until 1946, but remained the only television broadcaster in the UK until 1955, when Independent Television (ITV) began operating. This heralded the transformation of television into a popular and dominant medium. Nevertheless, "throughout the 1950s radio still remained the dominant source of broadcast comedy ''. Further, the BBC was the only legal radio broadcaster until 1968 (when URY obtained their first licence).
Despite the advent of commercial television and radio, the BBC has remained one of the main elements in British popular culture through its obligation to produce TV and radio programmes for mass audiences. However, the arrival of BBC2 allowed the BBC also to make programmes for minority interests in drama, documentaries, current affairs, entertainment, and sport. Examples cited include the television series Civilisation, Doctor Who, I, Claudius, Monty Python 's Flying Circus, Pot Black, and Tonight, but other examples can be given in each of these fields as shown by the BBC 's entries in the British Film Institute 's 2000 list of the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes. The export of BBC programmes both through services like the BBC World Service and BBC World News, as well as through the channels operated by BBC Worldwide, means that audiences can consume BBC productions worldwide.
The term "BBC English '' was used as an alternative name for Received Pronunciation, and the English Pronouncing Dictionary uses the term "BBC Pronunciation '' to label its recommendations. However, the BBC itself now makes more use of regional accents in order to reflect the diversity of the UK, while continuing to expect clarity and fluency of its presenters. From its "starchy '' beginnings, the BBC has also become more inclusive, and now attempts to accommodate the interests of all strata of society and all minorities, because they all pay the licence fee.
Competition from Independent Television, Channel 4, Sky, and other broadcast - television stations has lessened the BBC 's influence, but its public broadcasting remains a major influence on British popular culture.
Older domestic UK audiences often refer to the BBC as "the Beeb '', a nickname originally coined by Peter Sellers on The Goon Show in the 1950s, when he referred to the "Beeb Beeb Ceeb ''. It was then borrowed, shortened and popularised by Kenny Everett. Another nickname, now less commonly used, is "Auntie '', said to originate from the old - fashioned "Auntie knows best '' attitude, or the idea of aunties and uncles who are present in the background of one 's life (but possibly a reference to the "aunties '' and "uncles '' who presented children 's programmes in the early days) in the days when John Reith, the BBC 's first director general, was in charge. The two nicknames have also been used together as "Auntie Beeb ''.
The BBC has faced various accusations regarding many topics: the Iraq war, politics, ethics and religion, as well as funding and staffing. It also has been involved in numerous controversies because of its different, sometimes controversial coverage of specific news stories and programming. In October 2014, the BBC Trust issued the "BBC complaints framework '', outlining complaints and appeals procedures. However, the regulatory oversight of the BBC may be transferred to OFCOM. The British "House of Commons Select Committee on Culture Media and Sport '' recommended in its report "The Future of the BBC '', that OFCOM should become the final arbiter of complaints made about the BBC.
Accusations of a bias against the government and the Conservative Party were often made against the Corporation by members of Margaret Thatcher 's 1980s Conservative government. BBC has long faced accusations of liberal and leftwing bias, presenter Andrew Marr has said that "The BBC is not impartial or neutral. It has a liberal bias, not so much a party - political bias. It is better expressed as a cultural liberal bias '', while former BBC director Roger Mosey classified it as "liberal defensive. '' Conversely, the BBC has been criticised by The Guardian columnist, Owen Jones, who has said that "the truth is the BBC is stacked full of rightwingers. '' Paul Mason, the former Economics Editor of the BBC 's Newsnight programme, has also criticised the BBC as "unionist '' in relation to the BBC 's coverage of the 2014 Scottish referendum campaign and "neo-liberal ''. However, Peter Sissons, a main news presenter at the BBC from 1989 -- 2009, who from 1964 -- 1989 worked as a journalist and then senior presenter at ITN, latterly at Channel 4 News, says "At the core of the BBC, in its very DNA, is a way of thinking that is firmly of the Left ''. The BBC has also been characterised as a pro-monarchist institution. The BBC was also accused of propaganda by journalist and author Toby Young, due to what he believed to be an anti-Brexit approach including a whole day of live programming on migration.
The BBC World Service was involved in the Kyrgyz revolution in April 2010. One of the news presenters and a producer of the BBC World Service language, was revealed to have participated in the opposition movement at the time, with the goal to overthrow the Kyrgyzstan government led by president Kurmanbek Bakiyev using BBC resources. The BBC producer resigned from his post in 2010 once the news of his participation in the revolution became public. The BBC World Service neither confirmed nor denied this story, nor did the service issue a statement about this story.
BBC 's first three - box logo used from 1958 until 1963
BBC 's second three - box logo used from 1963 until 1971
BBC 's third three - box logo used from 1971 until 1991
BBC 's fourth three - box logo used from 1988 until 1997
BBC 's fifth and current three - box logo used since 1997.
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who is the new girl on the young and restless | Melissa Ordway - wikipedia
Melissa Pam Ordway Gaston (born March 31, 1983) is an American actress and model. She has modeled in many campaigns and acted in such films as 17 Again and on television in Privileged. She currently portrays the character of Abby Newman on the drama series The Young and the Restless.
Ordway was born in Atlanta, Georgia, an only child, to John and Christine Ordway. She began doing community theatre in Atlanta and also acting in theatre productions at her high school in Snellville, Georgia. She starred in the stage performances of Beauty and the Beast, The Women, A Midsummer Night 's Dream, and many other shows. After graduating from high school, Ordway attended Georgia State University and is a member of the Delta Zeta sorority. While at Georgia State, Melissa was chosen to participate in a reality show on MTV called The Assistant. She won the show and moved to Los Angeles to pursue a career in acting and modeling.
On September 22, 2012 she married Justin Gaston, whom she met during the filming of Escapee. In 2016, Gaston and Ordway adopted their first child, a daughter named Olivia. Ordway gave birth to their second daughter, Sophie Jolie, on December 9, 2017.
She moved to Los Angeles and signed with Nous Model Management. She started booking national campaigns and magazine covers almost immediately. Melissa 's first big campaign was for Skechers. Within a year Ordway had modeled for Old Navy, Fabrizio Gianni, David 's Bridal, Anchor Blue and Tillys; she had also appeared on the cover Los Angeles Weddings Magazine, Grand Sierra Magazine and Hona Hou Magazine. She appeared on The Price is Right as a fill - in model the week of October 7, 2015.
Melissa Ordway 's first major acting part was the recurring roles of Jordanna on The CW television series Privileged. Ordway 's feature film debut was in 17 Again. She has guest starred on such television shows as Entourage and How I Met Your Mother, as well as starring in several independent films including Callers, Tales of an Ancient Empire and I Heart Veronica Martin. In 2010, Ordway appeared in the film The Last Song as Ashley and guest starred on Melrose Place as Morgan McKellan. She starred in the fantasy thriller film Tales of an Ancient Empire. In 2011, she co-starred in Escapee and appeared in Ted directed by Seth MacFarlane.
She was cast in the main role of Chloe Carter on the TeenNick series Hollywood Heights in 2012. In March 2013, Ordway was cast in the role of Abby Newman on the CBS soap opera The Young and the Restless, replacing previous actress Marcy Rylan.
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who won xfactor the year olly murs was in it | List of the X Factor finalists (UK series 6) - wikipedia
The sixth UK series of The X Factor was broadcast on ITV. It began airing on 22 August 2009 and finished with a grand finale on 13 December 2009. Each category was mentored by one of the show 's four judges: Simon Cowell, Dannii Minogue, Louis Walsh and Cheryl Cole. Cowell mentored the Over 25s, Minogue was looking after the Girls, Walsh had the Groups and Cole mentored the Boys. In the final, Joe McElderry was declared the winner, Olly Murs was the runner - up and Stacey Solomon finished in third place.
Lloyd Michael Daniels, (born 14 December 1992), was the youngest act in the X Factor of 2009. He is from Treharris, in Merthyr Tydfil, Wales. In his first audition, Cheryl Cole described him as "the first person I 'm going to say you 've got the X Factor to. '' He was placed in the bottom two after the rock - themed week, but the public vote saved him at the expense of Rachel Adedeji. He was in the bottom two again in week 6 but was saved when the vote went to deadlock and Jamie Archer was sent home. On 29 November, Daniels was eliminated from the competition, finishing in fifth place. On 7 December 2009, he performed a homecoming concert outside the St David 's Centre in Cardiff, and toured with the X Factor live tour. Since then, Lloyd has regularly sung a gigs across the country and performed in many pantomimes and a touring naked comedy alongside big brother star nikki graham called ' Up4aMeet '. Daniels has been a part of many shoots, including Gay Times magazine, and Coitus. His EP ' Suburbian Girl ' was released in December 2011 making it into the top 40 iTunes chart. In November 2014 Daniels performed the leading role of Joseph in the UK tour of Joseph & the Amazing Technicolor Dream coat, his first stage musical role.
Rikki Loney (born 30 September 1987) is from Glasgow. He auditioned in 2008 but was rejected on day two of bootcamp, narrowly missing out on a spot at the Judges ' Homes round. He re-auditioned in 2009 without telling his parents. Loney was in the bottom two in the second week along with Rachel Adedeji (17 / 18 October 2009) after he sang "Respect ''. The judges voted to eliminate him after his rendition of "Flying Without Wings '', with only his mentor voting to save him. Walsh was absent but confirmed on the Xtra Factor that he would have eliminated him.
Loney is currently a member of G * Mania.
Joseph "Joe '' McElderry (born 16 June 1991) is from South Shields, Tyne & Wear and is a student at Newcastle College. He started singing when he was 14. He took the role of Danny in Grease, performed at Harton Technology College. He auditioned for The X Factor in 2007, but felt too young compared to the other contestants and opted to walk away. He was the Pride of South Tyneside 's Young Performer of the Year in 2008.
In 2009 he auditioned in Manchester singing "Dance with My Father ''. After he sang "Where Do Broken Hearts Go '' in the second week of live shows, Simon Cowell said his performance was "note - perfect ''. After week 3 "big band '' week, Cowell said: "I have to give it to you. Whatever is thrown up at you, you just rise up to the challenge ''. Louis Walsh tipped him for the final, after his rendition of "Do n't Stop Believin ' '' on the fourth live show. This performance caused the original song to briefly re-enter the UK Singles Chart.
After his rendition of "Do n't Let the Sun Go Down on Me '', on the seventh live show, he received a standing ovation from all four judges (the first this series), with Cowell calling it "the performance of his life ''.
He received another standing ovation after he sang "Sorry Seems to Be the Hardest Word '' on the eighth live show, with Dannii Minogue and Louis Walsh admitting they had to see him in the final. By 29 November, he was the only remaining competitor in Cheryl 's category. After singing three separate songs in the final, "Do n't Let The Sun Go Down on Me '' as a duet with George Michael, "Do n't Stop Believin ' '', and "Sorry Seems to be the Hardest Word '', McElderry made it into the final two, with Olly Murs and himself beating Stacey Solomon to the final two. He was then voted the winner.
He has released four albums since winning the show, Wide Awake, Classic, Classic Christmas and Here 's What I Believe.
Rachel Adedeji (born 22 August 1991) previously auditioned for the show 's fifth series in 2008, reaching the bootcamp final 50 stage, narrowly missing out on a spot at judges ' houses. She is friends with the winner from that year, Alexandra Burke. She is studying musical theatre and has performed at many musical productions and had a role in the musical Mamma Mia!. For the first live show, Rachel sang "Let Me Entertain You '', but was in the bottom two alongside girl group with Kandy Rain received the fewest votes. For the second show Adedeji sang "If I Were a Boy '', and was in the bottom two again, against Rikki Loney, surviving once again after singing "With or Without You ''. In week 3, Rachel sang "Proud Mary '', progressing onto the next week and also receiving the highest number of votes. In week four she sang "One '', but once again ended up in the bottom two, against Lloyd Daniels. She sang "Stop Crying Your Heart Out '', but Simon Cowell did n't think Rachel had a connection with the audience, as she 'd been in the bottom two three times. The result was taken to deadlock, with Rachel receiving the lowest number of votes and finishing 9th overall.
Adedeji had a single due out in April 2011, named "Follow the DJ ''. The music video for the single premiered on 18 December 2010, but the single was never released. Adedeji released a new single, titled "Club Lights '', on 20 February 2012. The song was written by Starley Hope, Christos Papathanasiou and Maria Marcus. The video premiered on 20 January and was directed by Drew Cox. The song was released as part of a four - track EP, which also includes songs titled "On My Own '', "Young Hearts '' and her previous single "Follow the DJ ''. Adedeji was then signed by the EDM labels Hailstorm and Fat Banker, and two tracks were released between June and August 2013 called "House Dance '' (Nolan feat. Rachel Adedeji) with remixes by ATFC, Climbers and DJ T., and "Every Time I Hear Your Name '' (written by Phil Ramacon (Buffalo Stance, Playa Boi)). Since April 2016, Adedeji has been playing Lisa Loveday in the Channel 4 soap opera, Hollyoaks.
Lucie Bethan Jones (born 20 March 1991) is a student from Pentyrch, a village on the outskirts of Cardiff, Wales. She has had vocal training from Louise Ryan, who trained Charlotte Church. In 2007, as a Scout, she went to the World Scout Jamboree, where she was a main singer singing the song ' Jambo, ' which was the theme tune of the Jamboree in Hylands Park, Essex. She auditioned with "I Will Always Love You ''. In the first week of live shows she sang "Footprints in the Sand ''. In Week Two she sang "How Will I Know ''. In week three she sang "My Funny Valentine ''. In week four she sang "Sweet Child o ' Mine ''. In week five she sang "This Is Me '' and "One Moment in Time ''. She became the fifth act to be sent home from The X Factor after losing out to John & Edward in the final showdown. She was eliminated via deadlock in a controversial vote - off, where 1,113 viewers complained to UK TV Watchdog Ofcom about the show being fixed in favour of John & Edward. Ofcom refused to investigate, however.
Jones has since gone on to be signed by Select Model Management, and in late January 2010 released her first modelling shots. She is also one of the many celebrities who have teamed up with Cancer Research UK to re-release "Girls Just Want to Have Fun ''. In May 2010, Jones was signed by Cameron Mackintosh to play Cosette in the West End production of Les Misérables, a role she missed out on the previous year owing to commitments to X Factor. In September 2010 she was revealed to be the face of Wonderbra 's new Full Effects campaign. In 2010, she appeared in The Sarah Jane Adventures episode, Lost in Time: Part Two ".
On 21 November 2010, Jones performed at The Mall Luton and helped turn on the Christmas Lights. On 5 December 2010 Jones performed at Clothes Show Live, an event which is held annually at the NEC in Birmingham. She performed "Sweet Child o ' Mine ''. Also at this event Jones helped her modelling agency select Model in Scouting for the face of clothes show 2011. Owing to her leap in the public eye Jones has been linked to many celebrities who include Leigh Halfpenny and Nick Jonas. Jones has now moved to London and is close friends with her Les Misérables, co-star Samantha Barks. She played Kelly in The Prodigals at the Edinburgh Fringe throughout August 2011 alongside Aaron Sidwell.
Jones was one of eight celebrities chosen to participate in an intense week learning Welsh in an eco-friendly chic campsite in Pembrokeshire in the series cariad@iaith: love4language shown on S4C in May 2012. She turned to TV presenting, fronting the Beach Break Live and Wakestock music festivals for MTV in July 2012. In 2013, Jones released a line of lingerie, ' Loved By Lucie ', designed by Hannah Dulcie. She was also cast as ' Meat ' in the We Will Rock You World Tour. Jones also played the role of Victoria in the new musical American Psycho at London 's Almeida Theatre in December 2013.
Since 2010, Jones has been working with Sony ATV to record songs for her debut album. It was due to be released in Summer 2012, but it never occurred and no exact released date has yet to have been given.
In February 2015 Jones appeared as Melody Carver in ITV 's Midsomer Murders, in the episode "The Ballad of Midsomer County ''. In April 2015, Jones played the role of ' Emma ' in the showcase performance of Like Me (musical) at The Waterloo East Theatre. In March 2015, she was cast as Molly in an upcoming Chinese tour of Ghost the Musical, due to start in May 2015. In 2016 Lucie was cast as Maureen Johnson in the UK tour of Rent.
Jones represented the United Kingdom in the Eurovision Song Contest 2017, with her song "Never Give Up on You ''. She placed 15th out of 26 entries.
Stacey Solomon (born 4 October 1989) is a singer from Dagenham, Essex. She studies Theatre Arts and was a single mother to one - year - old Zach, who is now five, at the time of her audition. Stacey attended the Jewish faith school King Solomon High School in Barkingside in the London Borough of Redbridge. In week 1, Stacey sang "The Scientist '' and in Week 2 she sang At Last and received the most votes for this week. In Week 3, Stacey performed "When You Wish Upon a Star ''. She sang "Somewhere Only We Know '' in Week 4 and "Son of a Preacher Man '' in Week 5. In Week 6, after Lucie Jones 's elimination, she became the last female act in the competition. She sang "Who Wants to Live Forever '' where she received the most votes again. She received positive comments from the panel, with Louis Walsh saying "You look like a diva ''. Cheryl Cole said "That was stunning and you totally sang your socks off '', while Simon Cowell told her "That was the performance of the night ''. Stacey went on to reach the last three, appearing in the penultimate show on 12 December, singing "What a Wonderful World '' and "Feeling Good '' in a duet with Michael Bublé and Who Wants to Live Forever, but when she received fewer votes than Joe McElderry and Olly Murs, she was eliminated, thus coming third overall in the competition.
Stacey has since recorded the song At Last on an album by the Royal Air Force Squadronaires. The album, In The Mood: A Glenn Miller Celebration, was released on 31 May 2010. Solomon performed at the boxing match between Dagenham boxer Kevin Mitchell and Michael Katsidis on 15 May at Upton Park. In October 2010 she won the Living TV show Party Wars. She won series 10 of ITV 's I 'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here.
In December 2011 Stacey signed a record deal with Conehead Records, and began working on her debut album, which is due for release in 2012. Her debut single was originally scheduled for release in February 2012, but was delayed to a later date. The new release date has not yet been confirmed. Solomon is also the host of new TV series "The Love Machine '', alongside co-host, Radio 1 presenter Chris Moyles. The series premiered on 11 March 2012.
James "Jamie '' Archer (also nicknamed "Jamie Afro '' due to his hairstyle) (born 26 July 1975) is a musician from Putney, London, England. He was the oldest of the 12 finalists in this series. He has had considerable experience on the London gig circuit, and plays a number of instruments, mainly the guitar. He sang "Sex on Fire '' in his first audition. In week 3 of the live shows, he had chosen to sing "If I Can Dream '', but his mentor Cowell strongly disagreed and suggested "Angel of Harlem ''. Eventually Archer gave in although he only had 24 hours to rehearse the new song. Walsh accused Cowell of bending the rules, as the theme that week was big band. Walsh said: "I 'm a bit confused because the theme is big band and you came out and sang a U2 song. I feel it 's cheating. I would n't get away with it and neither would the girls -- I do n't know why Simon does. '' During the judges ' comments after his performance on the fourth live show, Walsh called him "a Lenny Kravitz impersonator ''. He was voted out in week 6, having been in the bottom two with Lloyd Daniels, as the result went to deadlock.
On 13 August 2011 Archer sang at the Npower Football League Championship match between Leicester City and Reading.
He was an official celebrity supporter of the World Animal Protection ' campaign against intensive dairy farming, Not in My Cuppa.
Danyl Aaron Johnson (born 17 June 1982) is from Arborfield, near Reading, Berkshire, England. He works as a dance and drama teacher, having taught at three stage schools, including the Southcote - based renowned stage school Starmaker and School of the Arts (SOTA) in Windsor. He also revealed that he survived testicular cancer as a boy. He opened up about his experience while answering questions from fans at a secret X Factor gig held at The O2 Arena in London on 5 December. He said his brush with cancer had left him feeling passionate about encouraging men to get themselves checked out.
Johnson was previously a member of two boy bands, Upfrunt, a duo with bandmate Steven Blackie, and StreetLevel, with band members Adam Harris, Dean Brindley and Steven Blackie. StreetLevel disbanded when Johnson left in 2006 to audition for The X Factor 's third series, but he failed to make it past the early stages and did not get to audition for the judges. Johnson is also member of the band Empty Spaces, but he was forced to put the project on hold because his bandmate Nick Burrage did not want to be involved in The X Factor.
At the auditions in 2009, Simon Cowell described his performance of "With a Little Help From My Friends '' as "the best first audition I have ever heard. '' Johnson came out as bisexual in August 2009 in the national press, fearing kiss - and - tell stories. Following his performance of "And I Am Telling You I 'm Not Going '' in the first live show, Minogue said, "If we 're to believe what we read in the papers, there was no need to change the gender reference '' (referring to the song 's lyrics), causing outrage amongst viewers. Minogue later apologised for any offence caused.
In week 2, Johnson sang a yet unreleased and largely unknown composition, "I Did n't Know My Own Strength '', from Whitney Houston 's "I Look to You '' album, for which Cowell stated on air during an interview that he got special permission from Houston. However, Johnson revealed later that he had infuriated Houston by choosing to sing her unreleased album track. He admitted: "Whitney absolutely hated me and she was the worst guest. '' In week 3, Johnson sang "Feeling Good '', receiving glowing comments from the show 's judges, including one from Walsh that he was "unstoppable ''. However, after the public vote, he found himself in the bottom two with Miss Frank. After the judging vote went to deadlock, he was saved by the public vote. In week 4, Johnson sang "I Do n't Want to Miss a Thing '', however many of the judges felt he had lost his "mojo '' having been in the bottom two the previous week. In week 5, Johnson came on stage with a new look while singing "Purple Rain ''. He received praise from the judges who approved of his new demeanour. In the following 4 weeks Danyl remained on the show, his performances received multiple praise and criticism from the judge panel until his departure in week 9.
Johnson left The X Factor in the semi-finals on 6 December 2009, receiving the fewest votes of the remaining finalists and thus finishing fourth. His mentor said: "I said to him before we went on stage, there is nothing I would have changed, nothing more he could have done. '' The official Danyl Johnson website also featured an original song from his Enchanced CD, an original composition entitled Beautiful Life.
Johnson has stressed that he wishes to record a "really good album ''. On 31 August 2010 he revealed he is going to go to New York at some point to record an album, which he plans to release fall 2011, having worked with artists such as Marc Broussard. On 8 April 2011 he appeared on an episode of Benidorm performing in a bar.
Johnson was one of six entries shortlisted for the UK 's entry to the Eurovision Song Contest 2017, with his song "Light Up the World ''; fellow X Factor finalist Lucie Jones was ultimately selected.
Oliver "Olly '' Stanley Murs (born 14 May 1984) is from Witham, Essex, England. He was born to Vicky - Lynn and Peter Murs, who is of Latvian descent. Murs has two siblings, sister Fay and twin brother Ben. He attended Notley High School where he was a star striker in the school 's football team. He also played semi-professionally for Witham Town. He is a supporter of Manchester United. He works as an energy advisor in a call centre. He previously appeared on the TV show Deal or No Deal, where in his game he won £ 10 after inadvertently swapping his box which contained £ 1,000.
He performed "Superstition '' in his first audition and Simon Cowell said it was "the easiest yes I have ever given ''. On the first live show he sang "She 's the One '' and on the second, "A Fool in Love '', a performance which Cowell described as being "in a different league. '' For week three he took on "Bewitched ''. Walsh commented that he was the "dark horse of the competition, '' and Cole said he was "coming into his own each week. '' He frequently employed dance moves in his performance including his trademark "Olly wiggle. '' In week 4 he sang "Come Together '' and again received positive comments, with Walsh predicting, "I think you 're in the final three, '' and Cowell saying he was "progressing better than just about everybody. '' In week 5 he performed "Twist and Shout '' and in week 6 "Do n't Stop Me Now '', after which he was labelled by Minogue as, "absolutely the best performer we have on the show by far. ''
After a performance of "Fastlove '', he was in the bottom two in week 7, with John & Edward. Cowell and Cole decided to send John & Edward home, but Walsh voted against Murs. Minogue then voted against sending the judges ' vote to deadlock and sent home John & Edward. However, voting statistics revealed that John & Edward had received more votes than Murs, meaning if Minogue sent the result to deadlock, John & Edward would 've been sent through to the quarter - final and Murs would have been eliminated. In the semi-finals Murs had to miss the wedding of his brother. The ceremony took place just 16 miles from the show 's studio, but Cowell, his mentor, was against letting him off for a few hours on this crucial semi-final day. He sang "Can You Feel It '' and "We Can Work It Out '' in the semi-final and ended up as one of the three finalists, breaking down in tears upon hearing the result.
In the final on 12 December, he repeated his audition song, "Superstition '', following which Cowell said putting him in the final 12 was "the best risk I have ever taken in my life ''. Murs then sang with Robbie Williams on a duet of "Angels ''. Williams fluffed his lines as he walked on stage to join Murs and came in at the wrong time, singing the second line of the song, but was helped by Murs to find the right spot. There was then a repeat performance of his week 2 song "Fool in Love ''. Murs qualified for the final two and first sang a repeat performance of "Twist and Shout '', following which Louis Walsh commented, "You 're a born, born showman and no matter what happens tonight you 're going to have a great career in music. '' In his final performance on the show he performed the winner 's song, "The Climb '', finishing it in tears. He was told by Cole, "You absolutely tore it from your soul. I 've never heard you sing like that. I thought it was a beautiful version of the song. '' He lost the final to Joe McElderry the next day and finished as the runner - up.
On 15 December, two days after the final, it was reported that Simon was going to offer Murs a record deal in early 2010. Following his defeat, Murs was reportedly texted by duet partner Robbie Williams and invited to visit him in his Los Angeles mansion and participate in the upcoming Soccer Aid, organised by Williams. Olly performed in the X Factor tour, alongside Joe McElderry, John & Edward, Stacey Solomon, Lucie Jones and several other finalists. It was later revealed on The Xtra Factor that Murs was predicted by all the judges and presenters (except Minogue who said Nicole Jackson and Cole who said Miss Frank as a second choice) as the favourite to win the series at the Boot Camp stage.
As with all other finalists save the winner, Murs began gigging around the country following the end of the show. A fight broke out at one New Year 's Eve gig in London prompted by enthusiastic fans. He was also booked to appear at the engagement party of model Danielle Lloyd. Footage of Murs appearing on Deal or No Deal was later featured in an edition of the BBC 's Almost Famous on 2 January 2010.
Murs was signed to a joint deal between Epic Records and Syco Music in February 2010. His debut album, Olly Murs was released on 29 November 2010 with the single, "Please Do n't Let Me Go '', out on 29 August 2010 which debuted at No1.
John & Edward, now known as Jedward, are identical twin brothers John and Edward Grimes (born 16 October 1991), from Dublin, Republic of Ireland. They both attended the Dublin Institute of Education and are known for their distinctive blonde quiffs. The twins started singing at the age of five. There was controversy surrounding the two of them when they sang over the other people in their section during the bootcamp auditions. Cowell said that they had put the people in their group at a disadvantage, but the other contestants were eliminated after Louis Walsh championed the twins.
On the first live show, John & Edward performed Robbie Williams ' hit "Rock DJ ''. Cowell said afterwards, "It was a musical nightmare. '' and that "The truth is... is that Louis has put you through because you 're Irish. '' In week 3, after singing Ricky Martin 's "She Bangs '', the studio audience heckled the twins, but Walsh confronted the audience by saying: "Boo all you bloody want. I do n't like bullying. '' John & Edward were in the bottom two with Lucie Jones in week 5, but were saved after the judges ' vote went to deadlock. In week 6, John & Edward sang a mashup of "Under Pressure '' and "Ice Ice Baby ''. During the song, Scottish DJ Calvin Harris invaded the stage with a pineapple on his head to poke fun at their quiffs and was thrown out of the studio. Harris later apologised for his behaviour, posting on his Twitter page: "At the end of the day, I had a pineapple on my head. Sorry if I caused anyone embarrassment. P.S. I love Jedward. '' The twins were praised by Walsh, who said that it was their best performance of the competition. He also praised them for ignoring Harris 's stage invasion. John & Edward 's performance also won over harshest critic Cowell, who said: "I ca n't judge you in the real world any more. I have to judge you in Jedwardland, wherever that planet exists; and so if I kind of take myself there, I would say that was your best performance. And I have to say this: There 's no point in me getting angry or serious about this, if people like you, they like you. I have to tell this as well guys. You 've conducted yourself very well in this competition. You just get on with it ''. John & Edward were eliminated from the competition in week 7 by the judges after being in the bottom two with Olly Murs. However voting statistics showed that John & Edward had received more votes than Murs, meaning if Minogue sent the result to deadlock, John & Edward would 've been sent through to the quarter - final and Murs would 've been eliminated.
Since, The X Factor, Jedward have released three albums, Planet Jedward, Victory and Young Love, all of which went double platinum in Ireland. They have released ten singles, including "Under Pressure (Ice Ice Baby) '' (a mash - up of "Under Pressure '' by Queen and Vanilla Ice 's track "Ice Ice Baby '') and "Lipstick '', the song with which they represented Ireland at the Eurovision Song Contest 2011. They finished in eight place overall. Jedward also represented Ireland at the Eurovision Song Contest 2012 with their song "Waterline '' and finished in 19th place.
Jedward have also become known for their television work, including hosting children 's series Jedward 's Big Adventure and OMG! Jedward 's Dream Factory, and for participating in Celebrity Big Brother 8, where they finished in third place.
Kandy Rain are a four piece girl group comprising Azi Jegbefume (born 19 April 1984), Vicky "Coco '' Lloyd (born 11 February 1987), Khatereh Dovani (Born 24 April 1984) and Chemmane Applewhaite (Born 26 January 1984). Prior to joining the band, Azi was a member of Trinity Stone, a girl group which included future Sugababe Jade Ewen. They were criticised by judges Cole and Minogue for dressing provocatively during the live shows, despite claiming that they intended to move away from their past as strippers, although Cole later apologised. Kandy Rain were eliminated in Week 1 of the competition after the results went to deadlock and the girls received the fewest votes. They lost to Rachel Adedeji.
The band told BBC Radio 1 's Newsbeat that they had vowed to stay together despite their early exit, and in 2010, they appeared on episode 9 of series 3 of Snog Marry Avoid?.
Kandy Rain have recorded their debut single, titled "Radio '', which was due for release in the Summer, 2010. The music video for the song premiered on 14 February 2010, but the single was never released. However, they are said to have recorded a new single, titled "Your Love Is Like a Sugar Rush '', which was due for release in 2012, but later cancelled. It was later reported that Azi had left the group, and has recorded a new solo single titled "DJ on Stage '', which was to be released on 21 April 2012.
Miss Frank are a three - piece girl group consisting of rapper Graziella Affinita (born 13 February 1984) and singers Shar Alexandra (born 14 April 1984), and Shaniece Davis (born 28 November 1987). They formed at bootcamp when the judges offered them the chance to enter the competition as a group after being rejected as solo artists. The first song Miss Frank performed together was "That 's Life '', which they later sang again in week 3. The group were put in the bottom two alongside Danyl Johnson. The judging vote deadlocked and it was revealed Miss Frank had the lower public vote and they were eliminated. After hearing the decision, Miss Frank promised to stay together, with their mentor Walsh encouraging them to do so, saying: "I hope they stay together as a group. They 've got a lot more to give and they 're great girls. I love them. '' On GMTV, the girls announced that they were working in the Sony BMG studio with different people including artist Remi Nicole, trying to ' find their sound '. The trio have been spending a lot of time penning their own songs in the studio and recently uploaded one of their original tracks, a midtempo number entitled ' Caught Up ' on YouTube.
On 27 July 2010, it was revealed that Shaniece had left the band, replaced by one of the 2008 bootcamp contestants Cherelle. Due to this sudden activity, the three tried to come up with a new band name, asking visitors to the HeatWorld website to help them. However, Cherelle has since left the band, leaving original members Graziella and Shar to form new duo "Scarlet Lowe ''.
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show me a map of the upper peninsula | Upper Peninsula of Michigan - wikipedia
The Upper Peninsula is the northern of the two major peninsulas that make up the U.S. state of Michigan. It may also be referred to as the UP or Upper Michigan. The peninsula is bounded on the north by Lake Superior, on the east by the St. Marys River, on the southeast by Lake Michigan and Lake Huron, and on the southwest by Wisconsin.
The Upper Peninsula contains 29 % of the land area of Michigan but just 3 % of its total population. Residents are frequently called Yoopers (derived from "U.P. - ers '') and have a strong regional identity. Large numbers of French Canadian, Finnish, Swedish, Cornish, and Italian immigrants came to the Upper Peninsula, especially the Keweenaw Peninsula, to work in the area 's mines and lumber industry. The peninsula includes the only counties in the United States where a plurality of residents claim Finnish ancestry.
Ordered by size, the peninsula 's largest cities are Marquette, Sault Ste. Marie, Escanaba, Menominee, Houghton, and Iron Mountain. The land and climate are not very suitable for agriculture because of the long harsh winters. The economy has been based on logging, mining, and tourism. Most mines have closed since the "golden age '' from 1890 to 1920. The land is heavily forested and logging remains a major industry.
The first known inhabitants of the Upper Peninsula were tribes speaking Algonquian languages. They arrived roughly around A.D. 800 and subsisted chiefly from fishing. Early tribes included the Menominee, Nocquet, and the Mishinimaki. Étienne Brûlé of France was probably the first European to visit the peninsula, crossing the St. Marys River around 1620 in search of a route to the Far East. French colonists laid claim to the land in the 17th century, establishing missions and fur trading posts such as Sault Ste. Marie and St. Ignace. Following the end of the French and Indian War (part of the Seven Years ' War) in 1763, the territory was ceded to Great Britain. Sault Ste Marie, Michigan is the oldest European settlement in Michigan and the site of Native American settlements for centuries.
American Indian tribes formerly allied with the French were dissatisfied with the British occupation, which brought new territorial policies. Whereas the French cultivated alliances among the Indians, the British postwar approach was to treat the tribes as conquered peoples. In 1763, tribes united in Pontiac 's Rebellion to try to drive the British from the area. American Indians captured Fort Michilimackinac, near present - day Mackinaw City, Michigan, then the principal fort of the British in the Michilimackinac region, as well as others and killed hundreds of British. In 1764, they began negotiations with the British which resulted in temporary peace and changes in objectionable British policies.
Although the Upper Peninsula nominally became United States territory with the 1783 Treaty of Paris, the British did not give up control until 1797 under terms of the Jay Treaty. As an American territory, the Upper Peninsula was still dominated by the fur trade. John Jacob Astor founded the American Fur Company on Mackinac Island in 1808; however, the industry began to decline in the 1830s as beaver and other game were overhunted.
When the Michigan Territory was first established in 1805, it included only the Lower Peninsula and the eastern portion of the Upper Peninsula. In 1819, the territory was expanded to include the remainder of the Upper Peninsula, all of Wisconsin, and part of Minnesota (previously included in the Indiana and Illinois Territories). When Michigan was preparing for statehood in the 1830s, the boundaries proposed corresponded to the original territorial boundaries, with some proposals even leaving the Upper Peninsula out entirely. Meanwhile, the territory was involved in a border dispute with the state of Ohio in a conflict known as the Toledo War.
The people of Michigan approved a constitution in May 1835 and elected state officials in late autumn 1835. Although the state government was not yet recognized by the United States Congress, the territorial government effectively ceased to exist. A constitutional convention of the state legislature refused a compromise to accept the full Upper Peninsula in exchange for ceding the Toledo Strip to Ohio. A second convention, hastily convened by Governor Stevens Thomson Mason, consisting primarily of Mason supporters, agreed in December 1836 to accept the U.P. in exchange for the Toledo Strip.
In January 1837, the U.S. Congress admitted Michigan as a state of the Union. At the time, Michigan was considered the losing party in the compromise. The land in the Upper Peninsula was described in a federal report as a "sterile region on the shores of Lake Superior destined by soil and climate to remain forever a wilderness. ''
This belief changed when rich mineral deposits (primarily copper and iron) were discovered in the 1840s. The Upper Peninsula 's mines produced more mineral wealth than the California Gold Rush, especially after shipping was improved by the opening of the Soo Locks in 1855 and docks in Marquette in 1859. The Upper Peninsula supplied 90 % of America 's copper by the 1860s. It was the largest supplier of iron ore by the 1890s, and production continued to a peak in the 1920s, but sharply declined shortly afterward. The last copper mine closed in 1995, although the majority of mines had closed decades before. Some iron mining continues near Marquette. The Eagle Mine, a nickel - copper mine, opened in 2014.
Thousands of Americans and immigrants moved to the area during the mining boom, prompting the federal government to create Fort Wilkins near Copper Harbor to maintain order. The first wave were the Cornish from England, with centuries of mining experience; followed by Irish, Germans, and French Canadians. During the 1890s, Finnish immigrants began settling there in large numbers, forming the population plurality in the northwestern half of the peninsula. In the early 20th century, 75 % of the population was foreign - born.
From 1861 to 1865, 90,000 Michigan men fought in the American Civil War, including 1,209 from the Upper Peninsula. Houghton County contributed 460 soldiers, while Marquette County, Michigan sent 265.
The Upper Peninsula contains 16,377 square miles (42,420 km), about 29 percent of the land area of the state (exclusive of territorial waters, which constitute about 40 % of Michigan 's total jurisdictional area). The maximum east -- west distance in the Upper Peninsula is about 320 miles (510 km), and the maximum north -- south distance is about 125 miles (201 km). It is bounded on the north by Lake Superior, on the east by St. Mary 's River, on the south by Lake Michigan and Lake Huron, and on the west by Wisconsin and (counting the water border on Lake Superior) by Minnesota. It has about 1,700 miles (2,700 km) of continuous shoreline with the Great Lakes. There are about 4,300 inland lakes, the largest of which is Lake Gogebic, and 12,000 miles (19,000 km) of streams.
The peninsula is divided between the flat, swampy areas in the east, part of the Great Lakes Plain, and the steeper, more rugged western half, called the Superior Upland, part of the Canadian Shield. The rock in the western portion is the result of volcanic eruptions and is estimated to be at least 3.5 billion years old (much older than the eastern portion) and contains the region 's ore resources. Banded - iron formations were deposited 2 billion years ago; this is the Marquette Range Supergroup. A considerable amount of bedrock is visible. Mount Arvon, the highest point in Michigan, is found in the region, as well as the Porcupine and Huron mountains. All of the higher areas are the remnants of ancient peaks, worn down over millions of years by erosion and glaciers.
The Keweenaw Peninsula is the northernmost part of the peninsula. It projects into Lake Superior and was the site of the first copper boom in the United States, part of a larger region of the peninsula called the Copper Country. Copper Island is its northernmost section.
About one third of the peninsula is government - owned recreational forest land today, including the Ottawa National Forest and Hiawatha National Forest. Although heavily logged in the 19th century, the majority of the land was forested with mature trees by the 1970s.
The Upper Peninsula contains a large variety of wildlife. Some of the mammals found in the U.P. include shrews, moles, mice, white - tailed deer, moose, black bears, cougar, gray and red foxes, wolves, river otters, martens, fishers, muskrats, bobcats, coyotes, snowshoe hares, cotton - tail rabbits, porcupines, chipmunks, squirrels, raccoons, opossum and bats. There is a large variety of birds, including hawks, osprey, owls, gulls, hummingbirds, chickadees, robins, woodpeckers, warblers, and bald eagles. In terms of reptiles and amphibians, the U.P. has common garter snakes, red bellied snakes, pine snakes, northern water snakes, brown snakes, eastern garter snakes, eastern fox snakes, eastern ribbon back snakes, green snakes, northern ringneck snakes, Eastern Milk Snakes (Mackinac and Marquette counties) and Eastern Hognose snakes (Menominee County only), plus snapping turtles, wood turtles, and painted turtles (the state reptile), green frogs, bullfrogs, northern leopard frogs, and salamanders. Lakes and rivers contain many fish such as walleye, muskie, northern pike, trout, salmon, bullhead catfish, and bass. Invasive species like the alewife and sea lamprey can be found in the Great Lakes. The U.P. also contains many shellfish, such as clams, aquatic snails, and crayfish. The American Bird Conservancy and the National Audubon Society have designated several locations as internationally Important Bird Areas.
There is significant controversy over the presence of Eastern Cougars in the U.P. Historically, the last of the species, or subspecies, was extirpated near Newberry in 1906, although there have been sightings of the creatures over the years since. These reports increased in number over the first decade of the 21st century. The Michigan Department of Natural Resources and Environment (DNRE) formed a four - person team to investigate sightings in the state. The biologists with the DNRE currently do not believe that there is a breeding population anywhere in the state, rather that the sighted animals are visitors to the state. As late as January 2007, the DNRE 's official position was that no cougars lived in Michigan. Several residents in the state disagree with both current and previous positions on the part of the DNRE. Researchers at Central Michigan University and the Michigan Wildlife Conservancy in 2006 published the findings of a study using DNA analysis of fecal samples taken in the Upper and Lower peninsulas that showed the presence of cougars at the time. These results were disputed in a second journal article in 2007 by other researchers from Eastern Michigan University and the U.S. Forest Service. A citizen 's group, the Michigan Citizens for Cougar Recognition (MCCR), independently tracked sightings and in 2009 listed Delta County as the location with the greatest number of reports in the state. The DNRE verified five sets of tracks and two trail camera photos in Delta, Chippewa, Marquette, and Menominee counties since 2008. DNRE officials acknowledge that there are cougars in the UP, but not elsewhere in the state. Critics of the DNRE 's position on the species, including the founder of the MCCR, say that the department is attempting to "avoid paying for a cougar management program ''.
There are also many invasive species that are primarily brought in the ballast water of foreign ships, usually from the ocean bordering Northeastern Asia. This water is dumped directly into the Great Lakes, depositing a variety of fresh and salt water fish and invertebrates, most notably the zebra mussel, Dreissena polymorpha. There are also many plant species that have been transported to the Great Lakes, including Purple Loosestrife Lythrum salicaria and Phragmites australis, both of which are considered to be a threat to native hydrophyte wetland plants.
The Emerald ash borer was first reported in the U.P. at Brimley State Park, and is considered to be a serious ecological threat to the habitat and economy.
The Upper Peninsula has a humid continental climate (Dfb in the Köppen climate classification system). The Great Lakes have a great effect on the greater part of the great peninsula. Winters tend to be long, cold, and snowy for most of the peninsula, and because of its northern latitude, the daylight hours are short -- around 8 hours between sunrise and sunset in the winter. Lake Superior has the greatest effect on the area, especially the northern and western parts. Lake - effect snow causes many areas to get in excess of 100 -- 250 inches (250 -- 640 cm) of snow per year -- especially in the Keweenaw Peninsula and Gogebic County, and to a lesser extent Baraga, Marquette and Alger counties, making the western U.P. a prominent part of the midwestern snow belt.
Records of 390 inches (990 cm) of snow or more have been set in many communities in this area. The Keweenaw Peninsula averages more snowfall than any other location east of the Mississippi River. Because of the howling storms across Lake Superior, which cause dramatic amounts of precipitation, it has been said that the lake - effect snow makes the Keweenaw Peninsula the snowiest place east of the Rockies. Herman averages 236 inches (600 cm) of snow every year. Lake - effect snow can cause blinding whiteouts in just minutes, and some storms can last for days. Hancock is found frequently on lists of the snowiest cities in America.
The banana belt along the Wisconsin border has a more continental climate since most of its weather does not arrive from the lakes. Summers tend to be warmer and winter nights much colder. Coastal communities have temperatures tempered by the Great Lakes. In summer, it might be 10 ° F (5.6 ° C) cooler at lakeside than it is inland, and the opposite effect is seen in winter. The area of the Upper Peninsula north of Green Bay though Menominee and Escanaba (and extending west to Iron River) does not have the extreme weather and precipitation found to the north. The coldest temperature officially recorded in the Upper Peninsula was − 48 ° F (− 44 ° C) in Humboldt in January 1915.
Like the entire Lower Peninsula of Michigan, most of the Upper Peninsula observes Eastern Time. However, the four counties bordering Wisconsin are in the Central Time zone.
In 1967, when the Uniform Time Act came into effect, the Upper Peninsula went under year - round CST, with no daylight saving time. In 1973, the majority of the peninsula switched to Eastern Time; only the four western border counties of Gogebic, Iron, Dickinson, and Menominee continue to observe Central Time. Daylight savings time is observed peninsula wide.
There are 15 counties in the Upper Peninsula (see map). Note that the counties extend into the Great Lakes with precise, well defined boundaries.
State prisons are located in Baraga, Marquette, Munising, Newberry, Marenisco and Kincheloe.
Historically, the Upper Peninsula has tended to vote for the United States ' Democratic Party due to its legacy of mining and historically high union membership. However, as Democrats have shifted toward social liberalism and as union strength in the peninsula has declined, the region has become steadily less receptive to the Democratic party, and has alternately swung toward either party in recent years. Split - ticket voting has become a common practice in the peninsula. In 2012, for example, Democratic U.S. Senator Debbie Stabenow carried every county in the peninsula in her 2012 reelection campaigns, but Republican presidential candidate Mitt Romney carried all but two counties in the 2012 presidential election. Donald Trump swept all counties across the Upper Peninsula except Marquette County.
All counties in the U.P. are part of Michigan 's 1st congressional district. Jack Bergman, a Republican, has been the U.S. Representative for this district since January 2017.
In Michigan 's 2010 gubernatorial election Republican Rick Snyder carried every U.P. county but one, Gogebic, on his way to victory over his Democratic opponent, Virg Bernero.
Superior is the name of a longstanding 51st state proposal for the secession of the Upper Peninsula from the rest of Michigan, potentially with various portions of northern Wisconsin. Named after Lake Superior, the idea has gained serious attention at times. Because stronger connections to the rest of the state exist since completion of the Mackinac Bridge, the proposal 's future is vague. Several prominent legislators, including local politician Dominic Jacobetti, attempted to gain passage of the bill in the 1970s, missing by a single vote.
The Upper Peninsula remains a predominantly rural region. As of the 2010 census, the region had a population of 311,361 -- scarcely more than 3 % of Michigan 's total population.
According to the 2010 census, 103,211 people live in the 12 towns of at least 4,000 people, covering 96.5 square miles (250 km). A total of 116,548 people live in the 18 towns and villages of at least 2,000 people, which cover 108.5 square miles (281 km) -- less than 1 % of the peninsula 's land area.
The Upper Peninsula has experienced population decline, although this has not been the case for every county. In some areas of the Upper Peninsula the population has declined more than in others, with the six westernmost counties having witnessed the largest decrease, from a 1920 population of 153,674 to a 2010 population of 82,668. Some ghost towns exist in the region.
The population of the Upper Peninsula grew throughout the 19th century and then leveled off and experienced decline during the 20th century. A "'' indicates an increase in population from the previous census, and a "'' indicates a decrease in population from the previous census.
The Upper Peninsula is rich in mineral deposits including iron, copper, nickel and silver. Small amounts of gold have also been discovered and mined. In the 19th century, mining dominated the economy, and the U.P. became home to many isolated company towns. For many years, mines in the Keweenaw Peninsula were the world 's largest producers of copper (see Copper mining in Michigan). The mines began declining as early as 1913, with most closing temporarily during the Great Depression. Mines reopened during World War II, but almost all quickly closed after the war ended. The last copper mine in the Copper Country was the White Pine mine, which closed in 1995.
From approximately 1870 to 1915, about thirty - two quarries mined Jacobsville Sandstone in the Upper Peninsula, particularly near Marquette and the town of Jacobsville. The sandstone was used in many buildings, both locally and around the United States.
Ever since logging of white pine began in the 1880s, timber has been an important industry. However, the stands of hemlock and hardwood went under - exploited until the mid-twentieth century as selection cutting was practiced in the western reaches of the forest. Because of the highly seasonal climate and the short growing season, agriculture is limited in the Upper Peninsula, though potatoes, strawberries and a few other small fruits are grown.
Tourism has become the main industry in recent decades. In 2005, ShermanTravel, LLC listed the Upper Peninsula as No. 10 in its assessment of all travel destinations worldwide. The article was republished in April 2006 by MSN.com. The peninsula has extensive coastline on the Great Lakes, large tracts of state and national forests, cedar swamps, more than 150 waterfalls, and low population densities. Because of the camping, boating, fishing, snowmobiling, hunting, and hiking opportunities, many Lower Peninsula and Wisconsin families spend their vacations in the U.P. Tourists also go there from Detroit, Chicago, Milwaukee and other metropolitan areas. The opening of the Mackinac Bridge in 1957 (see below) has made the Upper Peninsula easily accessible to tourists and has helped make the UP a year - round tourist destination.
American Indian casinos contribute to the tourist attractions and are popular in the U.P. Originally the casinos were simple, one - room affairs. Some of the casinos are now quite elaborate and are being developed as part of resort and conference facilities, including features such as golf courses, pool and spa, dining, and rooms to accommodate guests.
The Upper Peninsula is separated from the Lower by the Straits of Mackinac, five miles (8 km) across at the narrowest, and is connected to it by the Mackinac Bridge at St. Ignace, one of the longest suspension bridges in the world. Until the bridge was completed in 1957, travel between the two peninsulas was difficult and slow (and sometimes even impossible during winter months). In 1881, the Mackinac Transportation Company was established by three railroads, the Michigan Central Railroad, the Grand Rapids and Indiana Railroad, and the Detroit, Mackinac and Marquette Railroad, to operate a railroad car ferry across the Straits. Beginning in 1923, the State of Michigan operated automobile ferries between the two peninsulas. At the busiest times of year the wait was several hours long. In winter, travel was possible over the ice only after the straits had solidly frozen.
Of the many "M - '' prefixed trunklines crisscrossing the U.P., the four longest (in order of length) are,
There are 43 airports in the Upper Peninsula. Of these, six airports have commercial passenger service: Gogebic - Iron County Airport north of Ironwood, Houghton County Memorial Airport southwest of Calumet, Ford Airport west of Iron Mountain, Sawyer International Airport south of Marquette, Delta County Airport in Escanaba, and Chippewa County International Airport south of Sault Ste. Marie. There are 19 other public use airports with a hard surface runway. These are used for general aviation and charter. Notably, Mackinac Island, Beaver Island, and Drummond Island are all accessible by airports. There are five public access airports with turf runways and thirteen airports for the private use of their owners. There is only one control tower in the Upper Peninsula, at Sawyer.
The Eastern Upper Peninsula Transportation Authority operates car ferries in its area. These include ferries for Sugar Island, Neebish Island, and Drummond Island. Three ferry companies run passenger ferries from St. Ignace to Mackinac Island.
The three major bridges in the Upper Peninsula are:
Despite its rural character, there are public buses in several counties of the Upper Peninsula.
The Upper Peninsula of Michigan has three state universities (Lake Superior State University in Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan Technological University in Houghton, and Northern Michigan University in Marquette), one private university (Finlandia University located in Hancock, Michigan, on the Keweenaw Peninsula), and five community colleges (Bay Mills Community College in Brimley, Bay de Noc Community College in Escanaba and Iron Mountain, Gogebic Community College in Ironwood, and Keweenaw Bay Ojibwa Community College in Baraga).
Early settlers included multiple waves of people from Nordic countries, and people of Finnish ancestry make up 16 % of the peninsula 's population; the UP is home to the highest concentration of Finns outside Europe and the only counties of the United States where a plurality of residents claim Finnish ancestry. The Finnish sauna and the concept of sisu have been adopted widely by residents of the Upper Peninsula. The television program Finland Calling was for a long period the only Finnish - language television broadcast in the United States; it aired on Marquette station WLUC - TV from March 25, 1962, until March 29, 2015. Finlandia University, America 's only college with Finnish roots, is located in Hancock. Street signs in Hancock appear in English and Finnish to celebrate this heritage.
Other sizable ethnic communities in the Upper Peninsula include French - Canadian, German, Cornish, Italian, and Ojibwe ancestry.
Upper Peninsula natives speak a dialect influenced by Scandinavian and French - Canadian speech. A popular bumper sticker, a parody of the "Say YES to Michigan '' slogan promoted by state tourism officials, shows an outline of the Upper Peninsula and the slogan, "Say ya to da U.P., eh! '' The dialect and culture are captured in many songs by Da Yoopers, a comedy music and skit troupe from Ishpeming, Michigan.
Throughout the Upper Peninsula there are newspapers, such as The Daily News in Iron Mountain, The Menominee County Journal in Stephenson, The Daily Mining Gazette in Houghton, The Daily Press in Escanaba, and the Sault Ste. Marie Evening News that serve the rest of the U.P. The Mining Journal, based in Marquette, is the only daily newspaper that publishes a Sunday edition, which is distributed, with the exception of Chippewa and eastern Mackinac counties, across the entire U.P. (the other six days are distributed in its local area only).
The Keweenaw Peninsula is home to several ski areas. Mont Ripley, just outside Houghton, is popular among students of Michigan Technological University (the university actually owns the mountain). Further up the peninsula in the small town of Lac La Belle is Mt. Bohemia. A skiing purist 's resort, Bohemia is a self - proclaimed "experts only '' mountain, and it does not groom its heavily gladed slopes. Other ski areas are Pine Mountain located in Iron Mountain, Norway Mountain in the town of the same name, and the Porcupine Mountains located in Ontonagon.
Today, the Upper Peninsula is home to 299,184 people -- only about 3 % of the state 's population -- living in almost one - third of the state 's land area. Residents are known as Yoopers (from "U.P. ers ''), and many consider themselves Yoopers before they consider themselves Michiganders. (People living in the Lower Peninsula are commonly called "trolls '' by Upper Peninsula residents, as they live "Under the Bridge ''.) This regionalism is not only a result of the physical separation of the two peninsulas, but also the history of the state.
Residents of the western Upper Peninsula take on some of the cultural identities of both Wisconsin and Michigan. In terms of sports fandom, residents may support Detroit professional teams or those of Wisconsin -- particularly the Green Bay Packers. This is a result of both proximity and the broadcast and print media of the area. The four counties that border Wisconsin are also in the Central Time Zone, unlike the rest of Michigan, which is on Eastern time.
The Upper Peninsula has a distinctive local cuisine. The pasty (pronounced "pass - tee ''), a kind of meat turnover originally brought to the region by Cornish miners, is popular among locals and tourists alike. Pasty varieties include chicken, venison, pork, hamburger, and pizza. Many restaurants serve potato sausage and cudighi, a spicy Italian meat.
Finnish immigrants contributed nisu, a cardamom - flavored sweet bread; pannukakku, a variant on the pancake with a custard flavor; viili (sometimes spelled "fellia ''), a stretchy, fermented Finnish milk; and korppu, hard slices of toasted cinnamon bread, traditionally dipped in coffee. Some Finnish foods such as juustoa (squeaky cheese, essentially a cheese curd, like Leipäjuusto) and saunamakkara (a ring - bologna sausage) have become so ubiquitous in Upper Peninsula cuisine that they are now commonly found in most grocery stores and supermarkets.
Maple syrup is a highly prized local delicacy. Fresh Great Lakes fish, such as the lake trout, whitefish, and (in the spring) smelt are widely eaten. There is minimal concern about contamination of fish from Lake Superior waters. Smoked fish is also popular. Thimbleberry jam and chokecherry jelly is a treat.
Coordinates: 46 ° 14 ′ 00 '' N 86 ° 21 ′ 00 '' W / 46.23333 ° N 86.35000 ° W / 46.23333; - 86.35000
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how many members of the justice league are there | List of Justice League members - wikipedia
The Justice League is a team of comic book superheroes in the DC Comics Universe. Over the years they have featured a large number of characters in a variety of combinations.
The JLA members are listed here in order of their first joining the team, and none are listed twice. No retconned members are listed (except where they historically took part in the stories). No associates and unofficial members, or members of the Super Friends (except when they are also Justice League members in the mainstream comics) are listed.
Non-full members and staff are also listed below.
Characters in bold are current Justice League active members.
These members were featured in the team 's first appearance (The Brave and the Bold Vol. 1 # 28, February -- March 1960), with the incarnation they founded lasting until the mid-1980s.
This team existed for a few years in the mid-1980s following the disbanding of the original team. It consisted of Aquaman, Zatanna, Elongated Man and J'onn J'onzz (and later Batman), plus the following members:
This group was formed in the late 1980s and lasted until the early 1990s. During this era the Justice League was split into several teams. Lineup changes were rather frequent. Most of the Silver Age members were at least briefly part of one of these teams, and in addition, the following characters joined for the first time during this period:
This was a one - shot team played exclusively for humor.
Three teams would use the name Justice League in the early 1990s: Justice League America (led by Wonder Woman), Justice League Task Force (led by the Martian Manhunter), and Extreme Justice (led by Captain Atom).
This team was formed in the September 1996 Justice League: A Midsummer 's Nightmare written by Mark Waid and Fabian Nicieza. The JLA series, by Grant Morrison, was a return to the "Big Seven, '' with Superman, Batman, Wonder Woman, Flash (Wally West), Green Lantern (Kyle Rayner), Aquaman and J'onn J'onzz. New to the team were:
Sister Superior organized the JL Elite for missions the JLA refused to do. Included JLA past core member Green Arrow, as well as JLA members Flash (Wally West), Manitou Raven and Major Disaster.
Firestorm 's brief Justice League from the pages of 52. It should be noted that this Justice League did not operate in any official capacity sanctioned by any previous incarnations of the team or previous members.
A new Justice League of America was formed following the case entitled The Tornado 's Path. Every hero who participated in the case was offered membership.
In a mini-series written by James Robinson, Hal Jordan forms a more pro-active league with Oliver Queen and Ray Palmer, as well as new members.
New team which also includes Batman (Dick Grayson), Green Lantern (Hal Jordan), Green Arrow (Oliver Queen), Atom (Ray Palmer) and Dr. Light (Kimiyo Hoshi)
In the maxi - series written by Keith Giffen and Judd Winick, Justice League International is re-established along with several new members.
The Justice League was rebooted in 2011.
A separate, new team was formed to handle situations deemed unfit for the traditional Justice League.
A separate, new team was formed by the United States to be a world government controlled team without Secret Identities.
Following the events of "Throne of Atlantis '', a separate, new Justice League of America was formed by Amanda Waller and Steve Trevor.
A continuation of the Justice League of America without ARGUS.
Following the events of "Justice League vs. Suicide Squad '', a new Justice League of America was formed by Batman.
The Republic of China 's gathering of superheroes.
A 31st century Justice League of resurrected heroes.
A 31st century recreation of the Super Buddies / Justice League International.
The active Justice League from 35 years in the future.
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how many of the eagles band members are still alive | Eagles (band) - wikipedia
The Eagles are an American rock band formed in Los Angeles in 1971. The founding members were Glenn Frey (guitars, vocals), Don Henley (drums, vocals), Bernie Leadon (guitars, vocals) and Randy Meisner (bass guitar, vocals). With five number - one singles, six Grammy Awards, five American Music Awards, and six number - one albums, the Eagles were one of the most successful musical acts of the 1970s. At the end of the 20th century, two of their albums, Their Greatest Hits (1971 -- 1975) and Hotel California, were ranked among the 20 best - selling albums in the United States according to the Recording Industry Association of America. Hotel California is ranked 37th in Rolling Stone 's list of "The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time '' and the band was ranked number 75 on the magazine 's 2004 list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time.
The Eagles are one of the world 's best - selling bands in history, having sold more than 150 million records -- 100 million in the U.S. alone -- including 42 million copies of Their Greatest Hits (1971 -- 1975) and 32 million copies of Hotel California. Their Greatest Hits (1971 -- 1975) was the best selling album of the 20th century in the U.S. They are the fifth - highest - selling music act and the highest - selling American band in U.S. history.
The band released their debut album, Eagles, in 1972, which spawned three top 40 singles: "Take It Easy, '' "Witchy Woman, '' and "Peaceful Easy Feeling. '' Their next album, Desperado (1973), was less successful than the first, only reaching number 41 on the charts; neither of its singles reached the top 40. However, the album does contain what would go on to be two of the band 's most popular tracks: "Desperado '' and "Tequila Sunrise. '' The band released On the Border in 1974, adding guitarist Don Felder as the fifth member midway through the recording of the album. The album generated two top 40 singles: "Already Gone '' and their first number one, "Best of My Love. ''
Their 1975 album One of These Nights included three top 10 singles: "One of These Nights, '' "Lyin ' Eyes, '' and "Take It to the Limit, '' the first hitting the top of the charts. Guitarist and vocalist Joe Walsh also joined the band in 1975 replacing Leadon. The Eagles continued that success and hit their commercial peak in late 1976 with the release of Hotel California, which would go on to sell more than 16 million copies in the U.S. alone and more than 32 million copies worldwide. The album yielded two number - one singles, "New Kid in Town '' and "Hotel California. '' Meisner left the band in 1977 and was replaced by Timothy B. Schmit. They released their last studio album for nearly 28 years in 1979 with The Long Run, which spawned three top 10 singles: "Heartache Tonight, '' "The Long Run, '' and "I Ca n't Tell You Why, '' the lead single being another chart - topping hit.
The Eagles disbanded in July 1980 but reunited in 1994 for the album Hell Freezes Over, a mix of live and new studio tracks. They toured consistently and were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1998. In 2007, the Eagles released Long Road Out of Eden, their first full studio album in 28 years and their sixth number - one album. The next year they launched the Long Road Out of Eden Tour in support of the album. In 2013, they began the extended History of the Eagles Tour in conjunction with the band 's documentary release, History of the Eagles.
Following the death of Frey in January 2016, Henley stated in several interviews that he did not think the band would perform again. However, the Eagles continued performing in 2017 with guest musicians Deacon Frey (son of Glenn) and Vince Gill.
The Eagles began in early 1971, when Linda Ronstadt and her then - manager John Boylan recruited local musicians Glenn Frey and Don Henley for her band. Henley had moved to Los Angeles from Texas with his band Shiloh to record an album produced by Kenny Rogers, and Frey had come from Michigan and formed Longbranch Pennywhistle; they had met in 1970 at The Troubadour in Los Angeles and became acquainted through their mutual record label, Amos Records. Randy Meisner, who had been working with Ricky Nelson 's backing band, the Stone Canyon Band, and Bernie Leadon, a veteran of the Flying Burrito Brothers, also later joined Ronstadt 's group of performers for her summer tour promoting the Silk Purse album.
While on the tour, Frey and Henley decided to form a band together and informed Ronstadt of their intention. Frey later credited Ronstadt with suggesting Leadon for the band, and arranging for Leadon to play for her so Frey and Henley could approach him about forming a band together. They also pitched the idea to Meisner and brought him on board. These four played live together behind Ronstadt only once for a July concert at Disneyland, but all four appeared on her eponymous album. It was later proposed that J.D. Souther should join the band, but Meisner objected. The four were signed in September 1971 to Asylum Records, the new label started by David Geffen, who was introduced to Frey by Jackson Browne. Geffen bought out Frey 's and Henley 's contracts with Amos Records, and sent the four to Aspen, Colorado to develop as a band. Having not settled on a band name yet, they performed their first show in October 1971 under the name of Teen King and the Emergencies at a club called The Gallery in Aspen. Don Felder credited Leadon with originating the name of Eagles for the band during a peyote and tequila - influenced group outing in the Mojave Desert, when he recalled reading about the Hopis ' reverence for the eagle. Accounts however vary, and J.D. Souther suggested that the idea came when Frey shouted out, "Eagles! '' when they saw eagles flying above. Steve Martin, a friend of the band from their early days at The Troubadour, recounts in his autobiography that he suggested that they should be referred to as "the Eagles, '' but Frey insists that the group 's name is simply "Eagles. '' Geffen and partner Elliot Roberts initially managed the band; they were later replaced by Irving Azoff while the Eagles were recording their third album.
The group 's eponymous debut album was recorded in England in February 1972 with producer Glyn Johns. Johns was impressed by the harmony singing of the band, and he has been credited with shaping the band into "the country - rock band with those high - flyin ' harmonies. '' Released on June 1, 1972, Eagles was a breakthrough success, yielding three Top 40 singles. The first single and lead track, "Take It Easy, '' was a song written by Frey with his then - neighbor and fellow country - folk rocker Jackson Browne. Browne had written the first verse of the song, but got stalled on the second verse after the line "I 'm standing on a corner in Winslow, Arizona. '' Frey completed the verse with "It 's a girl, my Lord, in a flatbed Ford, slowin ' down to take a look at me, '' and Browne carried on to finish the song. The song reached number 12 on the Billboard Hot 100 and propelled the Eagles to stardom. The single was followed by the bluesy "Witchy Woman '' and the soft country rock ballad "Peaceful Easy Feeling, '' charting at number 9 and number 22 respectively. The group supported the album with a US tour as the opening act for Yes.
Their second album, Desperado, took Old West outlaws for its theme, drawing comparisons between their lifestyles and modern rock stars. This album was the first to showcase the group 's penchant for conceptual songwriting. It was during these recording sessions Henley and Frey first began writing together. They co-wrote eight of the album 's eleven songs, including "Tequila Sunrise '' and "Desperado, '' two of the group 's most popular songs. The bluegrass songs "Twenty - One, '' "Doolin -- Dalton, '' and the ballad "Saturday Night '' showcase guitarist Bernie Leadon 's abilities on the banjo, guitar, and mandolin. The story of the notorious Wild West "Doolin -- Dalton '' gang is the main thematic focus of the album, as seen in the songs "Doolin -- Dalton, '' "Desperado, '' "Certain Kind of Fool, '' "Outlaw Man, '' and "Bitter Creek. '' The album was less successful than the group 's first, reaching only number 41 on the US Billboard 200 and yielding two singles, "Tequila Sunrise, '' which reached number 61 on the Billboard Hot 100 and "Outlaw Man, '' which peaked at number 59. With Henley and Frey co-writing the bulk of the album -- a pattern that would continue for years to come -- the album marked a significant change for the band. The pair also began to dominate in terms of leadership; the early assumption had been that Leadon and Meisner as veteran musicians would have a greater influence on the band.
For their next album, On the Border, Henley and Frey wanted the band to break away from the country rock style and move more towards hard rock. The Eagles initially started with Glyn Johns as the producer for this album, but he tended to emphasize the lush side of their double - edged music. After completing only two usable songs, the band turned to Bill Szymczyk to produce the rest of the album. Szymczyk wanted a harder - edged guitarist for the song "Good Day in Hell '' and the band remembered Bernie Leadon 's childhood friend Don Felder, a guitarist who had jammed backstage with the band in 1972 when they opened for Yes in Boston. Felder had been nicknamed "Fingers '' at the jam by Frey, a name that stuck due to his guitar proficiency. In January 1974, Frey called Felder to add slide guitar to the song "Good Day in Hell '' and the band was so impressed that they invited him to join the group as the fifth Eagle the next day. He appeared on one other song on the album, the uptempo breakup song "Already Gone, '' on which he performed a guitar duet with Frey. "Already Gone '' was released as the first single from the album and it reached number 32 on the charts. On the Border yielded a number 1 Billboard single ("Best of My Love ''), which hit the top of the charts on March 1, 1975. The song was the Eagles ' first of five chart toppers. The album included a cover version of the Tom Waits song "Ol ' ' 55 '' and the single "James Dean, '' which reached number 77 on the charts.
The band played at the California Jam festival in Ontario, California on April 6, 1974. Attracting more than 300,000 fans and billed as "the Woodstock of the West Coast, '' the festival featured Black Sabbath, Emerson, Lake & Palmer, Deep Purple, Earth, Wind & Fire, Seals & Crofts, Black Oak Arkansas, and Rare Earth. Portions of the show were telecast on ABC television in the United States, exposing the Eagles to a wider audience. Felder missed the show when he was called away to attend the birth of his son; Jackson Browne filled in for him on piano and acoustic guitar.
The Eagles released their fourth studio album, One of These Nights, on June 10, 1975. A breakthrough album for the Eagles, making them international superstars, it was the first in a string of four consecutive number 1 albums. The dominant songwriting partnership of Henley and Frey continued on this album. The first single was the title track, which became their second consecutive chart topper. Frey has said it is his all - time favorite Eagles tune. The second single was "Lyin ' Eyes, '' which reached number 2 on the charts and won the band their first Grammy for "Best Pop Performance by a duo or group with vocal. '' The final single, "Take It to the Limit, '' was written by Meisner, Henley, and Frey, and it is the only Eagles single to feature Meisner on lead vocals. The song reached number 4 on the charts. The band launched a huge worldwide tour in support of the album, and the album was nominated for a Grammy award for Album of the Year. The group was featured on the cover of the September 25, 1975 issue of Rolling Stone magazine and on September 28, the band joined Linda Ronstadt, Jackson Browne, and Toots and the Maytals for a show in front of 55,000 people at Anaheim Stadium.
One of These Nights was their last album to feature founding member Bernie Leadon. Leadon wrote or co-wrote three songs for the album, including "I Wish You Peace, '' written with girlfriend Patti Davis (daughter of California governor Ronald Reagan and Nancy Reagan); and the instrumental "Journey of the Sorcerer, '' which would later be used as the theme music for the BBC 's radio and television versions of The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy. Leadon was disillusioned with the direction the band 's music was taking and his loss of creative control as their sound was moving from his preferred country to rock and roll. His dissatisfaction, principally with Frey, boiled over one night when Frey was talking animatedly about the direction they should take next, and Leadon poured a beer over Frey 's head, and said: "You need to chill out, man! '' On December 20, 1975, after months of denials, it was announced that Leadon had left the band.
Leadon 's replacement, officially announced on December 20, 1975, was guitarist, singer, and keyboardist Joe Walsh, who had been a friend of the band for some years. He had previously performed with James Gang, Barnstorm, and as a solo artist; he was also managed by Azoff and used Szymczyk as his record producer. There was some initial concern as to Walsh 's ability to fit in with the band, as he was considered too "wild '' for the Eagles, especially by Henley. After the departure of Leadon, the Eagles ' early country sound almost completely disappeared, with the band employing a harder sound with the addition of Felder and Walsh; however, Felder also had to play banjo, pedal steel and mandolin on future tours, something that had previously been Leadon 's domain.
In early 1976, the band released their first compilation album, Their Greatest Hits (1971 -- 1975). The album became the highest - selling album of the 20th century in the United States, and has since sold 29 million copies in the U.S. and 42 million copies worldwide. It stayed the biggest seller of all time until it was taken over by Michael Jackson 's Thriller following the artist 's death in 2009. The album cemented the group 's status as the most successful American band of the decade.
The following album, Hotel California, released on December 8, 1976, was the band 's fifth studio album and the first to feature Walsh. The album took a year and a half to complete, a process which, along with touring, drained the band. The album 's first single, "New Kid in Town, '' became the Eagles ' third number - one single.
The second single was the title track, which topped the charts in May 1977 and became the Eagles ' signature song. It features Henley on lead vocals, with a guitar duet performed by Felder and Walsh. The song was written by Felder, Henley, and Frey, with Felder writing all the music. The mysterious lyrics have been interpreted in many ways, some of them controversial. Rumors even started in certain quarters that the song was about Satanism. The rumor was dismissed by the band and later by Henley in the documentary film History of the Eagles. Henley told 60 Minutes in 2007 that "it 's basically a song about the dark underbelly of the American Dream and about excess in America, which was something we knew about. ''
With its hard rock sound, "Life in the Fast Lane '' was also a major success that established Walsh 's position in the band. The third and final single from Hotel California, it reached number 11 on the charts. The ballad "Wasted Time '' closes the first side of the album, while an instrumental reprise of it opens the second side. The album concludes with "The Last Resort, '' a song that Frey once referred to as "Henley 's opus, '' but which Henley described as "fairly pedestrian '' and "never fully realized, musically speaking. ''
The run - out groove on side two has the words "V.O.L. Is Five - Piece Live '' etched into the vinyl, which means that the instrumental track for the song "Victim of Love '' was recorded live in the studio, with no overdubs. Henley confirms this in the liner notes of The Very Best Of. However, the song was a point of contention between Don Felder and the rest of the band. In the 2013 documentary, Felder claimed that he had been promised the lead vocal on "Victim of Love, '' for which he had written most of the music. After many unproductive attempts to record Felder 's vocal, band manager Irving Azoff was delegated to take Felder out for a meal, removing him from the mix while Don Henley overdubbed his lead vocal. Hotel California appeared at number 37 on Rolling Stone 's list of the best albums of all time, and is the band 's best - selling studio album, with more than 17 million copies sold in the U.S. alone and more than 32 million copies worldwide.
The album won Grammys for "Record of the Year '' ("Hotel California '') and "Best Arrangement for Voices '' ("New Kid in Town ''). Hotel California topped the charts and was nominated for Album of the Year at the 1978 Grammy Awards, but lost to Fleetwood Mac 's Rumours. The huge worldwide tour in support of the album further drained the band members and strained their personal and creative relationships.
Hotel California is the last album to feature founding member Randy Meisner, who abruptly left the band after the 1977 tour. The Eagles had been touring continuously for eleven months; the band was suffering from the strain of the tour, and Meisner 's stomach ulcers had flared up by the time they arrived in Knoxville in June 1977. Meisner had been struggling to hit the crucial high notes in his signature song, "Take It To the Limit, '' and was unwilling to perform the song, Frey and Meisner then became engaged in arguments about Meisner 's reluctance to perform. Meisner decided to not sing the song as an encore at the Knoxville concert because he had been up late and caught the flu. Frey and Meisner then got into an angry physical confrontation backstage, and Meisner left the venue. After the incident, Meisner was frozen out from the band, and he decided to leave the group at the end of the tour and return to Nebraska to be with his family. His last performance was in East Troy, Wisconsin on September 3, 1977. The band replaced Meisner with the same musician who had succeeded him in Poco, Timothy B. Schmit, after agreeing that Schmit was the only candidate.
In 1977, the group, minus Don Felder, performed instrumental work and backing vocals for Randy Newman 's album Little Criminals, including "Short People, '' which has backup vocals by Frey and Schmit.
The Eagles went into the recording studio in 1977 to begin work on their next album, The Long Run. The album took two years to complete. It was originally intended to be a double album, but the band members were unable to write enough songs. The Long Run was released on September 24, 1979. Considered a disappointment by some critics for failing to live up to Hotel California, it proved a huge commercial hit nonetheless; the album topped the charts and sold seven million copies. In addition, it included three Top 10 singles. "Heartache Tonight '' became their last single to top the Hot 100, on November 10, 1979. The title track and "I Ca n't Tell You Why '' both reached number 8. The band won their fourth Grammy for "Heartache Tonight. '' "In The City '' by Walsh and "The Sad Cafe '' became live staples. The band also recorded two Christmas songs during these sessions, "Funky New Year '' and "Please Come Home for Christmas, '' which was released as a single in 1978 and reached number 18 on the charts.
Frey, Henley and Schmit contributed backup vocals for the single release of "Look What You 've Done to Me '' by Boz Scaggs. A different version with female backing vocals appears on the Urban Cowboy soundtrack, along with the Eagles ' 1975 hit "Lyin ' Eyes. ''
On July 31, 1980, in Long Beach, California, tempers boiled over into what has been described as the "Long Night at Wrong Beach. '' The animosity between Felder and Frey boiled over before the show began, when Felder said, "You 're welcome -- I guess '' to California Senator Alan Cranston 's wife as the politician was thanking the band backstage for performing a benefit for his reelection. Frey and Felder spent the entire show telling each other about the beating each planned to administer backstage. "Only three more songs until I kick your ass, pal, '' Frey recalled Felder telling him near the end of the band 's set. Felder recalls Frey telling him during "Best of My Love, '' "I 'm gon na kick your ass when we get off the stage. ''
It appeared to be the end of the Eagles, but the band still had a commitment with Elektra Records to make a live record from the tour. Eagles Live (released in November 1980) was mixed on opposite coasts. Frey had already left the band and would remain in Los Angeles, while the other band members each worked on their parts in Miami. "We were fixing three - part harmonies courtesy of Federal Express, '' said producer Bill Szymczyk. Frey refused to speak to the other Eagles, and he fired Irving Azoff as his manager. With credits that listed five attorneys, the album 's liner notes simply said, "Thank you and goodnight. '' A single released from the album -- "Seven Bridges Road '' -- had been a live concert staple for the band. It was written by Steve Young in an arrangement created by Iain Matthews for his Valley Hi album in 1973. The song reached number 21 on the charts in 1980, becoming the Eagles ' last Top 40 single until 1994.
After the Eagles broke up, the former members pursued solo careers. Elektra, the band 's long - time record label, owned the rights to solo albums created by members of the Eagles (though several of them moved to different labels in ensuing years). Walsh had established himself as a solo artist in the 1970s, before and during his time with the Eagles, but it was uncharted waters for the others. Walsh released a successful album in 1981, There Goes the Neighborhood, but subsequent albums throughout the 1980s, such as Got Any Gum? were less well received. During this period Walsh performed as a session musician for Dan Fogelberg, Steve Winwood, John Entwistle, Richard Marx and Emerson, Lake & Palmer, among others, and produced and co-wrote Ringo Starr 's Old Wave album.
Henley achieved arguably the greatest commercial solo success of any former Eagle. In 1981, he sang a duet with Stevie Nicks of Fleetwood Mac fame, "Leather and Lace. '' In 1982, he released I Ca n't Stand Still, featuring the hit "Dirty Laundry. '' This album would pale in comparison to his next release, Building the Perfect Beast (1984), which features the classic rock radio staples "The Boys of Summer '' (a Billboard number 5 hit), "All She Wants to Do Is Dance '' (number 9), "Not Enough Love in the World '' (number 34) and "Sunset Grill '' (number 22). Henley 's next album, The End of the Innocence (1989), was also a major success. It includes "The End of the Innocence, '' "The Last Worthless Evening '' and "The Heart of the Matter. '' His solo career was cut short due to a contract dispute with his record company, which was finally resolved when the Eagles reunited in 1994.
Frey also achieved solo success in the 1980s. In 1982, he released his first album, No Fun Aloud, which spawned the number 15 hit, "The One You Love. '' The Allnighter (1984) featured the number 20 hit "Sexy Girl. '' He reached number 2 on the charts with "The Heat Is On '' from the Beverly Hills Cop soundtrack. He had another number 2 single in 1985 with "You Belong to the City '' from the Miami Vice soundtrack, which featured another Frey song, "Smuggler 's Blues. '' He appeared as "Jimmy '' in the episode titled after the song and contributed riffs to the episode 's soundtrack. He also contributed the songs "Flip City '' to the Ghostbusters II soundtrack and "Part of Me, Part of You '' to the soundtrack for Thelma & Louise.
Music writer turned filmmaker Cameron Crowe, an Eagles fan, had written articles about Poco and the Eagles during his journalism career. In 1982 his first screenplay was produced as the feature - length movie Fast Times at Ridgemont High. The film was co-produced by Eagles manager Azoff, who also co-produced the soundtrack album, released by Elektra. Henley, Walsh, Schmit and Felder all contributed solo songs to the film 's soundtrack. The band playing at the dance toward the end of the movie covers the Eagles song "Life in the Fast Lane. ''
Felder also released a solo album and contributed two songs to the soundtrack of the movie Heavy Metal: "Heavy Metal (Takin ' a Ride) '' (with Henley and Schmit providing backing vocals) and "All of You. '' He also had a minor hit called "Bad Girls '' off his solo album Airborne.
Schmit had a prolific solo career after the band 's initial breakup. He had a hit song on the Fast Times at Ridgemont High soundtrack with "So Much in Love. '' He contributed vocals to the Crosby, Stills & Nash album Daylight Again on the songs "Southern Cross '' and "Wasted on the Way '' when that band needed an extra vocalist due to David Crosby 's drug overindulgence. Schmit sang backup vocals on Toto 's Toto IV album, including the song "I Wo n't Hold You Back '' and appeared with the group on their 1982 European tour. He spent three years (1983 -- 1985) as a member of Jimmy Buffett 's Coral Reefer band and coined the term "Parrotheads '' for Buffett 's die - hard fans. He had a Top 40 solo hit in 1987 with "Boys ' Night Out '' and a top - 30 Adult Contemporary hit with "Do n't Give Up, '' both from his album Timothy B. Schmit appeared with Meisner and Walsh on Richard Marx 's debut single "Do n't Mean Nothing. '' In 1992, Schmit and Walsh toured as members of Ringo Starr 's All - Starr Band and appeared on the live video from the Montreux Jazz Festival. Schmit released two solo albums, Playin ' It Cool in 1984 and Tell Me the Truth in 1990. He was the only Eagle to appear on the 1993 Eagles tribute album Common Thread: The Songs of the Eagles, singing backing vocals on Vince Gill 's cover of "I Ca n't Tell You Why. ''
Meisner hit the top 40 three times, including the number 19 "Hearts on Fire '' in 1981.
An Eagles country tribute album, titled Common Thread: The Songs of the Eagles, was released in 1993, 13 years after the breakup. Travis Tritt insisted on having the Long Run - era Eagles in his video for "Take It Easy '' and they agreed. Following years of public speculation, the band formally reunited the following year. The lineup comprised the five Long Run - era members -- Frey, Henley, Walsh, Felder, and Schmit -- supplemented by Scott Crago (drums), John Corey (keyboards, guitar, backing vocals), Timothy Drury (keyboards, guitar, backing vocals), and former Loggins and Messina sideman Al Garth (sax, violin) on stage.
"For the record, we never broke up, we just took a 14 - year vacation, '' announced Frey at their first live performance in April 1994. The ensuing tour spawned a live album titled Hell Freezes Over (named for Henley 's recurring statement that the group would get back together "when hell freezes over ''), which debuted at number 1 on the Billboard album chart. It included four new studio songs, with "Get Over It '' and "Love Will Keep Us Alive '' both becoming Top 40 hits. The album proved as successful as the tour, selling six million copies in the U.S. The tour was interrupted in September 1994 because of Frey 's serious recurrence of diverticulitis, but it resumed in 1995 and continued into 1996. In 1998, the Eagles were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. For the induction ceremony, all seven Eagles members (Frey, Henley, Felder, Walsh, Schmit, Leadon, and Meisner) played together for two songs, "Take It Easy '' and "Hotel California. '' Several subsequent reunion tours followed (without Leadon or Meisner), notable for their record - setting ticket prices.
The Eagles performed at the Mandalay Bay Events Center in Las Vegas on December 28 and 29, 1999, followed by a concert at the Staples Center in Los Angeles on December 31. These concerts marked the last time Felder played with the band and the shows (including a planned video release) would later form a part of a lawsuit filed by Felder against his former band mates. The concert recordings were released on CD as part of the four - disc Selected Works: 1972 -- 1999 box set in November 2000. Along with the concert, this set included the band 's hit singles, album tracks and outtakes from The Long Run sessions. Selected Works received platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in 2002. The group resumed touring in 2001, with a line - up consisting of Frey, Henley, Walsh, and Schmit, along with Steuart Smith (guitars, mandolin, keyboards, backing vocals; essentially taking over Felder 's role), Michael Thompson (keyboards, trombone), Will Hollis (keyboards, backing vocals), Scott Crago (drums, percussion), Bill Armstrong (Horns), Al Garth (sax, violin), Christian Mostert (sax), and Greg Smith (sax, percussion).
On February 6, 2001, Don Felder was fired from the Eagles. He responded by filing two lawsuits against "Eagles, Ltd., '' a California corporation; Don Henley, an individual; Glenn Frey, an individual; and "Does 1 -- 50, '' alleging wrongful termination, breach of implied - in - fact contract and breach of fiduciary duty, reportedly seeking $50 million in damages. Felder alleged that from the 1994 Hell Freezes Over tour onward, Henley and Frey had. "... insisted that they each receive a higher percentage of the band 's profits..., '' whereas the money had previously been split in five equal portions. Felder accused them of coercing him into signing an agreement under which Henley and Frey would receive three times as much of the Selected Works: 1972 -- 1999 proceeds.
On behalf of Henley and Frey, attorney Daniel M. Petrocelli responded by saying "(Henley and Frey) felt -- creatively, chemistry-wise and performance-wise -- that he should no longer be part of the band... They removed him, and they had every legal right to do so. This has been happening with rock ' n ' roll bands since day one. Henley and Frey then countersued Felder for breach of contract, alleging that Felder had written a "tell - all '' book, Heaven and Hell: My Life in the Eagles (1974 -- 2001). The initial U.S. release was canceled after publisher Hyperion Books backed out in September 2001, when an entire print run of the book had to be recalled for cuts and changes. The American edition was published by John Wiley & Sons on April 28, 2008, with Felder embarking on a full publicity campaign surrounding its release. The book was published in the United Kingdom on November 1, 2007.
On January 23, 2002, the Los Angeles County Court consolidated the two complaints, set a trial date for September 2006, and the single case was dismissed on May 8, 2007, after being settled out of court for an undisclosed amount.
In 2003, the Eagles released a greatest hits album, The Very Best Of. The two - disc compilation was the first that encompassed their entire career from Eagles to Hell Freezes Over. It debuted at number 3 on the Billboard charts and eventually gained triple platinum status. The album included a new single, the September 11 attacks - themed "Hole in the World. '' Also in 2003, Warren Zevon, a longtime Eagles friend, began work on his final album, The Wind, with the assistance of Henley, Walsh, and Schmit.
On June 14, 2005, the Eagles released a new 2 - DVD set, Farewell 1 Tour - Live from Melbourne, featuring two new songs: Frey 's "No More Cloudy Days '' and Walsh 's "One Day at a Time. '' A special edition 2006 release, exclusive to Walmart and affiliated stores, includes a bonus audio CD with three new songs: a studio version of "No More Cloudy Days, '' "Fast Company, '' and "Do Something. ''
In 2007, the Eagles consisted of Frey, Henley, Walsh, and Schmit. On August 20, 2007, "How Long, '' written by J.D. Souther, was released as a single to radio with an accompanying online video at Yahoo! Music. It debuted on television on Country Music Television during the Top 20 Countdown on August 23, 2007. The band had performed the song as part of their live sets in the early to mid-1970s, but did not record it at the time because Souther wanted to reserve it for use on his first solo album. Souther had previously worked with the Eagles, co-writing some of their biggest hits, including "Best of My Love, '' "Victim of Love, '' "Heartache Tonight, '' and "New Kid in Town. ''
On October 30, 2007, the Eagles released Long Road Out of Eden, their first album of all - new material since 1979. For the first year after the album 's release, it was available in the U.S. only via the band 's website, at Walmart, and at Sam 's Club stores. It was commercially available through traditional retail outlets in other countries. The album debuted at number 1 in the U.S., the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Netherlands, and Norway. It became their third studio album and seventh release overall to be certified at least seven times platinum by the RIAA. Henley told CNN that "This is probably the last Eagles album that we 'll ever make. ''
The Eagles made their awards show debut on November 7, 2007, when they performed "How Long '' live at the Country Music Association Awards.
On January 28, 2008, the second single of Long Road Out of Eden was released. "Busy Being Fabulous '' peaked at number 28 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Songs chart and at number 12 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks chart. The Eagles won their fifth Grammy in 2008, in the category Grammy Award for Best Country Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal for "How Long. ''
On March 20, 2008, the Eagles launched their world tour in support of Long Road Out of Eden at The O2 Arena in London. The Long Road Out of Eden Tour concluded the American portion of the tour at Rio Tinto Stadium in Sandy, Utah on May 9, 2009. It was the first concert ever held in the new soccer stadium. The tour travelled to Europe, with its final concert date on July 22, 2009, in Lisbon. The band spent the summer of 2010 touring North American stadiums with the Dixie Chicks and Keith Urban. The tour expanded to England as the headline act of the Hop Farm Festival on July 1, 2011.
Asked in November 2010 whether the Eagles were planning a follow - up to Long Road Out of Eden, Schmit replied, "My first reaction would be: no way. But I said that before the last one, so you never really know. Bands are a fragile entity and you never know what 's going to happen. It took a long time to do that last album, over a span of years, really, and it took a lot out of us. We took a year off at one point. I 'm not sure if we 're able to do that again. I would n't close the door on it, but I do n't know. '' Walsh said in 2010 that there might be one more album before the band "wraps it up. '' Frey later stated in a 2012 interview that the band has had discussions about releasing an EP of potentially 4 -- 6 songs that may contain both original and cover material.
In February 2013, the Eagles released a career - spanning documentary called History of the Eagles and began the supporting tour with 11 US arena concerts in July. Henley said that the tour, which expanded internationally and continued until July 2015, "could very well be our last... we 're gon na include at least one former band member in this tour and kinda go back to the roots, and how we created some of these songs. We 're gon na break it down to the fundamentals and then take it up to where it is now. '' Original Eagles guitarist Bernie Leadon also appeared on the tour. Walsh stated, "Bernie 's brilliant, I never really got a chance to play with him, but we 've been in contact. We see him from time to time, and I 'm really glad he 's coming because it 's going to take the show up a notch, and I 'm really looking forward to playing with him, finally. '' Former members Randy Meisner and Don Felder did not appear. Meisner had been invited but could not participate for health reasons, while Felder was never asked. Though his lawsuits against the Eagles were settled in 2007, Henley claimed that Felder continued to "engage in legal action, of one kind or another '' against the band, but did not state what those actions were.
The Eagles (Frey, Henley, Walsh, and Schmit) were slated to receive Kennedy Center Honors in 2015, but this was deferred to 2016 due to Frey 's health problems.
On January 18, 2016, founding member Glenn Frey died at the Columbia University Medical Center in New York City at the age of 67. The causes of his death were rheumatoid arthritis, acute ulcerative colitis, and pneumonia while recovering from intestinal surgery.
At the 58th Annual Grammy Awards in February, the Eagles, joined by Leadon, touring guitarist Steuart Smith, and co-writer Jackson Browne, performed "Take It Easy '' in honor of Frey. In subsequent interviews, Henley stated that he did n't think the band would perform again.
In March 2017, it was announced that the band would be headlining the Classic West and Classic East concert events in July 2017, which were organized by their manager Irving Azoff. Glenn Frey 's son Deacon performed in Glenn 's place, along with country musician Vince Gill. At the Classic West concert on July 15, the band was joined by Bob Seger who sang "Heartache Tonight '', which he co-wrote. Deacon Frey was noted for his composure and precision.
A North American tour, again with Frey and Gill, began in March 2018. Henley 's son Will joined the touring band as a guitarist.
Influenced by 1960s rhythm and blues, soul, bluegrass, and rock bands such as the Byrds and Buffalo Springfield, the Eagles ' overall sound has been described as "California rock. '' In the words of Sal Manna, author of the CD liner notes of the band 's 1994 album Hell Freezes Over, "no one knew quite what ' California rock ' meant -- except perhaps that, because in California anything was possible, music that came from that promising land was more free - spirited and free - ranging. '' Rolling Stone described the Eagles ' sound as "country - tinged vocal harmonies with hard rock guitars and lyrics. ''
The group 's sound has also been described as country rock, soft rock and folk rock, and in later years the band became associated with the album rock and arena rock labels.
On their early records, the group combined rock and roll, country, and folk music styles. For their third album On the Border, the band widened their style to include a prominent hard rock sound, a genre the band had only touched upon previously. The 1975 follow - up album One of These Nights saw the group explore a softer sound, notably exemplified on the hit singles "Take It to the Limit, '' and "Lyin ' Eyes. Leadon, who was the principal country influence, left the band after the album was released, and the band moved away from country rock to a more rock direction in Hotel California. The band 's 2007 comeback album Long Road Out of Eden saw them explore country rock, blues rock, and funk.
Current members
Former members
Touring musicians
Sources
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when did the current £20 note come out | Bank of England £ 20 note - wikipedia
The Bank of England £ 20 note is a banknote of the pound sterling. It is the second highest denomination of banknote issued by the Bank of England. The current cotton note, first issued in 2007, bears the image of Queen Elizabeth II on the obverse and the image of Scottish economist Adam Smith on the reverse. Starting in 2020, the current note will be phased out, to be replaced by a polymer note featuring a portrait of artist J.M.W. Turner in place of Smith.
Twenty pound notes were introduced by the Bank of England for the first time in 1725. The earliest notes were handwritten, and were issued to individuals as needed. These notes were written on one side only and bore the name of the payee, the date, and the signature of the issuing cashier. With the exception of the Restriction Period between 1797 and 1821 when the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars caused a bullion shortage, these notes could be exchanged in full, or in part, for an equivalent amount of gold when presented at the bank. If redeemed in part, the banknote would be signed to indicate the amount that had been redeemed. From 1853 printed notes replaced handwritten notes, with the declaration "I promise to pay the bearer on demand the sum of twenty pounds '' replacing the name of the payee. This declaration remains on Bank of England banknotes to this day. A printed signature of one of three cashiers appeared on the printed notes, though this was replaced by the signature of the Chief Cashier from 1870 onward.
The right to redeem banknotes for gold ceased in 1931 when Britain stopped using the gold standard. The twenty pound note ceased to be produced by the Bank of England in 1943, and it was not until 1970 with the introduction of the series D notes that the denomination reappeared. The predominantly purple series D notes were two - sided, with an image of Queen Elizabeth II appearing on one side, accompanied by an image of Saint George and the Dragon (all subsequent Bank of England notes also feature an image of the Queen) and an image of William Shakespeare appearing on the other. This note also had a security feature in the form of a ' windowed ' metal thread. The thread is woven into the paper so that it forms a dashed line, yet appears as a single line when held up to the light. Series D notes were phased out in favour of the newer series E notes beginning in 1991. These notes were multicoloured (predominantly mauve - purple) and featured an image of scientist Michael Faraday on the back. Series E notes were replaced by a variant design from 1999 onwards. These are broadly similar to the earlier series E notes but feature Edward Elgar on the reverse.
The current £ 20 note was introduced in 2007. It features a portrait of Scottish economist Adam Smith on the back as well as an illustration of workers in a pin factory. The note features a number of security features in addition to the metallic thread: these include raised print, a watermark, microlettering, a holographic strip, a see - through register, and a colourful pattern which only appears under ultraviolet light. In September 2015 the Bank of England announced that the next £ 20 note will be printed on polymer, rather than cotton paper. This was followed by an announcement in April 2016 that Adam Smith will be replaced by artist J.M.W. Turner on the next £ 20 note, which will enter circulation by 2020. Images on the reverse of the Turner note will include a 1799 self - portrait of Turner, a version of Turner 's The Fighting Temeraire, the quote "Light is therefore colour '' from an 1818 lecture by Turner, and a copy of Turner 's signature as made on his will.
Information taken from Bank of England website.
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who held thor's hammer in avengers 2 | Mjolnir (Comics) - wikipedia
Mjolnir (/ ˈmoʊlnɪr / MOHL - n (ee) r) is a fictional sentient weapon appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. It is depicted as the principal weapon of the superheroes Thor Odinson and Jane Foster. Mjolnir, which first appears in Journey into Mystery # 83 (August 1962), was created by writer Stan Lee and designed by artists Jack Kirby and Joe Sinnott.
Mjolnir was typically depicted as a large, square - headed gray sledgehammer. It has a short, round handle wrapped in brown leather, culminating in a looped lanyard. The object is based on Mjölnir, the weapon of the mythological Thor.
Mjolnir debuted in Journey into Mystery # 83 (Aug. 1962) for Marvel Comics. Prior to this time, "Mjolnar, '' invented by Joe Simon and Jack Kirby, appeared in Adventure Comics # 75 (Jun. 1942), in the Sandman story, "The Villain from Valhalla. '' For Marvel, the hammer was immediately established as the main weapon of the Thunder god Thor Odinson. The weapon 's origin is revealed in Thor Annual # 11 (1983), although another version is presented in Thor vol. 2, # 80 (Aug. 2004).
In a 2002 documentary with Kevin Smith, Lee says his brother Larry Lieber made up the name of Thor 's hammer referring to the hammer 's original name, the "Uru Hammer ''. Later, writer Roy Thomas changed the name of the hammer to the mythologically correct name of "Mjolnir '' and used the name "Uru '' created by Larry Lieber as the name of the fictional metal that the hammer is made from.
Other significant moments in Marvel continuity include the altering of Mjolnir 's enchantments in Thor # 282 (April 1979) and Thor # 340 (Feb. 1984); the temporary possession of Mjolnir by a member of the Enchanters Three in Thor vol. 3, # 14 -- 15 (Aug. -- Sep. 1999); and when the hammer has been damaged, occurring in Journey Into Mystery # 119 (Aug. 1965); Avengers # 215 (Jan. 1982); Thor # 388 (Feb. 1988); Thor vol. 2, # 11 (May 1999); Thor vol. 2, # 80 (Aug. 2004) and Thor vol. 3, # 600 (Feb. 2009).
In Marvel continuity, Mjolnir is forged by Dwarven blacksmiths, and is composed of the fictional Asgardian metal uru. The side of the hammer carries the inscription "Whosoever holds this hammer, if he be worthy, shall possess the power of Thor. ''
The hammer is created when Odinson 's adopted brother Loki cuts off the hair of the goddess Sif as part of a cruel jest, and, when threatened with violence by Thor, promises to fetch replacement hair from the dwarf smiths. Loki commissions the hair from the Sons of Ivaldi and the obliging dwarves also make a magic ship and spear as gifts for the gods. Loki is convinced that no one can match their workmanship, and challenges a dwarf named Eitri to make finer treasures. Eitri creates a golden ring and golden boar spear with magical properties, and finally begins work on a hammer. Loki panics at the sight of the treasures, and, afraid he will lose the wager, transforms himself into a mayfly and stings Eitri 's assistant on the brow as he is working the bellows for the forge. The assistant stops for a moment to wipe away the blood, and the bellows fall flat. As a result, the hammer 's handle is shorter in length than Eitri had originally intended, meaning that the hammer could only be wielded one - handed.
Despite the error, the Norse gods consider Eitri to have forged the greater treasures, and in retaliation, Loki loses the bet and the Sons of Ivaldi sew Loki 's lips shut. The ruler of the Norse gods, Odin, uses the hammer -- called Mjolnir ("Grinder '') by Eitri -- and eventually passes it to his son Odinson, who goes by the title "Thor '', who must first prove he is worthy to wield the weapon.
Another version of the hammer 's origin is presented in the second volume of the title Thor, in which Odin orders the dwarven blacksmiths Eitri, Brok and Buri to forge Mjolnir using the core of a star (the movie uses this origin as well, and Odin says that Mjolnir was "forged in the heart of a dying star '') and an enchanted forge. The forging of the hammer is apparently so intense it destroys the star and nearly the Earth itself.
An additional alternate take on Mjolnir 's origin is presented in Jason Aaron 's The Mighty Thor series. It is explained that the Mother Storm, a sentient storm the size of a galaxy, had once threatened all of Asgard. After a fierce battle, Odin managed to trap it within a nugget of uru that had earlier been given to him by dwarven blacksmiths. He ordered the dwarves to forge the nugget into a weapon that would be able to harness the Mother Storm 's power but found it too difficult to control. The hammer was forgotten until eons later when his son was finally able to lift it and make it his personal weapon.
Mjolnir itself has several enchantments: no living being may lift the hammer unless they are worthy; it returns to the exact spot from which it is thrown and returns to its Thor when summoned; it may summon the elements of storm (lightning, wind, and rain) by stamping its handle twice on the ground; manipulate the weather on an almost global scale; open interdimensional portals, allowing its wielder to travel to other dimensions (such as from Earth to Asgard); and transform THor Odinson into the guise of a mortal, the physician Donald Blake, by stamping the hammer 's head on the ground once and willing the change. When Thor transforms into Blake, his hammer takes the appearance of a wooden walking stick. When disguised, the hammer 's enchantments limiting those who may lift it are not in effect. The hammer itself has also shown to be unaffected by external enchantments. Thors have several times used their Mjolnirs to pin down opponent, since they can not lift the hammer.
A previous provision of this enchantment required that the hammer could not be "gone from Thor 's grasp, '' or out of physical contact with its Thor for more than "sixty seconds full '' without his spontaneous reversion of its users to their mortal selves; fortunately, Mjolnir is small enough to be tucked into a belt for times when its user prefers to have both of their hands free. There are times when Thor had both hands free but produced Mjolnir by reaching behind Thor 's shoulder; the suggestion was that Mjolnir was placed in some kind of sheath or sling on his back, with the handle pointing up so it could be quickly grasped.
In some stories this limitation did not apply in Asgard, although this stipulation was removed in a storyline in which this enchantment is transferred to Stormbreaker, the hammer of Beta Ray Bill. After this, the Donald Blake persona disappeared for a time, and Thor assumed a civilian identity simply by changing into modern clothing, carrying Mjolnir concealed within a duffel bag. Odinson eventually adopts the mortal persona of Jake Olson as penance for accidentally causing the original Olson 's death during a fight, and simply pounds a fist to effect a change; during this time, Mjolnir would disappear when Olson became Thor, and reappear in Thor 's fist when returning to his true form.
Mjolnir was originally capable of creating chronal displacement and therefore allowing time travel, although this enchantment was removed by the entity Immortus with the Thunder god 's consent to help the planet Phantus which was trapped in Limbo. However, Thor is still able to manipulate time with Mjolnir.
When Ragnarok took place, Mjolnir was separated from Thor and fell through the dimensions, creating a tear in Hell that allowed Doctor Doom to escape (Doom having been imprisoned there after his last encounter with the Fantastic Four). Although Doom and the FF attempt to claim the hammer, none of them are able to lift it, resulting in Donald Blake -- who had been returned to life when the spell negating his existence wore off with Asgard 's destruction -- claiming it himself. With Blake and Thor once again co-existing, the hammer resumes its original ' disguise ' of a walking - stick (although Blake 's original limp healed, he sustained minor spine damage during a later confrontation). The hammer is later damaged in a fight with Bor, Thor 's grandfather. Doctor Strange is able to repair the hammer using the Odinforce possessed by Thor, but warns Thor that, should the hammer be damaged in such a manner again, the new link between them could result in Thor being killed himself. The hammer was also sliced in two by the Destroyer. Thor visits the forges in Pittsburgh to mend it.
After Thor 's death in the fight against the Serpent, Loki is able to take Blake 's walking stick -- the only remaining trace of Thor after he was ' replaced ' by Tanarus -- and turn it back into Mjolnir in front of the Silver Surfer, the Surfer 's energy and Loki 's belief in his brother allowing the hammer to return to Thor and restore his memory in time to face the God - Devourer that was about to consume his soul in the afterlife.
During the Original Sin storyline as Thor and the Avengers investigate Uatu The Watcher 's murder, Nick Fury whispers an undisclosed secret to Thor that causes him to lose the ability to pick up Mjolnir. The nature of Mjolnir 's enchantment also changes so that even Odin can not lift it. The hammer is subsequently picked up by an unknown female, later revealed to be Jane Foster, who inherits the power and title of Thor, with the inscription changing to read "if she be worthy ''.
After the destruction and reconstruction of the multiverse, the Mjolnir of the Ultimate Thor falls to land on Asgard, but the entire area where it landed is subsequently taken into the possession of the Collector, who vows to kill his various prisoners unless Thor will tell him a means of bypassing the worthiness enchantment so that he can wield the hammer himself. Although he fights his way to claim the hammer, Odinson decides to leave it, instead working with Beta Ray Bill to channel the power of the hammer to return Asgard to its rightful place. When they have returned to Asgard, Odinson tells Bill that the secret Fury told him was ' Gorr was right ', a reference to the God - Butcher who believed that gods were not needed as they only brought pain and suffering. The issue concludes with another individual, later to be revealed as Volstagg, going to claim the hammer of Ultimate Thor, identified by publicity as ' the War Thor '.
When Captain America is ' reprogrammed ' into an agent of Hydra by a sentient cosmic cube, he sets up a complex chain of events that allow him to take control of America, banishing Jane Foster and claiming Mjolnir for himself, his ability to wield the hammer ensuring that Odinson follows him despite Rogers 's actions, believing that his ability to wield the hammer shows that Rogers is right. In the final stand, after Odinson sides with the heroes over Hydra, Sam Wilson, Bucky, and Eric Lang are able to use a fragment of the Cosmic Cube to restore the original Steve Rogers to existence. This attack also reveals that Hydra had used their cosmic cube to change the nature of the worthiness enchantment to "If he be strong, shall possess the power of Hydra '', with the ' reset ' triggered by the cube 's restoration of Rogers also restoring the original enchantment so that the original Rogers can lift the hammer where his Hydra self can not.
The hammer has been lifted by Earth itself when animated by magical means.
Several imitations of Mjolnir have also existed. These include Stormbreaker and the mace Thunderstrike, created for Beta Ray Bill and Eric Masterson respectively. Loki has been responsible for the creation of several imitations -- a version of Mjolnir, called Stormcaster, is presented to the mutant X-Men member Storm in an attempt to control her, which she later destroyed using Mjolnir. To spite Thor, another version is given to the mercenary Deadpool. Loki also allows Surtur to use the forge Mjolnir was created from to craft copies during Ragnarok. HYDRA created evil versions of Iron Man, Captain America, Hawkeye and Thor, the Thor imitator had a technological imitation of Mjolnir. Tony Stark and Reed Richards also create a technological imitation Mjolnir for use by Ragnarok, the clone of Thor, during the Civil War storyline. A tiny version was created from a sliver of Mjolnir for the use of Throg, leader of the Pet Avengers.
Mjolnir can be used both offensively and defensively.
As one of the most formidable weapons known to man or god, it is described as impacting with sufficient force to "level mountains, '' with primarily adamantium and vibranium proving too impervious. Other offensive capabilities include creating vortices and forcefields (capable of containing an explosion that could potentially destroy a galaxy); emitting mystical blasts of energy; controlling electromagnetism; molecular manipulation; and generating the Geo - Blast (an energy wave that taps a planet 's gravitational force), Anti-Force (energy created to counter-act another force), the thermo - blast which can even challenge such beings as Ego the living planet, and God Blast (a blast that taps into Thor 's life force). The hammer can travel through planets to return to Thor. It can even create antimatter particles and whirling it round can create winds powerful enough to lift the Taj Mahal. The hammer can also move extremely heavy objects, including the Washington Monument.
There are also other several rarely used abilities. Mjolnir can track a person and mystical items; absorb energy, such as draining the Asgardian powers of the Wrecking Crew into the Wrecker; or detect illusions, as Thor once commanded the hammer to strike the demonic Mephisto, who was hiding amongst false images of himself. As a former religious relic, Mjolnir is lethal to the undead, causing creatures such as vampires to burst into flame and crumble to dust. Mjolnir also can project images, as Thor shows a glimpse of Asgard to fellow Avenger Iron Man. It is near - indestructible, surviving bullets, Anti-matter, and the Melter 's melting beam.
The hammer has two properties relating to movement. When it is deliberately thrown by Thor, it will return to his hand despite any intervening obstacles or distance, even traveling through planets to return to Thor. When it has been dropped or set aside, it takes a fixed position, from which it can not be moved except by a ' worthy ' individual.
The hammer has also drained energy from the radioactive supervillain called the Presence, who is forced to surrender before being killed. Mjolnir was able to absorb, contain, and direct the energy of a Null Bomb, which was powerful enough to destroy an entire galaxy. Mjolnir also causes a side effect when used against the hero Union Jack: when Thor erroneously attacks the hero with a blast of lightning and then cancels the offensive, Union Jack is accidentally endowed with the ability to generate electricity. The hammer has been used to both power an Atlantean warship and temporarily drain the forcefield of the villain Juggernaut. If someone swears on the hammer their spirit can be summoned up after death. As well as absorbing radiation, the hammer can repel it back.
The hammer 's ability to transform its user also purges the user of any toxins or radiations in their systems; however, this works against its current wielder, Jane Foster, as she is currently suffering from cancer, with the result that her transformations purge her of the radiation used in her chemotherapy while leaving the cancerous cells alone.
But Mjolnir is also not indestructible, having been damaged several times: a force beam from the Asgardian Destroyer slices it in two; the Molecule Man dispels the atomic bonds between the hammer 's molecules, vaporizing Mjolnir; the hammer shatters after channeling an unmeasurable amount of energy at the Celestial Exitar; Dark god Perrikus slices Mjolnir in half with a magical scythe; and the hammer is shattered when it collides with the uru weapons of Loki 's Storm Giant followers, resulting in an atomic - scale explosion.
During the Celestial Saga storyline, an earlier version of Mjolnir is revealed to exist and was apparently thrown to Midgard (Earth) by Thor 's sons, Modi and Magni, landing in the Rhine river where it transformed into the magical Rhinegold.
A version of Mjolnir in the What If? series was wielded by Rogue after she accidentally absorbed Thor 's powers, the remnants of Thor in her psyche helping her assume his role.
In a future visited by the Hulk where Earth had been decimated by nuclear wars, Thor 's hammer was one of the many mementos of the age of heroes kept by the now - elderly Rick Jones; the Maestro -- the Hulk 's twisted future self -- attempted to use the hammer against the Hulk during their second confrontation in Rick 's museum of hero memorabilia, but failed to lift it even with Thor 's death as he was naturally unworthy to do so. A later storyline set before the Hulk 's fight with the Maestro featured the elder Rick working with his younger self to defeat Thanatos - another alternate Rick - by using his own ability to summon and lift the hammer, explaining that he had been judged worthy to use it for things that young Rick had yet to do and Thanatos would never achieve. In a similar but alternate dystopian future, Mjolnir also rests in a super-hero artifact vault overseen by Rick Jones.
Mjolnir can be seen as one of the many treasures in the one - shot ' The Last Heist ' that takes place in the "Tellos '' universe.
In the Ultimate Marvel imprint title The Ultimates and its sequel The Ultimates 2, the Ultimate version of Thor wields a Mjolnir styled after a classical war hammer. Loki claims that Thor is not really a god, and that Mjolnir is not magical in origin, instead an advanced technological marvel designed by the European Union Super Soldier Program to mimic Thor 's powers, but this proves to be false. At the end of The Ultimates 2 Thor proves his divinity and reclaims his Asgardian powers to defeat Loki. In The Ultimates 3: Who Killed The Scarlet Witch, Thor wields a hammer more closely resembling the mainstream Marvel Universe Mjolnir. In one scene where he is entering a secured building, the computer controlling access identifies first Thor, then Mjolnir; this leads another character to question why the computer identified Mjolnir as a separate, sentient organism, but Thor does not give an explanation for this. He later displays a wall of weapons, including both hammers, which he states were gifts from his father forged by Ulik the Troll. However, in the prequel miniseries Ultimate Comics: Thor it is revealed that the original hammer is not the "real '' Mjolnir but instead Dr. Braddock gives Thor tech - armor, and Thor suggests to turn the power supply into a hammer. Neither version of the hammer seems to be such that its use is restricted by the worthiness test. In Ultimate Comics: The Ultimates Thor puts his hammer inside the Room With No Doors with his son Modi, so that he may escape the destruction and genocide of the Asgardians. With Thor being the last Asgardian alive and his hammer is gone, he loses his divine powers and becomes mortal. Tony Stark kept Thor 's tech armor and hammer since Thor no longer felt he had use for it, and gives it to Thor to "restore '' his powers because he feels the world "needs a god of thunder ''.
Mjolnir is briefly seen by itself during a post-credits scene in Iron Man 2 (2010) at the bottom of a giant crater in New Mexico; S.H.I.E.L.D. Agent Phil Coulson informs Nick Fury, "We 've found it. '' It has since appeared in every Marvel Cinematic Universe film that features Thor including Thor (2011), The Avengers (2012), Thor: The Dark World (2013), and Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015). In Thor: Ragnarok (2017), Hela destroys Mjolnir during a battle with Thor, but at the film 's conclusion Thor learns how to channel his power without using the hammer as a focus.
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how old is scarlett at the beginning of gone with the wind | Scarlett O'Hara - wikipedia
Katie Scarlett O'Hara is a fictional character and the main protagonist in Margaret Mitchell 's 1936 novel Gone with the Wind and in the later film of the same name. She also is the main character in the 1970 musical Scarlett and the 1991 book Scarlett, a sequel to Gone with the Wind that was written by Alexandra Ripley and adapted for a television mini-series in 1994. During early drafts of the original novel, Mitchell referred to her heroine as "Pansy '', and did not decide on the name "Scarlett '' until just before the novel went to print.
O'Hara is the oldest living child of Gerald and Ellen O'Hara. She was born in 1844 or 1845 on her family 's plantation Tara in Georgia. She was named Katie Scarlett, after her father 's mother, but is always called Scarlett, except by her father, who refers to her as "Katie Scarlett. '' She is from a Catholic family of Irish and French ancestry, and a descendent of an aristocratic Savannah family on her mother 's side (the Robillards). O'Hara has black hair, green eyes, and pale skin. She is famous for her fashionably small waist. Scarlett has two younger sisters, Susan Elinor ("Suellen '') O'Hara and Caroline Irene ("Carreen '') O'Hara, and three little brothers who died in infancy. Her baby brothers are buried in the family burying ground at Tara, and each was named Gerald O'Hara, Jr.
Scarlett O'Hara is an atypical protagonist, especially as a female romantic lead in fiction. When the novel opens, Scarlett is sixteen. She is vain, self - centered, and very spoiled by her wealthy parents. She can also be insecure, but is very intelligent, despite her fashionable Southern - belle pretense at ignorance and helplessness around men. She is somewhat unusual among Southern women, whom society preferred to act as dainty creatures who needed protection from their men. Scarlett is aware that she is only acting empty - headed, and resents the fashionable "necessity '' of it, unlike most of her typical party - going Southern belles social set.
Outwardly, Scarlett is the picture of southern charm and womanly virtues, and a popular belle with the country males. The one man she truly wants, however, is her neighbor, Ashley Wilkes -- the one man she ca n't have. The Wilkes family has a tradition of intermarrying with their cousins, and Ashley is promised to his cousin, Melanie Hamilton of Atlanta. Scarlett 's motivation in the early part of the novel centers on her desire to win Ashley 's heart. When he refuses her advances (which no well - bred Southern lady would be so forward as to make), she takes refuge in childish rage, and spitefully accepts the proposal of Charles Hamilton, Melanie 's brother, in a misguided effort to get back at Ashley and Melanie.
Rhett Butler, a wealthy older bachelor and a society pariah, overhears Scarlett express her love to Ashley during a barbecue at Twelve Oaks, the Wilkes ' estate. Rhett admires Scarlett 's willfulness and her departure from accepted propriety as well as her beauty. He pursues Scarlett, but is aware of her impetuousness, childish spite, and her fixation on Ashley. He assists Scarlett in defiance of proper Victorian mourning customs when her husband, Charles Hamilton, dies in a training camp, and Rhett encourages her hoydenish behavior (by antebellum custom) in Atlanta society. Scarlett, privately chafing from the strict rules of polite society, finds friendship with Rhett liberating.
The Civil War sweeps away the lifestyle for which Scarlett was raised, and Southern society falls into ruin. Scarlett, left destitute after Sherman 's army marches through Georgia, becomes the sole source of strength for her family. Her character begins to harden as her relatives, the family slaves and the Wilkes family look to her for protection from homelessness and starvation. Scarlett becomes money - conscious and more materialistic in her motivation to ensure that her family survives and Tara stays in her family, while other Georgia planters are losing their homes. This extends to stealing her younger sister 's fiancé, going into business herself (well - bred southern ladies never worked outside the home), engaging in controversial business practices and even exploiting convict labor in order to make her lumber business profit. Her conduct results in the accidental death of her second husband, Frank Kennedy, and shortly after she marries Rhett Butler for "fun '' and because he is very wealthy.
Scarlett is too insecure and vain to truly grow up and realize her pursuit of Ashley is misdirected until the climax of the novel. With the death of Melanie Wilkes, she realizes her pursuit of Ashley was a childish romance. She realizes she never really loved Ashley and that she has loved Rhett Butler for some time. She pursues Rhett from the Wilkes home to their home, only to discover he has given up hope of ever receiving her love, and is about to leave her. After telling him she loves him, he refuses to stay with her, which leads to the famous line, "Frankly, my dear, I do n't give a damn. '' Wracked with grief, but determined to once again pursue and win her man, realizing that Tara is what matters most to her (other than Rhett) Scarlet returns home to Tara to launch her pursuit of Rhett at a later time.
While the studio and the public agreed that the part of Rhett Butler should go to Clark Gable (except for Clark Gable himself), casting for the role of Scarlett was harder. The search for an actress to play Scarlett in the film version of the novel famously drew the biggest names in the history of cinema, such as Bette Davis (who had been cast as a Southern belle in Jezebel in 1938), and Katharine Hepburn, who went so far as demanding an appointment with producer David O. Selznick and saying, "I am Scarlett O'Hara! The role is practically written for me. '' Selznick replied rather bluntly, "I ca n't imagine Rhett Butler chasing you for twelve years. '' Jean Arthur and Lucille Ball were also considered, as well as relatively unknown actress Doris Davenport. Susan Hayward was "discovered '' when she tested for the part, and the career of Lana Turner developed quickly after her screen test. Tallulah Bankhead and Joan Bennett were widely considered to be the most likely choices until they were supplanted by Paulette Goddard.
The young English actress Vivien Leigh, virtually unknown in America, saw that several English actors, including Ronald Colman and Leslie Howard, were in consideration for the male leads in Gone with the Wind. Her agent happened to be the London representative of the Myron Selznick talent agency, headed by David Selznick 's brother, Myron. Leigh asked Myron to put her name into consideration as Scarlett on the eve of the American release of her picture Fire Over England in February 1938. David Selznick watched both Fire Over England and her most recent picture, A Yank at Oxford, that month, and thought she was excellent but in no way a possible Scarlett, as she was "too British ''. But Myron Selznick arranged for David to first meet Leigh on the night in December 1938 when the burning of the Atlanta Depot was being filmed on the Forty Acres backlot that Selznick International and RKO shared. Leigh and her then lover Laurence Olivier (later to be her husband) were visiting as guests of Myron Selznick, who was also Olivier 's agent, while Leigh was in Hollywood hoping for a part in Olivier 's current movie, Wuthering Heights. In a letter to his wife two days later, David Selznick admitted that Leigh was "the Scarlett dark horse '', and after a series of screen tests, her casting was announced on January 13, 1939. Just before the shooting of the film, Selznick informed Ed Sullivan: "Scarlett O'Hara's parents were French and Irish. Identically, Miss Leigh 's parents are French and Irish. ''
In any case, Leigh was cast -- despite public protest that the role was too "American '' for an English actress -- but Leigh was able to pull off the role so well that she eventually won an Academy Award for her performance as Scarlett O'Hara.
A great number of actresses were considered. In fact, there were approximately 32 women who were considered and or tested for the role. The search for Scarlett began in 1936 (the year of the book 's publication) and ended in December 1938.
Between 1936 and 1938, the following actresses were considered for the role, which required playing Scarlett from 16 years of age until she was 28 (actress age in 1939, the year of Gone With the Wind 's release, when Leigh was 26).
Between late 1937 and mid-1938, approximately 128 actresses were nominated for the role of Scarlett through letters of suggestion sent to Selznick International Pictures from the public.
While Margaret Mitchell used to say that her Gone with The Wind characters were not based on real people, modern researchers have found similarities to some of the people in Mitchell 's own life as well as individuals she heard of. Rhett Butler is thought to be based on Mitchell 's first husband, Red Upshaw. Scarlett 's upbringing resembled that of Mitchell 's maternal grandmother, Annie Fitzgerald Stephens (1844 -- 1934), who was raised on a plantation in Clayton County, Georgia (where the fictional Tara was placed), and whose father was an Irish immigrant. Another source for Scarlett might have been Martha Bulloch Roosevelt, the mother of U.S. president Theodore Roosevelt. Martha grew up in a beautiful Southern mansion, Bulloch Hall, in Roswell, just north of Atlanta, Georgia. Her physical appearance, beauty, grace and intelligence were well known to Mitchell and the personality similarities (the positive ones) between Martha, who was also called Mittie, and Scarlett were striking.
Troy Patterson of Entertainment Weekly argued that Ally McBeal, the main character of the television series with the same name, has similarities to O'Hara and that "Scarlett and Ally are fairy - tale princesses who bear about as much resemblance to real women as Barbie and Skipper. '' Patterson wrote that Ally is similar because she is also a child from a ruling class family, "pines hopelessly after an unavailable dreamboat '', and has a "sassy black roommate '' in place of a "mammy '' to "comfort her ''.
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don't kill the goose that lays the golden egg | The goose that laid the golden Eggs - wikipedia
"To kill the Goose That Laid the Golden Eggs '' is an idiom used of an unprofitable action motivated by greed. It refers to one of Aesop 's Fables, numbered 87 in the Perry Index, a story that also has a number of Eastern analogues.
Avianus and Caxton tell different stories of a goose that lays a golden egg, where other versions have a hen, as in Townsend: "A cottager and his wife had a Hen that laid a golden egg every day. They supposed that the Hen must contain a great lump of gold in its inside, and in order to get the gold they killed (her). Having done so, they found to their surprise that the Hen differed in no respect from their other hens. The foolish pair, thus hoping to become rich all at once, deprived themselves of the gain of which they were assured day by day. ''
In early tellings, there is sometimes a commentary warning against greed rather than a pithy moral. This is so in Jean de La Fontaine 's fable of La Poule aux oeufs d'or (Fables V. 13), which begins with the sentiment that ' Greed loses all by striving all to gain ' and comments at the end that the story can be applied to those who become poor by trying to outreach themselves. It is only later that the morals most often quoted today began to appear. These are ' Greed oft o'er reaches itself ' (Joseph Jacobs, 1894) and ' Much wants more and loses all ' (Samuel Croxall, 1722). It is notable also that these are stories told of a goose rather than a hen.
The English idiom "Kill not the goose that lays the golden egg '', sometimes shortened to "Killing the golden goose '', derives from this fable. It is generally used of a short - sighted action that destroys the profitability of an asset. Caxton 's version of the story has the goose 's owner demand that it lay two eggs a day; when it replied that it could not, the owner killed it. The same lesson is taught by Ignacy Krasicki 's different fable of "The Farmer: ''
There is another variant on the story, recorded by Syntipas (Perry Index 58) and appearing in Roger L'Estrange 's 1692 telling as "A Woman and a Fat Hen '' (Fable 87): A good Woman had a Hen that laid her every day an Egg. Now she fansy 'd to her self, that upon a larger Allowance of Corn, this Hen might be brought in time to lay twice a day. She try 'd the Experiment; but the Hen grew fat upo n't, and gave quite over laying. His comment on this is that ' we should set Bounds to our Desires, and content our selves when we are well, for fear of losing what we had. ' Another of Aesop 's fables with the moral of wanting more and losing everything is The Dog and the Bone.
An Eastern analogue is found in the Suvannahamsa Jataka, which appears in the fourth section of the Buddhist book of monastic discipline (Vinaya). In this the father of a poor family is reborn as a swan with golden feathers and invites them to pluck and sell a single feather from his wings to support themselves, returning occasionally to allow them another. The greedy mother of the family eventually plucks all the feathers at once, but they then turn to ordinary feathers; when the swan recovers its feathers they too are no longer gold. The moral drawn there is:
North of India, in the formerly Persian territory of Sogdiana, it was the Greek version of the story that was known. Among the 8th - century murals in Panjakent, in the western Sugdh province of Tajikistan, there is a panel from room 1, sector 21, representing a series of scenes moving from right to left where it is possible to recognize the same person first in the act of checking a golden egg and later killing the animal in order to get more eggs, only to understand the stupidity of his idea at the very end of the sequence. A local version of the story still persists in the area but ends differently with the main character eventually becoming a king.
In the Mahabharata a story is recounted of wild birds that spit gold, and were discovered by a man who soon strangled them "out of greed ''.
The French text was set as the fourth of Rudolf Koumans ' Vijf fabels van La Fontaine for children 's choir and orchestra (Op. 25 1968). Yassen Vodenitcharov (1964 -) has created a chamber opera from the story (2004).
The majority of illustrations of "The Goose that laid the Golden Eggs '' picture the farmer despairing after discovering that he has killed the goose to no purpose. It was also one of several fables applied to political issues by the American illustrator Thomas Nast. Captioned Always killing the goose that lays the golden eggs, it appeared in Harpers Weekly for March 16, 1878. There the picture of the baffled farmer, advised by a ' Communistic Statesman ', referred to the rail strike of 1877. The farmer stands for the politically driven union members whose wife and children sorrow in the background.
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according to the three fifths compromise three fifths of a states slave population would be | Three - Fifths Compromise - wikipedia
The Three - Fifths Compromise was a compromise reached between state delegates during the 1787 United States Constitutional Convention. The debate was over whether, and if so, how, slaves would be counted when determining a state 's total population for legislative representation and taxing purposes. The issue was important, as this population number would then be used to determine the number of seats that the state would have in the United States House of Representatives for the next ten years. The effect was to give the southern states a third more seats in Congress and a third more electoral votes than if slaves had been ignored, but fewer than if slaves and free persons had been counted equally, allowing the slaveholder interests to largely dominate the government of the United States until 1861. The compromise was proposed by delegates James Wilson and Roger Sherman.
The Convention had unanimously accepted the principle that representation in the House of Representatives would be in proportion to the relative state populations. However, since slaves could not vote, leaders in slave states would thus have the benefit of increased representation in the House and the Electoral College. Delegates opposed to slavery proposed that only free inhabitants of each state be counted for apportionment purposes, while delegates supportive of slavery, on the other hand, opposed the proposal, wanting slaves to count in their actual numbers. The compromise that was finally agreed upon -- of counting "all other persons '' as only three - fifths of their actual numbers -- reduced the representation of the slave states relative to the original proposals, but improved it over the Northern position. An inducement for slave states to accept the Compromise was its tie to taxation in the same ratio, so that the burden of taxation on the slave states was also reduced.
The Three - Fifths Compromise is found in Article 1, Section 2, Clause 3 of the United States Constitution, which reads:
Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective Numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons.
The three - fifths ratio originated with a 1783 amendment proposed to the Articles of Confederation. The amendment was to have changed the basis for determining the wealth of each state, and hence its tax obligations, from real estate to population, as a measure of ability to produce wealth. The proposal by a committee of the Congress had suggested that taxes "shall be supplied by the several colonies in proportion to the number of inhabitants of every age, sex, and quality, except Indians not paying taxes ''. The South immediately objected to this formula since it would include slaves, who were viewed primarily as property, in calculating the amount of taxes to be paid. As Thomas Jefferson wrote in his notes on the debates, the southern states would be taxed "according to their numbers and their wealth conjunctly, while the northern would be taxed on numbers only ''.
After proposed compromises of one - half by Benjamin Harrison of Virginia and three - fourths by several New Englanders failed to gain sufficient support, Congress finally settled on the three - fifths ratio proposed by James Madison. But this amendment ultimately failed, falling two states short of the unanimous approval required for amending the Articles of Confederation (only New Hampshire and New York were opposed).
A contentious issue at the 1787 Constitutional Convention was whether slaves would be counted as part of the population in determining representation of the states in the Congress or would instead be considered property and, as such, not be considered for purposes of representation. Delegates from states with a large population of slaves argued that slaves should be considered persons in determining representation, but as property if the new government were to levy taxes on the states on the basis of population. Delegates from states where slavery had become rare argued that slaves should be included in taxation, but not in determining representation.
The proposed ratio was, however, a ready solution to the impasse that arose during the Constitutional Convention. In that situation, the alignment of the contending forces was the reverse of what had obtained under the Articles of Confederation. In amending the Articles, the North wanted slaves to count for more than the South did because the objective was to determine taxes paid by the states to the federal government. In the Constitutional Convention, the more important issue was representation in Congress, so the South wanted slaves to count for more than the North did.
Much has been said of the impropriety of representing men who have no will of their own... They are men, though degraded to the condition of slavery. They are persons known to the municipal laws of the states which they inhabit, as well as to the laws of nature. But representation and taxation go together... Would it be just to impose a singular burden, without conferring some adequate advantage?
The Three - Fifths Compromise gave a disproportionate representation of slave states in the House of Representatives relative to the voters in free states until the American Civil War. In 1793, for example, Southern slave states had 47 of the 105 members but would have had 33, had seats been assigned based on free populations. In 1812, slave states had 76 out of 143 instead of the 59 they would have had; in 1833, 98 out of 240 instead of 73. As a result, Southern states had disproportionate influence on the presidency, the speakership of the House, and the Supreme Court in the period prior to the Civil War. Along with this must be considered the number of slave and free states, which remained mostly equal until 1850, safeguarding the Southern bloc in the Senate as well as Electoral College votes.
Historian Garry Wills has postulated that without the additional slave state votes, Jefferson would have lost the presidential election of 1800. Also, "slavery would have been excluded from Missouri... Jackson 's Indian removal policy would have failed... the Wilmot Proviso would have banned slavery in territories won from Mexico... the Kansas - Nebraska bill would have failed. '' While the Three - Fifths Compromise could be seen to favor Southern states because of their large slave populations, for example, the Connecticut Compromise tended to favor the Northern states (which were generally smaller). Support for the new Constitution rested on the balance of these sectional interests.
Section 2 of the Fourteenth Amendment (1868) later superseded Article 1, Section 2, Clause 3 and explicitly repealed the compromise. It provides that "representatives shall be apportioned... counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. '' A later provision of the same clause reduced the Congressional representation of states who denied the right to vote to adult male citizens, but this provision was never effectively enforced. (The Thirteenth Amendment, passed in 1865, had already eliminated almost all persons from the original clause 's jurisdiction by banning slavery; the only remaining persons subject to it were those sentenced for a crime to penal servitude, which the amendment excluded from the ban.)
After the Reconstruction Era came to an end in 1877, however, the former slave states subverted the objective of these changes by using various strategies to disenfranchise their black citizens, while obtaining the benefit of apportionment of representatives on the basis of the total populations. These measures effectively gave white Southerners even greater voting power than they had in the antebellum era, inflating the number of Southern Democrats in the House of Representatives as well as the number of votes they could exercise in the Electoral College in the election of the president.
The disenfranchisement of black citizens eventually attracted the attention of Congress, and in 1900 some members proposed stripping the South of seats, related to the number of people who were barred from voting. In the end, Congress did not act to change apportionment, largely because of the power of the Southern bloc. The Southern bloc comprised Southern Democrats voted into office by white voters and constituted a powerful voting bloc in Congress until the 1960s. Their representatives, re-elected repeatedly by one - party states, controlled numerous chairmanships of important committees in both houses on the basis of seniority, giving them control over rules, budgets and important patronage projects, among other issues. Their power allowed them to defeat federal legislation against racial violence and abuses in the South.
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who wrote the lyrics to stronger by kelly clarkson | Stronger (What Does n't Kill You) - wikipedia
"Stronger (What Does n't Kill You) '' is a song by American recording artist Kelly Clarkson and the titular song from her fifth studio album, Stronger (2011). Originally titled as "What Does n't Kill You (Stronger) '', the song served as the album 's second single on January 17, 2012 through RCA Records. Written by Jörgen Elofsson, Ali Tamposi, and David Gamson, with additional writing and production by Greg Kurstin, "Stronger '' is an uptempo song which draws from the genres of dance - pop and electropop. Its lyrical content mainly explores themes of empowerment and recovery following a heartbreak, with the chorus inspired by a Friedrich Nietzsche quotation: "That which does not kill us makes us stronger. ''
In the United States, "Stronger '' became her third song to top the Billboard Hot 100 chart for three non-consecutive weeks, surpassing "A Moment Like This '' (2002) and "My Life Would Suck Without You '' (2009) as her longest - running number one single on the chart. It also topped fifteen other Billboard charts, including Adult Pop Songs, Adult Contemporary, Hot Dance Club Songs, and Pop Songs charts, more than any other song Clarkson has ever released. Internationally, "Stronger '' topped the national charts of Poland and Slovakia and attained a top - ten position in over fifteen countries around the world, eventually selling over five million copies worldwide, becoming one of the best - selling singles of all time. Its success helped its parent album to sustain commercial longevity for over a year. "Stronger '' merited consideration for several industry awards -- including three Grammy Award nominations, and a World Music Award nomination.
The song 's accompanying music video was filmed by Shane Drake, which incorporates the theme of a global flash mob dance, featuring submitted videos of people dancing to the song. The music video garnered positive reception from critics who felt that its overall impact was exuberant. It earned Clarkson a nomination for a MuchMusic Video Award. With its continued success, she performed "Stronger '' on several live award shows and television appearances around the world, debuting it during the first season of The X Factor (US) and performing it on the 37th season of Saturday Night Live, the 2012 MuchMusic Video Awards, and the 2012 American Music Awards. Clarkson also included the song in the set list of her Stronger Tour and on the encore set of her 2012 Summer Tour with The Fray.
Originally titled as "What Does n't Kill You '', "Stronger '' was written by Jörgen Elofsson, Ali Tamposi, David Gamson, and Greg Kurstin in September 2010. In an interview with American Songwriter, Tamposi revealed that the song was inspired by the Friedrich Nietzsche adage ("That which does not kill us makes us stronger '') that her mother told her as advice. Although Tamposi found the phrase as saccharine, she submitted it as an idea to Elofsson and Gamson during their writing sessions. Elofsson originally intended "Stronger '' for Leona Lewis, who turned it down in the process. Tamposi 's manager, Tom Maffei, then had one of his producers, Matty Trump, to produce a demo track later to be pitched to RCA A&R executive Jeff Aldrich, who later gave the song to Clarkson. Tamposi revealed that Clarkson had also altered a lyric from the track. Aldrich had then commissioned Greg Kurstin, whom Clarkson wanted to collaborate with, to produce and add additional writing to the final version. Kurstin recalled, "I rethought the music part of it, I guess. It had a different tempo, beat, chords, and I kinda just came up with that guitar riff that goes into the verse, and that was the first thing that I kinda contributed just changed the feel of the song. '' The song 's uplifting theme of empowerment led Clarkson to name her fifth studio album Stronger. saying that it is one of her favorite songs in the album, she said, "Everybody loves the message ' What does n't kill you makes you stronger. ' It 's a perfect representation of my life. ''
"Stronger '' is a dance - pop and electropop song with a length of three minutes and 41 seconds. According to the sheet music published by Hal Leonard Corporation, it is set in a common time and has a moderately fast tempo of 116 beats per minute. Written in the key of A minor, it follows the chord progression Am -- F -- C-G / B. Clarkson 's vocals span two octaves, from G to G. The song begins with a "rumbling guitar '' and a "shimmering synth '' riff as Clarkson sings the opening line "You know the bed feels warmer / Sleeping here alone. '' Jason Lipshutz of Billboard noted that the guitar riff in the verses is reminiscent of Clarkson 's "Since U Been Gone '' which narrates an anthem of personal reinvention, and dancing. The bridges contain pulsating beats with synth and electric guitar that display some elements of electronic sound. During chorus, the song explodes into an upbeat dance - pop number, complete with guitars and electronic drums as Clarkson sings "What does n't kill you makes you stronger / Stand a little taller / Does n't mean I 'm lonely when I 'm alone. '' Jonathan Keefe of Slant felt nobody else could sell the song 's "ginormous chorus '' better than Clarkson. Lyrically, "Stronger '' explores the theme of moving on from an inimical relationship. In an interview, Clarkson remarked that the song does n't refer to a specific person, stating "I did n't have a bad breakup or anything, I just think life is about relationships so I always write all about these different ones going on in my life. And I do n't have a filter, so it 's pretty verbatim. '' Jason Scott of Blogcritics felt that out of all tracks in Stronger, Clarkson 's vocals are best and trendiest in "What Does n't Kill You (Stronger) ''.
In an interview with MTV News prior to the song 's release, Clarkson compared "Stronger '' to "Since U Been Gone '' (2004). She commented, "We 've already rehearsed it, and it 's so much fun. It 's like this big dance anthem. That 'll be the one (that 's) kinda like "Since U Been Gone '', (with) people jumping up and down to (it), and it 's just kind of really inspiring, so I ca n't wait to perform that one. ''
After returning from a vacation on Tahiti, Clarkson found out over 50 of her newly recorded demo material were leaked online, including "Stronger ''. She commented that the leak felt worse than being physically robbed. In an attempt to counter-attack the leakage, RCA finally debuted the song online on October 5, 2011, three weeks ahead of the album 's release. An acoustic version of the song appears in Clarkson 's second extended play, iTunes Session. "Stronger '' was officially released as the album 's second single to mainstream radio on January 17, 2012. A dance remixes of the song were made available on February 3, 2012. On February 17, 2012, it was released as a CD single.
Jenna Hally Rubenstein of MTV Buzzworthy compared it to "Since U Been Gone, '' which has "a super radio - friendly hook. '' Elizabeth Lancaster of MTV Newsroom listed it as one of five key tracks in Stronger, writing "Upbeat yet soulful, the chorus will drag you up and onto the floor to dance the heartache away alongside her. '' Grady Smith of Entertainment Weekly thought that the song 's "belty pop / rock wheelhouse '' should please fans of the sound. He later added that "Clarkson might have been better off releasing "What Does n't Kill You '' as the first track from Stronger. '' Another positive reception came from Glenn Gamboa of Newsday, who praised Clarkson for "infusing her tales of empowerment after a breakup with her unique combo of vulnerability and sass. '' Jonathan Keefe of Slant thought that the song is "tailor - made for radio play '' and that "the chilly electro - pop that Greg Kurstin brings to the verses, suggests a top forty version of Robyn 's "Call Your Girlfriend '' (2010). On March 5, 2013, Billboard ranked the song at number two in its list of Top 100 American Idol Hits of All Time. Additionally, it also appeared at number two of Clarkson 's Top 15 Biggest Billboard Hot 100 hits through the week ending April 29, 2017.
Chris Willman of Reuters criticized the lyrics, commenting that "Never mind how tired that tune 's titular phrase is. For a laugh, look up the YouTube video in which some wag mashed together a medley of 30 different songs that already borrowed "That which does not kill me makes me stronger '' as a lyrical hook. '' Kevin Ritchie from Now Magazine emphasized that the lyrics are "about as clichéd as a mission statement can get, but it also makes for a solid pop song. '' Robert Copsey of Digital Spy gave the song four stars out of five, writing "The message behind her song may already be a well - worn, almost cliched lesson, but as she continues to prove, there 's little shame in coming out with the expected. ''
In the United States, "Stronger '' topped sixteen Billboard charts, marking career highs for Clarkson. Boosted by digital sales following the release of Stronger, the song debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 chart as an album cut at number 64 on the week ending October 30, 2011. It dropped out following week before returning at number 99 on week ending November 20, 2011. Following its release as a single, "Stronger '' re-entered Billboard Hot 100 at number 58 after Clarkson performed it on Saturday Night Live on the week ending January 21, 2012. On the week ending January 28, 2012, the song climbed to number 21, as well as debuting at number 38 on Adult Pop Songs. The following week, it became her tenth top ten song on the Hot 100 chart as it advanced to number 8 due to the strength of a number 11 to number 3 jump on Hot Digital Songs and vault on Hot 100 Airplay from number 71 to number 44. With "Mr. Know It All '' (2011) having peaked at number 10 on the Hot 100, "Stronger '' 's ascent to number 8 marked the first time Clarkson has had a string of consecutive top ten hits since 2004 -- 2005, when she had four consecutive top - ten hits from her second studio album, Breakaway (2004). That same week, it debuted at number 30 on Pop Songs and at number 40 on Hot Dance Club Songs. On the week ending February 11, "Stronger '' bounded from number 8 to number 2 on the Hot 100 as it topped the Hot Digital Songs chart fueled by 225,000 downloads, becoming her second song to top the Hot Digital Songs after "My Life Would Suck Without You '' (2009). The following week, it ascended to the top of the Hot 100, becoming her third number 1 single in the country after "A Moment Like This '' and "My Life Would Suck Without You ''. It held the top spot for another week, before descending to number 4 on the week ending March 3, 2012. That same week, it became her first song to top the Hot Dance Club Songs, making Clarkson only first artist ever to have topped the Hot 100 and each of the Hot Dance Club Songs, Hot Country Songs, Adult Contemporary, and Adult Pop Songs charts. The week after, It returned to number 1 on the Hot 100 for the third time, thus becoming her longest - reigning number 1 single in the United States. On the week ending March 24, 2012, "Stronger '' became Clarkson 's fourth song to top the Pop Songs chart and her first in six years. It also became her first song to top the Hot 100 Airplay on the week ending April 7, 2012, her fourth song to top the Adult Pop Songs on the week ending March 10, 2012, and her second song to top the Adult Contemporary chart on the week ending June 16, 2012. In its 2012 Year - End issue, Billboard ranked "Stronger '' number 7 on the Year - End Hot 100, marking the first time Clarkson has had a Year - End top ten single on the chart in seven years since "Since U Been Gone '' and "Behind These Hazel Eyes '' (2005). Billboard also ranked it as number 1 on Year - End Adult Contemporary, number 2 on the Year - End Adult Pop Songs, number 11 on the Year - End Pop Songs, and number 35 on the Year - End Hot Dance Club Songs charts.
"Stronger '' also outpaced its predecessor "Mr. Know It All '' in the international charts except in Australia, Germany, Japan, Scotland, and South Korea. It topped the national charts of Belgium, Denmark, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia and became her biggest hit in over 18 other countries, including Austria, Denmark, Hungary, Luxembourg, Portugal, New Zealand, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. "Stronger '' is also her first single to enter the national charts of Finland, Brazil, Iceland, Lebanon, Mexico, Portugal, and Romania. In Canada, it debuted on the Canadian Hot 100 chart at number 64 on the week ending November 12, 2011, eventually peaking at number 3. In the United Kingdom, debuted on the Official UK Charts at number 21 on the week ending January 14, 2012, eventually peaking at number 8 for three non-consecutive weeks as her eighth career top ten single. The song performed better in Scotland, where it attained a peak of number 5. In Ireland, the song debuted at 40 on January 19, 2012 and ascended to number four. In Denmark, after debuting at number 11 on the Danish Singles Chart on the week ending January 20, 2012, it attained a top ten position at number 8 after two weeks. In France, the song debuted at number 187 and peaked at number 26, becoming her first song to chart in six years since "Because of You '' (2006). In the Netherlands, the song debuted on the Single Top 100 at number 96 on the week ending January 7, 2012, and peaked at number 59. In Austria, it entered the Ö3 Austria Top 40 at number 27 and peaked at number 6. In Belgium, it attained a position on Ultratop 50 in Flanders at number 25, but failed to enter the Ultratop 50 in Wallonia by reaching only the top of the Walloon Ultratip chart. Elsewhere in Europe, it attained a top ten position in Czech Republic, Hungary, Luxembourg, and Finland; and a top forty position in Norway, Switzerland, Germany, and Sweden. In Australia, it peaked in the Australian Singles Chart at number 18. In New Zealand, it peaked on the New Zealand Singles Chart at number 4.
"Stronger '' also marked career - highs in Clarkson 's commercial performance. It became her first song to cross the 3 and 4 million marks in digital downloads, becoming her best - selling single in the United States and the United Kingdom. As of September 10, 2017, "Stronger '' had sold over 4,954,000 copies in the United States. In the United Kingdom is sold over 546,000 copies as of April 24, 2016. The song sold over 5 million copies worldwide, becoming one of the best - selling singles of all time.
"Stronger '' has been recognized with accolades from the music press. Entertainment Weekly ranked the song as the tenth best single of 2011. In December 2012, Popjustice ranked "Stronger '' at number 1 on their "Top 45 Singles of 2012 '' list, stating that "this song is timeless in its amazingness '' and claiming that no one "but Kelly Clarkson who could have pulled off this tune. '' The song 's music video was nominated for Best International Artist Video at the 2012 MuchMusic Video Awards. At the 2012 Teen Choice Awards, the song received two nominations, Choice Single by a Female Artist and Choice Break - Up Song. "Stronger '' received three Grammy Award nominations for Record of the Year, Song of the Year, and Best Pop Solo Performance at the 55th ceremony.
On November 21, 2011, Clarkson announced on her website that she wanted to incorporate a global flash mob into the accompanying music video of "Stronger ''. She posted: "I 'm shooting my video for "What Does n't Kill You '' and I 'd like everyone to join me in my global flash mob! Check out the routine in the video below. Learn it with me and get your cameras ready to record you and your friends rocking these moves in a unique location that shows where you are in the world. Submit your clip using the form below and maybe you 'll see it in my music video!! I ca n't wait to see your submissions. Remember to be creative, but keep it safe and legal! Thanks for participating! ''
The music video premiered on VEVO on December 14, 2011. Directed by Shane Drake, the video begins with Clarkson in a video control room, watching select flash mob videos submitted by various participants in different monitors. Throughout the video, scenes of Clarkson performing the song in three different settings (alone in a stage, with her band in a garden square, and in the control room) alternate with various flash mob videos. Towards the end of the video, Clarkson, along with the people in the garden square, forms a flash mob featuring a same choreography.
Critical reception towards the accompanying music video was positive. Prior to its release, Jenna Halley Rubenstein of MTV Buzzworthy predicted that the video would depict women who triumphed over broken relationships as a homage to self - sufficiency. However, she praised the different treatment of the video, complimenting the synchronized dancing and thought that Clarkson kept it classy. Leah Collins of The Vancouver Sun interpreted that the video depicts Clarkson developing a sense of strength and endurance as well as an ability to lead a large - scale dance routine after surviving a trauma. Erin Strecker of Entertainment Weekly enjoyed Clarkson 's goofy expressions and perceived the video as "Since U Been Gone '' round two. Rand Duren of The Dallas Morning News also reiterated that the music video is a reminiscent of "Since U Been Gone '' and that it was great seeing more dancing and movement from Clarkson. Contessa Gayles of AOL.com described the song as "powerful '' and "uplifting '' and she believed that the music video did the song justice. Trent Maynard of 4Music had a positive response towards the video and deemed Clarkson 's look as properly fit in the video. He concluded his review writing, "Nobody has a sense of humor quite like the original American Idol. Oh Kelly, you 're the best. '' The same opinion was echoed by Robbie Daw of Idolator who thought the video was fun especially "when Kelly herself joins the giant mob at the very end. '' He also stated that his personal favorite clip in the video was "the girls who do the moves underwater with fish swimming all around them. '' The video placed fourth for VH1 's Top 20 Videos of the Year for 2012.
Clarkson first performed "Stronger '' in live concerts, she first performed it in a Sony - sponsored concert held at The Troubador in Los Angeles on October 19, 2011. On November 9, 2011, she performed the song at Z100 's annual Jingle Ball concert at Madison Square Garden. She also performed an acoustic version the song on the VH1 Unplugged: Kelly Clarkson special which premiered on VH1 on November 18, 2011. "Stronger '' has been performed prominently in her fourth headlining tour, the Stronger Tour.
Clarkson also promoted "Stronger '' in live television events, the first live televised performance of the song was on November 23, 2011, during The X Factor (US) results show. On December 18, 2011, she performed the song on VH1 Divas Celebrates Soul television special. On January 7, 2012, she performed it along with "Mr. Know It All '' on the 37th season of Saturday Night Live. On June 6, 2012, Clarkson performed it on the British television series This Morning. Clarkson also performed a medley of the "Stronger '' with the succeeding single "Dark Side '' on various television events, such as at the season finale of the fourteenth season of Dancing with the Stars on May 22, 2012, and at the 2012 MuchMusic Video Awards on June 17, 2012.
"Stronger '' was also used in various forms of media. It was used in a 2011 Toyota Camry advertisement which stars Clarkson singing the song with her co-stars Chris Berman, Andrew Zimmern, and James Lipton. Amber Riley, Naya Rivera, and Heather Morris performed the song on the season three episode of Glee titled "On My Way '', which aired on February 21, 2012. Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal described the trio 's performance as "fine, fierce and fabulous. '' Their version of "Stronger '' debuted on the Hot 100 at number 66 on the week ending March 3, 2012 as "What Does n't Kill You (Stronger) ''. The song was featured in Suburgatory and was used in advertisements promoting the second season of the USA Network series Fairly Legal. It was also featured in a playable piece in the Harmonix video game Rock Band Blitz, Rock Band 3 and Dance Central 3. On May 6, 2012, a video of some of the patients and hospital staff of Seattle Children 's hematology oncology unit dancing to the song were uploaded in YouTube to represent their fight against cancer. The video became a viral hit and has been featured by Time and CBS News. On February 26, 2012, Chemmy Alcott and Sean Rice skated to the song on Dancing on Ice. Maria Menounos and Derek Hough danced to the song in the fourteenth season of Dancing with the Stars. The instrumental version has been used as background music to the promotion and the opening theme to the 2013 MDA Show of Strength telethon. Hillary Clinton references "Stronger '' early in her 2017 book "What Happened '' regarding the 2016 US presidential election, "' That which does not kill us makes us stronger. ' -- Friedrich Nietzsche (and Kelly Clarkson) ''.
"Stronger '' has also been performed by contestants of various televised competition programs. On February 21, 2012, It was covered on Glee by Amber Riley, Heather Morris and Naya Rivera for the Regionals episode titled "On My Way ''. On March 22, 2012, it was first performed by Diandra Flores on the sixth season of the Finnish television series Idols. On April 11, 2012, it was covered by Hollie Cavanagh, Joshua Ledet and Jessica Sanchez in the eleventh season of American Idol. On May 12, 2012, it was performed by Joelle Moses after will.i.am 's recommendation on the first series of The Voice UK.
Clarkson also performed the song with Jordan Meredith on the television series Duets, where she is also a mentor. On March 16, 2012, the song was performed by various participants during the season finale of the fifth season of the Danish television series X Factor. On November 8, 2012, the song was performed by Team Adam and Team Blake on the third season of The Voice. On November 28, 2012, the girl - group Fifth Harmony performed the song on the second season of The X Factor. On October 28, 2013, Tessanne Chin covered the song on Season 5 of NBC 's singing competition, The Voice for her performance in the Knockout round vs. Ashley DuBose (who performed "Hey, Soul Sister '' by Train).
In 2010, musician Vincent Peters filed a copyright infringement suit against recording artist Kanye West over the similarities between West 's song "Stronger '' (2007), Peter 's demo song "Stronger '' (2006) which he sent to John Monopoly, West 's associate. The 7th Circuit Court of Appeals ruled the case in West 's favor, citing both the epigram by Nietzsche from his book Twilight of the Idols (1889) and Clarkson 's song "Stronger (What Does n't Kill You) ''.
Credits adapted from Stronger liner notes.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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who spends the most money on the military | List of countries by Military expenditures - wikipedia
This article is a list of countries by military expenditure in a given year. Military expenditure figures are presented in United States dollars based on either constant or current exchange rates. These results can vary greatly from one year to another based on fluctuations in the exchange rates of each country 's currency. Such fluctuations may change a country 's ranking from one year to the next.
The first list is based on the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) 2017 Fact Sheet, which includes a list on the world 's top 15 military spenders in 2016, based on current market exchange rates. The second list is based on the 2016 edition of "The Military Balance '' published by the International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) using average market exchange rates.
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where is the rachel maddow show broadcast from | The Rachel Maddow show - wikipedia
The Rachel Maddow Show (also abbreviated TRMS) is a daily news and opinion television program that airs on MSNBC, running in the 9: 00 pm ET timeslot Monday through Friday. It is hosted by Rachel Maddow, who gained popularity with her frequent appearances as a liberal pundit on various MSNBC programs. It is based on her former radio show of the same name. The show debuted on September 8, 2008.
Keith Olbermann, then host of MSNBC 's Countdown with Keith Olbermann, was Maddow 's first guest on her debut show, and has been given credit for pushing for Maddow to get her own show. Prior to getting her own show, Maddow had served as regular guest host for Countdown when Olbermann was absent. The Rachel Maddow Show replaced Verdict with Dan Abrams.
The Rachel Maddow Show is broadcast from Studio 3 - A at the NBC Studios, 30 Rockefeller Plaza in New York. Each broadcast is repeated three hours later, at 12: 00 am ET; in addition, the Friday broadcast is repeated at 7: 00 pm ET on Saturday.
The broadcast is available on many platforms besides MSNBC, including msnbc.com, audio podcast, video podcast, text transcript, YouTube, and weblog.
The series has occasionally aired in front of theatre audiences, including the 92nd Street Y in New York City on December 20 -- 22, 2010; the Free State Brewery in Lawrence, Kansas, on February 23, 2011; and the French Quarter of New Orleans, Louisiana, on February 5, 2010 (to mark the impending Super Bowl XLIV game featuring the New Orleans Saints under the name "The Rachel Maddeaux Sheaux '').
The Rachel Maddow Show debuted on September 8, 2008, with 1,543,000 viewers (483,000 of whom were in the 25 -- 54 demographic). Early reviews for her show were mostly positive. Los Angeles Times journalist Matea Gold stated that Maddow "finds the right formula on MSNBC '', while The Guardian wrote that Maddow has become the "star of America 's cable news ''. Associated Press columnist David Bauder called her Keith Olbermann 's "political soul mate '' and referred to the Olbermann / Maddow shows as a two - hour "liberal... block ''. New York Times writer Alessandra Stanley opined: "Her program adds a good - humored female face to a cable news channel whose prime time is dominated by unruly, often squabbling schoolboys; Ms. Maddow 's deep, modulated voice is reassuringly calm after so much shrill emotionalism and catfights among the channel 's aging, white male divas ''.
On September 16, 2008, the show drew 1,801,000 viewers (with 534,000 in the 25 -- 54 demographic), beating Larry King Live and becoming the highest - rated MSNBC show of the night. Maddow 's ratings success on September 16 prompted many of her MSNBC colleagues on Morning Joe to congratulate her on the air, including Joe Scarborough, who said it was "just one of those times where good people do well ''. In the month of March 2009 the average number of viewers dropped to 1.1 million, part of a general trend in the ratings decline for cable news programs. During the third quarter of 2009, the show was ranked in third place behind Fox News 's Hannity and CNN 's Larry King Live. The average total number of viewers for the show 's airtimes during this period was 992,000.
During the first quarter of 2010, Maddow 's show pulled well ahead of Larry King Live, regularly beating the show in overall and primetime ratings, becoming the second - highest rated program in its time slot, behind only Fox News 's Hannity. The show continued its lead during the second quarter of 2010, staying well ahead of CNN 's Larry King Live for the third consecutive quarter, and topping the show in both primetime and overall ratings.
In September 2012, Maddow viewership in the 25 -- 54 demographic topped that of Hannity on Monday and Tuesday and in the demographic 's daily average for the week, though not in the week 's cumulative viewership for the time slot. The week was MSNBC 's strongest since February 2009. At the time, the network regularly ranked "a distant second '' to Fox News viewership.
In May 2013, the show delivered its lowest - rated month since it debuted in September 2008 (717,000 total viewers) and its second - lowest with adults 25 -- 54 (210,000). Maddow was topped by both FNC 's Hannity and CNN 's Piers Morgan Tonight.
In November 2013, during the off - year election coverage, Maddow was "up significantly, averaging second place in both measures with 1.267 million viewers and 313,000 adults 25 -- 54 ''. This placed the Maddow Show second, running behind Fox News ' Megyn Kelly, but ahead of CNN 's Piers Morgan Live.
For the week beginning February 13, 2017, Maddow 's 9 pm ET show averaged 2.5 million total viewers, giving the host her best single week since just before the 2008 election, when the program pulled in an average of 2.6 million. This also gives the show its second best week ever. In February TRMS was watched by the most viewers in the show 's nine - year history.
On March 14, 2017, Maddow revealed the first two pages of Donald Trump 's 2005 federal tax return on her show. The documents were originally obtained by journalist David Cay Johnston, who was a guest on her show that night. Before the program aired, the White House released a statement acknowledging that Trump paid $38 million in federal income taxes that year. The White House also accused MSNBC of "violating the law ''.
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what are the sources of the bills introduced into congress | Procedures of the United States Congress - wikipedia
Procedures of the United States Congress are established ways of doing legislative business. Congress has two - year terms with one session each year. There are rules and procedures, often complex, which guide how it converts ideas for legislation into laws.
A term of Congress is divided into two "sessions '', one for each year; Congress has occasionally also been called into an extra, (or special) session (the Constitution requires Congress to meet at least once each year). A new session commences on January 3 (or another date, if Congress so chooses) each year. Before the Twentieth Amendment, Congress met from the first Monday in December to April or May in the first session of their term (the "long session ''); and from December to March 4 in the second "short session ''. (The new Congress would then meet for some days, for the inauguration, swearing in new members, and organization.)
The Constitution forbids either house from meeting any place outside the Capital, or from adjourning for more than three days, without the consent of the other house. The provision was intended to prevent one house from thwarting legislative business simply by refusing to meet. To avoid obtaining consent during long recesses, the House or Senate may sometimes hold pro forma meetings, sometimes only minutes long, every three days. The consent of both bodies is required for Congress 's final adjournment, or adjournment sine die, at the end of each congressional session. If the two houses can not agree on a date, the Constitution permits the President to settle the dispute.
Joint Sessions of the United States Congress occur on special occasions that require a concurrent resolution from both House and Senate. These sessions include the counting of electoral votes following a Presidential election and the President 's State of the Union address. Other meetings of both House and Senate are called Joint Meetings of Congress, held after unanimous consent agreements to recess and meet. Meetings of Congress for Presidential Inaugurations may also be Joint Sessions, if both House and Senate are in session at the time, otherwise they are formal joint gatherings.
At some time during the first two months of each session, the President customarily delivers the State of the Union Address, a speech in which he assesses the situation of the country and outlines his legislative proposals for the congressional session. The speech is modeled on the Speech from the Throne given by the British monarch, and is mandated by the Constitution of the United States -- though it is not necessarily required to be delivered each year or in the customary manner. Thomas Jefferson discontinued the original practice of delivering the speech in person before both houses of Congress, deeming it too monarchical. Instead, Jefferson and his successors sent a written message to Congress each year. In 1913, President Woodrow Wilson reestablished the practice of personally attending to deliver the speech; few Presidents have deviated from this custom since.
Joint Sessions and Joint Meetings are traditionally presided over by the Speaker of the House except for the joint session to count electoral votes for President, when the Constitution requires the President of the Senate (the Vice President of the United States) to preside.
Ideas for legislation can come from many areas, including members, lobbyists, state legislatures, constituents, legislative counsel, an executive agency such as the president or cabinet officer or executive agency, and the usual next step is for the proposal to be passed to a committee for review. A proposal has usually one of four principal forms: the bill, the joint resolution, the concurrent resolution, and the simple resolution.
Any member of Congress may introduce a bill at any time while the House is in session by placing it in the hopper on the Clerk 's desk. A sponsor 's signature is required, and there can be many co-sponsors. It 's assigned a number by the Clerk. Then it 's referred to a committee. Committees study each bill intensely at this stage.
The most important executive communication is usually the president 's annual message which contains a lengthy budget proposal. Drafting statutes is an art that requires "great skill, knowledge, and experience. '' Congressional committees sometimes draft bills after studies and hearings covering periods of a year or more. A proposal may be introduced in Congress as a bill, a joint resolution, a concurrent resolution, or a simple resolution. Most legislative proposals are introduced as bills, but some are introduced as joint resolutions. There is little practical difference between the two, except that joint resolutions may include preambles but bills may not. Joint resolutions are the normal method used to propose a constitutional amendment or to declare war. On the other hand, concurrent resolutions (passed by both houses) and simple resolutions (passed by only one house) do not have the force of law. Instead, they serve to express the opinion of Congress, or to regulate procedure. In many cases, lobbyists write legislation and submit it to a member for introduction. Congressional lobbyists are legally required to be registered in a central database.
Bills may be introduced by any member of either house. However, the Constitution provides that: "All bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives. '' As a result, the Senate does not have the power to initiate bills imposing taxes. Furthermore, the House of Representatives holds that the Senate does not have the power to originate appropriation bills, or bills authorizing the expenditure of federal funds. Historically, the Senate has disputed the interpretation advocated by the House. However, whenever the Senate originates an appropriations bill, the House simply refuses to consider it, thereby settling the dispute in practice. Nevertheless, while the Senate can not originate revenue and appropriation bills, it does retain the power to amend or reject them. A congressional act in 1974 established procedures to try to establish appropriate annual spending levels.
Each bill goes through several stages in each house. The first stage involves consideration by a committee which often seeks input from relevant departments as well as requests feedback from the Government Accountability Office. Most legislation is considered by standing committees, each of which has jurisdiction over a particular subject matter, such as Agriculture or Appropriations. The House has twenty standing committees; the Senate has sixteen. Standing committees meet at least once each month. Almost all standing committee meetings for transacting business must be open to the public unless the committee votes, publicly, to close the meeting. Open committee meetings may be covered by the media. In some cases, bills may be sent to select committees, which tend to have more narrow jurisdictions than standing committees. If a bill is important, the committee may set a date for public hearings announced by the committee 's chairman. Each standing and select committee is led by a chair (who belongs to the majority party) and a ranking member (who belongs to the minority party). Witnesses and experts can present their case for or against a bill. Sometimes transcripts of these meetings are made public. Then, a bill may go to what 's called a mark - up session where committee members debate the bill 's merits and may offer amendments or revisions. Committees are permitted to hold hearings and collect evidence when considering bills. They may also amend the bill, but the full house holds the power to accept or reject committee amendments. After considering and debating a measure, the committee votes on whether it wishes to report the measure to the full house. Not reporting a bill or tabling it means it has been rejected. If amendments to a bill are extensive, then sometimes a new bill with all the amendments built in will be written, sometimes known as a clean bill with a new number.
Both houses provide for procedures under which the committee can be bypassed or overruled, but they are rarely used. If reported by the committee, the bill reaches the floor of the full house which considers it. This can be simple or complex. Consideration of a bill requires, itself, a rule which is a simple resolution hammering out the particulars of debate -- -- time limits, possibility of further amendments, and such. Each side has equal time and members can yield to other members who wish to speak. Sometimes opponents seek to recommit a bill which means to change part of it. Generally, discussion requires a quorum, usually half of the total number of representatives, before discussion can begin, although there are exceptions.
The house may debate and amend the bill; the precise procedures used by the House of Representatives and the Senate differ. A final vote on the bill follows.
Once a bill is approved by one house, it is sent to the other, which may pass, reject, or amend it. For the bill to become law, both houses must agree to identical versions of the bill. If the second house amends the bill, then the differences between the two versions must be reconciled in a conference committee, an ad hoc committee that includes both senators and representatives. One mechanism Congress uses to work within revenue constraints is called the reconciliation process which is a multiple step way to keep new budgets within the bounds of existing ones. In addition, both Houses use a budget enforcement mechanism informally known as pay - as - you - go or paygo which discourages members from considering acts which increase budget deficits.
In many cases, conference committees have introduced substantial changes to bills and added unrequested spending, significantly departing from both the House and Senate versions. President Ronald Reagan once quipped, "If an orange and an apple went into conference consultations, it might come out a pear. '' If both houses agree to the version reported by the conference committee, the bill passes; otherwise, it fails.
There are a variety of means for members to vote on bills, including systems using lights and bells and electronic voting. Most votes, including quorum votes, are done electronically, and allow members to vote yea or nay or present. They light up when the vote is in process. Members insert a voting ID card and can change their votes during the last five minutes if they choose; in addition, paper ballots are used on some occasions (yea indicated by the color green, nay by red.) To conduct a voice vote the chairman asks As many as are in favor say Aye, as many as are opposed, say No. Rules permit live media coverage of voting, although prohibit use of these broadcasts for political purposes or political advertisements. House rules require a three - fifths vote to pass a ruling that contains a specified federal income tax rate increase. One member ca n't cast a vote for another member. It 's possible for citizens to learn how congresspersons voted by consulting an online database.
After passage by both houses, a bill is considered to be enrolled and is sent to the president for approval. The president may sign the bill and make it law. The President may also choose to veto the bill, returning it to Congress with his objections. In such a case, the bill only becomes law if each house of Congress votes to override the veto with a two - thirds majority. Finally, the president may choose to take no action, neither signing nor vetoing the bill. In such a case, the Constitution states that the bill automatically becomes law after ten days, excluding Sundays, unless Congress is adjourned during this period. Therefore, the president may veto legislation passed at the end of a congressional session simply by ignoring it; the maneuver is known as a pocket veto, and can not be overridden by the adjourned Congress.
Every Act of Congress or joint resolution begins with an enacting formula or resolving formula stipulated by law. These are:
The Constitution specifies that a majority of members constitutes a quorum to do business in each house. The rules of each house provide that a quorum is assumed to be present unless a quorum call demonstrates the contrary. Representatives and senators rarely force the presence of a quorum by demanding quorum calls; thus, in most cases, debates continue even if a majority is not present.
Both houses use voice voting to decide most matters; members shout out "aye '' or "no, '' and the presiding officer announces the result. The Constitution, however, requires a recorded vote on the demand of one - fifth of the members present. If the result of the voice vote is unclear, or if the matter is controversial, a recorded vote usually ensues. The Senate uses roll - call votes; a clerk calls out the names of all the senators, each senator stating "aye '' or "no '' when his or her name is announced. The House reserves roll - call votes for the most formal matters, as a roll - call of all 435 representatives takes quite some time; normally, members vote by electronic device. In the case of a tie, the motion in question fails. In the Senate, the Vice President may (if present) cast the tiebreaking vote.
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where was my side of the mountain filmed | My Side of the mountain (film) - wikipedia
My Side of the Mountain is a 1969 film adaptation of the 1959 novel of the same name, by Jean Craighead George. It was directed by James B. Clark.
The story revolves around twelve - year - old Sam Gribley (Teddy Eccles), a devotee of Thoreau (as many were back in the 1960s). He decides to leave Toronto to spend time alone in the Canadian woods to see if he can make it as a self - sufficient spirit after his parents ' promised summer trip does n't pan out. He also wants to work on an algae experiment while he is there.
Sam 's immediate companion is Gus, his pet raccoon, which lives with him in the city. He gathers supplies at a local store, hops on a bus, and heads down the 401 with Gus to what he calls "the Laurentian Mountains of Quebec ''. In actuality he ends up in the picturesque town of Knowlton, Quebec, southeast of Montreal, in the Notre Dame Mountains Range of the northern Appalachian Mountains chain along the eastern coast of North America from northern Georgia. Here he finds the perfect mountain stream and pond location to build a home in an old dead tree. He begins his long - planned algae experiments and proves his ability as a solitary young Thoreau living off the land and communing fully with nature.
Sam wants badly not to have to feel needful of the urban and modern world, however, the sight of a falcon overhead inspires his curiosity about falconry. He journeys back to Knowlton and to the local library, where the librarian and bird - enthusiast Miss Turner (Tudi Wiggins) supplies him with books on falconry. He steals a chick from a local falcon 's nest. It, whom he names Frightful, becomes his new best friend and food supplier, after he teaches it to hunt.
One day, returning to his tree home, he finds an older man there. Bando (Theodore Bikel) is a wandering folk singer traveling the world in search of folk songs and traditions. They share survival ideas, lore with one another, and enlighten each other 's worlds. They enjoy each other 's pancake recipes. (Sam makes acorn pancakes and Bando makes great syrup).
Sam and Bando bond over the summer, but as September 's cold air approaches, Bando tells Sam that he has to leave before winter comes on. They climb the nearby mountain together and Bando says his good - byes. Sam is lonely.
Frightful is killed by an insensitive hunter. Sam is devastated, but still manages to survive as winter sets in. His bright demeanor returns as he witnesses the local fauna playing in the winter snow. He also has the warmth of his tree home in place after building a makeshift chimney out of clay from his pond.
Sam and Gus sleep by the fire as a terrible blizzard sweeps in. Soon their tree home is blanketed in snow, and without air they will suffocate in the smoke - filled chamber. Panic - stricken, Sam begins to dig his way through the snowed - in doorway to the outside air. Luckily, Bando and Miss Turner have decided to pay him a Christmas visit. They help dig him and Gus out. The four have a Christmas celebration and sing "Good King Wenceslas '' over Bando 's guitar playing.
Bando shows Sam newspaper reports of his parents ' concern over their missing son. He decides that he should go home, knowing that he accomplished even more than he set out for. The four head off around the side of the mountain.
The film was filmed on location in Knowlton, Quebec, in the Green Mountains of Quebec, Canada, and Toronto.
Bikel said in his autobiography, Theo, "What was unusual about this production (My Side of the Mountain) was that they asked me not only to sing and play, but to write the songs as well. With the exception of one French - Canadian tune, ' Un Canadien Errant, ' for which I wrote the English lyrics, for all the others I wrote the words and music. ''
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who sang the song we had joy we had fun we had seasons in the sun | Seasons in the Sun - wikipedia
"Seasons in the Sun '' is an English - language adaptation of the song "Le Moribond '' by Belgian singer - songwriter Jacques Brel with lyrics by American singer - poet Rod McKuen. It became a worldwide hit in 1974 for Canadian singer Terry Jacks and became a Christmas number one in the UK in 1999 for Westlife. Jacks 's version is one of the fewer than forty all - time singles to have sold 10 million copies worldwide.
The song is a dying protagonist 's farewell to relatives and friends. The protagonist mentions how hard it will be to die now that the spring season has arrived (historically, spring is portrayed as the season of new life).
The original French - language song is a sardonic ballad, in which the speaker gives backhanded farewells to his adulterous wife and her lover and the priest he disagreed with while sarcastically expressing his wish that there should be singing and dancing when he is buried.
This is an English translation of the original final verse by Jacques Brel:
Rod McKuen, in his translation, attempted to retain the sarcastic tone of the original French song. The last verse in McKuen 's three verse freehand rendering retains Brel 's reference to the wife 's infidelity but with a different sensibility:
Terry Jacks modified the McKuen translation to make the song more positive and sentimental. In each verse, the protagonist bids farewell to someone important in his life:
Terry Jacks 's new third verse reads:
Terry Jacks recorded "Seasons in the Sun '' in Vancouver in 1973 with his then - wife Susan Jacks. They made the decision to record the song when The Beach Boys, who had recorded a version with Terry Jacks producing, decided to abandon their recording.
Jacks released his version as a single in 1973 on his own label, Goldfish Records. "Put the Bone In '', an original composition about burying a deceased pet dog, was included as the B - side. The single soon topped the record charts in the U.S. (where it was released on Bell Records), in Canada, and the UK, selling over 14 million copies worldwide.
Jacks 's version was released in the United States in December 1973, and made the Billboard Hot 100 a month later. On March 2, 1974, the song began a three - week run at number one atop the Hot 100, and remained in the top 40 until almost Memorial Day weekend. Jacks 's version also spent one week on the Easy Listening charts. Billboard ranked it as the number two song for 1974. Although he released several other singles that were moderately successful in Canada, "Seasons in the Sun '' would become Jacks 's only major solo hit in the United States. In Canada, the single (Gold Fish GF 100) reached number sone on the RPM Magazine charts January 26, 1974, and remained there four weeks.
Though the song enjoyed contemporary success, modern criticism has tended to be more critical of Jacks 's overly sentimentalized rewriting of the original song. Jacks 's version is commonly held up as an example of bad music, having been called one of the worst pop songs ever recorded, and ranking number five in a CNN poll in 2006.
Jacks also released a German language version in Germany with lyrics by Gerd Müller - Schwanke, "In den Gärten der Zeit ''.
Irish boy band Westlife covered "Seasons in the Sun '' for their self - titled debut album Westlife (1999). It was released on December 19, 1999, as a double A-side with a cover of ABBA 's "I Have a Dream '' and became the 1999 Christmas number one. It has sold over 650,000 copies in UK so far.
Westlife 's "Seasons In The Sun '' music video was shot in late - 1999 and directed by Cameron Casey & Simon Brand.
There have been numerous cover versions of the song. Before Jacks popularized the song, earlier recordings had been released by The Kingston Trio, with the first cover version of McKuen 's translation in 1963, and The Fortunes in 1968.
Generally, English - language versions since the Terry Jacks version was released have used his lyrics for the song.
Swedish dansband Vikingarna covered the song in Swedish in 1974, as "Sommar varje dag '' on the album Här kommer Vikingarna. The song has also been covered by Andy Williams, The Beach Boys, Nana Mouskouri, Bud Dashiell, Bad Religion, Too Much Joy, the Squirrels, Spell, Black Box Recorder, Nirvana, Indochine, Karel Gott (Léta prázdnin), Klaus Hoffmann (in German), Pearls Before Swine, Alcazar, Me First and the Gimme Gimmes, Second Run, The Others, Television Personalities, and Gob featuring blink - 182.
In 1993, Nirvana recorded an informal version of the song which was never intended for release, but was eventually included on the DVD portion of their 2004 box - set With the Lights Out. Nirvana 's lead singer, Kurt Cobain, would often reference the song in interviews, mentioning the fact that it made him cry as a child.
Another cover version, by Bobby Wright (son of Johnnie Wright and Kitty Wells), reached the Top 40 of the Billboard magazine Hot Country Singles chart in 1974.
The Manchester - based Coachmen 's version was recorded at EMI 's Abbey Road Studios in July 1966 and released on Columbia DB8057 in November 1966.
Spanish versions are entitled ' Epocas de Sol, Estaciones en el Sol, or Etapas de mi Vida.
There is a German version called Adieu Emile by Klaus Hoffmann published in 1975. The translated lyrics are very close to the French ones but the melody is slightly altered and the whole song has a 3 / 4 beat.
Italian singer / songwriter Roberto Vecchioni recorded an Italian version called "Stagioni nel sole '' for his 2005 acoustic, jazz - influenced live album Il Contastorie. The title of his version is a literal translation of "Seasons in the Sun '', but both the lyrics (rewritten by Vecchioni himself) and the musical structure of Vecchioni 's version are much closer to Jacques Brel 's original (including a vague allusion to the protagonist 's wife being unfaithful) than to the Jacks / McKuen version. The accompaniment of this rendition, played on acoustic guitar, piano and double bass (with no drums) is march - like, similar to Brel 's, and pointedly un-romantic.
A second French - language version, Adieu la Vie, Adieu Soleil, was recorded in 1974 by Quebec musician Jacques Amar; this version is the Québécois adaptation of Terry Jacks ' version.
Croatian singer - songwriter Arsen Dedić recorded a Croatian version of the song in 1983 under the title Pjesma umirućeg. Dedić 's lyrics draw more heavily on McKuen 's English translation.
The band Beirut has covered "Le Moribond '' live on a number of occasions. A version performed for KEXP was recorded along with "My Family 's Role in the World Revolution '' for the third track on the Elephant Gun EP. Beirut performs a cover that is quite faithful to the original Jacques Brel version, maintaining the French lyrics and the marching up - beat tempo.
The Finnish schlager singer Arto Sotavalta have recorded a Finnish version of the song called Päivät kuin unta (Eng. Days like dreams). The Finnish translation is very similar to the English text.
The Vietnamese version, called "Những mùa nắng đẹp '' was translated by musician Pham Duy. The translated lyrics are quite similar to the English ones. A number of Vietnamese singers have covered this version.
Swedish Eurodance group Alcazar covered this song for their debut album Casino.
British musician Damon Albarn recorded an acoustic version of this song for a BBC Radio 2 show with Dermot O'Leary.
The 1993 song "Twice My Age '' by Shabba Ranks uses the melody of "Seasons in the Sun '' with a different set of lyrics. Sean Kingston covered "Twice My Age '' on his 2011 mixtape King of Kingz.
In 2002 a satirical version of the song lambasting the Canadian government 's ageing Sea King helicopters was leaked to Esprit de Corps magazine. The lyrics were published in the Ottawa Citizen on November 20, 2002.
Another spoof was recorded in 2006 by Dundee United fan under the alias ' Terry Jack '. This version mocks the possible demise of Dundee United 's archrivals, Dundee FC who were suffering severe financial difficulties at the time. This version contains swearing and adult themes.
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what does m&m stand for in m&m candies | M&M 's - wikipedia
M&M 's are "colorful button - shaped chocolates '', each of which has the letter "m '' printed in lower case on one side, surrounding a filling which varies depending upon the variety of M&M 's. The original candy had a milk chocolate filling which, upon introducing other variations, was branded as the "plain '' variety. "Peanut '' M&M 's, which feature a peanut coated in milk chocolate, and finally a candy shell, were the first variation to be introduced, and they remain a regular variety. Numerous other variations have been introduced, some of which are regular widespread varieties (such as "peanut butter '', "almond '', "pretzel '', "crispy '', "dark chocolate '', and "caramel '') while others are limited in duration or geographic availability.
M&M 's is the flagship product of the Mars Wrigley Confectionery division of Mars, Incorporated. The candy originated in the United States in 1941, and are sold in over 100 countries, since 2003. More than 400 million individual M&M 's are produced every day in the United States. They are produced in different colors, some of which have changed over the years. The candy - coated chocolate concept was inspired by a method used to allow soldiers to carry chocolate in warm climates without having it melt. The company 's longest - lasting slogan reflects this: "Melts in your mouth, not in your hand. '' A traditional milk chocolate M&M weighs about 0.91 grams / 0.032 ounces and has about 4.7 kilocalories (kcal) of food energy (1.7 kcal from fat).
Forrest Mars, Sr., son of the Mars Company founder, Frank C. Mars, copied the idea for the candy in the 1930s during the Spanish Civil War when he saw soldiers eating British - made Smarties, chocolate pellets with a colored shell of what confectioners call hard panning (essentially hardened sugar syrup) surrounding the outside, preventing the candies from melting. Mars received a patent for his own process on March 3, 1941. Production began in 1941 in a factory located at 285 Badger Avenue in Clinton Hill, Newark, New Jersey. When the company was founded it was M&M Limited. The two "Ms '' represent the names of Forrest E. Mars Sr., the founder of Newark Company, and Bruce Murrie, son of Hershey Chocolate 's president William F.R. Murrie, who had a 20 percent share in the product. The arrangement allowed the candies to be made with Hershey chocolate, as Hershey had control of the rationed chocolate at the time.
The company 's first big customer was the U.S. army, which saw the invention as a way to allow soldiers to carry chocolate in tropical climates without it melting. During World War II, the candies were exclusively sold to the military. The resulting demand for the candies caused an increase in production and the company moved its factory to bigger quarters at 200 North 12th Street in Newark, New Jersey, where it remained until 1958 when it moved to a bigger factory at Hackettstown. A second factory was opened in Cleveland, Tennessee in 1978. Today, about half of the production of M&Ms occurs at the New Jersey factory, and half at the Tennessee factory.
In 1949, the brand released the tagline "Melts in your mouth, not in your hand. ''
In 1950, a black "M '' was imprinted on the candies giving them a unique trademark. It was changed to white in 1954.
In the early 1950s, the Midwest Research Institute (now MRIGlobal) in Kansas City, Missouri, worked on behalf of M&M 's to perfect a process whereby 3,300 pounds (1,500 kg) of chocolate centers could be coated every hour.
Peanut M&M 's were introduced in 1954 but first appeared only in the color tan. In 1960, M&M 's added the yellow, red, and green colors.
In 1976, the color orange was added to the mix to replace red, which was discontinued in response to the "red dye scare '' over Red Dyes # 2 and # 4 having been evaluated to be carcinogenic in nature. Although M&M 's were made with the less controversial Red Dye # 40, the public was wary of any food being dyed red. Red M&M 's were re-introduced in 1987.
In the 1980s, M&M 's were introduced internationally to Australia, Canada, Europe, Hong Kong, Japan, Malaysia, and the United Kingdom.
Although they were marketed and then withdrawn in the 1960s, almond - centered M&M 's were available again in 1988 in limited release, with appearances only during Christmas and Easter times; they became a standard part of the product line in 1992.
Also in 1986, M&M 's launched Holidays Chocolate Candies for Easter and Christmas, with the Easter candies having bunny, chick, and egg symbols on pastel - colored shells, and the Christmas candies having pine tree, bell, and candle symbols on red and green shells; with the latter also having a special mint flavor. By 1993, the holiday symbols were replaced with the standard trademark "M ''.
In 1991, Peanut Butter M&M 's were released. These candies have peanut butter inside the chocolate center and the same color scheme as the other varieties. As of at least 2013, the size of the peanut butter M&M has become slightly smaller.
In 1995, tan M&Ms were discontinued to be replaced by blue.
In 1996, Mars introduced "M&M 's Minis '', smaller candies usually sold in plastic tubes instead of bags.
In 1999, Crispy M&M 's were released. They were slightly larger than the milk chocolate variety and also featured a crispy wafer center. They were discontinued in the United States in 2005 and remained available in Europe, and Southeast Asia. In January 2015, they returned to production in the United States.
In July 2001, Dulce de Leche M&M 's were introduced in five markets with large Hispanic populations: Los Angeles, California; San Diego, California; Miami, Florida; Mcallen - Brownsville, Texas; and San Antonio, Texas. The flavor never became popular with the Hispanic community, who preferred existing M&M 's flavors, and it was discontinued in most areas by early 2003.
In 2010, Pretzel M&M 's were released. They contain a crunchy, salty pretzel center inside of the chocolate coating and are about the same size as the Peanut M&M 's, but their shape tends to be more spherical.
In 2013, the M&M 's chocolate bar was re-released. It was originally released in 2004 and named M - Azing.
In 2014, Mega M&M 's were re-introduced. Before then, the ' Mega M&M 's ' had been released in 2007 promoting the Shrek Movies, being dubbed "Ogre - Sized M&M 's ''.
In 2015, Crispy M&M 's were re-introduced in the United States. They had remained available continuously in Europe and Australia.
In 2016, the M&M cookie was re-introduced in the United States.
Also in 2016, the M&M 's flavor vote was created in which the fans could vote for either honey, coffee, or chili nut M&M 's to go with peanut M&M 's. Coffee Nuts was announced as the winner by VEEP 's Tony Hale.
In April 2017, M&M 's chocolate blocks went on sale in Australia. Six varieties (milk chocolate, strawberry, crispy, hazelnut, crispy mint and almond) are available.
Also in 2017, Caramel M&M 's were released in the United States.
In May 2018, Variety Pack M&M 's were released. They consist of a combination of M&M 's, Peanut M&M 's, Caramel M&M 's, Pretzel M&M 's, and Peanut Butter M&M 's.
M&M 's varieties have included the following sizes and fillings. Note that some have only been made available for a limited time, such as white cheesecake for Easter, pumpkin spice or white candy corn for Halloween, and White Strawberry Shortcake for Valentine 's Day.
Over the years, marketing has helped build and expand the M&M 's brand. Computer - animated graphics, personification of the candies as characters with cartoon - like storytelling, and various merchandising techniques including the introduction of new flavors, colors and customizable merchandise have helped to increase the brand 's recognition as a candy icon.
In 1982, the Mars candy bar company rejected the inclusion of M&M 's in the new Steven Spielberg movie E.T.: The Extra-Terrestrial. Competitor Hershey, on the other hand, took a chance with their Reese 's Pieces, which is similar to M&M 's but contains a peanut butter filling, and with the blockbuster success, its candy sales dramatically increased, perhaps by as much as 300 %.
In the early 1980s, its slogan was "All the World Loves M&M 's, '' accompanied by a TV jingle of the same name. Actor Joel Higgins, then co-starring in the NBC - TV sitcom Silver Spoons, co-wrote the song.
In 1990, M&M 's exhibited at New York 's Erie County Fair a life - size fiberglass cow covered with 66,000 M&M candies -- each adhered by hand with the "m '' logo on each candy facing outward. According to a website run by the cow 's designer, Michael Adams, the stunt earned M&M Mars $1 million in free publicity because it was reported on by Newsweek magazine, as well as the New York Post, UPI and WABC - TV, and Live with Regis.
In 1995, the company ran the M&M 's Color Campaign, a contest in which participants were given the choice of selecting purple, blue, or pink as the color of a new variety of M&M 's. The announcement of the winning color (blue) was carried on most of the television networks ' news programs as well as the talk shows of David Letterman and Jay Leno. As part of the contest results, the company had the Empire State Building lighted in blue. Although the financial details of these deals were not disclosed and neither was the campaign 's effect on sales, one marketing book estimated that the company "collected millions '' in free publicity and that the campaign "certainly '' resulted in an increasing of the brand 's awareness.
In 1998, M&M 's were styled as "The Official Candy of the New Millennium, '' as MM is the Roman numeral for 2000. This date was also the release of the rainbow M&M 's, which are multi-colored and filled with a variety of different fillings.
In 2000, "Plain '' M&M 's (a name created in 1954 when "Peanut '' M&M 's were introduced) were renamed "Milk Chocolate '' M&M 's, and pictures of the candy pieces were added to the traditional brown and white packaging.
In 2004, M&M 's adopted the 1967 Petula Clark song Colour My World for its TV ads, albeit using newly recorded versions with other singers.
In 1990, Mars Snackfood US signed up to be a sponsor for NASCAR in the Sprint Cup Series. Drivers for the M&M 's - sponsored car through the years have included Ernie Irvan (1999), Ken Schrader (2000 -- 02), Eliott Sadler (2003 -- 06), Ricky Rudd (2007), David Gilliland (2006 -- 07), Kyle Busch (2008 - current, won 2015 Sprint Cup Series Championship), and Michael McDowell.
The introduction of the blue M&M to Australia was promoted by the Australian Football League 's Carlton Football Club, which wore sky - blue colored guernseys in one of its matches in 1997 instead of its traditional navy blue -- a color which the successful and fiercely traditional club had worn since the 1870s. In 2010, Mars Snackfood Australia described it as the most successful promotional campaign it had ever engaged in.
In April 2005, M&M 's ran the "mPire '' promotion to tie in with the Star Wars: Episode III -- Revenge of the Sith movie release. M&M 's were offered in dark chocolate varieties (Regular and Peanut) for the first time after a string of Addams Family M&M 's commercials.
In May 2004, M&M 's ran a Shrek 2 promotion to tie in with the movie 's release. M&M 's were offered "ogre - sized '' (65 % larger) in swamp / ogre colors. They were sold at many stores displayed in huge cardboard - cutout ogre displays.
In the summer of 2005, Mars added "Mega M&M 's '' to the lineup. These candies, at 55 % larger than the traditional M&M 's, were a little smaller than the ogre - sized version. They were available in milk chocolate and peanut varieties. The colors for Mega M&M 's were changed to less - bright colors, ostensibly to appeal to older consumers: teal (replacing green), beige (replacing orange), maroon (replacing red), gold (replacing yellow), blue - gray (replacing blue), and brown.
In July 2006, Dark Chocolate M&M 's reappeared in a purple package, followed in 2007 by Dark Chocolate Peanut M&M 's. Also in 2006, the company piloted White Chocolate M&M 's as a tie - in with their "Pirates of the Caribbean '' promotion. The company also offered eight new flavors of M&M 's via online sales, as well as at M&M 's World locations: "All That Razz ''; "Eat, Drink, & Be Cherry ''; "A Day at the Peach ''; "Orange - U-Glad ''; "Mint Condition ''; "AlmonDeeLicious ''; "Nut What You Think ''; and "Cookie Monster ''. Mars also released a "Crispy Mint '' variety in Australia that year.
Also in 2006, M&M 's became the official chocolate of NASCAR.
In 2007, M&M 's introduced a limited - edition raspberry flavor called "M&M 's Razzberry Chocolate Candies ''.
Also in 2007, M&M 's produced a 50 - foot, smiling Lady Liberty M&M statue to kick off a campaign encouraging Americans to create their own M&M characters at mms.com. The website allows for people to log in and create their own character from scratch. They can choose features such as the color, shape, hair, and accessories.
In 2008, two limited - edition varieties of the candy were introduced -- "Wildly Cherry '' M&M 's, and, as a marketing tie - in with the film Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull, "Mint Crisp '' M&M 's.
M&M 's also introduced another new product called "M&M 's Premiums '' in 2008. They come in five flavors -- chocolate almond, mint chocolate, mocha, raspberry almond, and triple chocolate (milk, dark, and white chocolate), which are sold in small upright cartons with a plastic bag inside. M&M 's Premiums do not have a candy shell but are coated with carnauba wax and color. Dark Chocolate was added in 2009, replacing Mocha.
During the summer of 2008, My M&M 's launched ' Faces, ' which allows consumers to print the faces of loved ones on M&M 's chocolate candies at mymms.com.
In February 2009, M&M 's launched the "M&M 's Colour Break - Up '' promotion in Australia where M&M 's were sold in separate packs (one for each color): the packs included a code to win prizes.
In Summer 2009, M&M 's launched a limited - edition "Strawberried Peanut Butter '' variant to tie in with the release of Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen. In addition, M&M 's launched a limited edition "Coconut M&M 's, '' which became a permanent item in 2010.
In early 2010, M&M 's Bare All were released as part of a competition in Australia and New Zealand. M&M 's Bare All winning packs were ordinary M&M 's, but without colored shells. An official website was launched, along with television advertisements. In April 2010, M&M 's launched a new pretzel variety.
In November 2011, Mars released M&M 's Cinnamon Milk Chocolate for Christmas.
About the time pretzel M&M 's came out, the M&M 's wrapper designs in the U.S. were redone, from the old design, used from 2004 - early 2010.
In 2012, M&M 's released two new Dark Chocolate flavors: Raspberry and Mint. Also that year, M&M 's released a White Chocolate flavor for the Easter season. From May 30, 2012, onwards, M&M 's will be launched in Macau. Its Macanese launch language is Portuguese. In 2012, Peanut M&M 's were produced in the UK in a limited edition "Red, White and Blues only '' pack, in connection with the country 's Diamond Jubilee and 2012 Summer Olympics. The ' M ' remains white on the white candies. The commercial advertising this promotional package had Yellow donning various outfits of British stereotypes to try to get into the limited edition pack. Similarly, to promote the 2014 FIFA World Cup, Peanut M&M 's were produced in a pack that contained only green, yellow, and blue candies, dubbed "Brazilian M&M 's '' in reference to the colors of the flag of Brazil. "Brazilian M&M 's '' were re-released in 2016 to promote the 2016 Summer Olympics, but are now available in both Chocolate and Peanut.
In 2013, M&M 's launched the "Better with M '' campaign, which included cause - related marketing. The campaign worked with Habitat for Humanity and encouraged fans to use a Facebook app to volunteer at the various sites where the homes were being built. The advertising campaign was one of the largest that Mars had ever executed. The 2013 "America Better With M '' initiative sough to provide money directly to Habitat for Humanity through offering limited versions of M&Ms in red, white and blue.
Related candy brands from Mars include Minstrels, Revels, Skittles, and Treets.
M&M 's World specialty shops have been established in some locations, including Las Vegas, Orlando, New York, London, and Shanghai.
Several M&Ms - themed video games have been created. The first was M&M 's: The Lost Formulas, released on September 28, 2000.
Early black - and - white adverts for the candy in 1954 featured two talking, anthropomorphic M&M characters -- one plain and one peanut -- diving into a swimming pool full of chocolate.
The first incarnation of the characters in CGI was a 1994 celebrity campaign which had the characters interacting with celebrities on which M&Ms candy color is their favorite. This campaign was created by Blue Sky Studios. Concurrent with 1995 's blue M&M campaign, M&M 's introduced second computer - animated "spokescandies '' in their television commercials. The depiction and campaign of the M&M 's were made by Will Vinton in 1995. Vinton previously created the clay - animation California Raisins in 1986. Around the time he worked on CGI projects, he made the depiction of the M&M 's as more mature than most food mascots. These include the team of the cynical and sardonic Red (originally voiced by Jon Lovitz, thereafter Billy West) who is the mascot for milk chocolate, peanut butter, and crispy M&M 's, and the happy and gullible Yellow (originally voiced by John Goodman, thereafter J.K. Simmons), who is the mascot for peanut M&M 's (he was originally known as "Peanut '' when first introduced). Other mascots include the "cool one '', Blue (voiced by Phil Hartman until his death in 1998, thereafter Robb Pruitt) who is the mascot for almond M&M 's; the seductive Green (voiced by Cree Summer), who is the mascot for both dark chocolate mint and peanut butter M&M 's, and the slightly neurotic Orange (voiced by Eric Kirchberger), who was introduced when Crispy M&M 's were first released and returned when Pretzel M&M 's debuted in 2010. Orange, upon his return, was joined by the second non-M&M mascot, Pretzel Guy (voiced by Maurice LaMarche), who "supports '' him and offers helpful advice as he hates the idea of having a pretzel put inside his body.
Other mascots that were introduced, but no longer used, are Almond, the original green guy; Orange, a female peanut character, Chocolate Bar; the first non-M&M character that always gets foiled or outdone by Red and Yellow by being melted when M&M 's ca n't, and the Swarmees for M&M 's Minis candies, which are portrayed as destructive yet crafty troublemakers who Red and Yellow are always trying unsuccessfully to contain.
Female M&M 's mascots were introduced in 1995. Green was the milk chocolate mascot and Tan was the peanut. Marketing discontinued Tan when they introduced the then - new Blue mascot. Green was the only female M&M 's mascot from her introduction in 1995 until 2012 when M&M 's unveiled a new additional spokescandy, the businesslike Ms. Brown (voiced by Miss America 1984 Vanessa Williams), the "Chief Chocolate Officer. '' She made her debut in a Super Bowl XLVI advertisement, where several people at a party assume she is naked because her shell is the same color as her insides, which causes Red to remove his outer shell thinking "it 's that kind of party '', and start dancing to the LMFAO song "Sexy And I Know It. ''
During a Super Bowl LII advertisement, Red was transformed into a human after finding a lucky penny and wishing he was inedible. As a human, he is portrayed by Danny DeVito.
The original colors of M&M 's candies were red, yellow, violet, green and brown.
In 1976, the Food and Drug Administration released a study that linked red dye 2 in food coloring to cancer. Though Mars did not use this dye, they decided to pull the red M&M 's from the market to avoid possible misunderstandings. The red candy were reintroduced to the market ten years later.
In early 1995, Mars ran a promotion in which consumers were invited to vote on which of blue, pink, or purple would replace the tan M&M 's. Blue was the winner with 54 % of the votes. It replaced tan in late 1995. Consumers could vote by calling 1 - 800 - FUN - COLOR. Ads for the new blue colors featured a plain and an almond blue M&M character as Red and Yellow take notice of trying to do takes in the commercial by painting themselves blue where they appear on stage with B.B. King singing the blues, but the filmmakers had to cut the scene as they were not the real blue M&M 's; another featured Red and Yellow holding their breath to look like the new blue M&M 's, where Steven Weber sees the three M&M 's, Red, Yellow, and Blue; and one more featuring Weber talking to the blue M&M if he had dived into the chocolate pool, but did not.
In 2002, Mars solicited votes in their first ever "M&M 's Global Color Vote '' to add a new color from three choices: aqua (turquoise), pink, and purple. Purple won and was featured for a limited time. To help the colors get votes, Ken Schrader and his MB2 Motorsports team, who was sponsored by M&M 's at the time, ran four paint schemes during the 2002 NASCAR Winston Cup Series season representing the promotion (one for aqua, one for pink, one for purple, and another one with all three colors on the car.) Specially marked packages of M&M 's were released in Japan. Finding a bag of all purple M&M 's entitled the customer to a prize of 100 million yen (equivalent to approximately USD $852,000).
On January 1, 2004, at the stroke of midnight, Mars removed all of the colors of M&M 's and made them black - and - white on both their candies and the packaging. It coincided with a commercial parodying The Wizard of Oz where Dorothy is home in bed and looks out of the window and sees what the colors of the four M&M 's were. The goal was to help the M&M 's find their colors in black - and - white packages of M&M 's, in this order: brown, orange, red, green, yellow, and blue. After all of the colors have been found, the colored packaging returned, and began carrying the theme "Chocolate is better in color ''.
Since 2004, M&M 's have been available online in 17 colors, with personalized phrases on each candy on the opposite side from the "m ''. Released around Christmas, these custom - printed M&M 's were originally intended for holiday greetings, but are now available all year round.
For the 2008 Valentine 's Day season, Mars introduced all - green bags of M&M 's. This was due to common urban folklore that says green M&M 's are an aphrodisiac. They were brought back for 2009 alongside the "Ms. Green Heats Up Valentine 's Day '' contest.
In October 2011, Mars released M&M 's White Chocolate Candy Corn exclusively in the United States for Halloween. These candies come in three candy corn inspired colors: white, bright yellow, and bright orange.
The following is a summary of the changes to the colors of the flagship (milk chocolate) flavor of M&M 's, the only filling manufactured continuously since the beginning of the brand. From 1941 until 1969, each package contained M&M 's in five different colors; when red M&M 's were reintroduced in 1987, they were added as a sixth color instead of replacing any of the existing colors.
Red candies were eliminated in 1976 because of health concerns over the dye amaranth (FD&C Red # 2), which was a suspected carcinogen, and were replaced with orange - colored candies. This was done despite the fact that M&M 's did not contain the dye; the action was purely to satisfy worried consumers. Red candies were reintroduced ten years later, but they also kept the orange colored M&M 's. Paul Hethmon, then a student at University of Tennessee, started the campaign to bring back red M&M 's as a joke that would eventually become a worldwide phenomenon.
In Europe, red M&M 's contain the red dye carmine (E120). Carmine, also known as cochineal, has had some campaigns launched against its use in food, because it is made from crushed insects. Notably, Starbucks in the UK had a campaign launched against it for using carmine.
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what is the work of reader in court | Reader (Inns of Court) - Wikipedia
A Reader in one of the Inns of Court in London was originally a senior barrister of the Inn who was elected to deliver a lecture or series of lectures on a particular legal topic. Two Readers (known as Lent and Autumn Readers) would be elected annually to serve a one - year term.
Lincoln 's Inn became formally organised as a place of legal education thanks to a decree in 1464, which required a Reader to give lectures to the law students there.
By 1569 at Gray 's Inn there had been Readers for more than a century, and before the rise of the Benchers they formed the governing body of the Inn.
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in step 1 of the reid technique interrogation | Reid technique - wikipedia
The Reid technique is a method of questioning suspects to try to assess their credibility, developed by consultant and polygraph expert John Reid. Supporters argue that the Reid technique is useful in extracting information from otherwise unwilling suspects, while critics have charged the technique can elicit false confessions from innocent people, especially children. "The Reid technique '' is a registered trademark of John E. Reid and Associates, and is widely used by law - enforcement agencies in North America.
A 1955 confession which established Reid 's reputation and popularized his technique was later determined to be false after another man confessed; the man originally convicted using the confession obtained by Reid was paid $500,000 by the state of Nebraska in compensation for his wrongful conviction.
The Reid technique consists of a three - phase process beginning with Fact Analysis, followed by the Behavior Analysis Interview (a non-accusatory interview designed to develop investigative and behavioral information), followed when appropriate by the Reid Nine Steps of Interrogation. Individuals should only be interrogated when the information developed from the interview and investigation indicate that the subject is involved in the commission of the crime.
In the Reid technique, interrogation is an accusatory process in which the investigator tells the suspect that the results of the investigation clearly indicate that they did commit the crime in question. The interrogation is in the form of a monologue presented by the investigator rather than a question and answer format. The demeanor of the investigator during the course of an interrogation is ideally understanding, patient, and non-demeaning. The Reid technique user 's goal is to make the suspect gradually more comfortable with telling the truth. This is accomplished by the investigators ' first imagining and then offering the suspect various psychological constructs as justification for their behavior.
For example, an admission of guilt might be prompted by the question, "Did you plan this out or did it just happen on the spur of the moment? '' This is called an alternative question which is based on an implicit assumption of guilt. The subject, of course, always has a third choice which is to deny any involvement at all. Critics regard this strategy as hazardous, arguing that it is subject to confirmation bias (likely to reinforce inaccurate beliefs or assumptions) and may lead to prematurely narrowing an investigation.
The Reid technique 's nine steps of interrogation are:
Critics of the technique claim it too easily produces false confessions, especially with children. The use of techniques that are acceptable in the United States, such as lying to a suspect about evidence, are prohibited in several European countries because of the perceived risk of false confessions and wrongful convictions that might result, particularly with juveniles. For example, § 136a of the German Strafprozessordnung (de) (StPO) bans the use of deception and intimidation in interrogations; the Reid method also conflicts with the German police 's obligation to adequately inform the suspect of their right to silence.
In Canada, Provincial Court Judge Mike Dinkel ruled in 2012 that "stripped to its bare essentials, the Reid technique is a guilt - presumptive, confrontational, psychologically manipulative procedure whose purpose is to extract a confession. ''
It was discovered in December 2013 that an unredacted copy of the Federal Bureau of Investigation interrogation manual had been impermissibly placed in the Library of Congress and was available for public view. The manual confirmed American Civil Liberties Union concerns that the agency used the Reid technique.
Abuses of interrogation methods include falsely accused suspects being treated aggressively and told lies about the amount of evidence proving their guilt. Such exaggerated claims of evidence, such as video or genetics, has the potential, when combined with such coercive tactics as threats of harm or promises of leniency, to potentially cause innocent suspects becoming overwhelmed. In 2003 an innocent man who repeated he was not guilty and was on a bus at the time the robbery in question occurred, successfully sued the Hamilton Police Service.
In 2015, eight organizations including John E. Reid & Associates settled with Juan Rivera, who was wrongfully convicted of the 1992 rape and murder of 11 - year - old Holly Staker. A number of pieces of evidence excluded Rivera, including DNA from the rape kit and the report from the electronic ankle monitor he was wearing at the time while awaiting trial for a non-violent burglary. However, he confessed after being interrogated by the police several days after taking two polygraph examinations at Reid and Associates. After his exoneration, Rivera filed a suit for false arrest and malicious prosecution. The case was settled out of court with John E. Reid & Associates paying $2 million.
The PEACE (Preparation and Planning, Engage and Explain, Account, Closure and Evaluate) model developed in Britain "encourages more of a dialogue between investigator and suspect ''.
In 2015, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police adopted a new standard influenced by the PEACE model. Sgt. Darren Carr, who trains police with the new approach, described it as "less Kojak and more Dr. Phil ''. This approach eschews the use of deceptive information to overwhelm suspects. It emphasizes information gathering over eliciting confessions, and discourages investigators from presuming a suspect 's guilt.
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where does the superb bird of paradise live | Superb bird - of - paradise - wikipedia
The superb bird - of - paradise (Lophorina superba), is a species of the Paradisaeidae (bird - of - paradise) family. It is the only member in the genus Lophorina.
Lophorina superba is a small, approximately 26 cm long, (passerine) bird. The male is black with an iridescent green crown, blue - green breast cover and a long velvety black erectile cape covering his back. The female is a reddish - brown bird with brownish barred buff below. The young is similar to the female. The superb bird - of - paradise are a dimorphic species.
The species has an unusually low population of females, and competition amongst males for mates is intensely fierce. This has led the species to have one of the most bizarre and elaborate courtship displays in the avian world. After carefully and meticulously preparing a "dance floor '' (even scrubbing the dirt or branch smooth with leaves), the male first attracts a female with a loud call. After the curious female approaches, his folded black feather cape and blue - green breast shield springs upward and spreads widely and symmetrically around its head, instantly transforming the frontal view of the bird into a spectacular ellipse - shaped creature that rhythmically snaps its tail feathers against each other, similar to how snapping fingers work, whilst hopping in frantic circles around the female. The average female rejects 15 - 20 potential suitors before consenting to mate. The show that males put on to attract females can be a long process that takes up many hours in a day. These species are polygynous and usually will mate with more than one female.
The superb bird - of - paradise is distributed throughout rain forests of New Guinea. The superb bird - of - paradise inhabits most commonly in rain forests or forest edges of Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. They can also be found inhabiting mountainous habitats of the forests in New Guinea.
The superb bird - of - paradise are also usually found on top of the trees that reside in the rain forests.
The superb bird - of - paradise travels across the trees in the forest to catch its prey which can vary depending on seasonal availability of food. The superb bird - of - paradise have not only been known to eat fruits and insects, but also have been spotted preying on larger animals such as frogs, reptiles, and other small birds. They can sometimes be seen foraging food on the grounds of the forest for insects.
Known predators of the superb bird - of - paradise include hawks and snakes. However, besides predators in the wild, the most prominent danger to the superb bird - of - paradise would be humans who hunt the birds or cause deforestation, destroying the habitats of the birds.
The superb bird - of - paradise form their nests on top of trees using soft material that they find around the forest such as leaves. When reproducing the, depending on the species, they usually produce from 1 - 3 eggs within a nest. It takes about 16 -- 22 days for the eggs to hatch and for the chicks to be born. After that, chicks will be able to live on their own within 16 -- 30 days, leaving their nest and becoming independent. Male superb bird 's - of - paradise tend to take about two years longer for them to mature compared to the females. Also, it will take about 4 -- 7 years for males to develop their feathers for their courtship displays.
Although heavily hunted for its plumes, the superb bird - of - paradise is one of the most common and widespread birds of paradise in the forests of New Guinea. The superb bird - of - paradise is evaluated as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
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how far is long valley nj from here | Long Valley, New Jersey - wikipedia
Long Valley is an unincorporated community and census - designated place (CDP) located within Washington Township, in Morris County, New Jersey, United States. Known as German Valley from its foundation during the colonial era, the community was renamed in response to anti-German sentiment during World War I. As of the 2010 United States Census, the CDP 's population was 1,879.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP had a total area of 4.623 square miles (11.974 km), including 4.566 square miles (11.825 km) of land and 0.057 square miles (0.148 km) of water (1.24 %).
There are several bodies of water, including several man - made lakes used for agriculture and a portion of the Raritan River that are not reflected in the calculation of water area. Much of Long Valley is part of Schooley 's Mountain, a tall ridge that contrasts greatly with the rest of the region.
The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Long Valley has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated "Cfa '' on climate maps.
As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 1,879 people, 675 households, and 533.9 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 411.5 per square mile (158.9 / km). There were 709 housing units at an average density of 155.3 per square mile (60.0 / km). The racial makeup of the CDP was 94.73 % (1,780) White, 0.53 % (10) Black or African American, 0.00 % (0) Native American, 1.81 % (34) Asian, 0.00 % (0) Pacific Islander, 1.33 % (25) from other races, and 1.60 % (30) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5.32 % (100) of the population.
There were 675 households out of which 37.0 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 65.8 % were married couples living together, 9.5 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 20.9 % were non-families. 15.6 % of all households were made up of individuals, and 6.1 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.77 and the average family size was 3.10.
In the CDP, the population was spread out with 25.8 % under the age of 18, 5.9 % from 18 to 24, 21.0 % from 25 to 44, 34.0 % from 45 to 64, and 13.4 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43.8 years. For every 100 females there were 97.2 males. For every 100 females ages 18 and older there were 96.5 males.
As of the 2000 United States Census there were 1,818 people, 654 households, and 502 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 148.7 / km (385.4 / mi). There were 674 housing units at an average density of 55.1 / km (142.9 / mi). The racial makeup of the CDP was 97.36 % White, 0.66 % African American, 0.22 % Native American, 0.94 % Asian, 0.28 % from other races, and 0.55 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.27 % of the population.
There were 654 households out of which 36.9 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 67.0 % were married couples living together, 7.5 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 23.1 % were non-families. 16.7 % of all households were made up of individuals and 4.0 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.75 and the average family size was 3.15.
In the CDP the population was spread out with 25.3 % under the age of 18, 5.1 % from 18 to 24, 33.3 % from 25 to 44, 27.3 % from 45 to 64, and 8.9 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 101.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 98.8 males.
The median income for a household was $97,763, and the median income for a family was $104,926. Males had a median income of $76,791 versus $41,759 for females. The per capita income was $37,489. About 1.8 % of families and 2.3 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 2.0 % of those under age 18 and 4.0 % of those age 65 or over.
People who were born in, residents of, or otherwise closely associated with Long Valley include:
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top 20 busiest airports in the united states | List of the busiest airports in the United States - wikipedia
These are lists of the busiest airports in the United States, based on various ranking criteria.
The FAA uses passenger boarding for a full calendar year to determine Airport Improvement Program (AIP) entitlements.
The term hub is used by the FAA to identify very busy commercial service airports. For instance, large hubs are those airports that each account for at least one percent of total U.S. passenger enplanements. Medium hubs are defined as airports that each account for between 0.25 percent and one percent of the total passenger enplanements. According to preliminary FAA data, in 2014 there were 30 large hubs and 30 medium hubs.
Listed according to data compiled by Airports Council International North America, and ranked according to total passengers during 2015.
This list has the same 99 airports as the FAA list, but the order is slightly different. The FAA ranks by passengers boarding. ACI ranks by sum of boarding, disembarking, and flying through without leaving airplane. The statistics are slightly more than twice as high.
Listed according to data compiled by the Office of Aviation Analysis, part of the United States Department of Transportation, and ranked according to total international passengers during 2016.
Listed according to data compiled by the Federal Aviation Administration for the United States, and ranked according to total cargo throughput in pounds during 2015.
United States Department of Transportation:
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who all dies in stranger things season 1 | Stranger Things - wikipedia
Stranger Things is an American science fiction - horror web television series created, written, directed and co-executive produced by the Duffer Brothers, as well as co-executive produced by Shawn Levy and Dan Cohen. The first season, released in July 2016, stars Winona Ryder, David Harbour, Finn Wolfhard, Millie Bobby Brown, Gaten Matarazzo, Caleb McLaughlin, Natalia Dyer, Charlie Heaton, Cara Buono and Matthew Modine, with Noah Schnapp and Joe Keery in recurring roles. For the second season, Schnapp and Keery were promoted to series regulars, along with the additions of Sadie Sink, Dacre Montgomery, Sean Astin and Paul Reiser.
Set in the fictional town of Hawkins, Indiana, in the 1980s, the first season focuses on the investigation into the disappearance of a young boy amid supernatural events occurring around the town including the appearance of a girl with psychokinetic abilities who helps the missing boy 's friends in their own search. The second season, titled Stranger Things 2, is set a year after the first, and deals with attempts of the characters to return to normal and consequences that linger from the first season.
The Duffer Brothers developed the series as a mix of investigative drama alongside supernatural elements with childlike sensibilities, establishing its time frame in the 1980s and creating a homage to pop culture of that decade. Several themes and directorial aspects were inspired and aesthetically informed by the works of Steven Spielberg, John Carpenter, and Stephen King, among others, including several films, anime and video games.
The first season was released on Netflix on July 15, 2016. It received critical acclaim for its characterization, pacing, atmosphere, acting, soundtrack, directing, writing, and homages to 1980s genre films. The series has received several industry nominations and awards, including winning the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series in 2016, and receiving eighteen nominations for the 69th Primetime Emmy Awards, including Outstanding Drama Series. On August 31, 2016, Netflix renewed the series for a second season of nine episodes, which was released on October 27, 2017. In December 2017, Netflix ordered a third season. The Duffer Brothers intend to conclude Stranger Things with a fourth or fifth season.
Stranger Things is set in the fictional rural town of Hawkins, Indiana, during the early 1980s. The nearby Hawkins National Laboratory ostensibly performs scientific research for the United States Department of Energy, but secretly does experiments into the paranormal and supernatural, including those that involve human test subjects. Inadvertently, they have created a portal to an alternate dimension called "the Upside Down ''. The influence of the Upside Down starts to affect the unknowing residents of Hawkins in calamitous ways.
The first season begins in November 1983, when Will Byers is abducted by a creature from the Upside Down. His mother, Joyce, and the town 's police chief, Jim Hopper, search for Will. At the same time, a young psychokinetic girl called Eleven escapes from the laboratory and assists Will 's friends, Mike, Dustin, and Lucas, in their own efforts to find Will. The second season is set a year later, starting in October 1984. Will had been rescued, but few know of the details of the events. When Will is found to be still influenced by entities from the Upside Down, his friends and family learn there is a larger threat to their universe from the Upside Down.
Executive producer Shawn Levy cameos as a morgue worker.
Stranger Things was created by Matt and Ross Duffer, known professionally as the Duffer Brothers. The two had completed writing and producing their 2015 film Hidden, which they had tried to emulate the style of M. Night Shyamalan, however, due to changes at Warner Bros., its distributor, the film did not see a wide release and the Duffers were unsure of their future. To their surprise, television producer Donald De Line approached them, impressed with Hidden 's script, and offered them the opportunity to work on episodes of Wayward Pines alongside Shyamalan. The brothers were mentored by Shyamalan during the episode 's production, so that when they finished, they felt they were ready to produce their own television series.
The Duffer Brothers prepared a script that would essentially be similar to the series ' actual pilot episode, along with a 20 - page pitch book to help shop the series around for a network. They pitched the story to a number of cable networks, all of which rejected the script on the basis that they felt a plot centered around children as leading characters would not work, asking them to make it a children 's show or to drop the children and focus on Hopper 's investigation in the paranormal. In early 2015, Dan Cohen, the VP of 21 Laps Entertainment, brought the script to his colleague Shawn Levy. They subsequently invited the Duffer Brothers to their office and purchased the rights for the series, giving full authorship of it to the brothers. After reading the pilot, the streaming service Netflix purchased the whole season for an undisclosed amount; the show was subsequently announced for a planned 2016 release by Netflix in early April 2015. The Duffer Brothers stated that at the time they had pitched to Netflix, the service had already gotten recognized for its original programming, such as House of Cards and Orange Is the New Black, with well - recognized producers behind them, and were ready to start giving upcoming producers like them a chance. The brothers started to write out the series and brought Levy and Cohen in as executive producers to start casting and filming.
The series was originally known as Montauk, as the setting of the script was in Montauk, New York and nearby Long Island locations. The brothers had chosen Montauk as it had further Spielberg ties with the film Jaws, where Montauk was used for the fictional setting of Amity Island. After deciding to change the narrative of the series to take place in the fictional town of Hawkins instead, the brothers felt they could now do things to the town, such as placing it under quarantine, that they really could not envision with a real location. With the change in location, they had to come up with a new title for the series under direction from Netflix 's Ted Sarandos so that they could start marketing it to the public. The brothers started by using a copy of Stephen King 's Firestarter novel to consider the title 's font and appearance, and came up with a long list of potential alternatives. Stranger Things came about as it sounded similar to another King novel, Needful Things, though Matt noted they still had a "lot of heated arguments '' over this final title.
With the critical success of the first season after its release in July 2016, speculation on a possible second season was raised. By the end of July, the Duffer Brothers had outlined a plan for such a season if it was green - lit, and Netflix 's CEO Reed Hastings said in early August that the company "would be dumb not to '' renew Stranger Things for a second season. On August 31, 2016, Netflix announced it had renewed Stranger Things for a second season of nine episodes, to be released in 2017. The Duffer Brothers revealed that the series had been renewed for a second season before the first premiered. Regarding the decision to wait more than a month after the first season premiered to announce the renewal, Matt Duffer said, "it actually ended up working because it had built up to this fever pitch. I guess that 's what (Netflix) were intending to do all the time. ''
The Duffers wrote the second season to make the combined first and second season feel like a complete work, but setting elements in place to go forward with additional seasons if they are green - lit. While most of the story for the second season had been decided before the first season aired, the Duffers took in the audience reactions from the first season to adjust some of the details within the second season. They knew they would not have the same element of audience surprise as when the show aired anew, and were aware fans wanted to see certain elements, but Ross said "... the point is not to give everyone what they think they want. Because I do n't think they really know what they want. '' The Duffers felt that the second season should be treated more as a sequel rather than a continuation, and thus have opted to call the second Stranger Things 2. This approach had some trepidation from Netflix, since the company felt movie sequels typically have a bad reputation, but the Duffers pointed out that there had been many successful sequels that surpassed the original film, and felt confident with this name. Despite revealing episode titles for the season in the announcement teaser in order "to provide some hint of where we were going in season two without giving anything away, '' Matt Duffer stated that some of the titles would change, since there were some things "we did n't want to put on there because we felt like it would give too much away, '' and because "people are smart on the fucking internet '' with fan - created "videos analyzing the chapter titles... right on a lot '' of how the titles related to the plot of the season. In early October 2017, the Duffers revealed the final titles for the first six episodes of the season.
Levy noted in November 2016 that he and the Duffer Brothers had already begun planning a potential third season, saying, "We are not gon na be caught off guard and we do n't wan na be making stuff up like the day before we have to write it and make it, so we are definitely optimistic and we have started thinking ahead. '' The Duffers anticipate having about four to five seasons to work with, but do want to "have a really finite ending '' while the show is still at a height of success, according to Matt, rather than letting it draw out indefinitely. In August 2017, the Duffers confirmed there would be a third season, with the likelihood of one more season following that, with Ross saying, "We 're thinking it will be a four - season thing and then out ''. However, executive producer Shawn Levy later suggested that either four or five total seasons were possibilities, claiming that "the truth is we 're definitely going four seasons and there 's very much the possibility of a fifth. Beyond that, it becomes I think very unlikely. '' Matt Duffer later commented that no official decision has been made, claiming that "It 's hard, like four seems short, five seems long. So I do n't know what to do. '' In December 2017, Netflix officially confirmed that they have greenlit the third season. Later that month, David Harbour said that the Duffers were still writing episodes for the season, and did not expect the season would release until 2019.
The idea of Stranger Things started with how the brothers felt they could take the concept of the 2013 film Prisoners, detailing the moral struggles a father goes through when his daughter is kidnapped, and expand it out over eight or so hours in a serialized television approach. As they focused on the missing child aspect of the story, they wanted to introduce the idea of "childlike sensibilities '' they could offer, and toyed around with the idea of a monster that could consume humans. The brothers thought the combination of these things "was the best thing ever ''. To introduce this monster into the narrative, they considered "bizarre experiments we had read about taking place in the Cold War '' such as Project MKUltra, which gave a way to ground the monster 's existence in science rather than something spiritual. This also helped them to decide on using 1983 as the time period, as it was a year before the film Red Dawn came out, which focused on Cold War paranoia. Subsequently, they were able to use all their own personal inspirations from the 1980s, the decade they were born, as elements of the series, crafting it in the realm of science fiction and horror. The Duffer Brothers have cited as influence for the show (among others): Stephen King novels; films produced by Steven Spielberg, John Carpenter, Wes Craven, Robert Zemeckis, George Lucas and Guillermo del Toro; films such as Alien and Stand by Me; Japanese anime such as Akira and Elfen Lied; and video games such as Silent Hill, The Last of Us, and Dark Souls. The Duffers also believe that they may have brought influences from other works unintentionally, including Beyond the Black Rainbow and D.A.R.Y.L., discovered by reviewing fan feedback on the show.
With Netflix as the platform, the Duffer Brothers were not limited to a typical 22 - episode format, opting for the eight - episode approach. They had been concerned that a 22 - episode season on broadcast television would be difficult to "tell a cinematic story '' with that many episodes. Eight episodes allowed them to give time to characterization in addition to narrative development; if they had less time available, they would have had to remain committed to telling a horror film as soon as the monster was introduced and abandon the characterization. Within the eight episodes, the brothers aimed to make the first season "feel like a big movie '' with all the major plot lines completed so that "the audience feels satisfied '', but left enough unresolved to indicate "there 's a bigger mythology, and there 's a lot of dangling threads at the end '', something that could be explored in further seasons if Netflix opted to create more.
Regarding writing for the children characters of the series, the Duffer Brothers considered themselves as outcasts from other students while in high school and thus found it easy to write for Mike and his friends, and particularly for Barb. Joyce was fashioned after Richard Dreyfuss ' character Roy Neary in Close Encounters of the Third Kind, as she appears "absolutely bonkers '' to everyone else as she tries to find Will. Other characters, such as Billy in the second season, have more villainous attributes that are not necessarily obvious from the onset; Matt explained that they took further inspiration from Stephen King for these characters, as King "always has really great human villains '' that may be more malicious than the supernatural evil.
In June 2015, it was announced that Winona Ryder and David Harbour had joined the series as Joyce and as the unnamed chief of police, respectively. The brothers ' casting director Carmen Cuba had suggested Ryder for the role of Joyce, which the two were immediately drawn to because of her predominance in the films of the 1980s. Levy believed Ryder could "wretch up the emotional urgency and yet find layers and nuance and different sides of (Joyce) ''. Ryder praised that the show 's multiple storylines required her to act for Joyce as "she 's out of her mind, but she 's actually kind of onto something '', and that the producers had faith she could pull off the difficult role. The Duffer Brothers had been interested in Harbour before, who until Stranger Things primarily had smaller roles as villainous characters, and they felt that he had been "waiting too long for this opportunity '' to play a lead, while Harbour himself was thrilled by the script and the chance to play "a broken, flawed, anti-hero character ''.
Additional casting followed two months later with Finn Wolfhard as Mike, Millie Bobby Brown in an undisclosed role, Gaten Matarazzo as Dustin, Caleb McLaughlin as Lucas, Natalia Dyer as Nancy, and Charlie Heaton as Jonathan. In September 2015, Cara Buono joined the cast as Karen, followed by Matthew Modine as Martin Brenner a month later. Additional cast who recur for the first season include Noah Schnapp as Will, Shannon Purser as Barbara "Barb '' Holland, Joe Keery as Steve Harrington, and Ross Partridge as Lonnie, among others.
Actors auditioning for the children roles read lines from Stand By Me. The Duffer Brothers estimated they went through about a thousand different child actors for the roles. They noted that Wolfhard was already "a movie buff '' of the films from the 1980s period and easily filled the role, while they found Matarazzo 's audition to be much more authentic than most of the other audition tapes, and selected him after a single viewing of his audition tape. As casting was started immediately after Netflix greenlit the show, and prior to the scripts being fully completed, this allowed some of the actor 's takes on the roles to reflect into the script. The casting of the young actors for Will and his friends had been done just after the first script was completed, and subsequent scripts incorporated aspects from these actors. The brothers said Modine provided significant input on the character of Dr. Brenner, whom they had not really fleshed out before as they considered him the hardest character to write for given his limited appearances within the narrative.
In October 2016, it was announced that Schnapp and Keery had been promoted to the main cast for the second season, after each recurring in the first season, and that Sadie Sink and Dacre Montgomery would join the main cast as Max and Billy, respectively. Ryder, Harbour, Wolfhard, Brown, Matarazzo, McLaughlin, Dyer and Heaton also return for the season. Sean Astin as Bob Newby and Paul Reiser as Sam Owens are also part of the main cast in the season. For Owens, the Duffer Brothers had referred to the character in their pitch to Netflix for the season as "Paul Reiser '', and specifically alluded to Reiser 's character Burke in Aliens, with Ross referencing James Cameron 's casting choice for that film, saying, "(Cameron) thought people would inherently trust (Reiser) and it would be a twist ''. Reiser 's son was a fan of Stranger Things, and gave his father an early appreciation of the series, so that by when the production called his agent about the role, Reiser was excited for the part. Joining them in recurring roles are Linnea Berthelsen as Kali / Eight and Brett Gelman as Murray Bauman.
The brothers had desired to film the series around the Long Island area to match the initial Montauk concept. However, with filming scheduled to take place in November 2015, it was difficult to shoot in Long Island in the cold weather, and the production started scouting locations in and around the Atlanta, Georgia area. The brothers, who grew up in North Carolina, found many places that reminded them of their own childhoods in that area, and felt the area would work well with the narrative shift to the fictional town of Hawkins, Indiana.
The filming of the first season began in November 2015 and was extensively done in Atlanta, Georgia, with the Duffer Brothers and Levy handling the direction of individual episodes. Jackson served as the basis of the fictional town of Hawkins, Indiana. Other shooting locations included the Georgia Mental Health Institute as the Hawkins National Laboratory site, Bellwood Quarry, Patrick Henry High School in Stockbridge, Georgia, for the middle and high school scenes, Emory University 's Continuing Education Department, the former city hall in Douglasville, Georgia, Georgia International Horse Park, the probate court in Butts County, Georgia, Old East Point Library and East Point First Baptist Church in East Point, Georgia, Fayetteville, Georgia, Stone Mountain Park, Palmetto, Georgia, and Winston, Georgia. Set work was done at Screen Gem Studios in Atlanta. The series was filmed with a Red Dragon digital camera. Filming for the first season concluded in early 2016.
While filming, the brothers tried to capture shots that could be seen as homages to many of the 1980s references they recalled. Their goal was not necessarily to fill the work with these references, but instead make the series seem to the viewer as a 1980s film. They spent little time reviewing those works and instead went by memory. Matt further recognized that some of their filming homages were not purposely done but were found to be very comparable, as highlighted by a fan - made video comparing the show to several 1980s works side - by - side. Matt commented on the video that "Some were deliberate and some were subconscious. '' The brothers recognized that many of the iconic scenes from these 1980s films, such as with Poltergeist, was about "taking a very ordinary object that people deal with every day, their television set, and imbuing it with something otherworldly '', leading to the idea of using the Christmas light strings for Will to communicate with Joyce.
The brothers attributed much of the 1980s feel to set and costume designers and the soundtrack composers that helped to recreate the era for them. Lynda Reiss, the head of props, had about a $220,000 budget, similar to most films, to acquire artifacts of the 1980s, using eBay and searching through flea markets and estate sales around the Atlanta area. The bulk of the props were original items from the 1980s with only a few pieces, such as the Dungeons & Dragons books made as replicas. Costume designer Kimberly Adams - Galligan for the first season aimed for capturing authenticity of the clothes choices by the characters, such as reflecting that the Byers would likely use hand - me - down clothes compared to the other families; in this case, while the costume department did distress the outfits for all the characters, they spent more time for Will 's clothes compared to Mike 's. Frequently, they needed to create outfits for the kids themselves since many were still growing during the time of filming, and could not readily acquire period fashion across a range of sizes. Director of photography Tim Ives shot the first season with Leica lens and the 6K Red Scarlet Dragon to "make sure that our images had the soft and round tones that are in ' 80s films ''; this is achieved through digital image processing. Ives said that these cameras allow them to create an adaptable quality to the recorded film that is adaptable to a wide range of viewing experiences, including support for newer and future television technologies such as high dynamic range video that was just becoming adopted at the time of filming.
Filming for the second season began on November 7, 2016, once again in and around the Atlanta Metro area. While parts of Season 2 were set in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, these were actually filmed in downtown Atlanta, with skylines of Pittsburgh added in post-production. Andrew Stanton, director of Pixar 's Finding Nemo and WALL - E, directed the fifth and sixth episodes of the second season. Levy stated that Stanton was a big fan of the show and called up Levy, offering his directorial abilities for the show. Rebecca Thomas directed the seventh episode of the season. Unlike the first season, which they were able to film without any real security issues, the heightened awareness of the show required the producers to take significant steps to keep the show 's production in secret while filming the second season. They spoke to the production team of HBO 's Game of Thrones for tips and advice for securing filming sites, and have adopted code names for the series and various parts to allow the actors to speak to others without revealing details of the show 's plot. Kim Wilcox took over for costumes in the second season, finding many of the same problems with designing for the child actors that were aging. Furthermore, she wanted to create the 80 's aestetic but as reflected in a small rural town, with the trends of period slowly filtering into it rather that immediately jump on elements like neon colors. The second season concluded filming on June 2, 2017. Ives once again used Leica lens to film the season, while upgrading to the Red Weapon 8K S35 camera.
To create the aged effect for the series, a film grain was added over the footage, which was captured by scanning in film stock from the 1980s. The Duffers wanted to scare the audience, but not to necessarily make the show violent or gory, following in line with how the 1980s Amblin Entertainment films drove the creation of the PG - 13 movie rating. It was "much more about mood and atmosphere and suspense and dread than they are about gore '', though they were not afraid to push into more scary elements, particularly towards the end of the first season. The brothers had wanted to avoid any computer - generated effects for the monster and other parts of the series and stay with practical effects. However, the six - month filming time left them little time to plan out and test practical effects rigs for some of the shots. They went with a middle ground of using constructed props including one for the monster whenever they could, but for other shots, such as when the monster bursts through a wall, they opted to use digital effects. Post-production on the first season was completed the week before it was released to Netflix.
The title sequence uses closeups of the letters in the Stranger Things title with a red tint against a black background as they slide into place within the title. The sequence was created by the studio Imaginary Forces, formerly part of R / GA, led by creative director Michelle Doughtey. Levy introduced the studio to the Duffer Brothers, who explained their vision of the 1980s - inspired show, which helped the studio to fix the concept the producers wanted. Later, but prior to filming, the producers sent Imaginary Forces the pilot script, the synth - heavy background music for the titles, as well as the various book covers from King and other authors that they had used to establish the title and imagery, and were looking for a similar approach for the show 's titles, primarily using a typographical sequence. They took inspiration from several title sequences of works from the 1980s that were previously designed by Richard Greenberg under R / GA, such as Altered States and The Dead Zone. They also got input from Dan Perri, who worked on the title credits of several 1980s films. Various iterations included having letters vanish, to reflect the "missing '' theme of the show, and having letters cast shadows on others, alluding to the mysteries, before settling into the sliding letters. The studio began working on the title sequence before filming, and took about a month off during the filming process to let the producers get immersed in the show and come back with more input. Initially they had been working with various fonts for the title and used close - ups of the best features of these fonts, but near the end the producers wanted to work with ITC Benguiat, requiring them to rework those shots. The final sequence is fully computer generated, but they took inspiration from testing some practical effects, such as using Kodalith masks as would have been done in the 1980s, to develop the appropriate filters for the rendering software. The individual episode title cards used a "fly through '' approach, similar to the film Bullitt, which the producers had suggested to the studio.
The Stranger Things original soundtrack was composed by Michael Stein and Kyle Dixon of the electronic band Survive. It makes extensive use of synthesizers in homage to 1980s artists and film composers including Jean - Michel Jarre, Tangerine Dream, Vangelis, Goblin, John Carpenter, Giorgio Moroder, and Fabio Frizzi.
According to Stein and Dixon, the Duffer Brothers had been fans of Survive 's music, and used their song "Dirge '' for the mock trailer that was used to sell the show to Netflix. Once the show was green - lit, the Duffers contacted Survive around July 2015 to ask if they were still doing music; the two provided the production team with dozens of songs from their band 's past to gain their interest, helping to land them the role. Once aboard, the two worked with producers to select some of their older music to rework for the show, while developing new music, principally with character motifs. The two had been hired before the casting process, so their motif demos were used and played over the actors ' audition tapes, aiding in the casting selection. The show 's theme is based on an unused work Stein composed much earlier that ended up in the library of work they shared with the production staff, who thought that with some reworking would be good for the opening credits.
In addition to original music, Stranger Things features period music from artists including The Clash, Joy Division, Toto, New Order, The Bangles, Foreigner, Echo and the Bunnymen, Peter Gabriel, and Corey Hart, as well as excerpts from Tangerine Dream, John Carpenter, and Vangelis. In particular, The Clash 's "Should I Stay or Should I Go '' was specifically picked to play at pivotal moments of the story, such as when Will is trying to communicate with Joyce from the Upside Down.
Stranger Things ' original soundtrack, consisting of 75 songs from Stein and Dixon split across two volumes, was released by Lakeshore Records. Digital release and streaming options were released on August 10 and 19, 2016 for the two volumes, respectively, while retail versions were available on September 16 and 23, 2016. Limited editions of the soundtrack on vinyl, in both individual and a boxed set, are set for release in July 2017. A cassette version of the soundtrack, sold exclusively by Urban Outfitters, was released on July 14, 2017. The cassette packaging features a cardboard cover that emulates an old VHS sleeves, while the cassette case is made to look like a VHS tape.
Both volumes were nominated individually for the Best Score Soundtrack Category for the 2017 Grammy Awards, though neither won.
The soundtrack for the second season of Stranger Things was released digitally on October 20, 2017. The soundtrack, once again composed by Stein and Dixon, consists of 34 songs and was released by Lakeshore Records in the United States and Invada Records internationally. The soundtrack is intended to be released on physical formats, such as compact disc, vinyl, and cassette as well. On the soundtrack 's composition, Stein and Dixon together said that the score for the season introduces "new styles of composition, while still revisiting old themes when appropriate... We 've created new elements that are necessary to support the story, but still want to remain true to the sound of Season 1. '' The first track from the soundtrack, "Walkin ' in Hawkins '', was released on October 12.
The first season consisted of eight one - hour - long episodes which were released worldwide on Netflix on July 15, 2016, in Ultra HD 4K. The second season, consisting of nine episodes, was released on October 27, 2017 in HDR. A teaser for the second season, which also announced the release date, aired during Super Bowl LI.
The first season of Stranger Things was released on a Blu - ray / DVD combo pack exclusively to Target retailers on October 17, 2017, which includes a vintage VHS - inspired packaging.
As Netflix does not reveal subscriber viewership numbers for any of their original series, Symphony Technology Group compiled data for the season based on people using software on their phones that measures television viewing by detecting a program 's sound. According to Symphony, within the first 35 days of release, Stranger Things averaged ratings around 14.07 million adults between the ages 18 -- 49 in the United States. This made it the third most - watched season of Netflix original content in the U.S. at the time behind the first season of Fuller House and fourth season of Orange Is the New Black. In a September 2016 analysis, Netflix found that Stranger Things "hooked '' viewers by the second episode of the first season, indicating that the second episode was "the first installment that led at least 70 percent of viewers who watched that episode to complete the entire first season of a show. ''
In August 2017, the marketing analytics firm Jumpshot determined the season was the seventh-most viewed Netflix season in the first 30 days after it premiered, garnering slightly more than 20 % of the viewers that the second season of Daredevil received, which was the most viewed season according to Jumpshot. Jumpshot, which "analyzes click - stream data from an online panel of more than 100 million consumers '', looked at the viewing behavior and activity of the company 's U.S. members, factoring in the relative number of U.S. Netflix viewers who watched at least one episode of the season.
Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the first season an approval rating of 94 % based on 69 reviews, and a weighted average rating of 7.96 / 10. The site 's critical consensus states, "Exciting, heartbreaking, and sometimes scary, Stranger Things acts as an addictive homage to Spielberg films and vintage 1980s television. '' Review aggregator Metacritic gave the first season a normalized score of 76 out of 100 based on 34 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
IGN gave the score of 8 out of 10 and called the series "Great '' saying, "Stranger Things is an easy recommendation, offering viewers an atmospheric and endearing series that is a nostalgic throwback without feeling like a simple copy. '' In a review of San Francisco Chronicle Dave Wiegand wrote: "Stranger Things reminds us of a time marked by a kind of no - strings escapism. And as it does so, we find ourselves yearning for it because the Duffers have made it so irresistibly appealing. There may be other equally great shows to watch this summer, but I guarantee you wo n't have more fun watching any of them than you will watching Stranger Things. '' Joshua Alston of The A.V. Club also reviewed it positively saying, "Balancing style and substance is always challenging for a series like Stranger Things, but the show is perfectly calibrated. It feels like watching a show produced during the era in which it 's set, but with the craft of today 's prestige television. '' Reviewing for HitFix, Alan Sepinwall said, "Over the course of the eight hours, the story and characters take on enough life of their own so that the references do n't feel self - indulgent, and so that the series can be appreciated even if you do n't know the plot of E.T. or the title font of Stephen King 's early novels (a huge influence on the show 's own opening credits) by heart. ''
Emily Nussbaum of The New Yorker also applauded the series and wrote, "This is astoundingly efficient storytelling, eight hours that pass in a blink, with even minor characters getting sharp dialogue, dark humor, or moments of pathos. '' Television critic Mary McNamara of Los Angeles Times said, "For the most part, and in absolute defiance of the odds, Stranger Things honors its source material in the best way possible: By telling a sweet ' n ' scary story in which monsters are real but so are the transformative powers of love and fealty. '' The Wall Street Journal 's Brian Kelly said, "Matt Duffer and Ross Duffer, brothers and the show 's creators, have done their homework when it comes to ' 80s cinema. Whether you 're a fan of John Carpenter 's The Thing or The Goonies is more your speed, there 's plenty to like in Stranger Things. ''
In a negative review, cultural critic Grafton Tanner called the series "wish fulfillment '' and "a window through which the present - shocked can gaze at a clichéd past. '' Similarly, Marinna Guzy of The Establishment wrote: "When confronted with a story like Stranger Things, a recycled retelling of an old story being marketed as homage and good, clean nostalgia, one has to wonder whether or not studios and content creators like the Duffer Brothers ever ask themselves whether or not the story they are telling is the one that should be told. What purpose does Stranger Things serve beyond reinforcing the status quo in the media landscape and perpetuating the dangerous delusion that things were better way back when? ''
On Rotten Tomatoes, the second season has an approval rating of 94 % based on 109 reviews, and an average rating of 7.83 / 10. The site 's critical consensus states, "Stranger Things ' slow - building sophomore season balances moments of humor and a nostalgic sweetness against a growing horror that 's all the more effective thanks to the show 's full - bodied characters and evocative tone. '' On Metacritic, the second season has a normalized score of 78 out of 100, based on 32 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Shortly after its release, Stranger Things gained a dedicated fanbase. One area of focus from these fans was the character of Barb, the nerdy friend and classmate of Nancy who is taken and killed by the monster early in the season. According to actress Shannon Purser, Barb "was n't supposed to be a big deal '', and the Duffer Brothers had not gone into great detail about the character since the focus was on finding Will. However, many fans sympathized with the character, with Laura Bradley of Vanity Fair suggesting that these people found that Barb would be a similar misfit in society, and "looks more like someone you might actually meet in real life '' compared to the other characters, particularly Nancy, in the series. Hashtags such as "# ImWithBarb '' and "# JusticeforBarb '' grew in popularity after the series ' release, and several fan sites and forums were created to support her. While Purser did not return for the second season, the Duffer Brothers used the real - life "Justice for Barb '' movement as inspiration for narrative at the start of the second season, with Nancy addressing the fact "that no one ever cares about '' Barb. Purser and several media outlets took her nomination as Barb for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series in the 69th Primetime Emmy Awards as achieving "Justice for Barb '', highlighting how well her character was received.
Another impact of the series has been an increase demand for Eggo waffles, as they are shown to be Eleven 's favorite food in several episodes and are seen as a representation of the show. The Kellogg Company, which manufactures Eggo, had not been part of the production prior to the first season 's release, but recognized the market impact of the series. It provided a vintage 1980s Eggo television advertisement for Netflix to use in its Super Bowl LI commercial, and is looking to become more involved with cross-promotion.
With the release of the second season of the series, Netflix also released Beyond Stranger Things, an aftershow hosted by Jim Rash. The guests of the aftershow are composed of cast and crew from the series, including the Duffer Brothers and the series ' stars, to discuss the development and behind - the - scenes production of the series and its larger mythology. Unlike previous aftershows created by Embassy Row, such as Talking Dead and Talking Bad, Beyond Stranger Things is intended to be watched after a screening of the entire current season. It was also revealed during the show, Millie Bobby Brown may have a supporting agent whom is possibly from the UK. It is unconfirmed whether she will have a supporting on set agent for season 3. It was heavily maintained that Eddie Tsang, may become the on set support agent for season 3. However, it 's unclear if he has reached a final agreement with Netflix.
Netflix and BonusXP developed a free mobile game tie - in for Stranger Things, released to iOS and Android devices on October 4, 2017. The game uses a retro - pixel style of art, similar to games for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. The game is loosely based on the Stranger Things story after season one, with the player starting as Chief of Police Jim Hopper looking for the missing boys. Once these characters are found, they become playable and have special abilities that allow the player to access more areas in the game. BonusXP had less than a year to complete the game. The team decided to make the game in a similar style to The Legend of Zelda because it "was a perfect match because both (Stranger Things and Zelda) are about exploration, and it 's kind of a mysterious fit that fit the mood of the show, '' according to BonusXP president Dave Pottinger. The map of Hawkins in the game was based off of a Google street view map of Jackson, Georgia where the series is filmed. In order to help keep the game a secret, BonusXP did not hire game testers for their quality assurance, instead having family members from the design team provide feedback; this process helped create the two difficulty levels in the game. Completing the game gives players a clip from the Season 2 premiere episode of the show. The game was downloaded 3 million times in the first week, becoming a top download and receiving critical praise. With the release of season two, an update to the game added Max as a playable character, and a release for the Amazon Fire TV, which included controller support.
Sony has announced that it is working on a Playstation 4 VR game based on Stranger Things and has released a teaser showing the Christmas lights on a wall scenes.
United States Representative David Cicilline compared the state of the nation during the presidency of Donald Trump to that of Stranger Things during a speech given in Congress on February 16, 2017, using a sign "Trump Things '' in the same format as the title card of the show and saying "Like the main characters in Stranger Things, we are now stuck in the Upside Down ''.
As part of its release on Netflix on April 14, 2017, the cast of the rebooted version of Mystery Science Theater 3000 riffed on the first part of "Chapter 1 '' of Stranger Things. Google used augmented reality (AR) "stickers '' of Stranger Things characters to introduce its ARCore technology announced alongside its Pixel 2 phone in October 2017. Sesame Street created a young audience - appropriate spoof of Stranger Things, called Sharing Things, released in November 2017; it featured Cookie Monster as the "Cookiegorgon '', Grover as Lucas, Ernie as Dustin, and included several nods to the narrative of the second season.
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who has arsenal got in the europa league | Arsenal FC in European Football - wikipedia
Arsenal Football Club is an English professional football club based in Holloway, North London. The club 's first European football match was played against Copenhagen XI on 25 September 1963, and it has since participated in European club competitions on several occasions, most of which organised by the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA). Arsenal has won two European honours: the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup in 1970 and the Cup Winners ' Cup in 1994 -- the latter title recognised by the European confederation. The club played the 1994 European Super Cup and repeated its presence in the following year 's Cup Winners ' Cup final. Arsenal also reached the final of the UEFA Cup in 2000, and became the first London team to appear in a UEFA Champions League final, in 2006.
Qualification for European club competitions is determined by a team 's position in its domestic league, as well as how successfully a team fares in domestic cup competitions in the previous season. Following the Heysel Stadium disaster in 1985, UEFA placed an indefinite ban on all English teams from competing in Europe; the ban was lifted in the 1990 - 91 season and Arsenal entered in 1991 -- 92 season, giving Arsenal the opportunity to play in the European Cup. Between 1998 -- 99 and 2016 -- 17, Arsenal qualified in nineteen successive UEFA Champions League seasons, an English football record, and is only surpassed in Europe by Real Madrid.
French striker Thierry Henry holds the club record for most appearances with 89, and is the club 's record goalscorer in European competitions with 42 goals. Arsenal 's biggest winning margin in Europe is a 7 -- 0 scoreline, a feat achieved twice: firstly away at Standard Liège, during their successful Cup Winners ' Cup campaign, and secondly at home against Slavia Prague, for the 2007 -- 08 UEFA Champions League. Arsenal hold the European club competition record for the most consecutive clean sheets with ten, set between September 2005 and May 2006.
Club competitions between teams from different European countries can trace their origins as far back as 1897, when the Challenge Cup was created for clubs in the Austro - Hungarian Empire, who did not meet under normal circumstances. The Sir Thomas Lipton Trophy, named after entrepreneur and sportsman Thomas Lipton, was established in 1909 and was contested between clubs from Italy, Great Britain, Germany and Switzerland; the competition lasted for two years. The earliest attempt to create a cup for national champion clubs of Europe was made by Swiss club FC Servette. Founded in 1930, the Coupe des Nations featured clubs of ten major European football leagues and was deemed a success. Due to financial reasons, the competition was abandoned.
In December 1954, French sports magazine L'Equipe published an article by journalist and former professional footballer Gabriel Hanot, who proposed the introduction of a European club competition. He initially suggested that each country should nominate a club to play in a mid-week European league; many clubs favoured a cup competition, which required less matches to play. A year later, L'Equipe sent out invitations to 18 clubs, selected by Hanot, Jacques Ferran and Jacques Goddet, with UEFA agreeing to administrate the competition named as the European Champion Clubs ' Cup. The European Cup Winners ' Cup, later retitled the UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup, was founded in 1960 and involved the winning clubs of national cup competitions in Europe. Arsenal, in the First Division at the time, were ineligible for both competitions, given that the club did not win a league championship or domestic cup for almost two decades. They however were invited to participate in the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup, an annual European club competition which was set up to promote international trade fairs; where a club finished in their domestic league had no relevance to qualification as teams were selected from cities holding trade fairs. The Inter-Cities Fairs Cup was regarded as the predecessor to the UEFA Cup, rebranded as the UEFA Europa League in 2008. Each competition round was staged over a two - legged tie, with the winner determined by the aggregate score. The away goals rule is activated if the aggregate score is equal.
To reinvigorate the European Champion Clubs ' Cup, the competition was expanded and rebranded as the UEFA Champions League in 1992. From the 1997 -- 98 season, it was further expanded to include eight domestic league runners - up selected by a UEFA coefficient and preliminary spots the following season were awarded to the third placed team; in some leagues fourth from 2002 -- 03. The expansion and constant growth of the competition led to the decline of the Cup Winners ' Cup, abolished in 1999 and by which point instigated proposals for a European Super League. Arsène Wenger has, on numerous occasions predicted the latter, arguing the pressure of television companies will force it to happen: "It 's all about money. More games equal more money through TV revenue and I think the next few years will see not just two, but three or four teams from the top countries competing against each other. It 's what television wants -- big teams in big matches. That is why the Champions ' League was introduced. '' Although Arsenal qualified for a fifteenth successive season of Champions League football in May 2012, this coincided with the club not winning a domestic honour since 2005, which led to open criticism over the competition 's present format. Wenger however has gone on to defend the club policy, stating a trophy for Arsenal is winning the Premier League or the Champions League; "Would you like to finish tenth in the league but win the League Cup and say you have won a trophy? Certainly not. ''
Arsenal first participated in European football during the 1963 -- 64 season, via the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup. The competition was set up to promote international trade fairs in European cities, featuring clubs from cities playing in matches that hosted trade fairs. As London 's representative, Arsenal was paired with Copenhagen team Copenhagen XI in the first round, played over two matches. The first match ended in a 7 -- 1 victory for Arsenal, with Geoff Strong and Joe Baker both scoring hat - tricks. Copenhagen XI won the second match 3 -- 2, but lost 9 -- 4 on aggregate. Arsenal faced Royal Football Club de Liège in the second round; the Belgian club won 4 -- 2 on aggregate to progress into the quarter - finals.
In the 1969 -- 70 season, Arsenal again participated in the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup, after a six - year absence. Having beaten Glentoran of Northern Ireland, Portugal 's Sporting Lisbon and Rouen of France, Arsenal played Romanian club Dinamo Bacău in the quarter - finals. A 1 -- 9 victory on aggregate saw the club progress into the last four, where they faced Ajax of Amsterdam. The pairing of both clubs pleased Arsenal manager Bertie Mee, who wanted to play Ajax in the semi-finals to set up a possibility of meeting Internazionale in the final. At Highbury in the first leg, Arsenal won 3 -- 0 and restricted Ajax to a 1 -- 0 win at the Olympisch Stadion to reach the final of the Fairs Cup. It was the fourth successive year the final featured an English club and the first for a London club. Arsenal played Belgian opposition Anderlecht in the 1970 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup Final, played in the space of a week. Anderlecht won the first leg 3 -- 1, with Arsenal midfielder Ray Kennedy scoring a crucial away goal, seven minutes from the final whistle. An early goal scored by Eddie Kelly helped Arsenal to what earlier looked to be an improbable victory; John Radford and Jon Sammels overturned Anderlecht 's advantage to win 3 -- 0 on the night and 4 -- 3 on aggregate. The result ended Arsenal 's 17 - year wait for a trophy and ensured the club became the third successive English club to win the honour.
Arsenal entered the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup the following season as holders of the competition, but did not progress further than the semi-finals, losing on away goals to 1. FC Köln of Germany. The club did however win the league championship for the first time in 18 years, ensuring qualification for the European Champions Clubs ' Cup in the 1971 -- 72 season. Arsenal reached the quarter - finals, where the team lost to holders Ajax, who went on to retain the trophy.
Arsenal finished second in the 1972 -- 73 Football League but did not play in the UEFA Cup 1973 -- 74, because the Football League continued to apply the one - team - per - city rule from the old Fairs Cup, and Tottenham Hotspur qualified as League cup winners. In subsequent seasons, the departure of Mee and lack of domestic honours meant that the club did not contest in European football.
Mee was succeeded by Terry Neill in July 1976. Arsenal returned to European club football in the 1978 -- 79 season, having finished fifth in the previous league campaign. The club contested in the UEFA Cup for the first time and won their opening leg 3 -- 0 against 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig; a commanding performance away from home in the second leg allowed Arsenal to win 1 -- 4 at the Bruno - Plache - Stadion and 7 -- 1 on aggregate. Arsenal progressed past the third round, winning on aggregate against Hajduk Split but were eliminated by Red Star Belgrade in the third round after striker Dušan Savić scored an away goal, two minutes from the end of the match.
As winners of the 1979 FA Cup Final, Arsenal entered the European Cup Winners ' Cup in the 1979 -- 80 season. The club defeated Fenerbahçe, 1. FC Magdeburg and IFK Göteborg, before facing Juventus in the semi-finals. After conceding an early penalty scored by Antonio Cabrini, Arsenal defender David O'Leary was injured and substituted in the 20th minute, when Juventus striker Roberto Bettega tackled him. Marco Tardelli was later sent off for a foul on Liam Brady and in the 85th minute, Arsenal managed to score an equaliser through a mix - up between Frank Stapleton and Bettega; the Italian put the ball into his goal net. Neill in his post-match comments expressed his anger over Bettega 's tackle after the game: "I was shocked by a most vicious foul. I was shocked because I have always had the greatest admiration for him. '' A headed goal by substitute Paul Vaessen two minutes from the end, in the second leg was enough to take Arsenal into the 1980 European Cup Winners ' Cup Final, where they faced Valencia in Brussels. A goalless draw after normal and extra time meant the final was to be decided on a penalty shootout, with Valencia winning 5 -- 4.
Arsenal competed in the UEFA Cup in the 1981 -- 82 and 1982 -- 83 seasons and departed in the first and second round to FC Winterslag and Spartak Moscow respectively. The Heysel Stadium disaster of May 1985, during the 1985 European Cup Final between Liverpool and Juventus resulted in UEFA, and later FIFA, imposing a ' worldwide ' ban on English teams from participating in European club competitions, initially for an indefinite period. Under George Graham, Arsenal returned to the European Cup in the 1991 -- 92 season, having won the league championship a season earlier. They went out in the second round to Portuguese team Benfica in November 1991. The ban arising from the Heysel disaster had prevented Arsenal from competing in the European Cup when they won the league title two years previously, as well as preventing them from competing in the UEFA Cup on two occasions.
In the 1993 -- 94 season, Arsenal contested in the European Cup Winners ' Cup, having won the 1993 FA Cup Final. The club beat Odense BK and Standard Liège to reach the quarter - finals, with the latter described as a "breathtaking performance '' by Graham, after winning 7 -- 0 at the Stade Maurice Dufrasne. Arsenal defeated Torino of Italy and French representative Paris Saint - Germain to reach the 1994 European Cup Winners ' Cup Final alongside Parma, staged at Copenhagen. Without top goalscorer Ian Wright and markers John Jensen and Martin Keown, Arsenal went into the final as outsiders. Although Parma began the match the strongest of both teams, Arsenal opened the scoring through a well taken volley by striker Alan Smith. Defending in numbers, the team held on to record an improbable victory and win the club 's second European trophy, after a 24 - year wait. After the match Graham praised his team 's performance and defended his pragmatic approach; "Sometimes we could go forward a little bit more and entertain a bit more, but we play to our strengths, like we did in this match. There 's nothing wrong with having a very, very good defence, believe me. We 've proved it, and it 's a big plus. ''
As holders of the competition, Arsenal was admitted into the Cup Winners ' Cup for the 1994 -- 95 season. They moreover contested in the 1994 European Super Cup, losing to Milan 2 -- 0 on aggregate. In February 1995, Graham was sacked by Arsenal after it emerged he accepted an illegal £ 425,000 payment from Norwegian agent Rune Hauge for two of his clients: Jensen and Pål Lydersen. He was replaced by caretaker manager Stewart Houston (Bruce Rioch in the close season), who managed to take Arsenal into the 1995 UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup Final after beating Sampdoria on penalties in the semi-finals. They however, did not retain the trophy after Real Zaragoza midfielder Nayim scored an extra-time goal, lobbing Arsenal goalkeeper David Seaman.
In August 1996, Rioch was dismissed by Arsenal. He was replaced by Arsène Wenger, who became the club 's first manager born outside the British Isles. Wenger had creditable experience in UEFA club competitions; at Monaco he reached the final of the Cup Winners ' Cup in 1992, losing 2 -- 0 to Werder Bremen and took the club into the semi-finals of the European Cup in 1993 -- 94. Wenger wanted Arsenal to become one of the biggest clubs in Europe, emphasising on buying talent from all over the world and patience shown by the club 's board and supporters. His first involvement in a European match for Arsenal was against Borussia Mönchengladbach on 26 September 1996 in the UEFA Cup; Arsenal lost 6 -- 4 on aggregate. Having watched the game from the stands in the first half, he assumed control in the second, suggesting the formation should accommodate four defenders instead of five.
Arsenal finished third in the 1996 -- 97 league season, missing out on qualification for the UEFA Champions League by goal difference. They, however qualified for the UEFA Cup first round, but lost to PAOK Salonika of Greece over two legs in September 1997. Arsenal completed the double in the 1997 -- 98 season, and winning the league ensured the club participated in the Champions League for the first time since its rebranding in 1992. To benefit from increased revenue and higher attendances, Arsenal was granted permission from the Football Association and UEFA to host their home Champions League matches at Wembley Stadium.
The club faced French champions Lens, Ukraine 's Dynamo Kiev and Panathinaikos of Greece in the group stages of the competition. Although they began the campaign in good stead, with two draws and a win, Arsenal lost 3 -- 1 to Dynamo Kiev and at home to Lens -- watched by a record crowd of 73,707, meaning the club could not reach higher than third place, failing to make the quarter - finals. Arsenal ended the 1998 -- 99 league season as runners - up, qualifying for the group stages of the Champions League for the second successive year. Again, Arsenal finished in third spot in their group, this time behind Barcelona and Fiorentina. The team, however advanced into the UEFA Cup third round and Arsenal chose to revert to playing their home matches at Highbury, on the advice of the players. Arsenal beat Nantes and Deportivo de La Coruña over two legs and defeated Werder Bremen in the quarter - final; midfielder Ray Parlour scored a hat - trick in the second leg. In the semi-final against Lens, Arsenal secured a 3 -- 1 aggregate win to face Turkish opposition Galatasaray in the final, who beat Leeds United.
At Copenhagen, the venue for the 2000 UEFA Cup Final, both Arsenal and Galatasaray played out to a goalless draw in normal and in extra time. Arsenal lost 4 -- 1 in a penalty shootout, with striker Davor Šuker and midfielder Patrick Vieira hitting the post and underside of the crossbar respectively. Wenger reflected on the defeat by saying, "We did not play well in the first half, but we were much better afterwards. It is very disappointing. '' The final was overshadowed by events at the city centre, where Arsenal supporter Paul Dineen was stabbed in the back. Referred to as the "Battle of Copenhagen '', the incident escalated into a riot between English and Turkish fans, forcing the Danish police to use tear gas in order to restore calm.
Arsenal qualified for the group stages of the Champions League in the 2000 -- 01 season, having ended the previous league season in second. The club won their first three matches in Group B, against Sparta Prague, Shakhtar Donetsk and Lazio. A draw away to Lazio at the Stadio Olimpico ensured qualification into the second group stage, where they were partnered with Bayern Munich, Lyon and Spartak Moscow. In spite of defender Sylvinho scoring an early goal in their opening game against Spartak Moscow, Arsenal plummeted to a 4 -- 1 defeat, leaving Wenger to assess that "as a team, we did n't look as solid as we are used to. '' Wins at Lyon and at home to Spartak Moscow helped Arsenal to qualify for the quarter - finals as the French club failed to capitalise on Arsenal 's defeat at Bayern Munich. They faced Spanish club Valencia, winning 2 -- 1 at Highbury but the team were beaten 1 -- 0 at the Estadio Mestalla, knocked - out on aggregate.
In the 2001 -- 02 season, Arsenal played in the Champions League. The club qualified for the second group stage on goal difference but did not reach the quarter - finals, losing their final two matches against Deportivo La Coruña and Juventus. Having won the domestic league for the first time in four years, Wenger revealed the club 's and his own intent to win the Champions League, telling French newspaper L'Equipe "I ca n't imagine finishing my life without winning the European Cup ''. Arsenal began the following season impressively, winning 0 -- 4 at PSV Eindhoven. The match set a new club record, as midfielder Gilberto Silva scored the fastest goal, in 20.07 seconds. Although Arsenal lost their last two matches against Borussia Dortmund and Auxerre, coinciding with a blip in form domestically, they qualified for the second group stage for the third consecutive season. Striker Thierry Henry scored his first hat - trick in Europe for Arsenal against Roma on 27 November 2002 with the player stating; "It 's wonderful to score a hat - trick but it 's even more important that I did so in a game we 've won. '' Arsenal failed to replicate their form at Roma, drawing their next four matches and losing to Valencia in the final match to finish third in their group and thus, out of the competition.
Arsenal entered the Champions League group stage in the 2003 -- 04 season and faced Dynamo Kiev, Internazionale and Lokomotiv Moscow. Without a win in their first three matches, Arsenal faced an early exit from the competition but managed a victory against Dynamo Kiev, after defender Ashley Cole scored via a header. At the San Siro, Arsenal beat Internazionale 1 -- 5, in a performance described as "one of the greatest results in (the club 's) history ''. A win in their final group game against Lokomotiv Moscow was enough for Arsenal to top their group and play an unseeded team in the last 16. Arsenal eliminated Celta Vigo and faced fellow English club Chelsea at the quarter - final stage. Going into the first leg, Arsenal were favourites, having played their London rivals three times during the course the season, winning each occasion. Former Dutch international Johan Cruyff backed Arsenal to win the competition, saying "If Arsenal win it playing football the way only they know how then Europe would be proud to have such champions ''. In spite of Robert Pirès scoring a vital away goal at Stamford Bridge, Chelsea beat Arsenal 1 -- 2 at Highbury to progress into the semi-finals. A year later, Arsenal exited the Champions League after losing 2 -- 3 to Bayern Munich on aggregate, in the last 16 stage.
Arsenal qualified for the group stages of the Champions League in the 2005 -- 06 season, finishing first in a group containing Ajax, Sparta Prague and Thun. The club faced Real Madrid in the last 16; a solo goal by Henry at the Estadio Santiago Bernabéu in the first leg inflicted the home team 's first defeat in 18 Champions League matches. Arsenal produced a disciplined display at home a fortnight after to reach the quarter - finals and become the sole English representative left in the competition. At home to Juventus, Arsenal won 2 -- 0, and a goalless draw at the Stadio delle Alpi meant the club progressed into the semi-finals against Villarreal. In the club 's final European match at Higbhury, Kolo Touré scored a first - half winner to give Arsenal a 1 -- 0 win. A late penalty save by goalkeeper Jens Lehmann in the second leg sent Arsenal into the 2006 UEFA Champions League Final, staged at the Stade de France, Paris. The result, another goalless draw, was Arsenal 's tenth clean sheet in a row -- a new competition record. Defender Sol Campbell, returning from injury praised the team performance in his post-match interview: "It 's brilliant for us. It 's also great for the manager Arsène Wenger to get to the final in France -- I 'm sure he will get a great reception. ''
In the final against Barcelona, Lehmann was sent off in 18th minute for a professional foul on striker Samuel Eto'o. Wenger reacted by substituting Robert Pirès for goalkeeper Manuel Almunia, thus altering the formation. In spite of the disadvantage, Arsenal took the lead in the 37th minute, after Henry 's free kick was headed in by Campbell. Henry missed a chance in the second half to give Arsenal a two - nil lead before Eto'o equalised with 14 minutes left. Substitute Henrik Larsson set up Juliano Belletti to score the winner for Barcelona. Wenger criticised referee Terje Hauge for sending off Lehmann, a view shared by club captain Henry and FIFA president Sepp Blatter.
As Arsenal finished fourth in the league, in the following season the club needed to play a third qualifying round, against Dinamo Zagreb in order to participate in the Champions League group stages. The team won 1 -- 5 on aggregate, including a 3 -- 0 victory in the first European match at the Emirates Stadium. Arsenal was eliminated in the Round of 16 stage, losing on the away goal ruling to PSV Eindhoven. In the 2007 -- 08 season, Arsenal equalled their biggest home win in European football, scoring seven against Slavia Prague. The club beat holders Milan in the subsequent round, earning critical acclaim for their style of football, not least from Marcello Lippi: "It would be good for football if Arsenal could win. They play on the ground, they manoeuvre the ball, very, very well. It 's very fast and very technical. '' At the quarter - final stage, Liverpool defeated Arsenal 5 -- 3 on aggregate to set up a semi-final tie against Chelsea.
Arsenal progressed past the group stages of the 2008 -- 09 Champions League season and beat Roma and Villarreal to face Manchester United in the semi-finals. A 1 -- 0 defeat at Old Trafford meant Arsenal needed to win by two clear goals to progress, but goals from Park Ji - sung and Cristiano Ronaldo in the first eleven minutes ended the club 's chances of reaching the 2009 UEFA Champions League Final. Wenger in his post-match press conference described the match as "the most disappointing night of my career '', adding "I felt the fans were really up for a big night and to disappoint people who stand behind the team so much hurts. '' Arsenal lost to holders Barcelona 5 -- 3 on aggregate in the quarter - finals the following season, and in spite of beating the Spanish club 2 -- 1 at the Emirates Stadium in 2010 -- 11, Arsenal again were eliminated, this time at the Round of 16. Arsenal exited at the same stage of the competition for the second consecutive season, against Milan. Having lost the away leg 4 -- 0, the team gave a valiant performance in the second leg at home, winning 3 -- 0 on the night, but unable to find the final goal that would have taken the game to extra time.
In the 2012 -- 13 season, Arsenal fell at the last 16 stage for the third time in three years, losing 3 -- 1 to Bayern Munich at home, but managing to win 2 -- 0 in the return leg, meaning they went out on the away goals rule. They were once again eliminated by Bayern Munich in the 2013 -- 14 season after losing 2 -- 0 at home, and drawing 1 -- 1 away at Munich. They were eliminated by Monaco in Round of 16 in the 2014 -- 15 season on away goals, and by Barcelona 5 -- 1 on aggregate in 2015 -- 16. Arsenal exited at the last 16 for the seventh consecutive time to Bayern Munich, losing 10 -- 2 on aggregate.
Arsenal was the first British side to defeat Real Madrid and Juventus away from home. The club was also the first to win against both Milanese teams: Internazionale and Milan at the San Siro. Goalkeeper Jens Lehmann kept ten consecutive clean sheets in the run - in to the 2006 UEFA Champions League Final; the defence went 995 minutes until conceding a goal. Against Hamburg in the UEFA Champions League group stage on 13 September 2006, Arsenal became the first team in the competition 's history to field a first eleven of different nationalities.
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what are the final waste products of cellular respiration | Cellular waste product - wikipedia
Cellular waste products are formed as a by - product of cellular respiration, a series of processes and reactions that generate energy for the cell, in the form of ATP. Two examples of cellular respiration creating cellular waste products are aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration.
Each pathway generates different waste products.
When in the presence of oxygen, cells use aerobic respiration to obtain energy from glucose molecules.
Simplified Theoretical Reaction: C H O + 6O → 6CO + 6H O + ~ 30ATP
Cells undergoing aerobic respiration produce 6 molecules of carbon dioxide, 6 molecules of water, and up to 30 molecules of ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which is directly used to produce energy, from each molecule of glucose in the presence of surplus oxygen.
In aerobic respiration, oxygen serves as the recipient of electrons from the electron transport chain. Aerobic respiration is thus very efficient because oxygen is a strong oxidant. Aerobic respiration proceeds in a series of steps, which also increases efficiency - since glucose is broken down gradually and ATP is produced as needed, less energy is wasted as heat. This strategy results in the waste products H O and CO being formed in different amounts at different phases of respiration. CO is formed in Pyruvate decarboxylation, H O is formed in oxidative phosphorylation, and both are formed in the citric acid cycle. The simple nature of the final products also indicates the efficiency of this method of respiration. All of the energy stored in the carbon - carbon bonds of glucose is released, leaving CO and H O. Although there is energy stored in the bonds of these molecules, this energy is not easily accessible by the cell. All usable energy is efficiently extracted.
Anaerobic respiration is done by aerobic organisms when there is not sufficient oxygen in a cell to undergo aerobic respiration as well as by cells called anaerobes that selectively perform anaerobic respiration even in the presence of oxygen. In anaerobic respiration, weak oxidants like sulfate and nitrate serve as oxidants in the place of oxygen.
Generally, in anaerobic respiration sugars are broken down into carbon dioxide and other waste products that are dictated by the oxidant the cell uses. Whereas in aerobic respiration the oxidant is always oxygen, in anaerobic respiration it varies. Each oxidant produces a different waste product, such as nitrite, succinate, sulfide, methane, and acetate. Anaerobic respiration is correspondingly less efficient than aerobic respiration. In the absence of oxygen, not all of the carbon - carbon bonds in glucose can be broken to release energy. A great deal of extractable energy is left in the waste products. Anaerobic respiration generally occurs in prokaryotes in environments that do not contain oxygen.
Fermentation is another process by which cells can extract energy from glucose. It is not a form of cellular respiration, but it does generate ATP, break down glucose, and produce waste products. Fermentation, like aerobic respiration, begins by breaking glucose into two pyruvate molecules. From here, it proceeds using endogenous organic electron receptors, whereas cellular respiration uses exogenous receptors, such as oxygen in aerobic respiration and nitrate in anaerobic respiration. These varied organic receptors each generate different waste products. Common products are lactic acid, lactose, hydrogen, and ethanol. Carbon dioxide is also commonly produced. Fermentation occurs primarily in anaerobic conditions, although some organisms such as yeast use fermentation even when oxygen is plentiful.
Simplified Theoretical Reaction: C H O → (\ displaystyle \ to) 2C H O + 2 ATP (120 kJ) Lactic Acid Fermentation is commonly known as the process by which mammalian muscle cells produce energy in anaerobic environments, as in instances of great physical exertion, and is the simplest type of fermentation. It starts along the same pathway as aerobic respiration, but once glucose is converted to pyruvate proceeds down one of two pathways and produces only two molecules of ATP from each molecule of glucose. In the homolactic pathway, it produces lactic acid as waste. In the heterolactic pathway, it produces lactic acid as well as ethanol and carbon dioxide. Lactic acid fermentation is relatively inefficient. The waste products lactic acid and ethanol have not been fully oxidized and still contain energy, but it requires the addition of oxygen to extract this energy.
Generally, lactic acid fermentation occurs only when aerobic cells are lacking oxygen. However, some aerobic mammalian cells will preferentially use lactic acid fermentation over aerobic respiration. This phenomenon is called the Warburg effect and is found primarily in cancer cells. Muscles cells under great exertion will also use lactic acid fermentation to supplement aerobic respiration. Lactic acid fermentation is somewhat faster, although less efficient, than aerobic respiration, so in activities like sprinting it can help quickly provide needed energy to muscles.
Cellular respiration takes place in the cristae of the mitochondria within cells. Depending on the pathways followed, the products are dealt with in different ways.
CO is excreted from the cell via diffusion into the blood stream, where it is transported in three ways:
H O also diffuses out of the cell into the blood stream, from where it is excreted in the form of perspiration, water vapor in breath, or urine from the kidneys. Water, along with some dissolved solutes, are removed from blood circulation in the nephrons of the kidney and eventually excreted as urine.
The products of fermentation can be processed different ways, depending on the cellular conditions.
Lactic acid tends to accumulate in the muscles, which causes pain of the muscle and joint as well as fatigue. It also creates a gradient which induces water to flow out of cells and increases blood pressure. Research suggests that lactic acid may also play a role in lowering levels of potassium in the blood. It can also be converted back to pyruvate or converted back to glucose in the liver and fully metabolized by aerobic respiration.
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what do you call a pegasus with a horn | Winged unicorn - Wikipedia
A winged unicorn is a fictional horse with wings like Pegasus and the horn of a unicorn. This creature has no specific name, but in some literature and media, it has been referred to as an alicorn, a Latin word for the horn of a unicorn, especially in alchemical texts, or as pegacorn, which is a portmanteau of a pegasus and a unicorn.
Winged unicorns have been depicted in art. Ancient Achaemenid Assyrian seals bear depictions of winged unicorns and winged bulls as representations of evil. But sometimes, winged unicorns were representation of the light element.
Irish poet W.B. Yeats wrote of imagining a winged beast that he associated with ecstatic destruction. The beast took the form of a winged unicorn in his 1907 play The Unicorn from the Stars and later that of the rough beast slouching towards Bethlehem in his poem "The Second Coming ''.
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what is fat amy's real name in the movie | Rebel Wilson - Wikipedia
Rebel Melanie Elizabeth Wilson (born 2 March 1980) is an Australian actress, writer, and producer. After graduating from the Australian Theatre for Young People in 2003, she began appearing as Toula on the Special Broadcasting Service (SBS) comedy series Pizza and the sketch comedy series The Wedge. In 2008, Wilson wrote, produced and starred in the musical comedy series Bogan Pride. The following year, she won the Tropfest best actress award for her role in Bargain and made a guest appearance in City Homicide. Shortly after moving to the United States, Wilson was cast as Brynn in the feature film Bridesmaids.
Wilson also appeared in A Few Best Men, What to Expect When You 're Expecting and Struck by Lightning, leading Variety to name her one of their "Top Ten Comics to Watch for 2011 ''. She also appeared as Becky in Bachelorette and starred in the musical comedy Pitch Perfect film series as Fat Amy, a role that earned her several award nominations and wins, including the MTV Best Breakthrough Performance Award and a Teen Choice Award for Choice Movie Actress. She has also created and starred in Super Fun Night, a television comedy that aired for one season on ABC.
Wilson was born in 2 March 1980 in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. Her mother is a professional dog handler. Wilson grew up in the suburbs of Kenthurst, Parramatta and Castle Hill. She attended Tara Anglican School for Girls. She completed her Higher School Certificate in 1997, including second place in the state in food technology.
Wilson has three siblings; sisters Liberty and Annachi and a brother, Ryot. Liberty and Ryot appeared on the first season of The Amazing Race Australia in 2011, where they were the first team eliminated. Wilson has stated that her great - aunt was Lillian Bounds, who was married to Walt Disney until his death in 1966. Despite Wilson standing by this belief in court, it continues to be disputed by genealogist Dale Sheldon.
Wilson 's first career choice was mathematics. She told The Sydney Morning Herald, "I was very academic at high school and was always good with numbers. '' She attended the University of New South Wales, graduating in 2009 with Bachelor of Arts (Theatre and Performance Studies) and Bachelor of Laws degrees. A former Rotary International Youth Ambassador for Australia, she was based in South Africa for one year, where she contracted malaria. She has spoken of malaria - induced hallucinations, where she saw herself as an actress who had won an Oscar, convincing her to pursue an acting career.
Wilson studied at the Australian Theatre for Young People (ATYP). In 2003 she moved to New York after winning the ATYP International scholarship, which was funded by Nicole Kidman. While she was in New York, Wilson trained with The Second City. She appeared with the Sydney Theatre Company and performed at the Melbourne International Comedy Festival. She first came to the public 's attention in 2002 with her stage musical The Westie Monologues, which she wrote, starred in and produced in Sydney. Her follow - up stage productions, which she wrote, produced and starred in include Spunks and Confessions of an Exchange Student.
In Australia, Wilson is most known for her roles as Toula on the SBS comedy series Pizza and as various characters including Lucy, Fat Mandi and Karla Bangs on the sketch comedy series The Wedge. She played an Australian Idol mad schoolgirl in a series of Telstra advertisements shown during Australian Idol from 2004 to 2005. She also had roles in the feature films Fat Pizza and Ghost Rider.
In 2008, Wilson created, wrote, produced and starred in the musical comedy series Bogan Pride on SBS One and also starred in the improvisational Nine Network series Monster House. In 2009 Wilson won the Tropfest Best Actress award for her role in the film Bargain. She has made appearances on the improvisational comedy show Thank God You 're Here and the comedy game show Talkin ' ' Bout Your Generation. She performed stand - up on the television special The Breast Darn Show In Town and guest starred in the Seven Network drama City Homicide and performed improv at the Upright Citizens Brigade in Los Angeles.
After moving to the United States, Wilson signed to talent and literary agents William Morris Endeavor. Wilson 's next film role came in the Judd Apatow film, Bridesmaids, in which she played Brynn, the sister of Matt Lucas ' character. The role was written especially for her. Wilson then appeared in the CBS sitcom Rules of Engagement and on the Comedy Central series, Workaholics. She co-hosted the 2010 ARIA Music Awards and performed at the inaugural Variety 's Power of Comedy event in Los Angeles with Lucas and Russell Brand. In early 2011, Wilson filmed A Few Best Men at Fox Studios Australia. She also filmed a role in Small Apartments. Wilson was named one of Variety magazine 's "Top Ten Comics to Watch for 2011 ''. In 2012, Wilson had a role in the ensemble comedy What to Expect When You 're Expecting, as Janice, and co-starred in the indie film Struck By Lightning.
On 19 August 2011, Borys Kit of The Hollywood Reporter reported that Wilson had replaced Casey Wilson in Bachelorette. In 2012, Wilson voiced a character in Ice Age: Continental Drift and played Fat Amy in Pitch Perfect. For the latter role, she received critical acclaim and earned various award nominations, including Best Supporting Actress from the San Diego Film Critics Society and Best Actress in a Comedy from the Broadcast Film Critics Association. She won the MTV Movie Award for Best Actor in a Movie and shared the Best Musical Moment award with her Pitch Perfect co-stars. Wilson was also nominated for MTV Movie Award for Best Performance. Wilson later won the Choice Movie Actress: Comedy award for Pitch Perfect at the 2013 Teen Choice Awards. She had also been nominated for Choice Comedian at the 2013 Teen Choice Awards.
In January 2012, Michael Ausiello of TVLine announced that Wilson would be writing and starring in Super Fun Night, a comedy that follows three friends on a quest to have fun every Friday night. The pilot was picked up by CBS and Conan O'Brien became one of the executive producers. The pilot was later turned down by CBS, but the ABC network picked up the project. A series was ordered and the show began broadcasting on 2 October 2013. The series was cancelled after one season. Wilson played Robin Peck in Michael Bay 's Pain & Gain (2013). She hosted the 2013 MTV Movie Awards on 14 April 2013.
In March 2014, the American satellite television network Dish Network launched a marketing campaign for its Hopper DVR featuring Wilson as the voice of the eponymous computer animated kangaroo. Wilson reprised her role in the sequels Pitch Perfect 2 (2015) and Pitch Perfect 3 (2017). She also made a cameo in the television comedy Pompidou. Wilson joined the voice cast for Kung Fu Panda 3, however in September 2015, she was replaced with Kate Hudson. Wilson next appeared in the ensemble comedy How to Be Single, released in February 2016. Nigel M Smith of The Guardian wrote "Wilson is the standout, nailing every pratfall she 's dealt, but How to Be Single does n't make strong use of her character ''. Wilson also appeared in the action comedy Grimsby. On 14 February 2016, Wilson presented the nominations for the Best Supporting Actor category at the 69th British Academy Film Awards. Wilson is one of sixty celebrities making a cameo in the upcoming Absolutely Fabulous: The Movie.
Wilson appeared as Ursula, the sea witch, in an all - star concert version of The Little Mermaid at the Hollywood Bowl on 3 June 4 June, and 6 June 2016. She made her West End debut in the musical Guys and Dolls in the role of Miss Adelaide from 28 June to 21 August 2016. She received positive reviews.
Wilson will appear in a remake of Private Benjamin. She has also been cast in The Social Life alongside Amanda Seyfried. In August 2016, it was confirmed Wilson would star in a remake of the 1988 comedy film Dirty Rotten Scoundrels. The film, titled Nasty Women, will also star Anne Hathaway, while Wilson is co-producing. Wilson will also star in the comedy Is n't It Romantic, due for release in 2019.
In May 2015, Australian magazine Woman 's Day published a story claiming that Wilson had been misleading about her birth name, age, and upbringing. Wilson had previously said in interviews that she was raised by dog - training bogan parents in the ghetto of Sydney, spent a year in Zimbabwe, climbed into a cage with a leopard, got caught in a shoot - out and then struck down by a severe strain of malaria from a mosquito in Mozambique where, from her intensive care bed, she envisioned herself winning an Oscar and rapping her acceptance speech. Her age was also incorrectly given as 29, which she would later admit was something she chose not to correct. Woman 's Day called all of this into question and claimed that Wilson had, on the contrary, a "very normal, upper - middle - class upbringing '' and "added a touch of ' fantasy ' to the life she led before becoming a household name. '' The story was picked up by several other publications including The Sydney Morning Herald, People magazine, the Chicago Tribune and The Huffington Post. Most notably, Wilson 's true birth date was confirmed through business records filed with the ASIC, which were obtained by The Sydney Morning Herald.
On 16 May 2016, Wilson said print and online articles in Woman 's Day, the Australian Women 's Weekly, NW and OK! magazines made her out to be a serial liar. According to a defamation writ filed in the Supreme Court of Victoria, Wilson said her reputation and credit had suffered and she had been humiliated and embarrassed. She also sued for special damages, claiming she missed out on roles and other ones were terminated because of the articles. Wilson was represented by Matthew Collins QC. On 15 June 2017, a six - person jury ruled in Wilson 's favour, finding that publisher Bauer Media Group had indeed wrongly painted the actress as a serial liar, and that publishing the articles was likely to have caused harm to her career.
On 13 September 2017, Wilson was awarded A $ 4,500,000 in damages. Wilson 's lawyer Richard Leder, said "Today 's verdict is a significant record -- it 's about four times the highest previous verdict in a defamation case in Australia ''. In June 2017, Wilson tweeted "Any dollars I receive will go to charity, scholarships or invested into the Aussie film industry to provide jobs ''.
Bauer Media is appealing the amount of the damages.
In July 2011, Wilson became a spokesperson for weight loss and nutrition company Jenny Craig in Australia. In January 2012, Wilson told The Daily Telegraph that she had lost 10 kilograms (22 lb) since signing up to the program.
Wilson asserted that the producers of Pitch Perfect had refused to let her lose any more weight during filming, as her contract stated she must stay the same size. She said that once her film commitments were over, she would start her diet again to reach her target weight of 80 kilograms (180 lb). In February 2013, she confirmed that she had ended her agreement with Jenny Craig the previous year.
Wilson and her Bridesmaids co-star Matt Lucas lived together in West Hollywood, from September 2012 until 2015. They remain good friends.
In July 2015, Wilson stated her support for stricter American gun laws following the 2015 Lafayette shooting, stating, "I do n't like getting political but America you really have to follow Australia 's example re gun laws. I do n't remember a mass shooting in Australia since they overhauled the gun laws. It seems like every week in America there 's a shooting. I just want people to be safe, especially people that are doing one of my favorite things in the world -- going out to the movies to have fun. ''
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who is the highest paid artist of all time | List of best - selling Music artists - wikipedia
This list includes music artists with claims of 75 million or more record sales. The artists in the following tables are listed with both their claimed sales figure along with their total of certified units and are ranked in descending order, with the artist with the highest amount of claimed sales at the top. If two or more artists have the same claimed sales, they are then ranked by certified units. The claimed sales figure and the total of certified units (for each country) within the provided sources include sales of albums, singles, compilation - albums, music videos as well as downloads of singles and full - length albums. Sales figures, such as those from Soundscan, which are sometimes published by Billboard magazine, have not been included in the certified units column. As of 2017, based on both sales claims and certified units, The Beatles are considered the highest - selling band. Elvis Presley is considered the highest - selling individual artist based on sales claims and Rihanna is the highest - selling individual artist based on certified units.
All artists included on this list, which have begun charting on official albums or singles charts have their available claimed figures supported by at least 20 % in certified units. That is why Cliff Richard, Diana Ross, Scorpions, Bing Crosby, Gloria Estefan, Deep Purple, Iron Maiden, Tom Jones, The Jackson 5, Dionne Warwick, the Spice Girls, Dolly Parton, Ozzy Osbourne, Andrea Bocelli and others have not been included on this list. The more recent the artist, the higher the required percentage of certified units, so artists such as Rihanna, Chris Brown, Taylor Swift, Flo Rida, Katy Perry, Justin Bieber, Adele, Lady Gaga, Bruno Mars, Nicki Minaj and Ed Sheeran are expected to have their claimed figures supported by over 75 % in certified units. The certified units are sourced from available online databases of local music industry associations. All certified units are converted from Gold / Platinum / Diamond certification awards based on criteria provided by certifying bodies. The certified units percentage varies according to the first year that an artist appeared in the charts.
The requirements of certified units are designed to avoid inflated sales figures, which are frequently practiced by record companies for promotional purposes. The claimed figures are referenced from online articles created by highly reliable sources. For clarity, the sources used, say the term "records '' (singles, albums, videos) and not "albums ''. However, if all available sources for an artist or band say "albums '', such sources are only used if the certified album units of the said artist meet the required percentage amount. This list uses claimed figures that are closest to artists ' available certified units: inflated claimed figures that meet the required certified units amount but are unrealistically high, are not used.
The claimed figures are upgraded only when there is a significant progress in artists ' certified units. In other words, the available certified units for each artist should get relatively closer to already listed claimed figure in order for higher figures to replace the listed ones.
The certified units of the newer artists may sometimes be higher than their listed claimed figures. This is because Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and almost all other certifying bodies count streaming towards Gold and Platinum thresholds required for Digital Single Award certification. For this reason, some singles and even albums get over certified by hundreds of thousands of units. The over certified figures, however, are often in millions of units for RIAA certifications, one such example is Rihanna 's single "We Found Love '', which is certified at nine times Platinum by the RIAA, yet during the time of the certification, it had sold 5.4 million downloads.
The certified units for some artists / bands who have multi-disc albums can be higher than their listed claimed figures due to Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) counting each unit within set as one unit toward certification.
Issued certifications for songs which have been recorded by multiple artists including featured artists are added to each artist 's total amount of certified units, as all the artists would have played a significant part in a song. For example "This Is What You Came For '' and "Where Them Girls At '' include Rihanna and Flo Rida, Nicki Minaj as featured artists respectively, so the certifications issued for these songs are added to the total amount of certified units for all involved artists. However, the certifications issued for songs that have been recorded by four or more artists are not included as the artists involved would have played minor roles, examples of such songs are Kanye West 's "Monster '' and / or "All Day ''.
The Beatles
Elvis Presley
Michael Jackson
Elton John
Madonna
Led Zeppelin
Pink Floyd
Rihanna
Eminem
Mariah Carey
Queen
Celine Dion
Whitney Houston
AC / DC
Taylor Swift
Garth Brooks
Justin Bieber
Eagles
Bruno Mars
Ed Sheeran
Kanye West
Katy Perry
Adele
Lady Gaga
Jay - Z
Lil Wayne
B'z
Bon Jovi
Chris Brown
Nicki Minaj
Shania Twain
Flo Rida
Pink
Justin Timberlake
Van Halen
Maroon 5
Journey
The Black Eyed Peas
R. Kelly
Usher
Kenny G
Robbie Williams
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the haves and the have nots season 3 episodes | List of the Haves and the Have Nots episodes - Wikipedia
The Haves and the Have Nots is an American primetime television soap opera created, executive produced, written and directed by Tyler Perry. The premise of the series is loosely based on Perry 's 2011 play The Haves and the Have Nots.
The series follows three families and their lifestyles as they intersect with one another in Savannah, Georgia: the rich and powerful Cryer and Harrington families (dubbed "The Haves '') and the poor and destitute Young family (dubbed "The Have Nots '').
The fifth episode in Season 2 of The Haves and the Have Nots, "Why Did n't You Tell Me? '' was not only a series high episode in ratings, but the most watched television program in all of cable for the night. The episode brought in 3.4 million viewers. Among all OWN programming since the network 's January 2011 debut, only a March 2012 Oprah 's Next Chapter interview with Bobbi Kristina has drawn more viewers (3.5 million) than the February - 4 - 2014 episode of The Haves and the Have Nots. On Tuesday, March 11, 2014, however, a season 2 episode of The Haves and the Have Nots -- following a hiatus within the season -- set a record for all of OWN programming, scoring the highest ratings in the station 's history. The record - breaking episode brought in 3.6 million viewers. Additionally, the episode came in at number 1 among all of cable television and number 4 among all shows on television for its airing night.
Candace and Jeffrey disagree on what to do with Quincy 's body when interrupted by a knock on the door. The Cryer and Harrington clan face repercussions.
((Episode list
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who is the director for price is right | The Price Is Right (U.S. game show) - Wikipedia
The Price Is Right is an American television game show created by Bob Stewart, Mark Goodson and Bill Todman. The show revolves around contestants competing by identifying accurate pricing of merchandise to win cash and prizes. Contestants are selected from the studio audience when the announcer states the show 's famous catchphrase, "Come on down! ''
The program premiered on September 4, 1972 on CBS. Bob Barker was the series ' longest - running host from its 1972 debut until his retirement in June 2007, when Drew Carey took over. Barker was accompanied by a series of announcers, beginning with Johnny Olson, followed by Rod Roddy and then Rich Fields. In April 2011, George Gray became the announcer. The show has used several models, most notably Anitra Ford, Janice Pennington, Dian Parkinson, Holly Hallstrom and Kathleen Bradley. While retaining some elements of the original version of the show, the 1972 version has added many new distinctive gameplay elements.
The Price Is Right has aired over 8,000 episodes since its debut and is one of the longest - running network series in United States television history. In a 2007 article, TV Guide named The Price Is Right the "greatest game show of all time. '' The show 's 46th season premiered on September 18, 2017.
The gameplay of the show consists of four distinct competition elements, in which nine preliminary contestants (or six, depending on the episode 's running time) are eventually narrowed to two finalists who compete in the game 's final element, the "Showcase ''.
At the beginning of the show, four contestants are called from the audience by the announcer to take a spot in the front row behind bidding podiums, which are embedded into the front edge of the stage. This area is known as "Contestants ' Row ''. The announcer shouts "Come on down! '' after calling each selected contestant 's name, a phrase which has become a trademark of the show. The four contestants in Contestants ' Row compete in a bidding round to determine which contestant will play the next pricing game (the round is known as "One Bid, '' which gets its name and format from one of two types of bidding rounds that existed on the 1950s version of the show). A prize is shown and each contestant gives a single bid for the item. In the first One - Bid game of each episode, bidding begins with the contestant on the viewer 's left - to - right. In subsequent One - Bid rounds, the order of bidding still moves from the viewer 's left - to - right, but it begins with the contestant most recently called down. Contestants are instructed to bid in whole dollars since the retail price of the item is rounded to the nearest dollar and another contestant 's bid can not be duplicated. If a contestant thinks the others have overbid, he or she bids $1 on the item. The contestant whose bid is closest to the actual retail price of the prize without going over wins that prize and gets to play the subsequent pricing game. If all four contestants overbid, several short buzzer tones sound, the lowest bid is announced and the bids are erased. The host then instructs the contestants to re-bid below the lowest previous bid. If a contestant bids the actual retail price, a bell rings and the contestant wins a cash bonus in addition to the prize. From the introduction of the bonus in 1977 until 1998, the "perfect bid '' bonus was $100; it was permanently increased to the current $500 in 1998. On The Price Is Right $1,000,000 Spectacular, the bonus was $1,000. After each pricing game except the final one, another contestant is called to "come on down '' to fill the spot of the contestant that won the previous round. The newest contestant bids first in each One Bid round. Contestants who fail to win a One Bid round -- thus never making it onstage to play a pricing game -- receive consolation prizes, currently $300, often sponsored by companies revealed by the announcer near the end of the show, before the Showcase.
After winning the One Bid, the contestant joins the host onstage for the opportunity to win additional prizes or cash by playing a pricing game. After the pricing game ends, a new contestant is selected for Contestants ' Row and the process is repeated. Six pricing games are played on each hour - long episode; three games per episode were played in the original half - hour format. Pricing game formats vary widely, ranging from simple dilemma games in which a contestant chooses one of two options to win to complex games of chance or skill in which guessing prices increases the odds of winning. On a typical hour - long episode, two games are played for a car, one game is played for a cash prize and the other three games offer expensive household merchandise or trips. Usually, at least one of the six games involves the pricing of grocery items, while another usually involves smaller prizes that can be used to win a larger prize package. Originally, five pricing games were in the rotation. Since then, more games have been created and added to the rotation and, starting with the 60 - minute expansion in 1975, the rate at which games premiered increased. Some pricing games were eventually discontinued, while others have been a mainstay since the show 's debut in 1972. As of 2017, the rotation is among 77 games. On the 1994 syndicated version hosted by Doug Davidson, the rules of several games were modified and other aesthetic changes were made. Notably, the grocery products used in some games on the daytime version were replaced by small merchandise prizes, generally valued at less than $100. Beginning in 2008, episodes of The Price Is Right $1,000,000 Spectacular featured rule changes to some pricing games which rewarded a $1 million bonus to the contestant if specific goals were achieved while playing the pricing game.
Since the show 's expansion to 60 minutes in 1975, each episode features two playings of the Showcase Showdown, occurring after the third and sixth pricing games. Each playing features the three contestants who played the preceding pricing games spinning "The Big Wheel '' to determine who advances to the Showcase, the show 's finale. The contestants play in the order of the value of his or her winnings thus far (including the One Bid), with the contestant who has won the most spinning last.
The wheel contains 20 sections showing values from 5 ¢ to $1.00, in increments of five cents. Contestants are allowed a maximum of two spins. The first contestant spins the wheel and may choose to stop with his or her score or spin again, adding the value of the second spin to their first. The second contestant then spins the wheel and tries to match or beat the leader 's score; if he or she fails to do so, the contestant must spin again. If the second contestant 's first spin matches or beats the score of the first contestant, he or she has the option of stopping or spinning again. The third contestant then spins; if his or her score is less than the leader then he or she will be required to spin again. In the event the second or third contestant 's first spin ties the score of the leader, he or she will be given the option of spinning again as an alternative to entering a "spin - off '' as described below.
If their total score of any contestant is less than that of the current leader, is beaten by the score of any subsequent contestant, or over $1.00, the contestant is eliminated from the game. The contestant whose score is nearest to $1.00 without going over advances to the Showcase at the end of the episode. Any spin that fails to make at least one complete revolution does not count; the contestant is given the opportunity to spin again, and if the contestant has visible difficulty in physically performing the task, the host can assist them.
If the first two contestants both spin twice and go over $1.00, the last contestant automatically advances to the Showcase and is given only one spin to determine their score; this is to ensure that a contestant advances to the showcase, avoiding a potential "triple over '' scenario in which no one would advance. Any contestant whose score equals $1.00 (from either the first spin or the sum of two spins) receives a $1,000 bonus and, since December 1978, is allowed a bonus spin. The contestant wins an additional $10,000 for landing on either 5 ¢ or 15 ¢ (which are adjacent to the $1.00 space and painted green), or an additional $25,000 for landing on $1.00. From December 1978 to September 22, 2008, the bonuses were $5,000 and $10,000 for landing on a green section and the $1.00, respectively. If the wheel stops on any other amount or fails to make at least one revolution, the contestant wins no more money. The wheel is positioned on 5 ¢ prior to the bonus spin so that it can not land on a winning prize without making a complete revolution.
Two or more contestants who are tied with the leading score compete in a "spin - off ''. Each contestant is allowed one additional spin and the contestant with the higher score advances to the Showcase. Multiple spin - offs are played until the tie is broken. Those who hit $1.00 in their spin - off spin still get $1,000 and a bonus spin. If two or more contestants tie with a score of $1.00, their bonus spins also determine their spin - off score. Only the spin - off score, not any bonus money won, determines which contestant moves on to the Showcase; thus, a person who wins the $10,000 bonus for landing on 15 ¢ would still lose the spin - off if their opponent lands on 20 ¢ or more. A tie in a bonus spin spin - off means the ensuing second spin - off will be spun with no bonuses available. Each spin must make one complete revolution in order to qualify. If a player 's bonus spin spin - off does not make a complete revolution, the contestant must spin again, and the spin will be scored as in a second round of a spin - off (no bonuses).
At the end of the episode, the two contestants with the highest winnings, or since 1975 on hour - long episodes, the two Showcase Showdown winners, advance to the Showcase. A "showcase '' of prizes (currently two or three prizes) is presented and the top winner has the option of placing a bid on the total value of the showcase or passing the showcase to the runner - up, who is then required to bid. A second showcase is then presented and the contestant who had not bid on the first showcase makes his or her bid. Unlike the One Bid, the contestant bidding on the second showcase may bid the same amount as their opponent on the first showcase, since the two contestants are bidding on different prize packages. The contestant who has bid nearer to the price of their own showcase without going over wins the prizes in his or her showcase.
Any contestant who overbids is disqualified regardless of their opponent 's result. A double overbid results in neither contestant winning a showcase. Since 1974, any contestant who comes within a specified amount from the actual retail price of their own showcase without going over wins both showcases. Until 1998, the amount was less than $100. In 1998, it became the current $250 or less.
Bob Barker began hosting The Price Is Right on September 4, 1972 and completed a 35 - year tenure on June 15, 2007. Barker was hired as host while still hosting the stunt comedy show Truth or Consequences. His retirement coincided with his 50th year as a television host. His final show aired on June 15, 2007 and was repeated in primetime, leading into the network 's coverage of the 34th Daytime Emmy Awards. In addition to hosting, Barker became Executive Producer of the show in March 1988 when Frank Wayne died and continued as such until his retirement, gaining significant creative control over the series between 2000 and his 2007 retirement. He also was responsible for creating several of the show 's pricing games, as well as launching The Price Is Right $1,000,000 Spectacular primetime spin - off. Reruns of Barker 's final season were aired throughout the summer from the Monday after his final show (June 18, 2007) until the Friday before Drew Carey 's debut as host (October 12, 2007), when the season 35 finale was re-aired. During his time as host, Barker missed only one taping of four episodes; Dennis James, then hosting the syndicated nighttime version of the show, filled in for him on these shows in December 1974. After he became a noted animal rights advocate in 1981 shortly after the death of his wife Dorothy Jo, Barker signed off each broadcast, informing viewers with the public service message, "Help control the pet population: have your pets spayed or neutered. '' Carey continued the tradition upon becoming the new host.
On October 31, 2006, Barker announced that he would retire from the show at the end of season 35. In March 2007, CBS and FremantleMedia began a search for the next host of the show. Carey, who was hosting Power of 10 at the time, was chosen and, in a July 23, 2007 interview on Late Show with David Letterman, made the announcement. Carey 's first show aired October 15, 2007. Barker has made several guest appearances since Carey took over as host: on the April 16, 2009 episode to promote his autobiography, Priceless Memories; on the December 12, 2013, as part of "Pet Adoption Week '' that coincided with his 90th birthday; and on the episode which aired on April Fools ' Day in 2015, hosting the first One Bid and pricing game as part of April Fool 's Day.
The 2013 April Fools ' show featured Carey and announcer George Gray modeling the prizes while the show 's models performed hosting and announcing duties for the day. On the April Fools ' Day episode in 2014, Craig Ferguson, Carey 's former castmate from The Drew Carey Show, and Shadoe Stevens hosted and announced, swapping places with Carey and Gray respectively, who performed the same roles on the previous night 's episode of The Late Late Show.
Johnny Olson, the announcer for many Goodson - Todman shows of the era, was the program 's original announcer until his death in October 1985. Olson was replaced by Rod Roddy in February 1986, who remained with the program until shortly before his death in October 2003. Los Angeles meteorologist Rich Fields took over as the announcer in April 2004 and stayed on until the end of season 38 in August 2010. Following a change of direction and a search for an announcer with more experience in improvisational comedy, veteran TV host George Gray was confirmed as the show 's current announcer on the April 18, 2011 episode. During periods in which a permanent announcer was not filling the role, a number of announcers auditioned for the position. In addition to Roddy, Gene Wood, Rich Jeffries, and Bob Hilton auditioned to replace Olson. Former Family Feud announcer Burton Richardson, Paul Boland, and former Supermarket Sweep announcer Randy West substituted for Roddy during his illnesses. In addition to West and Richardson, Daniel Rosen, Art Sanders, Roger Rose, Don Bishop and current Wheel of Fortune announcer Jim Thornton also auditioned for the role eventually filled by Fields. Richardson substituted for Fields while he recovered from laryngitis in December 2006. In addition to Gray, TV host JD Roberto, comedians Jeff B. Davis, Brad Sherwood, and David H. Lawrence XVII, and actor / comedian Steve White also auditioned for the role.
To help display its many prizes, the show has featured several models who were known, during Barker 's time on the show, as "Barker 's Beauties ''. Some longer - tenured Barker 's Beauties included Kathleen Bradley (1990 -- 2000), Holly Hallstrom (1977 -- 1995), Dian Parkinson (1975 -- 1993), and Janice Pennington (1972 -- 2000). Pennington and Bradley were both dismissed from the program in 2000, allegedly because they had given testimony on Hallstrom 's behalf in the wrongful termination litigation she pursued against Barker and the show. Following the departures of Nikki Ziering, Heather Kozar and Claudia Jordan in the 2000s, producers decided to use a rotating cast of models (up to ten) until the middle of season 37, after which the show reverted to five regular models. Since March 2008, the models include Rachel Reynolds, Amber Lancaster and Gwendolyn Osbourne (who left in 2017); Manuela Arbeláez joined the cast in April 2009, replacing Brandi Sherwood and James O'Halloran joined the cast in December 2014. Carey does not use a collective name for the models, but refers to them by name, hoping that the models will be able to use the show as a "springboard '' to further their careers. In a change from previous policy, the models appearing on a given episode are named individually in the show 's credits and are formally referred as "The Price Is Right models '' when collectively grouped at events. Since season 37, the show often uses a guest model for certain prizes, often crossing over from another CBS property or come courtesy of the company providing the prize. Some such models have been male, especially for musical instruments, tools, trucks and motorcycles, and used in guest appearances during the Showcase. Owing to the traditionally female demographic of daytime television shows, along with the pregnancies of Reynolds and Osbourne, CBS announced that the game show would add a male model for a week during season 41, fitting with other countries with the franchise that have used an occasional male model. The show held an internet search for the man in an online competition that featured Mike Richards, the show 's executive producer, Reynolds, Lancaster, Osbourne and Arbeláez serving as judges and mentors during the web series, narrated by Gray. Viewers selected the winner in October 2012. On October 5, 2012, CBS announced that the winner of the male model online competition was Rob Wilson of Boston, Massachusetts. Wilson appeared as a model on episodes through April 15, 2014. This contest was scheduled to be repeated in 2014, with auditions taking place during the FIFA World Cup break between May and July 2014. On December 8, 2014, CBS announced that the winner of the second male model online competition was James O'Halloran.
The game show production team of Mark Goodson and Bill Todman was responsible for producing the original as well as the revival versions of the game show. Goodson - Todman staffer Bob Stewart is credited with creating the original version of The Price Is Right. Roger Dobkowitz was the producer from 1984 to 2008, having worked with the program as a production staffer since the show 's debut after graduating from San Francisco State University. Occasionally, Dobkowitz appeared on - camera when answering a question posed by the host, usually relating to the show 's history or records. When he left the show at the end of season 36, Variety reported that it was unclear whether he was retiring or was fired, although Carey indicated in a later interview with Esquire that Dobkowitz was fired. As of 2011, the show uses multiple producers, all long - time staffers. Adam Sandler (not to be confused with the actor) is the producer and director of the show. Stan Blits, who joined the show in 1980 and Sue MacIntyre are the co-producers. Kathy Greco joined the show in 1975 and became producer in 2008; she announced her retirement October 8, 2010 on the show 's website, effective at the end of the December 2010 tapings. Her last episode as producer, which aired January 27, 2011, featured a theme in tribute to her. The show 's official website featured a series of videos including an interview with Greco as a tribute to her 35 years in the days leading up to her final episode. Frank Wayne, a Goodson - Todman staffer since the 1950s, was the original executive producer of the CBS version of the show. Barker assumed that role after Wayne 's death in March 1988, as previously stated. Previous producers have included Jay Wolpert, Barbara Hunter and Phil Wayne Rossi (Wayne 's son). Michael Dimich assumed the director 's chair in June 2011. Marc Breslow, Paul Alter, Bart Eskander and Rich DiPirro each served long stints previously as director. Former associate directors Andrew Felsher and Fred Witten, as well as technical director Glenn Koch, have directed episodes strictly on a fill - in basis. Sandler began directing episodes in 2012, and became the official director in 2013. Aside from Barker, the show 's production staff remained intact after Carey became host. FremantleMedia executive Syd Vinnedge was named the program 's new executive producer, with Richards becoming co-executive producer after Dobkowitz 's departure. Richards was a candidate to replace Barker as host in 2007, before Carey was ultimately chosen. Richards succeeded Vinnedge as executive producer when the 2009 -- 10 season started, with Tracy Verna Soiseth joining Richards as co-executive producer in 2010. Vinnedge remains credited as an executive consultant to the show.
Many audience members arrive early on the day of a taping, and often camp out the night before to attend. Most have already received tickets for that day 's show, although some hope to get same - day tickets. Audience members are then given the iconic name tags with a temporary identification number, which is also written on the person 's ticket. A Social Security Number (or some national I.D. number for non-U.S. audience members) is also required to be submitted. Audience members are eventually brought through in groups of twelve for brief interviews with the production staff. Contrary to popular belief, contestant names are not chosen at random; rather, the interviews determine possible selections for the nine contestants per taping from among the pool of approximately 325 audience members. Since 1988, the minimum age for audience members has been 18; prior to 1988, teenagers and children as young as 12 were present in the audience. With few exceptions, anyone at least 18 years old who attends a taping of the show has the potential to become a contestant. Those ineligible include current candidates for political office, employees of CBS Corporation or its affiliates, RTL Group or any firm involved in offering prizes for the show. Contestants who have appeared on a different game show within the previous year or either two other game shows or any version of The Price Is Right itself within the past ten years are also ineligible. The show 's staff alerts potential contestants -- in person, on the show 's website and on the tickets themselves -- to dress in "street clothes '' and not to wear costumes, such as those used to attract attention on Let 's Make a Deal, another show that featured contestants selected from the audience. Those who have attended tapings in June 2008 noted that producers disallowed audience members from wearing fake eyeglasses designed to look similar to those worn by Carey, a restriction that has since been relaxed. Instead, contestants will often wear shirts with hand - decorated slogans. Members of the Armed Forces are often in uniform. Cell phones, tape recorders, backpacks, price lists and portable electronic devices are not allowed in the studio. Prospective contestants obtain tickets by contacting a third - party ticketing operator via the show 's website, which is promoted on - air during the broadcast. Prior to 2011, ticketing was directly through CBS, originally via mail, with online ticket access added in 2005. The mail practice ended after CBS began outsourcing ticketing to the third - party operator.
Occasionally, episodes are taped with special audience restrictions. For Memorial Day in 1991, an episode was taped with an audience composed entirely of those who had served in the Armed Forces. Similar primetime episodes were taped in 2002, honoring each branch of the United States military and a sixth episode honoring police officers and firefighters. An annual military episode has been taped starting Season 38 in 2008, originally on Veteran 's Day, but moved in Season 41 (2013) to Independence Day, features an all - military audience, a Marine band playing the winner 's service anthem, and contestants being called by rank. The 2008 episode contained a unique rule in which each One Bid featured one contestant from the Army, Navy, Air Force and Marines, and One Bid winners also won a $1,000 gift card. As each contestant won his / her way onstage, he / she was replaced by a member of the same branch of service. Most civilian attendees were retired or disabled veterans or family members of military. The 2009 version eliminated the service member from the same branch replacing another after advancing from Contestants ' Row rule. Additionally, members from the United States Coast Guard were invited to the show.
Beginning in 2009, some episodes have featured special themes with two contestants competing as teams, such as married or engaged couples for Valentine 's Day and the "Ultimate Wedding Shower '' episode. There have also been episodes with children who are minors (normally not allowed to compete) teamed with a parent (for Mother 's Day and Father 's Day) or grandparent (for Grandparents Day), as well as teen drivers and students for "Ultimate Spring Break '' and "Back to School ''. In these cases the adult player (not the minor) must make all final decisions in the game play, such as when calling numbers or prices.
Except for the 30th Anniversary Special, which was taped at Harrah 's Rio in Las Vegas, Nevada, The Price Is Right has been taped in Studio 33 in CBS Television City in Hollywood, California for its entire run. The studio, which is also used for other television productions, was renamed the Bob Barker Studio in the host 's honor on the ceremonial 5,000 th episode taped in March 1998. When Carey became host, there was talk of the show traveling in the future. The program is usually produced in about an hour, although if there is a guest involved, some tapings will last longer because of question and answer sessions by the audience and the guest, which the host usually moderates. Two episodes are usually taped each day, normally with three taping days per week (Monday through Wednesday, with one episode taped at 12: 00 pm and another at 4: 00 pm). The program is taped in advance of its airdate. For example, the show broadcast on February 28, 2008 was taped on January 16. As with many other shows that start production in the summer, the lead time varies during the season, as many as fifteen weeks to as little as one day. The audience is entertained by the announcer before taping begins and in case of guests, the guest will answer questions from the audience. After the taping session, there is a drawing for a door prize. On some episodes, all members of the audience receive a prize from a sponsor or celebrity guest; those prizes are usually mentioned in the Showcase (such as a complimentary slice of Papa John 's Pizza, an NHL Winter Classic game puck, a couples ' gift box from Hershey 's or a book authored by a guest). Television and Internet viewers have also been directed to the show 's official website to enter a drawing for a similar prize offered to all viewers or another prize related to the special offer (such as the Rock of Ages signed CD). Some episodes are taped "out - of - order '' so that a specific episode will air after other episodes have aired. Notably, the Christmas Week episodes are usually taped in early December outside of the regular rotation. An episode may be taped out - of - order if a prize package reflects a trip to an event that is taking place close to the date that episode will air (primarily with CBS properties such as the Academy of Country Music Awards, NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Championship, and various NFL on CBS games, most notably Super Bowl games airing on CBS since Carey took over, but other games are offered). Other episodes may be aired out - of - order because of game - related incidents or situations beyond the network 's control. Most episodes which have aired out of order have occurred when the show is taped far in advance, but in the time between the show taping and its airdate, a natural disaster took place at the trip venue. This happened in June 2005 with episodes that featured trips to New Orleans (which was later struck by Hurricane Katrina), with airdates moved to May and June 2006 and again in April 2010 with episodes that featured trips to Nashville, Tennessee (due to the May 2010 Tennessee floods), with airdates moved to September 2010.
The version of the series that began in 1972 was originally "A Mark Goodson -- Bill Todman Production '' in association with CBS. After Todman died in July 1979, the unit became known as simply Mark Goodson Productions and was announced as such on The Price Is Right from 1984 to June 2007. Today, the series is produced by FremantleMedia and copyrighted by The Price Is Right Productions, Inc., a joint venture of RTL Group and CBS. For the sake of tradition and through special permission from RTL 's subsidiary FremantleMedia, the show continued to use the Mark Goodson Productions name, logo and announcement at the end of each episode until Barker 's retirement, even after FremantleMedia purchased and absorbed the Goodson - Todman holdings. The show is now credited as a FremantleMedia production.
The Price Is Right premiered on September 4, 1972 at 10: 30 am ET (9: 30 CT) on CBS, one of three game shows to debut that day, the other two being The Joker 's Wild at 10: 00 am ET and Gambit at 11: 00 am ET. The show was first billed as The New Price Is Right to distinguish itself from the earlier / original version (1956 -- 65) hosted by Bill Cullen, but it proved so popular in its own right that, in June 1973, the producers decided to drop the word "New '' from its title. On March 26, 1973, CBS moved The Price Is Right to 3: 00 pm ET, pairing it with Match Game as part of what became the highest - rated pairing in daytime. The show remained in that time slot until August 11, 1975 when it permanently returned to the morning lineup at 10: 30am ET. During one week (September 8 -- 12, 1975), the show bumped Gambit off as it experimented with sixty - minute episodes. The result of the experiment led to the permanent expansion on November 3, 1975, moving its start time to 10: 00 am EST. On March 7, 1977, The Price Is Right moved back to 10: 30am and remained there until April 23, 1979, when it assumed its 11: 00 am EST slot, where it has been since then. The format of the show has since remained virtually unchanged. New pricing games are generally added each year, while others are removed. In addition, prizes and pricing games have kept pace with inflation, with games originally designed for four - digit prices of prizes (most often cars) to be adjusted to allow for five - digit prices. While the set has been redesigned and upgraded, the show maintained a similar aesthetic element from its premiere in 1972. In season 36, CBS began offering full episodes of the show available for free viewing on the network 's website. The show also began broadcasting in high definition with The Price Is Right $1,000,000 Spectacular primetime specials (the normal daytime version continued to air in 4: 3 standard definition). The show made the full transition to HD broadcasts beginning with season 37. During the weeks of September 28, 2009, September 20 and October 4, 2010, two new episodes aired each weekday on CBS. In 2009, the additional episodes filled a gap between the cancellation of the daytime drama Guiding Light and the debut of Let 's Make a Deal. In 2010, the extra episodes aired between the cancellation of As the World Turns and the debut of The Talk. The intervening week offered a second episode of Let 's Make a Deal. The 2009 second episode aired in the time slot vacated by Guiding Light at 10: 00 am or 3: 00 pm ET / PT, depending on the affiliate 's choice. In 2010, the second episode aired in the former As the World Turns time slot, at 2: 00 pm ET / PT.
Three syndicated versions of The Price Is Right have aired. The first two followed the same format as the half - hour daytime version but were intended to air on most stations in the early evening in the pre-prime time slot, and as such they were referred by the announcer as "the nighttime Price Is Right. ''
A weekly syndicated version debuted the week after the daytime show and continued to air until September 1980. It was distributed by Viacom Enterprises, which had started as the syndication arm of CBS. When Mark Goodson devised the revival of Price for the 1972 -- 73 season, it was intended for a nighttime broadcast under new rules for early - prime syndication and Goodson named Dennis James to host the show. (When CBS commissioned a new daily daytime version, Goodson also wanted James to host the show, but CBS wanted Barker, who was hosting Truth or Consequences at the time, to take it. Barker offered to compromise by hosting The Joker 's Wild, but CBS again insisted Barker host Price instead.)
James eventually hosted a taping day (four half - hour episodes) of the daytime show in December 1974 when Barker fell ill and was unable to participate in the episode tapings. The two versions were largely similar at the beginning, as both were called The New Price Is Right. Some games had rule differences because of the larger budget and less commercial time on the nighttime show; for example, Double Prices was played for two prizes instead of one.
This version retained the 1972 half - hour format for its entire run and never adopted the daytime show 's Double Showcase rule or the Showcase Showdown added to the daytime format when it expanded to an hour in 1975. The word "New '' was dropped from the program 's name starting in the second season, being titled simply The Price Is Right (as the daytime show was by this time as well) from that point onward, and was often referred to on the air as "the nighttime Price Is Right. '' In most of the U.S., stations carried the syndicated Price as one of several weekly programs aired in one of the time slots in the hour before prime time which were created by the 1971 FCC Prime Time Access Rule.
Though the nighttime version originally had higher ratings, by 1975, the ratings started to drop. After the fifth nighttime season in 1977, when the contract with NBC 's owned and operated stations ended, James ' contract was not renewed. CBS ' owned and operated stations picked the show up and the decision was made to hire Barker, whose Truth or Consequences was taped two years ahead and had stopped production in 1975. The series taped its 300th and final episode on March 12, 1980 and was canceled after weekly syndicated game shows had fallen out of popularity in favor of daily offerings (such as Family Feud, which expanded to daily syndication the same year The Nighttime Price Is Right ended). With a run of eight seasons, it was one of the longest - running weekly syndicated game shows of the era and the longest - running regularly scheduled prime - time version of Price (the 1957 -- 1964 run was seven seasons).
Five years later, veteran host Tom Kennedy starred in a new daily syndicated version, which also used the traditional half - hour format and was syndicated by The Television Program Source. Like the previous syndicated series, this version had a slightly larger budget than its daytime counterpart. A perfect bid during the One - Bids won that contestant a $500 bonus (compared to $100 awarded on the daytime show during the same period); this bonus would permanently carry over to the daytime show in 1998. This version used the same models as the daytime show as well as announcer Johnny Olson, who as noted above died during the season. Unlike the daytime series, which employed a series of guest announcers until a permanent replacement was decided upon, the syndicated series brought Gene Wood in to fill in for Olson. When the daytime series decided on Rod Roddy as the permanent replacement for Olson, he took over the syndicated series from Wood as well.
Like its predecessor, this syndicated edition of Price was intended to be aired in the Prime Time Access slots on local stations. However, local stations found themselves bombarded with game shows and other series looking for spots on stations in an increasingly crowded market. This often resulted in shows like Price airing anywhere that they could be fit into a station 's programming lineup, such as in the early morning period or in late - night slots. As a consequence, the show would not be able to find its intended audience and the ratings reports would reflect this.
Price was no exception, as many of the stations that bought the series placed it in these less desirable slots and the show could not find a foothold against the popular shows of the day, such as the runaway success of the syndicated Wheel of Fortune. Compared to some of the other shows on the market during this period, Price was a modest success, but it did not meet the very high expectations stations and producers had for the series. As a result, the show was not renewed beyond its first season. A total of 170 episodes were produced, and they aired in first - run from September 9, 1985 to May 30, 1986. During the six years it held the rights to Price, the Kennedy version is the only one of the three syndicated versions that was rerun by GSN.
Eight years after the cancellation of Kennedy 's Price Is Right, a new syndicated version premiered on September 12, 1994, hosted by Doug Davidson and distributed by Paramount Domestic Television. This series featured several significant changes: eliminating Contestants ' Row, a different format for the Showcase Showdown, a Showcase featuring only one contestant, a completely different set and a much larger budget (even when compared to the two previous syndicated runs) that gave contestants the potential to win up to five times what they could win on the daytime show. However, this version found even more trouble finding an audience than the two previous syndicated series did and ended its run on January 27, 1995, after only 16 weeks of first - run shows. Several stylistic elements of this series, as well as many of its music cues, were later integrated into both the daytime version and nighttime specials.
CBS attempted to break NBC 's dominance of Thursday night prime time by The Cosby Show and Family Ties with a six - episode summer series, The Price Is Right Special, beginning in August 1986. On August 23, 1996, CBS aired an hour - long 25th Anniversary Special, using the half - hour gameplay format and featuring a number of retrospective clips. The 30th Anniversary Special was recorded at Harrah 's Rio All Suite Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas and aired on January 31, 2002. This one - time road trip enticed 5,000 potential contestants to line up for 900 available tickets, causing an incident that left one person injured. A second six - episode primetime series saluting various branches of the United States armed forces, police officers and firefighters aired during the summer of 2002, as a tribute to the heroes of the terrorist attacks of 2001. During the series The Price Is Right Salutes, spinning $1.00 in a bonus spin during the Showcase Showdown was worth $100,000 instead of the usual $10,000.
The success of the primetime series, which aired mostly in the summer, along with the rise of "million dollar '' game shows, led to CBS launching another primetime series in 2003, titled The Price Is Right $1,000,000 Spectacular. The 2007 -- 08 Writers Guild of America strike and original success in the Nielsen ratings led CBS to commission ten more episodes of the primetime series. This series introduced set changes as the show was broadcast in high definition television for the first time and the set used for these episodes (except for the black floor) was moved to the daytime show in 2008. On the primetime series, larger and more expensive prizes were generally offered than on the daytime show. The Showcase frequently offered multiple or very - expensive cars. In the first sixteen $1,000,000 Spectaculars all hosted by Barker, the payoff for landing on the $1.00 during a bonus spin in the Showcase Showdown was increased to $1 million. Beginning with the seventh special, if nobody had received a bonus spin in either Showcase Showdown, the winner of the Showcase received one bonus spin for a chance at $1 million. If both contestants overbid, an audience member was chosen at random to spin the wheel. This rule was later changed so that in the event of a double overbid, the contestant who overbid by the lower amount received the bonus spin for a chance at $1 million.
The million - dollar spin was eliminated in 2008, and instead contestants were given two ways to winning the prize. One pricing game per episode was selected as a "million - dollar game '', with a secondary objective needing to be met in order for the contestant to win the money. Contestants were also awarded the million dollar bonus if they managed to win both Showcases, and the range the players had to come within was initially increased to $1,000, then reduced to $500. This format lasted one season (2008), which was made as replacement programming.
On February 12, 2016, CBS announced that it would air three primetime Price is Right specials themed around its reality show franchises The Amazing Race, Big Brother, and Survivor along with the appearance of their respective hosts from all three franchises Phil Keoghan, Julie Chen and Jeff Probst. The episodes featured fans of the three programs playing alongside past participants from them. The specials were filmed in March 2016, and aired over three consecutive nights, May 23 -- 25, 2016.
On May 31, 2006, The Price Is Right was featured on the series Gameshow Marathon, one of seven classic game shows hosted by talk show host and actress Ricki Lake. This version combined aspects of the Barker and Davidson versions with the celebrity contestants playing three pricing games, followed by a Showcase Showdown where the two contestants with the highest scores moved on to the Showcase. The winner of the Showcase also earned a spot in Finalists ' Row. This version was announced by Fields and taped in Studio 46. It also marked the first Price Is Right episode directed by DiPirro, who replaced Eskander as the director on the daytime show in January 2009.
Road to Price is a six episode reality documentary show aired on the now - defunct CBS Innertube from September 20 to 27 in 2006. The program featured nine teenage boys driving to Los Angeles in a refurbished mini-school bus as they leave their hometown of Merrimack, New Hampshire in order to be on The Price is Right. The episode of The Price is Right featuring the cast aired September 27, 2006.
Five episodes aired on their official website priceisright.com from October 27 to November 11, 2014. The series was created in order to replace the first male Price model Rob Wilson as he pursued an acting career in the online version of the ABC daytime soap opera All My Children. During the webisode series, hopeful contestants attempt to be selected as the next male model. Judges included Mike Richards, Manuela Arbeláez, Amber Lancaster, Gwendolyn Osborne - Smith, Rachel Reynolds, Rob Wilson and former Miss America Shanna Moakler. The three finalists appeared on the CBS daytime talk show The Talk. Online voting determined the winner, and James O'Halloran became the newest cast member. He began appearing with the episode which aired December 15, 2014.
Perfect Bid: The Contestant Who Knew Too Much was released on October 13, 2017 and was directed by CJ Wallis and was produced by FortyFPS Productions and MK Ultra Productions, this documentary explores how contestant Ted Slauson became adept at memorizing the prices of the prizes and products on the show since its inception in 1972 by culminating with Slauson helping a contestant bid perfectly on a showcase in 2008 which resulted in one of the biggest controversies in game show history that was covered by Time, Esquire, TMZ and more. It also featured guest appearances by Bob Barker, Roger Dobkowitz, Kevin Pollak and Drew Carey.
As of November 2009, the show had given away approximately $250 million in cash and prizes. Furs have not been offered as prizes since Barker 's tenure as host (although wool and leather are now permitted). Several Barker - imposed prohibitions have been lifted since his departure, such as offering products made of leather or leather seats in vehicles and showing simulated meat props on barbecues and in ovens. The show has also offered couture clothing and accessories, featuring designers such as Coach Inc., Louis Vuitton and Limited Brands in an attempt to attract a younger demographic, as well as backyard play equipment such as JumpSport Trampolines and electronics such as smartphones, personal computer systems, video game systems and entertainment centers. Other prizes which have frequently appeared on the show since its beginnings include automobiles, furniture, trips and cash. The most expensive prize offered on this version of the show was a Ferrari 458 Italia Spider sports car, priced at $285,716, that appeared on the April 25, 2013 episode during "Big Money Week ''. The prize was offered during the 3 Strikes pricing game. Prior to this, the most expensive prize was a Tesla Roadster (2008) (valued at $112,845), featured on the April 22, 2010 episode in the pricing game Golden Road.
Since the show 's debut, automobiles have been a signature prize on The Price Is Right. Most hour - long episodes have two pricing games that are each played for an automobile and in most episodes (although not all), at least one showcase will include an automobile. For special episodes, such as the 5,000 th episode, there will often be more cars offered. From 1991 to 2008, almost all automobiles offered on the show were made by companies based in the United States, specifically Detroit 's Big Three (although cars made by these companies ' foreign subsidiaries or in a joint - venture with a foreign company were also offered during this era). The move was made by Barker, in his capacity as executive producer, as a sign of patriotism during the first Iraq war in 1991 and as a show of support to the American car industry, which was particularly struggling at that time. When Chrysler merged with German automaker Daimler - Benz in 1998 to form Daimler Chrysler AG (now simply Daimler AG after Chrysler split from the automaker; Chrysler is now controlled by Italian automaker Fiat), the foreign ownership of Chrysler did not affect carrying any Chrysler - related models. Since Barker 's retirement, cars made by foreign companies have been offered, most notably Honda, which has several factories throughout Ohio (the home state of Carey and former announcer Fields). Through product placement, certain episodes in 2008 and 2009 featured Honda as the exclusive automobile manufacturer for vehicles offered on that episode. The major European (Volkswagen, BMW, Daimler, Fiat and Volvo) and Asian (Hyundai - Kia, Toyota, Mitsubishi, Mazda, Nissan and Honda) manufacturers have all provided cars on the show since the ban was lifted, with premium foreign cars almost exclusively used for games that generally offer higher - priced cars, such as Golden Road and 3 Strikes. Starting around 2010, vintage and classic cars have occasionally been offered as prizes for games which do not involve pricing them. Among them have been a 1955 Chevrolet Bel Air and a 1964 Bentley S3. These cars are usually offered in games where their prices are irrelevant to gameplay, such as Hole in One and Bonus Game.
The record for the largest individual total in cash and prizes on a daytime episode is held by Christen Freeman. On the October 28, 2016 episode, which aired during Big Money Week, Freeman won $210,000 in cash during a playing of Cliff Hangers. During the episode, game rules were modified to offer a top prize of $250,000, which was reduced by $10,000 for every step the mountain climber took. In addition to her One Bid prize and an additional $1,000 won during the Showcase Showdown, Freeman 's grand total was $212,879.
The record for winnings on the primetime show is currently held by Adam Rose. On February 22, 2008, the first The Price Is Right $1,000,000 Spectacular episode since Carey became host, Rose won $20,000 playing Grand Game and won both showcases, which included a Cadillac XLR convertible in his own showcase and a Ford Escape Hybrid in his opponent 's showcase, plus a $1 million bonus for being within $1,000 of the actual retail price of his own showcase, bringing his total to $1,153,908.
Terry Kniess holds the record for the closest bid on a showcase without going over, guessing the exact price of the showcase he was given. Kniess, an avid viewer of the show, recorded and watched every episode for four months prior to when he and his wife had tickets to attend in September 2008. Kniess learned that many prizes were repeatedly used (always at the same price) and began taking notes. Kniess was selected as a contestant on September 22, 2008, lost his pricing game (the only contestant to do so that episode), made it to the final showcase and guessed the exact amount of $23,743 for his showcase. Many show staffers, including Carey, were worried that the show was rigged and that Kniess was cheating. Kniess later explained that he had seen all three items of the showcase before and knew the general prices in the thousands. The 743 he used because it was his PIN, based on his wedding date and his wife 's birth month.
Carey attributed his subdued reaction to the perfect bid by saying, "Everybody thought someone had cheated. We 'd just fired Roger Dobkowitz, and all the fan groups were upset about it... I remember asking, ' Are we ever going to air this? ' And nobody could see how we could. So I thought the show was never going to air. I thought somebody had cheated us, and I thought the whole show was over. I thought they were going to shut us down, and I thought I was going to be out of a job. '' Kniess later defended his actions, claiming that he never cheated, and in the end, was awarded his prizes. (His feat can be comparable to the actions of Michael Larson, who appeared on the 1980s CBS game show Press Your Luck, and won $110,237 by memorizing the board sequence.)
The Price Is Right has received seven Daytime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Game / Audience Participation Show, in 1988, 1996, 1997, 2004, 2007, 2013 and 2016.
The Price Is Right has generally been praised and remained a stalwart in television ratings over its long history. In a 2007 article, TV Guide named the program the "greatest game show of all time. '' The introduction of the program ushered in a new era of game shows -- moving away from the knowledge - based quiz show format, creating "a noisy, carnival atmosphere that challenged cultural norms and assumptions represented in previous generations of quiz shows ''.
The show 's early reception was not as universally positive, as critics lamented the show 's stark departure from the highbrow norms of the Golden Age of Television; original nighttime host Dennis James admitted that even his own housekeeper did not watch the show for that reason, but also defended the series, saying "CBS, who never wanted game shows, just put three game shows on the air, so they know they had better join the fight or lose out, because game shows have a tremendous appeal. The critics will always look down their noses, but you ca n't have The Bell Telephone Hour on and still stay in competition (...) If you want to read books, read books. ''
Since the mid-1990s, the program production company and in some cases the executive producer (both Barker and Richards, the executive producer since September 2009) have been sued by numerous women. Most of the lawsuits involved models and other staff members in cases of sexual harassment, wrongful termination and racial discrimination. Allegations of sexual harassment brought by Dian Parkinson led to Barker calling a press conference to admit a past consensual sexual relationship with her, while denying any harassment, explaining that she was only angry with him for calling off the relationship. Barker was widowed in 1981 following the death of his wife, Dorothy Jo. It has also been alleged that Barker and senior staff created a hostile work environment, particularly to those who testified for the plaintiffs suing Barker. Responding to the controversy just before his retirement, Barker told William Keck of USA Today, "They 've (the women who have sued Barker) been such a problem. I do n't want to say anything about them. They 're disgusting; I do n't want to mention them. '' The Barker - era lawsuits, except for one, were settled out of court. After Barker dropped his slander suit against Hallstrom, she eventually countersued and received millions in settlement. There is one lawsuit pending in litigation: a sexual harassment suit involving Lanisha Cole, filed in September 2011.
The Plinko board is often used by RTL Group - licensed lottery promotions, CBS affiliates and Fremantle 's Ludia video game division to promote the show. For the promotions, two fishing lines (one on each side of the board, hanging from the side down towards the center slot) are used to rig the game so the dropped chip always lands in the $10,000 slot. After an advertisement for the show 's Ludia video game was taped, the wires were mistakenly left in place for the 1: 00 pm taping of The Price Is Right on July 22, 2008. As a contestant was playing the game, three consecutive chips she dropped landed in the $10,000 slot. As the fourth chip was being dropped, a co-producer realized that the wires were still in place and stopped the chip as it bounced down the board, informing Carey of the situation. The wires were removed and the entire segment was re-shot for the show from the point where the contestant began dropping chips. CBS Standards and Practices allowed the contestant to keep the $30,000 won prior to the removal of the wires as well as the money won with the five chips after the mistake had been corrected. However, the segment that aired (when the show was broadcast on December 5, 2008) did not refer to the mistake or the amount of money won prior to the removal of the wires.
The show aired a 40th Anniversary Special on September 4, 2012. The entire audience was made up of former contestants. Barker did not appear, stating that he believed that he had been excluded for criticizing some of the prizes given away after Carey became host, such as a trip to the Calgary Stampede rodeo. Although he did not appear in person, vintage clips of Barker hosting the show were shown during the episode. Barker appeared on the show twice afterwards, once in December 2013 during Pet Adoption Week, celebrating his 90th birthday, and again on April 1, 2015 as the guest host for the first pricing game, part of an April Fool 's Day storyline involving Carey and Plinko being kidnapped to Let 's Make a Deal.
The Price Is Right has expanded beyond television to home and casino - based games.
A four - disc DVD box set, titled The Best of "The Price Is Right, '' was released on March 25, 2008. The set features four episodes of the 1956 -- 1965 Bill Cullen series, 17 episodes of the Barker 1972 -- 1975 daytime series and the final five daytime episodes hosted by Barker. In accordance with Barker 's animal - rights wishes, which remain in effect beyond his retirement, any episodes with fur coats as prizes can not be aired or released into home media formats. This includes the first three daytime shows recorded in 1972, plus most of the 1970s syndicated run.
Seven board games have been produced. One of them was a variation of a card game, using prizes and price tags from the 1956 version. The second was based more closely on the original version of the show.
Three games were produced during the 1970s by Milton Bradley, with Contestants ' Row, some pricing games and, in the case of the third version, a spinner for the Big Wheel. In the first two versions, decks of cards had various grocery items, small prizes and larger prizes. The third version simply had cards for each game that included ten sets of "right '' answers, all using the same price choices. The instruction book specified what color cards were necessary for each round.
The 1986 version, again by Milton Bradley, was similar in scope to the earlier version, with new prizes and more games, but lacking the Big Wheel, similar to the Davidson version. The instruction book refers to Contestants ' Row as the "Qualifying Round '' and the pricing games as "Solo Games. '' The book also instructs players to use items priced under $100 as One Bids. The 1998 version of the game, by Endless Games, was virtually identical to the 1986 release, with the same games, prizes and even the same prices. The only changes were that the number tiles were made of cardboard bits instead of plastic and the cars from the deck of prizes with four - digit prices were removed.
The 2004 version, again by Endless Games, was a complete departure from previous home versions. Instead of different prize cards and games, the game consisted of everything needed to play 45 games and enough materials to create all the games not technically included if the "host '' wished to and knew their rules. The Big Wheel spinner was also restored, this time with the numbers in the correct order. Additionally, the prices, instead of being random numbers that could change each time the game was played, were actual prices taken from episodes of the TV show. To fit everything in the box, grocery items and prizes were listed in the instruction book and games were played on dry erase boards. A spinner determined the game to be played next, although its use was not necessarily required if the "host '' wished to build his own game lineup, or even use a pricing game not included in the lineup.
In 1990, GameTek created a Price Is Right computer game for the DOS and Commodore 64 platforms and other systems to fit in their line of other game show games. A handheld Tiger game was made in 1998 with four pricing games. A DVD game with 12 pricing games, live casino show host Todd Newton and video of prizes taken directly from the show was produced by Endless Games in 2005. A 2008 DVD edition, also from Endless Games, featured many changes based on season 36 and included seven new games: Half Off, More or Less, Swap Meet, Secret X, That 's Too Much, Coming or Going and Hole in One. It also featured both host Drew Carey and announcer Rich Fields. CBS.com featured an online Price Is Right - based game in the late - 1990s, which was plugged in the closing credits of each episode. The game consisted of choosing which of the four bidders in Contestant 's Row was closest to the price of a prize without going over. Additionally, Mobliss provides a suite of pricing games for cellular phones.
On March 26, 2008, Ludia (in connection with Ubisoft) launched The Price Is Right video game for PC. A version for the Wii and Nintendo DS platforms was released in September 2008, while a version for the iOS was released in November 2008. The show 's announcer, Fields, was the host of the computer version. The virtual set in the game resembles the set used in seasons 31 to 34. Ludia announced that all three platforms will receive a new version of the video game that was previewed at the Target Bullseye Lounge during the Electronic Entertainment Expo trade show on June 2 -- 4, 2009. The Price Is Right 2010 Edition was released on September 22, 2009. In the fall of 2010, Ludia developed a multi-player version for Facebook. A third Ludia adaptation, The Price Is Right Decades, featuring set designs, pricing games and prizes taken from the 1970s through 2000s; was initially released for the Wii in October 2011, with an Xbox 360 and iOS release following in November and December. The Price Is Right 2010 Edition and The Price Is Right Decades have also been released as downloads within the PlayStation Store for the PlayStation 3 in May 2010 and April 2012, respectively. Irwin Toys released an electronic tabletop version in 2008 featuring Contestant 's Row, the Big Wheel, a physical Plinko board with chips, Showcases and seven pricing games. Jakks Pacific released a Plug It in and Play version of The Price Is Right in 2009, featuring Carey and Fields.
A series of video slot machines were manufactured for North American casinos by International Game Technology. Although gameplay varies by machine, each feature themes and motifs found on the show, including the Showcase Showdown, with themes used following Carey 's start as host. Others feature pricing games as gameplay elements, including Plinko, Cliff Hangers, Punch a Bunch, Dice Game, and Money Game.
A scratchcard version of the game is being offered by several U.S. and Canadian lotteries, featuring adaptations of Plinko, Cliff Hangers, the Showcase Showdown and the Showcase. The top prize varies with each version.
After the 30th anniversary episode taped in Las Vegas in 2002, Harrah 's and RTL Group began producing live licensed shows (dubbed The Price Is Right Live!) at their venues, with several performers, including Roger Lodge, Newton and Gray hosting, with West, Rosen and Dave Walls announcing.
Schwartz, David; Ryan, Steve & Wostbrock, Fred (1999). The Encyclopedia of TV Game Shows (3rd ed.). New York: Facts on File. ISBN 0 - 8160 - 3846 - 5.
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is straight talk the same as total wireless | TracFone Wireless - Wikipedia
TracFone Wireless, Inc. is a prepaid mobile virtual network operator in the United States, Puerto Rico, and the US Virgin Islands. TracFone Wireless is a subsidiary of Mexico 's largest telecommunications company América Móvil, and offers products and services under multiple brands which include TracFone, NET10 Wireless, Total Wireless, Straight Talk, SafeLink Wireless, Telcel América, SIMPLE Mobile, Page Plus Cellular, GoSmart Mobile, and Walmart Family Mobile. TracFone Wireless operates as a mobile virtual network operator (MVNO), holding agreements with the United States ' largest wireless network operators to provide service using their networks, including Verizon Wireless, AT&T Mobility, T - Mobile US, Sprint Corporation, and U.S. Cellular. TracFone Wireless had 25.668 million subscribers in 2015.
TracFone was established in 1996 as Topp Telecom Inc., a prepaid mobile phone company, in Miami, Florida. In February 1999, Topp received a major infusion of capital from Teléfonos de México (NYSE: TMX), a.k.a. TelMex, Mexico 's largest telephone company. TelMex paid $57.5 million for a 55 percent controlling interest in the company.
In 2000, TelMex spun off their mobile unit, creating América Móvil, of which Topp Telecom became a subsidiary. In November 2000, Topp Telecom Inc. changed its name to TracFone Wireless Inc.
In May 2012, TracFone 's parent company, América Móvil, announced it had reached an agreement to acquire rival MVNO Simple Mobile. The deal was completed in June 2012.
In 2013, TracFone unveiled a tweaked logo. Later that year, TracFone also introduced Android phones (4 models), all CDMA.
In May 2013, América Móvil purchased Page Plus Cellular for an undisclosed amount. On January 6, 2014, regulatory approval was received and Page Plus Cellular joined other América Móvil subsidiaries like TracFone. At the time of sale, Page Plus Cellular had 1.4 million subscribers.
TracFone provides ten brands of service: TracFone Wireless, NET10 Wireless, Total Wireless, Safelink Wireless, Straight Talk, Telcel América, SIMPLE Mobile, Page Plus Cellular, GoSmart Mobile, and Walmart Family Mobile. These brands differ not only in their logos and prepaid minute rates but their underlying networks options:
Until late 2013, TracFone service was limited to TracFone - branded handsets (all TracFone handsets are pre-programmed by the manufacturer; therefore, the handset is locked including its latest GSM models). Other unlocked GSM handsets would not accept TracFone SIM cards, because Tracfone SIM cards were locked to the handset to which they were programmed. Additionally, on most handsets, some features like USB and Bluetooth have been modified by the manufacturer to prevent direct transfer of user files. In December 2013, TracFone unveiled "Bring your own phone, '' which allows customers to use a Verizon Certified CDMA phone on the TracFone network. Since June 2015, Tracfone has also allowed compatible or unlocked GSM phones to be used on the Tracfone network through the Bring Your Own Device program.
The TracFone - branded service allows a customer to buy airtime units to use on selected phones by Alcatel, Huawei, Kyocera, LG, Motorola, Nokia, Samsung, Unimax, and ZTE among others. Which handset the user purchases decides what type of network the service uses and thus the coverage map. Phone models utilizing the Verizon or Sprint CDMA network have the letter C in the model name, while phones using the AT&T or T - Mobile GSM network have the letter G.
Tracfone minutes (known as "units '') are purchased in blocks that vary in price with the quantity of minutes being purchased. Text messages and mobile web access are measured in fractions of units: sending or receiving a text message deducts 0.3 units from the user 's account (some TracFone models, like the Motorola EX124G, deduct 0.5 units from the user 's account to send or receive a text message, which also existed on older phones); each minute of mobile Web access deducts 0.5 units, rounded up to the next whole minute. Though earlier TracFone models charged double (2.0 units per minute) for roaming outside the user 's home phone area, the current phones all offer the "single rate '' plan, which charges the same 1.0 unit - per - minute rate regardless of location. Tracfones have expiration dates; purchasing more airtime typically adds 90 days of service, with a 365 - day extension package available. For smartphones, card values (except service days) are tripled and minutes, text messages, and internet data are tracked discretely (e.g a 60 - minute card will add 180 minutes, 180 text messages, and 180 megabytes of 3G / LTE data usage).
Tracfone typically offers new service promotions each month. These promotions consist of Free Bonus Minutes in the form of Tracfone promo codes and are able to be used by Safe Link users as well. The most popular Tracfone promotions are Triple Minutes for Life Phones, Double Minutes for Life Cards, and Promo Codes for Free Bonus Minutes. Free texting is capable with certain Tracfone GSM handsets that are Wi - Fi equipped also.
NET10 Wireless is a related offering, using both GSM and CDMA phones which support voicemail and text messaging at a minimum. Some models also offer Bluetooth, camera, handsfree speaker, qwerty keyboard, and wireless web. The "10 '' in NET10 signifies that each voice minute costs ten cents (five cents for text messages), with no additional fees.
NET10 's slogan is No Bills, No Contracts, No Evil. Both airtime cards and auto - pay plans called "Easy Minutes '' are available. Time can be added using the phone itself ("Rapid Refill ''), at the company 's website, or using the Customer Care Center. Minutes from one month carry over to the next, as long as service remains active. NET10 Wireless offers business plans and international calling, and number portability is advertised on their site as being available. A $50 a month unlimited use plan is also available, this service provides unlimited SMS, phone calls (not including International Long Distance Calls, for this type of calls there is an Unlimited Monthly Plan or $65) unlimited MMS (within the United States) for only one month to the customer 's account. The customer can add more than one Unlimited card and this / these plan (s) are added to the "Phone 's Reserve '' and is charged on the phone in a monthly basis (when the cell phone has run out of service days) automatically.
Android phones made by LG and Samsung are available through NET10 Wireless, and can be used with their $50 Unlimited plan. NET10 Wireless also has the ' mini SIM cards ' for unlocked iPhones with the $50 Unlimited Monthly plan.
In December 2012, NET10 Wireless began offering "Family Plans '', offering the first line for $50 / month, reducing each additional lines (up to 4) with a discount of $5. They also entered into a title sponsorship agreement with the Arena Football League.
NET10 Wireless also allows customers to bring AT&T, T - Mobile, Sprint, Verizon, or unlocked GSM phones to NET10 by buying a SIM card or activation kit and air time from the company. This program does not work with Blackberry and branded Straight Talk, SafeLink, TracFone, Total Wireless, and NET10 phones.
SafeLink Wireless provides a free cell phone and a limited number of voice minutes each month for eligible low - income families (one per family) who do not use Lifeline services offered by any other phone or wireless company. It is funded through the Universal Service Fund, but is only operational in a limited number of states. It is similar to the Lifeline and LinkUp government subsidized service for home telephones. Applications for service may be done via their web page, or by having them fax or mail an application form. No choice of phone handset is provided by the application process. Additional minutes over the free monthly benefit may be purchased. As of May 2011, Safelink Wireless had almost 4,000,000 subscribers, the largest Lifeline cell phone provider in the United States.
The Safe Link Wireless provides two kind of services, according to the previous customer 's choice:
Note: The 500 MB Monthly Plan does not Carry - over the MB on the next month, i.e., if the SafeLink customer does not use all of his / her MB 's in first month, in the second month he / she will lose those remaining MB 's being renewed by the next 500 MB monthly data. Safe Link does offer optional Tracfone Airtime Card Compatibility and Promotions for Free Bonus Minutes. These options allow Safe Link users to add more minutes anytime and for use after their allotted plan expires for the month.
Straight Talk is another operator, through a partnership between TracFone and Walmart, offering several different rate plans; a $30 limited plan, $35, $45, and $55 30 - day unlimited plans and a $60 unlimited international calling plan. Discounts are available for purchasing multiple months of the unlimited plan. Straight Talk is a Mobile Virtual Network operator (MVNO) offering both CDMA and GSM support. The CDMA network uses Verizon 's or Sprint 's CDMA 1xRTT wireless networks and the GSM side makes use of either T - Mobile 's or AT&T 's GSM networks.
The $30 limited ("All You Need '') plan provides 1500 minutes, unlimited texts, free 411 calls, 100 MB of data for a service period of 30 days. This plan is exclusive to basic phones, and is not compatible with 3G or 4G LTE smartphones.
The $35 unlimited plan provides unlimited talk, texts, 2GB at 3G or 4G LTE speeds; data beyond that is transmitted at 64 kbit / s speeds.
The $45 unlimited plan provides unlimited talk, texts, 10GB at 3G or 4G LTE speeds (LTE handset required); data beyond that is transmitted at 64 kbit / s speeds.
The $55 unlimited plan provides unlimited talk, texts, and data at high speeds (3G or 4G LTE where available). The plan does not include any tethering (mobile hotspot), while video streams at a resolution of 480p or lower. Also, Straight Talk customers ' speeds will be prioritized behind customers on the network it uses during times of congestion (i.e. A Verizon Straight Talk will be slowed before a Verizon Post Paid Beyond Unlimited customer).
Straight Talk is currently exclusive to Walmart stores through of a joint - venture program between the two companies. Phones and service can also be purchased directly from Straight Talk via its website, StraightTalk.com or by telephone, bypassing WalMart.
Straight Talk offers a variety of prepaid, no contract, phones on their website for use with their plans. Straight Talk also allows customers to bring AT&T, T - Mobile, Sprint, Verizon, or unlocked GSM phones to Straight Talk by buying a SIM card or activation kit and air time from the company. This program does not work with branded Straight Talk, SafeLink, TracFone, Total Wireless, and NET10 phones.
Straight Talk is now selling Straight Talk branded iPhones including the iPhone 4, iPhone 4S, iPhone 5, iPhone 5S, iPhone 5C, and iPhone 6 available online and at Walmart.
Other phone brands also include Alcatel, LG, Huawei, Samsung and ZTE.
Total Wireless is a Mobile Virtual Network operator (MVNO) that uses Verizon 's CDMA and LTE networks. Before early 2017, Total Wireless products were only sold at Walmart. They are now sold at other major retail stores such as Target and Dollar General as well as independent dealers and TracFone Exclusive Retailers. They offer several different rate plans starting at $25 / month, and all plans include unlimited talk minutes and texting. Data is also available on plans starting at $35 / month for 5GB of data. Multi-line "family '' plans are available as well. Before May 2016, only 3G phones were sold and supported by Total Wireless. In May 2016, Total Wireless gained support for Verizon 's 4G LTE network, and started selling phones with that support on its own website (as well as Walmart 's website.)
America Movil, TracFone 's parent company, acquired SIMPLE Mobile in June 2012 and has since been incorporated with its operations alongside TracFone 's.
Simple Mobile (stylized SIMPLE Mobile) is a prepaid mobile network operator which was founded in November 2009 and is headquartered in Irvine, California, in the United States and functionning as T - Mobile US MVNO. It became a subsidiary of America Móvil (parent of TracFone Wireless Inc.) after it was acquired in June 2012. On February 16 of 2011 SIMPLE Mobile celebrated their one millionth activation. Simple Mobile has activated more than 2.5 million subscribers since they opened in November 2009.
The initial plans offered prepaid month - to - month wireless services including unlimited texting, voice, and capped data. In June 2010 the company began to advertise unlimited data on their prepaid monthly plans.
According to SIMPLE Mobile customer service representatives, they are unable to submit IMEI numbers to the global stolen phones database or comply with law enforcement subpoenas to track stolen phones or those belonging to abduction victims, missing persons at risk or dangerous fugitives. Simple Mobile is an MVNO on T - Mobile 's Network. This means that all information is stored on T - Mobile 's servers. A law enforcement professional would need to give the subpoena / court order to the Law Enforcement Relations Group. They will be able to process the subpoena. This applies to all MVNOs since their hosted carrier supports all the network and backend. Simple Mobile should refer the parties direct to their host entity T - Mobile US.
Telcel América is a wireless service from TracFone that is mainly targeted for Hispanic consumers, primarily the Mexican community living in the United States. Telcel América offers seven monthly plans, both including Unlimited nationwide - minutes, Unlimited SMS, MMS messaging, and Web browsing, Telcel América also offers an international calling plan for call to "over 1,000 destinations ''. Some plans offer roaming in Mexico at no extra charge.
Telcel América 's current GSM phones are compatible with Mexico 's Telcel wireless network and services. Telcel America also permits customers that have an unlocked GSM or compatible T - mobile phone to use the Telcel America Network. Telcel América is a brand of TracFone Inc. in the United States, while Telcel in Mexico is a fully owned subsidiary of TracFone 's parent company, América Móvil. Both companies are owned by the Mexican businessman Carlos Slim.
Page Plus Cellular was established in 1993 by Abdul Yassine, as Page Plus Communications, selling pager services in the Toledo, Ohio area. In August 1998 the company was renamed Page Plus Cellular and launched services in Ohio and Michigan, followed by a nationwide launch in 2000.
Page Plus was originally headquartered in Holland, Ohio, and owned by Abdul Yassine.
In May 2013, Mexican telecommunications company América Móvil purchased Page Plus Cellular for an undisclosed amount. As of January 6, 2014, regulatory approval was received and Page Plus Cellular has joined other América Móvil subsidiaries like TracFone. At the time of sale, Page Plus Cellular had 1.4 million subscribers.
Page Plus Cellular offers both pay - as - you - go and no - contract monthly plans. Both monthly and pay - as - you - go customers add voice minutes, data and text messages to their account by purchasing refill cards.
GoSmart Mobile was a T - Mobile US subsidiary service that launched in beta on December 7, 2012, and became officially available nationwide on February 19, 2013. GoSmart offers no - contract SIM wireless services. GoSmart Mobile sources its services to dealers who work as independent contractors under their own company name. Such sellers are known as "Authorized Dealers '' with either physical or online stores. TracFone Wireless acquired GoSmart, along with Walmart Family Mobile, from T - Mobile US in September 2016.
Walmart Family Mobile offers no - contract prepaid plans. GoSmart, along with Walmart Family Mobile, were purchased by TracFone from T - Mobile in September 2016.
TracFone provides several options to let customers communicate with phones outside the U.S.:
The only charge for these services is the deduction of connect time from the prepaid minutes on the customer 's phone.
There is no roaming program by which a TracFone phone can be used outside the U.S.
TracFone 's logistics are managed by BrightPoint.
The Federal Trade Commission reported that "TracFone 's limits on ' unlimited ' data led to $40 million in consumer refunds '' as result of a lawsuit the FTC brought.
On February 9, 2007, a preliminary settlement in a class - action lawsuit against TracFone was carried out by Jeanette Wagner, and approved in the Boone (County) Circuit Court in Kentucky. The complainants alleged that Tracfone misled consumers by charging a roaming rate in their home calling area (they were charged for 2 units per minute, not the usual 1 unit per minute), and that it refused to extend their prepaid service time during handset repairs. Tracfone gave each of their customers an extra 20 units of airtime.
TracFone Wireless uses the networks of major wireless providers to offer service, the coverage of which varies by the provider for each device. Retail boxes indicate the network with a code printed in the lower right corner on the back of the box.
On TracFones with SIM cards, the carrier can be identified in the same manner as any other SIM - based phone, by interpreting the SIM number. On T - Mobile phones, the first line of the SIM number will end in "SIMT5 '', on AT&T / Cingular, the first line will end in "SIMC4 '', on Claro phones, the first line will end in "SIMCL7 ''.
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where is the cadbury creme egg factory located in england | Cadbury Creme Egg - wikipedia
A Cadbury Creme Egg is a chocolate product produced in the shape of an egg. The product consists of a thick chocolate shell, housing a white and yellow fondant filling which mimics the albumen and yolk of a chicken egg. The Creme Eggs are the best selling confectionery item between New Year 's Day and Easter in the UK, with annual sales in excess of 200 million and a brand value of approximately £ 55 million. However, in 2016 sales plummeted after the controversial decision to change the recipe from the original Dairy Milk chocolate to a cheaper substitute, with reports of a loss of more than £ 6m in sales.
Creme Eggs are produced by Cadbury UK in the United Kingdom, by The Hershey Company in the United States and by Cadbury Adams in Canada. They are sold by Mondelēz International in all markets except the US, where the Hershey Company has the local marketing rights. At the Bournville factory in Birmingham, in the UK, they are manufactured at a rate of 1.5 million per day. The Creme Egg was also previously manufactured in New Zealand but, since 2009, they are imported from the UK.
While filled eggs were first manufactured by the Cadbury Brothers in 1923, the Creme Egg in its current form was introduced in 1963. Initially sold as Fry 's Creme Eggs (incorporating the Fry 's brand), they were renamed "Cadbury 's Creme Eggs '' in 1971.
Creme eggs are usually sold individually but are also available in boxes containing a varying quantity of eggs depending on the country the packaging is intended for. The foil wrapping of the eggs was traditionally green, red, yellow and blue in colour in the United Kingdom and Ireland, though green was removed and purple replaced blue early in the 21st century. In the United States, some green is incorporated into the design, which previously featured the product 's mascot -- the Creme Egg Chick. As of 2015, the packaging in Canada has turned into a 34g, purple, red and yellow soft plastic shell.
Creme eggs are available annually between 1 January and Easter Day. In the UK in the 1980s, Cadbury made Creme Eggs available year - round but sales dropped and they returned to seasonal availability.
According to Elizabeth Licata with The Daily Meal on January 14, 2018, there will be a white chocolate version of the Creme eggs for 2018. Though these eggs were released, these eggs were not given a new wrapper and produced separately, but were produced in a small number and mixed in with the normal Creme Eggs. This was only done in the United Kingdom so far, so as for these white chocolate eggs, all that are sold in the UK are somewhat of a mystery for the moment. Along with finding a different type of chocolate product, these white chocolate special edition eggs also come with a prize of up to $2,750. Since this occurrence, there have been several sitings and complaints of people unwrapping these eggs looking for the prized eggs, and also complaints of customers just trying to buy the normal eggs that they were used to. Though these eggs are for the most part the same as the other eggs, there is one large difference that customers found when trying to find the white chocolate eggs, and that would be that the ingredients do not include "milk chocolate. '' A spokesperson from Cadbury expressed that these changes to the ingredients were required by law to include as to avoid legal issues or allergy issues.
Creme Eggs were manufactured in New Zealand at the Cadbury factory in Dunedin from 1983 to 2009. Cadbury in New Zealand and Australia went through a restructuring process which most Cadbury products previously produced in New Zealand being manufactured instead at Cadbury factories in Australia. The Dunedin plant later received a $69 million upgrade to specialise in boxed products such as Cadbury Roses, and Creme Eggs were no longer produced there. The result of the changes meant that Creme Eggs were instead imported from the United Kingdom. The change has also seen the range of Creme Eggs available for sale decreased. The size also dropped from 40g to 39g in this time. The response from New Zealanders has not been positive. Complaints have included the filling not being as runny as the New Zealand version.
Cadbury Creme Eggs are manufactured as two half - egg chocolate shells, each of which is filled with a white fondant, then topped with a smaller amount of yellow fondant, with the egg being filled in such a way that the fondant colours mimic egg yolk and egg white. Both halves are then quickly joined together and cooled, the chocolate bonding together in the process. The solid eggs are removed from the moulds and wrapped in foil. The filling, to be more precise, is inverted sugar syrup, produced by processing the fondant with invertase.
There were claims of changes to Cadbury 's actual milk chocolate had been changed in 2015, and was actually released by Kraft who by then owned Cadbury. The traditional dairy milk shell of the eggs was to be replaced with a cocoa based shell instead, and had to soon revert to the original recipe because of the complaints received from the fans of these eggs. One other manufacturing difference that was made and that was the fact that there was no longer going to be the production of gold coin chocolates at Christmas time. This was another decision that Kraft had made to try to improve revenue, but hurt them with customers again.
Cadbury has introduced many variants to the original Creme Egg, including:
Other products
During an interview a 2007 episode of Late Night with Conan O'Brien, actor B.J. Novak drew attention to the fact that American market Cadbury Creme Eggs had decreased in size, despite the official Cadbury website stating otherwise. American Creme Eggs at the time weighed 34 g and contained 150 calories. Before 2006, the eggs marketed by Hershey were identical to the UK version, weighing 39 g and containing 170 calories.
In 2015, the British Cadbury company under the American Mondelēz International conglomerate announced that it had changed the formula of the Cadbury Creme Egg by replacing its Cadbury Dairy Milk chocolate with "standard cocoa mix chocolate ''. It had also reduced the packaging from 6 eggs to 5 with a less than proportionate decrease in price. This resulted in a large number of complaints from consumers. Analysts IRI found that Cadbury lost more than $12 million in Creme Egg sales in the UK.
The Creme Egg has been marketed in the UK and Ireland with the question "How do you eat yours? '' and in New Zealand with the slogan "Do n't get caught with egg on your face ''. Australia and New Zealand have also used a variation of the UK question, using the slogan "How do you do it? '' Over the years, there have been several major Cadbury 's Creme Egg campaigns.
In North America, Creme Eggs are advertised on television with a small white rabbit called the Cadbury Bunny (alluding to the Easter Bunny) which clucks like a chicken. Ads for caramel eggs use a larger gold - coloured rabbit which also clucks, and chocolate eggs use a large brown rabbit which clucks in a deep voice. The advertisements use the slogan "Nobunny knows Easter better than him '', spoken by TV personality Mason Adams. The ads have continued to air nearly unchanged into the high definition era, though currently the ad image is slightly zoomed to fill the screen. The majority of rabbits used in the Cadbury commercials are Flemish Giants.
In the UK, around the year 2000, selected stores were provided standalone paperboard cutouts of something resembling a "love tester ''. The shopper would press a button in the centre and a "spinner '' (a series of LED lights) would select at random a way of eating the Creme Egg, e.g. "with chips ''. These were withdrawn within a year. There are also the "Creme Egg Cars '' which are, as the name suggest, ovular vehicles painted to look like Creme Eggs. They are driven to various places to advertise the eggs but are based mainly at the Cadbury factory in Bournville. Five "Creme Egg Cars '' were built from Bedford Rascal chassis. The headlights are taken from a Citroën 2CV.
For the 2009 season, advertising in the UK, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand and Canada consisted of stopmotion adverts in the "Release the Goo '' campaign which comprised a Creme Egg stripping itself of its wrapper and then breaking its own shell, usually with household appliances and equipment, while making various ' goo ' sounds, and a ' relieved ' noise when finally able to break its shell. The Cadbury 's Creme Egg website featured games where the player had to prevent the egg from finding a way to release its goo.
A similar advertising campaign in 2010 featured animated Creme Eggs destroying themselves in large numbers, such as gathering together at a cinema before bombarding into each other to release all of the eggs ' goo, and another which featured eggs being destroyed by mouse traps.
In 2012, Cadbury parodied the Olympic Games by using Creme Eggs instead of athletes. The first advert was 31 seconds long and consists of an Opening Ceremony, performed by stripped and packed Creme Eggs. Each other advert contained a Creme Egg trying to ' release the goo ' whilst in an Olympic event. An online game was created by Cadbury, so the public could play the ' Goo Games '. Six events were available to play and each of them was shown as a cartoon sketch.
In 2016, Cadbury opened a pop - up café titled "Crème de la Creme Egg Café '' in London. Tickets for the café sold out within an hour of being published online. The café on Greek Street, Soho, was open every Friday, Saturday, Sunday from January 22, to March 6, 2016.
In 2018, Cadbury opened a pop - up camp. The camp in Last Days of Shoreditch, Old Street was open every Thursday to Sunday from January 19, to February 18, 2018
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who is tom cruise playing in the mummy | The Mummy (2017 film) - wikipedia
The Mummy is a 2017 American action - adventure film directed by Alex Kurtzman and written by David Koepp, Christopher McQuarrie and Dylan Kussman, with a story by Kurtzman, Jon Spaihts and Jenny Lumet. It is a reboot of The Mummy franchise and the first installment in the Universal 's Dark Universe. The film stars Tom Cruise, Annabelle Wallis, Sofia Boutella, Jake Johnson, Courtney B. Vance and Russell Crowe.
The Mummy premiered at the State Theatre in Sydney, Australia on May 22, 2017, and was theatrically released in the United States on June 9, 2017, in 2D, 3D and IMAX 3D. It received negative reviews from critics and grossed over $407 million worldwide. It was labeled a box office disappointment given its high production and marketing costs, with projected losses of around $95 million.
In 1127 A.D., several English crusader knights bury an Egyptian ruby within the tomb of one of their number. In present - day London, a construction crew discovers the tomb and a mysterious man is authorized to investigate the site. Ominous reporting on the news notes that people are not as far from important relics of the past as they realize.
In a flashback to the New Kingdom era, Princess Ahmanet is first in line to succeed her father Menehptre until his second wife gives birth to a son. Determined to claim the throne for herself, Ahmanet summons Set, who agrees to help her if she uses a mystical dagger to transfer his spirit into a corporeal form. After killing her family, Ahmanet attempts to sacrifice her lover to Set but is captured by her father 's priests and condemned to be mummified alive for eternity. Her sarcophagus is buried in Mesopotamia and submerged in a pool of mercury so that her monstrous form will not escape.
In present - day Iraq, Sergeant Nick Morton and Corporal Chris Vail, while on Long Range Reconnaissance for the U.S. Army, discover the tomb of Ahmanet after calling in an airstrike on an insurgent stronghold. Jennifer Halsey, an archaeologist who had a one - night stand with Nick, arrives and investigates the tomb, correctly concluding that it is a prison. After Nick extracts Ahmanet 's sarcophagus from a pool of mercury, Nick 's superior, Colonel Greenway, places it on a transport plane headed to England. During the flight, Vail becomes possessed by Ahmanet 's power after being bitten by a camel spider while inside the tomb. After attempting to open the sarcophagus, he stabs Greenway and tries to attack the group, forcing Nick to kill him. A huge number of crows then assault the plane, causing it to crash and killing everyone on board except for Jennifer, who is parachuted off the plane by Nick.
Nick awakens a day later in a morgue in Oxford, discovering that he has been brought back to life by unknown means, and he learns from Vail 's sardonic ghost that he has been cursed by Ahmanet, who seeks to use him as a replacement vessel for Set. Ahmanet 's mummy escapes from the sarcophagus and begins feeding on rescue workers to regenerate her decomposed body. Turning the workers into zombie minions, she lures Nick and Jennifer into a trap, forcing the two to fight off the minions as they unsuccessfully try to escape. Ahmanet also recovers the ' Dagger of Set ' from a reliquary in a nearby church. At the last moment, however, unknown soldiers appear and subdue Ahmanet. Their leader, Dr. Henry Jekyll, explains that Jennifer is an agent of Prodigium, a secret society dedicated to hunting supernatural threats. He reveals much of his own history and confirms that Nick was cursed when Ahmanet 's tomb was opened. Although first welcoming Dr. Jekyll 's help, Nick (as well as Jennifer) become horrified to discover the doctor 's intention to complete the ritual, allowing Set to possess Nick completely, in the belief that this will render Set vulnerable and allow his evil to be ended forever.
Meanwhile, Ahmanet summons a spider to possess a Prodigium technician and frees herself from captivity, wreaking havoc, death, and destruction in the process. After verbally sparring with Nick, Jekyll succumbs to his own dark impulses and transforms into Edward Hyde, his murderous and psychotic alternate personality, even as Ahmanet wreaks havoc outside unbeknownst to them. Nick rebuffs the repulsive Hyde 's offer of an alliance between them, and Hyde attacks him. However, Nick manages to stop him with the serum Jekyll uses to suppress his evil side. He and Jennifer then escape from Prodigium, but they run into Ahmanet once again. She steals back the dagger, summons an army of deceased English crusaders to serve her, and creates a massive sandstorm that ravages London, with Nick and Jennifer narrowly escaping her grasp. The undead knights slaughter the Prodigium soldiers in the tomb discovered during the film 's opening, and Ahmanet finally recovers the ruby and places it in the dagger 's pommel, granting her all that she needs to free Set aside from Nick himself.
Guided by the spectral Vail, Nick and Jennifer flee into the London Underground tunnels, but they are soon attacked by Ahmanet 's minions. Ahmanet captures Jennifer and drowns her, hoping to break her hold over Nick. Nick puts up a determined fight, but he gives up and lets himself embrace Ahmanet, using it as a ruse to steal the dagger and shatter the ruby. However, he sees the lifeless Jennifer and bets on stabbing himself. His body is partially possessed by Set, who proceeds to join Ahmanet to uphold his end of the bargain. However, looking back at Jennifer 's dead body, Nick regains control, using Set 's powers to overpower and suck the life out of Ahmanet. With her transformed back into a shriveled mummy, Nick then harnesses Set 's powers to resurrect Jennifer, saying goodbye before becoming overwhelmed by Set 's nature and disappearing. Soon, Jennifer regroups with Dr. Jekyll, and they tensely discuss if Nick, now fused with Set in an uncertain way, will use his powers for good, evil, or something else entirely. Ahmanet 's corpse is lowered into a locked pool of mercury within the Prodigium base for safekeeping. Later on in the desert, Nick resurrects Vail, and the two set out on a new adventure.
Universal Pictures first announced plans for a modern reboot of The Mummy franchise in 2012. The project went through multiple directors, with Len Wiseman leaving the project in 2013, and a second director, Andrés Muschietti, in 2014.
Tom Cruise began talks about playing the lead in November 2015, with Sofia Boutella beginning talks that December. Kurtzman cast Boutella after seeing and being impressed by her largely mute performance in Kingsman: The Secret Service. Kurtzman noted that "if you look at her eyes, and this is what I got from watching Kingsman, there 's a whole performance going on here. And in not saying anything but conveying that much to me, I thought oh my god, no matter how much prosthetics we put on her, no matter how much CG we put on her face, if I see this, she 's going to convey something very emotional to me. '' Other casting news was announced between March and May, with Russell Crowe joining during the latter month. Shortly after the film opened, Variety reported that Cruise had excessive control over the film and firm control of nearly every aspect of production and post-production, including re-writing the script and editing to his specifications, telling Kurtzman how to direct on set, and enlarging his role while downplaying Boutella 's. Universal contractually guaranteed Cruise control of most aspects of the project, from script approval to post-production decisions.
Principal photography on the film began on April 3, 2016, in Oxford, United Kingdom, and also took place in Surrey. Filming on the movie wrapped on July 17, 2016, in London. Production then moved to Namibia for two weeks, with principal photography on the film being completed on August 13, 2016.
For the filming of the plane crash the production made use of The Vomit Comet and parabolic flight to simulate the illusion of weighlessness. The crew did a total of 64 takes with many of the crew becoming sick to their stomachs. Initially Kurtzman planned to shoot the film using wires and a rotating set, however Cruise 's insistence changed his mind.
Composer Brian Tyler started work on the music for the movie early, writing about a half hour of music before filming even began. Working on the film for a year and half, Tyler recorded with an 84 - piece orchestra and 32 - voice choir at London 's Abbey Road. He ultimately wrote and recorded over two hours of music, which, given the length of the film (107 minutes), resulted in a soundtrack album longer than the film itself.
Initially scheduled for a 2016 release, the film was released in the United States and Canada on June 9, 2017, with international roll out beginning the same day. The film was screened in various formats, such as 2D, 3D and IMAX 3D.
On December 20, 2016, IMAX released a trailer with the wrong audio track attached; this unintentionally prompted the creation of memes and video montages featuring the mistakenly included audio track, which was missing most of the sound effects and instead featured Tom Cruise 's grunts and screams. IMAX reacted by taking down the trailer and issuing DMCA takedown notices in an attempt to stop it from spreading.
Following the 2017 Manchester Arena bombing on May 22, Universal cancelled the film 's U.K. premiere, which had been scheduled to take place in London on June 1.
The Mummy grossed $80.1 million in the United States and Canada and $327.7 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $407.8 million, against a combined production and advertising budget of around $345 million. The film had a worldwide opening of $172.4 million, the biggest global debut of Tom Cruise 's career.
In North America, the film was released alongside It Comes at Night and Megan Leavey, and was originally projected to gross $35 -- 40 million from 4,034 theaters in its opening weekend. However after making $12 million on its first day (including $2.66 million from Thursday night previews), weekend projections were lowered to $30 million. It ended up debuting to $31.7 million, marking the lowest of the Mummy franchise and finishing second at the box office behind Wonder Woman ($58.2 million in its second week). Deadline.com attributed the film 's underperformance to poor critic and audience reactions, as well as "blockbuster fatigue. '' In its second weekend the film made $14.5 million (dropping 54.2 %), finishing 4th at the box office. The same week, Deadline reported that the film is expected to lose Universal around $95 million in an estimated 375 million worldwide gross. It was pulled from 827 theaters in its third week and made $5.8 million, dropping another 60 % and finishing 6th at the box office.
Outside North America, the film opened in 63 overseas territories, with China, the UK, Mexico, Germany, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, Brazil and Russia receiving the film the same day as in North America, and was projected to debut to $125 -- 135 million. It opened on June 6, 2017 in South Korea and grossed $6.6 million on its first day, the biggest - ever debut for both Tom Cruise and Universal in the country. It ended up having a foreign debut of $140.7 million, the biggest of Cruise 's career. In its opening weekend the film made $52.4 million in China, $7.4 million in Russia, $4.9 million in Mexico and $4.2 million in the United Kingdom. As of July 9, 2017, The film other big markets are China ($91.5 million), South Korea ($26.2 million), Russia and the CIS ($15.9 million) and Brazil ($13.2 million).
The Mummy received generally negative reviews from critics, with criticism aimed at its incoherent narrative, inconsistent tone, sub-par acting, and shoehorned plot points setting up the Dark Universe. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 16 % based on 246 reviews, with an average rating of 4.2 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Lacking the campy fun of the franchise 's most recent entries and failing to deliver many monster - movie thrills, The Mummy suggests a speedy unraveling for the Dark Universe. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 34 out of 100 based on 44 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B − '' on an A+ to F scale.
Vince Mancini of Uproxx gave the film a negative review, writing: "If you like incomprehensible collections of things that vaguely resemble other things you might 've enjoyed in the past, The Mummy is the movie for you. '' IndieWire 's David Ehrlich gave the film a D -, calling it the worst film of Cruise 's career and criticizing its lack of originality, saying: "It 's one thing to excavate the iconography of old Hollywood, it 's another to exploit it. This is n't filmmaking, it 's tomb - raiding. ''
Owen Gleiberman of Variety wrote: "The problem at its heart is that the reality of what the movie is -- a Tom Cruise vehicle -- is at war with the material. The actor, at 54, is still playing that old Cruise trope, the selfish cocky semi-scoundrel who has to grow up... The trouble is that Cruise, at least in a high - powered potboiler like this one, is so devoted to maintaining his image as a clear and wholesome hero that his flirtation with the dark side is almost entirely theoretical. '' Writing for Rolling Stone, Peter Travers gave the film one star out of four, saying: "How meh is The Mummy? Let me count the ways. For all the huffing and puffing and digital desperation from overworked computers, this reboot lands onscreen with a resounding thud. ''
Glen Kenny of RogerEbert.com gave the film 1.5 / 4 stars, writing: I found something almost admirable about the film 's cheek. It 's amazingly relentless in its naked borrowing from other, better horror and sci - fi movies that I was able to keep occupied making a checklist of the movies referenced. Entertainment Weekly 's Chis Nashawaty wrote that the film "feels derivative and unnecessary and like it was written by committee. ''
In BBC World News Culture, Nicholas Barber calls the film "a mish - mash of wildly varying tones and plot strands, from its convoluted beginning to its shameless non-end. Tom Cruise 's new film barely qualifies as a film at all. None of it makes sense. The film delivers all the chases, explosions, zombies and ghosts you could ask for, and there are a few amusing lines and creepy moments, but, between the headache - inducing flashbacks and hallucinations, the narrative would be easier to follow if it were written in hieroglyphics. ''
Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian wrote that the film "has some nice moments but is basically a mess. The plot sags like an aeon - old decaying limb, a jumble of ideas and scenes from what look like different screenplay drafts. '' Empire film magazine was more positive, with Dan Jolin awarding the film three stars. "It 's running and jumping grin - flashing business as usual for Cruise, once more on safe character territory as an Ethan Hunt-esque action protagonist who couples up with a much younger woman, while another woman chases after him, '' he wrote. "And if the next installment - teasing conclusion is anything to go by, Cruise seemed to have enough fun making this that he may just return for more. ''
The film is part of the Universal Pictures Dark Universe, an attempt to create a modern cinematic universe based on the classic Universal Monster film series. The second movie in the series will be Bill Condon 's 2019 Bride of Frankenstein... The 2014 film Dracula Untold, starring Luke Evans as the titular character, was originally considered to be the first film in the series; however, since the film 's release, the connection to Dark Universe was downplayed, and The Mummy was re-positioned as the first film in the series.
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who appoints ambassadors to foreign countries in india | Indian Foreign Service - wikipedia
The Indian Foreign Service (Hindi: भारतीय विदेश सेवा) is the administrative diplomatic civil service under Group A and Group B of the Central Civil Services of the executive branch of the Government of India. It is considered to be one of the two premier Civil Services (the other being the IAS), as appointment to IFS renders a person ineligible to reappear in Civil Services Examination. It is a Central Civil service as Foreign policy is the subject matter and prerogative of Union Government. The Ambassador, High Commissioner, Consul General, Permanent Representative of India to the United Nations and Foreign Secretary are some of the offices held by the members of this service.
The service is entrusted to conduct diplomacy and manage foreign relations of India. It is the body of career diplomats serving in more than 180 Indian Diplomatic Missions and International Organisations around the world. In addition, they serve at the headquarters of the Ministry of External affairs in Delhi and the Prime Minister 's Office. They also head the Regional Passport Offices throughout the country and hold positions in the President 's Secretariat and several ministries on deputation. Foreign Secretary of India is the administrative head of the Indian Foreign Service.
IFS was created by the Government of India in October 1946 through a Cabinet note but its roots can be traced back to the British Raj when the Foreign Department was created to conduct business with the "Foreign European Powers ''. IFS Day is celebrated on October 9 every year since 2011 to commemorate the day the Indian Cabinet created the IFS.
Officers of the IFS are recruited by the Government of India on the recommendation of the Union Public Service Commission. Fresh recruits to the IFS are trained at the Foreign Service Institute (FSI) after a brief foundation course at the Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of Administration, Mussoorie.
On 13 September 1783, the board of directors of the East India Company passed a resolution at Fort William, Calcutta (now Kolkata), to create a department, which could help "relieve the pressure '' on the Warren Hastings administration in conducting its "secret and political business. '' Although established by the Company, the Indian Foreign Department conducted business with foreign European powers. From the very beginning, a distinction was maintained between the foreign and political functions of the Foreign Department; relations with all "Asiatic powers '' (including native princely states) were treated as political, while relations with European powers were treated as foreign.
In 1843, the Governor - General of India, Edward Law, 1st Earl of Ellenborough carried out administrative reforms, organizing the Secretariat of the Government into four departments: Foreign, Home, Finance, and Military. Each was headed by a secretary - level officer. The Foreign Department Secretary was entrusted with the "conduct of all correspondence belonging to the external and internal diplomatic relations of the government. ''
The Government of India Act 1935 attempted to delineate more clearly functions of the foreign and political wings of the Foreign Department, it was soon realized that it was administratively imperative to completely bifurcate the department. Consequently, the External Affairs Department was set up separately under the direct charge of the Governor - General.
The idea of establishing a separate diplomatic service to handle the external activities of the Government of India originated from a note dated 30 September 1944, recorded by Lieutenant - General T.J. Hutton, the Secretary of the Planning and Development Department. When this note was referred to the Department of External Affairs for comments, Olaf Caroe, the Foreign Secretary, recorded his comments in an exhaustive note detailing the scope, composition and functions of the proposed service. Caroe pointed out that as India emerged as autonomous, it was imperative to build up a system of representation abroad that would be in complete harmony with the objectives of the future government.
On 9 October 1946, on the eve of Indian independence, the Indian government established the Indian Foreign Service for India 's diplomatic, consular and commercial representation overseas. With independence, there was a near - complete transition of the Foreign and Political Department into what then became the new Ministry of External Affairs and Commonwealth Relations.
In 1948, the first group of Indian Foreign Service officers recruited under the combined Civil Services Examination administered by the Union Public Service Commission joined the service. This exam is still used to select new foreign service officers.
The Civil Services Examination is used for recruitment for the Indian Foreign Service. The entire selection process lasts for about 12 months. Only a rank among toppers guarantees an IFS selection -- an acceptance rate of 0.02 percent and is known to be the ' heaven borne service '.
In recent years, the intake into the Indian Foreign Service has averaged between 25 - 30 persons annually. The present cadre strength of the service stands at approximately 600 officers manning around 162 Indian missions and posts abroad and the various posts in the Ministry at home (Defence, Finance, Home, etc)
On acceptance to the Foreign Service, new entrants undergo significant training, which is considered to be one of the most challenging and longest service trainings in the govt. of India and nearly takes more than 3 years to graduate from. The entrants undergo a probationary period (and are referred to as Officer Trainees) Training begins at the Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of Administration in Mussoorie, where members of many elite Indian civil services are trained.
After completing a 15 - week training at the Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of Administration, the probationers join the Foreign Service Institute in New Delhi for a more intensive training in a host of subjects important to diplomacy, including international relations theory, military diplomacy, trade, India 's Foreign Policy, History, International Law, diplomatic practice, hospitality, protocol and administration. They also go on attachments with different government bodies and defence (Army, Navy, Air Force, CAPF) establishments and undertake tours both in India and abroad. The entire training programme lasts for a period of 36 months.
Upon the completion of the training programme at the Institute, the officer is assigned a compulsory foreign language (CFL). After a brief period of desk attachment in the Ministry of External Affairs, at the rank of Assistant Secretary, the officer is posted to an Indian diplomatic mission abroad where her / his CFL is the native language. There the officer undergoes language training and is expected to develop proficiency in the CFL and pass an examination before being allowed to continue in the service.
As a career diplomat, the Foreign Service Officer is required to project India 's interests, both at home and abroad on a wide variety of issues. These include bilateral political and economic cooperation, trade and investment promotion, cultural interaction, press and media liaison as well as a whole host of multilateral issues.
The functions of an Indian diplomat may be summarized as:
Representing India in his / her Embassies, High Commissions, Consulates, and Permanent Missions to multilateral organizations like UN;
Protecting India 's national interests in the country of his / her posting;
Promoting friendly relations with the receiving state as also its people, including NRI / PIOs;
Reporting accurately on developments in the country of posting which are likely to influence the formulation of India 's policies;
Negotiating agreements on various issues with the authorities of the receiving state; and
Extending consular facilities to foreigners and Indian nationals abroad.
At home
Ministry of External Affairs is responsible for all aspects of external relations. Territorial divisions deal with bilateral political and economic work while functional divisions look after policy planning, multilateral organizations, regional groupings, legal matters, disarmament, protocol, consular, Indian Diaspora, press and publicity, administration and other aspects.
In 2012, media reports showed that a foreign service officer was fined US $1.5 million for engaging in slavery by United States District Court for the Southern District of New York and was also found denying visa on the basis of homosexuality.
Shashi Tharoor, currently the Chairman of the Parliamentary Standing Committee on External Affairs, has presented 12th report for expanding and building the numbers, quality and capacity of India 's diplomats.
There is in total a pool of 2,700 personnel holding diplomatic rank that serve in overseas missions and at headquarters. Of these only a minority of about 770 are IFS officers, the senior cadre of Indian diplomacy, which is primarily drawn from recruitment through the Civil Services Examination. The breakdown of other cadres and personnel include 252 Grade - I officers of the IFS (B), 33 of the Interpreters Cadre, 24 of the Legal and Treaties Cadre, 635 Attaches, 540 diplomatic officers from the secretarial staff and 310 diplomatic officers from other Ministries. (2)
IFS (B) is the feeder cadre which ranks below the IFS (A) and recruits members through a separate entrance exam and after a period of 8 years are appointed and absorbed into the service. Below the IFS (B) are the stenographers who provide secretarial support to both the IFS (A) and IFS (B) but especially the senior cadre.
The relations between the cadres and secretarial personnel have been marked by territorial grievance and rivalry, becoming at times heated enough to spill into the public sphere. A common grievance among IFS (A) officers is the practice of antedating the appointment of IFS (B) officers 8 years before the date of their actual promotion. This puts the IFS (B) officers, who are seen as less prestigious, ahead for promotions of IFS (A) officers who directly entered the service before them. In 2013, 6 IFS (A) officers went as far as to lodge a complaint, against their foreign secretary as well as eight IFS (B) officers named as respondents, with the Central Administrative Tribunal (CAT) for clogging the promotion pipeline and leading to "demotivation and demoralisation among direct recruit officers ''.
IFS (B) officers have also complained of discrimination against them by IFS (A) officers. A Facebook group purportedly voicing the objections of IFS (B) officers sprung up in 2016 when IFS (B) officer Tajinder Singh, Second Secretary in the Indian embassy in Lisbon died of an apparent suicide. The Facebook group alleged that Singh was treated unfairly because he was forced to yield his choice assignment in Washington DC after serving in a hardship posting in Damascus. He was forced to give up his choice assignment for Lisbon because of alleged "discrimination and professional challenges from IFS (A) officers in the ministry ''.
IFS (B) officers themselves have an acrimonious rivalry with the secretarial personnel or stenographers who are perceived to be lower in prestige than the IFS (B) officers but have a closer working relationship with IFS (A) officers, giving the stenographers at times promotion opportunities ahead of IFS (B) officers. This rivalry was brought to the fore when a stenographer was appointed as Indian ambassador to North Korea in 2012. Within a week of the appointment IFS (B) officers vociferously protested. Three different associations representing IFS (B) officers came together to write a single complaint to the Prime Minister 's Office and the external affairs minister expressing their "utter disappointment '' and requesting a review of the appointment.
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who sang im so in love with you | I 'm Stone in Love with You - wikipedia
"I 'm Stone in Love with You '' is a 1972 single by the Philadelphia soul group The Stylistics. The song is noted for lead singer Russell Thompkins Jr. 's distinctive falsetto singing, which he employs through most of the song. The song was written by Thom Bell, Linda Creed, and Anthony Bell.
The song was the first track from their 1972 album, Round 2 and was released as a single and reached number 10 on the US Billboard Hot 100. In addition, it also climbed to number 4 in the Billboard R&B chart and reached number 9 in the UK Singles Chart in December 1972. The Stylistics ' recording sold over one million copies globally, earning the band a gold disc The award was presented by the RIAA on December 13, 1972. It was the band 's third gold disc.
"I 'm Stone in Love with You '' has been covered in various pop circles, including in 1973 by Johnny Mathis. His version became a 1975 hit on the Adult Contemporary charts, reaching number five in Canada and number 16 U.S.
Jamaican reggae artists Barry Biggs and Inner Circle also covered the song in 1977.
Engelbert Humperdinck covered the song in 1973 for his album, King Of Hearts.
British easy listening and jazz pianist Ronnie Aldrich covered the song on his 1979 album, Tomorrow 's Yesterdays.
English pop rock group The Beautiful South covered the song on their 2004 covers album Golddiggas, Headnodders and Pholk Songs.
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use a typical food chain to give a detailed account of energy transfer in an ecosystem | Energy flow (ecology) - wikipedia
In ecology, energy flow, also called the calorific flow, refers to the flow of energy through a food chain, and is the focus of study in ecological energetics. In an ecosystem, ecologists seek to quantify the relative importance of different component species and feeding relationships.
A general energy flow scenario follows:
The energy is passed on from trophic level to trophic level and each time about 90 % of the energy is lost, with some being lost as heat into the environment (an effect of respiration) and some being lost as incompletely digested food (egesta). Therefore, primary consumers get about 10 % of the energy produced by autotrophs, while secondary consumers get 1 % and tertiary consumers get 0.1 %. This means the top consumer of a food chain receives the least energy, as a lot of the food chain 's energy has been lost between trophic levels. This loss of energy at each level limits typical food chains to only four to six links.
Ecological energetics appears to have grown out of the Age of Enlightenment and the concerns of the Physiocrats. It began in the works of Sergei Podolinsky in the late 1800s, and subsequently was developed by the Soviet ecologist Vladmir Stanchinsky, the Austro - American Alfred J. Lotka, and American limnologists, Raymond Lindeman and G. Evelyn Hutchinson. It underwent substantial development by Howard T. Odum and was applied by systems ecologists, and radiation ecologists.
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the sympathetic nervous system is responsible for increasing the rate of gastrointestinal | Sympathetic nervous system - wikipedia
The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) is one of the two main divisions of the autonomic nervous system, the other being the parasympathetic nervous system.
The autonomic nervous system functions to regulate the body 's unconscious actions. The sympathetic nervous system 's primary process is to stimulate the body 's fight - or - flight response. It is, however, constantly active at a basic level to maintain homeostasis. The sympathetic nervous system is described as being complementary to the parasympathetic nervous system which stimulates the body to "feed and breed '' and to (then) "rest - and - digest ''.
There are two kinds of neurons involved in the transmission of any signal through the sympathetic system: pre-ganglionic and post-ganglionic. The shorter preganglionic neurons originate from the thoracolumbar region of the spinal cord specifically at T1 to L2 ~ L3, and travel to a ganglion, often one of the paravertebral ganglia, where they synapse with a postganglionic neuron. From there, the long postganglionic neurons extend across most of the body.
At the synapses within the ganglia, preganglionic neurons release acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter that activates nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on postganglionic neurons. In response to this stimulus, the postganglionic neurons release norepinephrine, which activates adrenergic receptors that are present on the peripheral target tissues. The activation of target tissue receptors causes the effects associated with the sympathetic system. However, there are three important exceptions:
Sympathetic nerves arise from near the middle of the spinal cord in the intermediolateral nucleus of the lateral grey column, beginning at the first thoracic vertebra of the vertebral column and are thought to extend to the second or third lumbar vertebra. Because its cells begin in the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord, the sympathetic nervous system is said to have a thoracolumbar outflow. Axons of these nerves leave the spinal cord through the anterior root. They pass near the spinal (sensory) ganglion, where they enter the anterior rami of the spinal nerves. However, unlike somatic innervation, they quickly separate out through white rami connectors (so called from the shiny white sheaths of myelin around each axon) that connect to either the paravertebral (which lie near the vertebral column) or prevertebral (which lie near the aortic bifurcation) ganglia extending alongside the spinal column.
To reach target organs and glands, the axons must travel long distances in the body, and, to accomplish this, many axons relay their message to a second cell through synaptic transmission. The ends of the axons link across a space, the synapse, to the dendrites of the second cell. The first cell (the presynaptic cell) sends a neurotransmitter across the synaptic cleft where it activates the second cell (the postsynaptic cell). The message is then carried to the final destination.
Presynaptic nerves ' axons terminate in either the paravertebral ganglia or prevertebral ganglia. There are four different paths an axon can take before reaching its terminal. In all cases, the axon enters the paravertebral ganglion at the level of its originating spinal nerve. After this, it can then either synapse in this ganglion, ascend to a more superior or descend to a more inferior paravertebral ganglion and synapse there, or it can descend to a prevertebral ganglion and synapse there with the postsynaptic cell.
The postsynaptic cell then goes on to innervate the targeted end effector (i.e. gland, smooth muscle, etc.). Because paravertebral and prevertebral ganglia are relatively close to the spinal cord, presynaptic neurons are generally much shorter than their postsynaptic counterparts, which must extend throughout the body to reach their destinations.
A notable exception to the routes mentioned above is the sympathetic innervation of the suprarenal (adrenal) medulla. In this case, presynaptic neurons pass through paravertebral ganglia, on through prevertebral ganglia and then synapse directly with suprarenal tissue. This tissue consists of cells that have pseudo-neuron like qualities in that when activated by the presynaptic neuron, they will release their neurotransmitter (epinephrine) directly into the bloodstream.
In the sympathetic nervous system and other components of the peripheral nervous system, these synapses are made at sites called ganglia. The cell that sends its fiber is called a preganglionic cell, while the cell whose fiber leaves the ganglion is called a postganglionic cell. As mentioned previously, the preganglionic cells of the sympathetic nervous system are located between the first thoracic segment and third lumbar segments of the spinal cord. Postganglionic cells have their cell bodies in the ganglia and send their axons to target organs or glands.
The ganglia include not just the sympathetic trunks but also the cervical ganglia (superior, middle and inferior), which sends sympathetic nerve fibers to the head and thorax organs, and the celiac and mesenteric ganglia (which send sympathetic fibers to the gut).
Messages travel through the sympathetic nervous system in a bi-directional flow. Efferent messages can trigger changes in different parts of the body simultaneously. For example, the sympathetic nervous system can accelerate heart rate; widen bronchial passages; decrease motility (movement) of the large intestine; constrict blood vessels; increase peristalsis in the oesophagus; cause pupillary dilation, piloerection (goose bumps) and perspiration (sweating); and raise blood pressure. One exception is with certain blood vessels such as those in the cerebral and coronary arteries, which dilate (rather than constrict) with an increase in sympathetic tone. This is because of a proportional increase in the presence of β adrenergic receptors rather than α receptors. β receptors promote vessel dilation instead of constriction like α1 receptors. An alternative explanation is that the primary (and direct) effect of sympathetic stimulation on coronary arteries is vasoconstriction followed by a secondary vasodilation caused by the release of vasodilatory metabolites due to the sympathetically increased cardiac inotropy and heart rate. This secondary vasodilation caused by the primary vasoconstriction is termed functional sympatholysis, the overall effect of which on coronary arteries is dilation.
The target synapse of the postganglionic neuron is mediated by adrenergic receptors and is activated by either norepinephrine (noradrenaline) or epinephrine (adrenaline).
The sympathetic nervous system is responsible for up - and down - regulating many homeostatic mechanisms in living organisms. Fibers from the SNS innervate tissues in almost every organ system, providing at least some regulation of functions as diverse as pupil diameter, gut motility, and urinary system output and function. It is perhaps best known for mediating the neuronal and hormonal stress response commonly known as the fight - or - flight response. This response is also known as sympatho - adrenal response of the body, as the preganglionic sympathetic fibers that end in the adrenal medulla (but also all other sympathetic fibers) secrete acetylcholine, which activates the great secretion of adrenaline (epinephrine) and to a lesser extent noradrenaline (norepinephrine) from it. Therefore, this response that acts primarily on the cardiovascular system is mediated directly via impulses transmitted through the sympathetic nervous system and indirectly via catecholamines secreted from the adrenal medulla.
The sympathetic nervous system is responsible for priming the body for action, particularly in situations threatening survival. One example of this priming is in the moments before waking, in which sympathetic outflow spontaneously increases in preparation for action.
Sympathetic nervous system stimulation causes vasoconstriction of most blood vessels, including many of those in the skin, the digestive tract, and the kidneys. This occurs as a result of activation of alpha - 1 adrenergic receptors by norepinephrine released by post-ganglionic sympathetic neurons. These receptors exist throughout the vasculature of the body but are inhibited and counterbalanced by beta - 2 adrenergic receptors (stimulated by epinephrine release from the adrenal glands) in the skeletal muscles, the heart, the lungs, and the brain during a sympathoadrenal response. The net effect of this is a shunting of blood away from the organs not necessary to the immediate survival of the organism and an increase in blood flow to those organs involved in intense physical activity.
The afferent fibers of the autonomic nervous system, which transmit sensory information from the internal organs of the body back to the central nervous system (or CNS), are not divided into parasympathetic and sympathetic fibers as the efferent fibers are. Instead, autonomic sensory information is conducted by general visceral afferent fibers.
General visceral afferent sensations are mostly unconscious visceral motor reflex sensations from hollow organs and glands that are transmitted to the CNS. While the unconscious reflex arcs normally are undetectable, in certain instances they may send pain sensations to the CNS masked as referred pain. If the peritoneal cavity becomes inflamed or if the bowel is suddenly distended, the body will interpret the afferent pain stimulus as somatic in origin. This pain is usually non-localized. The pain is also usually referred to dermatomes that are at the same spinal nerve level as the visceral afferent synapse.
Together with the other component of the autonomic nervous system, the parasympathetic nervous system, the sympathetic nervous system aids in the control of most of the body 's internal organs. Reaction to stress -- as in the flight - or - fight response -- is thought to counteract the parasympathetic system, which generally works to promote maintenance of the body at rest. The comprehensive functions of both the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems are not so straightforward, but this is a useful rule of thumb.
In heart failure, the sympathetic nervous system increases its activity, leading to increased force of muscular contractions that in turn increases the stroke volume, as well as peripheral vasoconstriction to maintain blood pressure. However, these effects accelerate disease progression, eventually increasing mortality in heart failure.
Sympathicotonia is a stimulated condition of the sympathetic nervous system, marked by vascular spasm, elevated blood pressure, and goose bumps. A recent study has shown the expansion of Foxp3+ natural Treg in the bone marrow of mice after brain ischemia and this myeloid Treg expansion is related to sympathetic stress signaling after brain ischemia.
The name of this system can be traced to the concept of sympathy, in the sense of "connection between parts '', first used medically by Galen. In the 18th century, Jacob B. Winslow applied the term specifically to nerves.
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what is the typical flow of energy through organisms | Energy flow (ecology) - wikipedia
In ecology, energy flow, also called the calorific flow, refers to the flow of energy through a food chain, and is the focus of study in ecological energetics. In an ecosystem, ecologists seek to quantify the relative importance of different component species and feeding relationships.
A general energy flow scenario follows:
The energy is passed on from trophic level to trophic level and each time about 90 % of the energy is lost, with some being lost as heat into the environment (an effect of respiration) and some being lost as incompletely digested food (egesta). Therefore, primary consumers get about 10 % of the energy produced by autotrophs, while secondary consumers get 1 % and tertiary consumers get 0.1 %. This means the top consumer of a food chain receives the least energy, as a lot of the food chain 's energy has been lost between trophic levels. This loss of energy at each level limits typical food chains to only four to six links.
Ecological energetics appears to have grown out of the Age of Enlightenment and the concerns of the Physiocrats. It began in the works of Sergei Podolinsky in the late 1800s, and subsequently was developed by the Soviet ecologist Vladmir Stanchinsky, the Austro - American Alfred J. Lotka, and American limnologists, Raymond Lindeman and G. Evelyn Hutchinson. It underwent substantial development by Howard T. Odum and was applied by systems ecologists, and radiation ecologists.
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who wrote christmas is the time to say i love you | Christmas is the Time to Say ' I Love You ' - wikipedia
"Christmas Is the Time to Say ' I Love You ' '' is a holiday rock song by Billy Squier, released in 1981 as the B - side of his hit "My Kinda Lover '' (Capitol 5037). In 1981, a video of the song was recorded with MTV VJs and staff members singing along with a live performance by Squier. VJ Martha Quinn remembers it as her number one moment when working for MTV.
The song has been covered by Darlene Love, Alexa Vega, and by SR - 71. Katharine McPhee recorded a cover of the song on her Christmas album, Christmas is the Time to Say I Love You, which was released on October 12, 2010.
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what can i do with an ipv6 address | IPv6 address - wikipedia
An Internet Protocol Version 6 address (IPv6 address) is a numerical label that is used to identify a network interface of a computer or a network node participating in an IPv6 computer network.
An IP address serves the purpose of identifying an individual network interface of a host, locating it on the network, and thus permitting the routing of IP packets between hosts. For routing, IP addresses are present in fields of the packet header where they indicate the source and destination of the packet.
IPv6 is the successor to the first addressing infrastructure of the Internet, Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4). In contrast to IPv4, which defined an IP address as a 32 - bit value, IPv6 addresses have a size of 128 bits. Therefore, IPv6 has a vastly enlarged address space compared to IPv4.
IPv6 addresses are classified by the primary addressing and routing methodologies common in networking: unicast addressing, anycast addressing, and multicast addressing.
A unicast address identifies a single network interface. The Internet Protocol delivers packets sent to a unicast address to that specific interface.
An anycast address is assigned to a group of interfaces, usually belonging to different nodes. A packet sent to an anycast address is delivered to just one of the member interfaces, typically the nearest host, according to the routing protocol 's definition of distance. Anycast addresses can not be identified easily, they have the same format as unicast addresses, and differ only by their presence in the network at multiple points. Almost any unicast address can be employed as an anycast address.
A multicast address is also used by multiple hosts, which acquire the multicast address destination by participating in the multicast distribution protocol among the network routers. A packet that is sent to a multicast address is delivered to all interfaces that have joined the corresponding multicast group. IPv6 does not implement broadcast addressing. Broadcast 's traditional role is subsumed by multicast addressing to the all - nodes link - local multicast group ff02:: 1. However, the use of the all - nodes group is not recommended, and most IPv6 protocols use a dedicated link - local multicast group to avoid disturbing every interface in the network.
An IPv6 address consists of 128 bits. For each of the major addressing and routing methodologies, various address formats are recognized by logically dividing the 128 address bits into bit groups and establishing rules for associating the values of these bit groups with special addressing features.
Unicast and anycast addresses are typically composed of two logical parts: a 64 - bit network prefix used for routing, and a 64 - bit interface identifier used to identify a host 's network interface.
The network prefix (the routing prefix combined with the subnet id) is contained in the most significant 64 bits of the address. The size of the routing prefix may vary; a larger prefix size means a smaller subnet id size. The bits of the subnet id (entifier) field are available to the network administrator to define subnets within the given network. The 64 - bit interface identifier is either automatically generated from the interface 's MAC address using the modified EUI - 64 format, obtained from a DHCPv6 server, automatically established randomly, or assigned manually.
A link - local address is also based on the interface identifier, but uses a different format for the network prefix.
The prefix field contains the binary value 1111111010. The 54 zeroes that follow make the total network prefix the same for all link - local addresses (fe80:: / 64 link - local address prefix), rendering them non-routable.
Multicast addresses are formed according to several specific formatting rules, depending on the application.
The prefix holds the binary value 11111111 for any multicast address.
Currently, 3 of the 4 flag bits in the flg field are defined; the most - significant flag bit is reserved for future use.
The 4 - bit scope field (sc) is used to indicate where the address is valid and unique.
There are special multicast addresses, like Solicited Node.
The sc (ope) field holds the binary value 0010 (link - local). Solicited - node multicast addresses are computed as a function of a node 's unicast or anycast addresses. A solicited - node multicast address is created by copying the last 24 bits of a unicast or anycast address to the last 24 bits of the multicast address.
Link - scoped multicast addresses use a comparable format.
An IPv6 address is represented as eight groups of four hexadecimal digits, each group representing 16 bits (two octets, a group sometimes also called a hextet). The groups are separated by colons (:). An example of an IPv6 address is:
The hexadecimal digits are case - insensitive, but IETF recommendations suggest the use of lower case letters. The full representation of eight 4 - digit groups may be simplified by several techniques, eliminating parts of the representation.
Leading zeroes in a group may be omitted, but each group must retain at least one hexadecimal digit. Thus, the example address may be written as:
One or more consecutive groups containing zeros only may be replaced with a single empty group, using two consecutive colons (::). The substitution may only be applied once in the address, however, because multiple occurrences would create an ambiguous representation. Thus, the example address can be further simplified:
The localhost (loopback) address, 0: 0: 0: 0: 0: 0: 0: 1, and the IPv6 unspecified address, 0: 0: 0: 0: 0: 0: 0: 0, are reduced to:: 1 and::, respectively.
During the transition of the Internet from IPv4 to IPv6, it is typical to operate in a mixed addressing environment. For such use cases, a special notation has been introduced, which expresses IPv4 - mapped and IPv4 - compatible IPv6 addresses by writing the least - significant 32 bits of an address in the familiar IPv4 dot - decimal notation, whereas the other 96 (most significant) bits are written in IPv6 format. For example, the IPv4 - mapped IPv6 address:: ffff: c000: 0280 is written as:: ffff: 192.0. 2.128, thus expressing clearly the original IPv4 address that was mapped to IPv6.
In an attempt to simplify IPv6 addresses, the standards provide flexibility in their representation. However, this also complicates several common operations: searching for a specific address in a text file or stream, and comparing two addresses to determine their equivalence. To mitigate these problems, a canonical format is defined for rendering IPv6 addresses in text:
An IPv6 network uses an address block that is a contiguous group of IPv6 addresses of a size that is a power of two. The leading set of bits of the addresses are identical for all hosts in a given network, and are called the network 's address or routing prefix.
Network address ranges are written in CIDR notation. A network is denoted by the first address in the block (ending in all zeroes), a slash (/), and a decimal value equal to the size in bits of the prefix. For example, the network written as 2001: db8: 1234:: / 48 starts at address 2001: db8: 1234: 0000: 0000: 0000: 0000: 0000 and ends at 2001: db8: 1234: ffff: ffff: ffff: ffff: ffff.
The routing prefix of an interface address may be directly indicated with the address by CIDR notation. For example, the configuration of an interface with address 2001: db8: a:: 123 connected to subnet 2001: db8: a:: / 64 is written as 2001: db8: a:: 123 / 64.
The size of a block of addresses is specified by writing a slash (/) followed by a number in decimal whose value is the length of the network prefix in bits, rather than by explicitly specifying which addresses are in the block. For example, an address block with 48 bits in the prefix is indicated by / 48. Such a block contains 2 = 2 addresses. The smaller the value of the network prefix, the larger the block: a / 21 block is 8 times larger than a / 24 block.
Colon (:) characters in IPv6 addresses may conflict with the established syntax of resource identifiers, such as URIs and URLs. The colon has traditionally been used to terminate the host path before a port number. To alleviate this conflict, literal IPv6 addresses are enclosed in square brackets in such resource identifiers, for example:
When the URL also contains a port number the notation is:
where the trailing 443 is the example 's port number.
For addresses with other than global scope (as described below), and in particular for link - local addresses, the choice of the network interface for sending a packet may depend on which zone the address belongs to: the same address may be valid in different zones, and be in use by a different host in each of those zones. Even if a single address is not in use in different zones, the address prefixes for addresses in those zones may still be identical, which makes the operating system unable to select an outgoing interface based on the information in the routing table (which is prefix - based).
In order to resolve the ambiguity in textual addresses, a zone index must be appended to the address, the two separated by a percent sign (%). The syntax of zone indices is an implementation - dependent string, although numeric zone indices must be universally supported as well. The following link - local address:
could become for instance:
or:
The former (using an interface name) is customary on most Unix - like operating systems (e.g., BSD, Linux, OS X). The latter (using an interface number) is the standard syntax on Microsoft Windows, but as support for this syntax is mandatory, it is also available on other operating systems.
BSD - based operating systems (including OS X) also support an alternative, non-standard syntax, where a numeric zone index is encoded in the second 16 - bit word of the address. E.g.:
In all operating systems mentioned above, the zone index for link - local addresses actually refers to an interface, not to a zone. As multiple interfaces may belong to the same zone (e.g. when connected to the same switch), in practice two addresses with different zone - ids may actually be equivalent, and refer to the same host on the same link.
When used in uniform resource identifiers (URI), the use of the percent sign causes a syntax conflict, therefore it must be escaped via percent - encoding, e.g.:
In Microsoft Windows operating systems, IPv4 addresses are valid location identifiers in Uniform Naming Convention (UNC) path names. However, the colon is an illegal character in a UNC path name. Thus, the use of IPv6 addresses is also illegal in UNC names. For this reason, Microsoft implemented a transcription algorithm to represent an IPv6 address in the form of a domain name that can be used in UNC paths. For this purpose, Microsoft registered and reserved the second - level domain ipv6-literal.net on the Internet (although they gave up the domain in January 2014). IPv6 addresses are transcribed as a hostname or subdomain name within this name space, in the following fashion:
is written as
This notation is automatically resolved locally by Microsoft software, without any queries to DNS name servers.
If the IPv6 address contains a zone index, it is appended to the address portion after an ' s ' character:
is written as
Every IPv6 address, except the unspecified address (::), has a "scope '', which specifies in which part of the network it is valid.
For unicast addresses, two scopes are defined: link - local and global.
Link - local addresses and the loopback address have link - local scope, which means they can only be used on a single directly attached network (link). All other addresses (including Unique local addresses) have global (or universal) scope, which means they are (or could be) globally routable, and can be used to connect to addresses with global scope anywhere, or to addresses with link - local scope on the directly attached network.
Even though Unique local addresses have global scope, they are not globally administered. As a result, only other hosts inside the same administrative domain (e.g. an organisation), or inside a cooperating administrative domain will be able to reach such addresses (i.e. have a route to them). As their scope is global, these addresses are valid as a source address when communicating with any other global - scope address, even though it may be impossible to route packets from the destination back to the source.
Anycast addresses are syntactically identical to and indistinguishable from unicast addresses. Their only difference is administrative. Scopes for anycast addresses are therefore the same as for unicast addresses.
For multicast addresses, the four least - significant bits of the second address octet (ff0s::) identify the address scope, i.e. the domain in which the multicast packet should be propagated. Predefined and reserved scopes are:
All other scopes are unassigned, and available to administrators for defining additional regions.
The management of IPv6 address allocation process is delegated to the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) by the Internet Architecture Board and the Internet Engineering Steering Group. Its main function is the assignment of large address blocks to the regional Internet registries (RIRs), which have the delegated task of allocation to network service providers and other local registries. The IANA has maintained the official list of allocations of the IPv6 address space since December 1995.
Only one eighth of the total address space is currently allocated for use on the Internet, 2000:: / 3, in order to provide efficient route aggregation, thereby reducing the size of the Internet routing tables; the rest of the IPv6 address space is reserved for future use or for special purposes. The address space is assigned to the RIRs in large blocks of / 23 up to / 12.
The RIRs assign smaller blocks to local Internet registries that distributes them to users. These are typically in sizes from / 19 to / 32. The addresses are typically distributed in / 48 to / 56 sized blocks to the end users.
Global unicast assignment records can be found at the various RIRs or other websites.
IPv6 addresses are assigned to organizations in much larger blocks as compared to IPv4 address assignments -- the recommended allocation is a / 48 block which contains 2 addresses, being 2 or about 7014279999999999999 ♠ 2.8 × 10 times larger than the entire IPv4 address space of 2 addresses and about 7016720000000000000 ♠ 7.2 × 10 times larger than the / 8 blocks of IPv4 addresses, which are the largest allocations of IPv4 addresses. The total pool, however, is sufficient for the foreseeable future, because there are 2 (exactly 340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,456) or about 7038340000000000000 ♠ 3.4 × 10 (340 trillion trillion trillion) unique IPv6 addresses.
Each RIR can divide each of its multiple / 23 blocks into 512 / 32 blocks, typically one for each ISP; an ISP can divide its / 32 block into 65 536 / 48 blocks, typically one for each customer; customers can create 65 536 / 64 networks from their assigned / 48 block, each having 2 (18,446,744,073,709,551,616) addresses. In contrast, the entire IPv4 address space has only 2 (exactly 4,294,967,296 or about 7009430000000000000 ♠ 4.3 × 10) addresses.
By design, only a very small fraction of the address space will actually be used. The large address space ensures that addresses are almost always available, which makes the use of network address translation (NAT) for the purposes of address conservation completely unnecessary. NAT has been increasingly used for IPv4 networks to help alleviate IPv4 address exhaustion.
To allow for provider changes without renumbering, provider - independent address space -- assigned directly to the end user by the RIRs -- is taken from the special range 2001: 678:: / 29.
Internet Exchange Points (IXPs) are assigned special addresses from the range 2001: 7f8:: / 29 for communication with their connected ISPs. Root name servers have been assigned addresses from the same range.
The lowest address within each subnet prefix (the interface identifier set to all zeroes) is reserved as the "subnet - router '' anycast address. Applications may use this address when talking to any one of the available routers, as packets sent to this address are delivered to just one router.
The 128 highest addresses within each / 64 subnet prefix are reserved to be used as anycast addresses. These addresses usually have the 57 first bits of the interface identifier set to 1, followed by the 7 - bit anycast ID. Prefixes for the network, including subnets, are required to have a length of 64 bits, in which case the universal / local bit must be set to 0 to indicate the address is not globally unique. The address with value 0x7e in the 7 least - significant bits is defined as a mobile IPv6 home agents anycast address. The address with value 0x7f (all bits 1) is reserved and may not be used. No more assignments from this range are made, so values 0x00 through 0x7d are reserved as well.
There are a number of addresses with special meaning in IPv6. They represent less than 2 % of the entire address space:
The multicast addresses ff0x:: where x is any hexadecimal value are reserved and should not be assigned to any multicast group. The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) manages address reservations.
Some common IPv6 multicast addresses are the following:
The least significant 24 bits of the solicited - node multicast address group ID are filled with the least significant 24 bits of the interface 's unicast or anycast address. These addresses allow link layer address resolution via Neighbor Discovery Protocol (NDP) on the link without disturbing all nodes on the local network. A host is required to join a solicited - node multicast group for each of its configured unicast or anycast addresses.
On system startup, a node automatically creates a link - local address on each IPv6 - enabled interface, even if globally routable addresses are manually configured or obtained through "configuration protocols '' (see below). It does so independently and without any prior configuration by stateless address autoconfiguration (SLAAC), using a component of the Neighbor Discovery Protocol. This address is selected with the prefix fe80:: / 64.
In IPv4, typical "configuration protocols '' include DHCP or PPP. Although DHCPv6 exists, IPv6 hosts normally use the Neighbor Discovery Protocol to create a globally routable unicast address: the host sends router solicitation requests and an IPv6 router responds with a prefix assignment.
The lower 64 bits of these addresses are populated with a 64 - bit interface identifier in modified EUI - 64 format. This identifier is usually shared by all automatically configured addresses of that interface, which has the advantage that only one multicast group needs to be joined for neighbor discovery. For this, a multicast address is used, formed from the network prefix ff02:: 1: ff00: 0 / 104 and the 24 least significant bits of the address.
A 64 - bit interface identifier is most commonly derived from its 48 - bit MAC address. A MAC address 00 - 0C - 29 - 0C - 47 - D5 is turned into a 64 - bit EUI - 64 by inserting FF - FE in the middle: 00 - 0C - 29 - FF - FE - 0C - 47 - D5. When this EUI - 64 is used to form an IPv6 address it is modified: the meaning of the Universal / Local bit (the 7th most significant bit of the EUI - 64, starting from 1) is inverted, so that a 1 now means Universal. To create an IPv6 address with the network prefix 2001: db8: 1: 2:: / 64 it yields the address 2001: db8: 1: 2: 020c: 29ff: fe0c: 47d5 (with the Universal / Local bit, the second - least - significant bit of the underlined quartet, inverted to 1 in this case because the MAC address is universally unique).
The assignment of a unicast IPv6 address to an interface involves an internal test for the uniqueness of that address using Neighbor Solicitation and Neighbor Advertisement (ICMPv6 type 135 and 136) messages. While in the process of establishing uniqueness an address has a tentative state.
The node joins the solicited - node multicast address for the tentative address (if not already done so) and sends neighbor solicitations, with the tentative address as target address and the unspecified address (:: / 128) as source address. The node also joins the all - hosts multicast address ff02:: 1, so it will be able to receive Neighbor Advertisements.
If a node receives a neighbor solicitation with its own tentative address as the target address, then that address is not unique. The same is true if the node receives a neighbor advertisement with the tentative address as the source of the advertisement. Only after having successfully established that an address is unique may it be assigned and used by an interface.
Each IPv6 address that is bound to an interface has a fixed lifetime. Lifetimes are infinite, unless configured to a shorter period. There are two lifetimes that govern the state of an address: the preferred lifetime and the valid lifetime. Lifetimes can be configured in routers that provide the values used for autoconfiguration, or specified when manually configuring addresses on interfaces.
When an address is assigned to an interface it gets the status "preferred '', which it holds during its preferred - lifetime. After that lifetime expires the status becomes "deprecated '' and no new connections should be made using this address. The address becomes "invalid '' after its valid - lifetime also expires; the address is removed from the interface and may be assigned somewhere else on the Internet.
Note: In most cases, the lifetime does not expire because new Router Advertisements (RAs) refresh the timers. But if there are no more RAs, eventually the preferred lifetime elapses and the address becomes "deprecated ''.
The globally unique and static MAC addresses, used by stateless address autoconfiguration to create interface identifiers, offer an opportunity to track user equipment -- across time and IPv6 network prefix changes -- and so users. To reduce the prospect of a user identity being permanently tied to an IPv6 address portion, a node may create temporary addresses with interface identifiers based on time - varying random bit strings and relatively short lifetimes (hours to days), after which they are replaced with new addresses.
Temporary addresses may be used as source address for originating connections, while external hosts use a public address by querying the Domain Name System.
Network interfaces configured for IPv6 use temporary addresses by default in OS X Lion and later Apple systems as well as in Windows Vista, Windows 2008 Server and later Microsoft systems.
As a means to enhance security for Neighbor Discovery Protocol cryptographically generated addresses (or CGAs) were introduced in 2005 as part of the Secure Neighbor Discovery (SEND) Protocol.
Such an address is generated using two hash functions that take several inputs. The first uses a public key and a random modifier; the latter being incremented repeatedly until a specific amount of zero bits of the resulting hash is acquired. (Comparable with the ' proof of work ' field in Bitcoin mining.) The second hash function takes the network prefix and the previous hash value. The least significant 64 bits of the second hash result is appended to the 64 - bit network prefix to form a 128 - bit address.
The hash functions can also be used to verify if a specific IPv6 address satisfies the requirement of being a valid CGA. This way, communication can be set up between trusted addresses exclusively.
Stateless autoconfigured addresses have some security and privacy related drawbacks, due to the fact that the underlying hardware address (most typically the MAC address) is used to generate it. Users may be tracked and accounts correlated, by means of this embedded hardware address. Attacks may be more successful, since the address space to search for victims is greatly reduced and vendor specific attacks may be launched, as this is part of the address. Another drawback is that if the hardware is replaced, a different address will be used for the same device, which may require updating security policies or hinder log entry correlation.
Since using temporary addresses do not fully alleviate these problems stable privacy addresses were introduced. These addresses are stable within a specific network but change when moving to another, to improve privacy. They are chosen deterministic but randomly in the entire address space of the network, to improve security.
Generation of a stable privacy address is based on a hash function that takes several stable parameters as its arguments. It at least uses the network prefix, the name of the network interface, a duplicate address counter, and a secret key. The resulting hash value is then used to construct the final address: typically the 64 least significant bits of it are concatenated to the 64 bit network prefix, to get a 128 - bit address. If the network prefix is smaller than 64 bits, more bits of the hash are used. If the resulting address does not conflict with existing or reserved addresses, it is assigned to the interface.
IPv6 - enabled network interfaces usually have more than one IPv6 address, for example, a link - local and a global address, and permanent versus temporary addresses. IPv6 introduces the concepts of address scope and selection preference, yielding multiple choices for source and destination address selections in communication with another host.
The preference selection algorithm, which selects the most appropriate address to use in communications with a particular destination (including the use of IPv4 - mapped addresses in dual - stack implementations), is based on a user - customizable preference table that associates each routing prefix with a precedence level. The default table is as follows:
The default configuration places preference on IPv6, rather than IPv4, and on destination addresses within the smallest possible scope, so that link - local communication is preferred over globally routed paths when otherwise equally suitable. The prefix policy table is similar to a routing table, with the precedence value serving as the role of a link cost, where higher preference is expressed as a larger value. Source addresses are preferred to have the same label value as the destination address. Addresses are matched to prefixes based on the longest matching most - significant bit - sequence. Candidate source addresses are obtained from the operating system and candidate destination addresses may be queried via the Domain Name System (DNS).
In order to minimize connection times when multiple addresses are available for communication, the Happy Eyeballs algorithm was devised. It queries the Domain Name System for IPv6 and IPv4 addresses of the target host, sorts candidate addresses using the default address selection table and tries to establish connections in parallel, where the first connection that is thus established aborts current and future attempts to connect to other addresses.
In the Domain Name System, hostnames are mapped to IPv6 addresses by AAAA resource records, so - called quad - A records. For reverse lookup the IETF reserved the domain ip6.arpa, where the name space is hierarchically divided by the 1 - digit hexadecimal representation of nibble units (4 bits) of the IPv6 address.
As in IPv4, each host is represented in the DNS by two DNS records: an address record and a reverse mapping pointer record. For example, a host computer named derrick in zone example.com has the Unique Local Address fdda: 5cc1: 23: 4:: 1f. Its quad - A address record is
and its IPv6 pointer record is
This pointer record may be defined in a number of zones, depending on the chain of delegation of authority in the zone d.f. ip6.arpa.
The DNS protocol is independent of its Transport Layer protocol. Queries and replies may be transmitted over IPv6 or IPv4 transports regardless of the address family of the data requested.
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how did the daintree rainforest get its name | Daintree rainforest - wikipedia
Coordinates: 16 ° 12 ′ S 145 ° 24 ′ E / 16.2 ° S 145.4 ° E / - 16.2; 145.4 The Daintree Rainforest is a region located on the north east coast of Queensland, Australia, north of Mossman and Cairns. At around 1,200 square kilometres (460 sq mi), the Daintree is the largest continuous area of tropical rainforest on the Australian continent. Along the coastline north of the Daintree River, tropical forest grows right down to the edge of the sea.
In 2009 as part of the Q150 celebrations, the Daintree Rainforest was announced as one of the Q150 Icons of Queensland for its role as a "Natural attraction ''.
The rainforest is named after Richard Daintree, an Australian geologist and photographer (1832 - 1878).
The area includes the Daintree National Park, some areas of State Forest, and some privately owned land, including a residential community of upwards of 5 people. Some of the privately owned land north of the Peninsula Range is being progressively purchased for conservation purposes under a $15 million government scheme involving equal contributions from the municipal (Cairns Regional Council), which includes the former Douglas Shire council), State (Queensland) and Australian Federal governments. As of May 2011, 72 % of the properties earmarked for buyback or compensation had been secured. These ' buyback ' areas of tropical rainforest included 215 blocks of land purchased by the Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service, and 13 purchased by private conservation agencies. The Daintree Rainforest contains 30 % of the frog, reptile and marsupial species in Australia, and 90 % of Australia 's bat and butterfly species. 7 % of bird species in the country can be found in this area. There are also over 12,000 species of insects in the rainforest. All of this diversity is contained within an area that takes up 0.1 % of the landmass of Australia. Part of the forest is protected by the Daintree National Park and drained by the Daintree River. The roads north of the river wind through areas of lush forest, and have been designed to minimize impacts on this ancient ecosystem.
The tropical rainforest ecosystem of the Daintree Rainforest is one of the most complex on Earth. Its plant diversity and structural complexity is unrivalled on the Australian continent and represents the origins of other Australian flora.
Millions of years ago, the Australian continent was warm and humid and rainfall was plentiful. During this time rainforest thrived in places such as the Uluru (Ayers Rock) region. As Australia became more arid, there were fewer and fewer places rainforests were able to survive. In the Daintree region, however the climate and topography were ideal, so the area became a last remaining refuge for rainforest. Within this refuge many species were able to live comfortably without reason to change. Their descendants that are still living today retained many of their ancestors ' primitive characteristics, some dating back 110 million years.
One species in particular, Idiospermum australiense, commonly known as the idiot fruit, is one of the rarest and most primitive of the flowering plants. Its discovery in 1970 was arguably Australia 's most significant botanical find, greatly increasing scientists awareness of just how ancient these forests really are.
From a total of 19 primitive flowering plant families on Earth, 12 families are represented in the Daintree region making the highest concentration of these plants worldwide. These ancient plant families may well hold the secret to a number of unanswered questions regarding the origins of the flowering plants -- plants on which the human race depends for food and medicines.
The Daintree region combines tropical rainforest, white sandy beaches and fringing reefs just offshore, which is a rare combination. Due to the distance between attractions, driving is the often the simplest way to navigate between them. The Daintree National Park boasts many walking tracks and there are a number of accommodation options within the Daintree Rainforest itself.
To the west of Cape Tribulation stands Mt Pieter Botte with its massive granite outcrops. The summit providing expansive vistas of undisturbed forest and to the south the skyline is dominated by the giant granite boulders of Thornton Peak -- one of Queensland 's highest mountains.
Much of the Daintree Rainforest is part of the Wet Tropics of Queensland World Heritage Site, being listed by UNESCO in 2015 in recognition of its universal natural values highlighted by the rainforest.
Amongst the attributes provided as evidence for the World Heritage value of the Wet Tropics, which include the Daintree Rainforest, the Australian Government lists the following:
They preserve major stages of the earth 's evolutionary history -
They preserve unique, rare or superlative natural phenomena, formations or features of exceptional natural beauty --
The Daintree rainforest contains important and significant habitats for conservation of biological diversity. Approximately 430 species of birds live among the trees. The primitive flowering plants Austrobaileya scandens and Idiospermum australiense are also endemic to the Daintree.
The Daintree Important Bird Area (IBA) is a 2656 km tract of land that largely coincides with the northernmost part of the Wet Tropics of Queensland World Heritage Site. It encompasses, or overlaps, the Black Mountain, Cedar Bay, Daintree, Mount Windsor and Mowbray National Parks.
It has been identified as an IBA by BirdLife International because it supports a population of southern cassowaries. It also contains populations of the locally endemic tooth - billed and golden bowerbirds, lovely fairywrens, Macleay 's, bridled, yellow - spotted and white - streaked honeyeaters, fernwrens, Atherton scrubwrens, mountain thornbills, chowchillas, Bower 's shrike - thrushes, pied monarchs, Victoria 's riflebirds and pale - yellow robins.
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what is the country of costa rica like | Costa Rica - Wikipedia
Coordinates: 10 ° N 84 ° W / 10 ° N 84 ° W / 10; - 84
Costa Rica (/ ˌkɒstə ˈriːkə / (listen); Spanish: (ˈkosta ˈrika); "Rich Coast ''), officially the Republic of Costa Rica (Spanish: República de Costa Rica), is a country in Central America, bordered by Nicaragua to the north, Panama to the southeast, the Pacific Ocean to the west, the Caribbean Sea to the east, and Ecuador to the south of Cocos Island. It has a population of around 4.9 million, in a land area of 51,060 square kilometers (19,714 square miles); over 300,000 live in the capital and largest city, San José, which had a population of an estimated 333,980 in 2015.
Costa Rica has been known for its stable democracy, in a region that has had some instability, and for its highly educated workforce, most of whom speak English. The country spends roughly 6.9 % of its budget (2016) on education, compared to a global average of 4.4 %. Its economy, once heavily dependent on agriculture, has diversified to include sectors such as finance, corporate services for foreign companies, pharmaceuticals, and ecotourism. Many foreign companies (manufacturing and services) operate in Costa Rica 's Free Trade Zones (FTZ) where they benefit from investment and tax incentives.
In spite of impressive growth in the gross domestic product (GDP), low inflation, moderate interest rates and an acceptable unemployment level, Costa Rica in 2017 was facing a liquidity crisis due to a growing debt and budget deficit. By August 2017, the Treasury was having difficulty paying its obligations. Other challenges facing the country in its attempts to improve the economy by increasing foreign investment include a poor infrastructure and a need to improve public sector efficiency.
Costa Rica was sparsely inhabited by indigenous peoples before coming under Spanish rule in the 16th century. It remained a peripheral colony of the empire until independence as part of the short - lived First Mexican Empire, followed by membership in the United Provinces of Central America, from which it formally declared independence in 1847. Since then, Costa Rica has remained among the most stable, prosperous, and progressive nations in Latin America. Following the brief Costa Rican Civil War, it permanently abolished its army in 1949, becoming one of only a few sovereign nations without a standing army.
The country has consistently performed favorably in the Human Development Index (HDI), placing 69th in the world as of 2015, among the highest of any Latin American nation. It has also been cited by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) as having attained much higher human development than other countries at the same income levels, with a better record on human development and inequality than the median of the region.
Costa Rica also has progressive environmental policies. It is the only country to meet all five UNDP criteria established to measure environmental sustainability. It was ranked 42nd in the world, and third in the Americas, in the 2016 Environmental Performance Index, and was twice ranked the best performing country in the New Economics Foundation 's (NEF) Happy Planet Index, which measures environmental sustainability, and was identified by the NEF as the greenest country in the world in 2009. Costa Rica plans to become a carbon - neutral country by 2021. By 2016, 98.1 % of its electricity was generated from green sources particularly hydro, solar, geothermal and biomass.
Historians have classified the indigenous people of Costa Rica as belonging to the Intermediate Area, where the peripheries of the Mesoamerican and Andean native cultures overlapped. More recently, pre-Columbian Costa Rica has also been described as part of the Isthmo - Colombian Area.
Stone tools, the oldest evidence of human occupation in Costa Rica, are associated with the arrival of various groups of hunter - gatherers about 10,000 to 7,000 years BCE in the Turrialba Valley. The presence of Clovis culture type spearheads and arrows from South America opens the possibility that, in this area, two different cultures coexisted.
Agriculture became evident in the populations that lived in Costa Rica about 5,000 years ago. They mainly grew tubers and roots. For the first and second millennia BCE there were already settled farming communities. These were small and scattered, although the timing of the transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture as the main livelihood in the territory is still unknown.
The earliest use of pottery appears around 2,000 to 3,000 BCE. Shards of pots, cylindrical vases, platters, gourds and other forms of vases decorated with grooves, prints, and some modelled after animals have been found.
The impact of indigenous peoples on modern Costa Rican culture has been relatively small compared to other nations, since the country lacked a strong native civilization to begin with. Most of the native population was absorbed into the Spanish - speaking colonial society through inter-marriage, except for some small remnants, the most significant of which are the Bribri and Boruca tribes who still inhabit the mountains of the Cordillera de Talamanca, in the southeastern part of Costa Rica, near the frontier with Panama.
The name la costa rica, meaning "rich coast '' in the Spanish language, was in some accounts first applied by Christopher Columbus, who sailed to the eastern shores of Costa Rica during his final voyage in 1502, and reported vast quantities of gold jewelry worn by natives. The name may also have come from conquistador Gil González Dávila, who landed on the west coast in 1522, encountered natives, and appropriated some of their gold.
During most of the colonial period, Costa Rica was the southernmost province of the Captaincy General of Guatemala, nominally part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. In practice, the captaincy general was a largely autonomous entity within the Spanish Empire. Costa Rica 's distance from the capital of the captaincy in Guatemala, its legal prohibition under Spanish law from trade with its southern neighbor Panama, then part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada (i.e. Colombia), and lack of resources such as gold and silver, made Costa Rica into a poor, isolated, and sparsely - inhabited region within the Spanish Empire. Costa Rica was described as "the poorest and most miserable Spanish colony in all America '' by a Spanish governor in 1719.
Another important factor behind Costa Rica 's poverty was the lack of a significant indigenous population available for encomienda (forced labor), which meant most of the Costa Rican settlers had to work on their own land, preventing the establishment of large haciendas (plantations). For all these reasons, Costa Rica was, by and large, unappreciated and overlooked by the Spanish Crown and left to develop on its own. The circumstances during this period are believed to have led to many of the idiosyncrasies for which Costa Rica has become known, while concomitantly setting the stage for Costa Rica 's development as a more egalitarian society than the rest of its neighbors. Costa Rica became a "rural democracy '' with no oppressed mestizo or indigenous class. It was not long before Spanish settlers turned to the hills, where they found rich volcanic soil and a milder climate than that of the lowlands.
Like the rest of Central America, Costa Rica never fought for independence from Spain. On September 15, 1821, after the final Spanish defeat in the Mexican War of Independence (1810 -- 21), the authorities in Guatemala declared the independence of all of Central America. That date is still celebrated as Independence Day in Costa Rica even though, technically, under the Spanish Constitution of 1812 that had been readopted in 1820, Nicaragua and Costa Rica had become an autonomous province with its capital in León.
Upon independence, Costa Rican authorities faced the issue of officially deciding the future of the country. Two bands formed, the Imperialists, defended by Cartago and Heredia cities which were in favor of joining the Mexican Empire, and the Republicans, represented by the cities of San José and Alajuela who defended full independence. Because of the lack of agreement on these two possible outcomes, the first civil war of Costa Rica occurred. The battle of Ochomogo (es) took place on the Hill of Ochomogo, located in the Central Valley in 1823. The conflict was won by the Republicans and, as a consequence, the city of Cartago lost its status as the capital, which moved to San José.
In 1838, long after the Federal Republic of Central America ceased to function in practice, Costa Rica formally withdrew and proclaimed itself sovereign. The considerable distance and poor communication routes between Guatemala City and the Central Plateau, where most of the Costa Rican population lived then and still lives now, meant the local population had little allegiance to the federal government in Guatemala. From colonial times to now, Costa Rica 's reluctance to become economically tied with the rest of Central America has been a major obstacle to efforts for greater regional integration.
Coffee was first planted in Costa Rica in 1808, and by the 1820s, it surpassed tobacco, sugar, and cacao as a primary export. Coffee production remained Costa Rica 's principal source of wealth well into the 20th century, creating a wealthy class of growers, the so - called Coffee Barons. The revenue helped to modernize the country.
Most of the coffee exported was grown around the main centers of population in the Central Plateau and then transported by oxcart to the Pacific port of Puntarenas after the main road was built in 1846. By the mid-1850s the main market for coffee was Britain. It soon became a high priority to develop an effective transportation route from the Central Plateau to the Atlantic Ocean. For this purpose, in the 1870s, the Costa Rican government contracted with U.S. businessman Minor C. Keith to build a railroad from San José to the Caribbean port of Limón. Despite enormous difficulties with construction, disease, and financing, the railroad was completed in 1890.
Most Afro - Costa Ricans descend from Jamaican immigrants who worked in the construction of that railway and now make up about 3 % of Costa Rica 's population. U.S. convicts, Italians and Chinese immigrants also participated in the construction project. In exchange for completing the railroad, the Costa Rican government granted Keith large tracts of land and a lease on the train route, which he used to produce bananas and export them to the United States. As a result, bananas came to rival coffee as the principal Costa Rican export, while foreign - owned corporations (including the United Fruit Company later) began to hold a major role in the national economy and eventually became a symbol of the exploitative export economy. The major labor dispute between the peasants and the United Fruit Company (The Great Banana Strike) was a major event in the country 's history and was an important step that would eventually lead to the formation of effective trade unions in Costa Rica, as the company was required to sign a collective agreement with its workers in 1938.
Historically, Costa Rica has generally enjoyed greater peace and more consistent political stability than many of its fellow Latin American nations. Since the late 19th century, however, Costa Rica has experienced two significant periods of violence. In 1917 -- 19, General Federico Tinoco Granados ruled as a military dictator until he was overthrown and forced into exile. The unpopularity of Tinoco 's regime led, after he was overthrown, to a considerable decline in the size, wealth, and political influence of the Costa Rican military. In 1948, José Figueres Ferrer led an armed uprising in the wake of a disputed presidential election between Rafael Ángel Calderón Guardia (who had been president between 1940 and 1944) and Otilio Ulate Blanco. With more than 2,000 dead, the resulting 44 - day Costa Rican Civil War was the bloodiest event in Costa Rica during the 20th century.
The victorious rebels formed a government junta that abolished the military altogether, and oversaw the drafting of a new constitution by a democratically elected assembly. Having enacted these reforms, the junta transferred power to Ulate on November 8, 1949. After the coup d'état, Figueres became a national hero, winning the country 's first democratic election under the new constitution in 1953. Since then, Costa Rica has held 14 presidential elections, the latest in 2018. With uninterrupted democracy dating back to at least 1948, the country is the region 's most stable.
Costa Rica is located on the Central American isthmus, lying between latitudes 8 ° and 12 ° N, and longitudes 82 ° and 86 ° W. It borders the Caribbean Sea (to the east) and the Pacific Ocean (to the west), with a total of 1,290 kilometres (800 mi) of coastline, 212 km (132 mi) on the Caribbean coast and 1,016 km (631 mi) on the Pacific. Costa Rica also borders Nicaragua to the north (309 km or 192 mi of border) and Panama to the south - southeast (330 km or 210 mi of border). In total, Costa Rica comprises 51,100 square kilometres (19,700 sq mi) plus 589 square kilometres (227 sq mi) of territorial waters.
The highest point in the country is Cerro Chirripó, at 3,819 metres (12,530 ft); it is the fifth highest peak in Central America. The highest volcano in the country is the Irazú Volcano (3,431 m or 11,257 ft) and the largest lake is Lake Arenal. There are 14 known volcanoes in Costa Rica, and six of them have been active in the last 75 years. The country has also experienced at least ten earthquakes of magnitude 5.7 or higher (3 of magnitude 7.0 or higher) in the last century.
Costa Rica also comprises several islands. Cocos Island (24 square kilometres or 9.3 square miles) stands out because of its distance from the continental landmass, 480 kilometres (300 mi) from Puntarenas, but Isla Calero is the largest island of the country (151.6 square kilometres or 58.5 square miles). Over 25 % of Costa Rica 's national territory is protected by SINAC (the National System of Conservation Areas), which oversees all of the country 's protected areas. Costa Rica also possesses the greatest density of species in the world.
Because Costa Rica is located between 8 and 12 degrees north of the Equator, the climate is tropical year round. However, the country has many microclimates depending on elevation, rainfall, topography, and by the geography of each particular region.
Costa Rica 's seasons are defined by how much rain falls during a particular period. The year can be split into two periods, the dry season known to the residents as summer (verano), and the rainy season, known locally as winter (invierno). The "summer '' or dry season goes from December to April, and "winter '' or rainy season goes from May to November, which almost coincides with the Atlantic hurricane season, and during this time, it rains constantly in some regions.
The location receiving the most rain is the Caribbean slopes of the Cordillera Central mountains, with an annual rainfall of over 5,000 mm (196.9 in). Humidity is also higher on the Caribbean side than on the Pacific side. The mean annual temperature on the coastal lowlands is around 27 ° C (81 ° F), 20 ° C (68 ° F) in the main populated areas of the Cordillera Central, and below 10 ° C (50 ° F) on the summits of the highest mountains.
Costa Rica is home to a rich variety of plants and animals. While the country has only about 0.03 % of the world 's landmass, it contains 5 % of the world 's biodiversity. Around 25 % of the country 's land area is in protected national parks and protected areas, the largest percentage of protected areas in the world (developing world average 13 %, developed world average 8 %). Costa Rica has successfully managed to diminish deforestation from some of the worst rates in the world from 1973 to 1989, to almost zero by 2005.
One national park, the Corcovado National Park, is internationally renowned among ecologists for its biodiversity (including big cats and tapirs) and is where visitors can expect to see an abundance of wildlife. Corcovado is the one park in Costa Rica where all four Costa Rican monkey species can be found. These include the white - headed capuchin, the mantled howler, the endangered Geoffroy 's spider monkey, and the Central American squirrel monkey, found only on the Pacific coast of Costa Rica and a small part of Panama, and considered endangered until 2008, when its status was upgraded to vulnerable. Deforestation, illegal pet - trading, and hunting are the main reasons for its threatened status.
Tortuguero National Park -- the name Tortuguero can be translated as "Full of Turtles '' -- is home to spider, howler, and white - throated capuchin monkeys; the three - toed sloth and two - toed sloth; 320 species of birds; and a variety of reptiles. The park is recognized for the annual nesting of the endangered green turtle, and is the most important nesting site for the species. Giant leatherback, hawksbill, and loggerhead turtles also nest there. The Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve is home to about 2,000 plant species, including numerous orchids. Over 400 types of birds and more than 100 species of mammals can be found there.
Over 840 species of birds have been identified in Costa Rica. As is the case in much of Central America, the avian species in Costa Rica are a mix of North and South American species. The country 's abundant fruit trees, many of which bear fruit year round, are hugely important to the birds, some of whom survive on diets that consist only of one or two types of fruit. Some of the country 's most notable avian species include the resplendent quetzal, scarlet macaw, three - wattled bellbird, bare - necked umbrellabird, and the keel - billed toucan. The Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad is allowed to collect royalties on any biological discoveries of medical importance. Costa Rica is a center of biological diversity for reptiles and amphibians, including the world 's fastest running lizard, the spiny - tailed iguana (Ctenosaura similis).
The country has been considered economically stable with moderate inflation, estimated at 2.6 % in 2017, and moderately high growth in GDP, which increased from US $41.3 billion in 2011 to US $52.6 billion in 2015. The estimated GDP for 2017 is US $61.5 billion and the estimated GDP per capita (purchasing power parity) is US $12,382. The growing debt and budget deficit are the country 's primary concerns.
That is a primary reason why the major credit rating agencies -- Standard & Poor 's, Moody 's and Fitch -- have downgraded Costa Rica 's risk ratings. For example, Moody 's Investors Service in early 2017 reduced the rating to Ba2 from Ba1, with a negative outlook due to the "rising government debt burden and persistently high fiscal deficit, which was 5.2 % of GDP in 2016 '' and the "lack of political consensus to implement measures to reduce the fiscal deficit (which) will result in further pressure on the government 's debt ratios ''. The country is currently debating major fiscal reform legislation to cut the budget deficits and stop the growth in debt, one of the highest in Latin America.
Many foreign companies (manufacturing and services) operate in Costa Rica 's Free Trade Zones (FTZ) where they benefit from investment and tax incentives. Well over half of that type of investment has come from the U.S. According to the government, the zones supported over 82 thousand direct jobs and 43 thousand indirect jobs in 2015. Companies with facilities in the America Free Zone in Heredia, for example, include Intel, Dell, HP, Bayer, Bosch, DHL, IBM and Okay Industries.
Of the GDP, 5.5 % is generated by agriculture, 18.6 % by industry and 75.9 % by services. (2016) Agriculture employs 12.9 % of the labor force, industry 18.57 %, services 69.02 % (2016) For the region, its unemployment level is moderately high (8.2 % in 2016, according to the IMF). Although 20.5 % of the population lives below the poverty line (2017), Costa Rica has one of the highest standards of living in Central America.
High quality health care is provided by the government at low cost to the users. Housing is also very affordable. Costa Rica is recognized in Latin America for the quality of its educational system. Because of its educational system, Costa Rica has one of the highest literacy rates in Latin America, 97 %. General Basic Education is mandatory and provided without cost to the user. A US government report confirms that the country has "historically placed a high priority on education and the creation of a skilled work force '' but notes that the high school drop - out rate is increasing. As well, Costa Rica would benefit from more courses in languages such as English, Portuguese, Mandarin and French and also in Science, Technology, Engineering and Math (STEM).
The International Monetary Fund stated in June 2017 that annual growth in the economy was just over 4 % and that the financial system was sound. The IMF expressed concern however, about increasing deficits and public debt as well as the heavy dollarization of bank assets and liabilities. Costa Rica 's public debt is problematic, especially as a percentage of the GDP, increasing from 29.8 % in 2011 to 40.8 % in 2015. Of the proposed 2017 budget (US $15.9 billion), debt payments account for one - third of the total and a full 46 % of the budget will require financing. That will increase the deficit and the debt owed to foreign entities. The value of the Costa Rican colone per US $1 was 526.46 ₡ on March 27, 2015. At the end of July 2017, the value was 563 ₡.
A 2017 study by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development warned that reducing the foreign debt must be a very high priority for the government. Other fiscal reforms were also recommended to moderate the budget deficit. The IMF also recommended debt reduction, with specific suggestions.
In early August 2017, President Luis Guillermo Solís admitted that the country was facing a "liquidity crisis '' and promised that a higher VAT tax and higher income tax rates were being considered by his government. Such steps are essential, Luis Guillermo Solís told the nation, because it was facing difficulties in paying its obligations and guaranteeing the provision of services. Solís explained that the Treasury will prioritize payments on the public debt first, then salaries, and then pensions. The subsequent priorities include transfers to institutions "according to their social urgency ''. All other payments will be made only if funds are available.
Costa Rica has free trade agreements with many countries, including the US. There are no significant trade barriers that would affect imports and the country has been lowering its tariffs in accordance with other Central American countries. The country 's Free Trade Zones provide incentives for manufacturing and service industries to operate in Costa Rica. In 2015, the zones supported over 82 thousand direct jobs and 43 thousand indirect jobs in 2015 and average wages in the FTZ were 1.8 times greater than the average for private enterprise work in the rest of the country. In 2016, Amazon.com for example, had some 3,500 employees in Costa Rica and planned to increase that by 1,500 in 2017, making it an important employer.
The central location provides access to American markets and direct ocean access to Europe and Asia. The most important exports in 2015 (in order of dollar value) were medical instruments, bananas, tropical fruits, integrated circuits and orthopedic appliances. Total imports in that year were US $15 billion. The most significant products imported in 2015 (in order of dollar value) were refined petroleum, automobiles, packaged medications, broadcasting equipment and computers. The total exports were US $12.6 billion for a trade deficit of US $2.39 billion in 2015.
Pharmaceuticals, financial outsourcing, software development, and ecotourism have become the prime industries in Costa Rica 's economy. High levels of education among its residents make the country an attractive investing location. Since 1999, tourism earns more foreign exchange than the combined exports of the country 's three main cash crops: bananas and pineapples especially, but also other crops, including coffee. Coffee production played a key role in Costa Rica 's history and in 2006, was the third cash crop export. As a small country, Costa Rica now provides under 1 % of the world 's coffee production. In 2015, the value of coffee exports was US $305.9 million, a small part of the total agricultural exports of US $2.7 billion. Coffee production increased by 13.7 % percent in 2015 - 16, declined by 17.5 % in 2016 -- 17, but was expected to increase by about 15 % in the subsequent year.
Costa Rica has developed a system of payments for environmental services. Similarly, Costa Rica has a tax on water pollution to penalize businesses and homeowners that dump sewage, agricultural chemicals, and other pollutants into waterways. In May 2007, the Costa Rican government announced its intentions to become 100 % carbon neutral by 2021. By 2015, 93 percent of the country 's electricity came from renewable sources. In 2016, the country produced 98 % of its electricity from renewable sources and ran completely on renewable sources for 110 continuous days.
In 1996, the Forest Law was enacted to provide direct financial incentives to landowners for the provision of environmental services. This helped reorient the forestry sector away from commercial timber production and the resulting deforestation, and helped create awareness of the services it provides for the economy and society (i.e., carbon fixation, hydrological services such as producing fresh drinking water, biodiversity protection, and provision of scenic beauty).
A 2016 report by the U.S. government report identifies other challenges facing Costa Rica as it works to expand its economy by working with companies from the US (and probably from other countries). The major concerns identified were as follows:
Costa Rica is the most visited nation in the Central American region, with 2.9 million foreign visitors in 2016, up 10 % from 2015. In 2015, the tourism sector was responsible for 5.8 % of the country 's GDP, or $3.4 billion. In 2016, the highest number of tourists came from the United States, with 1,000,000 visitors, followed by Europe with 434,884 arrivals. According to Costa Rica Vacations, once tourists arrive in the country, 22 % go to Tamarindo, 18 % go to Arenal, 17 % pass through Liberia (where the Daniel Oduber Quirós International Airport is located), 16 % go to San José, the country 's capital (passing through Juan Santamaría International Airport), while 18 % choose Manuel Antonio and 7 % Monteverde.
By 2004, tourism was generating more revenue and foreign exchange than bananas and coffee combined. In 2016, the World Travel & Tourism Council 's estimates indicated a direct contribution to the GDP of 5.1 % and 110,000 direct jobs in Costa Rica; the total number of jobs indirectly supported by tourism was 271,000.
A pioneer of ecotourism, Costa Rica draws many tourists to its extensive series of national parks and other protected areas. In the 2011 Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index, Costa Rica ranked 44th in the world and second among Latin American countries after Mexico in 2011. By the time of the 2017 report, the country had reached 38th place, slightly behind Panama. The Ethical Traveler group 's ten countries on their 2017 list of The World 's Ten Best Ethical Destinations includes Costa Rica. The country scored highest in environmental protection among the winners.
Costa Rica is composed of seven provinces, which in turn are divided into 81 cantons (Spanish: cantón, plural cantones), each of which is directed by a mayor. Mayors are chosen democratically every four years by each canton. There are no provincial legislatures. The cantons are further divided into 473 districts (distritos). The provinces are:
Costa Rica is an active member of the United Nations and the Organization of American States. The Inter-American Court of Human Rights and the United Nations University of Peace are based in Costa Rica. It is also a member of many other international organizations related to human rights and democracy, such as the Community of Democracies. A main foreign policy objective of Costa Rica is to foster human rights and sustainable development as a way to secure stability and growth.
Costa Rica is a member of the International Criminal Court, without a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the United States military (as covered under Article 98). Costa Rica is an observer of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie.
On September 10, 1961, some months after Fidel Castro declared Cuba a socialist state, Costa Rican President Mario Echandi ended diplomatic relations with Cuba through Executive Decree Number 2. This freeze lasted 47 years until President Óscar Arias Sánchez re-established normal relations on 18 March 2009, saying, "If we have been able to turn the page with regimes as profoundly different to our reality as occurred with the USSR or, more recently, with the Republic of China, how would we not do it with a country that is geographically and culturally much nearer to Costa Rica? '' Arias announced that both countries would exchange ambassadors.
Costa Rica has a long - term disagreement with Nicaragua over the San Juan River, which defines the border between the two countries, and Costa Rica 's rights of navigation on the river. In 2010, there was also a dispute around Isla Calero, and the impact of Nicaraguan dredging of the river in that area.
On July 14, 2009, the International Court of Justice in the Hague upheld Costa Rica 's navigation rights for commercial purposes to subsistence fishing on their side of the river. An 1858 treaty extended navigation rights to Costa Rica, but Nicaragua denied passenger travel and fishing were part of the deal; the court ruled Costa Ricans on the river were not required to have Nicaraguan tourist cards or visas as Nicaragua argued, but, in a nod to the Nicaraguans, ruled that Costa Rican boats and passengers must stop at the first and last Nicaraguan port along their route. They must also have an identity document or passport. Nicaragua can also impose timetables on Costa Rican traffic. Nicaragua may require Costa Rican boats to display the flag of Nicaragua, but may not charge them for departure clearance from its ports. These were all specific items of contention brought to the court in the 2005 filing.
On June 1, 2007, Costa Rica broke diplomatic ties with Taiwan, switching recognition to the People 's Republic of China. Costa Rica was the first of the Central American nations to do so. President Óscar Arias Sánchez admitted the action was a response to economic exigency. In response, the PRC built a new, $100 million, state - of - the - art football stadium in Parque la Sabana, in the province of San José. Approximately 600 Chinese engineers and laborers took part in this project, and it was inaugurated in March 2011, with a match between the national teams of Costa Rica and China.
Costa Rica finished a term on the United Nations Security Council, having been elected for a nonrenewable, two - year term in the 2007 election. Its term expired on December 31, 2009; this was Costa Rica 's third time on the Security Council. Elayne Whyte Gómez is the Permanent Representative of Costa Rica to the UN Office at Geneva (2017) and President of the United Nations Conference to Negotiate a Legally Binding Instrument to Prohibit Nuclear Weapons.
The 2011 census counted a population of 4.3 million people distributed among the following groups: 83.6 % whites or mestizos, 6.7 % mulattoes, 2.4 % Native American, 1.1 % black or Afro - Caribbean; the census showed 1.1 % as Other, 2.9 % (141,304 people) as None, and 2.2 % (107,196 people) as unspecified. By 2016, the UN estimation for the population was around 4.9 million.
In 2011, there were over 104,000 Native American or indigenous inhabitants, representing 2.4 % of the population. Most of them live in secluded reservations, distributed among eight ethnic groups: Quitirrisí (es) (in the Central Valley), Matambú or Chorotega (Guanacaste), Maleku (northern Alajuela), Bribri (southern Atlantic), Cabécar (Cordillera de Talamanca), (()) (southern Costa Rica, along the Panamá border), Boruca (southern Costa Rica) and Térraba (es) (southern Costa Rica).
The population includes European Costa Ricans (of European ancestry), primarily of Spanish descent, with significant numbers of Italian, German, English, Dutch, French, Irish, Portuguese, and Polish families, as well a sizable Jewish community. The majority of the Afro - Costa Ricans are Creole English - speaking descendants of 19th century black Jamaican immigrant workers.
The 2011 census classified 83.6 % of the population as white or Mestizo; the latter are persons of combined European and Amerindian descent. The Mulatto segment (mix of white and black) represented 6.7 % and indigenous people made up 2.4 % of the population. Native and European mixed blood populations are far less than in other Latin American countries. Exceptions are Guanacaste, where almost half the population is visibly mestizo, a legacy of the more pervasive unions between Spanish colonists and Chorotega Amerindians through several generations, and Limón, where the vast majority of the Afro - Costa Rican community lives.
Costa Rica hosts many refugees, mainly from Colombia and Nicaragua. As a result of that and illegal immigration, an estimated 10 -- 15 % (400,000 -- 600,000) of the Costa Rican population is made up of Nicaraguans. Some Nicaraguans migrate for seasonal work opportunities and then return to their country. Costa Rica took in many refugees from a range of other Latin American countries fleeing civil wars and dictatorships during the 1970s and 1980s, notably from Chile and Argentina, as well as people from El Salvador who fled from guerrillas and government death squads.
According to the World Bank, in 2010 about 489,200 immigrants lived in the country, many from Nicaragua, Panama, El Salvador, Honduras, Guatemala, and Belize, while 125,306 Costa Ricans live abroad in the United States, Panama, Nicaragua, Spain, Mexico, Canada, Germany, Venezuela, Dominican Republic, and Ecuador. The number of migrants declined in later years but in 2015, there were some 420,000 immigrants in Costa Rica and the number of asylum seekers (mostly from Honduras, El Salvador, Guatemala and Nicaragua) rose to more than 110,000, a fivefold increase from 2012. In 2016, the country was called a "magnet '' for migrants from South and Central America and other countries who were hoping to reach the U.S.
Religion in Costa Rica
Christianity is Costa Rica 's predominant religion, with Roman Catholicism being the official state religion according to the 1949 Constitution, which at the same time guarantees freedom of religion. It is the only state in the Americas which established Roman Catholicism as its state religion; other such countries are microstates in Europe: Liechtenstein, Monaco, the Vatican City and Malta.
According to the most recent nationwide survey of religion, conducted in 2007 by the University of Costa Rica, 70.5 % of Costa Ricans are Roman Catholics (44.9 % practicing Catholics), 13.8 % are Evangelical Protestants (almost all are practicing), 11.3 % report that they do not have a religion, and 4.3 % belong to another religion. The rate of secularism is high by Latin American standards.
Due to small, but continuous, immigration from Asia and the Middle East, other religions have grown, the most popular being Buddhism, with about 100,000 practitioners (over 2 % of the population). Most Buddhists are members of the Han Chinese community of about 40,000 with some new local converts. There is also a small Muslim community of about 500 families, or 0.001 % of the population.
The Sinagoga Shaarei Zion synagogue is near La Sabana Metropolitan Park in San José. Several homes in the neighborhood east of the park display the Star of David and other Jewish symbols.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints claims more than 35,000 members, and has a temple in San José that served as a regional worship center for Costa Rica. However, they represent less than 1 % of the population.
The primary language spoken in Costa Rica is Spanish, which features characteristics distinct to the country, a form of Central American Spanish. Costa Rica is a linguistically diverse country and home to at least five living local indigenous languages spoken by the descendants of pre-Columbian peoples: Maléku, Cabécar, Bribri, Guaymí, and Buglere.
Of native languages still spoken, primarily in indigenous reservations, the most numerically important are the Bribri, Maléku, Cabécar and Ngäbere languages; some of these have several thousand speakers in Costa Rica while others have a few hundred. Some languages, such as Teribe and Boruca, have fewer than a thousand speakers. The Buglere language and the closely related Guaymí are spoken by some in southeast Puntarenas.
A Creole - English language, Jamaican patois (also known as Mekatelyu), is an English - based Creole language spoken by the Afro - Carib immigrants who have settled primarily in Limón Province along the Caribbean coast.
About 10.7 % of Costa Rica 's adult population (18 or older) also speaks English, 0.7 % French, and 0.3 % speaks Portuguese or German as a second language.
Costa Rica was the point where the Mesoamerican and South American native cultures met. The northwest of the country, the Nicoya peninsula, was the southernmost point of Nahuatl cultural influence when the Spanish conquerors (conquistadores) came in the 16th century. The central and southern portions of the country had Chibcha influences. The Atlantic coast, meanwhile, was populated with African workers during the 17th and 18th centuries.
As a result of the immigration of Spaniards, their 16th - century Spanish culture and its evolution marked everyday life and culture until today, with Spanish language and the Catholic religion as primary influences.
The Department of Culture, Youth, and Sports is in charge of the promotion and coordination of cultural life. The work of the department is divided into Direction of Culture, Visual Arts, Scenic Arts, Music, Patrimony and the System of Libraries. Permanent programs, such as the National Symphony Orchestra of Costa Rica and the Youth Symphony Orchestra, are conjunctions of two areas of work: Culture and Youth.
Dance - oriented genres, such as soca, salsa, bachata, merengue, cumbia and Costa Rican swing are enjoyed increasingly by older rather than younger people. The guitar is popular, especially as an accompaniment to folk dances; however, the marimba was made the national instrument.
In November 2017, National Geographic magazine named Costa Rica as the happiest country in the world. The article included this summary: "Costa Ricans enjoy the pleasure of living daily life to the fullest in a place that mitigates stress and maximizes joy ''. It is not surprising then that one of the most recognizable phrases among "Ticos '' is "Pura Vida '', pure life in a literal translation. It reflects the inhabitant 's philosophy of life, denoting a simple life, free of stress, a positive, relaxed feeling. The expression is used in various contexts in conversation. Often, people walking down the streets, or buying food at shops say hello by saying Pura Vida. It can be phrased as a question or as an acknowledgement of one 's presence. A recommended response to "How are you? '' would be "Pura Vida. '' In that usage, it might be translated as "awesome '', indicating that all is very well. When used as a question, the connotation would be "everything is going well? '' or "how are you? ''.
Costa Rica rates 12th on the 2017 Happy Planet Index in the World Happiness Report by the UN but the country is said to be the happiest in Latin America. Reasons include the high level of social services, the caring nature of its inhabitants, long life expectancy and relatively low corruption.
Costa Rican cuisine is a blend of Native American, Spanish, African and many other cuisine origins. Dishes such as the very traditional tamale and many others made of corn are the most representative of its indigenous inhabitants, and similar to other neighboring Mesoamerican countries. Spaniards brought many new ingredients to the country from other lands, especially spices and domestic animals. And later in the 19th century, the African flavor lent its presence with influence from other Caribbean mixed flavors. This is how Costa Rican cuisine today is very varied, with every new ethnic group who had recently become part of the country 's population influencing the country 's cuisine.
Costa Rica entered the Summer Olympics for the first time in 1936 with the fencer Bernardo de la Guardia and the Winter Olympics for the first time in 1980 with the skier Arturo Kinch. All four of Costa Rica 's Olympic medals were won by the sisters Silvia and Claudia Poll in swimming, with Claudia winning the only gold medal in 1996.
Football is the most popular sport in Costa Rica. The national team has played in four FIFA World Cup tournaments and reached the quarter - finals for the first time in 2014. Its best performance in the regional CONCACAF Gold Cup was runner - up in 2002. Paulo Wanchope, a forward who played for three clubs in England 's Premier League in the late 1990s and early 2000s, is credited with enhancing foreign recognition of Costa Rican football.
The literacy rate in Costa Rica is approximately 97 percent and English is widely spoken primarily due to Costa Rica 's tourism industry. When the army was abolished in 1949, it was said that the "army would be replaced with an army of teachers ''. Universal public education is guaranteed in the constitution; primary education is obligatory, and both preschool and high school are free. Students who finish 11th grade receive a Costa Rican Bachillerato Diploma accredited by the Costa Rican Ministry of Education.
There are both state and private universities. The University of Costa Rica has been awarded the title "Meritorious Institution of Costa Rican Education and Culture ''.
A 2016 report by the U.S. government report identifies the current challenges facing the education system, including the high dropout rate among high school students. The country needs even more workers who are fluent in English and languages such as Portuguese, Mandarin and French. It would also benefit from more graduates in Science, Technology, Engineering and Math (STEM) programs, according to the report.
According to the UNDP, in 2010 the life expectancy at birth for Costa Ricans was 79.3 years. The Nicoya Peninsula is considered one of the Blue Zones in the world, where people commonly live active lives past the age of 100 years. The New Economics Foundation (NEF) ranked Costa Rica first in its 2009 Happy Planet Index, and once again in 2012. The index measures the health and happiness they produce per unit of environmental input. According to NEF, Costa Rica 's lead is due to its very high life expectancy which is second highest in the Americas, and higher than the United States. The country also experienced well - being higher than many richer nations and a per capita ecological footprint one - third the size of the United States.
In 2002, there were 0.58 new general practitioner (medical) consultations and 0.33 new specialist consultations per capita, and a hospital admission rate of 8.1 %. Preventive health care is also successful. In 2002, 96 % of Costa Rican women used some form of contraception, and antenatal care services were provided to 87 % of all pregnant women. All children under one have access to well - baby clinics, and the immunization coverage rate in 2002 was above 91 % for all antigens. Costa Rica has a very low malaria incidence of 48 per 100,000 in 2000 and no reported cases of measles in 2002. The perinatal mortality rate dropped from 12.0 per 1000 in 1972 to 5.4 per 1000 in 2001.
Costa Rica has been cited in various journals as Central America 's great health success story. Its healthcare system is ranked higher than that of the United States, despite having a fraction of its GDP. Prior to 1940, government hospitals and charities provided most health care. But since the 1941 creation of the Social Insurance Administration (Caja Costarricense de Seguro Social -- CCSS), Costa Rica has provided universal health care to its wage - earning residents, with coverage extended to dependants over time. In 1973, the CCSS took over administration of all 29 of the country 's public hospitals and all health care, also launching a Rural Health Program (Programa de Salud Rural) for primary care to rural areas, later extended to primary care services nationwide. In 1993, laws were passed to enable elected health boards that represented health consumers, social insurance representatives, employers, and social organizations. By the year 2000, social health insurance coverage was available to 82 % of the Costa Rican population. Each health committee manages an area equivalent to one of the 83 administrative cantons of Costa Rica. There is limited use of private, for - profit services (around 14.4 % of the national total health expenditure). About 7 % of GDP is allocated to the health sector, and over 70 % is government funded.
Primary health care facilities in Costa Rica include health clinics, with a general practitioner, nurse, clerk, pharmacist and a primary health technician. In 2008, there were five specialty national hospitals, three general national hospitals, seven regional hospitals, 13 peripheral hospitals, and 10 major clinics serving as referral centers for primary care clinics, which also deliver biopsychosocial services, family and community medical services and promotion and prevention programs. Patients can choose private health care to avoid waiting lists.
Costa Rica is among the Latin America countries that have become popular destinations for medical tourism. In 2006, Costa Rica received 150,000 foreigners that came for medical treatment. Costa Rica is particularly attractive to Americans due to geographic proximity, high quality of medical services, and lower medical costs.
Since 2012, smoking in Costa Rica is subject to some of the most restrictive regulations in the world.
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what kind of lens does a gopro have | GoPro - wikipedia
GoPro, Inc. (marketed as GoPro and sometimes stylised as GoPRO) is an American technology company founded in 2002 by Nick Woodman. It manufactures eponymous action cameras and develops its own mobile apps and video - editing software. Founded as Woodman Labs, Inc, the company eventually focused on the connected sports genre, developing its line of action cameras and, later, video editing software.
It developed a quadcopter drone, Karma, released in October 2016. In January 2018, Karma was discontinued and the company hired JPMorgan Chase to pursue options of selling the company. However, a month later, the CEO denied this.
The company was founded by Nick Woodman in 2002. He was motivated by a 2002 surfing trip to Australia in which he was hoping to capture quality action photos, but could not because amateur photographers could not get close enough or buy quality equipment at reasonable prices. His desire for a camera system that could capture the professional angles inspired the ' GoPro ' name.
Woodman raised a portion of his initial capital by selling bead and shell belts for under US $20 from his VW van and, later, fashionable camera straps. He also received over $230,000 from his parents to invest in the business.
In 2004, the company sold its first camera system, which used 35 mm film. Digital still and video cameras were later introduced. As of 2014, a fixed - lens HD video camera with a wide 170 - degree lens was available; two or more can be paired to create 360 video.
On June 4, 2014, the company announced the appointment of former Microsoft executive Tony Bates as President reporting directly to Woodman.
In January 2016, GoPro partnered with Periscope for live streaming.
After growing the number of employees by more than 500 in 2015, the company responded to weak sales in the fourth quarter by cutting about 7 % of its workforce (100 workers) in January 2016.
At its peak, a share of GoPro was valued at $86, but on March 26, 2018, only $4.81.
In November 2016, the company announced it was laying off an additional 200 employees in an effort to reduce costs. The company also announced that President Tony Bates would be stepping down at the end of 2016. 270 more employees were laid off in March 2017, and 250 additional layoffs followed in January 2018, bringing the company 's workforce to "just under 1,000 ''
On March 30, 2011, GoPro acquired CineForm. The acquisition included the CineForm 444 video codec used in the film Slumdog Millionaire. The company claimed that the codec "makes HD and 3D editing faster and more convenient without sacrificing image quality ''. It was incorporated in the company 's 3D Hero System shortly after the acquisition.
In March 2013, GoPro issued a DMCA takedown notice to website DigitalRev.com, which had posted a review of its product, citing trademark use as a breach of copyright. This notice was retracted 10 days later, citing "erroneous enforcement ''.
On February 29, 2016, GoPro spent $105 million and acquired two start - ups, namely, Stupeflix and Vemory, for their video editing tools Replay and Splice.
On February 7, 2014, GoPro submitted a confidential filing for an initial public offering (IPO) with the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC).
On May 19, 2014, GoPro filed its S - 1 with the SEC without specifying the number of shares or their price. The company stated that they hoped to raise at least $100 million through the sale of shares, using the money to pay off debt in full ($111 million as of March 31, 2014) and "to acquire or invest in complementary businesses, technologies or assets ''. They said that they planned to list on the NASDAQ stock exchange using the symbol ' GPRO. '
The expected price range was $21 to $24 a share; on June 25, 2014, GoPro sold 17.8 million shares to initial investors at $24 per share (totaling $427.2 M). At the IPO price the company was valued at $2.95 billion. 1.5 percent of those shares were allotted to LOYAL3, a technology platform that allows small investors to participate.
One reason for GoPro 's decision to go public was the potential to become a media company to generate additional revenue from the content its cameras create.
Woodman worked on his first camera for two years after founding the company, eventually introducing the GoPro 35mm HERO in September 2004 at San Diego 's Action Sports Retailer trade show. In its first year GoPro sold $150,000 worth of products. In 2006 the company introduced its first Digital HERO, with 10 second video capability, and generated $800,000 in revenue. The following year GoPro sales quadrupled to $3.4 million.
In 2014, the company was selling the HERO3+ in editions of different colors. It was capable of filming in 16: 9 aspect ratio, supporting 4K UHD video and 12 MP still photographs. The HERO4 was introduced on 24 September 2014.
On September 28th 2017, GoPro released the Hero 6 camera, which claims improved stabilization over the Hero 5 models and is capable of capturing 4K video in 60 FPS.
The GoPro Karma was GoPro 's consumer drone, until its discontinuation in January 2018.
In 2014, GoPro entered into discussions with DJI for a private label model built with the GoPro branding. After the failure of these negotiations, GoPro entered into an agreement with 3D Robotics (3DR) for a similar partnership based on 3DR 's flight controllers. 3DR failed to meet their agreed upon timelines. As a result, GoPro took full control of the development process in mid-2015.
Scheduled to be released early 2016, the GoPro Karma project was delayed several times before the GoPro Karma was announced with an introduction date of October 23, 2016. The Karma was released along with newer models of the HERO5 and Session cameras and features a removable handheld stabilizer (gimbal) integrated into the design. After a few customers complained about power failure during operation, GoPro recalled Karma drones and gave customers full refunds.
In February 2017, GoPro re-launched the Karma Drone. However, in January 2018, GoPro Inc. said that it will be cutting more than 20 percent of its global workforce and putting an end to its drone business after a disappointing fourth quarter. The company said it expects sales of about $340 million, well short of its own previous projection of as much as $480 million and the average analyst estimate of $472 million. Their revenue took an $80 million hit due to discounting for its Karma drones, as well as its Hero line of cameras, over the holiday season.
GoPro produces various mounting accessories for its cameras including a 3 - way mount, suction cup, chest harness, jaws - type flexible clamp, dog harness, surfing mount, etc.
The company developed GoPro Studio, simple video editing software to edit camera footage. It was reported that GoPro intended to also become a content provider, also with a new app for the HERO5 called GoPro Quik to share, and edit videos easier. Also you can edit and shoot photos and videos with the GoPro app released in 2015.
In April 2014, GoPro was listed by Adweek as one of the "Top 10 Best Brand Channels on YouTube '' based on a combination of views, shares, comments and overall engagement. Content is uploaded daily, an additional source of revenue for the company.
As part of its transformation to a media company in 2014, GoPro created additional channels with GoPro content on YouTube, Virgin America, and Xbox Live. This was extended to the PlayStation Network in 2015.
As of October 2014, GoPro sells three fixed - lens cameras, two without viewfinders and one including a touchscreen viewfinder. A 2 - bit LCD on the front of the camera allows access to its menu system, which is controlled by the front and top shutter buttons. The HERO4 Black has dimensions of 41 mm × 59 mm × 30 mm and weighs 88 grams (152 grams with housing). Still images from 6 to 12 megapixels can be captured. The cameras are sold with a clear polycarbonate HD Housing with a glass lens that is rated shockproof and waterproof to 131 feet (40 m), with a quick - release buckle on the top and threads at the bottom to attach to all of the GoPro mounts. The housing has metal buttons that connect to the camera 's controls and has a "skeleton '' backdoor option to allow audio recording when the camera is used with a mount but without the need to be watertight or shockproof.
The 35mm camera (model # 001) became available on April 13, 2005. It had dimensions of 2.5 by 3 inches (64 by 76 mm) and weighed 0.45 pounds (200 g). It included the camera, a clear case with quick release, a camera strap and ski glove adapter lash. It could pivot "on the fly '' and be functional to a depth in water of about 15 feet (5 m). It was described as a "reusable wrist camera '' and included a roll of 24 exposure Kodak 400 film.
The Digital HERO released in 2006 (Model: SQ907 mini-cam) had a 640 × 460 camera and shot VGA definition 320X240 (10 fps) video for a maximum of 10 seconds. The Digital HERO1 had 32 MB internal memory without SD slot.
The Digital HERO3 released in 2007 had a 3 - megapixel camera and shot standard definition 512 × 384 video. It was rated up to 30 m (98.4 feet) in depth.
The Digital HERO5 was first introduced on December 5, 2006. It had a 5 megapixel still photo sensor and supported standard definition (512 × 384) video capture. It ran on two AAA batteries, had 16 MB of internal memory and could function with a 2 GB SD card. Its housing was rated to 100 ft / 30 meters depth. Its dimensions were 2.6 × 1.75 × 1.25 inches (66 × 44 × 32 mm). The camera is not designed to work with the newer HD HERO line of housings, although the standard screw mounts are indeed compatible.
The HD Hero shoots video at a maximum of 1080p 30fps, or 720p 60fps.
HD HERO 960 - shoots a maximum of 960p video and is not compatible with GoPro 's electronic accessories although the camera is compatible with all GoPro mounts. It was first listed on August 6, 2010.
The HD HERO Naked, released with a range of accessories, shoots a maximum of 1080p video on its 100 MP sensor. The Naked camera line forms the basis for other bundles, which are differentiated by the types of mounts they have (HD Helmet HERO, HD Motorsports HERO, HD Surf HERO). It was first listed on January 25, 2010.
The HERO2 was launched on October 24, 2011. It has an 11 MP image sensor, improved low - light capability and records at up to 120 fps. It was sold with three different accessory packages as the Outdoor, Motorsports, and Surf Editions.
In late 2012, GoPro announced the HERO3 line of cameras. These cameras came in three editions: black, silver and white.
All three versions of the HERO3 come in a 30 % smaller and 25 % lighter package, with WiFi built in. The change of the physical dimensions of the cameras compared to the previous generations (HERO1 and HERO2 were physically identical) means that some accessories for HD HERO Original and HERO2 are not compatible with HERO3, so GoPro made new versions of those accessories specifically for HERO3 (and mostly for HERO3+, see below). Those new versions of accessories are usually not compatible with older Hero camera generations. However, a lot of other accessories are compatible with all HD Hero camera generations.
The HERO3 Silver and Black cameras have significantly less battery endurance than the HD HERO Original and HERO2. For example, in 720p resolution with 25 / 30 fps, while HD HERO Original and HERO2 have a stated battery runtime of 3 hours, HERO3 Silver Edition has a stated battery runtime of 2 hours, and HERO3 Black Edition has a stated battery runtime of 1.5 hours (the Black Edition 's "most economical '' setting is 1080p / 30 fps, so this also partially contributes to its poor battery runtime).
The Black Edition has a new 12 MP sensor that can capture 4K UHD digital video at 15 fps, 2.7 K video at 30 fps, 1440p at 48 fps, 1080p at 60 fps, 960p at 100 fps, 720p at 120 fps and WVGA at 240 fps. The Black edition also includes the WiFi Remote. The Black Edition can not record at 25 / 30 fps in 720p and WVGA resolutions; it can only record at very fast frame rates in those resolutions. This is a deliberate firmware limitation, as the manufacturer does not expect that this high - end camera model will be used at these lower resolutions and frame rates.
The Silver Edition uses the same 11 MP sensor as the HERO2, and the White edition uses the same 5 MP sensor as the HD HERO Original.
In October 2013, GoPro released the HERO3+, available in Black and Silver Editions, replacing the HERO3 generation. The HERO3 White Edition remains as GoPro 's low - end device.
The HERO3+ camera models claim dramatically improved low light performance and have a waterproof enclosure which is 20 % lighter and 15 % smaller than the HERO3 's, according to the GoPro website. The HERO3+ camera housing is 20 % smaller than the HERO3. The cameras are claimed to have improved image sharpness (close focus down to 7 '' vs about 3 ft on the HERO3, at the expense of distant focus which is slightly less sharp with HERO3+), and better audio functionality with wind noise reduction. Battery life is claimed to be 30 % longer than for the HERO3 model (both through better efficiency and a higher - capacity battery of the same dimensions).
The Black Edition has video modes of 1440p48, 1080p60, 960p100 and 720p120 as well as 4K15 and 2.7 K30 and can shoot 12 MP stills at up to 30 fps. The HERO3+ Black Edition also offers an optional function in firmware (called "SuperView '') which increases the field of view. It has additional functions, including dynamic low light situation adjustment, higher - quality recording modes (higher bitrates, no white balance applied, etc.) etc. The Black Edition continues to include a Wifi Remote. It does not have the ability to record 25 / 30 fps in 720p and WVGA modes (it can only record at very fast frame rates in those lower resolutions). This is an intentional firmware limitation. The battery runtime of HERO3+ Black Edition is significantly longer than HERO3 Black Edition but 30 -- 50 % lower than the battery runtime of the older HERO2 and HERO1.
The Silver Edition has video modes of 1080p60 and 720p120 and can shoot 10 MP stills at up to 10 fps. In contrast to the Black Edition, the Silver Edition can record at 25 / 30 fps (or higher) in all supported resolutions. HERO3+ Silver Edition also has about 25 % - 50 % longer battery runtime during recording than HERO3+ Black Edition (they both use the same batteries). The difference in runtime depends on the resolution / fps combination, and whether WiFi and GoPro mobile application are used during recording. The difference in runtime increases as the fps is lowered and the additional functions are deactivated on both cameras. The battery runtime of HERO3+ Silver Edition is similar to the battery runtime of HERO2 and HERO1.
The HERO3 HD camera was awarded the 2013 Technology & Engineering Emmy Award for its contribution to television.
In September 2014, GoPro announced the HERO4, available in Black Edition and Silver Edition, which replace their respective HERO3+ generation predecessors. The HERO Session, a budget camera, was also announced.
The HERO4 Black Edition still has a 12 megapixel (MP) CMOS and a f / 2.8 fixed maximum aperture and focus free. It adds Bluetooth connectivity, Highlight tag, Protune Available for photo and a new processor claimed by GoPro to be twice as fast as that of the HERO3+ Black Edition, doubling the frame rates in most resolutions. The HERO4 Black Edition can record 4K UHD video (3840 × 2160) at a frame rate of 24, 25 and 30 fps. In Superview mode, 4K is only possible at 25 fps. Many other rates and resolutions are available. The HERO4 Black Edition still shoots stills at a maximum of 12 MP with a maximum burst rate of 30 fps. With Wi - Fi disabled at 4K / 30, GoPro claims the HERO4 Black Edition battery life to be 65 minutes, increasing to a maximum of 1h 50 ' at 720p / 240. The HERO4 Black battery is in a different form factor than its predecessors. Initial side - by - side comparisons of HERO3+ and HERO4 Black edition video results suggest that the newer model has more detail at long range and similar performance at close range.
The HERO4 Silver Edition is basically a HERO3 Black Edition with the addition of a micro speaker, built - in touchscreen display, Protune for photo and highlight tag (the first GoPro with this), a lower clocked Cortex - A9 and missing the Black Edition 's integrated analog - to - digital converter which supports a wider variety of professional low - sensitivity external microphones. The video modes supported by the HERO4 Silver Edition are similar to those of the HERO3+ Black, due to the higher processing speed and thermal requirements of encoding 4K video (3840 × 2160), but it supports Wi - Fi, Bluetooth and contains the same Ambarella Inc. A9 system on a chip (SoC) as in the HERO4 Black.
The HERO Session, released July 6, 2015, is 50 % smaller and 40 % lighter compared to other versions of the GoPro HERO4 camera.
The HERO4 models maintain the H. 264 video codec of previous versions and MP4 file formats. GoPro claims the mono microphone in both the Black and Silver Editions has twice the dynamic range of that in the HERO3+, and that the HERO4 Black and Silver Editions have improved low - light performance.
In June 2015, the company started to sell the GoPro HERO + LCD, which provides video recording at 1080p at 60 fps / and 8 megapixel photos. GoPro HERO + LCD has a touchscreen to preview the shot to frame the scene and letting the user navigate the menu. A new feature in the camera was instant camera editing. GoPro HERO + LCD is waterproof, because it is built directly into a waterproof case (waterproof to 131 feet (40 m)). The device also includes a feature HiLight Tagging and built - in video editing function, which allows the user to put a label on the main points while shooting video or in the process of view, which makes it possible to quickly find desired footage later. It also has built - in Wi - Fi and Bluetooth, and user - friendly modes like QuikCapture, SuperView and Auto Low Light.
In October 2015, GoPro released its third entry level camera: GoPro HERO+. This camera is the same as the previous HERO + LCD with its 1080p 60 fps / 720p 60 fps video resolution, 8 MP / 5 fps burst photo resolution, built - in Wi - Fi and Bluetooth, waterproof up to 40 m and other modes like Superview, Auto Low Light, QuikCapture and Timelapse mode which automatically captures photos at set time intervals from 0.5 to 60 seconds. However, it does not have an LCD built - in touchscreen display and it is slightly lighter than HERO + LCD. The HERO+ weighs 123 g whereas the HERO + LCD weighs 127 g. The housing also remained the same.
HERO5 Black and HERO5 Session were introduced in September 2016. They are waterproof up to 10 m, support 4K video recording at up to 30 fps and 1080p at up to 120 fps, automatic upload of footage to cloud and voice controls.
The HERO6 Black was introduced on September 28, 2017. The camera is waterproof up to 10 m, supports 4K HEVC video recording at up to 60 fps and 1080p at up to 240 fps, automatic upload of footage to cloud, voice controls and 5 GHz Wi - Fi. It will be the first GoPro with its own custom system on a chip (SoC) the GP1.
The HERO (2018 edition) is a new entry level camera, introduced on April 7, 2018. The new model offers some similar features and functionality to the HERO5 and HERO6, like a touchscreen and built in timelapse video mode, but with slightly lower resolution and framerate, and lacking the GPS functionality and exposure control.
Karma Drone became available October 23, 2016. The drone is compatible with the HERO5 and HERO4 Black and Silver. The Drone has 20 minutes of battery life. The stabilizer can be taken out and attached to a Karma grip. The Karma grip has greater than 1 - hour battery life.
On November 8, 2016, Go Pro announced the recall of the Karma Drone following reports of loss of electrical power on the drone during operation. On February 1, 2017, the company announced that the Karma Drone will return to stores with a redesigned battery latch.
On January 9, 2018, GoPro announced that it was discontinuing the Karma drone and that it was exiting the drone marketplace.
A camera rig that synchronizes six GoPro HERO4 Black cameras allowing users to stitch and make virtual reality 360 ° videos.
The Fusion is an omnidirectional camera that was released November 2017 for $699.99.
The Session is a mini camera released by GoPro. This camera is controlled by the GoPro app because on the camera there is only one button and most of the camera 's actual features are on the app. The GoPro Session can go an estimated amount of 10 meters or 33 feet underwater.
Starting from the Hero6 GoPro stopped using Ambarella SoC 's and started making their own, starting with the GP1
The GoPro GP1 is their own System - on - Chip with the main task of image processing. It replaces the earlier used Ambarella SoC 's and launched in the GoPro Hero6. The SoC is designed in collaberation with Socionext.
The GP1 encodes video in the H. 265 codec, also known as HEVC. The available resolutions are 4K60, 2.7 K120 and 1080p240 unstabilized or 4K30, 2.7 K60 and 1080p120 digitally stabilized.
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many states admitted to the united states were first areas called quizlet | Secession in the United states - wikipedia
In the context of the United States, secession primarily refers to the withdrawal of one or more States from the Union that constitutes the United States; but may loosely refer to leaving a State or territory to form a separate territory or new State, or to the severing of an area from a city or county within a State.
Threats and aspirations to secede from the United States, or arguments justifying secession, have been a feature of the country 's politics almost since its birth. Some have argued for secession as a constitutional right and others as from a natural right of revolution. In Texas v. White, the United States Supreme Court ruled unilateral secession unconstitutional, while commenting that revolution or consent of the States could lead to a successful secession.
The most serious attempt at secession was advanced in the years 1860 and 1861 as eleven southern States each declared secession from the United States, and joined together to form the Confederate States of America. This movement collapsed in 1865 with the defeat of Confederate forces by Union armies in the American Civil War.
The Declaration of Independence states:
We hold these truths to be self - evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. -- That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, -- That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness.
Historian Pauline Maier argues that this narrative asserted "... the right of revolution, which was, after all, the right Americans were exercising in 1776 ''; and notes that Thomas Jefferson 's language incorporated ideas explained at length by a long list of seventeenth - century writers including John Milton, Algernon Sidney, and John Locke and other English and Scottish commentators, all of whom had contributed to the development of the Whig tradition in eighteenth - century Britain.
The right of revolution expressed in the Declaration was immediately followed with the observation that long - practised injustice is tolerated until sustained assaults on the rights of the entire people have accumulated enough force to oppress them; then they may defend themselves. This reasoning was not original to the Declaration, but can be found in many prior political writings: Locke 's Two Treatises of Government (1690); the Fairfax Resolves of 1774; Jefferson 's own Summary View of the Rights of British America; the first Constitution of Virginia, which was enacted five days prior to the Declaration. and Thomas Paine 's Common Sense (1776):
Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes;... mankind are more disposed to suffer, while Evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the Forms ("of Government '', editor 's addition) to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing... a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security.
Gordon S. Wood quotes John Adams: "Only repeated, multiplied oppressions placing it beyond all doubt that their rulers had formed settled plans to deprive them of their liberties, could warrant the concerted resistance of the people against their government ''.
With origins in the question of states ' rights the issue of secession was argued in many forums and advocated from time to time in both the North and South in the decades after adopting the Constitution and before the American Civil War. Historian Maury Klein described the contemporary debate: "Was the Republic a unified nation in which the individual states had merged their sovereign rights and identities forever, or was it a federation of sovereign states joined together for specific purposes from which they could withdraw at any time? '' He observed that "the case can be made that no result of the (American Civil) war was more important than the destruction, once and for all... of the idea of secession ''.
Historian Forrest McDonald argued that after adopting the Constitution "there were no guidelines, either in theory or in history, as to whether the compact could be dissolved and, if so, on what conditions ''. However, during "the founding era, many a public figure... declared that the states could interpose their powers between their citizens and the power of the federal government, and talk of secession was not unknown ''. But according to McDonald, to avoid resorting to the violence that had accompanied the Revolution, the Constitution established "legitimate means for constitutional change in the future ''. In effect, the Constitution "completed and perfected the Revolution ''.
Whatever the intentions of the Founders, threats of secession and disunion were a constant in the political discourse of Americans preceding the Civil War. Historian Elizabeth R. Varon wrote:
... one word (disunion) contained, and stimulated, their (Americans) fears of extreme political factionalism, tyranny, regionalism, economic decline, foreign intervention, class conflict, gender disorder, racial strife, widespread violence and anarchy, and civil war, all of which could be interpreted as God 's retribution for America 's moral failings. Disunion connoted the dissolution of the republic -- the failure of the Founders ' efforts to establish a stable and lasting representative government. For many Americans in the North and the South, disunion was a nightmare, a tragic cataclysm that would reduce them to the kind of fear and misery that seemed to pervade the rest of the world. And yet, for many other Americans, disunion served as the main instrument by which they could achieve their political goals.
In late 1777 the Second Continental Congress approved the Articles of Confederation for ratification by the individual states. The confederation government was administered de facto by the Congress under the provisions of the approved (final) draft of the Articles until they achieved ratification -- and de jure status -- in early 1781. In 1786 delegates of five states (the Annapolis Convention) called for a convention of delegates in Philadelphia to amend the Articles -- which would require unanimous consent of the thirteen states.
The delegates to the Philadelphia Convention convened and deliberated from May to September 1787. Instead of pursuing their official charge they returned a draft (new) Constitution, proposed for constructing and administering a new federal -- later also known as "national '' -- government. They further proposed that the draft Constitution not be submitted to the Congress (where it would require unanimous approval of the states); instead that it be presented directly to the states for ratification in special ratification conventions, and that approval by a minimum of nine state conventions would suffice to adopt the new Constitution and initiate the new federal government; and that only those states ratifying the Constitution would be included in the new government. (For a time, eleven of the original states operated under the Constitution without two non-ratifying states, Rhode Island and North Carolina.) In effect, the delegates proposed to abandon and replace the Articles of Confederation rather than amend them.
Because the Articles had specified a "perpetual union '', various arguments have been offered to explain the apparent contradiction (and presumed illegality) of abandoning one form of government and creating another that did not include the members of the original. One explanation was that the Articles of Confederation simply failed to protect the vital interests of the individual states. Necessity then, rather than legality, was the practical factor in abandoning the Articles.
According to historian John Ferling, by 1786 the Union under the Articles was falling apart. James Madison of Virginia and Alexander Hamilton of New York -- they who joined together to vigorously promote a new Constitution -- urged that renewed stability of the Union government was critically needed to protect property and commerce. Both founders were strong advocates for a more powerful central government; they published The Federalist Papers to advocate their cause and became known as the federalists. (Because of his powerful advocacy Madison was later accorded the honorific "Father of the Constitution ''.) Ferling wrote:
Rumors of likely secessionist movements were unleashed. There was buzz as well that some states planned to abandon the American Union and form a regional confederacy. America, it was said, would go the way of Europe, and ultimately three or four, or more confederacies would spring up... Not only would these confederations be capable of taking steps that were beyond the ability of Congress under the articles, but in private some portrayed such a step in a positive light, in as much as the regional union could adopt constitutions that secured property rights and maintained order.
Other arguments that justified abandoning the Articles of Confederation pictured the Articles as an international compact between unconsolidated, sovereign states, any one of which was empowered to renounce the compact at will. (This as opposed to a consolidated union that "totally annihilated, without any power of revival '' the sovereign states.) The Articles required that all states were obliged to comply with all requirements of the agreement; thus, permanence was linked to compliance.
' Compliance ' was typically perceived as a matter of interpretation by each individual state. Emerich de Vattel, a recognized authority on international law, wrote at the time that "Treaties contain promises that are perfect and reciprocal. If one of the allies fails in his engagements, the other may... disengage himself in his promises, and... break the treaty. '' Thus, each state could unilaterally ' secede ' from the Articles of Confederation at will; this argument for abandoning the Articles -- for its weakness in the face of secession -- was used by advocates for the new Constitution and was featured by James Madison in Federalist No. 43.
Some argued that abandoning the Articles was the same as seceding from the Articles and thus was legal precedent for future secession (s) from the Constitution. St. George Tucker, a jurist in the early republic era, wrote in 1803:
And since the seceding states, by establishing a new constitution and form of federal government among themselves, without the consent of the rest, have shown that they consider the right to do so whenever the occasion may, in their opinion require it, we may infer that the right has not been diminished by any new compact which they may since have entered into, since none could be more solemn or explicit than the first, nor more binding upon the contracting partie (s). ''
Others denied that such a precedent was set; constitutional historian Akhil Reed Amar wrote:
The fact that a new union was lawfully formed in the 1780s by secession from the old confederacy did not mean that a new confederacy could be lawfully formed in the 1860s by secession from the old union...
Writing in 1824, exactly midway between the fall of the Articles of Confederation and the rise of a second self - described American Confederacy, (Chief Justice John) Marshall summarized the issue nicely: "Reference has been made to the political situation of these states, anterior to (the Constitution 's) formation. It has been said that they were sovereign, were completely independent, and were connected with each other only by a league. This is true. But, when these allied sovereigns converted their league into a government, when they converted their congress of ambassadors, deputed to deliberate on their common concerns, and to recommend measures of general utility, into a legislature, empowered to enact laws on the most interesting subjects, the whole character in which the states appear underwent a change. ''
Others argued the opposite of secession; that indeed the new Constitution inherited perpetuity from the language in the Articles and from other actions done prior to the Constitution. Historian Kenneth Stampp explains their view:
Lacking an explicit clause in the Constitution with which to establish the Union 's perpetuity, the nationalists made their case, first, with a unique interpretation of the history of the country prior to the Philadelphia Convention; second, with inferences drawn from certain passages of the Constitution; and third, with careful selections from the speeches and writings of the Founding Fathers. The historical case begins with the postulate that the Union is older than the states. It quotes the reference in the Declaration of Independence to "these united colonies '', contends that the Second Continental Congress actually called the states into being (i.e., "colonies '' no longer), notes the provision for a perpetual Union in the Articles of Confederation, and ends with the reminder that the preamble to the new Constitution gives as one of its purposes the formation of "a more perfect Union ''.
Constitutional scholar Akhil Reed Amar argues that the permanence of the Union of the states changed significantly when the U.S. Constitution replaced the Articles of Confederation. This action "signaled its decisive break with the Articles ' regime of state sovereignty ''. By adopting a constitution -- rather than a treaty, or a compact, or an instrument of confederacy, etc. -- that created a new body of government designed to be senior to the several states, and by approving the particular language and provisions of that new Constitution, the framers and voters made it clear that the fates of the individual states were (severely) changed; and that the new United States was:
Not a "league '', however firm; not a "confederacy '' or a "confederation ''; not a compact on among "sovereign ' states '' -- all these high profile and legally freighted words from the Articles were conspicuously absent from the Preamble and every other operative part of the Constitution. The new text proposed a fundamentally different legal framework.
Patrick Henry adamantly opposed adopting the Constitution because he interpreted its language to replace the sovereignty of the individual states, including that of his own Virginia. He gave his strong voice to the anti-federalist cause in opposition to the federalists led by Madison and Hamilton. Questioning the nature of the proposed new federal government, Henry asked:
The fate... of America may depend on this... Have they made a proposal of a compact between the states? If they had, this would be a confederation. It is otherwise most clearly a consolidated government. The question turns, sir, on that poor little thing -- the expression, We, the people, instead of the states, of America...
The federalists acknowledged that national sovereignty would be transferred by the new Constitution to the whole of the American people -- indeed, regard the expression, "We the people... ''. They argued, however, that Henry exaggerated the extent to which a consolidated government was being created and that the states would serve a vital role within the new republic even though their national sovereignty was ending. Tellingly, on the matter of whether states retained a right to unilaterally secede from the United States, the federalists made it clear that no such right would exist under the Constitution.
Amar specifically cites the example of New York 's ratification as suggestive that the Constitution did not countenance secession. Anti-federalists dominated the Poughkeepsie Convention that would ratify the Constitution. Concerned that the new compact might not sufficiently safeguard states ' rights, the anti-federalists sought to insert into the New York ratification message language to the effect that "there should be reserved to the state of New York a right to withdraw herself from the union after a certain number of years. '' The Madison federalists opposed this, with Hamilton, a delegate at the Convention, reading aloud in response a letter from James Madison stating: "the Constitution requires an adoption in toto, and for ever '' (emphasis added). Hamilton and John Jay then told the Convention that in their view, reserving "a right to withdraw (was) inconsistent with the Constitution, and was no ratification ''. The New York convention ultimately ratified the Constitution without including the "right to withdraw '' language proposed by the anti-federalists.
Amar explains how the Constitution impacted on state sovereignty:
In dramatic contrast to Article VII -- whose unanimity rule that no state can bind another confirms the sovereignty of each state prior to 1787 -- Article V does not permit a single state convention to modify the federal Constitution for itself. Moreover, it makes clear that a state may be bound by a federal constitutional amendment even if that state votes against the amendment in a properly convened state convention. And this rule is flatly inconsistent with the idea that states remain sovereign after joining the Constitution, even if they were sovereign before joining it. Thus, ratification of the Constitution itself marked the moment when previously sovereign states gave up their sovereignty and legal independence.
Donald Livingston has written that the Founders themselves held that "the states were republics, but the central government was not, '' and as such maintained the right to reclaim their sovereignty from "a central government limited to foreign affairs, declaring war, and regulating commerce ''.
Debates on the legality of secession often looked back to the example of the American Revolution and the Declaration of Independence. Law professor Daniel Farber defined what he considered the borders of this debate:
What about the original understanding? The debates contain scattered statements about the permanence or impermanence of the Union. The occasional reference to the impermanency of the Constitution are hard to interpret. They might have referred to a legal right to revoke ratification. But they equally could have referred to an extraconstitutional right of revolution, or to the possibility that a new national convention would rewrite the Constitution, or simply to the factual possibility that the national government might break down. Similarly, references to the permanency of the Union could have referred to the practical unlikelihood of withdrawal rather than any lack of legal power. The public debates seemingly do not speak specifically to whether ratification under Article VII was revocable.
In the public debate over the Nullification Crisis the separate issue of secession was also discussed. James Madison, often referred to as "The Father of the Constitution '', strongly opposed the argument that secession was permitted by the Constitution. In a March 15, 1833, letter to Daniel Webster (congratulating him on a speech opposing nullification), Madison discussed "revolution '' versus "secession '':
I return my thanks for the copy of your late very powerful Speech in the Senate of the United S. It crushes "nullification '' and must hasten the abandonment of "Secession ''. But this dodges the blow by confounding the claim to secede at will, with the right of seceding from intolerable oppression. The former answers itself, being a violation, without cause, of a faith solemnly pledged. The latter is another name only for revolution, about which there is no theoretic controversy.
Thus Madison affirms an extraconstitutional right to revolt against conditions of "intolerable oppression ''; but if the case can not be made (that such conditions exist), then he rejects secession -- as a violation of the Constitution.
During the crisis, President Andrew Jackson, published his Proclamation to the People of South Carolina, which made a case for the perpetuity of the Union; plus, he provided his views re the questions of "revolution '' and "secession '':
But each State having expressly parted with so many powers as to constitute jointly with the other States a single nation, can not from that period possess any right to secede, because such secession does not break a league, but destroys the unity of a nation, and any injury to that unity is not only a breach which would result from the contravention of a compact, but it is an offense against the whole Union. (emphasis added) To say that any State may at pleasure secede from the Union, is to say that the United States are not a nation because it would be a solecism to contend that any part of a nation might dissolve its connection with the other parts, to their injury or ruin, without committing any offense. Secession, like any other revolutionary act, may be morally justified by the extremity of oppression; but to call it a constitutional right, is confounding the meaning of terms, and can only be done through gross error, or to deceive those who are willing to assert a right, but would pause before they made a revolution, or incur the penalties consequent upon a failure.
Some twenty - eight years after Jackson spoke, President James Buchanan gave a different voice -- one much more accommodating to the views of the secessionists and the ' slave ' states -- in the midst of the pre-War secession crisis. In his final State of the Union address to Congress, on December 3, 1860, he acknowledged his view that the South, "after having first used all peaceful and constitutional means to obtain redress, would be justified in revolutionary resistance to the Government of the Union ''; but he also drew his apocalyptic vision of the results to be expected from secession:
In order to justify secession as a constitutional remedy, it must be on the principle that the Federal Government is a mere voluntary association of States, to be dissolved at pleasure by any one of the contracting parties. (emphasis added) If this be so, the Confederacy (here referring to the existing Union) is a rope of sand, to be penetrated and dissolved by the first adverse wave of public opinion in any of the States. In this manner our thirty - three States may resolve themselves into as many petty, jarring, and hostile republics, each one retiring from the Union without responsibility whenever any sudden excitement might impel them to such a course. By this process a Union might be entirely broken into fragments in a few weeks which cost our forefathers many years of toil, privation, and blood to establish.
In response to the 1798 Alien and Sedition Acts -- advanced by the Federalist Party -- John Taylor of the Virginia House of Delegates spoke out, urging Virginia to secede from the United States. He argued -- as one of many vociferous responses by the Jeffersonian Republicans -- the sense of the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, adopted in 1798 and 1799, which reserved to those States the rights of secession and interposition (nullification).
Thomas Jefferson, while sitting as Vice President of the United States in 1799, wrote to James Madison of his conviction in "a reservation of th (ose) rights resulting to us from these palpable violations (the Alien and Sedition Acts) '' and, if the federal government did not return to
"the true principles of our federal compact, (he was determined to) sever ourselves from that union we so much value, rather than give up the rights of self government which we have reserved, and in which alone we see liberty, safety and happiness. '' (emphasis added)
Here Jefferson is arguing in a radical voice (and in a private letter) that he would lead a movement for secession; but it is unclear whether he is arguing for "secession at will '' or for "revolution '' on account of "intolerable oppression '' (see above), or neither. Either way, some historians conclude that his language and acts were broaching the legal edges of treason. Jefferson secretly wrote (one of) the Kentucky Resolutions, which was done -- again -- while he was holding the office of Vice President. His biographer Dumas Malone argued that, had his actions become known at the time, Jefferson 's participation might have gotten him impeached for (charged with) treason. In writing the first Kentucky Resolution, Jefferson warned that, "unless arrested at the threshold, '' the Alien and Sedition Acts would "necessarily drive these states into revolution and blood ''. Historian Ron Chernow says of this "he was n't calling for peaceful protests or civil disobedience: he was calling for outright rebellion, if needed, against the federal government of which he was vice president. '' Jefferson "thus set forth a radical doctrine of states ' rights that effectively undermined the constitution ''.
Jeffersonian Republicans were not alone in claiming "reserved rights '' against the federal government. Contributing to the rancorous debates during the War of 1812, Founding Father Gouverneur Morris of Pennsylvania and New York -- a Federalist, a Hamilton ally and a primary author of the Constitution who advanced the concept that Americans were citizens of a single Union of the states -- was persuaded to claim that "secession, under certain circumstances, was entirely constitutional. ''
The election of 1800 showed Jefferson 's Democratic - Republican Party to be on the rise and the Federalists to be declining, and the Federalists felt threatened by initiatives taken by their opponents. They viewed Jefferson 's unilateral purchase of the Louisiana territory as violating foundational agreements between the original 13 states; Jefferson transacted the purchase in secret and refused to seek the approval of Congress. The new lands anticipated several future western states which the Federalists feared would be dominated by the Democratic - Republicans. Other things added to the Federalists ' alarm, such as the impeachment of Federalist district judge John Pickering by the Jeffersonian - dominated Congress, and similar attacks on Pennsylvania state officials by the Democratic - Republican legislature. By 1804, their national leadership was decimated and their viable base was reduced to the states of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Delaware.
Timothy Pickering of Massachusetts and a few Federalists envisioned creating a separate New England confederation, possibly combining with lower Canada to form a new pro-British nation. The Embargo Act of 1807 was seen as a threat to the economy of Massachusetts, and the state legislature debated in May 1808 how the state should respond. These debates generated isolated references to secession, but no definite plot materialized. Historian Richard Buell, Jr. suggests that "the secessionist movement of 1804 was more of a confession of despair about the future than a realistic proposal for action. ''
Federalist party members convened the Hartford Convention on December 15, 1814, and they addressed their opposition to the continuing war with England and the domination of the federal government by the "Virginia dynasty ''. Twenty six delegates attended; Massachusetts sent 12, Connecticut seven, and Rhode Island four. New Hampshire and Vermont declined, but two counties each from those states sent delegates. Historian Donald R. Hickey notes:
Despite pleas in the New England press for secession and a separate peace, most of the delegates taking part in the Hartford Convention were determined to pursue a moderate course. Only Timothy Bigelow of Massachusetts apparently favored extreme measures, and he did not play a major role in the proceedings.
The final report addressed issues related to the war and state defense, and it recommended several amendments to the Constitution. Massachusetts and Connecticut endorsed the it, but the war ended as the delegates were returning to Washington, effectively quashing any impact that it might have had. The Jeffersonians described the convention as "a synonym for disloyalty and treason '', and it became a major factor in the sharp decline of the Federalist Party.
Tensions began to rise between north and south by the late 1830s over slavery and related issues. Many northerners saw themselves as political victims of conspiracies between slaveholders and western expansionists, especially New Englanders. They viewed the movements to annex Texas and to make war on Mexico as fomented by slaveholders bent on dominating western expansion and thereby the national destiny. New England abolitionist Benjamin Lundy argued that the annexation of Texas was "a long premeditated crusade -- set on foot by slaveholders, land speculators, etc., with the view of reestablishing, extending, and perpetuating the system of slavery and the slave trade ''.
Newspaper editors began demanding separation from the south. William Lloyd Garrison called for secession in The Liberator of May 1844 with his "Address to the Friends of Freedom and Emancipation in the United States ''. The Constitution was created, he wrote, "at the expense of the colored population of the country '', and Southerners were dominating the nation because of the Three - Fifths Compromise; now it was time "to set the captive free by the potency of truth '' and to "secede from the government ''. Coincidentally, the New England Anti-Slavery Convention endorsed the principles of disunion by a vote of 250 -- 24.
Support of secession began to shift to Southern states from 1846, after introduction of the Wilmot Proviso into the public debate. Southern leaders increasingly felt helpless against a powerful political group that was attacking their interests, reminiscent of Federalist alarms at the beginning of the century.
During the presidential term of Andrew Jackson, South Carolina had its own semi-secession movement due to the 1828 "Tariff of Abominations '' which threatened both South Carolina 's economy and the Union. Andrew Jackson also threatened to send federal troops to put down the movement and to hang the leader of the secessionists from the highest tree in South Carolina. Also due to this, Jackson 's vice president, John C. Calhoun, who supported the movement and wrote the essay "The South Carolina Exposition and Protest '', became the first US vice-president to resign. On May 1, 1833, Jackson wrote of nullification, "the tariff was only a pretext, and disunion and southern confederacy the real object. The next pretext will be the negro, or slavery question. '' South Carolina also threatened to secede in 1850 over the issue of California 's statehood. It became the first state to declare its secession from the Union on December 20, 1860, with the Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union and later joined with the other southern states in the Confederacy.
The most famous secession movement was the case of the Southern states of the United States. Secession from the United States was accepted in eleven states (and failed in two others). The seceding states joined together to form the Confederate States of America (CSA). The eleven states of the CSA, in order of secession, were: South Carolina (seceded December 20, 1860), Mississippi (seceded on January 9, 1861), Florida (seceded January 10, 1861), Alabama (seceded January 11, 1861), Georgia (seceded January 19, 1861), Louisiana (seceded on January 26, 1861), Texas (seceded on February 1, 1861), Virginia (seceded April 17, 1861), Arkansas (seceded May 6, 1861), North Carolina (seceded on May 20, 1861), and Tennessee (seceded June 8, 1861). Secession was declared by pro-Confederate governments in Missouri and Kentucky (see Confederate government of Missouri and Confederate government of Kentucky), but did not become effective as it was opposed by their pro-Union state governments. This secession movement brought about the American Civil War. The position of the Union was that the Confederacy was not a sovereign nation -- and never had been, but that "the Union '' was always a single nation by intent of the states themselves, from 1776 onward -- and thus that a rebellion had been initiated by individuals. Historian Bruce Catton described President Abraham Lincoln 's April 15, 1861, proclamation after the attack on Fort Sumter, which defined the Union 's position on the hostilities:
After reciting the obvious fact that "combinations too powerful to be suppressed '' by ordinary law courts and marshalls had taken charge of affairs in the seven secessionist states, it announced that the several states of the Union were called on to contribute 75,000 militia "... to suppress said combinations and to cause the laws to be duly executed. ''... "And I hereby command the persons composing the combinations aforesaid to disperse, and retire peacefully to their respective abodes within twenty days from this date.
The Constitution does not directly mention secession. The legality of secession was hotly debated in the 19th century, with Southerners often claiming and Northerners generally denying that states have a legal right to unilaterally secede. The Supreme Court has consistently interpreted the Constitution to be an "indestructible '' union. There is no legal basis a state can point to for unilaterally seceding. Many scholars hold that the Confederate secession was blatantly illegal. The Articles of Confederation explicitly state the Union is "perpetual ''; the U.S. Constitution declares itself an even "more perfect union '' than the Articles of Confederation. Other scholars, while not necessarily disagreeing that the secession was illegal, point out that sovereignty is often de facto an "extralegal '' question. Had the Confederacy won, any illegality of its actions under U.S. law would have been rendered irrelevant, just as the undisputed illegality of American rebellion under the British law of 1775 was rendered irrelevant. Thus, these scholars argue, the illegality of unilateral secession was not firmly de facto established until the Union won the Civil War; in this view, the legal question was resolved at Appomattox.
Texas v. White was argued before the United States Supreme Court during the December 1868 term. Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase read the Court 's decision, on April 15, 1869. Australian Professors Peter Radan and Aleksandar Pavkovic write:
Chase, (Chief Justice), ruled in favor of Texas on the ground that the Confederate state government in Texas had no legal existence on the basis that the secession of Texas from the United States was illegal. The critical finding underpinning the ruling that Texas could not secede from the United States was that, following its admission to the United States in 1845, Texas had become part of "an indestructible Union, composed of indestructible states ''. In practical terms, this meant that Texas has never seceded from the United States.
However, the Court 's decision recognized some possibility of the divisibility "through revolution, or through consent of the States ''.
In 1877, the Williams v. Bruffy decision was rendered, pertaining to civil war debts. The Court wrote regarding acts establishing an independent government that "The validity of its acts, both against the parent state and the citizens or subjects thereof, depends entirely upon its ultimate success; if it fail to establish itself permanently, all such acts perish with it; if it succeed and become recognized, its acts from the commencement of its existence are upheld as those of an independent nation. ''
Historian Kenneth Stampp notes that a historical case against secession had been made that argued that "the Union is older than the states '' and that "the provision for a perpetual Union in the Articles of Confederation '' was carried over into the Constitution by the "reminder that the preamble to the new Constitution gives us one of its purposes the formation of ' a more perfect Union ' ''. Concerning the White decision Stampp wrote:
In 1869, when the Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, finally rejected as untenable the case for a constitutional right of secession, it stressed this historical argument. The Union, the Court said, "never was a purely artificial and arbitrary relation ''. Rather, "It began among the Colonies... It was confirmed and strengthened by the necessities of war, and received definite form, and character, and sanction from the Articles of Confederation. ''
The Republic of Texas successfully seceded from Mexico in 1836 (this, however took the form of outright rebellion against Mexico, and claimed no warrant under the Mexican Constitution to do so). Mexico refused to recognize its revolted province as an independent country, but the major nations of the world did recognize it. In 1845, Congress admitted Texas as a state. The documents governing Texas ' accession to the United States of America do not mention any right of secession -- although they did raise the possibility of dividing Texas into multiple states inside the Union. Mexico warned that annexation meant war and the Mexican -- American War followed in 1846.
Article IV, Section. 3, Clause 1 of the United States Constitutions provides:
New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new States shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the Junction of two or more States, or parts of States, without the Consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress.
The separation referred to is not secession but partition. Some of the movements to partition states have incorrectly identified themselves as "secessionist '' movements.
Of the new states admitted to the Union by Congress, three were set off from already existing states, while one was established upon land claimed by an existing state after existing for several years as a de facto independent republic. They are:
Many proposals to partition U.S. states have been unsuccessful.
The late 20th and early 21st centuries have seen examples of local and state secession movements. All such movements to create new states have failed. The formation in 1971 of the Libertarian Party and its national platform affirmed the right of states to secede on three vital principles: "We shall support recognition of the right to secede. Political units or areas which do secede should be recognized by the United States as independent political entities where: (1) secession is supported by a majority within the political unit, (2) the majority does not attempt suppression of the dissenting minority, and (3) the government of the new entity is at least as compatible with human freedom as that from which it seceded. ''
There was an attempt by Staten Island to break away from New York City in the late 1980s and early 1990s, leading to a 1993 referendum, in which 65 % voted to secede. Implementation was blocked in the State Assembly by assertions that the state 's constitution required a "home rule message '' from New York City.
The San Fernando Valley lost a vote to separate from Los Angeles in 2002. Despite the majority (55 %) of the valley within the L.A. city limits voting for secession, the city council unanimously voted to block the partition of the valley north of Mulholland Drive.
Other attempted city secession drives include Killington, Vermont, which has voted twice (2005 and 2006) to join New Hampshire; the community of Miller Beach, Indiana, originally a separate incorporated community, to split from the city of Gary in 2007 and Northeast Philadelphia to split from the city of Philadelphia in the 1980s.
A portion of the town of Calabash, North Carolina voted to secede from the town in 1998 after receiving permission for a referendum on the issue from the state of North Carolina. Following secession, the area incorporated itself as the town of Carolina Shores. Despite the split, the towns continue to share fire and emergency services.
Some state movements seek secession from the United States itself and the formation of a nation from one or more states.
A September 2017 Zogby International poll found that 68 % of Americans were open to states of the USA seceding. A 2014 Reuters / Ipsos poll showed 24 % of Americans supported their state seceding from the union if necessary; 53 % opposed the idea. Republicans were somewhat more supportive than Democrats. Respondents cited issues like gridlock, governmental overreach, the Affordable Care Act and a loss of faith in the federal government as reasons for secession.
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where was wizards of waverly place tv show filmed | Wizards of Waverly Place - wikipedia
Wizards of Waverly Place is an American fantasy teen sitcom which ran from October 12, 2007 to January 6, 2012 on Disney Channel. The series was created by Todd J. Greenwald, and stars Selena Gomez, David Henrie and Jake T. Austin as three wizard siblings with magical abilities competing to win sole custody of the family powers. Further main cast includes Jennifer Stone, Maria Canals Barrera, and David DeLuise.
The series won "Outstanding Children 's Program '' at the 61st Primetime Emmy Awards in 2009. A film adaptation of the series, Wizards of Waverly Place: The Movie, premiered as a Disney Channel Original Movie on August 28, 2009. The film adaptation won "Outstanding Children 's Program '' at the 62nd Primetime Emmy Awards earning the series its second consecutive Emmy. The farewell season won "Outstanding Children 's Program '' at the 64th Primetime Emmy Awards bringing the franchise 's total to three Emmy awards. Wizards of Waverly Place ended with 106 episodes over four seasons, surpassing That 's So Raven. Its series finale averaged nearly 10 million viewers (live and total views on same day), which made that episode the most - watched series finale in Disney Channel 's history.
On March 15, 2013, The Wizards Return: Alex vs. Alex premiered as a one - hour television special.
Wizards of Waverly Place chronicles the adventures of the Russo Family. The Russos live on Waverly Place in Manhattan 's Greenwich Village, above a sandwich shop which they own and run. The family consists of siblings Alex (Selena Gomez), Justin (David Henrie), and Max (Jake T. Austin). The three teenagers are wizards and live with their Italian father, Jerry (David DeLuise), a former family wizard, and their mortal Mexican mother, Theresa (Maria Canals Barrera). When the Russo siblings complete their wizard training, they have to participate in a competition to decide who will become the Family Wizard (the one to keep his / her magical powers forever) of their generation, while the others lose their powers and become mortals. Because of this, Jerry tries to teach his children to not become dependent on magic. Since one of them gets to keep their powers, though, Jerry also gives his children wizard lessons (the lessons end mid Season four). The storage room of the Russo family 's sub station is a wizard 's lair. In the lair is a Portal which allows them to visit the wizard world, and other creatures to visit them. The headmaster of the wizard council, Professor Crumbs (Ian Abercrombie), regularly pays visits to the Russo home.
The Russo siblings attend Tribeca Preparatory School and constantly encounter their Old West style principal, Mr. Laritate (Bill Chott). Because they live in the mortal world, the Russos are required to keep the existence of wizardry a secret. Even so, Alex 's best friend, Harper Finkle (Jennifer Stone), discovers the secret in Season 2 's episode "Harper Knows ''. Justin 's best friend, Zeke Beakerman (Dan Benson), also finds out in Season 4 's episode "Zeke Finds Out '', along with Alex 's boyfriend, Mason Greyback (Gregg Sulkin), who is a werewolf and Justin 's girlfriend, Juliet van Heusen (Bridgit Mendler), who is a vampire.
The episode "Cast - Away (To Another Show) '' is the first part of a three - way crossover that continues on The Suite Life on Deck and concludes on Hannah Montana. Justin takes Alex and Max on a cruise to Hawaii aboard the SS Tipton when he wins tickets. He pretends to be a doctor to impress London Tipton while Alex uses magic to bring Harper on the ship. During the cruise, Alex pulls a prank on Justin that turns him blue while Hannah Montana boards the ship to attend a concert in Hawaii, leading Cody to try to get tickets for himself and Bailey.
The Disney Channel Original Movie, based on the series, premiered on August 28, 2009 on Disney Channel. Wizards of Waverly Place: The Movie was filmed in Puerto Rico in the caribe Hilton hotel, Los Angeles, and New York City from February 16 to March 27, 2009. The movie received 11.4 million viewers on its premiere, making it the second-most - viewed DCOM premiere in the US after High School Musical 2. It was the seventh-most - watched basic cable telecast in 2009. It won a Primetime Emmy Award in 2010 for "Outstanding Children 's Program ''.
On Friday, January 6, 2012, Wizards of Waverly Place aired its one - hour series finale, "Who Will Be The Family Wizard? '', which averaged nearly 10 million viewers (9.8 million; live + same day) to up to 11.3 million. Although it was not the series ' most - watched special, being behind Wizards of Waverly Place: The Movie, and Cast Away (To Another Show), it was the most - watched finale for a Disney Channel Original Series.
Excluding the crossover programming special, it was the franchise 's most - watched episode. The closer also set series best among kids 6 -- 11 (4.2 million) and teens 9 -- 14 (3.8 million). It also obtained a solid 1.9 rating with adults 18 -- 49. Notably, the finale is the current TV season 's most - watched cable telecast among scripted programs.
The show ended with Alex becoming the family wizard, Justin being declared new Headmaster of WizTech (also keeping his wizard powers), and Max getting to run the sub shop.
On September 27, 2012, Disney Channel announced that Wizards of Waverly Place would return for an hour - long special, that began production on October 22, 2012, and ended production on November 10, 2012, for a premiere telecast on the cable channel in early 2013. The special, executive - produced by Selena Gomez, alongside series executive producers Vince Cheung and Ben Montanio (who also co-wrote the special with Dan Berendsen), centers on the Russos ', Mason, and Harper 's visit to Italy to meet long - lost relatives from Jerry 's side of the family. In an attempt to prove to her family that she 's not merely a carefree wizard, Alex inadvertently casts a spell that creates two versions of her with differing personalities: an evil version of Alex that ends up involved in another wizard 's (Dominic) plan for world domination, and a good version who upon discovering the wizard 's plan, tries to find a way to save her family and mankind, leading to a literal battle between good and evil atop the Leaning Tower of Pisa. The film is titled The Wizards Return: Alex vs. Alex and premiered on March 15, 2013.
This series was created and as produced by Todd J. Greenwald, who began developing the show after working as a writer and consulting producer during the first season of Hannah Montana. The show is produced by It 's a Laugh Productions and Disney Channel Original Productions. The theme song, "Everything Is Not What It Seems '', written by John Adair and Steve Hampton, is of techno - pop style and is performed by Selena Gomez. The series was filmed at Hollywood Center Studios in Hollywood, California.
For the first three seasons the show used the same title sequence which is set to Selena Gomez 's rendition of "Everything Is Not What It Seems ''; it shows Alex, Justin, Max and Harper engaging in magical antics while preparing for school in the morning. The fourth season began using a slightly altered version of the song, and a different sequence involving the cast, who all appear in Times Square at the end of the sequence with Alex waving her wand.
The show debuted on Disney Channel on October 12, 2007 after the premiere of Twitches Too, gathering 5.9 million viewers. In January 2010, "Wizards vs. Werewolves '' one - hour special episode became the series ' most - watched (non-crossover) episode with 6.2 million viewers, surpassing the 6 million viewers of "Paint By Committee '' episode The series ' most watched episode, including crossovers, was "Cast - Away (To Another Show) '' episode, which was included in the special trilogy of crossover episodes between three Disney Channel original sitcoms, Wizards on Deck with Hannah Montana. The broadcast was watched by 10.6 million viewers. In 2009, the series was the top scripted telecast for teens between the age of 9 -- 14 (1.63 million / 6.7 rating) and second in kids 6 -- 11 (1.81 million / 7.4 rating), which was only slightly behind The Suite Life on Deck (1.82 million / 7.4 rating.)
The show aired worldwide on Disney Channel. It premiered on October 12, 2007 in Pakistan. In Australia it premiered on October 19, 2007 and it also aired on Seven Network starting on October 4, 2008. It premiered on the same date in New Zealand and first aired on FOUR on February 4, 2009. It premiered on October 26, 2007 on Family in Canada. In the United Kingdom it started airing on November 4, 2007 and it also airs on Channel 5. It premiered on November 3, 2007 in Ireland and also aired on TRTÉ. It premiered in Malaysia, Hong Kong, Singapore, and the Philippines on March 9, 2008. It first aired in India and Bangladesh on May 5, 2008. In South Africa it premiered on June 22, 2008.
The soundtrack album for the hit Disney Channel Original Series of the same name. The album was released as a physical CD, enhanced CD and digital on August 4, 2009, under Walt Disney Records. The album includes songs from and inspired by the TV series and Wizards of Waverly Place: The Movie.
In response to the soundtrack, Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic recognized Wizards for its "teen revamps of boomer classics that parents can enjoy too ''. He also stated that the album is "agreeable '' and that Selena Gomez "inevitably stands out from the pack ''. However, Erlewine said: "the dang - awful version of America 's "You Can Do Magic '' by Drew Seeley is sunk by its hyper - claustrophobic rhythms, the biggest rearrangement of a tune here and easily the worst cut. ''
A video game based on the series was released in August 2009.
The show 's complete first season was released on September 10, 2009 in Germany, on October 1, 2009 in Spain, on March 3, 2010 in France and on March 12, 2010 in Poland.
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how many time chennai super kings win in ipl | Chennai Super Kings - wikipedia
T20I kit
The Chennai Super Kings (CSK) are a franchise cricket team based in Chennai, Tamil Nadu, which plays in the Indian Premier League (IPL). Founded in 2008, the team plays its home matches at the M.A. Chidambaram Stadium in Chennai. After serving a two - year suspension from the IPL starting July 2015 for the alleged involvement of their owners in the 2013 IPL betting case, the Super Kings returned to the league in 2018. The team is captained by Mahendra Singh Dhoni and coached by Stephen Fleming. It won it 's comeback season by winning it 's 3rd season and also becoming the team which has won the most number of IPL with MI.
The Super Kings have lifted the IPL title thrice (in 2010, 2011 and 2018), and have the best win percentage among all teams in the IPL (61.56). They hold the records of most appearances in the IPL playoffs (nine) and in the final (seven). In addition, they have also won the Champions League Twenty20 in 2010 and 2014. The brand value of the Super Kings in 2015 was estimated at $67 million, making them the third most valuable franchise in the IPL.
In September 2007, the Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI) announced the establishment of the Indian Premier League, a Twenty20 competition to be started in 2008. In January 2008, the BCCI unveiled the owners of eight city - based franchises. The Chennai franchise was sold to the India Cements for $91 million, making it the fourth most expensive team in the league behind Mumbai, Bangalore and Hyderabad. India Cements acquired the rights to the franchise for 10 years. Former ICC Chairman N. Srinivasan was the de facto owner of the Chennai Super Kings, by means of his position as the vice-chairman and managing director of India Cements Ltd. The franchisee was transferred to a separate entity named Chennai Super Kings Cricket Ltd., after the Supreme Court of India struck down the controversial amendment to the BCCI constitution 's clause 6.2. 4 that allowed board officials to have a commercial interest in the IPL and the Champions League T20 on January 22, 2015.
During the first player auctions for the inaugural IPL season conducted in January 2008, the Chennai franchise bought a number of contemporary star cricketers such as Mahendra Singh Dhoni, Matthew Hayden, Stephen Fleming, Muttiah Muralitharan and Michael Hussey. Dhoni became the costliest player of the auction, as the Chennai franchise bought him for $1.5 million. The franchise named Dhoni as the captain of the team and appointed Kepler Wessels as the head coach. They played their first game on April 19, 2008 against Kings XI Punjab at Mohali. The Super Kings won the game by 33 runs after posting 240 / 5 in 20 overs, which was the highest total of the tournament, a record surpassed by themselves in 2010. The Super Kings ended the league stage with eight wins from 14 games and finished third on the points table. They beat the Kings XI Punjab by 9 wickets in the semifinal. The Super Kings faced the Rajasthan Royals in the final of the IPL at Mumbai. Batting first, the Super Kings scored 163 / 5 in 20 overs and lost the game by 3 wickets off the final delivery of the match. They also earned a spot in the inaugural Champions League Twenty20 along with Rajasthan, but the tournament was cancelled due to the 2008 Mumbai Attacks and the Super Kings, along with Rajasthan, received $5 million each as compensation. Fleming, who had decided to retire from all forms of the game after the first season of the IPL, took over as the coach of the Super Kings team from Wessels for the next season which was to be held in South Africa.
For the 2009 season, the Super Kings bought English all - rounder Andrew Flintoff for $1.55 million at the auction making him the highest - paid IPL cricketer along with English teammate Kevin Pietersen who was bought for the same amount by Royal Challengers Bangalore. However, Flintoff played only 3 matches for them before suffering a knee injury that ruled him out of the season. The Super Kings were also without the services of Hussey who had decided to skip the IPL season to focus on The Ashes. The Super Kings finished with 17 points from 14 matches and earned a second place at the league table. However, at the semi-finals, their hopes of entering the final for a second time were crushed by the Royal Challengers who beat them by 6 wickets. The Super Kings opener Matthew Hayden, who scored 572 runs in 12 innings with 5 half - centuries at an average of 52 and strike - rate of 145, won the Orange Cap for the leading run - scorer of the season and was also adjudged Player of the Tournament.
In 2010, the Super Kings struggled in the first half of the regular season, winning only two matches out of seven. They won four of their next five games in the season mainly due to the efforts of Murali Vijay and Suresh Raina. After a defeat at home to the Delhi Daredevils, the Super Kings were left with a must - win match against Kings XI Punjab at Dharamshala. The Super Kings won the match by six wickets as they chased down the target of 193 with two balls to spare with skipper Dhoni scoring an unbeaten 54 from 29 balls. Thus, with seven wins from 14 matches, Chennai finished with the same number of points as three other teams with two semi-final spots at stake. Chennai got the third place as they had the better net run rate of the four teams which finished on 14 points. In the semifinal, the Super Kings scored a modest 142 / 7 in 20 overs against the defending champions Deccan Chargers. But an inspired bowling spell from Doug Bollinger (4 / 13 in four overs) did the most damage as the Chargers were bowled out for 104. This gave the Super Kings a 38 - run victory that took them to the final. The Super Kings faced the tournament favorites Mumbai Indians at their home ground in the final. Suresh Raina 's 57 (35) helped the Super Kings recover from 68 / 3 after 12 overs to put up 168 / 5 at the end of their 20 overs. Then, their spin duo of Ravichandran Ashwin and Muralitharan conceded only 41 runs in the 8 overs bowled between them to help the Super Kings won the game by 22 runs and secure their first ever IPL title. With this, the Super Kings also qualified for the 2010 Champions League Twenty20 that was held in South Africa.
At the Champions League, the Super Kings were placed in Group A along with champions of Twenty20 competitions from Australia, South Africa, New Zealand and Sri Lanka. The Super Kings topped the Group table with three wins and a Super Over defeat to the Victorian Bushrangers. In the semi-final at Durban, the Super Kings comprehensively defeated IPL rivals Royal Challengers Bangalore by 52 runs. Raina won the Man of the match for his unbeaten 94 off 48 balls. The Super Kings played their first CLT20 final at Johannesburg where they beat the Chevrolet Warriors by 8 wickets, becoming the first IPL team to win the CLT20. Murali Vijay won not only the Man of the Match in the final for his 58 but also the Golden Bat for scoring the most runs in the tournament and Ashwin, who was the leading wicket - taker, was adjudged the Player of the Series. At the end of the season, Matthew Hayden decided to retire from the IPL.
In 2011, as two new teams were added to the IPL, the IPL Governing Council declared that each franchise could retain a maximum of four players of their squad, only three of whom can be Indian players, and the rest of the international players would be put in the mega-auction. The Chennai franchise, keen to have the same set of core players, retained captain MS Dhoni, vice-captain Suresh Raina, Murali Vijay and all - rounder Albie Morkel for a total of $4.5 million. The retention left them with the power of spending only $4.5 million at the mega-auction. At the auction, they bought back some of their star players of previous seasons such as Hussey, Ashwin, Bollinger and Subramaniam Badrinath. In the 2011 IPL, they lost three of their first five games which placed them at the bottom of the ten - team points table. But then, they went on to win seven of their next eight games to finish second and register a spot in the knockout stages. They faced the top - ranked team Royal Challengers Bangalore in the Qualifying final which they won by 6 wickets thanks to an unbeaten 73 from Suresh Raina. In the final, they faced the same opponents again, which was held at their home ground Chepauk. Vijay and Hussey put on a 133 - run first - wicket partnership that helped the Super Kings to post a total of 205 / 5. Their bowlers, then, restricted Bangalore to only 147 to take the Super Kings to second consecutive title in the IPL. Vijay was awarded Man of the Match for his match - winning innings of 95. CSK also won all their home games that season becoming the first team in IPL to achieve the feat. However at the Champions League later that year, they won only one out of their four group matches and finished at the bottom.
In 2012, the franchise signed up Indian all - rounder Ravindra Jadeja for $2 million at the players ' auction. They got off to a rather slow start in the regular season, winning only five of their first 12 games which put them in doubt of qualifying for the Playoffs. Then they won three of their last four matches and qualified for the Playoffs with a better net run rate than the Royal Challengers who also finished with the same number of points. In the Eliminator, they beat the Mumbai Indians by 38 runs before comprehensively beating the table - toppers Delhi Daredevils in the Qualifying final by 86 runs. Murali Vijay, who struck his second IPL hundred (113 off 58 balls), won the Man of the Match. At the final, the Super Kings were defeated by 5 wickets by the Kolkata Knight Riders who chased down the target of 191 with two balls to spare, thus denying the Super Kings a hat - trick of titles in the IPL. At the Champions League, once again they could not progress past the group stage with two wins and two defeats.
In 2013, the Super Kings strengthened their bowling attack by signing up five overseas and five Indian bowlers. In the IPL season, they finished first in the points table with 11 wins from 16 matches and qualified for the Playoffs and 2013 CLT20. This was the first time in six seasons that the Super Kings had topped the league table of the IPL. During the season, they also equaled Royal Challengers Bangalore 's 2011 record for most wins in succession in the IPL (7 wins on trot). In the first Qualifier at Delhi against Mumbai Indians, the Super Kings posted 192 / 1 in 20 overs riding on unbeaten half - centuries from Hussey (86 * off 58 balls) and Raina (82 * off 42 balls) before bowling out their opponents for 144. Thus they entered the final of the IPL for the fourth time in succession where they would play the same opponents, Mumbai Indians, at Kolkata. At the final, batting first, the Mumbai Indians made 148 / 9 in their 20 overs. In reply, the Super Kings were reduced to 39 / 6 at one stage before an unbeaten half - century from skipper Dhoni took them close to the target. However, Mumbai Indians won the match by 23 runs to win their first ever IPL title. Super Kings opening batsman Michael Hussey, who scored 733 runs that season at an average of 52, won the Orange Cap for the most runs in the season while all - rounder Dwayne Bravo won the Purple Cap for bagging the most wickets (32). The Super Kings gained direct qualification for the 2013 CLT20 which was held in India in September -- October. They were placed in Group B alongside Brisbane Heat, Sunrisers Hyderabad, Titans and Trinidad & Tobago. They won their first three games before losing the final group match against Trinidad & Tobago. With 12 points from four matches, the Super Kings progressed to the semifinals where they suffered a 14 - run defeat at the hands of the Rajasthan Royals at Jaipur.
In 2014, before the players ' mega-auction, Chennai retained Dhoni, Raina, Jadeja, Ashwin and Bravo. The retention left them with a purse of ₹ 21 crores to spend at the auction. At the auction, the franchise bought the likes of Brendon McCullum, Dwayne Smith, Faf du Plessis, Ashish Nehra, Mohit Sharma among others. The first phase of the IPL season, as it coincided with the general elections, was held in UAE. The second phase returned to India, but the Super Kings ' home matches were shifted from Chennai, due to "a deadlock between stadium authorities and the state administration '', to JSCA International Stadium in Ranchi. The Super Kings started the season with a defeat in the opening match, after which they went on to win eight of their next nine matches to take the first spot in the points table. However, they suffered a loss of form towards the end of the regular season which resulted in three consecutive defeats. They won their last league fixture and finished third in the points table and qualified for the Eliminator against the fourth - placed Mumbai Indians. They won the Eliminator at Mumbai by 7 wickets and qualified for the Qualifier. At the Qualifier against Kings XI Punjab, the Super Kings won the toss and elected to field. Punjab went on to score 226 / 6 in their 20 overs. The Super Kings, in reply, could manage only 202 / 7 despite a 25 - ball 87 from Raina. They crashed out of the IPL, but, on account of finishing third, qualified for the main event of the 2014 CLT20. In the group stage of the CLT20, the Super Kings won two matches, lost one while another match was a no result. Thus with 10 points they finished second in the group table and qualified for the semifinal where they met the unbeaten team of the other group, Kings XI Punjab. After being put in to bat, the Super Kings posted 182 / 7 in 20 overs thanks to Bravo who scored a 39 - ball 67. Then their bowlers reduced Punjab to 34 / 6 in the eighth over, and Punjab were eventually bowled out for 117. At the final in Bangalore, the Super Kings faced the IPL champions Kolkata Knight Riders who set them a target of 181 in 20 overs. Raina guided the run - chase with an unbeaten 109 off 62 balls, helping the team to an eight - wicket win and their second CLT20 title. Super Kings spinner Pawan Negi who took 5 / 22 during Kolkata 's innings won the Man of the Match, and Raina, who finished as the highest run - getter of the tournament, was awarded Man of the Tournament.
In 2015, before the players ' auction, Chennai Super Kings gave away Ben Hilfenhaus, John Hastings, Vijay Shankar and David Hussey. At the auction they bought back Michael Hussey for a price of Rs. 1.5 crores. They also bought Kyle Abbott, Irfan Pathan, Andrew Tye, Eklavya Dwivedi, Ankush Bains, Pratyush Singh and Rahul Sharma. In the final, they lost against Mumbai.
Ahead of the players mega auction, Chennai Super Kings retained Mahendra Singh Dhoni, Suresh Raina & Ravindra Jadeja. Additionally, Faf du Plessis and Dwayne Bravo were brought back into the side using RTM. The return of the Super Kings to the IPL was the cause of a large amount of celebration and fanfare amongst the fans, with a crowd of more than 10,000 turning up for the practice sessions held at the M.A. Chidambaram Stadium in Chennai before the start of the tournament.
Chennai 's campaign started off with a thrilling one wicket win over the Mumbai Indians in the first match of the season. Playing their first home game in Chennai, the Kings successfully managed to chase down a target of 202 set by the Kolkata Knight Riders, aided by a quickfire half - century by Sam Billings. The team then went on to lose to Kings XI Punjab in Mohali but bounced back by winning three matches in a row against the Rajasthan Royals, Sunrisers Hyderabad and Royal Challengers Bangalore. The Super Kings ' next eight matches resulted in them alternating between victories and defeats by winning against the Delhi Daredevils, Royal Challengers Bangalore, Sunrisers Hyderabad and Kings XI Punjab and losing against the Mumbai Indians, Rajasthan Royals, Delhi Daredevils and the Kolkata Knight Riders. The league stage ended with the Super Kings in second place behind the Sunrisers. Chennai then went on to post back - to - back victories against the Sunrisers Hyderabad in the first qualifier and in the final to win the Indian Premier League for the third time since the inception of the tournament.
Three of the five centuries scored in the 2018 season were by players belonging to the Chennai Super Kings (Ambati Rayudu 100 * and Shane Watson 106, 117 *). The Super Kings also became the first team to defeat an opposing team (Sunrisers Hyderabad) four times in a single season.
The home ground of the Super Kings is the historic M.A. Chidambaram Stadium (commonly called "The Chepauk '') located in Chennai. The stadium is named after former BCCI President M.A. Chidambaram. It is the oldest stadium in India which is in continuous use. The stadium is owned by the Tamil Nadu Cricket Association and has a seating capacity of 50,000 as of May 2013. In 2010, the stadium underwent a major renovation for hosting some of the matches of the 2011 ICC Cricket World Cup. The seating capacity was increased from 36,000 to 50,000 and three new stands were established during this renovation.
The Super Kings have a 67.44 % win record at this venue, which is often referred to as "Fortress Chepauk '' and "Lions ' den ''. In the 2011 season, the Super Kings won all their home games (8 matches) including the final against Royal Challengers Bangalore. The Super Kings thus became the first team to win all their home games in a season and also the first team to win the tournament at home.
In 2014, Chennai Super Kings played all their home matches at Ranchi due to issues with Government of Tamil Nadu.
In 2018, Chennai Super Kings managed to play a solitary home game against Kolkata Knight Riders due to members of a few fringe political parties staging protests outside the stadium as well as several parts of Chennai demanding the IPL matches to be moved out of the city until the Cauvery Management Board (CMB) was set up as directed by the honourable Supreme Court of India. Despite tight security for the match against KKR, the Chennai police expressed their inability in ensuring enough personnel at the venue for the smooth conduct of the remaining games. The remaining six home matches of Chennai Super Kings were moved out of Chennai. Maharashtra Cricket Association Stadium in Pune was selected to host the remaining six home matches of Chennai Super Kings.
Mahendra Singh Dhoni, who was the captain of the Indian limited - overs team in 2008, was bought by the Super Kings for $1.5 million at the 2008 players ' auction. He was the most expensive player in the IPL until 2009 when the Super Kings signed up English all - rounder Andrew Flintoff for $1.55 million. Dhoni is one of the most successful captains in the IPL, having led the Super Kings to seven finals of which the team has won three.
The vice-captain of the team from 2008 to 2015 was Suresh Raina. Raina holds multiple IPL records such as most caps, most runs and most catches. Australian batsman Michael Hussey has the best batting average for the Super Kings. He was the first batsman from the Super Kings to score a century in the IPL. After Matthew Hayden 's retirement in 2010, Hussey took over his place of opening batsman and was the team 's leading run - scorer in 2011 and 2013 seasons. Murali Vijay, who played for the team from 2009 to 2013, is the first Indian batsman to score two centuries in the IPL. Super Kings ' spinner Ravichandran Ashwin has the third best economy rate in IPL (6.53) and is the leading wicket - taker for the team.
The Chennai franchise named the team as Chennai Super Kings to honor the rulers of the Tamil empire. The word "super '' is used commonly in southern India especially in Tamil Nadu. The team name also derives from India Cements ' brand "Coromandel King ''.
The team logo features the head of a roaring lion in orange and the team name rendered in blue. The crown above the team name is the same as that used in the logo of the brand Coromandel King. According to the logo designers, since lion is the king of the jungle, the roaring lion logo reflects the team name. The details of the logo signifies various qualities such as youth, vibrancy, solid performance orientation and fiery spirit.
The team 's primary colour is yellow with blue and orange stripes on either sides of the jersey. The jersey also incorporates the roaring lion logo in the center of the shirt below the logo of the main sponsor Aircel. The basic look of the jersey has remained same from the first season with no changes except for the sponsor placement. The kit manufacturer until 2014 was Reebok and from 2015, Australian Apparel and Sports Gear manufacturer Spartan manufactures kits for the team.
Muthoot Group is the current principal shirt sponsor, having signed a three year deal in 2018. Telecom service provider Aircel was the previous shirt sponsor after they signed a three - year deal in 2008 which was then renewed in 2011 for ₹ 850 million, then the most expensive sponsorship deal in IPL. The team also has sponsorship deals with India Cements, Gulf Oil, Equitas Small Finance Bank, HIL, Nippon Paint, Parle Agro Frooti and Atria Convergence Technologies.
The team 's theme song is the Whistle Podu designed by Aravind - Shankar (duo of Aravind Murali and Jaishankar Iyer). Although the track was created only for YouTube in 2008, it gained popularity during the 2009 season and later became the team 's theme song. The video of the song represents the street dance form of dappangutthu which is very popular among certain communities in Tamil Nadu. It is also a folk dance and music genre employed in Tamil cinema. The recordings of some of the Super Kings players whistling were used in the music video.
The Chennai Super Kings are the most consistent and their records are still left unbeaten despite the 2 years ban in 2016, 2017 seasons. Though other teams consider CSK as a strong rival, Chennai Super Kings record of reaching knockout stage every played season is unmatched by any team in IPL history.
The Chennai Super Kings have active rivalries with the Mumbai Indians and the Royal Challengers Bangalore. The Super Kings and Mumbai Indians have played against each other more number of times than any other two teams in the IPL. They are the two most successful IPL teams and often termed as "big spenders '' at the players auction. The two sides have met each other at the final of the IPL thrice, with Mumbai winning two of them and Chennai winning once.
The rivalry with Royal Challengers Bangalore stems from the Kaveri River water dispute between the states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. The rivalry is also called "Kaveri derby '' and "South Indian derby ''. The Super Kings beat the Royal Challengers in the final of the 2011 IPL, the only meeting between the two teams at an IPL final.
The Economic Times commissioned UK - based Brand Finance to carry out brand evaluation of the IPL and also each of the eight franchise teams (that was increased to 10 in 2011). Chennai Super Kings was rated as the "most valuable team '' in the Indian Premier League in 2010 -- 11, with a brand value of $100 million (approximately ₹ 2.24 billion). In February 2013, London based Brand Finance evaluated the top 150 most valuable teams in the world, in which Chennai Super Kings is placed in the 147th place valued at $46 million just behind the Mumbai Indians.
Until September 2008, BCCI regulation, Clause 6.2. 4 stated that "No administrator could have, directly or indirectly, any commercial interest in the matches or events conducted by the board ''. However, N. Srinivasan, who was then the treasurer and vice-chairman of BCCI, became the de facto owner of the Chennai Super Kings since he was the Managing Director of India Cements. Former BCCI President A.C. Muthiah wrote to the BCCI regarding the violation of this clause in 2008 but the BCCI did not respond. In September 2008, Muthiah went to the Madras High Court to restrain BCCI from allowing Srinivasan to participate in the general body meeting where the election was to be held. However, the suit was dismissed by the High Court and the following day, Srinivasan was elected as the Secretary of BCCI. The clause was amended as "No administrator shall have, directly or indirectly, any commercial interest in any of the events of the BCCI, excluding IPL, Champions League and Twenty20 ''. Muthiah then moved to the Supreme Court which gave a split verdict in April 2011. Later in August 2011, Muthiah filed another petition to stop Srinivasan from taking over as the BCCI President but the Supreme Court rejected the petition, and Srinivasan was elected the President of BCCI.
In 2011, the owners of other teams were concerned about the possible rigging that could have taken place in the IPL auctions. Nita Ambani, the owner of Mumbai Indians questioned the changing the order of players just before the auction began. Former IPL chairman Lalit Modi accused Srinivasan of arm - twisting him and rigging the 2009 IPL auction to ensure that English all - rounder Andrew Flintoff was bought by the Chennai Super Kings while it was refuted by Srinivasan.
In May 2013, Gurunath Meiyappan, son - in - law of Srinivasan, was arrested by Mumbai Police on charges of placing bets on IPL matches Meiyappan, who was the Team Principal of the Super Kings, was issued a summons by the Mumbai Police and on interrogation it was found that Meiyappan was in contact with bookies through actor Vindu Dara Singh. Following this, Srinivasan, on 2 June 2013, decided to step aside as BCCI President temporarily until the inquiry into the betting case completed. In February 2014, the three member panel appointed by the Supreme Court of India enquired into the betting case indicted Meiyappan for illegal betting during the 2013 IPL.
On 25 March 2014, the Supreme Court of India issued an ultimatum to the BCCI demanding that Srinivasan either step down as President or be removed from his position. On 14 July 2015, the Supreme Court appointed RM Lodha committee suspended the owners of Rajasthan Royals and Chennai Super Kings from the Indian Premier League for a period of two years. On 24 February 2016, the Supreme Court of India agreed to hear a plea for lifting the ban on the Chennai Super Kings.
By opposition
Last updated: 5 May 2018
2008 Indian Premier League
2009 Indian Premier League
2010 Indian Premier League
2010 Champions League
2011 Indian Premier League
2012 Indian Premier League
2013 Indian Premier League
2014 Indian Premier League
2014 Champions League
2015 Indian Premier league
2018 Indian Premier league
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when was the boy who cried wolf published | The boy Who Cried wolf - wikipedia
The Boy Who Cried Wolf is one of Aesop 's Fables, numbered 210 in the Perry Index. From it is derived the English idiom "to cry wolf '', defined as "to give a false alarm '' in Brewer 's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable and glossed by the Oxford English Dictionary as meaning to make false claims, with the result that subsequent true claims are disbelieved.
The tale concerns a shepherd boy who repeatedly tricks nearby villagers into thinking wolves are attacking his flock. When a wolf actually does appear and the boy again calls for help, the villagers believe that it is another false alarm and the sheep are eaten by the wolf. In later English - language poetic versions of the fable, the wolf also eats the boy. This happens in Fables for Five Year Olds (1830) by John Hookham Frere, in William Ellery Leonard 's Aesop & Hyssop (1912), and in his interpretation of Aesop 's Fables (1965) by Louis Untermeyer.
The moral stated at the end of the Greek version is, "this shows how liars are rewarded: even if they tell the truth, no one believes them ''. It echoes a statement attributed to Aristotle by Diogenes Laërtius in his The Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers, in which the sage was asked what those who tell lies gain by it and he answered "that when they speak truth they are not believed ''. William Caxton similarly closes his version with the remark that "men bileve not lyghtly hym whiche is knowen for a lyer ''.
The story dates from Classical times, but, since it was recorded only in Greek and not translated into Latin until the 15th century, it only began to gain currency after it appeared in Heinrich Steinhöwel 's collection of the fables and so spread through the rest of Europe. For this reason, there was no agreed title for the story. Caxton titles it "Of the child whiche kepte the sheep '' (1484), Hieronymus Osius "The boy who lied '' ("De mendace puero '', 1574), Francis Barlow "Of the herd boy and the farmers '' ("De pastoris puero et agricolis '', 1687), Roger L'Estrange "A boy and false alarms '' (1692), and George Fyler Townsend "The shepherd boy and the wolf '' (1867). It was under the final title that Edward Hughes set it as the first of ten "Songs from Aesop 's fables '' for children 's voices and piano, in a poetic version by Peter Westmore (1965).
Teachers have used the fable as a cautionary tale about telling the truth but a recent educational experiment suggested that reading "The Boy Who Cried Wolf '' increased children 's likelihood of lying. On the other hand, reading a book on George Washington and the cherry tree decreased this likelihood dramatically. The suggestibility and favourable outcome of the behaviour described, therefore, seems the key to moral instruction of the young. However, when dealing with the moral behaviour of adults, Samuel Croxall asks, referencing political alarmism, "when we are alarmed with imaginary dangers in respect of the public, till the cry grows quite stale and threadbare, how can it be expected we should know when to guard ourselves against real ones? ''
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where do they go to keep an eye out for smaug | Smaug - wikipedia
Smaug (/ smaʊɡ /) is a fictional character and the primary antagonist in J.R.R. Tolkien 's 1937 novel The Hobbit. He is a powerful, fearsome dragon who invaded the Dwarf kingdom of Erebor 150 years prior to the events described in the novel. A group of 13 Dwarves mounted a quest to take the kingdom back, aided by the wizard Gandalf and the hobbit Bilbo Baggins. Smaug is described as "a most specially greedy, strong and wicked worm ''.
In Appendix A, section III, of The Return of the King, dragons are stated to reside in the Withered Heath beyond the Grey Mountains. Smaug is described as "the greatest of the dragons of his day '', and was already centuries old at the time he was first recorded. Having heard rumors of the great wealth of the Dwarf - kingdom of Erebor, he "arose and without warning came against King Thrór and descended on the mountain in flames ''. After driving the Dwarves out of their stronghold, Smaug occupied the interior of the mountain for the next 150 years, guarding a vast hoard of treasure.
"The Quest of Erebor '', a chapter of Unfinished Tales, recounts how Gandalf realized that Smaug could pose a serious threat if used by Sauron. He therefore agreed to assist a party of Dwarves, led by Thrór 's grandson Thorin Oakenshield, who set out to recapture the mountain and kill the dragon. Assuming that Smaug would not recognize the scent of a hobbit, Gandalf also recruits Bilbo Baggins to join the quest, which is the subject of The Hobbit.
Upon reaching Erebor, the Dwarves sent Bilbo into Smaug 's lair, and he was initially successful in stealing a beautiful golden cup as Smaug slept fitfully. Knowing the contents of the treasure hoard which he had slept upon for centuries to the ounce, Smaug quickly realized the cup 's absence upon his awakening and sought for the thief on the Mountain. Unsuccessful, he returned to his hoard to lie in wait. Having been nearly killed in the dragon 's search, the Dwarves send Bilbo down the secret tunnel a second time. Smaug sensed Bilbo 's presence immediately, even though Bilbo had rendered himself invisible with the One Ring, and accused the Hobbit (correctly) of trying to steal from him. During his discourse with the dragon, Bilbo detected a small bare patch in the jewel - encrusted underbelly of the dragon. When Bilbo narrowly escapes an attack from the dragon and collapses amidst the Dwarves at the entrance to the secret tunnel, a thrush overhears Bilbo 's frantic retelling of his interaction with the dragon and learns of the bare patch on Smaug 's underside. This becomes important later when Bard the Bowman kills the dragon during the dragon 's attack on Laketown by shooting an arrow into this bare patch and piercing the dragon mortally.
Tolkien created numerous pencil sketches and two pieces of more detailed artwork portraying Smaug. The latter were a detailed ink and watercolour labelled Conversation with Smaug and a rough coloured pencil and ink sketch entitled Death of Smaug. While neither of these appeared in the original printing of The Hobbit due to cost constraints, both have been included in subsequent editions and Conversation with Smaug has been used extensively. Death of Smaug was used for the cover of an early UK paperback edition of The Hobbit.
From 1925 to 1945, Tolkien was a professor of Anglo - Saxon at Oxford University, and a prominent critic of and expert on Beowulf -- on which he gave a lecture at the British Academy in 1936 and which he described as one of his "most valued sources '' for The Hobbit. Many of Smaug 's attributes and behaviour in The Hobbit derive directly from the unnamed "old night - scather '' in Beowulf: great age; winged, fiery, and reptilian form; a stolen barrow within which he lies on his hoard; disturbance by a theft; and violent airborne revenge on the lands all about. Smaug was intimately familiar with every last item within his hoard, and instantly noticed the theft of a relatively inconsequential cup by Bilbo Baggins. Tolkien writes that Smaug 's rage was the kind which "is only seen when rich folk that have more than they can enjoy lose something they have long had but never before used or wanted. '' This theft of a cup, Smaug 's knowledge of every item in the hoard, and the dragon 's ensuing rampage, all echo the story of Beowulf.
Tolkien may also have been inspired by the talking dragon Fafnir of the Völsunga saga.
Tolkien noted that "the dragon bears as name -- a pseudonym -- the past tense of the primitive Germanic verb smúgan, to squeeze through a hole: a low philological jest. '' The name also bears a remarkable similarity to the Slavic word for dragon, smok.
Smaug was depicted by Tolkien as an intelligent being capable of speech, easily pleased by flattery and fascinated by Bilbo 's description of himself in riddles. This is also done in later film adaptations such as The Hobbit: The Desolation of Smaug. He is described as having "quite an overwhelming personality '' and every time his eyes flash across Bilbo 's invisible form, he feels almost compelled to tell him the truth about himself because of the hypnotic power within.
In the 1977 animated version of The Hobbit, Smaug was voiced by Richard Boone. In general, Smaug 's design in the animated version is consistent with Tolkien 's description, save for his face: for rather than the traditional reptilian look associated with dragons, Smaug 's face in the animated version has distinctly cat - like features including fur, enlarged ears, and canine teeth. His hypnotic speech is absent, but his acute eyesight is portrayed by highbeam - like lights projected from his eyes.
On June 16, 2011, it was announced that Smaug would be voiced and interpreted with performance capture by Benedict Cumberbatch in Peter Jackson 's three - part adaptation of The Hobbit, wherein Smaug is presented with a long head, red - golden scales, and piercing yellow - red eyes. The dragon speaks with Received Pronunciation with an underlying growl; Cumberbatch 's vocal performance was vocoded using alligator growls. Smaug 's design was animated with key frame animation, in addition to Cumberbatch 's motion capture performance. Weta Digital employed its proprietary "Tissue '' software which was honoured in 2013 with a "Scientific and Engineering Award '' from the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences to make the dragon as realistic as possible. In addition, Weta Digital supervisor Joe Letteri said in an interview for USA Today that they used classic European and Asian dragons as inspirations to create Smaug.
Smaug was considered one of the highlights of the second film of the series, with several critics hailing him as cinema 's greatest dragon. Critics also praised the visual effects company Weta Digital and Cumberbatch 's vocal and motion - capture performance for giving Smaug a fully realized personality.
In the 1977 "J.R.R. Tolkien Calendar '', the Brothers Hildebrandt depicted Smaug with bright red scales and large bat - like wings. In the 2003 video game release, Smaug was voiced by James Horan. Francis de Wolff voiced the red dragon in the long lost 1968 BBC radio dramatization: The Hobbit (radio series)
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what is hdi explain the terms of it | Human Development Index - wikipedia
The Human Development Index (HDI) is a statistic (composite index) of life expectancy, education, and per capita income indicators, which are used to rank countries into four tiers of human development. A country scores higher HDI when the lifespan is higher, the education level is higher, and the GDP per capita is higher. The HDI was developed by Pakistani economist Mahbub ul Haq and Indian economist Amartya Sen which was further used to measure the country 's development by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP).
The 2010 Human Development Report introduced an Inequality - adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI). While the simple HDI remains useful, it stated that "the IHDI is the actual level of human development (accounting for inequality) '', and "the HDI can be viewed as an index of ' potential ' human development (or the maximum IHDI that could be achieved if there were no inequality) ''.
The index is based on the human development approach, developed by Ul Haq, often framed in terms of whether people are able to "be '' and "do '' desirable things in life. Examples include -- Being: well fed, sheltered, healthy; Doings: work, education, voting, participating in community life. It must also be noted that the freedom of choice is central -- someone choosing to be hungry (e.g. during a religious fast) is quite different to someone who is hungry because they can not afford to buy food.
The origins of the HDI are found in the annual Human Development Reports produced by the Human Development Reports Office of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). These were devised and launched by Pakistani economist Mahbub ul Haq in 1990, and had the explicit purpose "to shift the focus of development economics from national income accounting to people - centered policies ''. To produce the Human Development Reports, Mahbub ul Haq formed a group of development economists including Paul Streeten, Frances Stewart, Gustav Ranis, Keith Griffin, Sudhir Anand, and Meghnad Desai. Nobel laureate Amartya Sen utilized Haq 's work in his own work on human capabilities. Haq believed that a simple composite measure of human development was needed to convince the public, academics, and politicians that they can and should evaluate development not only by economic advances but also improvements in human well - being.
Published on 4 November 2010 (and updated on 10 June 2011), the 2010 Human Development Index (HDI) combines three dimensions:
In its 2010 Human Development Report, the UNDP began using a new method of calculating the HDI. The following three indices are used:
1. Life Expectancy Index (LEI) = LE − 20 85 − 20 (\ displaystyle = (\ frac ((\ textrm (LE)) - 20) (85 - 20)))
2. Education Index (EI) = MYSI + EYSI 2 (\ displaystyle = (\ frac ((\ textrm (MYSI)) + (\ textrm (EYSI))) (2)))
3. Income Index (II) = ln (GNIpc) − ln (100) ln (75, 000) − ln (100) (\ displaystyle = (\ frac (\ ln ((\ textrm (GNIpc))) - \ ln (100)) (\ ln (75,000) - \ ln (100))))
Finally, the HDI is the geometric mean of the previous three normalized indices:
HDI = LEI ⋅ EI ⋅ II 3. (\ displaystyle (\ textrm (HDI)) = (\ sqrt ((3)) ((\ textrm (LEI)) \ cdot (\ textrm (EI)) \ cdot (\ textrm (II)))).)
LE: Life expectancy at birth MYS: Mean years of schooling (i.e. years that a person aged 25 or older has spent in formal education) EYS: Expected years of schooling (i.e. total expected years of schooling for children under 18 years of age) GNIpc: Gross national income at purchasing power parity per capita
The HDI combined three dimensions last used in its 2009 Report:
This methodology was used by the UNDP until their 2011 report.
The formula defining the HDI is promulgated by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). In general, to transform a raw variable, say x (\ displaystyle x), into a unit - free index between 0 and 1 (which allows different indices to be added together), the following formula is used:
where a (\ displaystyle a) and b (\ displaystyle b) are the lowest and highest values the variable x (\ displaystyle x) can attain, respectively.
The Human Development Index (HDI) then represents the uniformly weighted sum with ⁄ contributed by each of the following factor indices:
Other organizations / companies may include other factors, such as infant mortality, which produces a different HDI.
The 2016 Human Development Report by the United Nations Development Programme was released on 21 March 2017, and calculates HDI values based on estimates for 2015. Below is the list of the "very high human development '' countries:
The Inequality - adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI) is a "measure of the average level of human development of people in a society once inequality is taken into account ''.
The rankings are not relative to the HDI list above due to the exclusion of countries which are missing IHDI data (p. 206).
Countries in the top quartile of HDI ("very high human development '' group) with a missing IHDI: Taiwan, New Zealand, Singapore, Hong Kong, Liechtenstein, Brunei, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Andorra, United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, and Kuwait.
The 2015 Human Development Report by the United Nations Development Programme was released on 14 December 2015, and calculates HDI values based on estimates for 2014. Below is the list of the "very high human development '' countries:
The Inequality - adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI) is a "measure of the average level of human development of people in a society once inequality is taken into account ''.
Note: The green arrows (), red arrows (), and blue dashes () represent changes in rank. The rankings are not relative to the HDI list above due to the exclusion of countries which are missing IHDI data (p. 216).
Countries in the top quartile of HDI ("very high human development '' group) with a missing IHDI: Taiwan, New Zealand, Singapore, Hong Kong, Liechtenstein, Brunei, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Andorra, United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Cuba, and Kuwait.
The 2014 Human Development Report by the United Nations Development Programme was released on 24 July 2014 and calculates HDI values based on estimates for 2013. Below is the list of the "very high human development '' countries or regions:
Some countries were not included for various reasons, primarily due to the lack of necessary data. The following United Nations Member States were not included in the 2014 report: North Korea, Marshall Islands, Monaco, Nauru, San Marino, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, and Tuvalu.
The Inequality - adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI) is a "measure of the average level of human development of people in a society once inequality is taken into account ''.
Note: The green arrows (), red arrows (), and blue dashes () represent changes in rank. The rankings are not relative to the HDI list above due to the exclusion of countries which are missing IHDI data (p. 168).
Countries in the top quartile of HDI ("very high human development '' group) with a missing IHDI: Taiwan, New Zealand, Singapore, Hong Kong, Liechtenstein, Brunei, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Andorra, United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Cuba, and Kuwait.
The list below displays the top - ranked country from each year of the Human Development Index. Norway has been ranked the highest thirteen times, Canada eight times, and Japan three times. Iceland has been ranked highest twice.
The year represents when the report was published. In parentheses is the year for which the index was calculated.
The HDI has extended its geographical coverage: David Hastings, of the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, published a report geographically extending the HDI to 230 + economies, whereas the UNDP HDI for 2009 enumerates 182 economies and coverage for the 2010 HDI dropped to 169 countries.
The Human Development Index has been criticized on a number of grounds, including alleged lack of consideration of technological development or contributions to the human civilization, focusing exclusively on national performance and ranking, lack of attention to development from a global perspective, measurement error of the underlying statistics, and on the UNDP 's changes in formula which can lead to severe misclassification in the categorisation of ' low ', ' medium ', ' high ' or ' very high ' human development countries.
Economists Hendrik Wolff, Howard Chong and Maximilian Auffhammer discuss the HDI from the perspective of data error in the underlying health, education and income statistics used to construct the HDI. They identified three sources of data error which are due to (i) data updating, (ii) formula revisions and (iii) thresholds to classify a country 's development status and conclude that 11 %, 21 % and 34 % of all countries can be interpreted as currently misclassified in the development bins due to the three sources of data error, respectively. The authors suggest that the United Nations should discontinue the practice of classifying countries into development bins because: the cut - off values seem arbitrary, can provide incentives for strategic behavior in reporting official statistics, and have the potential to misguide politicians, investors, charity donors and the public who use the HDI at large.
In 2010, the UNDP reacted to the criticism and updated the thresholds to classify nations as low, medium, and high human development countries. In a comment to The Economist in early January 2011, the Human Development Report Office responded to a 6 January 2011 article in the magazine which discusses the Wolff et al. paper. The Human Development Report Office states that they undertook a systematic revision of the methods used for the calculation of the HDI, and that the new methodology directly addresses the critique by Wolff et al. in that it generates a system for continuously updating the human - development categories whenever formula or data revisions take place.
In 2013, Salvatore Monni and Alessandro Spaventa emphasized that in the debate of GDP versus HDI, it is often forgotten that these are both external indicators that prioritize different benchmarks upon which the quantification of societal welfare can be predicated. The larger question is whether it is possible to shift the focus of policy from a battle between competing paradigms to a mechanism for eliciting information on well - being directly from the population.
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bukit kiara kuala lumpur federal territory of kuala lumpur | Bukit Kiara - wikipedia
Bukit Kiara is an affluent suburb of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The area is in proximity to the suburbs of Bukit Damansara, TTDI, Mont Kiara, Sri Hartamas and Bangsar. Bukit Kiara has often been described as the ' green lung ' of Kuala Lumpur, boasting many jungle trails through its characteristic hills. Despite rapid housing and commercial development in the area, the area is still known as an enigmatic and exclusive area of Kuala Lumpur. The Securities Commission Malaysia headquarters, the National Science Centre and the Educational Technology Division (Bahagian Teknologi Pendidikan) are located here.
Upcoming developments on several tracts of land in Bukit Kiara has met with protests from several non-governmental organisations (NGOs), citing the area 's "green lung '' status as a factor.
The area was once a rubber estate until it was acquired by the Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur in 1980.
Bukit Kiara is well equipped for recreational purposes as the area is home to Bukit Kiara Equestrian & Country Resort, Selangor Club, Sime Darby Convention Centre, Kuala Lumpur Golf & Country Club and Bukit Kiara Sports Complex. Private facilities for members include a swimming pool, spa, gym, indoor and outdoor tennis, basketball, and badminton courts, a bowling alley, horse riding and polo facilities, restaurants, golf, fishing and billiard rooms.
For avid hikers and bikers within the confines of Kuala Lumpur and Selangor, Bukit Kiara 's routes and technical trails are just about the best in the area. The trail roads stretch 15 kilometres but these trails are diminishing. Owned and maintained by Dewan Bandaraya Kuala Lumpur, many segments of Kiara 's lush greenery have been compromised for development, mostly attributed to the manifestation of Vision 2020. Many of such cases include the deforestation of previous trails such as "Dogs '', "Banana Ridge '' and "The Creek '' for what Malaysians now know as the Penchala Tunnel.
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are trader joe's and aldis the same | Trader Joe 's - Wikipedia
Trader Joe 's is an American chain of grocery stores based in Monrovia, California, owned by a German private equity family trust. By 2015, it was a competitor in "fresh format '' grocery stores in the United States. As of October 12, 2017, Trader Joe 's had 474 stores nationwide in 43 states and in Washington, D.C.
Trader Joe 's was founded by Joseph "Joe '' Coulombe. From 1979, it was owned by German entrepreneur Theo Albrecht until his death in 2010, when ownership passed to his heirs. The company has offices in Monrovia, California, and Boston, Massachusetts.
Trader Joe 's is named after its founder, Joe Coulombe. The chain began in 1958 as a Greater Los Angeles area chain of Pronto Market convenience stores. The original Pronto Markets were so similar to 7 - Eleven that Coulombe felt the competition with 7 - Eleven would be ruinous.
Coulombe is said to have developed the idea of the Trader Joe 's South Seas motif while on vacation in the Caribbean. The Tiki culture fad of the 1950s and 1960s was fresh in the cultural memory, and Trader Vic 's was at its height with 25 locations worldwide. He had noticed that Americans were traveling more and returning home with tastes for food and wine they had trouble satisfying in supermarkets of the time.
The first store branded as "Trader Joe 's '' opened in 1967. This store, on Arroyo Parkway in Pasadena, California, remains in operation. In the first few decades of operation, some of the stores offered fresh meats provided by butchers who leased space in the stores. Trader Joe 's at one time had sandwich shops, freshly cut cheese and freshly squeezed orange juice.
Germany 's Theo Albrecht bought the company in 1979 as a personal investment for his family. Coulombe was succeeded as CEO by John Shields in 1987. Under his leadership the company expanded beyond California, moving into Arizona in 1993 and into the Pacific Northwest two years later. In 1996, the company opened its first stores on the East Coast: in Brookline and Cambridge both outside Boston. Shields retired in 2001 when Dan Bane succeeded him as CEO after being the President of the Western Division. When Bane became CEO there were 156 stores in 15 states.
BusinessWeek reported that Trader Joe 's quintupled the number of its stores between 1990 and 2001, and multiplied its profits by ten. Supermarket News estimated Trader Joe 's sales for 2015 at $13 billion, and placed Trader Joe 's 21st on the list of "SN 's Top 75 Retailers for 2016. ''
In February 2008, BusinessWeek reported that the company had the highest sales per square foot of any grocer in the United States. Two - and - a-half years later and in 2016, Fortune magazine estimated sales to be $1,750 in merchandise per square foot, more than double the sales generated by Whole Foods.
In February 2016, due to customer feedback Trader Joe 's announced their goal "to have all the eggs they sell in western states (CA, OR, WA, AZ, NM and CO) come from cage - free suppliers by 2020 and all the eggs we sell nationally to come from cage - free suppliers by 2025. ''
The May 2009 issue of Consumer Reports ranked Trader Joe 's the second - best supermarket chain in the United States (after Wegmans). In June 2009, MSN Money released its third annual Customer Service Hall of Fame survey results. Trader Joe 's ranked second in customer service. Although Ethisphere magazine listed Trader Joe 's among its most ethical companies in the United States from 2008 to 2010, Trader Joe 's did not make the list in 2011. In 2014, Consumer Reports again ranked Trader Joe 's a top - scoring supermarket chain.
As of October 12, 2017, Trader Joe 's had 474 stores in the United States with stores being added regularly. Most locations averaged between 10,000 and 15,000 sq ft (1,400 m).
Each location is designed to represent its respective area. Every store has its own crew members that create artwork to represent the surrounding neighborhood. Some store locations have their own "find the mascot '' and kids can obtain a prize when they tell a crew where it is "hiding ''.
Trader Joe 's is a tiki - nautical themed establishment but locational stores may include props to blend into the local area; for example, a surf theme for a store near the beach. Legend even says that some locations have a rather peculiar initiation where they have their employees "walk the plank ''.
While a typical grocery store may carry 50,000 items, Trader Joe 's stocks about 4,000 items, 80 % of which bear one of its own brand names. Trader Joe 's describes itself as "your neighborhood grocery store. '' Products include gourmet foods, organic foods, vegetarian foods, unusual frozen foods, imported foods, domestic and imported wine and beer (where local law permits), "alternative '' food items, and staples such as bread, cereal, eggs, dairy, coffee, and produce. Non-food items include personal hygiene products, household cleaners, vitamins, pet food, plants, and flowers.
Many of the company 's products are environmentally friendly. In October 2007, amid customer concerns, Trader Joe 's began to phase out foods imported from China, and from February to April 2008, Trader Joe 's phased out single - ingredient products from China because of customer concerns. Between 2012 and 2013, Trader Joe 's moved from 15th on Greenpeace 's CATO (Carting Away the Oceans) scale to third by removing six unsustainable species of fish from its shelves and getting involved in efforts to protect the Bering Sea Canyons.
Trader Joe 's discontinues individual products based on customer reactions more often than larger grocery chains to free up space for new items. Some products are exclusive to certain regions (ex. midwest, east coast) of the United States depending on availability and popularity.
Trader Joe 's sells many items under its own private labels, at a significant discount to brand - name equivalents, and requires its brand - name suppliers not to publicize this business relationship. Trader Joe 's labels are sometimes named in accordance with the ethnicity of the food in question, such as "Trader Jose 's '' (Mexican food), "Baker Josef 's '' (flour and bagels), "Trader Giotto 's '' (Italian food), "Trader Joe - San 's '' (Japanese food), "Trader Ming 's '' (Asian food), "JosephsBrau '' (beer), and "Trader Jacques ' '' (French food and soaps). By selling almost all of its products under its own labels, Trader Joe 's "skips the middle man '' and buys directly from both local and international small - time vendors.
Trader Joe 's is the exclusive retailer of Charles Shaw wine, popularly known as "Two Buck Chuck '' because of its original $1.99 price tag in California (local prices vary). Of the wine selection at Trader Joe 's, Coloumbe has said, "We built Trader Joe 's on wine first, then food. I tasted 100,000 wines, and most were n't wonderful. They were submitted to us by desperate vintners. '' Along with Charles Shaw, Trader Joe 's is known for stocking a very large selection of California and New World wines.
Trader Joe 's has said its private - label products contain no artificial flavors, no artificial preservatives, no colors derived from anything other than naturally available products, no genetically modified ingredients, no partially hydrogenated oils (adding trans fat), and no MSG. In addition, its private label dairy products use milk from cows not given the artificial growth hormone rBST.
Trader Joe 's also has a "Fearless Flyer '' that showcases new products or highlighted products of the month. The flyer is sent out periodically to homes upon request with no charge, and is available in - store. The company sends out "E-Flyers '' that are only accessible online. Both flyers include stories about new products, a description, and even recipes.
From an article titled "Trader Joe 's Gets it Easy? '':
The chain ranked low on Greenpeace 's sustainable seafood report card. The packaging is excessive, with even the produce sealed in plastic. The business model forces consumers to buy in quantities large enough to encourage waste. And most of Trader Joe 's products are made on equipment shared with everything you might be allergic to (dairy, nuts) or philosophically opposed to eating (dairy, meat).
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when did driver's license start having pictures | Driver 's licenses in the United states - wikipedia
In the United States of America, driver 's licenses are issued by each individual state, territories, and the federal district rather than by the federal government because of the concept of federalism. Drivers are normally required to obtain a license from their state of residence and all states recognize each other 's licenses for temporary visitors subject to normal age requirements. A state may also suspend an individual 's driving privilege within its borders for traffic violations. Many states share a common system of license classes, with some exceptions, e.g. commercial license classes are standardized by federal regulation at 49 C.F.R. 383.
In 1899 Chicago and New York City were the first locales to require testing before being allowed to drive a motor vehicle. Massachusetts and Missouri were the first U.S. states to require a license for driving a motor vehicle in 1903; however, Missouri did not require testing before a license was granted.
Pennsylvania 's 1909 licensing laws were the first to give an age restriction ("18 years of age '') and the first state to allow 16 - year - olds to drive (accompanied by a licensed driver) was Connecticut in 1921.
Some states also have additional classifications. Hawaii, for example, has a separate license category for drivers who only operate mopeds, while some more northerly states have separate categories for snowmobiles and ATVs. South Carolina and Georgia have non-commercial versions of every commercial class license for agricultural purposes.
Class C licenses are issued in all states, except Massachusetts, in both commercial and non-commercial status. A non-commercial Class C license may not be used for hire. Most recreational vehicles that do not fall into the class D / E category, such as converted buses, tractor, lawn mowers, or full size (greater than 40 feet (12 m)) campers require a non-commercial Class C license and the corresponding permit from the state with which you reside.
Professional drivers are usually required to add endorsements to their CDL in order to drive certain types of vehicles that require additional training, such as those equipped with air brakes. CDL endorsements requirements are mostly similar, but some vary slightly from state to state. The training and testing requirements are regulated by the US Department of Transportation. Endorsements are as follows:
Licenses can be restricted through any of the following ways:
In a rare exception to states and territories issuing driver 's licenses, the State Department 's Office of Foreign Missions (OFM) issues driver 's licenses to foreign officials and diplomats, bypassing the states and territories in which they live. OFM - issued driver licenses are equivalent to a regular state - issued license.
The minimum age to obtain a restricted driver 's license in the United States varies from 14 years, three months in South Dakota to as high as 17 in New Jersey. In most states, with the exception of South Dakota, a graduated licensing law applies to newly licensed teenage drivers, going by names such as Provisional Driver, Junior Operator, Probationary Driver, or Intermediate License. These licenses restrict certain driving privileges, such as whether the new driver may carry passengers and if so how many, as well as setting a curfew for young drivers to be off the roads. For example, Utah drivers who are under 18 may not drive other people outside the family in their first six months with a license. Unlike in some states of Australia and some provinces of Canada, however, graduated licensing laws do not require lowered speed limits, displaying of L and P plates, restrictions on towing a trailer or boat, or prohibitions on highway driving or operating high performance cars.
Drivers under 18 are usually required to attend a comprehensive driver 's education program either at their high school or a professional driving school and take a certain number of behind the wheel lessons with a certified driving instructor before applying for a license. Some states like New York also require new adult drivers to attend some form of driver 's education before applying for a license.
However, in some states all newly licensed adult drivers may be on probation for a set amount of time (usually between six months and two years), during which traffic violations carry harsher penalties or mandatory suspensions that would not normally apply to experienced drivers.
According to federal law, the minimum age to operate a commercial vehicle in interstate transit is 21; as a result the minimum age to apply for an unrestricted commercial driver 's license is 21.
Driving a school bus also requires a CDL, however the minimum age to drive a school bus is typically higher, usually 25. Some states issue restricted intrastate commercial driver 's licenses, valid for operating commercial vehicles in that state only, to drivers aged 18 and older. Professional drivers who are aged 18 -- 20 typically can not be licensed to drive tractor trailers, hazardous materials, or school buses.
Below is a list of Graduated Driver 's Licenses (GDL) and hardship licenses for minors laws for each of the 50 states and the District of Columbia. The list includes the state agency responsible for issuing driver 's licenses and the length of time that a full (unrestricted) driver 's license is valid for.
Note: In California, to obtain a hardship license for a minor, the minor must be at least 14 but under the age of 18. The pertinent form is DL120 and is entitled "Junior Permit Statement of Facts ''.
Note: In Georgia, to obtain a hardship license for a minor, the minor must have a suspended license due to school conduct or attendance problems and needs an exemption in order to get to and from school or for family medical reasons. The minor must be old enough to already have a license. The pertinent form is DDS 7012.
Driver must have not been convicted of a moving violation in the six months prior to turning 18 to receive full license privileges. If a driver is convicted of a moving violation in the first full year of licensing, this will result in extension of the passenger restriction for an additional six months. If a driver is convicted of a moving violation before turning 18, the Secretary of State will mail a warning letter to the driver and parents. If an under 18 driver is convicted of two moving violations in 24 months, this will result in a minimum 1 - month license suspension.
The driver may not use any telecommunication device while operating the vehicle. For the first 180 days of holding their license, the driver may not have any passengers, unless the passengers are over the age of 25 and hold a valid driver 's license. Holders of a probationary driver 's license must comply with state and local curfew laws.
Note: In Iowa, to obtain a hardship license for a minor, called a Minor School License (MSL), the minor must be at minimum 14 and a half years old, the minor must have completed an Iowa - approved drivers education class unless exempted due to hardship, the minor must have a valid instruction permit for the previous six months, the minor 's driving history must be free of convictions for moving traffic violations, contributive accidents and license withdrawals during the six - month period immediately preceding application, and the minor must live at least one mile or more from the school he or she is enrolled in. The pertinent form is Form 430021, entitled "Affidavit for School License '', but the form must be completed by the school and signed by the minor 's parent (s) or legal guardian (s).
Permit must be held for six months. After logging 20 daytime and five nighttime hours of driving, if the learner is between age 15 and 16 the learner has the option of getting a restricted license. The learner must then log an additional 20 daytime and five nighttime practice hours and reach age 16 before getting a less restricted license. Applicant must provide affidavit showing at least 50 hours of adult supervised driving, with ten of those hours being at night, by a licensed driver at least 21 years old. At age 17, a full - privileges license may be obtained with the same requirements as the semi-restricted license. Nonresident: At least 16 years of age and has in immediate possession a valid license issued by home state or country.
Intermediate License (Age 16): Must have completed the Learners 's Permit requirements, pass the on - road drivers test, and have the Learner 's Permit for at least 90 days. May not drive between the hours of 11 p.m. to 5 a.m. Full License (Age 17): Must successfully complete Learner 's Permit and Intermediate License stages or be a minimum of 17 years of age prior to application for the first time.
Note: In Michigan, to obtain a hardship license for a minor, the minor, who is at least 14 years old, must be living on a family - owned farm, the minor 's family income must meet specific levels depending on the number of family members, there must be a significant change in the farming operation, i.e. the loss of a previous driver, to warrant requesting a minor restricted license, and the minor has no alternative transportation available. The pertinent form is entitled "Application for Minor Restricted License Special Farming Need Only ''. Due to the expense of the graduated licensing system (including driver education, it can reach upwards of $500 for the entire process), most poorer Michigan residents wait until they are 18, spend $11 to get the Temporary Instruction Permit, and then take a road test, which is no higher than $50.
Note: In Minnesota, to obtain a hardship license for a minor, called a Restricted Farm Work License, the minor must be at least 15 years old and need the license to help a parent or legal guardian on a farm. The pertinent form is the Farm Work License Affidavit.
Note: The validity periods to the left are for Class D licenses.
Note: In Nebraska, to obtain a hardship license for a minor, both a School Learners Permit and a School Permit will be issued. A minor, who is at a minimum 14 years old, must have a School Learners Permit for at least 2 months before getting a School Permit. A School Permit will be issued for a minor, who is at a minimum age of 14 years, 2 months, who lives at least a mile and a half or more from school, who resides outside of a city with 5,000 people or more, or who attends a school outside a city of 5,000 people or more. The School Permit is to be used for the purpose of transporting the minor or any family member who resides with the minor to attend school, extracurricular, or school - related activities at the school, and the minor may drive under the personal supervision of a licensed driver who is at least 21 years old. If a minor has not completed a DMV - approved Driver Safety Course, then the minor is required to compile 50 hours of driving time with a parent, guardian or licensed driver 21 years or older. Information about the School Learners Permit and School Permit can be found here at and the certification of 50 hours of driving time is located at.
Note: In Nevada, to obtain a hardship license for a minor, a minor restricted license can not be approved for commercial driving purposes, to seek employment, or for public school students in Carson City, Clark, Douglas, or Washoe counties; workdays and hours are limited to a maximum of six (6) days per week, ten (10) hours per day; a physician 's statement is required if a minor is driving for medical purposes; a "Verification of Need '' affidavit must be completed by an unbiased individual (a member of the clergy or a social worker, etc.) and signed in front of a DMV authorized representative or notary public official if a minor is driving for medical appointments or to go to a grocery store; school authorities and parents / guardians must complete certain sections if a minor is driving to school. The form is entitled "Restricted License Information ''.
Learner Permits: NYC has the toughest regulations of the regions, requiring an instructor 's brake to be installed, and the accompanying driver must be a parent or professional instructor (driving school / driver 's ed teacher), and prohibits driving between 9 p.m. and 5 a.m. On Long Island, one must be accompanied by a guardian or professional instructor, and may not drive between 9 a.m. and 5 p.m. In the rest of the state, one may drive while accompanied by a licensed driver over 21 from 5 a.m. to 9 p.m.; other hours require parent or professional accompaniment.
Junior operator licenses (Class DJ or MJ) allows unaccompanied driving from 5 a.m. to 10 p.m., driving outside these hours is permitted only to or from school, employment, or documented medical appointments, unless the driver is accompanied by their parent, legal guardian, or a certified driving instructor. Once someone acquires a junior license he / she is able to drive to and from school with the same restrictions on passengers as driving anywhere else with a junior license.
Adolescent drivers must have their permit accident and ticket free for six full months before taking their road test, along with the completion at least 50 hours of supervised driving, 15 of which must be in moderate to heavy traffic.
A full driver 's education course is not required in New York, although license applicants who do not have a driver 's ed certificate must complete a five - hour pre-licensing course. For 17 - year - olds, a junior license will be converted to a full standard license if the driver submits a Driver 's Ed Certificate and a certified completion of 50 hours of driving plus 15 in moderate to heavy traffic. Otherwise, it will be converted on the driver 's 18th birthday. A 12 a.m. curfew exists for drivers who have not completed the driver 's ed program.
Under 17 either with a learner 's permit or a driver license can not drive between midnight and 6 a.m., under 18 either with a learner 's permit or a driver license can not drive between 1 a.m. and 5 a.m., unless accompanied by a parent or guardian. Drivers under 17 may only have one non-family member under the age of 21 in the vehicle; no restrictions on family members or those over 21. 18 and over have full license privileges and have no time or passenger restrictions. Special restricted license can drive after hours for purposes of employment, education, travel between home and school, vocational training, employment opportunities, and attending church services.
Note: In Ohio, to obtain a hardship license for a minor, the minor, aged 14 or 15 years old, must be the only licensed driver in the household; any other licensed driver will be required to surrender his or her driver license; a hardship license may not be used for the child to drive themselves or siblings to and from school, work or social and school events; the license is valid only within a 10 - mile radius of the home for obtaining groceries and other household necessities, to drive the disabled parent or guardian to medical appointments and medical emergencies; the parent or guardian must accompany the child at all times while driving; the family must live in an area where there is no public transportation or community services available to assist them; the parent or guardian must show proof that they can maintain financial responsibility insurance on the driver; the child must complete a driver education course and the graduated licensing requirements. To apply for a hardship license for a minor in Ohio, a minor and his or her family can send a letter to the Ohio Bureau of Motor Vehicles, P.O. Box 16784, Attention Driver License Special Case Division / Medical Unit, Columbus, Ohio, 43216 - 6784; the letter must explain the hardship and provide the BMV with the minor 's full name, date of birth, social security number and the names, dates of birth and social security numbers of any licensed drivers in the household; the BMV must also receive a notarized statement advising that any other driver (s) in the home would be willing to surrender their driver licenses if a hardship license were to be issued; before a hardship license is authorized, an investigation is conducted to assist the BMV in determining whether the household qualifies.
Special restricted license can drive after hours for purposes of employment, education, travel between home and school, vocational training, employment opportunities, and attending church services.
Applicants for the Special Restricted License must be accompanied by a parent or legal guardian during the application process to sign the Special Restricted License application.
Applicants must bring their Beginner Permit and submit a PDLA form certifying the following:
Teen drivers applying for the Special Restricted License must pass a vision screening and the DMV road test. Special Restricted License holders may drive unaccompanied from 6: 00 a.m. to 6: 00 p.m. or until 8: 00 p.m. during daylight saving time.
Outside of those hours the teen driver may drive until midnight if accompanied by a licensed driver that is a minimum of 21 years of age.
Between midnight and 4: 00 a.m. a Special Restricted License holder must be accompanied by a licensed parent or legal guardian.
Special Restricted License holders may receive an exception for these time restrictions if they can prove that the restrictions interfere with employment, education, travel between home and school, vocational training, employment opportunities, or attending church services.
Teen drivers must submit two statements to qualify the exception. One of the statements must be from a parent or legal guardian and the other must be a statement on letterhead from a school official or your employer.
The statements must describe the reason the waiver is needed.
Passengers under the age of 21 are limited to two unless they are immediate family members or students be transported to or from school or the license holder is accompanied by a licensed driver that is a minimum of 21 years of age.
Teen drivers that hold the Special Restricted License for 16 - year - olds for one year without a conviction for a traffic violation and have not been at - fault in an accident may obtain full driving privileges when they reach the age of 17.
Note: In Tennessee, to obtain a hardship license for a minor, called a Class H license, if the minor is aged 14 or 15, the minor can operate a Class D passenger vehicle or Class M motorcycle (limited to 125 cc) or both; the minor must pass a vision screening, knowledge test, and road test to operate a Class D passenger vehicle; take the Class M knowledge and driving test in addition to the Class D knowledge test to drive a Class M vehicle; be limited to daylight hours only (5 am to 7 pm, no exceptions) and authorized locations only within a 25 - mile radius from the minor 's residence, as specified in the Department of Safety (DOS) letter. If the minor who has a Class H license is aged 15, the minor is treated the same as a Class PD (learners permit) license who drives with a licensed driver 21 years or older who sits in the front passenger seat. A Class H license will expire on the minor 's 16th birthday. More information can be found at and the form for application for a hardship license is located at.
Note: In Texas, for a minor to obtain a hardship license, the minor must be aged 14 to 18 years old; must have an unusual economic hardship on the minor 's family, the sickness or illness of a member of the minor 's family, or he or she is regularly enrolled in a vocational education program and requires a driver license to pursue the program and has completed an approved course in driver education. To obtain the pertinent form, called the DL 77 form, go to.
Note: In Wisconsin, to obtain a hardship license for a minor, the minor must be at least 14 years of age, but under the age of 18; must appear in person, accompanied by his or her parent or legal guardian, before an examining officer with a birth certificate showing the minor is at least 14 years old; must have the usage of an automobile, farm truck, dual purpose farm truck, motorcycle with an engine of no more than 125 cc, moped, or motor bicycle owned and registered by the applicant 's parent or guardian, or a farm truck leased to the applicant 's parent or guardian; must pass an examination, including a test of the applicant 's ability to safely operate the type of vehicle for which the minor is requesting the ability to use. The hardship license is valid only until the minor secures a full (unrestricted) driver 's license or reaches the age of 18, whichever comes first. The minor is not permitted to drive in hours of darkness or in a city of more than 500,000 people; operate either a commercial vehicle or vehicle for hire (e.g. a taxicab). These restrictions are provided in Section 343.08 of the Wisconsin Statutes & Annotations.
Note: In Wyoming, to obtain a hardship license for a minor, the minor must be aged 14 or 15 years, the minor 's residence is more than 5 miles from the school they attend; the minor has a regular job (a minimum of 10 hours per week) more than 5 miles from the minor 's residence; the minor must have a license to work in his / her parents ' business; any other circumstances which the Wyoming Highway Patrol (WHP) finds to be an extreme inconvenience, i.e. the need to provide transportation for long - term medical treatment or conditions (not to include routine medical office visits). Instructions accompanying the Restricted License Affidavit must be read, the Restricted License Affidavit itself must be filled out, a school attendance verification form must be attached, if the license is to be used for transportation to or from school, or in conjunction with extracurricular school activities, a work verification form must be attached, if the license is to be used for transportation to and from work; a verification of parental ownership of business form must be attached, if the license is to be used in conjunction with a parental business; an insurance verification form must be completed and attached; the Restrictions form must be completed by the WHP. More information can be found at. The instructions accompanying the Restricted License Affidavit can be found at. The Restricted License Affidavit itself can be found at, the School Attendance Verification form at, the Work Verification form at, the Verification of Parental Ownership of Business form at, the Insurance Verification form at, and the Restrictions form (only to be filled out by the WHP) at.
According to a December 2, 2004, Los Angeles Times article, only 43 % of American 15 -, 16 -, and 17 - year - olds had licenses in 2002. By comparison, the percentage in 1982 was 52 %.
Driver 's licenses issued in the United States have a number or alphanumeric code issued by the issuing state 's department of motor vehicles (or equivalent), usually show a photograph of the bearer, as well as a copy of his or her signature, the address of his or her primary residence, the type or class of license, restrictions and / or endorsements (if any), the physical characteristics of the bearer (such as height, weight, hair color, and eye color), and birth date. No two driver 's license numbers issued by a state are alike. Social Security numbers are now prohibited by federal law from appearing on new driver 's licenses, due to identity theft concerns. In most states, to be compliant with AAMVA standards, the orientation of a driver 's license for persons under the age of 21 is vertical while a driver 's license for those over the age of 21 is horizontal. Since the driver 's license is often used as proof of a person 's age, the difference in orientation makes it easy to determine that a person is legally allowed to purchase or consume alcohol (the drinking age in all U.S. states is 21). Some states, however, do not require that a driver 's license is changed to horizontal, such as Arizona, where it is optional to change to a horizontal license. Furthermore, the vertical license does not expire until age 65 in the state of Arizona. Most states require that when a driver establishes residence in a state, he or she must obtain a license issued by that state within a certain time frame.
Because there is no national identity card in the United States, the driver 's license is often used as the de facto equivalent for completion of many common business and governmental transactions. As a result, driver 's licenses are the focus of many kinds of identity theft. Driver 's licenses were not always identification cards. In many states, driver 's licenses did not even have a photograph well into the 1980s. Activism by the Mothers Against Drunk Driving organization for the use of photo ID age verification in conjunction with increasing the drinking age to 21 in order to reduce underage drinking led to photographs being added to all state licenses. New York and Tennessee were the last states to add photos in 1986. However, New Jersey later allowed drivers to get non-photo licenses; this was later revoked. Vermont license holders have the option of receiving a non-photo license. All Tennessee drivers aged 60 years of age or older had the option of a non-photo driver 's license prior to January 2013, when photo licenses were required for voting identification. All people with valid non-photo licenses will be allowed to get a photo license when their current license expires. Thirteen states allow the option of a non-photo driver 's license for reasons of religious belief: Arkansas, Indiana, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, New Jersey, North Dakota, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Washington, and Wisconsin.
Later additions varied from state to state, and have included fingerprints, bar codes, magnetic strips, social security numbers, and tamper - proof features, most of which were added to prevent identity theft and to curb the use of fake IDs. States have now slowly been converting to digitized driver 's licenses, which incorporate holograms and bar codes to prevent forgery.
Many states, usually through the same agency that issues driver 's licenses, provide identification cards for people who do not drive.
The Department of Homeland Security has the power through the Real ID Act of 2005 to set standards relating to identification of applicants and license design for state - issued driver licenses and identification cards. States are not required to comply with RealID, but if a state does not comply, any driver licenses or ID cards issued by that state will not be valid for any official purpose with the federal government, meaning they will not be accepted for entering federal buildings or boarding airplanes.
For a state to meet RealID compliance, licenses and ID cards issued from that state must be approved by DHS in meeting RealID requirements.
States can choose to issue both regular licenses and ID cards as well as RealIDs, but any non-RealID must be marked that it is not a RealID.
RealIDs are allowed to be issued only to legal immigrants and citizens of the United States.
When a person applies for a RealID, either as a new driver license or ID card applicant or renewing a current license or ID card, they must present a citizenship document (US passport, certified birth certificate or citizenship certificate) or proof of legal immigrant status (valid visa) and proof of residency in that state. The state then must verify the documents and store them either electronically or on paper. No one may have more than one RealID at one time.
For those born on or after December 1, 1964, a RealID must be obtained by December 1, 2014, to be allowed to conduct business with the federal government. Those born before December 1, 1964, have until December 1, 2017, to obtain their RealIDs.
Florida, Nevada and Wisconsin have been approved by DHS and started to issue RealIDs. A RealID can be identified as materially compliant by a gold star located on the top third of the ID. A fully compliant RealID is identified as having a circle with an inset gold star in the top third of the ID. As of October 2011, Connecticut also issues them. Starting in January 2013, Ohio is issuing RealIDs under the name "Safe ID ''.
Additionally, some states, mostly those with an international border, issue enhanced driver licenses and enhanced ID cards. Enhanced licenses combine a regular driver 's license with the specifications of the new federal passport card. Thus, in addition to providing driving privileges, the enhanced license also is proof of U.S. citizenship, and can therefore be used to cross the Canadian and Mexican borders by road, rail, or sea, although air travel still requires a traditional passport book. The enhanced licenses are also fully Real ID compliant.
As of May 2009, Vermont, New York, Michigan, and Washington were issuing enhanced driver 's licenses and ID cards. In January 2014, Minnesota became the fifth state to issue enhanced driver 's licenses, while Ohio is set to become the sixth state once it has been approved by its legislature.
On March 27, 2008, the Secretary of Homeland Security announced that Washington 's enhanced driver 's license was the first such license approved under the Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative; according to a Homeland Security press release, the department is also working with Arizonan authorities to develop enhanced driver 's licenses. On September 16, 2008, New York began issuing enhanced driver 's licenses that meet WHTI requirements. Texas was expected to also implement an enhanced driver 's license program, but the program has been blocked by Texas Governor Rick Perry, despite a state law authorizing the Texas Department of Public Safety to issue EDLs and a ruling by the state attorney general, Greg Abbott, that Texas ' production of EDLs would comply with federal requirements.
California, Iowa, and Delaware have proposed digital drivers licenses as a means of identification. The license would be available as an app by MorphoTrust USA and installed on a user 's personal cellphone. Several questions have been raised about user privacy, since a police officer may ask for one 's license and gain access to one 's cellphone.
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when does love simon come out on dvd in australia | Love, Simon - wikipedia
Love, Simon is a 2018 American romantic comedy - drama film directed by Greg Berlanti, written by Isaac Aptaker and Elizabeth Berger, and based on the novel Simon vs. the Homo Sapiens Agenda by Becky Albertalli. The film stars Nick Robinson, Josh Duhamel, and Jennifer Garner. It centers on Simon Spier, a closeted gay teenage boy in high school who is forced to balance his friends, his family, and the blackmailer threatening to out him to the entire school, while simultaneously attempting to discover the identity of the anonymous classmate with whom he has fallen in love online.
Love, Simon premiered at the Mardi Gras Film Festival on February 27, 2018, and was released in the United States on March 16, 2018, by 20th Century Fox. Critics praised the film for its "big heart, diverse and talented cast, and revolutionary normalcy '', describing it as an "instant classic '' that is "tender, sweet, and affecting '' and a "hugely charming crowd - pleaser '' that is "funny, warm - hearted and life - affirming '', with many comparing it to the romantic comedy - drama films of John Hughes. It is the first major studio film to focus on a gay teenage romance.
Simon Spier is a closeted gay teenage boy attending high school in a suburb of Atlanta, Georgia. He has a close and loving family: parents Emily and Jack, and sister Nora, as well as three best friends: Nick and Leah, whom he has known most of his life, and newcomer Abby. One day, Leah informs Simon about an online confession of a closeted gay student at their high school, known only by the pseudonym "Blue ''. As "Jacques '', Simon begins communicating with him. The two confide personal details and form a connection. However, their emails are accidentally discovered by another student, Martin, who is infatuated with Abby. After learning his secret, Martin blackmails Simon by threatening to make photos of Simon 's emails public and forces Simon to help him win over Abby.
Simon begins to suspect that one of his classmates, Bram, is Blue. At a Halloween party, he attempts to connect with Bram, but later Simon walks in on him and a female student making out. Inebriated, Simon is walked home by Leah, who then sleeps over. She speaks vaguely about how she feels that she is fated to love one person very intensely, and Simon believes she is referring to Nick.
Later, Simon meets with Abby and Martin at a local diner after Simon convinces them to practice lines together for an upcoming musical. Simon bonds with their server, a classmate named Lyle, and believes that Lyle may be Blue. That night, Simon comes out to Abby and becomes encouraged when she reacts positively. At a school football game, he crosses paths with Lyle; before he can summon the courage to ask if he is Blue, he finds out Lyle is interested in Abby.
An upset Simon tells a pestering Martin to either "go big or go home '' with Abby. During the national anthem at the football game, Martin seizes the microphone and declares his feelings for Abby, but she admits she does not like him. A humiliated Martin becomes the subject of intense ridicule.
On Christmas Eve, Martin impulsively posts Simon 's emails on the school gossip site, outing Simon by name. His sister Nora tries comforting him, but Simon shuts her out and does not return his friends ' frantic texts. On Christmas morning, Simon comes out to his parents, much to their surprise but acceptance.
Nick and Abby, now a couple, angrily confront Simon about the lies he told and learn that he had tried to keep them apart due to Martin 's blackmail. Leah confesses she was in love with Simon, not Nick, and is upset he came out to Abby first. After being rejected by his friends, Simon receives a final email from Blue, who is upset that their email discussions have been leaked. He tells Simon that they should stop speaking before deleting his email account. Simon is devastated, having lost his friends as well as the mystery pen - pal he has fallen in love with.
At school, Simon tries to determine Blue 's identity to no avail. In the cafeteria, Simon and an openly gay student, Ethan, are mocked by classmates. Ethan and Simon bond over the difficulties they have faced coming out.
After his parents reach out and comfort him, Simon apologizes to Leah. Simon posts a confession on the gossip site apologising to his friends for the hurt he caused and seeking out Blue and asking him to come forward. After the school musical, Leah, Nick and Abby make amends with Simon and invite him to go to the carnival with them. Waiting for Blue at the school carnival, Simon rides the Ferris wheel, drawing a large crowd of peers, until he runs out of tickets. Martin comes forward and, to make amends, buys him one more ride. Just before the ride begins, Bram sits next to Simon and reveals himself as Blue; the kiss Simon saw with the female student was a drunk misunderstanding. The couple ride the Ferris wheel together and kiss.
Simon 's life gradually returns to normal and he begins a relationship with Bram. While picking up his friends, and now Bram, for school, Simon disrupts their usual morning routine and suggests that they go "on a little adventure ''.
Principal photography began on March 6, 2017, in Atlanta, Georgia. Filming officially ended on April 23, 2017.
Knowing how expensive the cost of the music would be in the film, Berlanti made the choice to end shooting two days early. Of the decision, he said "I did know that a lot of the film was made in homage to movies that had these great soundtracks that, at my age, you 'd play the cassette tape over and over again until it would wear out. The soundtrack was the thing that kept you feeling the emotions of the movie. So it was always on my wish list to have a soundtrack that was reflective of that. It was very expensive so everyone wanted to make sure I was doing the right thing. I wanted more money to be put into the music. ''
The soundtrack of the film includes music by Bleachers, Troye Sivan, Amy Shark, Brenton Wood, The 1975, Normani and Khalid, among others. The first track released from the soundtrack was "Alfie 's Song (Not So Typical Love Song) '' by Bleachers.
Other songs that appear in the film but are not included on its soundtrack include "Waterloo Sunset '' by The Kinks, "No '' by Meghan Trainor and "As Long as You Love Me '' by Justin Bieber.
Love, Simon premiered at the Mardi Gras Film Festival on February 27, 2018, and also screened at the Glasgow Film Festival and the Melbourne Queer Film Festival. The film was released by 20th Century Fox in the United States and Canada on March 16, 2018, in Australia and New Zealand on March 29, 2018, in Brazil on April 5, 2018, in the United Kingdom and Ireland on April 6, 2018, in Colombia on April 12, 2018, Mexico on April 13, 2018, and is scheduled to be released in other countries on various dates throughout 2018.
Following the film 's release, several celebrities, including Jennifer Garner, Kristen Bell, Neil Patrick Harris, Joey Graceffa, Matt Bomer, Robbie Rogers, Benj Pasek, Tyler Oakley, Martin Gero, Andrew Rannells and Jesse Tyler Ferguson bought out entire theaters so that people could see the film for free, because they believe that the film conveys an important message.
The film became available to pre-order on home video on January 17, 2018, and is expected to be released in June 2018.
As of April 17, 2018, Love, Simon has grossed $39.6 million in the United States and Canada, and $11 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $50.7 million, against a production budget of $17 million, ranking # 15 out of all films since 1980 in the teen romance genre, and out - grossing every film in that genre distributed by 20th Century Fox other than The Fault in Our Stars and Romeo + Juliet.
Love, Simon held early preview screenings on March 2 and March 9 before its official release on March 16. It grossed $800,000 from 927 theaters on March 9, which Deadline Hollywood considered "strong ''. In the United States and Canada, the film was released alongside Tomb Raider and I Can Only Imagine, and was projected to gross $10 -- 12 million from 2,401 theaters in its opening weekend. The film made $4.6 million on its first day (including $850,000 from Thursday previews at 2,125 theaters). The film went on to debut at $11.8 million, finishing fifth at the box office; 58 % of its opening weekend audience was female and 59 % was under 25. In its second weekend the film dropped 33 % to $7.8 million, finishing 7th, and in its third weekend made $4.8 million, finishing ninth. In the UK, the film debuted at number four, earning $1.6 million.
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 92 %, based on 157 reviews, with an average rating of 7.5 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Love, Simon hits its coming - of - age beats more deftly than many entries in this well - traveled genre -- and represents an overdue, if not entirely successful, milestone of inclusion. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 73 out of 100, based on 36 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A + '' on an A+ to F scale, one of fewer than 80 films in the history of the service to earn such a score.
Benjamin Lee of The Guardian gave the film 4 / 5 stars, calling it a "hugely charming crowd - pleaser ''. Pete Hammond of Deadline Hollywood gave the film 4 / 5 stars, stating that audiences "are guaranteed to fall in love with this sweet, funny coming - of - age film ''.
Molly Freeman of Screen Rant gave the film 4 / 5 stars or an Excellent rating, stating that "Love, Simon is a funny, heartfelt, and truly touching teen romantic comedy that instantly becomes a modern classic for today 's generation. '' Josh Winning of GamesRadar+ gave the film 4 / 5 stars, describing it as a "warm, sensitive and engaging coming - out - of - ager '' and "one of the freshest teen - coms in ages ''.
Meredith Goldstein of The Boston Globe gave the film 3.5 / 4 stars and stated, "Love, Simon is a sweet, modern romantic comedy that manages to channel the teen movie classics of the late John Hughes, but only the good stuff. '' Colin Covert of the Star Tribune gave the film 3 / 4 stars and wrote, "If John Hughes had gone on to make a smart LGBT coming - of - age charmer, most likely it would resemble this. ''
Bruce Demara of the Toronto Star also gave it 3 / 4 stars, stating "The casting is high quality, the script - with a tantalizing mystery at its heart - is particularly well - crafted and the story hits all the right emotional notes in delivering a funny, warm - hearted and life - affirming tale. '' Brian Truitt of USA Today gave the film 3.5 / 4 stars and wrote, "Young and old, jocks and nerds, geeks and freaks, and everyone in between should be able to find something to adore in Love, Simon. ''
Joyce Slaton of Common Sense Media gave the film 4 / 5 stars and described it as "tender, sweet, and affecting '', with the film also receiving The Common Sense Seal, which recognizes movies that offer families an exceptional media experience. MJ Franklin of Mashable wrote that "Love, Simon feels like an instant classic that you 're going to want to watch again and again. ''
Max Weiss of Baltimore gave Love, Simon 3 / 4 stars, calling it a "sweet, funny, warm - hearted film ''. Kevin Scott of Exclaim! gave the film a 7 out of 10 score, noting that the film has the "expected amount of sentimentality that effectively tugs at the heartstrings ''.
Peter Debruge of Variety, while stating that the film is average in execution, praised the content as "groundbreaking on so many levels, not least of which is just how otherwise familiar it all seems ''. Jesse Hassenger of The A.V. Club gave the film a C+ and wrote that the film "is touching as a gesture '', but as entertainment "it 's nothing Degrassi has n't done better ''.
Becky Albertalli, the author of the book, watched an early cut and praised the film, stating: "It 's funny and relevant and timeless and charming and honest and painful and so romantic. It says exactly what I wanted the book to say. ''
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where are columbia football team ranked in the world | FIFA World rankings - wikipedia
The FIFA World Ranking is a ranking system for men 's national teams in association football, currently led by France. The teams of the member nations of FIFA, football 's world governing body, are ranked based on their game results with the most successful teams being ranked highest. The rankings were introduced in December 1992, and eight teams (Argentina, Belgium, Brazil, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and Spain) have held the top position, of which Brazil have spent the longest ranked first.
A points system is used, with points being awarded based on the results of all FIFA - recognised full international matches.
The ranking system has been revamped on several occasions, generally responding to criticism that the preceding calculation method did not effectively reflect the relative strengths of the national teams. The current version of the ranking system was first used on 16 August 2018, adapted from the Elo rating system used in chess and Go. The rankings remain slightly different from the unofficial World Football Elo Ratings, which makes different presumptions and adaptations to the FIFA rankings.
In December 1992, FIFA first published a listing in rank order of its member associations to provide a basis for comparison of the relative strengths of these teams. From the following August, this list was more frequently updated, to be published most months. Significant changes were implemented in January 1999 and again in July 2006, as a reaction to criticisms of the system. Historical records of the rankings, such as listed at FIFA.com, reflect the method of calculation in use at the time, as the current method has not been applied retrospectively to rankings prior to July 2006. Membership of FIFA has expanded from 167 to 211 since the rankings began; all 211 members are currently included in the rankings.
The ranking formula used from August 1993 until December 1998 was very simplistic and quickly became noticed for its lack of supporting factors. When the rankings were initially introduced, a team received one point for a draw or three for a victory in FIFA - recognised matches -- much the same as a traditional league scoring system. This was a quite simplistic approach, however, and FIFA quickly realised that there were many factors affecting international matches.
In January 1999, FIFA introduced a revised system of ranking calculation, incorporating many changes in response to criticism of inappropriate rankings. For the ranking all matches, their scores and importance were all recorded, and were used in the calculation procedure. Only matches for the senior men 's national team were included. Separate ranking systems were used for other representative national sides such as women 's and junior teams, for example the FIFA Women 's World Rankings. The women 's rankings were, and still are, based on a procedure which is a simplified version of the Football Elo Ratings.
The major changes were as follows:
Two new awards were introduced as part of the system:
The changes made the ranking system more complex, but helped improve its accuracy by making it more comprehensive.
FIFA announced that the ranking system would be updated following the 2006 World Cup. The evaluation period was cut from eight to four years, and a simpler method of calculation was used to determine rankings. Goals scored and home or away advantage were no longer taken into account, and other aspects of the calculations, including the importance attributed to different types of match, were revised. The first set of revised rankings and the calculation methodology were announced on 12 July 2006.
This change was rooted at least in part in widespread criticism of the previous ranking system. Many football enthusiasts felt it was inaccurate, especially when compared to other ranking systems and that it was not sufficiently responsive to changes in the performance of individual teams.
In September 2017, FIFA announced they were reviewing the ranking system and will decide after the end of the 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification if any changes are to be made to improve the ranking.. FIFA announced on 10 June 2018 that the ranking system would be updated following the 2018 World Cup. The calculation method to be adopted will be closely modeled after the Elo rating system and rankings of its member associations will be updated on a game - by - game basis. The weighting designated for each confederation for ranking purposes will be abolished. However, the new methodology does not account for home or away games and margin of the victory, as Elo rankings.
FIFA had intended to introduce the new ranking system in July 2018, but with no matches scheduled between the July and August ranking dates, delayed until August 2018. There was speculation from football journalists such as ESPN 's Dale Johnson that this was because projections of the new rankings had seen relatively little change in positions, with Germany -- who had been eliminated in the first round of the World Cup -- remaining as the top ranked team. FIFA had originally planned to use existing world ranking points from June 2018 as the start value, but when the August rankings appeared, the starting points had been changed to an equal distribution of points between 1600 (Germany, as the previously top ranked team) and 868, the total of those teams which had previously had 0 points, according to the formula:
P s e e d i n g = 1600 − (R − 1) ∗ 4 (\ displaystyle P_ (seeding) = 1600 - (R - 1) * 4),
where R is the rank in June 2018. When two or more teams had equal ranks, the following team got the next immediate rank possible, e.g. if two teams had R = 11, the following team had R = 12, not 13. Then the rating changes according to the games played after previous release were calculated. This produced a more dramatically altered ranking table, with Germany falling to 15th and 2018 FIFA World Cup champions France moving to the top of the ranking.
When the system was introduced, Germany débuted as the top - ranked team following their extended period of dominance in which they had reached the three previous FIFA World Cup finals, winning one of them. Brazil took the lead in the run up to the 1994 FIFA World Cup after winning eight and losing only one of nine qualification matches, while on the way scoring twenty goals and conceding just four. Italy then led for a short time on the back of their own equally successful World Cup qualifying campaign, after which the top place was re-claimed by Germany.
Brazil 's success in their lengthy qualifying campaign returned them to the lead for a brief period. Germany led again during the 1994 World Cup, until Brazil 's victory in that competition gave them a large lead that would stand up for nearly seven years, until they were surpassed by a strong France team that captured both the 1998 FIFA World Cup and the 2000 European Football Championship.
Success at the 2002 FIFA World Cup restored Brazil to the top position, where they remained until February 2007, when Italy returned to the top for the first time since 1993 following their 2006 FIFA World Cup win in Germany. Just one month later, Argentina replaced them, reaching the top for the first time, but Italy regained its place in April. After winning the Copa América 2007 in July, Brazil returned to the top, but were replaced by Italy in September and then Argentina in October.
In July 2008, Spain took over the lead for the first time, having won UEFA Euro 2008. Brazil began a sixth stint at the top of the rankings in July 2009 after winning the 2009 Confederations Cup, and Spain regained the title in November 2009 after winning every match in qualification for the 2010 FIFA World Cup.
In April 2010, Brazil returned to the top of the table. After winning the 2010 World Cup, Spain regained the top position and held it until August 2011, when the Netherlands reached the top spot for the first time, only to relinquish it the following month.
In July 2014, Germany took over the lead once again, having won the 2014 FIFA World Cup. In July 2015, Argentina reached the top spot for the first time since 2008, after reaching both the 2014 FIFA World Cup Final, as well as the 2015 Copa America Final. In November 2015, Belgium became the leader in the FIFA rankings for the first time, after topping their Euro 2016 qualifying group. Belgium led the rankings until April 2016, when Argentina returned to the top. On April 6, 2017, Brazil returned to the No. 1 spot for the first time since just prior to the 2010 World Cup, but Germany regained the top spot in July after winning the Confederations Cup. In August 2018, France became the leader in the FIFA rankings again after nearly 16 years, having won the 2018 FIFA World Cup, and this is also the first time FIFA adopted the Elo rating system to the ranking system.
The rankings are used by FIFA to rank the progression and current ability of the national football teams of its member nations, and claims that they create "a reliable measure for comparing national A-teams ''. They are used as part of the calculation, or the entire grounds to seed competitions. In the 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification tournament, the rankings were used to seed the groups in the competitions involving CONCACAF members (using the May rankings), CAF (with the July set of data), and UEFA, using the specially postponed November 2007 ranking positions.
The October 2009 ranking was used to determine the seeds for the 2010 FIFA World Cup final draw. The March 2011 ranking was used to seed the draw for the 2012 CAF Men 's Pre-Olympic Tournament second qualifying round.
The rankings are also used to determine the winners of the two annual awards national teams receive on the basis of their performance in the rankings.
The English Football Association uses the average of the last 24 months of rankings as one of the criteria for player work permits.
Since their introduction in 1992, the FIFA World Rankings have been the subject of much debate, particularly regarding the calculation procedure and the resulting disparity between generally perceived quality and world ranking of some teams. The perceived flaws in the FIFA system have led to the creation of a number of alternative rankings from football statisticians, including the World Football Elo Ratings and the rec. sport. soccer Statistics Foundation rankings.
The initial system was very simple, with no weighting for the quality of opponent or importance of a match. This saw Norway reach second in October 1993 and July -- August 1995, a ranking that was criticized at the time. The rankings were adapted in 1999 to include weightings based on the importance of the match and the strength of the opponent. A win over a weak opponent resulted in fewer points being awarded than a win over a much stronger one. Further adaptations in 2006 were made to reduce the number of years ' results considered from 8 to 4, with greater reliance on matches from within the previous 12 months.
Still, criticisms of the rankings remained, with particular anomalies being noted including: the United States rise to fourth in 2006, to the surprise of even their own players; Israel 's climb to 15th in November 2008, which surprised the Israeli press,; and Belgium 's rank of world number 1 in November 2015, given that Belgium had only played in one tournament final stage in the past 13 years;
Further criticisms of the 2006 - 2018 formula included the inability of hosts of major tournaments to retain a high place in the rankings, as the team participated in only lower - value friendly matches due to their automatic qualification for the tournament. For example, 2014 FIFA World Cup hosts Brazil fell to a record low ranking of 22nd in the world prior to that tournament, at which they then finished fourth. 2018 FIFA World Cup hosts Russia had the lowest ranking (70th) at the tournament, where they reached quarterfinals.
In the 2010s, teams realized the ranking system could be ' gamed ', specifically by avoiding playing non-competitive matches, particularly against weaker opponents. This was because the low weighting of friendlies meant that even victories could reduce a team 's average score: in other words, a team could win a match and lose points. Prior to the seeding of the 2018 World Cup preliminary draw, Romania even appointed a ranking consultant, playing only one friendly in the year before the draw. Similar accusations had been made against Switzerland, who were a seeded team at the 2014 FIFA World Cup having played only three friendly matches in the previous year, and Poland before the 2018 FIFA World Cup.
The use of regional strength multiplier in the ranking formula before 2018 was also accused of further reinforcing and perpetuating the bias for and against certain regions. FIFA 's use of regional multiplier was cited as a primary reason why most teams in AFC (Asia) and CONCACAF (North America) held significantly lower FIFA rankings compared to their position in the World Football Elo Rankings.
On June 10, 2018, the new ranking system was approved by the FIFA Council. It is based on the Elo rating system and after each game points will be added to or subtracted from a team 's rating according to the formula:
where:
Negative points in knockout stages of final competitions will not affect teams ' ratings.
Each year FIFA hands out two awards to its member nations, based on their performance in the rankings. They are:
Team of the Year is awarded to the team that finishes top of the FIFA World Ranking. Germany are the Team of the Year for the third time in the 24 - year history of the rankings. Brazil hold the records for most consecutive wins (seven, between 1994 and 2000) and most wins overall (twelve). The table below shows the three best teams of each year.
The Best Mover of the Year was awarded to the team who made the best progress up the rankings over the course of the year. In the FIFA rankings, this is not simply the team that has risen the most places, but a calculation is performed in order to account for the fact that it becomes progressively harder to earn more points the higher up the rankings a team is.
The calculation used is the number of points the team has at the end of the year (z) multiplied by the number of points it earned during the year (y). The team with the highest index on this calculation received the award. The table below shows the top three best movers from each year.
The award has not been an official part of the awards since 2006.
While an official award has not been made for movements since 2006, FIFA has released a list of the ' Best Movers ' in the rankings since 2007.
An example of the informal on - going "Mover of the Year '' award is the recognition made by FIFA to Colombia in 2012 in an official press release. However, the calculation methodology had changed to the difference in ranking points over the course of the year (rather than the methodology used in the official award from 1993 to 2006). The results for latter years are based on a similar methodology.
Rankings are published monthly, usually on a Thursday. The deadline for the matches to be considered is usually the Thursday prior to the release date, but after major tournaments, all games up to the final are included. The 19 July 2018 release was cancelled following the new calculation method implementation.
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game of thrones episode 1 winter is coming | Winter is Coming - Wikipedia
"Winter Is Coming '' is the first episode of the HBO medieval fantasy television series Game of Thrones. It was written by the show creators David Benioff and D.B. Weiss, in a faithful adaptation of the first chapters of George R.R. Martin 's book A Game of Thrones. The episode was directed by Tim Van Patten, redoing the work done by director Tom McCarthy in an unaired pilot.
As the first episode of the series, it introduces the setting and the main characters of the show. The episode centers on the Stark family, and how its lord, Eddard Stark, gets involved in the court politics after the king chooses Eddard to replace his recently deceased chief administrator ("Hand of the King ''). The episode received largely positive reviews, and was seen initially by 2.2 million viewers. A week before the episode first aired, HBO made the first 15 minutes available as an Internet preview.
The title of the episode is the motto of House Stark, which is spoken several times in the episode and in the series.
The episode begins the process of interweaving action happening in multiple separate locations within and around the fictional continent of Westeros. Most of the action takes place in and around Winterfell where Lord Eddard Stark is the feudal overlord of the northern reaches of the kingdom. Outside of Westeros is a land across the Narrow Sea where the two surviving members of House Targaryen, previous rulers of Westeros, live in exile.
The episode opens with three rangers of the Night 's Watch -- Ser Waymar Royce, Will and Gared -- scouting beyond the Wall, a massive barrier of ice at the north end of the kingdom. After finding the mutilated corpses of some wildlings (tribal humans who live north of the Wall), the rangers are confronted by White Walkers (demonic creatures) and undead wildlings. Two of the rangers are killed by the White Walkers, while the third, Will, is for some reason left alive. Fearing for his life, Will deserts the Night 's Watch, going South, without returning to the Wall.
Queen Cersei, and her twin brother, Jaime Lannister, are watching as the dead body of Jon Arryn, The Hand of The King is tended to by the Silent Sisters. They discuss whether he revealed any dangerous information regarding the two of them to anyone before his death. Jaime assures his sister that if Arryn had spoken to anyone, they would already have been executed.
After the opening sequence, the Starks of Winterfell are introduced, including Lord Eddard "Ned '' Stark, his wife, Lady Catelyn "Cat '' Stark and his five children: their heir Robb, their elder daughter Sansa, younger daughter Arya, ten - year - old son Bran and youngest son, Rickon. Also introduced are Ned 's illegitimate son Jon Snow and hostage / ward Theon Greyjoy, who, like Robb, are older teenagers.
Ned is informed that a deserter of the Night 's Watch, Will, has been captured. Members of the Night 's Watch are sworn never to desert their posts, upon penalty of death. Ned takes his sons to witness Will 's execution. Will reports repeatedly that he saw White Walkers, but nobody believes him. The young man faces death bravely, admitting that he "should have gone back to the Wall and warned them ''. Ned himself passes sentence and beheads him. When Bran asks his father about the ranger 's talk of White Walkers, Ned dismisses it as a madman 's ravings, insisting that the Walkers have been considered extinct for thousands of years.
Upon their return, the Starks find a dead stag, sigil (seal) of House Baratheon. A bit farther they find a dead dire wolf and her surviving pups. Noting that the dire wolf is the sigil of the Stark family and there are as many pups as the Stark children (even an albino runt for Jon), they take the pups in as companions.
Back at Winterfell, Catelyn informs her husband of a letter announcing the death of Lord Arryn, Eddard 's old friend and Catelyn 's brother - in - law. An additional message reports that the king himself is coming to Winterfell. Winterfell receives the royal court, including King Robert Baratheon; his wife Queen Cersei; their three children: the heir Prince Joffrey, Princess Myrcella and the youngest Prince Tommen; as well as Cersei 's twin brother, Jaime Lannister, a member of the Kingsguard; and their younger brother, Tyrion Lannister, a dwarf known as "The Imp ''. As Robert pays his respects to Lyanna Stark, his late fiancée and Ned 's sister, Robert confides to his old friend that he does n't trust anyone around him. He decides to name Ned as the new Hand of the King, and to solidify the alliance between the two families, he suggests that Ned 's daughter, Sansa, be betrothed to his son, Joffrey.
At night, Catelyn receives a troubling message from her sister, Lord Arryn 's widow. She suspects her husband Jon was murdered by the king 's in - laws, the powerful Lannisters. Ned, who at first was reluctant to accept the position of Hand of the King, does so in order to protect his old friend. Bran, who enjoys climbing the walls of Winterfell, climbs an abandoned tower where he stumbles on Queen Cersei and Jaime having sex. To keep the incestuous relationship a secret, Jaime shoves Bran out of the high window.
Exiled prince Viserys Targaryen plots to overthrow King Robert and reclaim his father 's throne. To this end, he brokers a marriage between his sister Daenerys and a powerful warlord Khal Drogo, leader of a nomadic horde of Dothraki.
Daenerys voices her fear of the barbarian lord, but her brother tells her to marry him. During the wedding ceremony, Daenerys is given two wedding gifts. The first is a collection of books from the Seven Kingdoms, given by Ser Jorah Mormont, an exiled knight loyal to the Targaryens. The second gift is a chest containing three petrified dragon eggs, given by Magister Illyrio Mopatis, the man who helped arrange the marriage.
A number of Hollywood studios had contacted George R. R. Martin about possible adaptation of his book series A Song of Ice and Fire into a film, however Martin expressed the opinion the books could not be made into a film as too much would have to be cut from the books, but thought it could be made into a television series. In January 2006, David Benioff spoke to Martin 's literary agent about the books he represented for possible adaption, and the agent sent the first four books of A Song of Ice and Fire to David Benioff. Benioff read a few hundred pages of the first book in the series, A Game of Thrones, called D.B. Weiss and said: "Maybe I 'm crazy, but I have n't had this much fun reading anything in about 20 years. So take a look because I think it might make a great HBO series. '' Weiss, who then read the first book in two days, was very enthusiastic about a possible television project based on the books. They arranged a meeting with Martin, who asked them if they knew who Jon Snow 's real mother might be, and was satisfied with their answer.
In March 2006, a few weeks after meeting Martin, Benioff and Weiss pitched the show to Showtime and Carolyn Strauss of HBO, who accepted their proposal. HBO acquired the rights to the novels to turn them into a television series, with Benioff and Weiss as writers and executive producers of the series. The series went into development in January 2007. The series would begin with the 1996 first book of A Song of Ice and Fire, "A Game of Thrones '', with the intention that each novel in the series would form the basis for a season 's worth of episodes. However, Benioff and Weiss had to resubmit a proposal after Carolyn Strauss stepped down as president of HBO in 2008. The first and second drafts of the pilot script, written by Benioff and Weiss, were submitted in August 2007 and June 2008 respectively. While HBO found both drafts to their liking, a pilot was not ordered until November 2008.
Scripted by the show creators David Benioff and D.B. Weiss, the first episode includes the plot of the book 's chapters 1 -- 9 and 12 (Prologue, Bran I, Catelyn I, Daenerys I, Eddard I, Jon I, Catelyn II, partial Arya I, Bran II, Daenerys II). Changes in the adaptation include the sequence of events in the prologue (in the books it is Gared and not Will who survives and is beheaded by Eddard afterwards, and Arya 's material is set before the arrival of the royal family), new scenes showing the Lannister twins ' perspective, and Daenerys 's wedding night showing Drogo not waiting for her to consent to sex.
Tom McCarthy was chosen to direct the pilot episode, shot between October 24 and November 19, 2009 on location in Northern Ireland, Scotland and Morocco. However, the pilot was deemed unsatisfactory and had to be reshot.
The new pilot episode was filmed in 2010 by new director Tim Van Patten, and several actors appearing in the original pilot did not return for the series. Tamzin Merchant was replaced as Daenerys Targaryen by Emilia Clarke, and Jennifer Ehle was replaced as Catelyn Stark by Michelle Fairley. Additionally, Ian McNeice was replaced as Magister Illyrio by Roger Allam, Richard Ridings as Gared by Dermot Keaney, and Jamie Campbell Bower as Ser Waymar Royce by Rob Ostlere.
Another difference is that the original pilot featured scenes shot in Scotland and scenes in Pentos were shot in Morocco, but in the aired series, Winterfell was filmed in a combination of locations in Northern Ireland, while scenes from Pentos were from Malta. The Doune Castle in Scotland was originally used to recreate Winterfell, and its great hall was used for some interior shots. Some scenes survived, but as it was not practical to return to Scotland for the reshoot, an exact replica of Doune 's Great Hall was recreated in the soundstage in Belfast for the series. Castle Ward in Northern Ireland was used in the reshoot to film King Robert 's entourage entry into Winterfell castle. A car park stood in for the Winterfell castle 's courtyard and a wine cellar for the Stark family crypt. The Tollymore Forest Park was used for the opening scene of the encounter with the White Walkers.
All the scenes shot in Morocco were reshot in Malta. The original pilot reused the sets of Kingdom of Heaven in Morocco to stand in for Pentos and the site of Drogo and Daenerys 's wedding. In Malta, the Verdala Palace, the 16th century summer palace of the president of Malta, was used for the exterior scenes at Illyrio 's mansion. The Azure Window was used as the backdrop for the wedding. Filming at the Azure Window, however, caused some controversy when a protected ecosystem was damaged by a subcontractor.
In the sex scene, the then - pregnant Lena Headey was substituted by a body double; the production hid her pregnancy for the rest of the season. In the scene in which the Starks encounter a stag killed by a dire wolf as they return from the execution, an actual animal was used rather than a prop. As the stag had been dead for two days, it stank so much that the actors had to take much care not to let it show on their faces. Some scenes filmed were never aired, for example a flashback to the death of Eddard Stark 's brother, and the death of Jon Arryn.
The original pilot from 2009 was poorly received in a private viewing with friends, one of whom, Craig Mazin, said to Benioff and Weiss, "You guys have a massive problem '', and said "change everything '' when asked for ideas. Weiss said of the viewing: "Watching them watch the pilot was a deeply humiliating, painful experience, because these are very smart individuals, and it just clearly was n't working for any of them on a very basic level. '' For example, it was never established that the two major characters, Jaime and Cersei Lannister were in fact brother and sister, a major plot point.
HBO did not make a decision for four months after the pilot was delivered. In March 2010, HBO 's decision to greenlight the series including the pilot was announced, with the production of the series scheduled to start June 2010. HBO however demanded extensive reshoot of the pilot, and wanted all the scenes from Morocco scrapped. A cameo appearance by George RR Martin as a Pentoshi nobleman at Daenerys 's wedding filmed in Morocco was therefore also cut. In all 90 percent of the pilot was re-shot in 2010, with some cast changes and a different director.
The original pilot remained unaired, although some footage from the original pilot was used in the first aired episode. This includes Sansa 's scenes with Catelyn (Michelle Fairley 's footage as Catelyn was inserted over Jennifer Ehle 's performance), Will 's ride through the woods (retained though also portrayed by a different actor), most of the feast at Winterfell, and Ned and Robert 's scene in the crypt. That scene is one of a few to be filmed on 35 mm film, and consequently slight film grain can be seen in the HD version of the episode.
On April 3, 2011, two weeks before the series premiere aired, the first 15 minutes of "Winter Is Coming '' were released as a preview on HBO 's website. Wired 's Dave Banks called the preview "much better than anticipated. (How 's that even possible?) '' Scott Stinson of Toronto 's National Post noted that "you know you are n't watching a network drama when there have been two beheadings in the first 15 minutes. ''
The first episode of Game of Thrones obtained 2.2 million viewers in its premiere airing, with an additional 2 million viewers in the reruns aired during the same night. The day after the premiere HBO aired the episode six additional times, adding another 1.2 million to the viewer 's figures. Reruns aired during the following week upped the total viewership to 6.8 million.
The show premiered on HBO Canada at the same time as its U.S. premiere. On April 18, 2011, the show premiered in United Kingdom and Ireland through Sky Atlantic, gathering 750,000 viewers, a ratings record for the network. The series was broadcast throughout Latin America beginning on May 8, 2011. New Zealand 's Dominion Post noted in an article on copyright laws that the popular series was downloaded via file sharing service regularly before its release to that market. In Australia, the July 17 premiere of the series was largely overshadowed by the release of A Dance with Dragons, but according to The Sydney Morning Herald was successful "especially with women, who are n't seen as a target market for sword - fighting sagas ''.
The critical response to the first episode of the series was positive. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes surveyed 10 reviews of the episode and judged 100 % of them to be positive with an average score of 8.5 out of 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "' Winter is Coming ' is an introduction to a wonderfully bleak journey that honors its source material with stellar execution and an impressive cast. '' James Poniewozik from Time considered it an "epic win '', and Jace Lacob from The Daily Beast deemed it "unforgettable ''. HitFix 's Alan Sepinwall wrote that while it was too early to say if Game of Thrones belonged to the HBO pantheon with shows like The Sopranos or The Wire, it had many things in common with those shows. IGN 's Matt Fowler wrote that the pilot "effortlessly takes us along, faithfully, through the book, but it also manages to capture the majestically morbid spirit of Martin 's pages and turn them into thrilling television ''.
Much praise was given to the production values and the acting: Scott Meslow from The Atlantic states that "the show 's immense cast is almost universally strong, and the fantasy land of Westeros feels lived - in, and looks terrific ''. Alan Sepinwall also qualifies the casting as "really exceptional '', and states that the show is "feast for the eyes '', with all the different locations having their own memorable looks. The opening sequence, with an aerial view of the world where the series takes place with the different settings emerging from it, was also acclaimed.
On April 19, less than two days after the initial airing, HBO announced that the series had been renewed for a second season. In a press teleconference, HBO executives announced their satisfaction with initial ratings, which they compared favorably to True Blood.
Tim Van Patten received a 2011 Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series, and the episode was also nominated for Outstanding Makeup for a Single - Camera Series (Non-Prosthetic).
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who launched australia's first national daily newspaper | Newspapers in Australia - Wikipedia
There are 2 national and 10 state / territory daily newspapers, 35 regional dailies and 470 other regional and suburban newspapers in Australia. All major metropolitan newspapers are owned either by News Limited, a subsidiary of News Corporation, or Fairfax Media, except The West Australian.
There are two national daily newspapers, The Australian and The Australian Financial Review. Other notable newspapers are The Sydney Morning Herald, The Daily Telegraph, The Age, and The Herald Sun (Melbourne).
Australia 's earliest newspaper, the Sydney Gazette and New South Wales Advertiser, was first printed in 1803. In 1810 the second newspaper in Australia, the Derwent Star and Van Diemen 's Land Intelligencer was founded in Van Diemen 's Land, but ceased the same year. Victoria 's first paper was the Melbourne Advertiser in 1838. By the mid-1850s, there were 11 papers in Tasmania. The Tasmanian and Port Dalrymple Advertiser founded in Launceston in 1825 was the first provincial newspaper in Australia.
Australia 's longest - running newspaper, the Sydney Morning Herald, was first published as the Sydney Herald in 1831. The Herald 's rival, The Daily Telegraph, was first published in July 1879. Weekly newspapers were an important feature of the Australian newspaper scene in the nineteenth century.
Australia 's first national daily newspaper, Daily Commercial News (now Lloyd 's List Australia) was first published in April 1891. Only during the second part of the twentieth century did other national newspapers start to be published.
Australia 's first foreign - language newspaper, Die Deutsche Post für die australischen Kolonien was published in Adelaide in 1848.
During the 1980s and 1990s colour printing and cold offset printing took place in the production of newspapers. Many newspapers became available in electronic form either on CD - ROM or via the World Wide Web.
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when will the next general election be held in the uk | Next United Kingdom general election - wikipedia
Theresa May Conservative
The next general election in the United Kingdom is scheduled to be held on 5 May 2022 under the Fixed - term Parliaments Act 2011. The election may be held at an earlier date in the event of an early election motion being passed by a super-majority of two - thirds in the House of Commons, a vote of no confidence in the government or other exceptional circumstances.
Under the current Brexit timetable, and should no snap election be called, it is scheduled to be the first general election since 1970 to be held with the United Kingdom outside the European Union and its predecessor the European Communities.
Each parliamentary constituency of the United Kingdom elects one MP to the House of Commons using the "first past the post '' system.
In order to vote in the general election, one must be:
Individuals must be registered to vote by midnight twelve working days before polling day. Anyone who qualifies as an anonymous elector has until midnight six working days before polling day to register. A person who has two homes (such as a university student who has a term - time address and lives at home during holidays) may be able to register to vote at both addresses as long as they are not in the same electoral area, but can only vote in one constituency at the general election.
It is current UK government policy to pass a law removing the 15 - year limit on expatriate Britons voting before the next general election takes place, as mentioned in the 2017 Conservative Party manifesto, which stated (page 42) "We will legislate for votes for life for British overseas electors ''.
The postponed Sixth Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies proposed reducing the number of constituencies from 650 to 600. In April 2016, each of the four parliamentary Boundary Commissions of the United Kingdom recommenced the review process, to be implemented in 2018.
The Fixed - term Parliaments Act 2011 introduced fixed - term parliaments to the United Kingdom, with elections scheduled on the first Thursday in May of the fifth year after the previous general election.
Removing the power of the monarch, on advice of the prime minister, to dissolve parliament before its five - year maximum length, the act permits early dissolution if the House of Commons votes by a two - thirds supermajority, as occurred in the 2017 general election. Parliament is also dissolved if a government loses a vote of no confidence by a simple majority and a new government is not formed within 14 days.
The next general election is due to take place on 5 May 2022. Under the Electoral Registration and Administration Act 2013 parliament would be dissolved 25 working days before this date on 28 March 2022. Under the Fixed - term Parliaments Act the prime minister may schedule polling day up to two months after 5 May 2022, subject to approval by both Houses.
The Conservative Party manifesto at the 2017 general election proposed repealing the Fixed - term Parliaments Act 2011.
Most candidates are representatives of a political party, which must be registered with the Electoral Commission 's Register of Political Parties. Candidates who do not belong to a registered party can use an "independent '' label, or no label at all.
The Conservative Party and Labour Party have been the two biggest political parties, and have supplied every Prime Minister, since 1922 (with the exception of Ramsay MacDonald, who served as Prime Minister from 1931 to 1935 as a member of the National Labour Organisation).
Parties in the tables below are sorted by their results in the 2017 general election.
The leader of the party commanding a majority of support in the House of Commons is the person who is called on by the monarch to form a government as Prime Minister, while the leader of the largest party not in government becomes the Leader of the Opposition. Other parties also form shadow ministerial teams. The leaders of the SNP and Plaid Cymru are not members of parliament, but instead members of their respective devolved legislatures, and so these parties have separate leaders in the House of Commons (Ian Blackford for the SNP and Liz Saville Roberts in the case of Plaid Cymru).
Tim Farron announced his departure as Liberal Democrat leader shortly after the June 2017 election, staying on in a caretaker basis pending the Liberal Democrats leadership election. He was replaced by Vince Cable.
Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland has different parties to the rest of the UK.
Opinion polls have been carried out for the next United Kingdom general election.
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when is a bachelor party supposed to be | Bachelor party - wikipedia
A bachelor party, also known as a stag party, stag night, stag do, stag weekend (in the United Kingdom, Commonwealth countries, and Ireland), or a buck 's night (in Australia) is a party held by a man shortly before he enters marriage, to celebrate his "last night of freedom. '' A bachelor party is usually planned by the groom and best man, occasionally with the assistance of a bachelor party planning company. The party is usually restricted to men only, but sometimes may feature female company such as strippers or topless waitresses.
The equivalent event for the bride - to - be is known as a bachelorette party or hens ' night.
Some also choose instead to hold a so - called stag and doe party in the US, or a hag party or hag do in the UK ("hag '' being a combination of the words "hen '' and "stag ''), in which both the bride and groom attend.
In Germany, this event is called Junggesellenabschied, which literally means "farewell to bachelorhood. '' There is also a separate event that the couple celebrates together on the evening prior to their wedding, called Polterabend. At the Polterabend the guests break old porcelain and earthenware to bring luck to the couple 's marriage. The tradition is said to go back to pre-Christian times; by noisily breaking ceramics evil spirits -- especially spirits of envy -- are supposed to be driven out. In the last couple of years, Anglo - style bachelor parties have become more and more popular among bachelors. In parts of northern Germany that lack a Carnival tradition, funny costuming has become a popular part of bachelor or bachelorette parties.
Some parts of Germany have a related custom, in which a person who is not yet married by their 29th birthday, is made to dress up in an embarrassing fashion by their friends and to do silly tasks that most often include some kind of cleaning work.
In France and in many French - speaking regions such as Quebec, the bachelor party is called enterrement de vie de garçon, which literally means "(the) burial of the life as a boy '' or "burial / funeral of the life as a bachelor ''. For women it is enterrement de vie de jeune fille, translated as "burial / funeral of the life as a young girl / maiden ''. As in English - speaking countries, such parties often feature heavy drinking and various (although gentle) humiliations, and sometimes the presence of a stripper.
In Israel, the bachelor party is called מסיבת רווקים, literally meaning a party of single men. Such parties may feature heavy drinking and sometimes the presence of strippers, or else other recreational bonding activities undertaken together, such as paintball or an overseas trip lasting a few days.
In the United Kingdom, it is now common for the party to last for more than one evening, hence the increasing prevalence of the phrase "stag weekend '', or "stag do ''. A spin - off has been the growth of the stag weekend industry in the UK with various companies taking over the preparation of the event.
In the UK, stag weekend trips are becoming mini-holidays with the groups taking part in various day - time activities as well as the expected night out on the town. Recent research shows Newcastle upon Tyne as the most popular location in the UK across the last three years. With the rise of budget airlines, some stags in the UK go abroad, with Kraków, Dublin, and Riga topping the list, followed by Prague, Amsterdam, Bratislava, and Budapest. Stag parties abroad have been known to involve visits to brothels and prostitutes.
Booking a stag do in the UK can be difficult, as many establishments can be wary about admitting such parties. Hoteliers and club owners in particular have a reputation for disallowing such events in their facilities, due to the activities that often accompany such groups. The refusal of service ranges from one establishment to the next depending on management, from only refusing service to certain parties whom business owners and / or operators perceive likely to be sources of problematic behaviour, to having written service policies which expressly prohibit such parties from taking place within the establishment. Refusals of service such as these are the result of the large amount of negative media attention surrounding how drunk members get, some managements ' concerns regarding potential losses that often arise from extremely intoxicated stag partygoers causing expensive damage (intentionally or otherwise) to the establishments ' property, as well as the often loud, raucous, and disruptive activities that can greatly decrease the satisfaction of other guests. This is especially true in hospitality establishments such as hotels or restaurants, as stag dos very often continue well into the night (or even the next morning). This can drastically reduce the amount and quality of sleep for hotel patrons staying in the vicinity of the suite (s) in which the party is being hosted. If the experience is sufficiently unpleasant, guests may choose to avoid returning to a hotel that they perceive as being too lenient on such disruptive stag parties. Due to such policies varying widely between establishments, it is often recommended that one should book at least three months in advance and to also enquire as to whether or not stag do groups are welcome, so as to avoid having the reservations be cancelled by the establishment the day of the party.
Pre-Stags have become increasingly popular in the UK. These are less formal than the official stag do, often arranged by friends and are considered a no - miss event to start the festivities leading up to the marriage itself.
In the United States, Las Vegas is both a popular bachelor party destination and location for the wedding itself. Increasingly, "destination bachelor parties '' are replacing standard nights out, with Americans traveling to Montreal, Quebec or Mexico.
Bachelor parties in the US stereotypically entail the mass consumption of alcohol, hiring a stripper, and general rowdiness toward which the bride might not have a positive reaction; in fact, the defining feature of the bachelor party is that the fiancée is not present. Increasingly, bachelor parties have come to symbolize the last time when the groom is free of the influence of his new wife / partner. Pop out cakes are sometimes associated.
Canadian bachelor parties generally consist of a group of bachelors celebrating their singleness.
Canadian cities such as Vancouver or Niagara Falls are popular stag party destinations due to their large number of strip clubs with "dance contact '' (lap dancing). Montreal in particular is popular for this purpose with both Canadians and Americans alike.
As an alternative, the best man may plan an activity in secret with friends that they feel the groom will enjoy. Many grooms - to - be have been treated to camping trips with friends, fishing trips, sporting events, video games, poker, barbecuing, and other activities.
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who won the ncaa college football championship this year | 2018 College football Playoff national championship - wikipedia
The 2018 College Football Playoff National Championship was a college football bowl game that determined the national champion in the NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision for the 2017 season. The Alabama Crimson Tide defeated the Georgia Bulldogs 26 -- 23 in overtime. Alabama came back from a 13 -- 0 deficit at halftime to secure the win in overtime. True freshman quarterback Tua Tagovailoa and defensive tackle Daron Payne were respectively named the offensive and defensive players of the game.
The College Football Playoff selection committee chose the semifinalists following the conclusion of the 2017 regular season. Alabama and Georgia advanced to the national championship after winning the semifinal games hosted by the Sugar Bowl and Rose Bowl Game respectively in January 2018. The championship game was played at Mercedes - Benz Stadium in Atlanta on January 8, 2018.
The Mercedes - Benz Stadium in Atlanta, Georgia was announced as the host site for the fourth College Football National Championship on November 4, 2015.
The College Football Playoff (CFP) selected four teams to advance to the playoff: the Clemson Tigers, Oklahoma Sooners, Georgia Bulldogs, and Alabama Crimson Tide.
The Alabama Crimson Tide defeated the Clemson Tigers in the 2018 Sugar Bowl by a score of 24 -- 6 to reach the championship game. The Tide had a 12 -- 1 season, becoming the SEC West Division co-champions with the Auburn Tigers. The Crimson Tide were coached by Nick Saban.
The Georgia Bulldogs defeated the Oklahoma Sooners in the 2018 Rose Bowl by a score of 54 -- 48 in double overtime to reach the championship game. The Bulldogs had a 13 -- 1 season claiming their 13th Southeastern Conference (SEC) championship with a win over Auburn Tigers, 28 -- 7. The Bulldogs were coached by Kirby Smart.
Selected in an NFL Draft (number corresponds to draft round)
† = 2017 All - American
After winning the coin toss, Alabama deferred to the second half and Georgia received the ball to begin the game. After two plays, quarterback Jake Fromm attempted a pass downfield and was intercepted by Tony Brown. Alabama began their first drive of the game, and, after eleven plays, that drive ended with kicker Andy Pappanastos missing a 40 - yard field goal. The teams each had three - and - outs for the game 's first two punts. During Georgia 's ensuing drive, the quarter ended, with no score.
After a failed third down conversion, on the second play of the second quarter, Georgia kicker Rodrigo Blankenship hit a 41 - yard field goal to open the scoring and put Georgia in the lead by three. Alabama 's ensuing drive went nowhere, as they gained four yards on three plays and punted. Georgia took the ball and drove down the field, and found themselves with a first and goal at the Alabama 10 - yard - line; the Tide defense held, however, and the Bulldogs settled for a second field goal and took a 6 -- 0 lead with just over seven and a half minutes until half. On Alabama 's next drive, the Georgia defense held yet again and Alabama 's JK Scott punted for the third time. Just prior to the punt, Georgia wide receiver Javon Wims was shown walking to the locker room, reportedly with a left shoulder injury. Both defenses then forced punts, and Georgia took back over with 1: 19 remaining in the half on their own 31 - yard - line. Nine plays later, on Alabama 's 1 - yard - line, Mecole Hardman took a direct snap, faked a handoff, and ran into the end zone for the game 's first touchdown, putting Georgia up 13 -- 0 going into halftime.
Because they deferred the coin toss, Alabama received the ball first in the second half. They started their drive on their own 22 - yard - line. Tua Tagovailoa, Alabama 's backup quarterback, started the second half for the Tide; that drive quickly resulted in a three - and - out. The initial punt was blocked, but an offside call gave the Tide another chance to punt. Georgia started their drive on their own 36 - yard - line, but punted on 4th & 17. Alabama took over on their own 44 - yard - line. The teams then traded touchdowns on consecutive drives; Alabama scored their first points of the game on a 6 - yard pass from Tagovailoa to Ruggs, but Georgia immediately responded with an 80 - yard touchdown connection from Fromm to Mecole Hardman, putting Georgia up 20 -- 7. On the second play of Alabama 's ensuing drive, Tagovailoa, while scrambling to the left, threw into traffic and was intercepted by Georgia 's Deandre Baker. Up 13, the Bulldogs took over possession of the ball on Alabama 's 39 - yard - line. The Tide defense responded immediately, however, as Raekwon Davis intercepted a Jake Fromm pass on the first play of Georgia 's drive, returning the pick to the UGA 40 - yard - line. The Tide gained fifteen yards on six plays and kicker Andy Pappanastos avenged his earlier miss with a 43 - yard field goal that put Bama within ten. The teams then traded punts. Just prior to Alabama 's punt, it was announced that an Alabama defensive back, Kyriq McDonald, had collapsed on the sideline; the situation was described as a "serious medical emergency ''. He was loaded onto a medical stretcher awake and conscious. Georgia could not muster anything on offense that drive, and punted. The fourth quarter saw Tagovailoa lead the Tide to come back and tie the game at 20 with 3: 49. With three seconds remaining in the game, Andy Pappanastos missed a potential game - winning 36 - yard field goal to the left, sending the game to overtime.
In overtime, Georgia scored on a 51 - yard field goal. On Alabama 's first offensive play in overtime, Tagovailoa was sacked for a 16 - yard loss, but immediately followed that with a game - winning 41 - yard touchdown pass to DeVonta Smith. Tagovailoa was named the offensive player of the game, and Daron Payne was named the defensive player of the game.
The game was televised nationally by ESPN. On January 8, 2018, the network announced that its broadcast would feature a live performance by Kendrick Lamar during halftime. This performance was separate from the event proper at Mercedes - Benz Stadium (which featured a traditional halftime show with the marching bands of the participating teams), and originated from Centennial Olympic Park.
Following an undefeated season in the American Athletic Conference and their victory over the Auburn Tigers in the 2018 Peach Bowl, the UCF Knights claimed the national championship by virtue of being the only undefeated team in the FBS level of college football. UCF held a victory parade at Disney World and hung a national championship banner at their stadium to celebrate this achievement. The school also paid national championship bonuses to all of its assistant coaches, many of whom left UCF after the Peach Bowl to follow head coach Scott Frost to his new head coaching job at Nebraska; Frost himself (who coached UCF in the game) did not receive such a bonus because he had already been paid all of the bonuses allowed by his UCF contract.
The selection committee controversially ranked undefeated UCF 12th at the end of the regular season, below a number of two - loss teams from the Power Five conferences, which left them out of the CFP. The AP Poll ranked Alabama No. 1 in its final poll, receiving 57 first - place votes, while UCF was ranked No. 6 and received four first - place votes -- the first time in the CFP era that the AP poll did not have a unanimous No. 1 team. Additionally, the Knights finished the 2017 football season as the No. 1 team in the Colley Bias Free Matrix Rankings. The Colley Matrix is recognized by the NCAA in its list of "national champion major selections. ''
# denotes national championship game / denotes College Football Playoff semifinal game
# denotes national championship game / denotes College Football Playoff semifinal game
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how to find the meridian in the sky | Meridian (astronomy) - Wikipedia
In astronomy, the meridian is the great circle passing through the celestial poles, the zenith, and the nadir of an observer 's location. Consequently, it contains also the horizon 's north and south points, and it is perpendicular to the celestial equator and horizon. A celestial meridian is coplanar with the analogous terrestrial meridian projected onto the celestial sphere. Hence, the number of astronomical meridians is infinite.
The celestial meridian is undefined when the observer is at the North Pole or South Pole, since at these two points, the zenith and nadir are on the celestial poles, and any great circle passing through the celestial poles also passes through the zenith and nadir.
There are several ways to divide the meridian into semicircles. One way is to divide it into the local meridian and the antimeridian. The former semicircle contains the zenith and is terminated by the celestial poles; the latter semicircle contains the nadir. In the horizontal coordinate system, the meridian is divided into halves terminated by the horizon 's north and south points. The upper meridian passes through the zenith while the lower meridian passes through the nadir.
In any given day, a celestial object will appear to drift across the upper meridian as the Earth rotates, for the meridian is fixed to the local horizon. At culmination, the object contacts the upper meridian and reaches its highest position in the sky. An object 's right ascension and the local sidereal time can be used to determine the time of its culmination (see hour angle).
The term meridian comes from the Latin meridies, which means both "midday '' and "south ''.
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how many nba teams have never won a championship | List of NBA franchise post-season droughts - wikipedia
This is a list of National Basketball Association (NBA) franchise post-season appearance droughts. This list includes the all - time and the active consecutive non-playoffs. Aside from the NBA playoff appearance droughts, this list also includes droughts of series wins, appearances in the NBA Finals and NBA championship wins. The teams which have never made an NBA Playoffs appearance, an NBA Finals appearance championship. The oldest such franchise is the Suns (48 seasons), while the Royals / Kings and the Hawks have even longer championship droughts (67 and 60 seasons, respectively). Seven franchises have never been to the NBA Finals, the highest number among the major North American sports. The oldest such team is the Braves / Clippers franchise (45 seasons); the Kings and the Hawks have appearance droughts that are even longer (65 and 58 seasons, respectively). The longest a franchise has gone without appearing in the playoffs at all is 15 seasons: the Braves / Clippers franchise from 1977 to 1991.
Of the 18 franchises that have won an NBA championship, 8 have droughts of 35 seasons or more, which is to say that the past 35 championships have been shared among only 10 franchises: the Lakers (8), the Bulls (6), the Spurs (5), the Celtics (3), the Pistons (3), the Heat (3), the Warriors (3), the Rockets (2), the Mavericks (1), and the Cavaliers (1). By contrast, the other three major North American sports have each had at least 16 franchises become champions over the same period of time.
Charlotte was inactive for two years following the 2001 -- 02 season.
Updated through the 2017 - 18 regular season.
Left click once on Seasons since win column heading then once on Division column heading to show teams listed in order of division championships.
Updated through the 2018 playoffs.
Updated through the 2018 playoffs.
In these instances, the matchup ensured that one team would win the first NBA championship in its history.
Teams that had never won the NBA championship are included, even if they were less than 20 seasons old at the time.
Numbers marked with * indicates that the number is counted from either the franchise 's first year in the NBA or the first year of the league (1946, then known as the BAA).
This list includes teams within the current NBA that have never won an NBA championship -- sorted by the number of seasons played in the NBA.
Listed according to seasons waited. Current NBA cities / regions only.
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why the east india company was interested in penang/singapore | History of Penang - wikipedia
The State of Penang, one of the most developed and urbanised Malaysian states, is located at the nation 's northwest coast along the Malacca Strait. Unlike most Malaysian states, the history of modern Penang was shaped by British colonialism, beginning with the acquisition of Penang Island from the Sultanate of Kedah by the British East India Company in 1786. Developed into a free port, the city state was subsequently governed as part of the Straits Settlements, together with Singapore and Malacca; the state capital, George Town, briefly became the capital of this political entity between 1826 and 1832. By the end of the 19th century, George Town prospered and became one of the major entrepôts in Southeast Asia.
During World War II, Penang was conquered and occupied by the Japanese Empire from 1941 to 1945. At the end of the war, Penang was also the first state in the Malay Peninsula to be liberated by the British, under Operation Jurist. The Straits Settlements was dissolved in the following year and Penang was merged into the Federation of Malaya. In spite of a secessionist movement within Penang, the merger with Malaya went ahead and the federation attained independence from the British Empire in 1957. Malaya later evolved into the present - day Malaysia in 1963.
Following the revocation of George Town 's free port status in the 1960s, the state suffered economic decline and massive unemployment. The state government at the time led a push to reorient the economy towards hi - tech manufacturing, successfully recovering Penang 's economy and lending the state its moniker the ' Silicon Valley of the East '. Growing recognition of George Town as a bustling tourist destination, particularly since the city 's inscription as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2008, also boosted the state 's services sector, and today, both the manufacturing and services sectors are the two strongest economic pillars of Penang. Moreover, the state enjoys one of the lowest unemployment rates and Gini coefficients within Malaysia, as well as the second highest gross domestic product (GDP) per capita within the country after Kuala Lumpur.
Evidence of prehistoric human settlement in what is now Penang has been discovered in Guar Kepah within Seberang Perai (formerly Province Wellesley), the mainland half of Penang. Human remains, dating back to about 5,000 to 6,000 years ago, have been found at the site south of the Muda River, along with seashells, pottery and hunting tools. These indicate that Seberang Perai had been inhabited by nomadic Melanesians from as early as the Neolithic era.
Seberang Perai also became part of the Bujang Valley civilisation. The Cherok Tok Kun megalith in Bukit Mertajam, discovered in 1845, contains Pali inscriptions, indicating that an early Hindu - Buddhist political entity in what is now Kedah had established control over parts of Seberang Perai sometime between the 5th and 6th centuries. The entirety of what is now Penang would later form part of the Sultanate of Kedah up until the late 18th century.
Meanwhile, Penang Island was first documented by Chinese sailors of the Ming dynasty in the 15th century. At the time, Ming Emperor Yongle was in the midst of launching naval expeditions that would eventually reach all the way to eastern Africa. The island, known as Bīnláng Yù (simplified Chinese: 梹 榔 屿; traditional Chinese: 梹 榔 嶼), was mapped by Admiral Zheng He 's fleet in the ' Nautical Charts of Zheng He '.
One of the first Englishmen to arrive on Penang Island was the privateer Sir James Lancaster who commanded the Edward Bonadventure. He landed at Batu Ferringhi in June 1592 and remained on the island until September, pillaging every vessel he encountered.
Penang Island was also indicated as Pulo Pinaom in Portuguese historian Emanuel Godinho de Eredia 's 1613 map of the Malay Peninsula.
In the early 18th century, ethnic Minangkabaus from Sumatra, led by Haji Muhammad Salleh (also known as Nakhoda Intan), landed on Penang Island, establishing a seaside settlement at Batu Uban in 1734. They were followed by the Arabs, who subsequently intermarried with the Minangkabau; this gave rise to the Arab - Minangkabau admixture now described as Malay, as they have assimilated into the local Malay community.
The history of modern Penang only began in earnest in the late 18th century. Up until then, the Sultanate of Kedah, which had control over Penang, had maintained turbulent diplomatic relations with Siam to the north. In the 1770s, the British East India Company instructed Francis Light to establish trade relations in the Malay Peninsula. Light subsequently landed in Kedah, which at that point was threatened by both Siam and Burma, as well as an internal Bugis rebellion.
Aware of this situation, Light formed friendly relations with the then Sultan of Kedah, Sultan Muhammad Jiwa Zainal Adilin II, and promised British military protection. As part of his promises, Light assisted in the quelling of the Bugis revolt by recapturing a Bugis - held fort for the Sultan. The Sultan reciprocated by offering Penang Island to Light. Light subsequently wrote to his superiors regarding the offer, arguing that Penang Island could serve as a "convenient magazine for trade '' and its strategic location would allow the British to check Dutch and French territorial gains in Southeast Asia. He also made the case that, with the other ports in the region, such as Aceh and Phuket, riddled with piracy and despotic governments, the British East India Company could seize the opportunity to establish a tranquil harbour on Penang Island conducive for free trade, noting that if "Malay, Bugis and Chinese will come to reside here, it will become the Exchange of the East if not loaded with impositions and restrictions ''.
However, nothing transpired until 1786, when by that point the British were fighting the Thirteen American Colonies, which were backed by France and the Netherlands. Faced with the Dutch dominance of the East Indies (now Indonesia) and a growing French threat, Light, who by then had risen to the rank of Captain, was ordered to acquire Penang Island from Kedah. The British East India Company sought control of Penang Island as a Royal Navy base, and a trading post between China and the Indian subcontinent.
Light negotiated with the new Sultan of Kedah, Sultan Abdullah Mukarram Shah, regarding the cession of Penang Island to the British East India Company in exchange for British military assistance and a lease of 6,000 Spanish dollars to cancel Kedah 's debts to Siam. With the agreement between Light and the Kedah Sultan successfully concluded, Light and his entourage sailed on to Penang Island, where they arrived on 17 July 1786. Fort Cornwallis would later be built at the spot where Light first set foot.
The area where Light first landed was originally a mangrove swamp covered in thick jungle. Once enough land was cleared, creating what is now the Esplanade, a ceremony was held on 11 August, during which the Union Jack was raised for the first time. This signified the formal possession of Penang Island by the British East India Company in the name of King George III. The island was renamed the Prince of Wales Island after the heir to the British throne, while the new settlement of George Town was established in honour of King George III. Thus, George Town became the first British settlement in Southeast Asia and a springboard for future British territorial expansion in the region, while its establishment by the British East India Company marked the start of a period of British imperialism in the Malay Peninsula.
Unbeknownst to the Kedah Sultan, however, Light had acted without the authority or consent of his superiors in India. When Light reneged on his promise of British military protection against Siam, the Kedah Sultan in 1791 assembled an army in what is now Seberang Perai to retake the Prince of Wales Island. The Sultan 's force was also assisted by a fleet of pirates. Fortunately for Light, his garrison on the island was reinforced by two companies from Calcutta. After failing to persuade the Sultan to disband his forces, the British East India Company launched amphibious assaults at night, destroying Kedah 's military installations in Perai, and defeating both the pirates and the Sultan 's army.
In 1800, the first Lieutenant - Governor of the Prince of Wales Island, Sir George Leith, gained a 189.3 km (73.1 sq mi) strip of Seberang Perai from the Kedah Sultan and renamed it Province Wellesley. The newly acquired land covered an area south of the Perai River, turning the river into the international border between the British - controlled Province Wellesley and Kedah. At the time, Province Wellesley was heavily forested and sparsely populated, with a total population of only 5,000. In exchange to this acquisition, the annual payment to the Kedah Sultan was increased to 10,000 Spanish dollars per annum. To this day, the Malaysian federal government still pays Kedah, on behalf of Penang, RM10, 000 annually as a symbolic gesture.
Following the original acquisition in 1800, Province Wellesley was gradually expanded up to its present - day boundaries in 1874, when the Pangkor Treaty, which included the delineation of Province Wellesley 's southern borders, was signed between the British and the neighbouring Sultanate of Perak.
Light died from malaria in 1794 and was buried within the Old Protestant Cemetery in George Town. To this day, Light is honoured as the founding father of Penang.
Francis Light had established George Town as a free port, thus allowing merchants to trade without having to pay any form of tax or duties. In effect, this measure was intended to entice merchants from the Dutch ports in the region. As a result, the number of incoming vessels increased exponentially from 85 in 1786 to 3,569 in 1802; George Town 's population had also risen to 10,000 by 1792. Immigrants came from various parts of Asia; in 1801, the then Lieutenant - Governor of the Prince of Wales Island, Sir George Leith, remarked that "there is not, probably, any part of the world where, in so small a space, so many different people are assembled together or so great a variety of languages spoken ''. A committee of assessors was also established for George Town in 1800, making it the first local government to be established within British Malaya.
The Prince of Wales Island, together with Province Wellesley, had been administered under the Bengal Presidency until 1805, when Penang was made a separate Presidency on par with Madras, Bombay and Bengal. By then, Penang also served as a penal station; in 1796, 700 Indian convicts were shipped in from the Andaman Islands. The practice of employing Indian convicts continued throughout the 19th century as a means to provide the necessary labour for public infrastructure works, such as the construction of roads, drains and public buildings.
In 1807, a Royal Charter to provide for the establishment of a Supreme Court and a police force in Penang was granted. The Supreme Court of Penang was first opened at Fort Cornwallis in George Town in 1808, with Edmond Stanley assuming office as its first Recorder (Judge). In the decades that followed, Penang 's judiciary and the police force were progressively applied to the Straits Settlements, and later copied throughout British Malaya. Hence, Penang was the birthplace of the present - day Malaysian judiciary system, as well as the Royal Malaysian Police.
In the early 19th century, Penang became a centre of spice production and trade within Southeast Asia. The cultivation of pepper began soon after the founding of George Town in 1786. The production of spices, including nutmeg and clove, gradually grew more varied and the booming spice trade led to the opening of spice farms all over Penang. The export of spices through the Port of Penang also enabled the British East India Company to cover the administrative costs of Penang. Furthermore, the agricultural plantations would fuel the growth of several villages, such as Air Itam and Balik Pulau on the island, and Bukit Mertajam in Province Wellesley. Malay refugees fleeing the Siamese invasion of Kedah and Chinese immigrants formed the bulk of workers in these agricultural estates. Other areas, such as Bayan Lepas on the island and Kepala Batas in Province Wellesley, were founded as rice - producing estates.
In 1826, the British East India Company amalgamated the territories of Penang, Singapore (acquired from Johor in 1819) and Malacca (acquired from the Netherlands in 1824) into a single political entity, the Straits Settlements. George Town was made the administrative and judicial capital of the new entity. However, owing to Singapore 's more strategic geographical location between the Malacca Strait and the South China Sea, the Port of Singapore rapidly surpassed the Port of Penang as the preeminent harbour in the region. Consequently, Singapore replaced George Town as the capital of the Straits Settlements in 1832.
Nonetheless, George Town continued to retain its importance as a vital British entrepôt by funneling the exports meant for global shipping lines which had bypassed other regional harbours. In the latter half of the 19th century, the tin mining boom within the neighbouring Sultanate of Perak and Siam brought more prosperity to Penang. Tin produced from within the Kinta Valley and southern Siam were transported to George Town for smelting, before being exported via the Port of Penang to European and American industries. The Port of Penang subsequently became a major tin - exporting harbour within British Malaya, directly challenging the Port of Singapore. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 and the advent of steamships further cemented the Port of Penang 's importance as a major entrepôt within British Malaya. By the end of the 19th century, George Town also evolved into a leading financial centre of British Malaya, as mercantile firms and international banks, including Standard Chartered and HSBC, flocked into the city.
By then, Penang became home to a myriad of ethnicities and religious affinities. Aside from the sizeable Chinese, Malay, Indian, Peranakan, Eurasian and Siamese communities, the colony 's multi-ethnic and multi-religious society included significant minorities of Burmese, British, Javanese, Japanese, Sinhalese, Jewish, German and Armenian origin.
At the time, each ethnic community had a tendency to specialise in specific trades and economic sectors. While the Europeans predominated in the various professional fields, as well as occupying managerial positions in mercantile and shipping firms, the Peranakans and the Eurasians tended to enter the nascent civil service as lawyers, engineers, architects and clerks. Some of the newer Chinese arrivals, labelled condescendingly by the Peranakans as ' Sinkheh ' (Chinese: 新 客; meaning new guests), were coolies and agricultural farmers, although many eventually entered into commercial, trading and real estate enterprises within the city; certain dialect communities, such as the Cantonese and the Hakka, predominated as artisans, blacksmiths, carpenters and cooks. The Indians, who were first brought in as convict workers for public works, also began competing with the Chinese in commercial, trading and shipping stevedore activities. Ethnic Malays, meanwhile, were primarily engaged in agricultural occupations, including rice farming and fishing. Other ethnic communities, such as the Jews and the Armenians, were mainly engaged in mercantile and commercial ventures; the latter community was notable for the establishment of the Eastern & Oriental Hotel, for instance.
The rapid population growth that resulted from the booming economy led to several social problems, chiefly the inadequate sanitation and public health facilities, as well as rampant crime. The latter was brought about by an influx of Chinese immigrants, which led to the formation of feuding triads and secret societies. Turf wars between the triads worsened, and when the Straits Settlements authorities attempted to put a stop to the triad activities in 1857, the Chinese triads came into conflict against the British - led police force as well. This culminated in the Penang Riots of 1867 in the streets of George Town, when the Kean Teik Tong, led by Khoo Thean Teik and the Red Flag, clashed against the alliance of the Ghee Hin Kongsi and the White Flag. The resulting civil unrest lasted for 10 days, before the turf war was eventually quelled by the Straits Settlements authorities under newly appointed Lieutenant - Governor Edward Anson, who were assisted by European residents and reinforcements from Singapore.
Also in the same year, the Straits Settlements was made a British crown colony, thereby placing the administration of Penang, Singapore and Malacca directly under the Colonial Office in London. Direct British rule meant better enforcement of the rule of law, as Penang 's police force was vastly beefed up and the secret societies that had plagued George Town during the preceding decades were gradually outlawed.
Meanwhile, in Province Wellesley, new railway lines were being constructed, with the first railroad being the Bukit Mertajam - Perai line in 1899. The town of Butterworth was also established in the mid-19th century as the transportation hub within Province Wellesley. In 1894, the first cross-strait ferry service between George Town and Butterworth commenced operations, and would eventually evolve into the present - day Rapid Ferry.
With improved access to education and rising living standards, Penang soon enjoyed substantial press freedom and there was a greater degree of participation in municipal affairs by its Asian residents. Penang 's representatives in the Straits Settlements Legislative Council gained a reputation for their assertive contestation of the policies made by the Singapore - based British authorities, which sometimes went against Penang 's interests.
On top of that, George Town, perceived as being more intellectually receptive than Singapore, also served as a magnet for well known English authors, Asian intellectuals and reformists. For instance, the Chinese revolutionary leader, Sun Yat - sen, chose to relocate his Southeast Asian base from Singapore to George Town, where he continued his efforts to reorganise and raise funds for the Chinese revolutionary movement against the Qing dynasty. These efforts culminated in the famous 1910 Penang conference, which paved the way to the ultimately triumphant Wuchang uprising that overthrew the Manchu imperial government of China.
On 28 October 1914, the Battle of Penang occurred, during which an Imperial German Navy cruiser, SMS Emden, covertly sailed into George Town and sank the Imperial Russian Navy cruiser, Zhemchug. The French Navy destroyer, Mousquet, set off in pursuit, before being sunk by SMS Emden as well off the northwestern tip of Penang Island. 147 French and Russian sailors perished, while the survivors were rescued by local Malay fishermen.
Aside from the naval battle, Penang, as well as the Straits Settlements, was largely unaffected by the events of World War I.
World War II, on the other hand, unleashed unprecedented social and political upheaval to Penang. The swift British retreat, coupled with the brutal massacres of Penang 's Chinese residents, would severely dent British sense of prestige and dominance in the eyes of the locals.
From 9 until 18 December 1941, Japanese warplanes indiscriminately strafed and bombed George Town, in the process eliminating the obsolete Royal Air Force and Royal Australian Air Force squadrons based in RAF Butterworth and the Bayan Lepas Aerodrome (now Penang International Airport). It was estimated that 600 civilians were killed as a result of the Japanese bombardment, with an additional 1,100 wounded.
Notwithstanding the fact that the British Army had earlier designated Penang Island as a fortress, Lieutenant - General Arthur Percival then ordered a withdrawal from Penang. Not only did the British Army abandon the Batu Maung Fort on the island, they also surreptitiously evacuated Penang 's European population, leaving the colony 's Asian populace to the mercy of the impending Japanese occupation. To this day, it has been agreed that the withdrawal and the covert evacuation of Europeans led to the loss of the British sense of invincibility, and that "the moral collapse of British rule in Southeast Asia came not in Singapore, but in Penang ''.
Penang fell to the Imperial Japanese Army on 19 December 1941, marking the start of a period of Japanese occupation. Penang Island was renamed Tojo - to, after the Japanese Prime Minister at the time, Hideki Tojo. George Town 's harbour facilities were also put to use as a major Axis submarine base in Southeast Asia.
The Japanese enacted dissimilar policies with each ethnic community. Ethnic Chinese residents arguably suffered the most brutal treatment, as the Imperial Japanese Army massacred thousands of Chinese as part of the Sook Ching campaign to rid what was perceived as anti-Japanese elements in the society. Penang 's womenfolk were also coerced to work as comfort women by the Imperial Japanese Army.
Penang 's residents also had to endure economic hardship during the Japanese occupation, with hyperinflation caused by the oversupply of the Japanese - issued ' banana ' dollars, and the acute shortage of food and raw materials, due to a combination of Japanese wartime rationing and an Allied blockade of Japanese shipping. Households were forced to turn to secondary crops such as sweet potatoes, yam and tapioca for their own subsistence. Beginning in 1942, a standardised Japanese curricula was enforced in all schools throughout Penang, with Japanese as the official language. In fact, social lifestyles were also greatly impacted, as it became compulsory to bow to Japanese soldiers on guard duty and to sing the Japanese national anthem, whilst whole streets and shops were renamed in Japanese.
Between 1944 and 1945, Royal Air Force and United States Army Air Force bomber squadrons based in India repeatedly launched bombing raids on George Town, seeking to destroy naval and administrative facilities. The destruction of the Penang Secretariat building by the Allied bombardment caused the loss of a large part of the British and Japanese records concerning Penang Island, complicating post-war efforts to compile a comprehensive history of Penang. The Penang Strait was also mined as part of efforts to constrict Japanese shipping.
Following the Japanese surrender on 15 August 1945, the Penang Shimbun, a Japanese newspaper, published the proclamation of surrender issued by the Emperor of Japan. Under Operation Jurist, a British Royal Navy fleet accepted the surrender of the Japanese garrison in Penang on 2 September 1945. A British Royal Marines contingent recaptured Penang Island on the following day, making George Town the first city in Malaya to be liberated at the end of the war.
Penang was placed under a military administration until 1946, as the British sought to restore order in the face of an emerging Communist insurgency. The British also dissolved the Straits Settlements in April 1946, with Sir Shenton Thomas being its last Governor.
Subsequently, the now separate crown colonies of Penang and Malacca were merged with the Federated Malay States and the Unfederated Malay States to form a new federation, the Malayan Union; the Crown Colony of Singapore, excluded from this union, was to remain firmly under British rule. The Malayan Union was replaced by the Federation of Malaya in 1948. As the gradual withdrawal of the Western colonial powers in Southeast Asia continued taking shape, the independence of Malaya as a united political entity seemed a foregone conclusion.
However, the merger of the British crown colony of Penang into the vast Malay heartland alarmed some quarters of Penang 's population. Questions were raised over economic and ethnic issues, such as the citizenship of non-Malays, greater trade regulations imposed on Penang by the central government in Kuala Lumpur and the introduction of export duties for trade with the rest of Malaya. Consequently, the Penang Secession Committee, formed in 1948, proposed to exclude Penang from the Federation of Malaya, which would allow Penang to either retain its links with the British Empire or form a political union with Singapore. The movement was led by D.A. Mackay, then the chairman of the Penang Chamber of Commerce, and included the Penang Muslim Chamber of Commerce, the Penang Chinese Chamber of Commerce, the Penang Straits Chinese Association, the Penang Eurasian Association and the Penang Indian Chamber of Commerce.
Ultimately, the Penang Secession Committee failed to attain its goals and petered out. A secession motion tabled in the Penang Settlement Council in 1949 was narrowly dismissed by British official votes, while another petition sent to London in 1951 also met with British disapproval. While some British and American observers were sympathetic to the secessionists ' cause, the British administrators were reluctant to jeopardise their own plans to gradually grant independence to a united Malayan polity. Moreover, the British government allayed the fears raised by the secessionists by guaranteeing George Town 's free port status and by reintroducing municipal elections for the city in 1951.
On 1 January 1957, George Town, the capital of Penang, was granted city status by Queen Elizabeth II in 1957, becoming the first city within the Federation of Malaya, and by extension, Malaysia. George Town continued to be the only city within Malaysia (other than Singapore between 1963 and its Separation in 1965) until 1972, when Kuala Lumpur was also conferred city status.
Penang, as part of the Federation of Malaya, gained independence from the British Empire on 31 August 1957, and subsequently became a member state of Malaysia in 1963.
Penang 's political landscape immediately after the independence of Malaya became relatively fractured. The new Penang state government was dominated by the Alliance coalition (now succeeded by Barisan Nasional), the same ruling coalition that controlled the Malayan federal government. Wong Pow Nee of the Malaysian Chinese Association (MCA), one of the major component parties of the Alliance, became Penang 's first Chief Minister, a position that he held until 1969. On the other hand, the Labour Party, a left - wing opposition party, took control of the George Town City Council soon after the Malayan independence. Penang 's voters tended to leave the control of the state government in the hands of the Alliance, while consistently electing the Labour Party to run the city council.
At the time, the George Town City Council was the only fully elected local authority in Malaya, as well as the country 's richest, with an annual revenue that was double that of the Penang state government by 1965. This solidified the financial autonomy of the city council, with its revenue going into social welfare projects within George Town. Meanwhile, the Penang state government attempted to boost the state 's manufacturing sector by opening new industrial estates in Seberang Perai, such as in Perai and Mak Mandin. Exacerbated by the opposing political affinities and ideologies, conflicts frequently arose between the state government and the city council over differences in policies and budget allocations.
As previously guaranteed by the British authorities, George Town 's free port status was untouched in the years immediately after the Malayan independence. The earlier fears by the secessionists eventually came true, however, when in 1969, the free port status was suddenly revoked by the Malaysian federal government. Consequently, 16.4 % of Penang 's working population became unemployed as the Port of Penang 's trade volume plummeted, adversely affecting George Town 's services sector. In the long run, this also marked the beginning of George Town 's slow, decades - long decline, which was only recently reversed.
The revocation of George Town 's free port status, coupled with an unsuccessful, bloody strike by Penang 's unions in 1967, led to a loss of popular support for the Alliance amongst Penangites. During the 1969 State Elections, Gerakan, then an opposition party, was voted into power in Penang, replacing the Alliance. The party 's founder, Lim Chong Eu, succeeded Wong Pow Nee as the Chief Minister of Penang. However, the violent race riots in Kuala Lumpur following the concurrent Malaysian General Elections led to the nationwide imposition of martial law and the functions of the Penang state government were taken over by the National Operations Council until 1971.
In 1973, Gerakan joined Barisan Nasional, thus returning the Penang state government back into the hands of the ruling coalition.
To revive Penang 's economy, Lim Chong Eu created the Bayan Lepas Free Industrial Zone and courted foreign multinational corporations for investments. Pioneer tax status was granted to multinational firms seeking to establish assembly plants within Bayan Lepas, which was formerly the rice bowl of Penang. Major electronic and engineering firms, including Motorola, Bosch, Hewlett - Packard and Hitachi, flocked in, setting up assembly plants within the area. Complemented by cheap labour, the Bayan Lepas Free Industrial Zone, one of the major electronics manufacturing zones in Asia, grew to become the Silicon Valley of the East and was instrumental in pulling Penang out from its economic slump, greatly propelling the state 's economy as one of the main economic powerhouses within Malaysia. To this day, manufacturing remains one of Penang 's two largest economic sectors, contributing as much as 47.4 % of Penang 's GDP as of 2015.
During Lim 's tenure, several major infrastructure projects were completed. The Penang Bridge, then the longest bridge in Southeast Asia, was completed in 1985, thus providing for the first time a road link between Penang Island and the Malay Peninsula. More controversial was the 250 m (820 ft) - tall Komtar in George Town, to this day the tallest skyscraper in Penang. Launched in 1974 as part of his vision to reverse George Town 's declining fortunes, Komtar was constructed in the expense of hundreds of shophouses, schools and temples, as well as whole streets, which were bulldozed for the project. However, instead of arresting George Town 's decline, Komtar itself became a white elephant by the early 2000s.
Meanwhile, in 1974, the Port of Penang was relocated from George Town to the town of Butterworth, directly across the Penang Strait, to allow for the berthing of larger container and cargo vessels. By then, the maritime traffic through Penang had been greatly diminished since the revocation of George Town 's free port status, with increasing volumes of maritime trade being directed towards Port Klang near Kuala Lumpur instead.
Throughout the 1970s and 80s, the Malaysian federal government proceeded with the rapid development of Kuala Lumpur and nearby Port Klang, by controlling investments in communication, transport, education and health. Kuala Lumpur soon outstripped George Town as Malaysia 's largest city and financial centre, while Port Klang quickly became the country 's busiest seaport. Consequently, Penang began to suffer considerable brain drain as younger Penangites started emigrating for better employment opportunities.
In 1974, the George Town City Council was merged with the Penang Island Rural District Council to form the Penang Island Municipal Council, while the five local authorities within Seberang Perai, including the Butterworth and Bukit Mertajam town councils, were merged into the Seberang Perai Municipal Council. By then, local elections, suspended since 1965, became a thing of the past, with the municipal councillors being appointed by the Penang state government ever since. The merger of the local governments on Penang Island also led to a decades - long dispute over George Town 's city status.
In the 1990 State Elections, Lim Chong Eu as the incumbent lost the Padang Kota constituency to Lim Kit Siang of the Democratic Action Party (DAP), forcing him into retirement. Although Barisan Nasional remained in power, Lim Chong Eu was succeeded by Koh Tsu Koon as the Chief Minister of Penang.
Koh Tsu Koon 's tenure as the Chief Minister of Penang was marked by inept development and urban planning policies, rampant pollution, and the deteriorating general state of affairs within Penang. Political tussles complicated development policies, while simmering discontent from Penang 's vocal non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and residents over the state 's decline would eventually lead to an unprecedented political change within the state.
In the early 1990s, plans for the development of Penang Hill were drawn up by the Penang state government, drawing considerable backlash from Penang 's civil societies over the potential environmental degradation of the forested hill. The plan was eventually axed. Meanwhile, the Rent Control Act, which until then had protected the low - income residents within the George Town city centre from eviction by preventing any arbitrary hike in rents, was repealed by 2001. This consequently led to the further hollowing out of the city centre, as residents, and smaller businesses, were unable to cope with the rental hikes and moved out. Unscrupulous private developers began demolishing several pre-war heritage buildings within the city centre for redevelopment, while other historic buildings fell under disrepair. Concerned over the impending loss of George Town 's heritage architecture, NGOs based within the city started to mobilise public support for the conservation of these historic buildings.
By the early 2000s, Penang 's economic growth began to lose steam, with the city - state recording the lowest monthly household income growth rate amongst the Malaysian states. The decades of brain drain also took its toll. For instance, while Kuala Lumpur was granted several mega-projects, including the Petronas Towers and the Kuala Lumpur International Airport, Penang suffered a shortage of qualified engineers and architects as professionals continued gravitating towards the Greater Kuala Lumpur area. Moreover, the lack of a coherent urban planning policy and poor traffic management meant that little was done to curb the worsening traffic congestion within Penang. Even the state 's reputation for cleanliness was not spared, as reports of coastal pollution and dirty streets within Penang made headline news. As early as 1996, the then Malaysian Prime Mninister, Mahathir Mohamad, had even labelled Penang a "garbage state ''.
Widespread dissatisfaction over Penang 's decline and neglect sparked a media campaign to restore Penang to its former glory in 2004. It has since been speculated that the public outcry over the neglect of the city once known as the ' Pearl of the Orient ', combined with Penang 's relatively lively political scene, contributed to the defeat of Barisan Nasional in the 2008 State Election by the federal opposition pact, Pakatan Rakyat. The opposition coalition, led by the DAP, subsequently took over the Penang state government, with Lim Guan Eng succeeding Koh as the Chief Minister of Penang.
In late 2004, Penang was hit by the massive Indian Ocean tsunami. Out of the 68 deaths within Malaysia, 52 were in Penang. Northern coastal areas, such as Batu Ferringhi and Gurney Drive in George Town, were among the worst hit places within the state. In the aftermath of the tsunami, a network of sirens has been installed throughout Penang as part of a national tsunami warning system designed to alert the public of such calamities in the future.
The swearing in of the new Penang state government, now led by Pakatan Rakyat, in 2008, heralded various positive policy changes. During that year, the George Town city centre, along with Malacca, was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, as a result of years of conservation efforts led by the city 's NGO s. The new state government subsequently spearheaded efforts to improve hygiene, cleanliness and pedestrianisation, as well as the use of public transportation and the promotion of the city 's cultural diversity. By 2010, George Town was ranked the most liveable city in Malaysia by ECA International, coming in at eighth place within Asia as well. Moreover, in 2017, the city was also ranked the second cleanest within Malaysia, behind only Ipoh.
In the economic front, the present state government has emphasised efforts to attract foreign direct investments and to push Penang up the economic value chain, as well as policies to root out corruption. In 2010, Penang recorded the highest amount of capital investments within Malaysia, attracting RM12. 2 billion, or 26 %, of the nation 's total investments. Penang 's stunning economic recovery, particularly since 2008, was described by Bloomberg as Malaysia 's "biggest economic success '' despite the Malaysian federal government 's focus on other states such as Johor and Sarawak. On top of that, the Penang state government was able to decrease Penang 's public debt by 95 %, from RM630 million in 2008 to RM30 million by late 2011. In addition, in 2016, George Town was rated as the most attractive destination for commercial property investment within Malaysia by Knight Frank, surpassing even Kuala Lumpur.
In 2015, the Malaysian federal government elevated the Penang Island Municipal Council into the present - day Penang Island City Council, thereby expanding the jurisdiction of George Town to encompass the entire Penang Island, as well as five of the surrounding islets. This also made George Town the only Malaysian city to have been conferred its city status twice.
The Second Penang Bridge, currently the longest bridge in Southeast Asia, was opened in 2013. Straddling a length of 24 km (15 mi), it provides a second road link between Penang Island and Seberang Perai, and has spurred the development of new industrial areas such as Batu Kawan.
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how many overagers can an ohl team have | Ontario Hockey League - wikipedia
The Ontario Hockey League (OHL) is one of the three major junior ice hockey leagues which constitute the Canadian Hockey League. The league is for players aged 16 -- 21. There are currently 20 teams in the OHL; seventeen in Ontario, two in Michigan, and one in Pennsylvania.
The league was founded in 1980, when its predecessor league, the Ontario Major Junior Hockey League formally split away from the Ontario Hockey Association, joining the Canadian Major Junior Hockey League and its direct affiliation with Hockey Canada. The OHL traces its history of Junior A hockey back to 1933 with the partition of Junior A and B. In 1970, the OHA Junior A League was one of five Junior A leagues operating in Ontario. The OHA was promoted to Tier I Junior A for the 1970 -- 71 season and took up the name Ontario Major Junior Hockey League. Since 1980 the league has grown rapidly into a high - profile marketable product, with many games broadcast on television and radio.
Leagues for ice hockey in Ontario were first organized in 1890 by the newly created Ontario Hockey Association (OHA). In 1892 the OHA recognized junior hockey - referring to skill rather than age. In 1896 the OHA moved to the modern age - limited junior hockey concept, distinct from senior and intermediate divisions. Since then the evolution to the Ontario Hockey League has developed through four distinct eras of junior - aged non-professional hockey in Ontario. In 1933, the junior division was divided into two levels, Junior A and Junior B. In 1970 the Junior A level was divided into two levels, Tier I (or Major Junior A) and Tier II (or Minor Junior A). In 1974 the Tier I / Major Junior A group separated from the OHA and became the independent ' Ontario Major Junior Hockey League ' (OMJHL). In 1980, the OMJHL became the ' Ontario Hockey League. '
From 1974 until 1978 (as the Ontario Major Junior Hockey League), Clarence "Tubby '' Schmalz was the league 's commissioner. Then, for one season (1978 -- 79), former IHL commissioner Bill Beagan served as commissioner of the OMJHL. Beginning with the 1979 - 80 season, David Branch has been the Commissioner of the OHL (which became the league 's official name prior to the 1981 - 82 season). Branch was appointed on August 11, 1979, and assumed the commissioner 's role on September 17, 1979.
The 20 OHL clubs play a 68 - game unbalanced schedule, which starts in the third full week of September, running until the third week of March. Ninety percent (90 %) of OHL games are scheduled between Thursday and Sunday to minimize the number of school days missed for its players.
Approximately 20 % of players on active rosters in the National Hockey League (NHL) have come from the OHL, and about 54 % of NHL players are alumni of the Canadian Hockey League.
The J. Ross Robertson Cup is awarded annually to the winner of the Championship Series. The Cup is named for John Ross Robertson, who was president of the Ontario Hockey Association from 1901 to 1905.
The OHL playoffs consist of the top 16 teams in the league, 8 from each conference. The teams play a best - of - seven game series, and the winner of each series advances to the next round. The final two teams eventually compete for the J. Ross Robertson Cup.
The OHL champion then competes with the winners of the Western Hockey League, the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League, and the host of the tournament to play for the Memorial Cup, which is awarded to the junior hockey champions of Canada. The host team of the tournament is alternated between the three leagues every season. The most recent OHL team to win the Memorial Cup was the Windsor Spitfires in 2017.
The Memorial Cup has been captured 17 times by OHL / OHA teams since the tournament went to a three - league format in 1972:
The Cup was also won 16 times by OHA teams in the period between 1945 and 1971:
The OHL 's predecessor, the OHA, had a midget and juvenile draft dating back to the 50s, until voted out in 1962. In 1966 it was resumed, though not publicized. Starting in the 70s the draft went through several changes. Originally the draft was for 17 - year - old midgets not already associated with teams through their sponsored youth programs. In 1971 the league first allowed "underage '' midgets to be picked in the first three rounds. In 1972 disagreements about the Toronto team 's rights to its "Marlie '' players (and Greg Neeld) and claims to American player Mark Howe led to a revised system. In 1973 each team was permitted to protect 8 midget area players (Toronto was allowed to protect 10 players from its midget sponsored teams). In 1975 the league phased out the area protections, and the 1976 OHA midget draft was the first in which all midget players were eligible. In 1999 the league changed the draft to a bantam age (15 and 16 year old). It is a selection of players who are residents of the province of Ontario, the states of Michigan, Pennsylvania and New York, and other designated U.S. states east of the Mississippi River plus Missouri.
Prior to 2001, the OHL held the Priority Selection in a public forum, such as an arena. Drafts were attended by many players and family members. In 2001, the OHL decided to hold the "draft '' via the Internet, greatly reducing the costs the league and its member teams incurred in hosting a public draft. This move reduced the stress and pressure that prospective players faced with a large crowd present.
The Jack Ferguson Award is presented annually to the first overall selection. The award was named in honour of long time OHL scout and former Director of Central Scouting Jack Ferguson.
List of trophies and awards in the Ontario Hockey League.
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who does the my brother my brother and me intro | My Brother, My Brother and Me - wikipedia
My Brother, My Brother and Me (often abbreviated as MBMBaM, pronounced / məˈbɪmbæm / (listen)) is a weekly comedy advice podcast distributed by the Maximum Fun network and hosted by brothers Justin, Travis, and Griffin McElroy. Regular episodes of the podcast feature the brothers comedically providing answers to questions either submitted by listeners or found on the Yahoo! Answers service.
The show was independently produced and released by the McElroy brothers from April 2010 until it joined the Maximum Fun network of podcasts in January 2011. In 2010, the show was consistently listed among the top 10 comedy podcasts on iTunes. Writing for The A.V. Club, critics David Anthony and Colin Griffith both counted MBMBaM as one of their top 10 podcasts of 2012. A TV series based on the podcast premiered on Seeso in February 2017, and is currently hosted on VRV.
Each week the McElroy brothers alternate between answering questions that have been directly submitted by listeners and questions that listeners have found on Yahoo! Answers. The second type of question is usually referred to by the brothers as a "Yahoo. '' Both kinds of questions will usually prompt the hosts into long humorous discussions.
Advertisements from corporate sponsors and paid messages from listeners are read by the hosts on air during a segment called "The Money Zone. '' Recurring segments feature intermittently. These include "Munch Squad '', where Justin recites and ridicules press releases from fast food companies about new products; "Haunted Doll Watch '', featuring eBay listings of apparently haunted, possessed, or cursed dolls; "Movie Watch '', where the brothers discuss incorrect, inaccurate, and often unrelated plot points in currently screening films; and "Sad Libs '', in which Travis creates tragic stories with blank spaces and completes them with nonsensical words.
Episodes of the show are occasionally performed and recorded in front of live audiences at venues in cities such as Los Angeles, New York City and Huntington; the format remains the same, including recurring segments such as Munch Squad, with the addition of a section where the brothers take questions from the audience. A special episode called "The Adventure Zone '' was released on August 18, 2014, shortly after Justin and his wife Sydnee had a baby. It featured the brothers playing a game of Dungeons & Dragons with their father, Clint. The Adventure Zone was later spun off into its own podcast on the Maximum Fun network.
"(It 's a) Departure '' by John Roderick & The Long Winters (from the album Putting the Days to Bed) has served as the primary theme song for My Brother, My Brother and Me since the show joined the Maximum Fun network on January 17, 2011. Prior to this, the show 's theme song was "Take a Chance on Me '' by ABBA, while "Root to This '' by Fear of Pop and later "Play Your Part (Pt. 2) '' by Girl Talk was used as a closing theme.
A television series based on the podcast was ordered for NBC 's Seeso video streaming platform. Filming took place for three weeks during September 2016 in the McElroys ' hometown of Huntington, West Virginia, with most of the episodes featuring scenes with mayor Stephen T. Williams. "(It 's a) Departure '' by John Roderick and the Long Winters was retained as the theme song for the television series. The show 's first season ran for six episodes, all of which were released via Seeso on February 23, 2017.
In June 2017, the series was sold to Otter Media for its streaming service VRV, alongside other former Seeso programs including HarmonQuest.
A viewer asks for help living with several supposedly - haunted items owned by their roommate, leading the McElroys to call on a pair of paranormal investigators and recreate the scenario by filling a dorm room with as many scary objects as possible, including a haunted clown doll purchased by Justin.
To help a teacher better understand how to maintain her students ' interests in class, the McElroys attempt to understand teenagers better by giving themselves "teen names '' and practicing trends like dabbing and water bottle flipping. Aided by Justin 's teenage sister - in - law Rileigh and her classmates, each brother attempts a different teaching style to connect with the teens.
An attempt to help a viewer with their vaping problem is suddenly interrupted by the unexpected arrival of Candlenights. After telling the story of the holiday 's origins, the McElroy brothers must band together to organize and prepare for a Candlenights live show in just three days.
The show occasionally features guest experts (referred to as "guestsperts '') who help the McElroy brothers answer questions. Notable past guests include:
Justin, the oldest brother, lives in Huntington, West Virginia, and was formerly an editor - at - large at Polygon, a video game website. He also co-hosts the medical history podcast Sawbones with his wife, Dr. Sydnee McElroy. Justin also hosted a YouTube show called "Things I Bought at Sheetz '' with Dwight Slappe. He and Griffin McElroy hosted a gaming comedy show for Polygon called Monster Factory in which they attempt to create hideous characters in video game character creators. Justin and Sydnee welcomed the birth of their eldest daughter Charlie "Chuck '' McElroy on August 12, 2014, and their younger daughter, Cooper Renee McElroy, on February 13, 2018.
Travis, the "middlest '' brother, lives in Cincinnati, Ohio, and worked as the Technical Director for the Cincinnati Shakespeare Company before becoming a full - time podcaster. He also co-hosts a podcast on frustrations and rants with Tybee Diskin called Interrobang, a podcast on manners called Shmanners and a media podcast, The Kind Rewind, with his wife, Teresa McElroy, a podcast on current events with Brent Black and Courtney Enlow called Trends Like These, and a podcast called Surprisingly Nice with Hal Lublin. Travis additionally co-hosted the "doomsday prepping '' comedy podcast Bunker Buddies with Andie Bolt, and produced the podcast Can I Pet Your Dog?, hosted by Allegra Ringo and Renee Colvert. He and Teresa have one daughter, Barbara "Bebe '' McElroy, born in 2016.
Griffin, the youngest brother, lives in Austin, Texas, and was formerly a senior video producer for Polygon. He co-hosted the video game podcast "Cool Games, Inc. '' for Polygon, along with let 's play series such as "Car Boys '' and "Touch the Skyrim '' on YouTube, and a podcast about The Bachelor and similar TV programs called Rose Buddies with his wife, Rachel McElroy. Griffin and Rachel currently host a podcast titled "Wonderful! '' In addition, Griffin was named one of Forbes ' "30 under 30 '' for the year 2017. Griffin and Rachel 's son Henry "Hank '' McElroy was born in 2016.
All three brothers co-host a yearly podcast, released every American Thanksgiving, called Til Death Do Us Blart with Tim Batt and Guy Montgomery where they review the film Paul Blart: Mall Cop 2. They additionally host the documentary podcast The McElroy Brothers Will Be in Trolls 2, which ultimately resulted in the announcement that all three were set to make cameo appearances in the film. The three were raised in Huntington by Clint and Leslie McElroy. Together with their father Clint, a radio personality himself, the brothers produce a Dungeons & Dragons podcast called The Adventure Zone. The three brothers also provide the in - game commentary for the video game 100 Ft. Robot Golf.
The McElroy Brothers appeared on the July 24, 2017 episode of @ midnight, during which host Chris Hardwick publicly acknowledged that @ midnight was ending.
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where is the united nations meeting taking place | Headquarters of the United Nations - wikipedia
The United Nations is headquartered in New York City, in a complex designed by Brazilian architect Oscar Niemeyer. The complex has served as the official headquarters of the United Nations since its completion in 1952. It is located in the Turtle Bay neighborhood of Manhattan, on spacious grounds overlooking the East River. Its borders are First Avenue on the west, East 42nd Street to the south, East 48th Street on the north and the East River to the east. The term "Turtle Bay '' is occasionally used as a metonym for the UN headquarters or for the United Nations as a whole.
The United Nations has three additional, subsidiary, regional headquarters, or headquarters districts. These were opened in Geneva (Switzerland) in 1946, Vienna (Austria) in 1980, and Nairobi (Kenya) in 1996. These adjunct offices help represent UN interests, facilitate diplomatic activities, and enjoy certain extraterritorial privileges, but only the main headquarters in New York City contains the seats of the principal organs of the UN, including the General Assembly and Security Council.
All fifteen of the United Nations ' specialized agencies are located outside New York City at these other headquarters or in other cities: the Food and Agriculture Organization and International Fund for Agricultural Development in Rome, the International Civil Aviation Organization in Montreal, the International Labour Organization, International Telecommunication Union, World Health Organization, World Intellectual Property Organization, World Trade Organization and World Meteorological Organization in Geneva, the International Maritime Organization in London, the International Monetary Fund and World Bank Group in Washington, D.C., the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization in Paris, the United Nations Industrial Development Organization in Vienna, the United Nation Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific in Bangkok, Thailand and the World Tourism Organization in Madrid.
Although it is situated in New York City, the land occupied by the United Nations Headquarters and the spaces of buildings that it rents are under the sole administration of the United Nations and not the U.S. government. They are technically extraterritorial through a treaty agreement with the U.S. government. However, in exchange for local police, fire protection and other services, the United Nations agrees to acknowledge most local, state, and federal laws.
The United Nations Headquarters complex was constructed in stages with the core complex completed between 1948 and 1952. The Headquarters occupies a site beside the East River, on between 17 and 18 acres (6.9 and 7.3 ha) of land purchased from the real estate developer, William Zeckendorf, Sr. Nelson Rockefeller arranged this purchase, after an initial offer to locate it on the Rockefeller family estate of Kykuit was rejected as being too isolated from Manhattan. The US $8.5 million (adjusted by inflation US $84.7 million) purchase was then funded by his father, John D. Rockefeller, Jr., who donated it to the city. The Rockefeller family owned the Tudor City Apartments across First Avenue from the site. Wallace Harrison, the personal architectural adviser for the Rockefeller family and brother - in - law to a Rockefeller daughter, served as the Director of Planning for the United Nations Headquarters. His firm, Harrison and Abramovitz, oversaw the execution of the design.
The property was originally a slaughterhouse before the donation took place, bordered on one side by Tudor City. While the United Nations had dreamed of constructing an independent city for its new world capital, multiple obstacles soon forced the organization to downsize their plans. The diminutive site on the East River necessitated a Rockefeller Center - type vertical complex, thus, it was a given that the Secretariat would be housed in a tall office tower. During daily meetings from February to June 1947, the collaborative team produced at least 45 designs and variations. Rather than hold a competition for the design of the facilities for the headquarters, the UN decided to commission a multinational team of leading architects to collaborate on the design. The American architect Wallace K. Harrison was named as Director of Planning, and a Board of Design Consultants was composed of architects, planners and engineers nominated by member governments. The board consisted of N.D. Bassov of the Soviet Union, Gaston Brunfaut (Belgium), Ernest Cormier (Canada), Le Corbusier (France), Liang Seu - cheng (China), Sven Markelius (Sweden), Oscar Niemeyer (Brazil), Howard Robertson (United Kingdom), G.A. Soilleux (Australia), and Julio Vilamajó (Uruguay).
Niemeyer met with Corbusier at the latter 's request shortly after the former arrived in New York City. Corbusier had already been lobbying hard to promote his own scheme 23, and thus, requested that Niemeyer not submit a design, lest he further confuse the contentious meetings of the Board of Design. Instead, he asked the younger architect to assist him with his project. Niemeyer began to absent himself from the meetings. Only after Wallace Harrison and Max Abramovitz repeatedly pressed him to participate did Niemeyer agree to submit his own project. Niemeyer 's project 32 was finally chosen, but as opposed to Corbusier 's project 23, which consisted of one building containing both the Assembly Hall and the councils in the center of the site (as it was hierarchically the most important building), Niemeyer 's plan split the councils from the Assembly Hall, locating the first alongside the river, and the second on the right side of the secretariat. This would not split the site, but on the contrary, would create a large civic square.
After much discussion, Harrison, who coordinated the meetings, determined that a design based on Niemeyer 's project 32 and Le Corbusier 's project 23 would be developed for the final project. Le Corbusier 's project 23 consisted of a large block containing both the Assembly Hall and the Council Chambers near the center of the site with the Secretariat tower emerging as a slab from the south. Niemeyer 's plan was closer to that actually constructed, with a distinctive General Assembly building, a long low horizontal block housing the other meeting rooms, and a tall tower for the Secretariat. The complex as built, however, repositioned Niemeyer 's General Assembly building to the north of this tripartite composition. This plan included a public plaza as well.
Wallace Harrison 's assistant, architect George Dudley, later stated: "It literally took our breath away to see the simple plane of the site kept open from First Avenue to the River, only three structures on it, standing free, a fourth lying low behind them along the river 's edge... (Niemeyer) also said, ' beauty will come from the buildings being in the right space! '. The comparison between Le Corbusier 's heavy block and Niemeyer 's startling, elegantly articulated composition seemed to me to be in everyone 's mind... '' Later on, Corbusier came once again to Niemeyer and asked him to reposition the Assembly Hall back to the center of the site. Such modification would destroy Niemeyer 's plans for a large civic square. However, he finally decided to accept the modification: "I felt (Corbusier) would like to do his project, and he was the master. I do not regret my decision. '' Together, they submitted the scheme 23 -- 32, which was built and is what can be seen today. Along with suggestions from the other members of the Board of Design Consultants, this was developed into project 42G. This late project was built with some reductions and other modifications.
Many cities vied for the honor of hosting the UN Headquarters site, prior to the selection of New York City. The selection of the East River site came after over a year of protracted study and consideration of many sites in the United States. A powerful faction among the delegates advocated returning to the former League of Nations complex in Geneva, Switzerland. Suggestions came from far and wide including such fanciful suggestions as a ship on the high seas to housing the entire complex in a single tall building. Amateur architects submitted designs, local governments offered park areas, but the determined group of New York City boosters that included such luminaries as Grover Whalen, Thomas J. Watson, and Nelson Rockefeller, coordinated efforts with the powerful Coordinator of Construction, Robert Moses, and Mayor William O'Dwyer, to assemble acceptable interim facilities. Their determined courtship of the UN Interim Site committee resulted in the early meetings taking place at multiple locations throughout the New York area. Sites in San Francisco (including the Presidio), Marin County, California, Philadelphia, Boston, Chicago, Fairfield County, CT, Westchester County, NY, and Flushing Meadows - Corona Park in Queens, were among those sites given serious consideration before Manhattan was finally selected. The Manhattan site was selected after John D. Rockefeller, Jr., offered to donate $8.5 million to purchase the land.
In 1945 -- 46 London hosted the first meeting of the General Assembly in Methodist Central Hall, and the Security Council in Church House. The third and sixth General Assembly sessions, in 1948 and 1951, met in the Palais de Chaillot in Paris. Prior to the construction of the current complex, the UN was headquartered at a temporary location at the Sperry Corporation 's offices in Lake Success, New York, an eastern suburb of the city in Nassau County on Long Island, from 1946 to 1952. The Security Council also held sessions on what was then the Bronx campus of Hunter College (now the site of Lehman College) from March to August 1946. The UN also met at what is now the Queens Museum, built as the New York City Pavilion for the 1939 New York World 's Fair in Flushing Meadows - Corona Park. The General Assembly met at what had previously been the ice skating rink, and the Long Island Rail Road reopened the former World 's Fair station as United Nations station. After the UN moved to its new Manhattan headquarters, the building was remodeled and briefly used as a pavilion for the 1964 New York World 's Fair, after which it reverted to use as a skating rink until 2008, when the entire building began a long - term renovation to create expanded museum facilities.
Per an agreement with the city, the buildings met some but not all local fire safety and building codes. Construction on the initial buildings began in 1948, with the cornerstone laid on October 24, 1949, and was completed in 1952. The Dag Hammarskjöld Library Building, designed by Harrison and Abramovitz, was added in 1961. The construction of the headquarters was financed by an interest - free loan of $65 million made by the United States government, and the cost of construction was also reported as $65 million.
The site of the UN headquarters has extraterritoriality status. This affects some law enforcement where UN rules override the laws of New York City, but it does not give immunity to those who commit crimes there. In addition, the United Nations Headquarters remains under the jurisdiction and laws of the United States, although a few members of the UN staff have diplomatic immunity and so can not be prosecuted by local courts unless the diplomatic immunity is waived by the Secretary - General. In 2005, Secretary - General Kofi Annan waived the immunity of Benon Sevan, Aleksandr Yakovlev, and Vladimir Kuznetsov in relation to the Oil - for - Food Programme, and all were charged in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York. Benon Sevan later fled the United States to Cyprus, while Aleksandr Yakovlev and Vladimir Kuznetsov decided to stand trial.
The currency in use at the United Nations headquarters ' businesses is the U.S. dollar. The UN 's stamps are issued in denominations of the U.S. dollar. U.S. postal rates must be followed.
The UN identifies Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish as its six official languages. Delegates speaking in any of these languages will have their words simultaneously translated into all of the others, and attendees are provided with headphones through which they can hear the translations. A delegate is allowed to make a statement in a non-official language, but must provide either an interpreter or a written copy of his / her remarks translated into an official language. English and French are the working languages of the United Nations Secretariat, as most of the daily communication within the Secretariat and most of the signs in the UN headquarters building are in those languages.
The complex has a street address of United Nations Headquarters, New York, NY 10017, USA. For security reasons, all mail sent to this address is sterilized, so items that may be degraded can be sent by courier. The United Nations Postal Administration issues stamps, which must be used on stamped mail sent from the building. Journalists, when reporting from the complex, often use "United Nations '' rather than "New York City '' as the identification of their location in recognition of the extraterritoriality status.
For award purposes, amateur radio operators consider the UN headquarters a separate "entity '' under some award programs such as DXCC. For communications, UN organizations have their own internationally recognized ITU prefix, 4U. However, only contacts made with the UN Headquarters in New York, and the ITU count as separate entities. Other UN organizations such as the World Bank count for the state or country they are located in. The UN Staff Recreation Council operates amateur radio station 4U1UN, and occasionally use special callsigns with prefix 4U and ending in UN to commemorate various events at the UN.
The complex includes a number of major buildings. While the Secretariat building is most predominantly featured in depictions of the headquarters, it also includes the domed General Assembly building, the Dag Hammarskjöld Library, as well as the Conference and Visitors Center, which is situated between the General Assembly and Secretariat buildings, and can be seen only from FDR Drive or the East River. Just inside the perimeter fence of the complex stands a line of flagpoles where the flags of all 193 UN member states, plus the UN flag, are flown in English alphabetical order.
The General Assembly building, housing the United Nations General Assembly, holds the General Assembly Hall which has a seating capacity of 1,800. At 165 ft (50 m) long by 115 ft (35 m) wide, it is the largest room in the complex. The Hall has two murals by the French artist Fernand Léger. At the front of the chamber, is the rostrum containing the green marble desk for the President of the General Assembly, Secretary - General and Under - Secretary - General for General Assembly Affairs and Conference Services and matching lectern for speakers. Behind the rostrum is the UN emblem on a gold background. Flanking the rostrum is a paneled semi-circular wall that tapers as it nears the ceiling and surrounds the front portion of the chamber. In front of the paneled walls are seating areas for guests and within the wall are windows which allow translators to watch the proceedings as they work. The ceiling of the hall is 75 ft (23 m) high and surmounted by a shallow dome ringed by recessed light fixtures. The entrance to the hall bears an inscription from the Gulistan by Iranian poet Saadi. The General Assembly Hall was last altered in 1980 when capacity was increased to accommodate the increased membership. Each of the 192 delegations has six seats in the hall with three at a desk and three alternate seats behind them.
The Conference Building faces the East River between the General Assembly Building and the Secretariat. The Conference Building holds the Security Council Chamber, which was a gift from Norway and was designed by the Norwegian architect Arnstein Arneberg. The oil canvas mural depicting a phoenix rising from its ashes by Norwegian artist Per Krogh hangs at the front of the room.
The 39 - story Secretariat Building was completed in 1952. It houses offices for the Secretary General, the Under - Secretary - General for Legal Affairs and United Nations Legal Counsel, the Under - Secretary - General for Political Affairs and Office of Disarmament Affairs, and the Department for General Assembly and Conference Management (DGACM).
The library was founded with the United Nations in 1946. It was originally called the United Nations Library, later the United Nations International Library. In the late 1950s the Ford Foundation gave a grant to the United Nations for the construction of a new library building; Dag Hammarskjöld was also instrumental in securing the funding for the new building. The Dag Hammarskjöld Library was dedicated and renamed on November 16, 1961. The building was a gift from the Ford Foundation and is located next to the Secretariat at the southwest corner of the headquarters campus. The library holds 400,000 books, 9,800 newspapers and periodical titles, 80,000 maps and the Woodrow Wilson Collection containing 8,600 volumes of League of Nations documents and 6,500 related books and pamphlets. The library 's Economic and Social Affairs Collection is housed in the DC - 2 building.
The complex is also notable for its gardens and outdoor sculptures. Iconic sculptures include the "Knotted Gun '', called Non-Violence, a statue of a Colt Python revolver with its barrel tied in a knot, which was a gift from the Luxembourg government and "Let Us Beat Swords into Plowshares '', a gift from the Soviet Union. The latter sculpture is the only appearance of the "swords into plowshares '' quotation, from Isaiah 2: 4, within the complex. Contrary to popular belief, the quotation is not carved on any UN building. Rather, it is carved on the "Isaiah Wall '' of Ralph Bunche Park across First Avenue. A piece of the Berlin Wall also stands in the UN garden.
Other prominent artworks on the grounds include a Marc Chagall stained glass window memorializing the death of Dag Hammarskjöld, the Japanese Peace Bell which is rung on the vernal equinox and the opening of each General Assembly session, a Chinese ivory carving made in 1974 (before the ivory trade was largely banned in 1989), and a Venetian mosaic depicting Norman Rockwell 's painting The Golden Rule. A full - size tapestry copy of Pablo Picasso 's Guernica, by Jacqueline de la Baume Dürrbach (Wikidata), on the wall of the United Nations building at the entrance to the Security Council room. In 1952, two Léger murals were installed in the General Assembly Hall. The works are meant to merely be decorative with no symbolism. One is said to resemble cartoon character Bugs Bunny and U.S. President Harry S. Truman dubbed the other work Scrambled Eggs.
Two huge murals by Brazilian artist Cândido Portinari, entitled Guerra e Paz (War and Peace) are located at the delegates hall. The works are a gift from the United Nations Association of the United States of America and Portinari intended to execute them in the United States. However, he was denied a visa due to his communist convictions and decided to paint them in Rio de Janeiro. They were later assembled in the headquarters. After their completion in 1957, Portinari, who was already ill when he started the masterpiece, succumbed to lead poisoning from the pigments his doctors advised him to abandon.
While outside of the complex, the headquarters also includes two large office buildings that serve as offices for the agencies and programmes of the organization. These buildings, known as DC - 1 and DC - 2, are located at 1 and 2 UN Plaza respectively. DC1 was built in 1976. There is also an identification office at the corner of 46th Street, inside a former bank branch, where pre-accredited diplomats, reporters, and others receive their grounds passes. UNICEF House (3 UN Plaza) and the UNITAR Building (807 UN Plaza) are also part of headquarters. In addition, the Church Center for the United Nations (777 UN Plaza) is a private building owned by the United Methodist Church as an interfaith space housing the offices of several non-governmental organizations. The Office of Internal Oversight Services (OIOS) is located at 380 Madison Avenue.
Besides the actual and outer structures that make up and surround the United Nations Headquarters are the inner groups that play a role as well. The Security Council containing 5 permanent and 10 temporary for a total of 15 members, ensures the stabilization of peace and security whether in terms of threats or simple adjustments. A heavier focus on actual activities like debating in policymaking, and reflecting in and out of the environment, is conducted by the Economic and Social Council.
The headquarter 's buildings have come to need extensive renovation, including the need to install sprinklers, fix leaks, and remove asbestos. Expansion has also come to be needed.
On July 28, 2007, UN officials announced the complex would undergo a $1 billion renovation starting in the fall. Swedish firm Skanska AB won a bid to overhaul the buildings which including the Conference, General Assembly and Secretariat buildings. The renovations, which will be the first since the complex opened in 1950, are expected to take about 7 years to complete. When completed the complex is also expected to be more energy efficient and have improved security. Work began on May 5, 2008 but the project was delayed for a while. By 2009 the cost of the work had risen from $1.2 billion to $1.6 billion with some estimates saying it would take up to $3 billion. Officials hope the renovated buildings will achieve a LEED Silver rating. Despite some delays and rises in construction costs, renovation on the entire UN headquarters is progressing rapidly. As of 2012, the installation of the new glass facade of the Secretariat Building is completed. The new glass wall will retain the look of the original facade but it will be more energy efficient. The renovation of the Secretariat building has been complete and the UN staff moved into the new building in July 2012.
Alternative sites were considered as temporary holding locations during renovations. In 2005, officials investigated establishing a new temporary site be created at the old Lake Success location. Brooklyn was also suggested as a temporary site. Another alternative for a temporary headquarters or a new permanent facility was the World Trade Center site. Once again, these plans met resistance both within the UN and from the United States and New York governments and were abandoned.
In October 2011 city and state officials announced an agreement in which the UN would be allowed to build a long - sought new office tower adjacent to the existing campus on the current Robert Moses Playground, which would be relocated. In exchange, the United Nations would allow the construction of an esplanade along the East River that would complete the East River Greenway, a waterfront pedestrian and bicycle pathway. While host nation authorities have agreed to the provisions of the plan, it needs the approval of the United Nations in order to be implemented. The plan is similar in concept to an earlier proposal that had been announced in 2000 but did not move forward.
The renovations are nearing completion in 2016, with the cost having risen to $2.15 billion.
After the multi-year process, the UN Headquarters now includes new electronics, audio and language systems, heating and cooling installments, and is said to be more safe as well as more energy efficient compared to before. With these new additions, general public visitations have increased and guided tours are even available.
Hours of operation include:
Monday -- Friday: 9: 00am to 4: 30pm
Saturday & Sunday: 10: 00am to 4: 30pm
Due to the significance of the organization, proposals have occasionally been discussed to relocate its headquarters. Complaints about its current location include diplomats who find it difficult to obtain visas from the United States and local residents complaining of inconveniences whenever the surrounding roads are closed due to visiting dignitaries as well as the high costs to the city. A telephone survey in 2001 found that 67 % of respondents favor moving the United Nations headquarters out of the country. Countries critical of the USA, such as Iran and Russia, are especially important in questioning the current location of the United Nations. Arguing that the United States government could manipulate the work of the General Assembly through selective access to politicians from other countries, with the aim of having an advantage over rival countries. Due to accusations of espionage by the United States, the subject of the relocation of the UN headquarters was again discussed, this time for security reasons.
Among the cities that have been proposed to house the headquarters of the United Nations are Saint Petersburg, Montreal, Dubai, Jerusalem, and Nairobi. Critics of the relocation say that the idea would be expensive and would also involve the withdrawal of the United States from the organization, and with it much of the agency 's funding. They also state that the proposals have never gone from being mere declarations.
Large scale protests, demonstrations, and other gatherings directly on First Avenue are rare. Some gatherings have taken place in Ralph Bunche Park, but it is too small to accommodate large demonstrations. The closest location where the New York City Police Department usually allows demonstrators is Dag Hammarskjöld Plaza at 47th Street and First Avenue, one block away from the visitors ' entrance, four blocks away from the entrance used by top - level diplomats, and five blocks away from the general staff entrance.
Excluding gatherings solely for diplomats and academics, there are a few organizations which regularly hold events at the UN. The United Nations Association of the United States of America (UNA - USA), a non-governmental organization, holds an annual "member 's day '' event in one of the conference rooms. Model United Nations conferences sponsored by UNA - USA, the National Collegiate Conference Association (NCCA / NMUN), and the International Model UN Association (IMUNA / NHSMUN) hold part of their sessions in the General Assembly chamber. Seton Hall University 's Whitehead School of Diplomacy hosts its UN summer study program at the headquarters as well.
United Nations Security officers are generally responsible for security within the UN Headquarters. They are equipped with weapons and handcuffs and may be mistaken for NYPD officers, due to similarity in uniforms. The NYPD 's 17th Precinct patrols the area around and near the complex, but does not have jurisdiction inside the UN headquarters themselves since the headquarters are considered international property.
Due to its role in international politics, the United Nations Headquarters is often featured in movies and other pop culture. The only film actually shot on location in the UN headquarters is The Glass Wall (1953) by legendary Hollywood writer / director / producer Ivan Tors. When he was unable to obtain permission to film in the UN Headquarters, director Alfred Hitchcock covertly filmed Cary Grant arriving for the 1959 feature North by Northwest. After the action within the building, another scene shows Grant leaving across the plaza looking down from the building 's roof. This was created using a painting. In the 1976 comedy film The Pink Panther Strikes Again, the building is vaporised by Dreyfus with a doomsday device. The final Roadblock of the 21st season of the American version of The Amazing Race also took place inside the gates of this building and had teams associating national flags with the different "hellos '' and "goodbyes '' they heard during the race. The building is seen in the 2008 game Grand Theft Auto IV, but called the Civilization Committee Building (CC). The building is also in the racing game The Crew in the New York City area of the game.
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who were the jacobins who was their leader | Jacobin - wikipedia
Establishment of a Jacobin society:
Newspapers:
All groups in the National Convention
The Society of the Friends of the Constitution (French: Société des amis de la Constitution), after 1792 renamed Society of the Jacobins, Friends of Freedom and Equality (Société des Jacobins, amis de la liberté et de l'égalité), commonly known as the Jacobin Club (Club des Jacobins) or simply the Jacobins (/ ˈdʒækəbɪn /; French: (ʒakɔbɛ̃)), was the most influential political club during the French Revolution.
Initially founded in 1789 by anti-royalist deputies from Brittany, the club grew into a nationwide republican movement, with a membership estimated at a half million or more. The Jacobin Club was heterogeneous and included both prominent parliamentary factions of the early 1790s, the Mountain and the Girondins. In 1792 -- 1793, the Girondins were more prominent in leading France, the period when war was declared on Austria and Prussia, the monarchy was overthrown and the Republic created. In May 1793, the leaders of the Mountain faction led by Maximilien Robespierre succeeded in sidelining the Girondin faction and controlled the government until July 1794. Their time in government was characterized by high levels of political violence and for this reason the period of the Jacobin / Mountain government is also commonly referred to as the Reign of Terror. In October 1793, 21 prominent Girondins were guillotined. The Mountain - dominated government executed 17,000 opponents nationwide, purportedly to suppress the Vendée insurrection and the Federalist revolts and to prevent any other insurrections. In July 1794, the government of Robespierre and allies was pushed out of power -- Robespierre and 21 associates were executed. In November 1794, the Jacobin Club was closed.
Today, Jacobin and Jacobinism are used in a variety of senses. In Britain, where the term Jacobin has been linked primarily to the Mountain, it is sometimes used as a pejorative for radical left - wing revolutionary politics, especially when it exhibits dogmatism and violent repression. In France, Jacobin now generally indicates a supporter of a centralized republican state and strong central government powers and / or supporters of extensive government intervention to transform society. It is also used in other related senses, indicating proponents of a state education system which strongly promotes and inculcates civic values and proponents of a strong nation - state capable of resisting any undesirable foreign interference.
When the Estates General of 1789 in France was convened in May -- June 1789 at the Palace of Versailles, the club, originated as the Club Breton, was composed exclusively of a group of Breton representatives attending those Estates General. They soon were joined by deputies from other regions throughout France. Among early members were the dominating comte de Mirabeau, Parisian deputy Abbé Sieyès, Dauphiné deputy Antoine Barnave, Jérôme Pétion, the Abbé Grégoire, Charles Lameth, Alexandre Lameth, Robespierre, the duc d'Aiguillon, and La Revellière - Lépeaux. At this time, meetings occurred in secret, and few traces remain concerning what took place or where the meetings were convened.
By the March on Versailles in October 1789, the club, still entirely composed of deputies, reverted to being a provincial caucus for National Constituent Assembly deputies from Brittany. As of October 1789, the group rented for its meetings the refectory of the monastery of the Jacobins in the Rue Saint - Honoré, adjacent to the seat of the Assembly. The name Jacobins, given in France to the Dominicans (because their first house in Paris was in the Rue Saint - Jacques), was first applied to the club in ridicule by its enemies.
The club was re-founded in November 1789, after an address from the London Revolution Society congratulating the French on "conquering their liberty '' led National Assembly deputies to found their own Société de la Révolution.
Once in Paris, the club soon extended its membership to others besides deputies. All citizens were allowed to enter, and even foreigners were welcomed: the English writer Arthur Young joined the club in this manner on 18 January 1790. Jacobin Club meetings soon became a place for radical and rousing oratory that pushed for republicanism, widespread education, universal suffrage, separation of church and state, and other reforms.
On 8 February 1790, the society became formally constituted on this broader basis by the adoption of the rules drawn up by Barnave, which were issued with the signature of the duc d'Aiguillon, the president. The club 's objectives were defined as such:
At the same time the rules of order of election were settled, and the constitution of the club determined. There was to be a president, elected every month, four secretaries, a treasurer, and committees elected to superintend elections and presentations, the correspondence, and the administration of the club. Any member who by word or action showed that his principles were contrary to the constitution and the rights of man was to be expelled.
By the 7th article the club decided to admit as associates similar societies in other parts of France and to maintain with them a regular correspondence. By 10 August 1790 there were already one hundred and fifty - two affiliated clubs; the attempts at counter-revolution led to a great increase of their number in the spring of 1791, and by the close of the year the Jacobins had a network of branches all over France. At the peak there were at least 7,000 chapters throughout France, with a membership estimated at a half - million or more. It was this widespread yet highly centralised organization that gave to the Jacobin Club great power.
By early 1791, clubs like the Jacobins, the Club des Cordeliers and the Cercle Social were increasingly dominating French political life. Numbers of men were member of two or more of such clubs. Women were not accepted as members of the Jacobin Club (nor of most other clubs), but they were allowed to follow the discussions from the balconies. The rather high subscription of the Jacobin Club confined its membership to well - off men. The Jacobins claimed to speak on behalf of the people but were themselves not of ' the people ': contemporaries saw the Jacobins as a club of the bourgeoisie.
As far as the central society in Paris was concerned, it was composed almost entirely of professional men (such as the lawyer Robespierre) and well - to - do bourgeoisie (like the brewer Santerre). From the start, however, other elements were also present. Besides the teenage son of the Duc d'Orléans, Louis Philippe, a future king of France, liberal aristocrats such as the duc d'Aiguillon, the prince de Broglie, and the vicomte de Noailles, and the bourgeoisie formed the mass of the members. The club further included people like "père '' Michel Gérard, a peasant proprietor from Tuel - en - Montgermont, in Brittany, whose rough common sense was admired as the oracle of popular wisdom, and whose countryman 's waistcoat and plaited hair were later on to become the model for the Jacobin fashion.
The Jacobin Club supported the monarchy up until the very eve of the republic (20 September 1792). They did not support the petition of 17 July 1791 for the king 's dethronement, but instead published their own petition calling for replacement of king Louis XVI.
The departure of the conservative members of the Jacobin Club to form their own Feuillants Club in July 1791 to some extent radicalized the Jacobin Club.
Late 1791, a group of Jacobins in the Legislative Assembly advocated war with Prussia and Austria. Most prominent among them was Brissot, other members were Pierre Vergniaud, Fauchet, Maximin Isnard, Jean - Marie Roland.
Maximilien Robespierre, also a Jacobin, strongly pleaded against war with Prussia and Austria -- but in the Jacobin Club, not in the Assembly where he was not seated. Disdainfully, Robespierre addressed those Jacobin war promotors as ' the faction from the Gironde '; some, not all of them, were indeed from department Gironde. The Assembly in April 1792 finally decided for war, thus following the ' Girondin ' line on it, but Robespierre 's place among the Jacobins had now become much more prominent.
From then on, a polarization process started among the members of the Jacobin Club, between a group around Robespierre -- after September 1792 called ' Montagnards ' or ' Montagne ', in English ' the Mountain ' -- and the Girondins. These groups never had any official status, nor official memberships. The Mountain was not even very homogenous in their political views: what united them was their aversion to the Girondins.
The Legislative Assembly, governing France from October 1791 until September 1792, was dominated by men like Brissot, Isnard and Roland: Girondins. But after June 1792, Girondins visited less and less the Jacobin Club, where Robespierre, their fierce opponent, grew more and more dominant.
On 21 September 1792, after the fall of the monarchy the title assumed by the Jacobin Club after the promulgation of the constitution of 1791 (Société des amis de la constitution séants aux Jacobins à Paris) was changed to Société des Jacobins, amis de la liberté et de l'égalité (Society of the Jacobins, Friends of Freedom and Equality). In the newly elected National Convention, governing France as of 21 September 1792, Maximilien Robespierre made his comeback in the center of French power. Together with his 25 - year - old protégé Louis Antoine de Saint - Just, Marat, Danton and other associates they took places on the left side on the highest seats of the session room: therefore that group around and led by Robespierre was called The Mountain (French: la Montagne, les Montagnards).
Some historians prefer to identify a parliamentary group around Robespierre as Jacobins, whhich can be confusing because not all Montagnards were Jacobin and their primal enemies, the Girondins, were originally also Jacobins. By September 1792, Robespierre indeed had also become the dominant voice in the Jacobin Club.
Since late 1791, the Girondins became the opponents of Robespierre, but originally also Jacobins who took places on the right side of the session room of the Convention. By now, they stopped visiting the Jacobin Club.
Those parliamentary groups, Montagnards and Girondins, never had any official status, but historians estimate the Girondins in the Convention at 150 men strong, the Montagnards at 120. The remaining 480 of the 750 deputies of the Convention were called ' the Plain ' (French: la Plaine) and managed to keep some speed in the debates while Girondins and Montagnards were mainly occupied with nagging the opposite side.
Most Ministries were manned by friends or allies of the Girondins, but while the Girondins were stronger than the Montagnards outside Paris, inside Paris the Montagnards were much more popular, implying that the public galleries of the Convention were always loudly cheering for Montagnards, while jeering at Girondins speaking.
On 6 April 1793, the Convention established the Comité de salut public (Committee of Public Prosperity, also translated as Committee of Public Safety) as sort of executive government of nine, later twelve members, always accountable to the National Convention. Initially, it counted no Girondins and only one or two Montagnards, but gradually the influence of Montagnards in the Committee grew.
Early April 1793, Minister of War Pache said to the National Convention that the 22 leaders of the Girondins should be banned. Later that month, the Girondin Guadet accused the Montagnard Marat of ' preaching plunder and murder ' and trying ' to destroy the sovereignty of the people '. A majority of the Convention agreed to put Marat on trial, but the court of justice quickly acquitted Marat. This apparent victory of the Montagnards intensified their antipathies of the Girondins, and more proposals were vented to get rid of the Girondins.
On both 18 and 25 May 1793, the acting president of the Convention, Isnard, a Girondin, warned that the disturbances and disorder on the galleries and around the Convention would finally lead the country to anarchy and civil war, and he threatened on 25 May: "If anything should befall to the representatives of the nation, I declare, in the name of France, that all of Paris will be obliterated ''. The next day, Robespierre said in the Jacobin Club that the people should "rise up against the corrupted deputies '' in the Convention. On 27 May, both Girondins and Montagnards accused the other party of propagating civil war.
On 2 June 1793, the Convention was besieged in its Tuileries Palace by a crowd of around 80,000 armed soldiers, clamorously on the hand of the Montagnards. In a chaotic session a decree was adopted that day by the Convention, expelling 22 leading Girondins from the Convention, including Lanjuinais, Isnard and Fauchet.
Around June 1793, Maximilien Robespierre and some of his associates (Montagnards) gained greater power in France. Many of them, like Robespierre himself, were Jacobin: Fouché, Collot d'Herbois, Billaud - Varenne, Marat, Danton, Saint - Just. Three other powerful Montagnards were not known as Jacobin: Barère, Hébert and Couthon. In ' culture wars ' and history writing after 1793 however, the group around Robespierre dominating French politics in June 1793 -- July 1794 was often designated as ' Jacobins '.
Many of these Montagnards (and Jacobins) entered, or were already, in the de facto executive government of France, the Committee of Public Prosperity (or Public Safety): Barère was in it since April 1793 until at least October 93, Danton served there from April until July 1793, Couthon and Saint - Just had entered the Committee in May, Robespierre entered it in July, Collot d'Herbois in September and Billaud - Varenne also around September 1793. Robespierre for his steadfast adherence to and defence of his views received the nickname and reputation of l'Incorruptible (The Incorruptible or The Unassailable).
Several deposed Girondin - Jacobin Convention deputies, among them Jean - Marie Roland, Brissot, Pétion, Louvet, Buzot and Guadet, left Paris to help organize revolts in more than 60 of the 83 departments against the politicians and Parisians, mainly Montagnards, that had seized power over the Republic. The government in Paris called such revolts ' federalist ' which was not accurate: most did not strive for regional autonomy but for a different central government.
In October 1793, 21 former Girondin Convention deputies were sentenced to death for supporting an insurrection in Caen. In March 1794, the Montagnard Hébert and some followers were sentenced to death; in April the Montagnard Danton and 13 of his followers were sentenced to death; in both cases after insinuation by Robespierre in the Convention that those "internal enemies '' were promoting ' the triumph of tyranny '. Meanwhile, the Montagnard - dominated government resorted also to harsh measures to repress what they considered counter-revolution, conspiracy and "enemies of freedom '' in the provinces outside Paris, resulting in 17,000 death sentences between September 1793 and July 1794 in all of France.
In late June 1794, three colleagues on the Committee of Public Prosperity / Safety -- Billaud - Varenne, Collot d'Herbois and Carnot -- called Robespierre a dictator. Late July 1794, Robespierre and 21 associates including the Jacobin Saint - Just and the Montagnard Couthon were sentenced to death by the National Convention and guillotined.
Probably because of the high level of repressive violence -- but also to discredit Robespierre and associates as sole responsibles for it -- historians have taken up the habit to roughly label the period June 1793 -- July 1794 as ' Reign of Terror '. Later and modern scholars explain that high level of repressive violence with: France was menaced by civil war and by a coalition of foreign hostile powers, requiring the discipline of the Terror to mold France into a united Republic capable of resisting this double peril.
With Robespierre and other leading Montagnards and Jacobins being executed in July 1794, Montagnards and Girondins as groups seem to have ceased to play a significant role in French history: historians make no more mention of them. Also the Jacobin Club seems not to have played a decisive role any longer.
The Jacobin club was disbanded on 12 November 1794. An attempt to reorganize Jacobin adherents was the foundation of the Réunion d'amis de l'égalité et de la liberté, in July 1799, which had its headquarters in the Salle du Manège of the Tuileries, and was thus known as the Club du Manège. It was patronized by Barras, and some two hundred and fifty members of the two councils of the legislature were enrolled as members, including many notable ex-Jacobins. It published a newspaper called the Journal des Libres, proclaimed the apotheosis of Robespierre and Babeuf, and attacked the Directory as a royauté pentarchique. But public opinion was now preponderatingly moderate or royalist, and the club was violently attacked in the press and in the streets. The suspicions of the government were aroused; it had to change its meeting - place from the Tuileries to the church of the Jacobins (Temple of Peace) in the Rue du Bac, and in August it was suppressed, after barely a month 's existence. Its members avenged themselves on the Directory by supporting Napoleon Bonaparte.
The Jacobin movement encouraged sentiments of patriotism and liberty amongst the populace. The movement 's contemporaries, such as the King Louis XVI, located the effectiveness of the revolutionary movement not "in the force and bayonets of soldiers, guns, cannons and shells but by the marks of political power ''. Ultimately, the Jacobins were to control several key political bodies, in particular the Committee of Public Safety and, through it, the National Convention, which was not only a legislature but also took upon itself executive and judicial functions. The Jacobins as a political force were seen as "less selfish, more patriotic, and more sympathetic to the Paris Populace. '' This gave them a position of charismatic authority that was effective in generating and harnessing public pressure, generating and satisfying sans - culotte pleas for personal freedom and social progress.
The Jacobin Club developed into a bureau for French republicanism and revolutionary purity, and abandoned its original laissez faire economic views in favor of interventionism. In power, they completed the abolition of feudalism that had been formally decided 4 August 1789, but had been held in check by a clause requiring compensation for the abrogation of the feudal privileges.
Maximilien Robespierre entered the political arena at the very beginning of the Revolution, having been elected to represent Artois at the Estates General. Robespierre was viewed as the quintessential political force of the Jacobin Movement, thrusting ever deeper the dagger of liberty within the despotism of the Monarchy. As a disciple of Rousseau, Robespierre 's political views were rooted in Rousseau 's notion of the social contract, which promoted "the rights of man ''. Robespierre particularly favored the rights of the broader population to eat, for example, over the rights of individual merchants. "I denounce the assassins of the people to you and you respond, ' let them act as they will. ' In such a system, all is against society; all favors the grain merchants. '' Robespierre famously elaborated this conception in his speech on 2 December 1792: "What is the first goal of society? To maintain the imprescribable rights of man. What is the first of these rights? The right to exist. ''
The ultimate political vehicle for the Jacobin movement was the Reign of Terror overseen by the Committee of Public Safety, who were given executive powers to purify and unify the Republic. The Committee instituted requisitioning, rationing, and conscription to consolidate new citizen armies. They instituted the Terror as a means of combating those they perceived as enemies within: Robespierre declared, "the first maxim of your policy ought to be to lead the people by reason and the people 's enemies by terror. ''.
The meeting place of the Fraternal Society of Patriots of Both Sexes was an old library room of the convent which hosted the Jacobins, and it was suggested that the Fraternal Society grew out of the regular occupants of a special gallery allotted to women at the Jacobin Club.
The cultural influence of the Jacobin movement during the French Revolution revolved around the creation of the Citizen. As commented in Jean - Jacques Rousseau 's 1762 book The Social Contract, "Citizenship is the expression of a sublime reciprocity between individual and General will. '' This view of citizenship and the General Will, once empowered, could simultaneously embrace the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and adopt the liberal French Constitution of 1793, then immediately suspend that constitution and all ordinary legality and institute Revolutionary Tribunals that did not grant a presumption of innocence.
The Jacobins saw themselves as constitutionalists, dedicated to the Rights of Man, and, in particular, to the Declaration 's principle of "preservation of the natural rights of liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression '' (Article II of the Declaration). The constitution reassured the protection of personal freedom and social progress within French society. The cultural influence of the Jacobin movement was effective in reinforcing these rudiments, developing a milieu for revolution. The Constitution was admired by most Jacobins as the foundation of the emerging republic and of the rise of citizenship.
The Jacobins were foes of both the Church and of atheism. They set up a new religious cult to replace Catholicism. They advocated deliberate government - organized terror as a substitute for both the rule of law and the more arbitrary terror of mob violence, inheritors of a war that, at the time of their rise to power, threatened the very existence of the Revolution. Once in power the Jacobins completed the overthrow of the Ancien Régime and successfully defended the Revolution from military defeat. However, to do so, they brought the Revolution to its bloodiest phase, and the one with least regard for just treatment of individuals. They consolidated republicanism in France and contributed greatly to the secularism and the sense of nationhood that have marked all French republican regimes to this day. However, their ruthless and unjudicial methods discredited the Revolution in the eyes of many. The resulting Thermidorian Reaction shuttered all of the Jacobin clubs, removed all Jacobins from power, and condemned many, well beyond the ranks of the Mountain, to death or exile.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Phillips, Walter Alison (1911). "Jacobins, The ''. In Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopædia Britannica. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 117 -- 119.
Bibliography
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list of largest cities in new york state | List of cities in New York (state) - wikipedia
This list of the 62 cities in New York State contains all municipalities incorporated as cities and also gives the primary county in which each city is located.
Except for Sherrill, the cities are distinct from towns. Geneva and New York City are the only cities in more than one county.
The most populous and largest city by area in the state is by far New York, home to over 8.2 million people and comprising just over 300 square miles (800 km) of land (468.87 square miles (1,210 km) including water). The least populous city is Sherrill, with just 3,147 inhabitants in 2000. The smallest city by area is Mechanicville, which covers 0.91 square miles (2.4 km) (of which 0.08 square miles (0.2 km) is water).
New York City, largest city in New York and the United States.
New York City, largest city in New York and the United States.
Buffalo, the second largest city in New York
Rochester, the third largest.
Yonkers, the fourth largest
Syracuse, the fifth largest.
Albany, the sixth largest and capital of New York.
New Rochelle, the seventh largest.
Schenectady, the ninth largest.
White Plains
Troy
Niagara Falls
Binghamton
Long Beach
Poughkeepsie
Jamestown
Watertown
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konjiki no gash bell movie 2 attack of the mecha-vulcan | Konjiki no Gash Bell!! Movie 2: attack of the Mecha - Vulcan - Wikipedia
Konjiki no Gash Bell!!: Attack of the Mecha - Vulcan (Japanese: 金色 の ガッシュ ベル 「 メカバルカン の 来襲 」) is a 2005 Japanese animated film and the second based on the anime, Konjiki no Gash Bell!!. The first was Konjiki no Gash Bell!! Movie 1: Unlisted Demon 101, released in 2004.
Both were released in Japan, but have not been dubbed in any other languages besides Japanese, and have not been released outside Japan.
The movie begins with a mysterious figure, Dr. M2, rallying a group of robots that he calls Death Mechanics (which all look like gigantic robotic blue versions of Vulcan, a plastic box with wooden sticks for arms that Kiyomaro "gifted '' to Gash). He orders one of the units, Death 18, to kidnap Kiyomaro.
Meanwhile, Kiyomaro is rushing to get to the bus for Coast School, since he slept in late. He leaves Gash behind, who chases after Kiyomaro. During the chase, Vulcan, who Gash brought along with him, is partially broken. Stuck in a tree and unable to stop Kiyomaro, Gash asks him if he 'll at least fix Vulcan, but Kiyomaro says that he 'll "make him a new one ''. As Kiyomaro tries to chase the already - moving bus down, his friends spot him and try to tell the others to stop the bus. However, while they 're not paying attention, Death 18 swoops down from the sky and abducts Kiyomaro, carrying him away and leaving his friends baffled. Once Kiyomaro arrives at Dr. M2 's lab, he is contained inside an orange bubble. Dr. M2 then orders Death 18 to go down and distract Gash to keep him away from Kiyomaro by making Gash think that he 's his friend.
As Gash walks home, he thinks about the previous versions, or "generations '', of Vulcan that had been ruined in the past (leading up to the third that he currently had), and how they are all important friends of his. Screaming out that Kiyomaro 's an idiot, Naomi, the local bully, believes that Gash was talking about her, so she starts pummeling him. However, Death 18 comes down from the sky and interrupts her. As he 's about to harm Naomi, Gash realizes that he looks just like Vulcan, and tells him not to hurt Naomi. Naomi runs off and Death 18 fixes Gash 's Vulcan. Gash thinks that Death 18 is another Vulcan that Kiyomaro built, and calls him "Yondaime '', or "Fourth Generation ''. Gash and Vulcan then ride in Yondaime 's giant mouth into town.
In Dr. M2 's lab, the demon explains that Kiyomaro is to be his new partner, and that he can take Kiyomaro to the future demon world. Dr. M2 shows Kiyomaro the Death Mechanics, but Kiyomaro tells him that they 're just rip - offs of Vulcan. To prove him wrong, Dr. M2 shows Kiyomaro a robotic model of Vulcan from the future that Kiyomaro will someday build; however, as a prototype, it 's loaded up with bugs. Dr. M2 had realized that the best way to fix the Death Mechanics was to have Kiyomaro repair them. Kiyomaro asks Dr. M2 whether the battle to decide the next ruler of the Demon World is still going on, but Dr. M2 simply states that he is n't interested in that battle, leaving it vague. Dr. M2 offers again to bring Kiyomaro to the future, but he refuses. Dr. M2 tells him that the idiots of his time ca n't understand him, but Kiyomaro says that Gash changed his view of people around him.
Meanwhile, after venturing into town, Gash and Yondaime go under a bridge and find graffiti. As the two start painting the walls themselves, Gash paints "Yondaime '' in Kanji onto the robot 's body. Gash 's demon friends, Tio, Kanchome, and Umagon, then arrive under the bridge. While Kanchome is terrified by Yondaime, Gash explains that he is a present from Kiyomaro, so the five of them then play together in the park. As Dr. M2 opens the portal to the future to return with Kiyomaro, a dark cloud is created over the city. Citizens of Mochinoki Town are advised to leave, and there is mass panic. Gash says that they should all go to investigate, but Yondaime 's programming makes him try to keep them all away. After much prodding from Gash, though, Yondaime realizes that he and Gash have become friends, and he changes his mind. The four demons get into Yondaime 's mouth and, revealing that he can fly, Yondaime soars towards the cloud.
Upon entering the dark cloud, they discover Dr. M2 's giant floating castle. Infuriated that Death 18 disobeyed his orders, Dr. M2 tries to reprimand him, but the robot does n't respond. Kiyomaro manages to break free from his prison and communicates with Gash using a giant monitor on the side of the castle. Dr. M2 summons all of the Death Mechanics to fight off Gash and the others, but Kiyomaro manages to get Gash to fire his Zakeru spell, blasting away the Death Mechanics ' missiles. The attack also tears a hole in a part of the castle, though, leaving Kiyomaro to fall from the sky; however, Yondaime manages to catch him.
Kiyomaro gets ready to attack the army of Vulcans, but Gash, believing them all to be Vulcans and, therefore, all his friends, runs towards them to try to talk to them, while Yondaime keeps Kiyomaro restrained. The Vulcans do n't respond to Gash 's words, though, and all begin to pummel him. Tio, Kanchome, Umagon, and Yondaime all try to hold back the Vulcans from attacking him, but to no avail. As all of the Vulcans try to take Kiyomaro, Gash yells at them to stop. They all stop momentarily, but are immediately called back to the castle by Dr. M2. One of Dr. M2 's lightning bolts hits Yondaime, reverting him to his original programming. Despite Gash 's efforts, Yondaime flies off to join the others, who all fuse together with the castle to become one giant Vulcan.
As the giant Vulcan attacks the group, Megumi, Folgore, and Sunbeam all arrive in a car together to help fight it off. During the scuffle, Megumi casts Giga Ra Seushiru, causing the giant Vulcan 's attack to reflect back at it, making it collapse. Gash asks again if they can stop attacking, saying that since they 're all Vulcans, they 're all his friends. Kiyomaro angrily snatches Gash 's Vulcan from his hand, saying that it 's just a toy made from chopsticks and a paper box that he scrapped together. Gash tearfully reminds Kiyomaro that Vulcan was the first friend that Kiyomaro ever made for him. Shaken by Gash 's statement, Kiyomaro says that the only reason he wanted to go to Coast School was because his friends would be there. Kiyomaro had been alone, thinking that the world was boring and stupid, until Gash had come along and taught him the importance of friends. Kiyomaro comes to tears as he says that, although Gash made many friends for Kiyomaro, the only friend that he could give Gash was a toy made of paper box and chopsticks, yet Gash still cherishes it so much. Everyone agrees that, because Vulcan is Gash 's friend, he is their friend as well, and will help protect all of the Vulcans. With newfound understanding and determination, Kiyomaro comes up with a plan to stop the Vulcans without destroying them.
The four demon and human pairs coordinate attacks and trick Dr. M2 into opening the power reactor on the front of the enormous Vulcan to attack; however, before he can, Gash and Kiyomaro jump in the way and fire Zakeruga at the reactor, destroying it. When the giant Vulcan collapses, Gash sees that Yondaime is all right, and he hugs him.
Suddenly, the storm around them intensifies, and everyone realizes that if they do n't seal the time - space hole, then the entire Earth will be destroyed. Kiyomaro grabs Dr. M2, asking him to fix it. Dr. M2 reveals that if the destroyed reactor is fixed, the hole will close, but there would need to be a large amount of power to reactive it. Gash states that they could provide the power to activate the reactor, and Dr. M2 realizes that everyone 's combined power could repair it.
As Dr. M2 floats in the sky in the core of his castle, the four demons cast a series of spells to channel power into the reactor, ending with Kiyomaro casting Gash 's most powerful spell, Baou Zakeruga, to guide it. However, their efforts are unsuccessful, and the temporarily closed gate opens once more. Yondaime then flies up, attaching himself to the reactor. Dr. M2 realizes that Gash could strike the reactor still active in Yondaime to get the main reactor working again, but Gash says that he could never shoot Yondaime. As Gash cries, Yondaime begins talking to him; however, the one sending the message through Yondaime it is in fact the Vulcan prototype, which is revealed to contain Kiyomaro 's recorded voice. He says that they will always be friends, whether they are together or apart; he speaks not only as Yondaime, but also as the future Kiyomaro who no longer has Gash with him. Redetermined, Gash and Kiyomaro launch a gigantic Baou Zakeruga, which crashes through Yondaime and splits into three heads, starting up the reactor. As Dr. M2 sits in the castle, holding the prototype Vulcan in his lap, he quietly wonders to himself if the transmission element that Gash and Kiyomaro used to guide the reactor can guide even himself. The three Baou Zakerugas fly into the cloud, successfully closing the hole and leaving Dr. M2 's fate unknown. The giant Vulcan then separates back into the smaller Vulcans, who fly away into the sky. Gash asks Kiyomaro if he can ever see Yondaime again, but Kiyomaro responds that he 'll build him an even better Vulcan; an even better friend.
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what is the job of a record producer | Record producer - wikipedia
A record producer or music producer oversees and manages the sound recording and production of a band or performer 's music, which may range from recording one song to recording a lengthy concept album. A producer has many, varying roles during the recording process. They may gather musical ideas for the project, collaborate with the artists to select cover tunes or original songs by the artist / group, work with artists and help them to improve their songs, lyrics or arrangements.
A producer may also:
The producer typically supervises the entire process from preproduction, through to the sound recording and mixing stages, and, in some cases, all the way to the audio mastering stage. The producer may perform these roles themself, or help select the engineer, and provide suggestions to the engineer. The producer may also pay session musicians and engineers and ensure that the entire project is completed within the record label 's budget.
A record producer or music producer has a very broad role in overseeing and managing the recording and production of a band or performer 's music. A producer has many roles that may include, but are not limited to, gathering ideas for the project, composing the music for the project, selecting songs or session musicians, proposing changes to the song arrangements, coaching the artist and musicians in the studio, controlling the recording sessions, and supervising the entire process through audio mixing (recorded music) and, in some cases, to the audio mastering stage. Producers also often take on a wider entrepreneurial role, with responsibility for the budget, schedules, contracts, and negotiations. In the 2010s, the recording industry has two kinds of producers with different roles: executive producer and music producer. Executive producers oversee project finances while music producers oversee the creative process of recording songs or albums. A record producer who produces a song for another producer without receiving recognition is a ghost producer.
In most cases the music producer is also a competent arranger, composer, musician or songwriter who can bring fresh ideas to a project. As well as making any songwriting and arrangement adjustments, the producer often selects or gives suggestions to the mixing engineer, who takes the raw recorded tracks and edits and modifies them with hardware and software tools and creates a stereo or surround sound "mix '' of all the individual voices sounds and instruments, which is in turn given further adjustment by a mastering engineer. The producer will also liaise with the recording engineer who concentrates on the technical aspects of recording, whereas the executive producer keeps an eye on the overall project 's marketability.
Noted producer Phil Ek described his role as "the person who creatively guides or directs the process of making a record '', like a director would a movie. Indeed, in Bollywood music, the designation is actually music director. The music producer 's job is to create, shape, and mold a piece of music. The scope of responsibility may be one or two songs or an artist 's entire album -- in which case the producer will typically develop an overall vision for the album and how the various songs may interrelate.
At the beginning of record industry, the producer role was technically limited to record, in one shot, artists performing live. The immediate predecessors to record producers were the artists and repertoire executives of the late 1920s and 1930s who oversaw the "pop '' product and often led session orchestras. That was the case of Ben Selvin at Columbia Records, Nathaniel Shilkret at Victor Records and Bob Haring at Brunswick Records. By the end of the 1930s, the first professional recording studios not owned by the major companies were established, essentially separating the roles of A&R man and producer, although it would n't be until the late 1940s when the term "producer '' became widely used in the industry.
The role of producers changed progressively over the 1950s and 1960s due to technological developments. The development of multitrack recording caused a major change in the recording process. Before multitracking, all the elements of a song (lead vocals, backup vocals, rhythm section instrument accompaniment, solos and orchestral parts) had to be performed simultaneously. All of these singers and musicians had to be assembled in a large studio and the performance had to be recorded. With multitrack recording, the "bed tracks '' (rhythm section accompaniment parts such as the bassline, drums, and rhythm guitar could be recorded first, and then the vocals and solos could be added later, using as many "takes '' (or attempts) as it took. As well, for a song that used 20 instruments, it was no longer necessary to get all the players in the studio at the same time. A pop band could record their backing tracks one week, and then a horn section could be brought in a week later to add horn shots and punches, and then a string section could be brought in a week after that.
While this facilitated the recording process and allow multiple takes, the multitrack recording had another profound effect on music production it enabled producers and audio engineers to create new sounds that would be impossible to do in a live performance style ordering. Examples include the psychedelic rock sound effects of the 1960s, e.g. playing back the sound of recorded instruments backward changing the tape to produce unique sound effects. During the same period, the instruments of popular music began to shift from the acoustic instruments of traditional music (piano, upright bass, acoustic guitar, strings, brass and wind instruments) to electric piano, electronic organ, synthesizer, electric bass and electric guitar. These new instruments were electric or electronic, and thus they used instrument amplifiers and speaker enclosures (speaker cabinets) to create sound.
Electric and electronic instruments and amplifiers enabled performers and producers to change the tone and sound of instruments to produce unique electric sounds that would be impossible to achieve with acoustic instruments and live performers, such as having a singer do her own backup vocals or having a guitarist play 15 layers of backing parts to her own solo.
New technologies like multitracking changed the goal of recording: A producer could blend together multiple takes and edit together different sections to create the desired sound. For example, in jazz fusion Bandleader - composer Miles Davis ' album Bitches Brew, the producer cut and edited sections together from extensive improvisation sessions.
Producers like Phil Spector and George Martin were soon creating recordings that were, in practical terms, almost impossible to realize in live performance. Producers became creative figures in the studio. Other examples of such engineers includes Joe Meek, Teo Macero, Brian Wilson, and Biddu.
Another related phenomenon in the 1960s was the emergence of the performer - producer. As pop acts like The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, The Beach Boys and The Kinks gained expertise in studio recording techniques, many of these groups eventually took over as (frequently uncredited) producers of their own work. Many recordings by acts such as The Rolling Stones, The Kinks and The Who are officially credited to their various producers at the time, but a number of these performers have since asserted that many of their recordings in this period were, either wholly self - produced (e.g. The Rolling Stones ' Decca recordings) or collaborations between the group and their recording engineer (e.g. The Small Faces ' Immediate recordings, which were made with Olympic Studios engineer Glyn Johns).
The Beach Boys are probably the best example of the trend of artists becoming producers -- within two years of the band 's commercial breakthrough, group leader Brian Wilson had taken over from his father Murry, and he was the sole producer of all their recordings between 1963 and 1967. Alongside The Beatles and Martin, Wilson also pioneered many production innovations -- by 1964 he had developed Spector 's techniques to a new level of sophistication, using multiple studios and multiple "takes '' of instrumental and vocal components to capture the best possible combinations of sound and performance, and then using tape editing extensively to assemble a perfect composite performance from these elements.
At the end of the 20th century, digital recording and producing tools, then widespread availability of relatively affordable computers with music software made music producing more accessible.
There are numerous technologies utilized by record producers. In modern - day recordings, recording and mixing tasks are commonly centralized within computers using digital audio workstations such as Pro Tools, Logic Pro, Ableton, Cubase, and FL Studio, which all are often used with third party virtual studio technology plugins. Logic Pro and Pro Tools are considered the industry standard DAWs. However, there is also the main mixer, outboard effects gear, MIDI controllers, and the recording device itself.
While most music production is done using sophisticated software, some musicians and producers prefer the minutiae of older analog technology. Professor Albin Zak claims that the increased automation of both newer processes and newer instruments reduces the level of control and manipulation available to musicians and producers.
Production has changed drastically over the years with advancing technology. Where the producer 's role has changed, they have always been seen as a jack of all trades, as their duties require a broad knowledge of the recording process.
Tracking is the act of recording audio to a DAW (digital audio workstation) or in some cases to tape. Even though digital technologies have widely supplanted the use of tape in studios, the older term "track '' is still used in the 2010s. Tracking audio is primarily the role of the audio engineer. Producers work side by side with the artists while they play or sing their part and coach them on how to perform it and how to get the best technical accuracy (e.g., intonation). In some cases, the producer will even sing a backup vocal or play an instrument.
Many artists are also beginning to produce and write their own music.
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is it against the law to take a photo of someone without their permission | Photography and the law - wikipedia
The intellectual property rights on photographs are protected in different jurisdictions by the laws governing copyright and moral rights. In some cases photography may be restricted by civil or criminal law. Publishing certain photographs can be restricted by privacy or other laws. Photography of certain subject matter can be generally restricted in the interests of public morality and the protection of children.
Reactions to photography differ between societies, and even where there are no official restrictions there may be objections to photographing people or places. Reactions may range from complaints to violence for photography which is not illegal.
In the United Kingdom there are no laws forbidding photography of private property from a public place. Photography on private land is not restricted if the landowner has given permission. However, landowners are permitted to impose any conditions they wish upon entry to a property, including forbidding or restricting photography. Two public locations in the UK, Trafalgar Square and Parliament Square, have a specific provision against photography for commercial purposes without the written permission of the Mayor, or the Squares ' Management Team and paying a fee, and permission is needed to photograph or film for commercial purposes in the Royal Parks.
Persistent or aggressive photography of a single individual may come under the legal definition of harassment.
It is contempt of court, a criminal offence, to take a photograph in any court of law of any person, being a judge of the court or a juror or a witness in or a party to any proceedings before the court, whether civil or criminal, or to publish such a photograph. This includes photographs taken in a court building or the precincts of the court. Taking a photograph in a court can be seen as a serious offence, leading to a prison sentence. The prohibition on taking photographs in the precincts is vague. It was designed to prevent the undermining of the dignity of the court, through the exploitation of images in low brow "picture papers ''.
Photography of certain subject matter is restricted in the United Kingdom. In particular, the Protection of Children Act 1978 restricts making or possessing pornography of children under 18, or what looks like pornography of under - 18s. There is no law prohibiting photographing children in public spaces.
It is an offence under the Counter-Terrorism Act 2008 to publish or communicate a photograph of a constable (not including PCSOs), a member of the armed forces, or a member of the security services, which is of a kind likely to be useful to a person committing or preparing an act of terrorism. There is a defence of acting with a reasonable excuse; however, the burden of proof is on the defence, under section 58A of the Terrorism Act 2000. A PCSO in 2009 cited Section 44 of the Terrorism Act 2000 to prevent a member of the public photographing him. Section 44 actually concerns stop and search powers. However, in January 2010 the stop - and - search powers granted under Section 44 were ruled illegal by the European Court of Human Rights.
Following a prolonged campaign, including a series of demonstrations by photographers dealt with by police officers and PCSOs, the Metropolitan Police was forced to issue updated legal advice which confirms that "Members of the public and the media do not need a permit to film or photograph in public places and police have no power to stop them filming or photographing incidents or police personnel '' and that "The power to stop and search someone under Section 44 of the Terrorism Act 2000 no longer exists. ''
It is an offence under section 58 of the Terrorism Act 2000 to take a photograph of a kind likely to be useful to a person committing or preparing an act of terrorism, or possessing such a photograph. There is an identical defence of reasonable excuse. This offence (and possibly, but not necessarily the s. 58 (a) offence) covers only a photograph as described in s. 2 (3) (b) of the Terrorism Act 2006. As such, it must be of a kind likely to provide practical assistance to a person committing or preparing an act of terrorism. Whether the photograph in question is such is a matter for a jury, which is not required to look at the surrounding circumstances. The photograph must contain information of such a nature as to raise a reasonable suspicion that it was intended to be used to assist in the preparation or commission of an act of terrorism. It must call for an explanation. A photograph which is innocuous on its face will not fall foul of the provision if the prosecution adduces evidence that it was intended to be used for the purpose of committing or preparing a terrorist act. The defence may prove a reasonable excuse simply by showing that the photograph is possessed for a purpose other than to assist in the commission or preparation of an act of terrorism, even if the purpose of possession is otherwise unlawful.
Copyright can subsist in an original photograph, i.e. a recording of light or other radiation on any medium on which an image is produced or from which an image by any means be produced, and which is not part of a film. Whilst photographs are classified as artistic works, the subsistence of copyright does not depend on artistic merit. The owner of the copyright in the photograph is the photographer -- the person who creates it, by default. However, where a photograph is taken by an employee in the course of employment, the first owner of the copyright is the employer, unless there is an agreement to the contrary.
Copyright which subsists in a photograph protects not merely the photographer from direct copying of his / her work, but also from indirect copying to reproduce his / her work, where a substantial part of his / her work has been copied.
Copyright in a photograph lasts for 70 years from the end of the year in which the photographer dies. A consequence of this lengthy period of existence of the copyright is that many family photographs which have no market value, but significant emotional value, remain subject to copyright, even when the original photographer can not be traced (a problem known as copyright orphan), has given up photography, or died. In the absence of a licence, it will be an infringement of copyright in the photographs to copy them. When someone dies the rights will have transferred to someone else, perhaps through testamentary deposition (a will) or by inheritance. If there was no will, or if the photographer has not specified where the rights in the material should go, then the normal rules of inheritance will apply (although these rules are not specific to copyright and legal advice should be sought). Scanning old family photographs, without permission, to a digital file for personal use is prima facie an infringement of copyright.
Certain photographs may not be protected by copyright. Section 171 (3) of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 gives courts jurisdiction to refrain from enforcing the copyright which subsists in works on the grounds of public interest. For example, patent diagrams are held to be in the public domain, and are thus not subject to copyright.
Infringement of the copyright which subsists in a photograph can be performed through copying the photograph. This is because the owner of the copyright in the photograph has the exclusive right to copy the photograph. For there to be infringement of the copyright in a photograph, there must be copying of a substantial part of the photograph. A photograph can also be a mechanism of infringement of the copyright which subsists in another work. For example, a photograph which copies a substantial part of an artistic work, such as a sculpture, painting or another photograph (without permission) would infringe the copyright which subsists in those works.
However, the subject matter of a photograph is not necessarily subject to an independent copyright. For example, in the Creation Records case, a photographer, attempting to create a photograph for an album cover, set up an elaborate and artificial scene. A photographer from a newspaper covertly photographed the scene and published it in the newspaper. The court held that the newspaper photographer did not infringe the official photographer 's copyright. Copyright did not subsist in the scene itself -- it was too temporary to be a collage, and could not be categorised as any other form of artistic work.
The protection of photographs in this manner has been criticised on two grounds. Firstly, it is argued that photographs should not be protected as artistic works, but should instead be protected in a manner similar to that of sound recordings and films. In other words, copyright should not protect the subject matter of a photograph as a matter of course as a consequence of a photograph being taken. It is argued that protection of photographs as artistic works is anomalous, in that photography is ultimately a medium of reproduction, rather than creation. As such, it is more similar to a film, or sound recording than a painting or sculpture. Some photographers share this view. For example, Michael Reichmann described photography as an art of disclosure, as opposed to an art of inclusion. Secondly, it is argued that the protection of photographs as artistic works leads to bizarre results. Subject matter is protected irrespective of the artistic merit of a photograph. The subject matter of a photograph is protected even when it is not deserving of protection. For copyright to subsist in photographs as artistic works, the photographs must be original, since the English test for originality is based on skill, labour and judgment. That said, it is possible that the threshold of originality is very low. Essentially, by this, Arnold is arguing that whilst the subject matter of some photographs may deserve protection, it is inappropriate for the law to presume that the subject matter of all photographs is deserving of protection.
It is possible to say with a high degree of confidence that photographs of three - dimensional objects, including artistic works, will be treated by a court as themselves original artistic works, and as such, will be subject to copyright. It is likely that a photograph (including a scan -- digital scanning counts as photography for the purposes of the Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988) of a two dimensional artistic work, such as another photograph or a painting will also be subject to copyright if a significant amount of skill, labour and judgment went into its creation.
A right to privacy came into existence in UK law as a consequence of the incorporation of the European Convention on Human Rights into domestic law through the Human Rights Act 1998. This can result in restrictions on the publication of photography.
Whether this right is caused by horizontal effect of the Human Rights Act 1998 or is judicially created is a matter of some controversy. The right to privacy is protected by Article 8 of the convention. In the context of photography, it stands at odds to the Article 10 right of freedom of expression. As such, courts will consider the public interest in balancing the rights through the legal test of proportionality.
A very limited statutory right to privacy exists in the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. This right is held, for example, by someone who hires a photographer to photograph their wedding. The commissioner, irrespective of any copyright which he does or does not hold in the photograph, of a photograph which was commissioned for private and domestic purposes, where copyright subsists in the photograph, has the right not to have copies of the work issued to the public, the work exhibited in public or the work communicated to the public. However, this right will not be infringed if the rightholder gives permission. It will not be infringed if the photograph is incidentally included in an artistic work, film, or broadcast.
Local, state, and national laws govern still and motion photography. Laws vary between jurisdictions, and what is not illegal in one place may be illegal in another. Typical laws in the United States are as follows:
In some public property owned by government, such as law courts, government buildings, libraries, civic centres and some of the museums in Hong Kong, photography is not allowed without permission from the government. It is illegal to equip or take photographs and recording in a place of public entertainment, such as cinemas and indoor theaters.
In private property, photography may be prohibited or restricted by a property owner on their property.
Photography on private property that is generally open to the public (e.g., a shopping mall) is usually permitted unless explicitly prohibited by posted signs. Even if no such signs are posted, the property owner or agent can ask a person to stop photographing, and if the person refuses to do so, the owner or agent can ask the person to leave; in some jurisdictions, a person who refuses to leave can be arrested for criminal trespass, and many jurisdictions recognize the common - law right to use reasonable force to remove a trespasser; a person who forcibly resists a lawful removal may be liable for battery, assault, or both.
In Hungary, from 15 March 2014 when the long - awaited Civil Code was published, the law re-stated what had been normal practice, namely, that a person had the right to refuse being photographed. However, implied consent exists: it is not illegal to photograph a person who does not actively object.
In Macau, a photographer must not take or publish any photographs of a person against his / her will without legal justification, even in a public place. Besides, everyone has a right to Personality Rights. People are not to be photographed, photographs of them displayed or reproduced without their prior consent. Criminal penalties include imprisonment. Additionally, photography of police officers in Macau is illegal.
In South Africa photographing people in public is legal. Reproducing and selling photographs of people is legal for editorial and limited fair use commercial purposes. There exists no case law to define what the limits on commercial use are. Civil law requires the consent of any identifiable persons for advertorial and promotional purposes. Property, including animals, do not enjoy any special consideration.
During the media coverage of the Nkandla controversy it emerged that there exists a law, the National Key Points Act, 1980, prohibiting the photographing of any "national key points. '' National key points are buildings or structures that serve a strategic or military purpose. Though it was n't revealed what these are as part of state secrecy it was claimed that the presidential residence is one of them and should thus not be shown in media. Subsequent court action resulted in it being ruled that a list of all key points be made public. Although not currently or previously enforced the law is still in effect even after calls for it to be repealed as a relic of apartheid - era secrecy legislation.
Travelers who wish to take any photographs must obtain a photography permit from the Ministry of Interior, Department of Aliens (Sudan) or Ministry of Information (South Sudan).
Regulations apply to land - based photography for certain locations. A permit is required for aerial photography in India, which normally takes over a month to be issued.
Calling oneself a photographer, in line with most other trades in Iceland, requires the person to hold a Journeyman 's or Master 's Certificates in the industry. Exceptions can be made in low population areas, or for people coming from within the EEA.
Taking pictures of police officers in many circumstances was made illegal by a 2015 "Citizens ' Security Law '' with the stated purpose of protecting police officers and their families from harassment. The law has generated controversy because it may be harder to denounce police brutality. A far more limited version of the law had been in effect for several decades regarding when police work related to terrorism. A person was fined under this law for taking and publishing online a photograph of an illegally parked police car.
Mexican law is similar to the law in the United States. Authorities may intimidate or prevent any holder of a camera if they come into close perimeters of Government buildings.
In South Korea, taking pictures of women without their consent, even in public, is considered to be criminal sexual assault, punishable by a fine of under 10 million won and up to 5 years imprisonment. In July 2017 an amendment to the law was voted on in favour of allowing for chemical castration of people taking such photographs.
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what is on top of the texas state capitol building | Texas State Capitol - wikipedia
The Texas State Capitol is the capitol building and seat of government of the American state of Texas. Located in downtown Austin, Texas, the structure houses the offices and chambers of the Texas Legislature and of the Governor of Texas. Designed in 1881 by architect Elijah E. Myers, it was constructed from 1882 to 1888 under the direction of civil engineer Reuben Lindsay Walker. A $75 million underground extension was completed in 1993. The building was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1970 and recognized as a National Historic Landmark in 1986.
The Texas State Capitol is 302.64 feet (92.24 m) tall, making it the sixth tallest state capitol and one of several taller than the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. The capitol was ranked ninety - second in the 2007 "America 's Favorite Architecture '' poll commissioned by the American Institute of Architects.
The current Texas State Capitol is the third building to serve that purpose. The second Texas capitol was built in 1853, on the same site as the present capitol in Austin; it was destroyed in the great capitol fire of 1881, but plans had already been made to replace it with a new, much larger structure.
Construction of the Italian Renaissance Revival -- style capitol was funded by an article of the state constitution, adopted on February 15, 1876, which authorized the sale of public lands for the purpose. In one of the largest barter transactions of recorded history, the builders of the capitol (John V. Farwell and Charles B. Farwell), known as the Capitol Syndicate, were paid with more than three million acres (12,000 km2) of public land in the "Panhandle '' region of Texas; this tract later became the largest cattle ranch in the world, the XIT Ranch. The value of the land, combined with expenses, added to a total cost of $3.7 million for the original building. It was constructed largely by convicts or migrant workers, as many as a thousand at a time. The building has been renovated several times, with central air conditioning installed in 1955 and the most recent refurbishments completed in 1997.
The designers originally planned for the building to be clad entirely with hill country limestone quarried in Oatmanville (present - day Oak Hill), about 10 miles (16 km) to the southwest. However, the high iron content of the limestone led it to rapidly discolor with rust stains when exposed to the elements. Learning of the problem, the owners of Granite Mountain near Marble Falls offered to donate to the state, free of charge, the necessary amount of sunset red granite as an alternative. To transport the red granite, the Austin and Northwestern Railroad was extended 2.3 miles (3.7 km) to accommodate the transportation from Granite Mountain. Due to a bend in the tracks, trains would occasionally derail, accidentally dumping some of the pink granite. Many of the fallen rocks remain in place and are a local point of interest. While the building is mostly built of the Oak Hill limestone, most of this is hidden behind the walls and on the foundations. Red granite was subsequently used for many state government buildings in the Austin area. The project 's 900 workers included 86 granite cutters brought from Scotland.
The cornerstone for the building was laid on March 2, 1885, Texas Independence Day, and the building was opened to the public on April 21, 1888, San Jacinto Day, before its completion. The building was officially dedicated by Texas State Senator Temple Houston on May 18, 1888. The dedication ceremony was marked by a weeklong celebration from May 14 -- 19, 1888, that attracted nearly 20,000 visitors and included events such as military drill demonstrations, cattle roping, baseball games, German choral singing, and fireworks. Guests were able to purchase souvenirs such as pieces of red granite and copies of a song written by composer and pianist Leonora Rives - Diaz called the "State Capitol Grand Waltz ''.
In 1931, the City of Austin enacted a local ordinance limiting the height of new buildings to a maximum of 200 feet (61 m), aiming to preserve the visual preeminence of the capitol. From that time until the early 1960s, only the University of Texas Main Building Tower was built higher than the limit, but in 1962 developers announced a new 261 - foot (80 m) high - rise residential building to be built adjacent to the capitol, called the Westgate Tower. Governor Price Daniel voiced his opposition to the proposed tower, and State Representative Henry Grover of Houston introducing a bill to condemn the property, which was defeated in the Texas House of Representatives by only two votes. The Westgate was eventually completed in 1966, but the controversy over the preservation of the capitol 's visual presence that dogged its construction continued to grow.
The Westgate was followed by even taller structures: first the Dobie Center (designed in 1968), and then a series of ever larger downtown bank towers, culminating in the 395 - foot (120 m) One American Center (designed in 1982). In early 1983, inspired by the Westgate and these other structures, State Senator Lloyd Doggett and State Representative Gerald Hill advanced a bill proposing a list of protected "Capitol View Corridors '' along which construction would not be permitted, so as to protect the capitol 's visibility from a series of points around Austin. The bill was signed into law on May 3, 1983, defining thirty state - protected viewing corridors and prohibiting any construction that would intersect one of them. The City of Austin has adopted similar rules, so that the majority of the corridors are also protected under municipal zoning code, as well as under state law.
On February 6, 1983, a fire began in the apartment of William P. Hobby Jr., then the state lieutenant governor. A guest of Hobby 's was killed, and four firemen and a policeman were injured by the subsequent blaze. The capitol was crowded with accumulated archives, and the fire was intense and came dangerously close to destroying the structure. It caused severe damage to the east wing and compromised much of the framing, which was largely composed of exposed cast iron posts and beams.
Following the fire, the state took advantage of the extensive rebuilding to update the mechanical and structural systems to modern standards. In November 1985, the original Goddess of Liberty statue on top of the dome was removed by helicopter. A new statue, cast of aluminum in molds made from the original zinc statue, was placed on the dome in June 1986. The original statue was restored and displayed on the Capitol grounds in a special structure built for it in 1995; it was later moved to the Bullock Texas State History Museum in 2001.
The Old Texas Land Office, on the Capitol grounds, was rebuilt and updated between 1988 and 1990, after which the Capitol Visitors Center was moved there, freeing space in the Capitol. Previously, the building had housed the Texas Confederate Museum, which began in a ground floor room of the Capitol (1903 -- 1920), before moving to the Land Office building.
Additionally, the state sought to address the intensifying shortage of space in the old building, deciding that a new office wing should be added. The logical place for an addition was the plaza immediately to the north; however, a large building there would have eliminated the historic north façade and covered what had traditionally been seen as an important public space. Instead, an expansion to the capitol was built beneath the north plaza, connecting to the existing capitol underground.
In 1993, the $75 million, four - story, underground capitol extension was completed to the north, doubling the square footage available to capitol occupants and providing much - improved functionality. Though the extension encompasses 667,000 square feet (62,000 m) (nearly twice the floor space of the original building), there is little evidence of such a large structure at ground level, except for extensive skylights camouflaged as planter rows, and the four - story open - air inverted rotunda.
In 1995, a comprehensive interior and exterior restoration of the original building was completed at a cost of approximately $98 million. In 1997, the park - like grounds surrounding the capitol received an $8 million renovation and restoration.
The Texas State Capitol and grounds are located on a hilltop overlooking downtown Austin, with the main entrance facing onto the Congress Avenue Historic District to the south, for which it forms a terminating vista. The northern edge of the capitol grounds lies four blocks south of the University of Texas at Austin.
The capitol is a roughly rectangular building with a four - story central block, symmetrical three - story wings extending to the east and west, and a dome rising from the center. It is built in an Italian Renaissance Revival style and modeled on the design of the United States Capitol, but with its exterior clad with local red granite. It contains 360,000 square feet (33,000 m) of floor space (not including the Capitol Extension), more than any other state capitol building, and rests on a 2.25 - acre (0.91 ha) footprint. The building has nearly four hundred rooms and more than nine hundred windows.
The interior of the central portion forms an open rotunda beneath the dome. Massive cast - iron staircases flanking the rotunda connect the various levels of the building. The two chambers of the Texas Legislature (the Texas Senate and Texas House of Representatives) meet in large double - height spaces in the centers of the two wings on the second floor, overlooked by public galleries on the third floor. The remainder of the building is filled with office space, courts, and archives; additional offices fill the underground extension.
The central rotunda is hung with portraits of all the past presidents of the Republic of Texas and governors of the State of Texas; the rotunda is also a whispering gallery. The south foyer features a large portrait of David Crockett, a painting depicting the surrender of General Santa Anna at the Battle of San Jacinto, and sculptures of Sam Houston and Stephen F. Austin made by Elisabet Ney. The Texas Confederate Museum was held in a room on the first floor from its opening in 1903 until 1920, when it was moved into the General Land Office Building (today the Capitol Visitors Center).
The Capitol building is surrounded by 22 acres (8.9 ha) of grounds scattered with statues and monuments. William Munro Johnson, civil engineer, was hired in 1888 to improve the appearance of the grounds. By the time the first monument, commemorating the Heroes of the Alamo, was installed in 1891, the major components of Johnson 's plan were in place. These included a "Great Walk '' of black and white diamond - patterned pavement shaded by trees. The four oldest monuments are the Heroes of the Alamo Monument (1891), Volunteer Firemen Monument (1896), Confederate Soldiers Monument (1903) and Terry 's Texas Rangers Monument (1907), and these flank the tree - lined Great Walk. In the spring of 2013, ground was broken for the Texas Capitol Vietnam Veterans Monument; dedication took place on March 29, 2014.
A granite monument of the Ten Commandments on the grounds of the Texas State Capitol was the topic of a 2005 U.S. Supreme Court case, Van Orden v. Perry, in which the display was challenged as unconstitutional. In late June 2005, the Court ruled that the display was not unconstitutional.
Capitol Building from the south
The Capitol Building in the evening
The Capitol Building illuminated at night
South side of the Capitol, with main entrance at right
Goddess of Liberty statue atop the building
Cornerstone of Texas State Capitol building
Texas State Capitol building and statue seen from the right
The Capitol dome 's interior
Terrazzo mosaic depicting the seals of the six nations that have governed Texas
Grand staircase
Portraits lining the rotunda
Texas Senate Chamber
The Texas House of Representatives Chamber
Terrazzo mosaic of reverse seal of Texas in the capitol extension, showing the six flags of Texas
Terry 's Texas Rangers Monument
Heroes of the Alamo Monument
Confederate Soldiers Monument
Volunteer Firemen Monument
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which side did the united states eventually join in world war 1 | American entry into World war I - wikipedia
The American entry into World War I came in April 1917, after more than two and a half years of efforts by President Woodrow Wilson to keep the United States out of the war. Apart from an Anglophile element urging early support for the British, American public opinion reflected that of the president: the sentiment for neutrality was particularly strong among Irish Americans, German Americans and Scandinavian Americans, as well as among church leaders and among women in general. On the other hand, even before World War I had broken out, American opinion had been more negative toward Germany than towards any other country in Europe. Over time, especially after reports of atrocities in Belgium in 1914 and following the sinking of the passenger liner RMS Lusitania in 1915, the American people increasingly came to see Germany as the aggressor in Europe.
As U.S. president, it was Wilson who made the key policy decisions over foreign affairs: while the country was at peace, the domestic economy ran on a laissez - faire basis, with American banks making huge loans to Britain and France -- funds that were in large part used to buy munitions, raw materials, and food from across the Atlantic. Until 1917, Wilson made minimal preparations for a land war and kept the United States Army on a small peacetime footing, despite increasing demands for enhanced preparedness. He did however expand the United States Navy.
In 1917, with Russia experiencing political upheaval following widespread disillusionment there over the war, and with Britain and France low on credit, Germany appeared to have the upper hand in Europe, while Germany 's ally, the Ottoman Empire, clung stubbornly to its possessions in the Middle East. In the same year, Germany decided to resume unrestricted submarine warfare against any vessel approaching British waters; this attempt to starve Britain into surrender was balanced against the knowledge that it would almost certainly bring the United States into the war. Germany also made a secret offer to help Mexico regain territories lost in the Mexican -- American War in an encoded telegram known as the Zimmermann Telegram, which was intercepted by British Intelligence. Publication of that communique outraged Americans just as German U-boats started sinking American merchant ships in the North Atlantic. Wilson then asked Congress for "a war to end all wars '' that would "make the world safe for democracy '', and Congress voted to declare war on Germany on April 6, 1917.
On December 7, 1917, the U.S. declared war on Austria - Hungary.
U.S. troops began arriving on the Western Front in large numbers in 1918.
Britain used its large navy to prevent cargo vessels entering German ports, mainly by intercepting them in the North Sea between the coasts of Scotland and Norway. The wider sea approaches to Britain and France, their distance from German harbours and the smaller size of the German surface fleet all made it harder for Germany to reciprocate. Instead, Germany used submarines to lie in wait for, and then sink, merchant ships heading for enemy ports.
The United States insisted on maintaining the traditional rights of ships registered in neutral countries and protested strongly against American ships being intercepted or sunk: the British seized American ships for supposed violations, while the Germans sank them -- often without warning, in violation of international law that said sailors must be allowed an opportunity to reach their lifeboats. After several violations, Germany stopped this practice but in early 1917 she decided to resume unrestricted submarine warfare, in the hope that this would starve out the British before the Americans could make any effective military retaliation.
The British Royal Navy successfully stopped the shipment of most war supplies and food to Germany. Neutral American ships that tried to trade with Germany were seized or turned back by the Royal Navy who viewed such trade as in direct conflict with the Allies ' war efforts. The strangulation came about very slowly, because Germany and its allies controlled extensive farmlands and raw materials. It was eventually successful because Germany and Austria - Hungary had decimated their agricultural production by taking so many farmers into their armies. By 1918, German cities were on the verge of starvation; the front - line soldiers were on short rations and were running out of essential supplies.
Germany also considered a blockade. "England wants to starve us '', said Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, the man who built the German fleet and who remained a key advisor to the Kaiser Wilhelm II. "We can play the same game. We can bottle her up and destroy every ship that endeavors to break the blockade ''. Unable to challenge the more powerful Royal Navy on the surface, Tirpitz wanted to scare off merchant and passenger ships en route to Britain. He reasoned that since the island of Britain depended on imports of food, raw materials, and manufactured goods, scaring off a substantial number of the ships would effectively undercut its long - term ability to maintain an army on the Western Front. While Germany had only nine long - range U-boats at the start of the war, it had ample shipyard capacity to build the hundreds needed. However, the United States demanded that Germany respect the international agreements upon "freedom of the seas '', which protected neutral American ships on the high seas from seizure or sinking by either belligerent. Furthermore, Americans insisted that the drowning of innocent civilians was barbaric and grounds for a declaration of war. The British frequently violated America 's neutral rights by seizing ships. Wilson 's top advisor, Colonel Edward M. House commented that, "The British have gone as far as they possibly could in violating neutral rights, though they have done it in the most courteous way ''. When Wilson protested British violations of American neutrality, the British backed down.
German submarines torpedoed ships without warning, causing sailors and passengers to drown. Berlin explained that submarines were so vulnerable that they dared not surface near merchant ships that might be carrying guns and which were too small to rescue submarine crews. Britain armed most of its merchant ships with medium calibre guns that could sink a submarine, making above - water attacks too risky. In February 1915, the United States warned Germany about misuse of submarines. On April 22, the German Imperial Embassy warned U.S. citizens against boarding vessels to Britain, which would have to face German attack. On May 7, Germany torpedoed the British passenger liner RMS Lusitania, sinking her. This act of aggression caused the loss of 1,198 civilian lives, including 128 Americans. The sinking of a large, unarmed passenger ship, combined with the previous stories of atrocities in Belgium, shocked Americans and turned public opinion hostile to Germany, although not yet to the point of war. Wilson issued a warning to Germany that it would face "strict accountability '' if it sank more neutral U.S. passenger ships. Berlin acquiesced, ordering its submarines to avoid passenger ships.
By January 1917, however, Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg and General Erich Ludendorff decided that an unrestricted submarine blockade was the only way to achieve a decisive victory. They demanded that Kaiser Wilhelm order unrestricted submarine warfare be resumed. Germany knew this decision meant war with the United States, but they gambled that they could win before America 's potential strength could be mobilized. However, they overestimated how many ships they could sink and thus the extent Britain would be weakened. Finally, they did not foresee that convoys could and would be used to defeat their efforts. They believed that the United States was so weak militarily that it could not be a factor on the Western Front for more than a year. The civilian government in Berlin objected, but the Kaiser sided with his military.
The beginning of war in Europe coincided with the end of the Recession of 1913 -- 1914 in America. Exports to belligerent nations rose rapidly over the first four years of the War from $824.8 million in 1913 to $2.25 billion in 1917. Loans from American financial institutions to the Allied nations in Europe also increased dramatically over the same period. Economic activity towards the end of this period boomed as government resources aided the production of the private sector. Between 1914 and 1917, industrial production increased 32 % and GNP increased by almost 20 %. The improvements to industrial production in the United States outlasted the war. The capital build - up that had allowed American companies to supply belligerents and the American army resulted in a greater long - run rate of production even after the war had ended in 1918.
In 1913, J.P. Morgan, Jr. took over the House of Morgan, an American - based investment bank consisting of separate banking operations in New York, London, and Paris, after the death of his father, J. Pierpont Morgan. The House of Morgan offered assistance in the wartime financing of Britain and France from the earliest stages of the war in 1914 through America 's entrance in 1917. J.P. Morgan & Co., the House of Morgan 's bank in New York, was designated as the primary financial agent to the British government in 1914 after successful lobbying by the British ambassador, Sir Cecil Spring Rice. The same bank would later take a similar role in France and would offer extensive financial assistance to both warring nations. J.P. Morgan &Co. became the primary issuer of loans to the French government by raising money from American investors. Morgan, Harjes, the House of Morgan 's French affiliated bank, controlled the majority of the wartime financial dealings between the House of Morgan and the French government after primary issuances of debt in American markets. Relations between the House of Morgan and the French government became tense as the war raged on with no end in sight. France 's ability to borrow from other sources diminished, leading to greater lending rates and a depressing of the value of the franc. After the war, in 1918, J.P. Morgan & Co. continued to aid the French government financially through monetary stabilization and debt relief.
Because America was still a declared neutral state, the financial dealings of American banks in Europe caused a great deal of contention between Wall Street and the U.S. government. Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan strictly opposed financial support of warring nations and wanted to ban loans to the belligerents in August 1914. He told President Wilson that "refusal to loan to any belligerent would naturally tend to hasten a conclusion of the war. '' Wilson at first agreed, but then reversed himself when France argued that if it was legal to buy American goods then it was legal to take out credits on the purchase.
J.P. Morgan issued loans to France including one in March 1915 and, following negotiations with the Anglo - French Financial Commission, another joint loan to Britain and France in October 1915, the latter amounting to US $500,000,000. Although the stance of the U.S. government was that stopping such financial assistance could hasten the end of the war and therefore save lives, little was done to insure adherence to the ban on loans, in part due to pressure from Allied governments and American business interests.
The American steel industry had faced difficulties and declining profits during the Recession of 1913 -- 1914. As war began in Europe, however, the increased demand for tools of war began a period of heightened productivity that alleviated many U.S. industrial companies from the low - growth environment of the recession. Bethlehem Steel took particular advantage of the increased demand for armaments abroad. Prior to American entrance into the War, these companies benefitted from unrestricted commerce with sovereign customers abroad. After President Wilson issued his declaration of war, the companies were subjected to price controls created by the U.S. Trade Commission in order to insure that the U.S. military would have access to the necessary armaments.
By the end of the war in 1918, Bethlehem Steel had produced 65,000 pounds of forged military products and 70 million pounds of armor plate, 1.1 billion pounds of steel for shells, and 20.1 million rounds of artillery ammunition for Britain and France. Bethlehem Steel took advantage of the domestic armaments market and produced 60 % of the American weaponry and 40 % of the artillery shells used in the War. Even with price controls and a lower profit margin on manufactured goods, the profits resulting from wartime sales expanded the company into the third largest manufacturing company in the country. Bethlehem Steel became the primary arms supplier for the United States and other allied powers again in 1939.
Historians divide the views of American political and social leaders into four distinct groupings -- the camps were mostly informal:
The first of these were the Non-Interventionists, a loosely affiliated and politically diverse anti-war movement which sought to keep the United States out of the war altogether. Members of this group tended to view the war as a clash between British imperialism and German militarism, both of which they regarded as equally corrupt. Others were pacifists, who objected on moral grounds. Prominent leaders included Democrats like former Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan, industrialist Henry Ford and publisher William Randolph Hearst; Republicans Robert M. La Follette, Senator from Wisconsin and George W. Norris, Senator from Nebraska; and Progressive Party activist Jane Addams.
At the far - left end of the political spectrum the Socialists, led by their perennial candidate for President Eugene V. Debs and movement veterans like Victor L. Berger and Morris Hillquit, were staunch anti-militarists and opposed to any US intervention, branding the conflict as a "capitalist war '' that American workers should avoid. However, after the US did join the war in April, 1917 a schism developed between the anti-war Party majority and a pro-war faction of Socialist writers, journalists and intellectuals led by John Spargo, William English Walling and E. Haldeman - Julius. This group founded the rival Social Democratic League of America to promote the war effort among their fellow Socialists.
Next were the more moderate Liberal - Internationalists. This bipartisan group reluctantly supported a declaration of war against Germany with the postwar goal of establishing collective international security institutions designed to peacefully resolve future conflicts between nations and to promote liberal democratic values more broadly. This groups 's views were advocated by interest groups such as the League to Enforce Peace. Adherents included US President Woodrow Wilson, his influential advisor Edward M. House, former President William Howard Taft, famed inventor Alexander Graham Bell, Wall Street financier Bernard Baruch and Harvard University President Abbott Lawrence Lowell.
Finally, there were the so - called Atlanticists. Ardently pro-Entente, they had strongly championed American intervention in the war since 1915. Their primary political motivation was to both prepare the US for war with Germany and to forge an enduring military alliance with Great Britain. This group actively supported the Preparedness Movement and was strong among the Anglophile political establishment of the northeast, boasting such luminaries as former President Theodore Roosevelt, Major General Leonard Wood, prominent attorney and diplomat Joseph Hodges Choate, former Secretary of War Henry Stimson, journalist Walter Lippman and Senators Henry Cabot Lodge, Sr. of Massachusetts and Elihu Root of New York.
A cosmopolitan group of upper and upper - middle class businessmen based in the largest cities took the lead in promoting military preparedness and in defining how far America could be pushed around before it would fight back. Many public figures hated war -- Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan was the most prominent, and he resigned when he thought Wilson had become too bellicose. Grassroots opposition to American entry came especially from German and Irish elements.
A surprising factor in the development of American public opinion was how little the political parties became involved. Wilson and the Democrats in 1916 campaigned on the slogan "He kept us out of war! '', saying a Republican victory would mean war with both Mexico and Germany. His position probably was critical in winning the Western states. Charles Evans Hughes, the GOP candidate, insisted on downplaying the war issue.
The Socialist party talked peace. Socialist rhetoric declared the European conflict to be "an imperialist war ''. It won 2 % of the 1916 vote for Eugene V. Debs, blamed the war on capitalism and pledged total opposition. "A bayonet '', its propaganda said, "was a weapon with a worker at each end ''. When war began, however, about half the Socialists, typified by Congressman Meyer London, supported the decision and sided with the pro-Allied efforts. The rest, led by Debs, remained ideological and die - hard opponents. Many socialists came under investigation from the Espionage Act of 1917 and many suspected of treason were arrested, including Debs. This would only increase the Socialist 's anti-war groups in resentment toward the American government.
The working class was relatively quiet, and tended to divide along ethnic lines. At the beginning of the war, neither working men nor farmers took a large interest in the debates on war preparation. Samuel Gompers, head of the AFL labor movement, denounced the war in 1914 as "unnatural, unjustified, and unholy '', but by 1916 he was supporting Wilson 's limited preparedness program, against the objections of Socialist union activists. In 1916 the labor unions supported Wilson on domestic issues and ignored the war question.
The war at first disrupted the cotton market; Britain blockaded shipments to Germany, and prices fell from 11 cents a pound to only 4 cents. By 1916, however, the British decided to bolster the price to 10 cents to avoid losing Southern support. The cotton growers seem to have moved from neutrality to intervention at about the same pace as the rest of the nation. Midwestern farmers generally opposed the war, especially those of German and Scandinavian descent. The Midwest became the stronghold of isolationism; other remote rural areas also saw no need for war.
The African - American community did not take a strong position one way or the other. A month after congress declared war, W.E.B. Du Bois called on African - Americans to "fight shoulder to shoulder with the world to gain a world where war shall be no more ''. Once war began and black men were drafted, they worked to achieve equality. Many had hoped the community 's help in the war efforts abroad would earn civil rights at home. When such civil liberties were still not granted, many African - Americans grew tired of waiting for recognition of their rights as American citizens.
There was a strong antiwar element in the white South and border states. In rural Missouri for example, distrust of powerful Eastern influences focused on the risk that Wall Street would lead America into war. Across the South poor white farmers warned each other that "a rich man 's war meant a poor man 's fight, '' and they wanted nothing of it. Congressman James Hay, Democrat of Virginia was the powerful chairman of the House Committee on Military Affairs. He repeatedly blocked prewar efforts to modernize and enlarge the army. Preparedness was not needed because Americans were already safe, he insisted in January 1915:
German Americans by this time usually had only weak ties to Germany; however, they were fearful of negative treatment they might receive if the United States entered the war (such mistreatment was already happening to German - descent citizens in Canada and Australia). Almost none called for intervening on Germany 's side, instead calling for neutrality and speaking of the superiority of German culture. As more nations were drawn into the conflict, however, the English - languages press increasingly supporting Britain, while the German - American media called for neutrality while also defending Germany 's position. Chicago 's Germans worked to secure a complete embargo on all arms shipments to Europe. In 1916, large crowds in Chicago 's Germania celebrated the Kaiser 's birthday, something they had not done before the war. German Americans in early 1917 still called for neutrality, but proclaimed that if a war came they would be loyal to the United States. By this point, they had been excluded almost entirely from national discourse on the subject. Once war started, they were harassed in so many ways that historian Carl Wittke noted in 1936, it was "one of the most difficult and humiliating experiences suffered by an ethnic group in American history. '' German - American Socialists in Milwaukee, Wisconsin actively campaigned against entry into the war.
Leaders of most religious groups (except the Episcopalians) tended to pacifism, as did leaders of the woman 's movement. The Methodists and Quakers among others were vocal opponents of the war. President Wilson, who was a devout Presbyterian, would often frame the war in terms of good and evil in an appeal for religious support of the war.
A concerted effort was made by pacifists including Jane Addams, Oswald Garrison Villard, David Starr Jordan, Henry Ford, Lillian Wald, and Carrie Chapman Catt. Their goal was to encourage Wilson 's efforts to mediate an end of the war by bringing the belligerents to the conference table. Finally in 1917 Wilson convinced some of them that to be truly anti-war they needed to support what he promised would be "a war to end all wars ''.
Once war was declared, the more liberal denominations, which had endorsed the Social Gospel, called for a war for righteousness that would help uplift all mankind. The theme -- an aspect of American exceptionalism -- was that God had chosen America as his tool to bring redemption to the world.
American Catholic bishops maintained a general silence toward the issue of intervention. Millions of Catholics lived in both warring camps, and Catholic Americans tended to split on ethnic lines in their opinions toward American involvement in the war. At the time, heavily Catholic towns and cities in the East and Midwest often contained multiple parishes, each serving a single ethnic group, such as Irish, German, Italian, Polish, or English. American Catholics of Irish and German descent opposed intervention most strongly. Pope Benedict XV made several attempts to negotiate a peace. All of his efforts were rebuffed by both the Allies and the Germans, and throughout the war the Vatican maintained a policy of strict neutrality.
Jewish American sympathies likewise broke along ethnic lines, with recently arrived Yiddish speaking Jews inclined to Zionism, and the established German - American Jewish community largely opposed to it. In 1914 -- 1916, there were few Jewish forces in favor of American entry into the war. Many regarded Britain as hostile to Jewish interests. New York City, with its well - organized element numbering 1.5 million Jews, was the center of antiwar activism.
The different Jewish communities worked together during the war years to provide relief to Jewish communities in Eastern Europe.
Of greatest concern to Jews was the tsarist regime in Russia because it was notorious for tolerating pogroms and following anti-Semitic policies. As historian Joseph Rappaport reported through his study of Yiddish press during the war, "The pro-Germanism of America 's immigrant Jews was an inevitable consequence of their Russophobia ''. The fall of the tsarist regime in March 1917 removed a major obstacle for many Jews who refused to support tsarism. The draft went smoothly in New York City, and left - wing opposition to the war largely collapsed when Zionists saw the possibility of using the war to demand a state of Israel.
The most effective domestic opponents of the war were Irish - American Catholics. They had little interest in the continent, but were neutral about helping the United Kingdom because it had recently enacted the Government of Ireland Act 1914, allowing Irish Home Rule. However, the Act was suspended until the war ended. John Redmond and the Irish Parliamentary Party (IPP) declared that Irish Volunteers should support America 's pro-Allied war efforts first; his political opponents argued that it was not the time to support Britain in its attempt to "strengthen and expand her empire ''. The attacks on the IPP and pro-Allied press showed a firm belief that a German victory would hasten the achievement of Irish independence. Yet rather than proposing intervention on behalf of the Germans, Irish American leaders and organizations focused on demanding American neutrality. But the increased contact between militant Irish nationalists and German agents in the United States only fueled concerns of where the primary loyalties of Irish Americans lay. Nevertheless, close to 1,000 Irish - born Americans died fighting with the U.S. armed forces in WWI.
The Easter Rising in Dublin in April 1916 was crushed within a week and its leaders executed by firing squad. The mainstream American press treated the uprising as foolish and misguided, and theorized it was largely inspired by the Germans. Overall public opinion remained faithfully pro-British.
Irish - Americans dominated the Democratic party in many large cities so Wilson had to take account of their views. They did not prevent him from being hostile to Germany, but they did force him to keep his distance from Britain. Indeed, Irish - American pressure influenced the United States into not accepting Britain 's war aims as its own and define its own objectives, primarily self - determination. The Irish - American community thought they had Wilson 's promise to promote Irish independence in exchange for their support of his war policies, but after the war they were bitterly disappointed by his refusal to support them in 1919. Wilson saw the Irish situation purely as an internal UK matter and did not perceive the dispute and the unrest in Ireland as comparable to the plight of the various nationalities in Europe as a fall - out from World War I. The progress of the Irish Race Conventions give a flavour of the differing and changing opinions during the war.
Some British immigrants worked actively for intervention. London - born Samuel Insull, Chicago 's leading industrialist, for example, enthusiastically provided money, propaganda, and means for volunteers to enter the British or Canadian armies. After the United States ' entry, Insull directed the Illinois State Council of Defense, with responsibility for organizing the state 's mobilization.
Immigrants from eastern Europe usually cared more about politics in their homeland than politics in the United States. Spokesmen for Slavic immigrants hoped that an Allied victory would bring independence for their homelands. Large numbers of Hungarian immigrants who were liberal and nationalist in sentiment, and sought an independent Hungary, separate from the Austro - Hungarian Empire lobbied in favor of the war and allied themselves with the Atlanticist or Anglophile portion of the population. This community was largely pro-British and anti-German in sentiment. Albanian - Americans in communities such as Boston also campaigned for entry into the war and were overwhelmingly pro-British and anti-German, as well as hopeful the war would lead to an independent Albania which would be free from the Ottoman Empire. Polish, Slovak, and Czech immigrants were enthusiastically pro-war and generally pro-British.
Henry Ford supported the pacifist cause by sponsoring a large - scale private peace mission, with numerous activists and intellectuals aboard the "Peace Ship ' (the ocean liner Oscar II). Ford chartered the ship in 1915 and invited prominent peace activists to join him to meet with leaders on both sides in Europe. He hoped to create enough publicity to prompt the belligerent nations to convene a peace conference and mediate an end to the war. The mission was widely mocked by the press, which wrote about the "Ship of Fools. '' Infighting between the activists, mockery by the press contingent aboard, and an outbreak of influenza marred the voyage. Four days after the ship arrived in neutral Norway, a beleaguered and physically ill Ford abandoned the mission and returned to the United States; he had demonstrated that independent small efforts accomplished nothing.
On July 24, 1915, the German embassy 's commercial attaché, Heinrich Albert, left his briefcase on a train in New York City, where an alert Secret Service agent, Frank Burke, snatched it up. Wilson let the newspapers publish the contents, which indicated a systematic effort by Berlin to subsidize friendly newspapers and block British purchases of war materials. Berlin 's top espionage agent, debonnaire Franz Rintelen von Kleist was spending millions to finance sabotage in Canada, stir up trouble between the United States and Mexico and to incite labor strikes. The British were engaged in propaganda too, though not illegal espionage. But they did not get caught. Germany took the blame as Americans grew ever more worried about the vulnerability of a free society to subversion. Indeed, one of the main fears Americans of all stations had in 1916 -- 1919 was that spies and saboteurs were everywhere. This sentiment played a major role in arousing fear of Germany, and suspicions regarding everyone of German descent who could not "prove '' 100 % loyalty.
By 1915, Americans were paying much more attention to the war. The sinking of the Lusitania had a strong effect on public opinion because of the deaths of American civilians. That year, a strong "Preparedness '' movement emerged. Proponents argued that the United States needed to immediately build up strong naval and land forces for defensive purposes; an unspoken assumption was that America would fight sooner or later. General Leonard Wood (still on active duty after serving a term as Chief of Staff of the Army), former president Theodore Roosevelt, and former secretaries of war Elihu Root and Henry Stimson were the driving forces behind Preparedness, along with many of the nation 's most prominent bankers, industrialists, lawyers and scions of prominent families. Indeed, there emerged an "Atlanticist '' foreign policy establishment, a group of influential Americans drawn primarily from upper - class lawyers, bankers, academics, and politicians of the Northeast, committed to a strand of Anglophile internationalism. Representative was Paul D. Cravath, one of New York 's foremost corporation lawyers. For Cravath, in his mid-fifties when the war began, the conflict served as an epiphany, sparking an interest in international affairs that dominated his remaining career. Fiercely Anglophile, he strongly supported American intervention in the war and hoped that close Anglo - American cooperation would be the guiding principle of postwar international organization.
The Preparedness movement had a "realistic '' philosophy of world affairs -- they believed that economic strength and military muscle were more decisive than idealistic crusades focused on causes like democracy and national self - determination. Emphasizing over and over the weak state of national defenses, they showed that America 's 100,000 - man Army even augmented by the 112,000 National Guardsmen, was outnumbered 20 to one by Germany 's army, which was drawn from a smaller population. Similarly in 1915, the armed forces of Great Britain and the British empire (the world 's most powerful military and economic power at the time), France, Russia, the Austro - Hungarian empire, Ottoman empire, Italy, Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, Belgium, Japan and Greece were all larger and more experienced than the United States military, in many cases significantly so.
Reform to them meant UMT or "universal military training ''. They proposed a national service program under which the 600,000 men who turned 18 every year would be required to spend six months in military training, and afterwards be assigned to reserve units. The small regular army would primarily be a training agency.
Antimilitarists complained the plan would make America resemble Germany (which required two years ' active duty). Advocates retorted that military "service '' was an essential duty of citizenship, and that without the commonality provided by such service the nation would splinter into antagonistic ethnic groups. One spokesman promised that UMT would become "a real melting pot, under which the fire is hot enough to fuse the elements into one common mass of Americanism ''. Furthermore, they promised, the discipline and training would make for a better paid work force. Hostility to military service was strong at the time, and the program failed to win approval. In World War II, when Stimson as Secretary of War proposed a similar program of universal peacetime service, he was defeated.
Underscoring its commitment, the Preparedness movement set up and funded its own summer training camps at Plattsburgh, New York, and other sites, where 40,000 college alumni became physically fit, learned to march and shoot, and ultimately provided the cadre of a wartime officer corps. Suggestions by labor unions that talented working - class youth be invited to Plattsburgh were ignored. The Preparedness movement was distant not only from the working classes but also from the middle - class leadership of most of small - town America. It had had little use for the National Guard, which it saw as politicized, localistic, poorly armed, ill trained, too inclined to idealistic crusading (as against Spain in 1898), and too lacking in understanding of world affairs. The National Guard on the other hand was securely rooted in state and local politics, with representation from a very broad cross section of American society. The Guard was one of the nation 's few institutions that (in some northern states) accepted blacks on an equal footing.
The Democratic party saw the Preparedness movement as a threat. Roosevelt, Root and Wood were prospective Republican presidential candidates. More subtly, the Democrats were rooted in localism that appreciated the National Guard, and the voters were hostile to the rich and powerful in the first place. Working with the Democrats who controlled Congress, Wilson was able to sidetrack the Preparedness forces. Army and Navy leaders were forced to testify before Congress to the effect that the nation 's military was in excellent shape.
In fact, neither the Army nor Navy was in shape for war. The Navy had fine ships but Wilson had been using them to threaten Mexico, and the fleet 's readiness had suffered. The crews of the Texas and the New York, the two newest and largest battleships, had never fired a gun, and the morale of the sailors was low. In addition, it was outnumbered and outgunned by the British, German, French, and Italian navies. The Army and Navy air forces were tiny in size. Despite the flood of new weapons systems unveiled by the British, Germans, French, Austro - Hungarians, Italians, and others in the war in Europe, the Army was paying scant attention. For example, it was making no studies of trench warfare, poison gas, heavy artillery, or tanks and was utterly unfamiliar with the rapid evolution of Aerial warfare. The Democrats in Congress tried to cut the military budget in 1915. The Preparedness movement effectively exploited the surge of outrage over the Lusitania in May 1915, forcing the Democrats to promise some improvements to the military and naval forces. Wilson, less fearful of the Navy, embraced a long - term building program designed to make the fleet the equal of the British Royal Navy by the mid-1920s, although this would not be achieved until World War II. "Realism '' was at work here; the admirals were Mahanians and they therefore wanted a surface fleet of heavy battleships second to none -- that is, equal to Britain. The facts of submarine warfare (which necessitated destroyers, not battleships) and the possibilities of imminent war with Germany (or with Britain, for that matter), were simply ignored.
Wilson 's program for the Army touched off a firestorm. Secretary of War Lindley Garrison adopted many of the proposals of the Preparedness leaders, especially their emphasis on a large federal reserve and abandonment of the National Guard. Garrison 's proposals not only outraged the localistic politicians of both parties, they also offended a strongly held belief shared by the liberal wing of the Progressive movement. They felt that warfare always had a hidden economic motivation. Specifically, they warned the chief warmongers were New York bankers (like J.P. Morgan) with millions at risk, profiteering munition makers (like Bethlehem Steel, which made armor, and DuPont, which made powder) and unspecified industrialists searching for global markets to control. Antiwar critics blasted them. These special interests were too powerful, especially, Senator La Follette noted, in the conservative wing of the Republican Party. The only road to peace was disarmament, reiterated Bryan.
Garrison 's plan unleashed the fiercest battle in peacetime history over the relationship of military planning to national goals. In peacetime, War Department arsenals and Navy yards manufactured nearly all munitions that lacked civilian uses, including warships, artillery, naval guns, and shells. Items available on the civilian market, such as food, horses, saddles, wagons, and uniforms were always purchased from civilian contractors. Armor plate (and after 1918, airplanes) was an exception that has caused unremitting controversy for a century. After World War II, the arsenals and Navy yards were much less important than giant civilian aircraft and electronics firms, which became the second half of the "military - industrial complex '' Peace leaders like Jane Addams of Hull House and David Starr Jordan of Stanford redoubled their efforts, and now turned their voices against the president because he was "sowing the seeds of militarism, raising up a military and naval caste ''. Many ministers, professors, farm spokesmen, and labor union leaders joined in, with powerful support from a band of four dozen southern Democrats in Congress who took control of the House Military Affairs Committee. Wilson, in deep trouble, took his cause to the people in a major speaking tour in early 1916, a warmup for his reelection campaign that fall. Wilson seems to have won over the middle classes, but had little impact on the largely ethnic working classes and the deeply isolationist farmers. Congress still refused to budge, so Wilson replaced Garrison as Secretary of War with Newton Baker, the Democratic mayor of Cleveland and an outspoken opponent of preparedness (Garrison kept quiet, but felt Wilson was "a man of high ideals but no principles ''). The upshot was a compromise passed in May 1916, as the war raged on and Berlin was debating whether America was so weak it could be ignored. The Army was to double in size to 11,300 officers and 208,000 men, with no reserve, and a National Guard that would be enlarged in five years to 440,000 men. Summer camps on the Plattsburg model were authorized for new officers, and the government was given $20 million to build a nitrate plant of its own. Preparedness supporters were downcast, the antiwar people were jubilant. America would now be too weak to go to war. Colonel Robert L. Bullard privately complained that "Both sides (Britain and Germany) treat us with scorn and contempt; our fool, smug conceit of superiority has been exploded in our faces and deservedly. '' The House gutted the naval plans as well, defeating a "big navy '' plan by 189 to 183, and scuttling the battleships. The battle of Jutland (May 31 / June 1, 1916) was used by the navalists to argue for the primacy of seapower; they then took control in the Senate, broke the House coalition, and authorized a rapid three - year buildup of all classes of warships. A new weapons system, naval aviation, received $3.5 million, and the government was authorized to build its own armor plate factory. The very weakness of American military power encouraged Berlin to start its unrestricted submarine attacks in 1917. It knew this meant war with America, but it could discount the immediate risk because the U.S. Army was negligible and the new warships would not be at sea until 1919 by which time the war would be over, with Germany victorious. The notion that armaments led to war was turned on its head: refusal to arm in 1916 led to war in 1917.
Americans felt an increasing need for a military that could command respect. As one editor put it, "The best thing about a large army and a strong navy is that they make it so much easier to say just what we want to say in our diplomatic correspondence. '' Berlin thus far had backed down and apologized when Washington was angry, thus boosting American self - confidence. America 's rights and America 's honor increasingly came into focus. The slogan "Peace '' gave way to "Peace with Honor ''. The Army remained unpopular, however. A recruiter in Indianapolis noted that, "The people here do not take the right attitude towards army life as a career, and if a man joins from here he often tries to go out on the quiet ''. The Preparedness movement used its easy access to the mass media to demonstrate that the War Department had no plans, no equipment, little training, no reserve, a laughable National Guard, and a wholly inadequate organization for war. Motion pictures like The Battle Cry of Peace (1915) depicted invasions of the American homeland that demanded action.
The readiness and capability of the U.S. Navy was a matter of controversy. The press at the time reported that the only thing the military was ready for was an enemy fleet attempting to seize New York harbor -- at a time when the German battle fleet was penned up by the Royal Navy. The Navy Secretary Josephus Daniels was a journalist with pacifist leanings. He had built up the educational resources of the Navy and made its Naval War College in Newport, Rhode Island an essential experience for would - be admirals. However, he alienated the officer corps with his moralistic reforms, including no wine in the officers ' mess, no hazing at the Naval Academy, and more chaplains and YMCAs. Daniels, as a newspaperman, knew the value of publicity. In 1915 he set up the Naval Consulting Board headed by Thomas Edison to obtain the advice and expertise of leading scientists, engineers, and industrialists. It popularized technology, naval expansion, and military preparedness, and was well covered in the media. But according to Coletta he ignored the nation 's strategic needs, and disdaining the advice of its experts, Daniels suspended meetings of the Joint Army and Navy Board for two years because it was giving unwelcome advice, chopped in half the General Board 's recommendations for new ships, reduced the authority of officers in the Navy yards where ships were built and repaired, and ignored the administrative chaos in his department. Bradley Fiske, one of the most innovative admirals in American naval history, in 1914 was Daniels ' top aide; he recommended a reorganization that would prepare for war, but Daniels refused. Instead he replaced Fiske in 1915 and brought in for the new post of Chief of Naval Operations an unknown captain, William Benson. Chosen for his compliance, Benson proved a wily bureaucrat who was more interested in preparing for an eventual showdown with Britain than an immediate one with Germany. Benson told Sims he "would as soon fight the British as the Germans ''. Proposals to send observers to Europe were blocked, leaving the Navy in the dark about the success of the German submarine campaign. Admiral William Sims charged after the war that in April 1917, only ten percent of the Navy 's warships were fully manned; the rest lacked 43 % of their seamen. Light antisubmarine ships were few in number, as if Daniels had been unaware of the German submarine menace that had been the focus of foreign policy for two years. The Navy 's only warfighting plan, the "Black Plan '' assumed the Royal Navy did not exist and that German battleships were moving freely about the Atlantic and the Caribbean and threatening the Panama Canal. Daniels ' tenure would have been even less successful save for the energetic efforts of Assistant Secretary Franklin D. Roosevelt, who effectively ran the Department. His most recent biographer concludes that, "it is true that Daniels had not prepared the navy for the war it would have to fight. ''
By 1916 a new factor was emerging -- a sense of national self - interest and American nationalism. The unbelievable casualty figures in Europe were sobering -- two vast battles caused over one million casualties each. Clearly this war would be a decisive episode in the history of the world. Every American effort to find a peaceful solution was frustrated.
Kendrick Clements claims bureaucratic decision - making was one of the main sources pushing the United States to declaring war on Germany and aligning itself with the Allies. He cites the State Department 's demand that Germany 's submarines obey outdated, 18th century sailing laws as one of the first missteps by the United States bureaucracy regarding the war. By doing so, the United States had essentially given Germany the choice of whether or not the U.S. would enter the war. Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan spent most of the fall of 1914 out of contact with the State Department, leaving the more conservative Robert Lansing with the ability to shape American foreign policy at the time. One of these decisions was made in response to British protests that the Germans were using U.S. radio towers to send messages to their warships. Immediately prior to the war starting in 1914, Britain had cut all cable communications leading out of Germany, including the trans - Atlantic cable. The US Government permitted German embassies to use the US cable lines for "proper '' diplomatic business. Germany argued that usage of the towers was necessary to allow efficient contact between the U.S. and Germany. Lansing responded by requiring both sides to give the U.S. Navy copies of the messages they sent over the towers. The French and British were still able to use the cables, forcing Germany to be the only belligerent required to provide the U.S. with their messages. This and other seemingly small decisions made by Lansing during this time would eventually stack up, shifting American support towards the Allies.
Once Germany had decided on unrestricted submarine warfare in January 1917, and knowing it would be attacking all American ships in the North Atlantic, it tried to line up new allies, especially Mexico. Arthur Zimmermann, the German foreign minister, sent the Zimmermann Telegram to Mexico on January 16, 1917. Zimmerman invited Mexico (knowing their resentment towards America since the 1848 Mexican Cession) to join in a war against the United States. Germany promised to pay for Mexico 's costs and to help it recover the territory annexed by the U.S. in 1848. These territories included the present day states of California, Nevada, Utah, most of Arizona, about half of New Mexico and a quarter of Colorado. British intelligence intercepted and decoded the telegram and passed it to the Wilson administration. The White House would release it to the press on March 1st. Anger grew further as the Germans began sinking American ships, even as isolationists in the Senate launched a filibuster to block legislation for arming American merchant ships to defend themselves.
In early 1917 Berlin forced the issue. Its declared decision on 31 January 1917 to target neutral shipping in a designated war - zone became the immediate cause of the entry of the United States into the war. Five American merchant ships went down in March. Outraged public opinion now overwhelmingly supported Wilson when he asked Congress for a declaration of war on April 2, 1917.
Historians such as Ernest R. May have approached the process of American entry into the war as a study in how public opinion changed radically in three years ' time. In 1914 most Americans called for neutrality, seeing the war a dreadful mistake and were determined to stay out. By 1917 the same public felt just as strongly that going to war was both necessary and wise. Military leaders had little to say during this debate, and military considerations were seldom raised. The decisive questions dealt with morality and visions of the future. The prevailing attitude was that America possessed a superior moral position as the only great nation devoted to the principles of freedom and democracy. By staying aloof from the squabbles of reactionary empires, it could preserve those ideals -- sooner or later the rest of the world would come to appreciate and adopt them. In 1917 this very long - run program faced the severe danger that in the short run powerful forces adverse to democracy and freedom would triumph. Strong support for moralism came from religious leaders, women (led by Jane Addams), and from public figures like long - time Democratic leader William Jennings Bryan, the Secretary of State from 1913 to 1916. The most important moralist of all was President Woodrow Wilson -- the man who dominated decision making so totally that the war has been labelled, from an American perspective, "Wilson 's War ''.
In 1917 Wilson won the support of most of the moralists by proclaiming "a war to make the world safe for democracy. '' If they truly believed in their ideals, he explained, now was the time to fight. The question then became whether Americans would fight for what they deeply believed in, and the answer turned out to be a resounding "Yes ''.
Antiwar activists at the time and in the 1930s, alleged that beneath the veneer of moralism and idealism there must have been ulterior motives. Some suggested a conspiracy on the part of New York City bankers holding $3 billion of war loans to the Allies, or steel and chemical firms selling munitions to the Allies. The interpretation was popular among left - wing Progressives (led by Senator Robert La Follette of Wisconsin) and among the "agrarian '' wing of the Democratic party -- including the chairman of the tax - writing Ways and Means Committee of the House. He strenuously opposed war, and when it came he rewrote the tax laws to make sure the rich paid the most. (In the 1930s neutrality laws were passed to prevent financial entanglements from dragging the nation into a war.) In 1915, Bryan thought that Wilson 's pro-British sentiments had distorted his policies, so he became the first Secretary of State ever to resign in protest.
However, historian Harold C. Syrett argues that business supported neutrality. Other historians state that the pro-war element was animated not by profit but by disgust with what Germany actually did, especially in Belgium, and the threat it represented to American ideals. Belgium kept the public 's sympathy as the Germans executed civilians, and English nurse Edith Cavell. American engineer Herbert Hoover led a private relief effort that won wide support. Compounding the Belgium atrocities were new weapons that Americans found repugnant, like poison gas and the aerial bombardment of innocent civilians as Zeppelins dropped bombs on London. Even anti-war spokesmen did not claim that Germany was innocent, and pro-German scripts were poorly received.
Randolph Bourne criticized the moralist philosophy claiming it was a justification by American intellectual and power elites, like President Wilson, for going to war unnecessarily. He argues that the push for war started with the Preparedness movement, fueled by big business. While big business would not push much further than Preparedness, benefitting the most from neutrality, the movement would eventually evolve into a war - cry, led by war - hawk intellectuals under the guise of moralism. Bourne believes elites knew full well what going to war would entail and the price in American lives it would cost. If American elites could portray the United States ' role in the war as noble, they could convince the generally isolationist American public war would be acceptable.
Above all, American attitudes towards Germany focused on the U-boats (submarines), which sank the Lusitania in 1915 and other passenger ships "without warning ''. That appeared to Americans as an unacceptable challenge to America 's rights as a neutral country, and as an unforgivable affront to humanity. After repeated diplomatic protests, Germany agreed to stop. But in 1917 the Germany military leadership decided that "military necessity '' dictated the unrestricted use of their submarines. The Kaiser 's advisors felt America was enormously powerful economically but too weak militarily to make a difference.
On April 2, 1917, Wilson asked a special joint session of Congress to declare war on the German Empire, stating, "We have no selfish ends to serve ''. To make the conflict seem like a better idea, he painted the conflict idealistically, stating that the war would "make the world safe for democracy '' and later that it would be a "war to end war ''. The United States had a moral responsibility to enter the war, Wilson proclaimed. The future of the world was being determined on the battlefield, and American national interest demanded a voice. Wilson 's definition of the situation won wide acclaim, and, indeed, has shaped America 's role in world and military affairs ever since. Wilson believed that if the Central Powers won, the consequences would be bad for the United States. Germany would have dominated the continent and perhaps would gain control of the seas as well. Latin America could well have fallen under Berlin 's control. The dream of spreading democracy, liberalism, and independence would have been shattered. On the other hand, if the Allies had won without help, there was a danger they would carve up the world without regard to American commercial interests. They were already planning to use government subsidies, tariff walls, and controlled markets to counter the competition posed by American businessmen. The solution was a third route, a "peace without victory '', according to Wilson.
On April 6, 1917, Congress declared war. In the Senate, the resolution passed 82 to 6, with Senators Harry Lane, William J. Stone, James Vardaman, Asle Gronna, Robert M. La Follette, Sr., and George W. Norris voting against it. In the House, the declaration passed 373 to 50, with Claude Kitchin, a senior Democrat, notably opposing it. Another opponent was Jeannette Rankin, who alone voted against entry into both World War I and World War II. Nearly all of the opposition came from the West and the Midwest.
The United States Senate, in a 74 to 0 vote, declared war on Austria - Hungary on December 7, 1917, citing Austria - Hungary 's severing of diplomatic relations with the United States, its use of unrestricted submarine warfare and its alliance with Germany. The declaration passed in the United States House of Representatives by a vote of 365 to 1.
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what percentage is an a+ in australia | Academic grading in the United States - wikipedia
Academic grading in the United States commonly takes on the form of five letter grades. Traditionally, the grades are A, B, C, D, and F, with A being the highest and F, short for failed, the lowest. Numeric to letter grade conversions generally vary from system to system and between disciplines and status. In some cases, grades can be numerical, from 1 to 4, with 1 being the worst and 4 being the best.
The typical grades awarded for participation in a course are (from highest to lowest) A, B, C, D, and F. Variations on the traditional five - grade system allow for awarding A+, A, A -; B+, B, & B -; C+, C, & C -; D+, D, & D -; and F. In primary and secondary schools, a D is usually the lowest passing grade, however, there are some schools that consider a C the lowest passing grade, so the general standard is that anything below a 60 or 70 is failing, depending on the grading scale. In college and universities, a D is considered to be an unsatisfactory passing grade. Students will usually still earn credit for the class if they get a D, but sometimes a C or better is required to count some major classes toward a degree, and sometimes a C or better is required to satisfy a prerequisite requirement for a class.
Below is the grading system found to be most commonly used in United States public high schools, according to the 2009 High School Transcript Study. This is the most used grading system, however, there are some schools that use an edited version of the college system.
Below is a grading system used by four different colleges in the United States. Other schools use different systems, so this is by no means universal.
Most teachers construct an organized system for evaluating student work.
In a typical points - based system each question in every assignment is assigned a certain number of points. A simple homework question is usually worth five points and a lengthy project such as an essay is worth about 70 points. The points for a large project in turn may be further divided into smaller areas for evaluation (this is called a "rubric ''): ten points for writing the correct length of an essay, five points for a well - written introduction, five points for spelling and grammar, ten points for reasoning, and so forth. The final grade for the course is calculated as a percentage of points earned out of points possible.
In a percentage - based system, each assignment regardless of size, type, or complexity, is given a percentage score: nine correct answers out of ten is a score of 90 %. The overall grade for the class is then typically weighted so that the final grade represents a stated proportion of different types of work. For example, daily homework may be counted as 50 % of the final grade, chapter quizzes may count for 20 %, the comprehensive final exam may count for 20 %, and a major project may count for the remaining 10 %.
In elementary school, grades may represent rewards from teachers "for being friendly, prepared, compliant, a good school citizen, well organized and hard - working '' rather than mastering the subject material. Schools in the United States have been accused of using academic grades to penalize students for being bored, uncooperative or for talking out of turn. Usually, this behavior leads to poor or non-existent studying habits which most likely are to blame for their grades. Some teachers use Self - and Peer - Assessment to evaluate some of a student 's work.
With the adoption of standards - based education, most states have created examinations in which students are compared to a standard of what educators, businesspeople, parents, and other stakeholders have determined to be what every student should know and be able to do. Students are graded as exceeding, meeting, or falling below the standard. The advantage is that students are not compared against each other, and all have the opportunity to pass the standard. However, the standard is typically set at a level that is substantially higher than previous achievement, so that a relatively high percentage of students fail at least some part of the standards in the first year, including an especially high percentage non-college bound students.
As an instrument of systemic reform, the tests are targeted to items and skills not currently in the curriculum to promote adoption of methods such as constructivist mathematics, inquiry - based science, and problem solving.
Grades can be enhanced by extra credits, awarded where students undertake optional work, additional to their compulsory school work.
For an example of standard - based grading, see "The 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 System '' below.
Grading on a curve is any system wherein the group performance is used to moderate evaluation; it need not be strictly or purely rank - based.
In the most extreme form, students are ranked and grades are assigned according to a student 's rank, placing students in direct competition with one another.
One model uses percentages derived from a normal distribution model of educational performance. The top grade, A, is given here for performance that exceeds the mean by + 1.5 standard deviations, a B for performance between + 0.5 and + 1.5 standard deviations above the mean, and so on. Regardless of the absolute performance of the students, the best score in the group receives a top grade, and the worst score receives a failing grade.
Rank - based grading is popular among some American educators, usually under the euphemism of grade rationing. The arguments for grade - rationing are that:
The arguments against rank - based grading are similar:
Numerical values are applied to grades as follows:
This allows grades to be easily averaged. Additionally, many schools add. 33 for a + grade and subtract. 33 for a − grade. Thus, a B+ yields a 3.33 whereas an A -- yields a 3.67. A + s, if given, are usually assigned a value of 4.0 (equivalent to an A) due to the common assumption that a 4.00 is the best possible grade - point average, although 4.33 is awarded at some institutions. In some places,. 25 or. 3 instead of. 33 is added for a + grade and subtracted for a − grade. Other institutions maintain a mid grade and award. 5 for the grade. For example, an AB would receive a 3.5 grade point and a BC would receive a 2.5 grade point.
The industry standard for graduation from undergraduate institutions is a minimum 2.0 average. Most graduate schools have required a 3.0 grade point average since 1975 (the transition began two decades earlier), but some schools still have 2.75 as their pass standard. Some doctoral programs do not have a formal pass standard, but it is unlikely that they would retain a student who is doing work below ' B ' quality.
Most American law schools require no more than a 2.0 grade point average to qualify for the professional doctorate in law. This is because law school grades are usually based on a strict bell curve system which typically results in the failure of 10 - 30 % of first year students. A few law schools require 2.3 or 2.5 for post-doctoral degrees, such as the American LL. M. or S.J.D. degrees. Regular graduate schools have commonly eliminated the D grade because anything below a C is considered failing.
Some high schools, to reflect the varying skill required for different level courses and to discourage students from selecting courses that are considered a source of easy ' A 's, will give higher numerical grades for difficult courses, often referred to as a weighted GPA. For example, two common conversion systems used in honors and Advanced Placement courses are:
Denver Public Schools uses a different system in honors and AP courses to get weighted GPA values; the scale is as follows: A = 5.2 A - = 4.77 B+ = 4.33 B = 3.9 B - = 3.47 C+ = 3.0 C = 2.6 C - = 2.17 D = 1.3 E = 0.0
Another policy commonly used by 4.0 - scale schools is to mimic the eleven - point weighted scale (see below) by adding a. 33 (one third of a letter grade) to an honors or advanced placement class. (For example, a B in a regular class would be a 3.0, but in an honors or AP class it would become a B+, or 3.33).
Sometimes the 5 - based weighting scale is used for AP courses and the 4.6 - based scale for honors courses, but often a school will choose one system and apply it universally to all advanced courses. A small number of high schools use a 5 - point scale for Honors courses, a 6 - point scale for AP courses, and / or a 3 - point scale for courses of below average difficulty.
Although weighting GPAs is a widespread practice in the United States, there is little research into whether weighted GPAs are better than unweighted GPAs. In one study, weighted GPAs were not suitable for predicting any college outcomes, but unweighted GPA were strong predictors of college GPA. However, standardized test scores were better predictors than either type of GPA.
At least one boarding school in the United States uses the six - point system, Phillips Academy at Andover. While there are approximate equivalents to the 100 point system, grades are most often described as follows:
Though described above, grades below a 3 are rarely dispensed in practice.
Phillips Exeter Academy and a few other high schools in the United States use an eleven - point system. Numerical values are applied to grades as follows:
Very few American high schools use a twelve - point system, which differs from the above only in using the grade A+, to which the value 12.0 is applied.
Some school districts use a 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 rating system for grades at the Elementary (K - 5) level, notably many California school districts including The Los Angeles Unified School District (LAUSD) who switched with the class of 2000. The four - point scale more clearly indicates proficiency levels in core subjects by segmenting students who are proficient (4&3) and ready to advance, from those who are not meeting all required standards (2&1) and should not advance. Most notably this removes the "C '' rating which did not clearly partition students who should advance from those who should not.
At one time (until roughly the mid-20th Century), the most popular grading system in the United States used four letters, which ranked in descending order:
This system has largely been replaced by the five - point system discussed above, but is still encountered quite often at the elementary school level, particularly in kindergarten and Grades 1 through 3 (these levels comprising the lower division of primary school). It is also occasionally used at schools for older children, including high schools, especially in the issuance of conduct or citizenship grades.
There are a few variations to this system, including the use of an O (for "outstanding '') grade, which is even higher than the E; the use of an O instead of the E; a G (for "good '') placed between the E and the S; the use of a G (again for "good '') instead of the E; and the lack of a U grade. In this version, E stands for "exemplary '' and P proficient, with AE and AP for work that approaches the E and P levels. "Credit '' is equivalent to the D level and "No Credit '' is equivalent to F. (1)
The use of M (for "mediocre '') in place of the N and I (for "insufficient '') in place of the U was used in the midwest, and included the F.
The S grade may be so modified with an S+ or S −, but otherwise plus and minus are rarely used.
A similar system is used to rank practical work in the certain science department of Oxford University; however only with the grades S (Satisfactory) S+ (more than satisfactory, and may be used in the allocation of degree grades) and NS (Not Satisfactory).
Alternatives to letter - grading assessments have been tried in some schools, but still remain a marginal approach due to the heavy emphasis and history of letter grading. Researchers including Carol Dweck, Carole Ames, Ruth Butler, and John Nicholls suggest that students ' focus on their achievement takes away from their actual learning.
A number of liberal arts colleges in the U.S. either do not issue grades at all (such as Alverno College, Antioch College, Bennington College, Evergreen State College, New College of Florida, and Hampshire College), de-emphasize them (St. John 's College, Reed College, Sarah Lawrence College, Prescott College, College of the Atlantic), or do not calculate grade point averages (Brown University). In all cases, the rationale is that grades alone do not provide a clear picture of academic aptitude or of potential for success and that learning, not achieving the highest score, should be the goal of a liberal education as is the case in graduate programs. In many cases, narrative evaluations are used as an alternative measurement system. Saint Ann 's School in Brooklyn is one of several secondary schools to eschew grades in favor of narrative reports, while still managing to be the number one high school in the country for having the highest percentage of graduating seniors enroll in Ivy League and several other highly selective colleges.
The letter grades ' I ' and ' Y ' are temporary grades, representing "Incomplete '' and "Year '', respectively. The distinction between them is so slight that most institutions only use one of them, not both.
A ' Y ' grade indicates the course, or the time allowed to complete it extends beyond the temporal bounds of a single term to encompass an entire academic or calendar year, or longer. Conversely, an ' I ' grade indicates the student was satisfactorily completing a course when something happened that prevented timely completion, usually illness or injury.
The length of time allowed to complete the work for an ' I ' grade varies from a deadline in the first few weeks following the end of term to a full calendar year, the latter being more usual. For some courses (such as independent studies or thesis / dissertation credits), or in some situations (such as subsequent non-enrollment), the time allowed for completion may be indefinite. Some institutions will convert the ' I ' grade to an ' E ' or ' F ' (failing) grade if the student does not complete the course by the end of the time period; others simply make the ' I ' grade permanent at that time; and a few institutions retroactively withdraw the student from the course, changing the ' I ' to a ' W ' grade. Most institutions allow students to apply for an extension of the completion time, upon presentation of special circumstances.
Policies on ' Y ' grades are similar or identical to those for ' I ' grades, but because of the historical difference in meaning ("Year '' instead of "Incomplete ''), it is rare for ' Y ' grades to be converted to a failing grade if a student does not finish the course, but conversion to ' W ' may be done.
The FN grade indicates that a student has failed a course due to non-attendance. It is calculated as an "F '' in the student 's grade point average. For students receiving financial aid, failure for non-attendance may require the student to refund to the College all or part of his or her aid. The FN grade will be assigned by the faculty member at any time following the final withdrawal date for the course. Students who are in a failing status because of non-attendance but return to the course prior to the withdrawal date may elect to withdraw from the course.
A grade of "W '' indicates that a student has elected to withdrawal from a course prior to the course 's withdraw deadline. It is not calculated in the student 's grade point average, which would keep the student from facing possible academic disciplinary action if he or she was to fall below the required Standards of Academic Progress (SAP). For students receiving financial aid, a grade of "W '' may require the student to refund to the College all or part of his or her aid. Some schools indicate whether the student was passing or failing the course at the time of withdrawal by placing WP or WF grades on the transcript; policies vary as to whether a WF counts as an unsatisfactory grade when determining if a student is in good standing.
Standards for Academic Progress in Florida, for example, require a student to maintain a grade point average of 2.00 on the 4.00 scale. The student must also successfully complete 67 % of the courses attempted, which includes previous failures, re-takes, and withdrawals. Additionally, a student may not attempt a course more than three (3) times.
Students may elect to audit a college credit course or workforce credit course by completing the audit form. Students may not change from credit to audit or from audit to credit after the drop deadline. A grade of "X '' will be assigned for all courses taken in audit status.
No credit will be awarded and fees for college credit courses taken on an audit basis are the same as those taken on a college credit or workforce credit basis.
Courses taken for audit do not count as hours enrolled in the following areas: veteran certification, financial aid awards, Social Security certification, international student enrollment requirements or early admission program enrollment requirements.
Standards of Academic Progress are the standards set by the school, state, Board of Education, or other agency which are required of students to adhere to in order to continue to attend classes. A student who falls below the SAP may have disciplinary action taken against him or her or denial of financial aid until the student has met the required SAP. In Florida, Standards of Academic Progress require a student to maintain a grade point average of 2.00 or above on the 4.00 numeric grading scale. The student must also finish 67 % of the courses attempted, which includes previous failures, re-takes, and withdrawals. Additionally, a student may not attempt a course more than three (3) times.
To evaluate the scholastic standing of students, the following points are assigned to grades.
Students ' scholastic standing or grade point average is obtained by dividing the total number of grade points earned by the total number of semester hours attempted for which the foregoing grades have been assigned. Grades of "I, '' "W, '' "NR, '' and "X '' are not used in the computation of grade point average. Grades earned in college preparatory classes do not count in the computation of the grade point average.
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what is a prophet in the bible definition | Prophet - wikipedia
In religion, a prophet is an individual who has been contacted by a divine being in order to speak on the entity 's behalf, serving as an intermediary with humanity by delivering messages or teachings from the supernatural source to other people. The message that the prophet conveys is called a prophecy, which transports -- at least in Judaism -- a message beyond mere pagan soothsaying, augury, divination, or forecasting, and, most prominently in the neviim of the Tanakh, often comprises issues of social justice.
Claims of prophethood have existed in many cultures through history, including Judaism, Christianity, Islam, in Ancient Greek Philosophy, Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, and many others. Prophets are traditionally regarded as having a role in society that promotes change due to their messages and actions which often convey God 's displeasure concerning the behavior of the people.
In Hebrew, the word נָבִיא (nāvî), "spokesperson '', traditionally translates as "prophet ''. The second subdivision of the Hebrew Bible, TaNaKh (for "Torah, Nevi'im, Ketuvim ''), is devoted to the Hebrew prophets. The meaning of navi is perhaps described in Deuteronomy 18: 18, where God said, "... and I will put My words in his mouth, and he shall speak unto them all that I shall command him. '' Thus, the navi was thought to be the "mouth '' of God. The root nun - bet - alef ("navi '') is based on the two - letter root nun - bet which denotes hollowness or openness; to receive transcendental wisdom, one must make oneself "open ''. Cf. Rashbam 's comment to Genesis 20: 7.
In addition to writing and speaking messages from God, Israelite or Jewish nevi'im ("spokespersons '', "prophets '') often acted out prophetic parables in their life. For example, in order to contrast the people 's disobedience with the obedience of the Rechabites, God has Jeremiah invite the Rechabites to drink wine, in disobedience to their ancestor 's command. The Rechabites refuse, wherefore God commends them. Other prophetic parables acted out by Jeremiah include burying a linen belt so that it gets ruined to illustrate how God intends to ruin Judah 's pride. Likewise, Jeremiah buys a clay jar and smashes it in the Valley of Ben Hinnom in front of elders and priests to illustrate that God will smash the nation of Judah and the city of Judah beyond repair. God instructs Jeremiah to make a yoke from wood and leather straps and to put it on his own neck to demonstrate how God will put the nation under the yoke of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon. In a similar way, the prophet Isaiah had to walk stripped and barefoot for three years to illustrate the coming captivity, and the prophet Ezekiel had to lie on his side for 390 days and eat measured food to illustrate the coming siege.
The prophetic assignment is not always portrayed as positive in the Hebrew Bible, and prophets were often the target of persecution and opposition. God 's personal prediction for Jeremiah, "Attack you they will, overcome you they ca n't, '' was performed many times in the biblical narrative as Jeremiah warned of destruction of those who continued to refuse repentance and accept more moderate consequences. In return for his adherence to God 's discipline and speaking God 's words, Jeremiah was attacked by his own brothers, beaten and put into the stocks by a priest and false prophet, imprisoned by the king, threatened with death, thrown into a cistern by Judah 's officials, and opposed by a false prophet. Likewise, Isaiah was told by his hearers who rejected his message, "Leave the way! Get off the path! Let us hear no more about the Holy One of Israel! '' The life of Moses being threatened by Pharaoh is another example.
According to I Samuel 9: 9, the old name for navi is ro'eh, רֹאֶה, which literally means "Seer ''. That could document an ancient shift, from viewing prophets as seers for hire to viewing them as moral teachers. Allen (1971) comments that in the First Temple Era, there were essentially seer - priests, who formed a guild, divined, performed rituals and sacrifices, and were scribes, and then there were canonical prophets, who did none of these (and were against divination) and had instead a message to deliver. The seer - priests were usually attached to a local shrine or temple, such as Shiloh, and initiated others as priests in that priesthood: it was a mystical craft - guild with apprentices and recruitment. Canonical prophets were not organised this way. The similar term ben - navi ("son of the prophet '') means "member of a seer - priest guild ''.
Some examples of prophets in the Tanakh include Abraham, Moses, Miriam, Isaiah, Samuel, Ezekiel, Malachi, and Job. In Jewish tradition Daniel is not counted in the list of prophets.
A Jewish tradition suggests that there were twice as many prophets as the number which left Egypt, which would make 1,200,000 prophets. The Talmud recognizes the existence of 48 male prophets who bequeathed permanent messages to mankind. According to the Talmud there were also seven women who are counted as prophets whose message bears relevance for all generations: Sarah, Miriam, Devorah, Hannah (mother of the prophet Samuel), Abigail (a wife of King David), Huldah (from the time of Jeremiah), and Esther. Rashi points out that Rebecca, Rachel, and Leah were also prophets.
Prophets in Judaism are not always Jews. The story of Balaam in Numbers 22 describes a non-Jewish prophet. According to the Talmud, Obadiah is said to have been a convert to Judaism.
The last nevi'im ("spokespersons '', "prophets '') mentioned in the Jewish Bible are Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, all of whom lived at the end of the 70 - year Babylonian exile. The Talmud (Sanhedrin 11a) states that Haggai, Zachariah, and Malachi were the last prophets, and nowadays only the "Bath Kol '' (בת קול, lit. daughter of a voice, "voice of God '') exists.
In Christianity a prophet (or seer) is one inspired by God through the Holy Spirit to deliver a message for a specific purpose. God 's calling as a prophet is not to elevate an individual for their own glory, but for the glory of God and to turn people to him. Some Christian denominations limit a prophet 's message to those only to the entire church congregation and exclude personal messages not intended for the body of believers, but in the Bible on a number of occasions prophets were called to deliver personal messages. The reception of a message is termed revelation and the delivery of the message is termed prophecy.
James Jordan argues that the office of prophet involves more than delivering the direct revelations of God. He writes, "The full meaning of prophet is council member, a member of God 's Divine Council... Moses, who is an exemplary prophet of the Old Covenant (Numbers 12: 6 -- 8)... not only received information from the Counsel and passed its decisions onto the people... he also actively argued before the Council when he felt it necessary, even ' changing God 's mind ' on occasion (Exodus 32: 7 -- 14, 30 -- 35; Numbers 14: 13 -- 19). '' In this way, Christ is executing a prophetic office when he intercedes for Christians and ordinary Christians are executing a prophetic office when they reason with God on the behalf of others in prayer, just as Moses interceded and persuaded God on behalf of Israel as part of his prophetic function.
The term prophet is applied to those who receive public or private revelation. Public Revelation, in Catholicism, is part of the Deposit of faith, the revelation of which was completed by Jesus; whereas Private Revelation does not add to the Deposit. The term "deposit of faith '' refers to the entirety of Jesus Christ 's revelation, and is passed to successive generations in two different forms, sacred scripture (the Bible) and sacred tradition.
Anyone who claims to speak God 's words or teach in his name and is not a prophet the Bible terms a false prophet. One test given in the Old Testament in Deuteronomy contains a warning of those who prophecy events which do not come to pass and said they should be put to death. Elsewhere a false prophet may be someone who is purposely trying to deceive, is delusional, under the influence of Satan or is speaking from his own spirit.
Some Christians who believe in dispensationalism believe prophecy ended along with the rest of the sign gifts shortly after the coming of Jesus, who delivered the "fullness of the law ''. Within this group, many Protestants believe that prophecy ended with the last of the Hebrew prophets of the Hebrew Bible, leaving a gap of about 400 years between then and the life of Jesus. The majority, including the Eastern Orthodox, allow an exception for John the Baptist as a prophet contemporary with Jesus.
New Testament passages that explicitly discuss prophets existing after the death and resurrection of Christ include Revelation 11: 10, Matthew 10: 40 -- 41 and 23: 34, John 13: 20 and 15: 20 and Acts 11: 25 -- 30, 13: 1 and 15: 32. Christians believe that the Holy Spirit leads people to faith in Jesus and gives them the ability to lead a Christian life and to give gifts (i.e. abilities) to Christians. These may include the charismatic gifts such as prophecy, tongues, miraculous healing ability, and clairsentience. Christians holding a view known as cessationism believe these gifts were given only in New Testament times and ceased after the last apostle died.
The Didache gives extensive instruction in how to distinguish between true and false prophets, as well as commands regarding tithes to prophets in the church. Irenaeus, wrote of 2nd - century believers with the gift of prophecy, while Justin Martyr argued in his Dialogue with Trypho that prophets were not found among the Jews in his time, but that the church had prophets. The Shepherd of Hermas describes revelation in a vision regarding the proper operation of prophecy in the church. Eusebius mentions that Quadratus and Ammia of Philadelphia were both prominent prophets following the age of the Twelve Apostles. Tertullian, writing of the church meetings of the Montanists (to whom he belonged), described in detail the practice of prophecy in the 2nd - century church.
A number of later Christian saints were claimed to have powers of prophecy, such as Columba of Iona, Saint Malachy or Padre Pio. Marian apparitions like those at Fatima or Kibeho often included prophecies regarding the future of the world as well as of the local areas they occurred in
Prophetic movements in particular can be traced throughout the Christian Church 's history, in expressions such as Montanism, Novatianism, Donatism, Franciscanism, Anabaptism, Camisard enthusiasm, Puritanism, Quakerism, Quietism, and Pietism. Modern Pentecostals and Charismatics, movements which together make up approximately half a billion people, believe in the contemporary function of the gift of prophecy, and some in these movements allow for idea that God may continue to gift the church with some individuals who are prophets.
Some Christians also believe that the title "prophet '' encompasses others than those who receive visions from God. A more modern definition of prophet is someone who spreads God 's truths. These can be revealed in a number of ways, not only visions.
Some Christian sects recognize the existence of a "modern - day '' prophet. One such denomination is The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints (LDS Church), which teaches that God still communicates with mankind through prophecy.
The Quran identifies a number of men as "Prophets of Islam '' (Arabic: nabiyy نبي ; pl. anbiyaa ' أنبياء). Muslims believe such individuals were assigned a special mission by God (Arabic: Allah) to guide humanity. Besides Muhammad, this includes prophets such as Ibrahim (Abraham), Musa (Moses) and Isa (Jesus).
Although only twenty - five prophets are mentioned by name in the Qur'an, a hadith (no. 21257 in Musnad Ibn Hanbal) mentions that there were (more or less) 124,000 prophets in total throughout history. Other traditions place the number of prophets at 224,000. Some scholars hold that there are an even greater number in the history of mankind, and only God knows. The Qur'an says that God has sent a prophet to every group of people throughout time, and that Muhammad is the last of the prophets, sent for the whole of humankind. The message of all the prophets is believed to be the same. In Islam, all prophetic messengers are prophets (such as Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad) though not all prophets are prophetic messengers. The primary distinction is that a prophet is required to demonstrate God 's law through his actions, character, and behavior without necessarily calling people to follow him, while a prophetic messenger is required to pronounce God 's law (i.e. revelation) and call his people to submit and follow him. Muhammad is distinguished from the rest of the prophetic messengers and prophets in that he was commissioned by God to be the prophetic messenger to all of mankind. Many of these prophets are also found in the texts of Judaism (The Torah, the Prophets, and the Writings; collectively known as the Old Testament to Christians) and Christianity.
While Islam shares the Jewish tradition that the first prophet is Adem (Adam), it differs in that the last prophet is Muhammad, who in Islam is called Seal of the prophets or Khatam an - Nabiyyin. Muslims often refer to Muhammad as the prophet, in the form of a noun. Isa (Jesus) is the result of a virgin birth in Islam as in Christianity, and is regarded as a prophet.
Traditionally, four prophets are believed to have been sent holy books: the Tawrat (Torah) to Moses, the Zabur (Psalms) to David, the Injil (Gospel) to Jesus, and the Qur'an to Muhammad; those prophets are considered "messengers '' or rasul (Ule al A'zm men al Rusul أولي العزم من الرسل). Other main prophets are considered messengers or Nabi, even if they did n't receive a Book from God. Examples include the messenger - prophet Aaron (Harun), the messenger - prophet Ishmael (Isma'il) and the messenger - prophet Yusuf (Joseph).
Although it offers many incidents from the lives of many prophets, the Qur'an focuses with special narrative and rhetorical emphasis on the careers of the first four of these five major prophets. Of all the figures before Muhammad, Moses is referred to most frequently in the Qur'an. As for the fifth, the Qur'an is frequently addressed directly to Muhammad, and it often discusses situations encountered by him. Direct use of his name in the text, however, is rare. Rarer still is the mention of Muhammad 's contemporaries.
The Bahá'í Faith refers to what are commonly called prophets as "Manifestations of God '' who are directly linked with the concept of Progressive revelation. Bahá'ís believe that God expresses this will at all times and in many ways, including through a series of divine messengers referred to as "Manifestations of God '' or "divine educators ''. In expressing God 's intent, these Manifestations are seen to establish religion in the world. Thus they are seen as an intermediary between God and humanity.
The Manifestations of God are not seen as incarnations of God, and are also not seen as ordinary mortals. Instead, the Bahá'í concept of the Manifestation of God emphasizes simultaneously the humanity of that intermediary and the divinity in the way they show forth the will, knowledge and attributes of God; thus they have both human and divine stations.
In addition to the Manifestations of God, there are also minor prophets. While the Manifestations of God, or major prophets, are compared to the Sun (which produces its own heat and light), minor prophets are compared to the Moon (which receives its light from the sun). Moses, for example, is taught as having been a Manifestation of God and his brother Aaron a minor prophet. Moses spoke on behalf of God, and Aaron spoke on behalf of Moses (Exodus 4: 14 - 17). Other Jewish prophets are considered minor prophets, as they are considered to have come in the shadow of the dispensation of Moses to develop and consolidate the process he set in motion.
In modern times the term "prophet '' can be somewhat controversial. Many Christians with Pentecostal or charismatic beliefs believe in the continuation of the gift of prophecy and the continuation of the role of prophet as taught in Ephesians 4. The content of prophecies can vary widely. Prophecies are often spoken as quotes from God. They may contain quotes from scripture, statements about the past or current situation, or predictions of the future. Prophecies can also ' make manifest the secrets ' of the hearts of other people, telling about the details of their lives. Sometimes, more than one person in a congregation will receive the same message in prophecy, with one giving it before another.
Other movements claim to have prophets. In France, Michel Potay says he received a revelation, called The Revelation of Arès, dictated by Jesus in 1974, then by God in 1977. He is considered a prophet by his followers, the Pilgrims of Arès.
A number of modern catholic saints have been claimed to have powers of prophecy, such as Padre Pio and Alexandrina Maria da Costa.
In addition to this many modern Marian apparitions included prophecies in them about the world and about the local areas. The Fátima apparition in 1917 included a prophecy given by Mary to three children, that on October 13, 1917 there would be a great miracle for all to see at Fátima, Portugal, and on that day tens of thousands of people headed to Fátima to see what would happen including newspaper journalists. Many witnesses, including journalists, claimed to see the sun "dance '' in the sky in the afternoon of that day, exactly as the visionaries had predicted several months before. The Kibeho apparition in Rwanda in the 1980s included many prophecies about great violence and destruction that was coming, and the Rwandan genocide only ten years later was interpreted by the visionaries as the fulfilment of these prophecies
Several miracles and a vision of the identity of the last 112 Popes were attributed to Saint Malachy, the Archbishop of Armagh (1095 -- 1148).
Jehovah 's Witnesses do not consider any single person in their modern - day organization to be a prophet. Their literature has referred to their organization collectively as God 's "prophet '' on earth; this is understood, however, in the sense of declaring their interpretation of God 's judgments from the Bible along with God 's guidance of His Holy Spirit. Their publishing company, Watch Tower, and official position magazine, The Watchtower, have asserted: "Ever since The Watchtower began to be published in July 1879 it has looked ahead into the future... No, The Watchtower is no inspired prophet, but it follows and explains a Book of prophecy the predictions in which have proved to be unerring and unfailing till now. The Watchtower is therefore under safe guidance. It may be read with confidence, for its statements may be checked against that prophetic Book. '' They also claim that they are God 's one and only true channel to mankind on earth, and used by God for this purpose.
They have made many eschatological forecasts, some of which have led people (including followers) to incorrect assumptions. One example is The Watchtower 's assertions that the end of the "Gentile times '' or "times of the nations '' would occur in 1914; even prominent Watch Tower representatives such as A.H. Macmillan incorrectly concluded and overstated their expectations. As a result, The Watchtower has acknowledged that Jehovah 's Witnesses "have made mistakes in their understanding of what would occur at the end of certain time periods. '' Concurrently with these exceptions, Jehovah 's Witnesses in their literature and assemblies have taught their leadership was personally chosen by Jesus Christ in 1919 (a prophetic year in Jehovah 's Witnesses eschatology) and that they are "God 's sole channel on earth, '' and "Jehovah 's spirit directed organization ''.
Joseph Smith, who established the Church of Christ in 1830, is considered a prophet by members of the Latter Day Saint movement, of which The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints (LDS Church) is the largest denomination. Additionally, many churches within the movement believe in a succession of modern prophets (accepted by Latter Day Saints as "prophets, seers, and revelators '') since the time of Joseph Smith. Thomas S. Monson is the current president and prophet of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints.
Baptist preacher William Miller is credited with beginning the mid-19th century North American religious movement now known as Adventism. He announced a Second Coming, resulting in the Great Disappointment.
The Seventh - day Adventist Church, established in 1863, believes Ellen G. White, one of the church 's founders, was given the spiritual gift of prophecy.
The Branch Davidians sect evolved from the Seventh - Day Adventists Church. David Koresh, who died in the well - known Waco Siege in 1993, in 1983 claimed to be their final prophet and "the Son of God, the Lamb ''.
The Ahmadiyya movement in Islam believes that Mirza Ghulam Ahmad was a non law - bearing Prophet, who claimed to be a fulfillment of the various Islamic prophecies regarding the spiritual second advent of Jesus of Nazareth near the end times.
Nathan of Gaza was a theologian and author who became famous as a prophet for the alleged messiah, Sabbatai Zevi.
The Hindu concept of rishis is similar to the concept of prophets. The Sanskrit word rishi is loosely translated into English as "seer '' (a prophet, a man who can foresee the future). Hinduism recognizes and reveres thousands of rishis, who can be thought of as the collective founders of the Hindu religion over many millennia. Of these, special importance is given to the Saptarshi (the Seven Sages), widely regarded as patriarchs of the Hindu religion, whose listing is different according to different texts. The Saptarshi and their clans are believed to have composed the hymns of the four Vedas by entering into communion with the Supreme Cosmic Spirit through meditation. For instance, Rigveda 1.1 is attributed to Rishi Madhucchandā Vaishwāmitra (i.e. Madhucchandā of the clan of Vishwamitra). Most rishikās were male, but some were female too. Lopamudra is the author of one hymn in the Rigveda, and Gargi Vachaknavi is described in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad as a highly respected woman in the field of Brahmajñāna. Apart from the Vedas, various rishis are also credited with composing the several Smriti texts, like Veda Vyasa who composed the Mahābhārata.
Main article: Traditional African religion, Ifá, Religion in Africa
Divination remains an important aspect of the lives of the people of contemporary Africa, especially amongst the usually rural, socially traditionalistic segments of its population. In arguably its most influential manifestation, the system of prophecy practiced by the Babalawos and Iyanifas of the historically Yoruba regions of West Africa have bequeathed to the world a corpus of fortune - telling poetic methodologies so intricate that they have been added by UNESCO to its official intangible cultural heritage of the World list.
Tenrikyo 's prophet, Nakayama Miki, is believed by Tenrikyoans to have been a messenger of God.
Native American Great Peacemaker (Deganawidah) co-founded the Haudenosaunee league in pre-Columbian times. In retrospect, his prophecy of the boy seer could appear to refer to the conflict between natives and Europeans (white serpent).
From 1805 until the Battle of Tippecanoe that falsified his predictions in 1811, the "Shawnee prophet '' Tenskwatawa lead an Indian alliance to stop Europeans to take more and more land going west. He reported visions he had. He is said to have accurately predicted a solar eclipse. His brother Tecumseh re-established the alliance for Tecumseh 's War, that ended with the latter 's death in 1813. Tecumseh fought together with British forces that, in the area of the Great Lakes, occupied essentially today 's territory of Canada.
20 years later (1832), Wabokieshiek, the "Winnebago Prophet '', after whom Prophetstown has been named, (also called "White Cloud '') claimed that British forces would support the Indians in the Black Hawk War against the United States as 20 years earlier (based on "visions ''). They did not, and no longer he was considered a "prophet ''.
In 1869, the Paiute Wodziwob founded the Ghost Dance movement. The dance rituals were an occasion to announce his visions of an earthquake that would swallow the whites. He seems to have died in 1872.
The Northern Paiute Wovoka claimed he had a vision during the solar eclipse of January 1, 1889, that the Paiute dead would come back and the whites would vanish from America, provided the natives performed Ghost Dances. This idea spread among other Native American peoples. The government were worried about a rebellion and sent troops, which lead to the death of Sitting Bull and to the Wounded Knee massacre in 1890.
Other people throughout history have been described as prophets in the sense of foretelling the future (as opposed to relaying a religious message). Examples of such prophets include:
In the late 20th century the appellation of prophet has been used to refer to individuals particularly successful at analysis in the field of economics, such as in the derogatory prophet of greed. Alternatively, social commentators who suggest escalating crisis are often called prophets of doom.
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the planning process of predicting what will happen in the future is called | Scenario planning - wikipedia
Scenario planning, also called scenario thinking or scenario analysis, is a strategic planning method that some organizations use to make flexible long - term plans. It is in large part an adaptation and generalization of classic methods used by military intelligence.
The original method was that a group of analysts would generate simulation games for policy makers. The games combine known facts about the future, such as demographics, geography, military, political, industrial information, and mineral reserves, with key driving forces identified by considering social, technical, economic, environmental, and political (STEEP) trends.
In business applications, the emphasis on gaming the behavior of opponents was reduced (shifting more toward a game against nature). At Royal Dutch / Shell for example, scenario planning was viewed as changing mindsets about the exogenous part of the world, prior to formulating specific strategies.
Scenario planning may involve aspects of systems thinking, specifically the recognition that many factors may combine in complex ways to create sometime surprising futures (due to non-linear feedback loops). The method also allows the inclusion of factors that are difficult to formalize, such as novel insights about the future, deep shifts in values, unprecedented regulations or inventions. Systems thinking used in conjunction with scenario planning leads to plausible scenario storylines because the causal relationship between factors can be demonstrated. In these cases when scenario planning is integrated with a systems thinking approach to scenario development, it is sometimes referred to as dynamic scenarios.
These combinations and permutations of fact and related social changes are called "scenarios ''. The scenarios usually include plausible, but unexpectedly important situations and problems that exist in some small form in the present day. Any particular scenario is unlikely. However, future studies analysts select scenario features so they are both possible and uncomfortable. Scenario planning help policy - makers and firms to anticipate change, prepare a response and create more robust strategies.
Scenarios help a firm to anticipate the impact of different scenarios identify weaknesses. When disclosed years in advance, these weaknesses can be avoided or their impacts reduced more effectively than if similar real - life problems were considered under duress of an emergency. For example, a company may discover that it needs to change contractual terms to protect against a new class of risks, or collect cash reserves to purchase anticipated technologies or equipment. Flexible business continuity plans with "PREsponse protocols '' help cope with similar operational problems and deliver measurable future value - added.
Strategic military intelligence organizations also construct scenarios. The methods and organizations are almost identical, except that scenario planning is applied to a wider variety of problems than merely military and political problems.
As in military intelligence, the chief challenge of scenario planning is to find out the real needs of policy - makers, when policy - makers may not themselves know what they need to know, or may not know how to describe the information that they really want.
Good analysts design wargames so that policy makers have great flexibility and freedom to adapt their simulated organisations. Then these simulated organizations are "stressed '' by the scenarios as a game plays out. Usually, particular groups of facts become more clearly important. These insights enable intelligence organizations to refine and repackage real information more precisely to better serve the policy - makers ' real - life needs. Usually the games ' simulated time runs hundreds of times faster than real life, so policy - makers experience several years of policy decisions, and their simulated effects, in less than a day.
This chief value of scenario planning is that it allows policy - makers to make and learn from mistakes without risking career - limiting failures in real life. Further, policymakers can make these mistakes in a safe, unthreatening, game - like environment, while responding to a wide variety of concretely presented situations based on facts. This is an opportunity to "rehearse the future '', an opportunity that does not present itself in day - to - day operations where every action and decision counts.
Scenario planning is also extremely popular with military planners. Most states ' department of war maintains a continuously updated series of strategic plans to cope with well - known military or strategic problems. These plans are almost always based on scenarios, and often the plans and scenarios are kept up - to - date by war games, sometimes played out with real troops. This process was first carried out (arguably the method was invented by) the Prussian general staff of the mid-19th century.
In the past, strategic plans have often considered only the "official future '', which was usually a straight - line graph of current trends carried into the future. Often the trend lines were generated by the accounting department, and lacked discussions of demographics, or qualitative differences in social conditions.
These simplistic guesses are surprisingly good most of the time, but fail to consider qualitative social changes that can affect a business or government. Scenarios focus on the joint effect of many factors. Scenario planning helps us understand how the various strands of a complex tapestry move if one or more threads are pulled. When you just list possible causes, as for instance in fault tree analysis, you may tend to discount any one factor in isolation. But when you explore the factors together, you realize that certain combinations could magnify each other 's impact or likelihood. For instance, an increased trade deficit may trigger an economic recession, which in turn creates unemployment and reduces domestic production. Paul J.H. Schoemaker offers a strong managerial case for the use of scenario planning in business and had wide impact.
Scenarios planning starts by dividing our knowledge into two broad domains: (1) things we believe we know something about and (2) elements we consider uncertain or unknowable. The first component -- trends -- casts the past forward, recognizing that our world possesses considerable momentum and continuity. For example, we can safely make assumptions about demographic shifts and, perhaps, substitution effects for certain new technologies. The second component -- true uncertainties -- involve indeterminables such as future interest rates, outcomes of political elections, rates of innovation, fads and fashions in markets, and so on. The art of scenario planning lies in blending the known and the unknown into a limited number of internally consistent views of the future that span a very wide range of possibilities. In project management, this is called the cone of uncertainty.
Numerous organizations have applied scenario planning to a broad range of issues, from relatively simple, tactical decisions to the complex process of strategic planning and vision building. The power of scenario planning for business was originally established by Royal Dutch / Shell, which has used scenarios since the early 1970s as part of a process for generating and evaluating its strategic options. Shell has been consistently better in its oil forecasts than other major oil companies, and saw the overcapacity in the tanker business and Europe 's petrochemicals earlier than its competitors. But ironically, the approach may have had more impact outside Shell than within, as many others firms and consultancies started to benefit as well from scenario planning. Scenario planning is as much art as science, and prone to a variety of traps (both in process and content) as enumerated by Paul J.H. Schoemaker. More recently scenario planning has been discussed as a tool to improve the strategic agility, by cognitively preparing not only multiple scenarios but also multiple consistent strategies.
Most authors attribute the introduction of scenario planning to Herman Kahn through his work for the US Military in the 1950s at the RAND Corporation where he developed a technique of describing the future in stories as if written by people in the future. He adopted the term "scenarios '' to describe these stories. In 1961 he founded the Hudson Institute where he expanded his scenario work to social forecasting and public policy. One of his most controversial uses of scenarios was to suggest that a nuclear war could be won. Though Kahn is often cited as the father of scenario planning, at the same time Kahn was developing his methods at RAND, Gaston Berger was developing similar methods at the Centre d'Etudes Prospectives which he founded in France. His method, which he named ' La Prospective ', was to develop normative scenarios of the future which were to be used as a guide in formulating public policy. During the mid-1960s various authors from the French and American institutions began to publish scenario planning concepts such as ' La Prospective ' by Berger in 1964 and ' The Next Thirty - Three Years ' by Kahn and Wiener in 1967. By the 1970s scenario planning was in full swing with a number of institutions now established to provide support to business including the Hudson Foundation, the Stanford Research Institute (now SRI International), and the SEMA Metra Consulting Group in France. Several large companies also began to embrace scenario planning including DHL Express, Dutch Royal Shell and General Electric.
Possibly as a result of these very sophisticated approaches, and of the difficult techniques they employed (which usually demanded the resources of a central planning staff), scenarios earned a reputation for difficulty (and cost) in use. Even so, the theoretical importance of the use of alternative scenarios, to help address the uncertainty implicit in long - range forecasts, was dramatically underlined by the widespread confusion which followed the Oil Shock of 1973. As a result, many of the larger organizations started to use the technique in one form or another. By 1983 Diffenbach reported that ' alternate scenarios ' were the third most popular technique for long - range forecasting -- used by 68 % of the large organizations he surveyed.
Practical development of scenario forecasting, to guide strategy rather than for the more limited academic uses which had previously been the case, was started by Pierre Wack in 1971 at the Royal Dutch Shell group of companies -- and it, too, was given impetus by the Oil Shock two years later. Shell has, since that time, led the commercial world in the use of scenarios -- and in the development of more practical techniques to support these. Indeed, as -- in common with most forms of long - range forecasting -- the use of scenarios has (during the depressed trading conditions of the last decade) reduced to only a handful of private - sector organisations, Shell remains almost alone amongst them in keeping the technique at the forefront of forecasting.
There has only been anecdotal evidence offered in support of the value of scenarios, even as aids to forecasting; and most of this has come from one company -- Shell. In addition, with so few organisations making consistent use of them -- and with the timescales involved reaching into decades -- it is unlikely that any definitive supporting evidenced will be forthcoming in the foreseeable future. For the same reasons, though, a lack of such proof applies to almost all long - range planning techniques. In the absence of proof, but taking account of Shell 's well documented experiences of using it over several decades (where, in the 1990s, its then CEO ascribed its success to its use of such scenarios), can be significant benefit to be obtained from extending the horizons of managers ' long - range forecasting in the way that the use of scenarios uniquely does.
In the 1970s, many energy companies were surprised by both environmentalism and the OPEC cartel, and thereby lost billions of dollars of revenue by mis - investment. The dramatic financial effects of these changes led at least one organization, Royal Dutch Shell, to implement scenario planning. The analysts of this company publicly estimated that this planning process made their company the largest in the world. However other observers of Shell 's use of scenario planning have suggested that few if any significant long term business advantages accrued to Shell from the use of scenario methodology. Whilst the intellectual robustness of Shell 's long term scenarios was seldom in doubt their actual practical use was seen as being minimal by many senior Shell executives. A Shell insider has commented "The scenario team were bright and their work was of a very high intellectual level. However neither the high level "Group scenarios '' nor the country level scenarios produced with operating companies really made much difference when key decisions were being taken ".
The use of scenarios was audited by Arie de Geus 's team in the early 1980s and they found that the decision - making processes following the scenarios were the primary cause of the lack of strategic implementation), rather than the scenarios themselves. Many practitioners today spend as much time on the decision - making process as on creating the scenarios themselves.
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Although scenario planning has gained much adherence in industry, its subjective and heuristic nature leaves many academics uncomfortable. How do we know if we have the right scenarios? And how do we go from scenarios to decisions? These concerns are legitimate and scenario planning would gain in academic standing if more research were conducted on its comparative performance and underlying theoretical premises. A collection of chapters by noted scenario planners failed to contain a single reference to an academic source, though this may be because academics have not caught up or do not have the resources to either do or teach scenario planning. In general, there are few academically validated analyses of scenario planning (for a notable exception, see Paul J.H. Schoemaker). The technique was born from practice and its appeal is based more on experience than scientific evidence. Furthermore, significant misconceptions remain about its intent and claims. Above all, scenario planning is a tool for collective learning, reframing perceptions and preserving uncertainty when the latter is pervasive. Too many decision makers want to bet on one future scenario, falling prey to the seductive temptation of trying to predict the future rather than to entertain multiple futures. Another trap is to take the scenarios too literally as though they were static beacons that map out a fixed future. In actuality, their aim is to bound the future but in a flexible way that permits learning and adjustment as the future unfolds.
One criticism of the two - by - two technique commonly used is that the resulting matrix results in four somewhat arbitrary scenario themes. If other key uncertainties had been selected, it might be argued, very different scenarios could emerge. How true this is depends on whether the matrix is viewed as just a starting point to be superseded by the ensuing blueprint or is considered as the grand architecture that nests everything else. In either case, however, the issue should not be which are the "right '' scenarios but rather whether they delineate the range of possible future appropriately. Any tool that tries to simplify a complex picture will introduce distortions, whether it is a geographic map or a set of scenarios. Seldom will complexity decompose naturally into simple states. But it might. Consider, for example, the behavior of water (the molecule H O) which, depending on temperature and pressure, naturally exists in just one of three states: gas, liquid or ice. The art of scenarios is to look for such natural states or points of bifurcation in the behavior of a complex system.
Apart from some inherent subjectivity in scenario design, the technique can suffer from various process and content traps. These traps mostly relate to how the process is conducted in organizations (such as team composition, role of facilitators, etc.) as well as the substantive focus of the scenarios (long vs. short term, global vs. regional, incremental vs. paradigm shifting, etc.). One might think of these as merely challenges of implementation, but since the process component is integral to the scenario experience, they can also be viewed as weaknesses of the methodology itself. Limited safeguards exist against political derailing, agenda control, myopia and limited imagination when conducting scenario planning exercises within real organizations. But, to varying extents, all forecasting techniques will suffer from such organizational limitations. The benchmark to use is not perfection, especially when faced with high uncertainty and complexity, or even strict adherence to such normative precepts as procedural invariance and logical consistency, but whether the technique performs better than its rivals. And to answer this question fairly, performance must be carefully specified. It should clearly include some measures of accuracy as well as a cost - benefit analysis that considers the tradeoff between effort and accuracy. In addition, legitimation criteria may be important to consider as well as the ability to refine and improve the approach as more experience is gained.
A third limitation of scenario planning in organizational settings is its weak integration into other planning and forecasting techniques. Most companies have plenty of trouble dealing with just one future, let alone multiple ones. Typically, budgeting and planning systems are predicated on single views of the future, with adjustments made as necessary through variance analysis, contingency planning, rolling budgets, and periodic renegotiations. The weaknesses of these traditional approaches were very evident after the tragic attack of September 11, 2001 when many companies became paralyzed and quite a few just threw away the plan and budget. Their strategies were not future - proof and they lacked organized mechanisms to adjust to external turmoil. In cases of crisis, leadership becomes important but so does some degree of preparedness. Once the scenarios are finished, the real works starts of how to craft flexible strategies and appropriate monitoring systems. Managers need a simple but comprehensive compass to navigate uncertainty from beginning to end. Scenario planning is just one component of a more complete management system. The point is that scenario thinking needs to be integrated with the existing planning and budgeting system, as awkward as this fit may be. The reality is that most organizations do not handle uncertainty well and that researchers have not provided adequate answers about how to plan under conditions of high uncertainty and complexity.
The basic concepts of the process are relatively simple. In terms of the overall approach to forecasting, they can be divided into three main groups of activities (which are, generally speaking, common to all long range forecasting processes):
The first of these groups quite simply comprises the normal environmental analysis. This is almost exactly the same as that which should be undertaken as the first stage of any serious long - range planning. However, the quality of this analysis is especially important in the context of scenario planning.
The central part represents the specific techniques -- covered here -- which differentiate the scenario forecasting process from the others in long - range planning.
The final group represents all the subsequent processes which go towards producing the corporate strategy and plans. Again, the requirements are slightly different but in general they follow all the rules of sound long - range planning.
The part of the overall process which is radically different from most other forms of long - range planning is the central section, the actual production of the scenarios. Even this, though, is relatively simple, at its most basic level. As derived from the approach most commonly used by Shell, it follows six steps:
The first stage is to examine the results of environmental analysis to determine which are the most important factors that will decide the nature of the future environment within which the organisation operates. These factors are sometimes called ' variables ' (because they will vary over the time being investigated, though the terminology may confuse scientists who use it in a more rigorous manner). Users tend to prefer the term ' drivers ' (for change), since this terminology is not laden with quasi-scientific connotations and reinforces the participant 's commitment to search for those forces which will act to change the future. Whatever the nomenclature, the main requirement is that these will be informed assumptions.
This is partly a process of analysis, needed to recognise what these ' forces ' might be. However, it is likely that some work on this element will already have taken place during the preceding environmental analysis. By the time the formal scenario planning stage has been reached, the participants may have already decided -- probably in their sub-conscious rather than formally -- what the main forces are.
In the ideal approach, the first stage should be to carefully decide the overall assumptions on which the scenarios will be based. Only then, as a second stage, should the various drivers be specifically defined. Participants, though, seem to have problems in separating these stages.
Perhaps the most difficult aspect though, is freeing the participants from the preconceptions they take into the process with them. In particular, most participants will want to look at the medium term, five to ten years ahead rather than the required longer - term, ten or more years ahead. However, a time horizon of anything less than ten years often leads participants to extrapolate from present trends, rather than consider the alternatives which might face them. When, however, they are asked to consider timescales in excess of ten years they almost all seem to accept the logic of the scenario planning process, and no longer fall back on that of extrapolation. There is a similar problem with expanding participants horizons to include the whole external environment.
Brainstorming
In any case, the brainstorming which should then take place, to ensure that the list is complete, may unearth more variables -- and, in particular, the combination of factors may suggest yet others.
A very simple technique which is especially useful at this -- brainstorming -- stage, and in general for handling scenario planning debates is derived from use in Shell where this type of approach is often used. An especially easy approach, it only requires a conference room with a bare wall and copious supplies of 3M Post-It Notes.
The six to ten people ideally taking part in such face - to - face debates should be in a conference room environment which is isolated from outside interruptions. The only special requirement is that the conference room has at least one clear wall on which Post-It notes will stick. At the start of the meeting itself, any topics which have already been identified during the environmental analysis stage are written (preferably with a thick magic marker, so they can be read from a distance) on separate Post-It Notes. These Post-It Notes are then, at least in theory, randomly placed on the wall. In practice, even at this early stage the participants will want to cluster them in groups which seem to make sense. The only requirement (which is why Post-It Notes are ideal for this approach) is that there is no bar to taking them off again and moving them to a new cluster.
A similar technique -- using 5 '' by 3 '' index cards -- has also been described (as the ' Snowball Technique '), by Backoff and Nutt, for grouping and evaluating ideas in general.
As in any form of brainstorming, the initial ideas almost invariably stimulate others. Indeed, everyone should be encouraged to add their own Post-It Notes to those on the wall. However it differs from the ' rigorous ' form described in ' creative thinking ' texts, in that it is much slower paced and the ideas are discussed immediately. In practice, as many ideas may be removed, as not being relevant, as are added. Even so, it follows many of the same rules as normal brainstorming and typically lasts the same length of time -- say, an hour or so only.
It is important that all the participants feel they ' own ' the wall -- and are encouraged to move the notes around themselves. The result is a very powerful form of creative decision - making for groups, which is applicable to a wide range of situations (but is especially powerful in the context of scenario planning). It also offers a very good introduction for those who are coming to the scenario process for the first time. Since the workings are largely self - evident, participants very quickly come to understand exactly what is involved.
Important and uncertain
This step is, though, also one of selection -- since only the most important factors will justify a place in the scenarios. The 80: 20 Rule here means that, at the end of the process, management 's attention must be focused on a limited number of most important issues. Experience has proved that offering a wider range of topics merely allows them to select those few which interest them, and not necessarily those which are most important to the organisation.
In addition, as scenarios are a technique for presenting alternative futures, the factors to be included must be genuinely ' variable '. They should be subject to significant alternative outcomes. Factors whose outcome is predictable, but important, should be spelled out in the introduction to the scenarios (since they can not be ignored). The Important Uncertainties Matrix, as reported by Kees van der Heijden of Shell, is a useful check at this stage.
At this point it is also worth pointing out that a great virtue of scenarios is that they can accommodate the input from any other form of forecasting. They may use figures, diagrams or words in any combination. No other form of forecasting offers this flexibility.
The next step is to link these drivers together to provide a meaningful framework. This may be obvious, where some of the factors are clearly related to each other in one way or another. For instance, a technological factor may lead to market changes, but may be constrained by legislative factors. On the other hand, some of the ' links ' (or at least the ' groupings ') may need to be artificial at this stage. At a later stage more meaningful links may be found, or the factors may then be rejected from the scenarios. In the most theoretical approaches to the subject, probabilities are attached to the event strings. This is difficult to achieve, however, and generally adds little -- except complexity -- to the outcomes.
This is probably the most (conceptually) difficult step. It is where managers ' ' intuition ' -- their ability to make sense of complex patterns of ' soft ' data which more rigorous analysis would be unable to handle -- plays an important role. There are, however, a range of techniques which can help; and again the Post-It - Notes approach is especially useful:
Thus, the participants try to arrange the drivers, which have emerged from the first stage, into groups which seem to make sense to them. Initially there may be many small groups. The intention should, therefore, be to gradually merge these (often having to reform them from new combinations of drivers to make these bigger groups work). The aim of this stage is eventually to make 6 -- 8 larger groupings; ' mini-scenarios '. Here the Post-It Notes may be moved dozens of times over the length -- perhaps several hours or more -- of each meeting. While this process is taking place the participants will probably want to add new topics -- so more Post-It Notes are added to the wall. In the opposite direction, the unimportant ones are removed (possibly to be grouped, again as an ' audit trail ' on another wall). More important, the ' certain ' topics are also removed from the main area of debate -- in this case they must be grouped in clearly labelled area of the main wall.
As the clusters -- the ' mini-scenarios ' -- emerge, the associated notes may be stuck to each other rather than individually to the wall; which makes it easier to move the clusters around (and is a considerable help during the final, demanding stage to reducing the scenarios to two or three).
The great benefit of using Post-It Notes is that there is no bar to participants changing their minds. If they want to rearrange the groups -- or simply to go back (iterate) to an earlier stage -- then they strip them off and put them in their new position.
The outcome of the previous step is usually between seven and nine logical groupings of drivers. This is usually easy to achieve. The ' natural ' reason for this may be that it represents some form of limit as to what participants can visualise.
Having placed the factors in these groups, the next action is to work out, very approximately at this stage, what is the connection between them. What does each group of factors represent?
The main action, at this next stage, is to reduce the seven to nine mini-scenarios / groupings detected at the previous stage to two or three larger scenarios. The challenge in practice seems to come down to finding just two or three ' containers ' into which all the topics can be sensibly fitted. This usually requires a considerable amount of debate -- but in the process it typically generates as much light as it does heat. Indeed, the demanding process of developing these basic scenario frameworks often, by itself, produces fundamental insights into what are the really important (perhaps life and death) issues affecting the organisation. During this extended debate -- and even before it is summarised in the final reports -- the participants come to understand, by their own involvement in the debate, what the most important drivers for change may be, and (perhaps even more important) what their peers think they are. Based on this intimate understanding, they are well prepared to cope with such changes -- reacting almost instinctively -- when they actually do happen; even without recourse to the formal reports which are eventually produced!
There is no theoretical reason for reducing to just two or three scenarios, only a practical one. It has been found that the managers who will be asked to use the final scenarios can only cope effectively with a maximum of three versions! Shell started, more than three decades ago, by building half a dozen or more scenarios -- but found that the outcome was that their managers selected just one of these to concentrate on. As a result, the planners reduced the number to three, which managers could handle easily but could no longer so easily justify the selection of only one! This is the number now recommended most frequently in most of the literature.
Complementary scenarios
As used by Shell, and as favoured by a number of the academics, two scenarios should be complementary; the reason being that this helps avoid managers ' choosing ' just one, ' preferred ', scenario -- and lapsing once more into single - track forecasting (negating the benefits of using ' alternative ' scenarios to allow for alternative, uncertain futures). This is, however, a potentially difficult concept to grasp, where managers are used to looking for opposites; a good and a bad scenario, say, or an optimistic one versus a pessimistic one -- and indeed this is the approach (for small businesses) advocated by Foster. In the Shell approach, the two scenarios are required to be equally likely, and between them to cover all the ' event strings ' / drivers. Ideally they should not be obvious opposites, which might once again bias their acceptance by users, so the choice of ' neutral ' titles is important. For example, Shell 's two scenarios at the beginning of the 1990s were titled ' Sustainable World ' and ' Global Mercantilism ' (xv). In practice, we found that this requirement, much to our surprise, posed few problems for the great majority, 85 %, of those in the survey; who easily produced ' balanced ' scenarios. The remaining 15 % mainly fell into the expected trap of ' good versus bad '. We have found that our own relatively complex (OBS) scenarios can also be made complementary to each other; without any great effort needed from the teams involved; and the resulting two scenarios are both developed further by all involved, without unnecessary focusing on one or the other.
Testing
Having grouped the factors into these two scenarios, the next step is to test them, again, for viability. Do they make sense to the participants? This may be in terms of logical analysis, but it may also be in terms of intuitive ' gut - feel '. Once more, intuition often may offer a useful -- if academically less respectable -- vehicle for reacting to the complex and ill - defined issues typically involved. If the scenarios do not intuitively ' hang together ', why not? The usual problem is that one or more of the assumptions turns out to be unrealistic in terms of how the participants see their world. If this is the case then you need to return to the first step -- the whole scenario planning process is above all an iterative one (returning to its beginnings a number of times until the final outcome makes the best sense).
The scenarios are then ' written up ' in the most suitable form. The flexibility of this step often confuses participants, for they are used to forecasting processes which have a fixed format. The rule, though, is that you should produce the scenarios in the form most suitable for use by the managers who are going to base their strategy on them. Less obviously, the managers who are going to implement this strategy should also be taken into account. They will also be exposed to the scenarios, and will need to believe in these. This is essentially a ' marketing ' decision, since it will be very necessary to ' sell ' the final results to the users. On the other hand, a not inconsiderable consideration may be to use the form the author also finds most comfortable. If the form is alien to him or her the chances are that the resulting scenarios will carry little conviction when it comes to the ' sale '.
Most scenarios will, perhaps, be written in word form (almost as a series of alternative essays about the future); especially where they will almost inevitably be qualitative which is hardly surprising where managers, and their audience, will probably use this in their day to day communications. Some, though use an expanded series of lists and some enliven their reports by adding some fictional ' character ' to the material -- perhaps taking literally the idea that they are stories about the future -- though they are still clearly intended to be factual. On the other hand, they may include numeric data and / or diagrams -- as those of Shell do (and in the process gain by the acid test of more measurable ' predictions ').
The final stage of the process is to examine these scenarios to determine what are the most critical outcomes; the ' branching points ' relating to the ' issues ' which will have the greatest impact (potentially generating ' crises ') on the future of the organisation. The subsequent strategy will have to address these -- since the normal approach to strategy deriving from scenarios is one which aims to minimise risk by being ' robust ' (that is it will safely cope with all the alternative outcomes of these ' life and death ' issues) rather than aiming for performance (profit) maximisation by gambling on one outcome.
It is important to note that scenarios may be used in a number of ways:
a) Containers for the drivers / event strings
Most basically, they are a logical device, an artificial framework, for presenting the individual factors / topics (or coherent groups of these) so that these are made easily available for managers ' use -- as useful ideas about future developments in their own right -- without reference to the rest of the scenario. It should be stressed that no factors should be dropped, or even given lower priority, as a result of producing the scenarios. In this context, which scenario contains which topic (driver), or issue about the future, is irrelevant.
b) Tests for consistency
At every stage it is necessary to iterate, to check that the contents are viable and make any necessary changes to ensure that they are; here the main test is to see if the scenarios seem to be internally consistent -- if they are not then the writer must loop back to earlier stages to correct the problem. Though it has been mentioned previously, it is important to stress once again that scenario building is ideally an iterative process. It usually does not just happen in one meeting -- though even one attempt is better than none -- but takes place over a number of meetings as the participants gradually refine their ideas.
c) Positive perspectives
Perhaps the main benefit deriving from scenarios, however, comes from the alternative ' flavors ' of the future their different perspectives offer. It is a common experience, when the scenarios finally emerge, for the participants to be startled by the insight they offer -- as to what the general shape of the future might be -- at this stage it no longer is a theoretical exercise but becomes a genuine framework (or rather set of alternative frameworks) for dealing with that.
Scenario planning differs from contingency planning, sensitivity analysis and computer simulations.
Contingency planning is a "What if '' tool, that only takes into account one uncertainty. However, scenario planning considers combinations of uncertainties in each scenario. Planners also try to select especially plausible but uncomfortable combinations of social developments.
Sensitivity analysis analyzes changes in one variable only, which is useful for simple changes, while scenario planning tries to expose policy makers to significant interactions of major variables.
While scenario planning can benefit from computer simulations, scenario planning is less formalized, and can be used to make plans for qualitative patterns that show up in a wide variety of simulated events.
During the past 5 years, computer supported Morphological Analysis has been employed as aid in scenario development by the Swedish Defence Research Agency in Stockholm. This method makes it possible to create a multi-variable morphological field which can be treated as an inference model -- thus integrating scenario planning techniques with contingency analysis and sensitivity analysis.
Scenario planning concerns planning based on the systematic examination of the future by picturing plausible and consistent images thereof. Delphi, in turn, attempts to develop systematically expert opinion consensus concerning future developments and events. It is a judgmental forecasting procedure in form of an anonymous, written, multi-stage survey process, where feedback of group opinion is provided after each round.
Numerous researchers have stressed that both approaches are best suited to be combined. Kinkel et al. (2006) recently reported on their experiences with both Delphi - scenarios and scenario - Delphis. The authors found that, due to their process similarity, the two methodologies can be easily combined. Generally speaking, the output of the different phases of the Delphi method can be used as input for the scenario method and vice versa. A combination makes a realization of the benefits of both tools possible. In practice, usually one of the two tools is considered the dominant methodology and the other one is integrated at some stage. In fact, the authors found that in either case the combination of the methodologies adds significant value to futures projects.
The variant that is most often found in practice is the integration of the Delphi method into the scenario process (see e.g. Rikkonen, 2005; von der Gracht, 2007; Transportation & Logistics 2030 -- How will supply chains evolve in an energy constrained and low - carbon world; Transportation & Logistics 2030 -- Transport infrastructure -- Engine or hand brakes for global supply chains?; Future of Logistics -- Global Scenarios 2025). Authors refer to this type as Delphi - scenario (writing), expert - based scenarios, or Delphi panel derived scenarios. Von der Gracht (2010) is a scientifically valid example of this method. Since scenario planning is "information hungry '', Delphi research can deliver valuable input for the process. There are various types of information output of Delphi that can be used as input for scenario planning. Researchers can, for example, identify relevant events or developments and, based on expert opinion, assign probabilities to them. Moreover, expert comments and arguments provide deeper insights into relationships of factors that can, in turn, be integrated into scenarios afterwards. Also, Delphi helps to identify extreme opinions and dissent among the experts. Such controversial topics are particularly suited for extreme scenarios or wildcards.
In his doctoral thesis, Rikkonen (2005) examined the utilization of Delphi techniques in scenario planning and, concretely, in construction of scenarios. The author comes to the conclusion that the Delphi technique has instrumental value in providing different alternative futures and the argumentation of scenarios. It is therefore recommended to use Delphi in order to make the scenarios more profound and to create confidence in scenario planning. Further benefits lie in the simplification of the scenario writing process and the deep understanding of the interrelations between the forecast items and social factors.
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where can helium be found in the world | Helium - wikipedia
Helium (from Greek: ἥλιος, translit. Helios, lit. ' Sun ') is a chemical element with symbol He and atomic number 2. It is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, inert, monatomic gas, the first in the noble gas group in the periodic table. Its boiling point is the lowest among all the elements.
After hydrogen, helium is the second lightest and second most abundant element in the observable universe, being present at about 24 % of the total elemental mass, which is more than 12 times the mass of all the heavier elements combined. Its abundance is similar to this figure in the Sun and in Jupiter. This is due to the very high nuclear binding energy (per nucleon) of helium - 4 with respect to the next three elements after helium. This helium - 4 binding energy also accounts for why it is a product of both nuclear fusion and radioactive decay. Most helium in the universe is helium - 4, the vast majority of which was formed during the Big Bang. Large amounts of new helium are being created by nuclear fusion of hydrogen in stars.
Helium is named for the Greek Titan of the Sun, Helios. It was first detected as an unknown yellow spectral line signature in sunlight during a solar eclipse in 1868 by Georges Rayet, Captain C.T. Haig, Norman R. Pogson, and Lieutenant John Herschel, and was subsequently confirmed by French astronomer Jules Janssen. Janssen is often jointly credited with detecting the element along with Norman Lockyer. Janssen recorded the helium spectral line during the solar eclipse of 1868 while Lockyer observed it from Britain. Lockyer was the first to propose that the line was due to a new element, which he named. The formal discovery of the element was made in 1895 by two Swedish chemists, Per Teodor Cleve and Nils Abraham Langlet, who found helium emanating from the uranium ore cleveite. In 1903, large reserves of helium were found in natural gas fields in parts of the United States, which is by far the largest supplier of the gas today.
Liquid helium is used in cryogenics (its largest single use, absorbing about a quarter of production), particularly in the cooling of superconducting magnets, with the main commercial application being in MRI scanners. Helium 's other industrial uses -- as a pressurizing and purge gas, as a protective atmosphere for arc welding and in processes such as growing crystals to make silicon wafers -- account for half of the gas produced. A well - known but minor use is as a lifting gas in balloons and airships. As with any gas whose density differs from that of air, inhaling a small volume of helium temporarily changes the timbre and quality of the human voice. In scientific research, the behavior of the two fluid phases of helium - 4 (helium I and helium II) is important to researchers studying quantum mechanics (in particular the property of superfluidity) and to those looking at the phenomena, such as superconductivity, produced in matter near absolute zero.
On Earth it is relatively rare -- 5.2 ppm by volume in the atmosphere. Most terrestrial helium present today is created by the natural radioactive decay of heavy radioactive elements (thorium and uranium, although there are other examples), as the alpha particles emitted by such decays consist of helium - 4 nuclei. This radiogenic helium is trapped with natural gas in concentrations as great as 7 % by volume, from which it is extracted commercially by a low - temperature separation process called fractional distillation. Previously, terrestrial helium -- a non-renewable resource, because once released into the atmosphere it readily escapes into space -- was thought to be in increasingly short supply. However, recent studies suggest that helium produced deep in the earth by radioactive decay can collect in natural gas reserves in larger than expected quantities, in some cases having been released by volcanic activity.
The first evidence of helium was observed on August 18, 1868, as a bright yellow line with a wavelength of 587.49 nanometers in the spectrum of the chromosphere of the Sun. The line was detected by French astronomer Jules Janssen during a total solar eclipse in Guntur, India. This line was initially assumed to be sodium. On October 20 of the same year, English astronomer Norman Lockyer observed a yellow line in the solar spectrum, which he named the D because it was near the known D and D Fraunhofer line lines of sodium. He concluded that it was caused by an element in the Sun unknown on Earth. Lockyer and English chemist Edward Frankland named the element with the Greek word for the Sun, ἥλιος (helios).
In 1881, Italian physicist Luigi Palmieri detected helium on Earth for the first time through its D spectral line, when he analyzed a material that had been sublimated during a recent eruption of Mount Vesuvius.
On March 26, 1895, Scottish chemist Sir William Ramsay isolated helium on Earth by treating the mineral cleveite (a variety of uraninite with at least 10 % rare earth elements) with mineral acids. Ramsay was looking for argon but, after separating nitrogen and oxygen from the gas liberated by sulfuric acid, he noticed a bright yellow line that matched the D line observed in the spectrum of the Sun. These samples were identified as helium by Lockyer and British physicist William Crookes. It was independently isolated from cleveite in the same year by chemists Per Teodor Cleve and Abraham Langlet in Uppsala, Sweden, who collected enough of the gas to accurately determine its atomic weight. Helium was also isolated by the American geochemist William Francis Hillebrand prior to Ramsay 's discovery when he noticed unusual spectral lines while testing a sample of the mineral uraninite. Hillebrand, however, attributed the lines to nitrogen. His letter of congratulations to Ramsay offers an interesting case of discovery and near - discovery in science.
In 1907, Ernest Rutherford and Thomas Royds demonstrated that alpha particles are helium nuclei by allowing the particles to penetrate the thin glass wall of an evacuated tube, then creating a discharge in the tube to study the spectrum of the new gas inside. In 1908, helium was first liquefied by Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes by cooling the gas to less than one kelvin. He tried to solidify it by further reducing the temperature but failed because helium does not solidify at atmospheric pressure. Onnes ' student Willem Hendrik Keesom was eventually able to solidify 1 cm of helium in 1926 by applying additional external pressure.
In 1913, Niels Bohr published his "trilogy '' on atomic structure that included a reconsideration of the Pickering -- Fowler series as central evidence in support of his model of the atom. This series is named for Edward Charles Pickering, who in 1896 published observations of previously unknown lines in the spectrum of the star ζ Puppis (these are now known to occur with Wolf -- Rayet and other hot stars). Pickering attributed the observation (lines at 4551, 5411, and 10123 Å) to a new form of hydrogen with half - integer transition levels. In 1912, Alfred Fowler managed to produce similar lines from a hydrogen - helium mixture, and supported Pickering 's conclusion as to their origin. Bohr 's model does not allow for half - integer transitions (nor does quantum mechanics) and Bohr concluded that Pickering and Fowler were wrong, and instead assigned these spectral lines to ionised helium, He. Fowler was initially skeptical but was ultimately convinced that Bohr was correct, and by 1915 "spectroscopists had transferred (the Pickering -- Fowler series) definitively (from hydrogen) to helium. '' Bohr 's theoretical work on the Pickering series had demonstrated the need for "a re-examination of problems that seemed already to have been solved within classical theories '' and provided important confirmation for his atomic theory.
In 1938, Russian physicist Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa discovered that helium - 4 has almost no viscosity at temperatures near absolute zero, a phenomenon now called superfluidity. This phenomenon is related to Bose -- Einstein condensation. In 1972, the same phenomenon was observed in helium - 3, but at temperatures much closer to absolute zero, by American physicists Douglas D. Osheroff, David M. Lee, and Robert C. Richardson. The phenomenon in helium - 3 is thought to be related to pairing of helium - 3 fermions to make bosons, in analogy to Cooper pairs of electrons producing superconductivity.
After an oil drilling operation in 1903 in Dexter, Kansas, produced a gas geyser that would not burn, Kansas state geologist Erasmus Haworth collected samples of the escaping gas and took them back to the University of Kansas at Lawrence where, with the help of chemists Hamilton Cady and David McFarland, he discovered that the gas consisted of, by volume, 72 % nitrogen, 15 % methane (a combustible percentage only with sufficient oxygen), 1 % hydrogen, and 12 % an unidentifiable gas. With further analysis, Cady and McFarland discovered that 1.84 % of the gas sample was helium. This showed that despite its overall rarity on Earth, helium was concentrated in large quantities under the American Great Plains, available for extraction as a byproduct of natural gas.
This enabled the United States to become the world 's leading supplier of helium. Following a suggestion by Sir Richard Threlfall, the United States Navy sponsored three small experimental helium plants during World War I. The goal was to supply barrage balloons with the non-flammable, lighter - than - air gas. A total of 5,700 m (200,000 cu ft) of 92 % helium was produced in the program even though less than a cubic meter of the gas had previously been obtained. Some of this gas was used in the world 's first helium - filled airship, the U.S. Navy 's C - 7, which flew its maiden voyage from Hampton Roads, Virginia, to Bolling Field in Washington, D.C., on December 1, 1921, nearly two years before the Navy 's first rigid helium - filled airship, the Naval Aircraft Factory - built USS Shenandoah, flew in September 1923.
Although the extraction process, using low - temperature gas liquefaction, was not developed in time to be significant during World War I, production continued. Helium was primarily used as a lifting gas in lighter - than - air craft. During World War II, the demand increased for helium for lifting gas and for shielded arc welding. The helium mass spectrometer was also vital in the atomic bomb Manhattan Project.
The government of the United States set up the National Helium Reserve in 1925 at Amarillo, Texas, with the goal of supplying military airships in time of war and commercial airships in peacetime. Because of the Helium Act of 1925, which banned the export of scarce helium on which the US then had a production monopoly, together with the prohibitive cost of the gas, the Hindenburg, like all German Zeppelins, was forced to use hydrogen as the lift gas. The helium market after World War II was depressed but the reserve was expanded in the 1950s to ensure a supply of liquid helium as a coolant to create oxygen / hydrogen rocket fuel (among other uses) during the Space Race and Cold War. Helium use in the United States in 1965 was more than eight times the peak wartime consumption.
After the "Helium Acts Amendments of 1960 '' (Public Law 86 -- 777), the U.S. Bureau of Mines arranged for five private plants to recover helium from natural gas. For this helium conservation program, the Bureau built a 425 - mile (684 km) pipeline from Bushton, Kansas, to connect those plants with the government 's partially depleted Cliffside gas field near Amarillo, Texas. This helium - nitrogen mixture was injected and stored in the Cliffside gas field until needed, at which time it was further purified.
By 1995, a billion cubic meters of the gas had been collected and the reserve was US $1.4 billion in debt, prompting the Congress of the United States in 1996 to phase out the reserve. The resulting Helium Privatization Act of 1996 (Public Law 104 -- 273) directed the United States Department of the Interior to empty the reserve, with sales starting by 2005.
Helium produced between 1930 and 1945 was about 98.3 % pure (2 % nitrogen), which was adequate for airships. In 1945, a small amount of 99.9 % helium was produced for welding use. By 1949, commercial quantities of Grade A 99.95 % helium were available.
For many years, the United States produced more than 90 % of commercially usable helium in the world, while extraction plants in Canada, Poland, Russia, and other nations produced the remainder. In the mid-1990s, a new plant in Arzew, Algeria, producing 17 million cubic meters (600 million cubic feet) began operation, with enough production to cover all of Europe 's demand. Meanwhile, by 2000, the consumption of helium within the U.S. had risen to more than 15 million kg per year. In 2004 -- 2006, additional plants in Ras Laffan, Qatar, and Skikda, Algeria were built. Algeria quickly became the second leading producer of helium. Through this time, both helium consumption and the costs of producing helium increased. From 2002 to 2007 helium prices doubled.
As of 2012, the United States National Helium Reserve accounted for 30 percent of the world 's helium. The reserve was expected to run out of helium in 2018. Despite that, a proposed bill in the United States Senate would allow the reserve to continue to sell the gas. Other large reserves were in the Hugoton in Kansas, United States, and nearby gas fields of Kansas and the panhandles of Texas and Oklahoma. New helium plants were scheduled to open in 2012 in Qatar, Russia, and the US state of Wyoming, but they were not expected to ease the shortage.
In 2013, Qatar started up the world 's largest helium unit, although the 2017 Qatar diplomatic crisis severely affected helium production there. 2014 was widely acknowledged to be a year of over-supply in the helium business, following years of renowned shortages. Nasdaq reported (2015) that for Air Products, an international corporation that sells gases for industrial use, helium volumes remain under economic pressure due to feedstock supply constraints.
In the perspective of quantum mechanics, helium is the second simplest atom to model, following the hydrogen atom. Helium is composed of two electrons in atomic orbitals surrounding a nucleus containing two protons and (usually) two neutrons. As in Newtonian mechanics, no system that consists of more than two particles can be solved with an exact analytical mathematical approach (see 3 - body problem) and helium is no exception. Thus, numerical mathematical methods are required, even to solve the system of one nucleus and two electrons. Such computational chemistry methods have been used to create a quantum mechanical picture of helium electron binding which is accurate to within < 2 % of the correct value, in a few computational steps. Such models show that each electron in helium partly screens the nucleus from the other, so that the effective nuclear charge Z which each electron sees, is about 1.69 units, not the 2 charges of a classic "bare '' helium nucleus.
The nucleus of the helium - 4 atom is identical with an alpha particle. High - energy electron - scattering experiments show its charge to decrease exponentially from a maximum at a central point, exactly as does the charge density of helium 's own electron cloud. This symmetry reflects similar underlying physics: the pair of neutrons and the pair of protons in helium 's nucleus obey the same quantum mechanical rules as do helium 's pair of electrons (although the nuclear particles are subject to a different nuclear binding potential), so that all these fermions fully occupy 1s orbitals in pairs, none of them possessing orbital angular momentum, and each cancelling the other 's intrinsic spin. Adding another of any of these particles would require angular momentum and would release substantially less energy (in fact, no nucleus with five nucleons is stable). This arrangement is thus energetically extremely stable for all these particles, and this stability accounts for many crucial facts regarding helium in nature.
For example, the stability and low energy of the electron cloud state in helium accounts for the element 's chemical inertness, and also the lack of interaction of helium atoms with each other, producing the lowest melting and boiling points of all the elements.
In a similar way, the particular energetic stability of the helium - 4 nucleus, produced by similar effects, accounts for the ease of helium - 4 production in atomic reactions that involve either heavy - particle emission or fusion. Some stable helium - 3 (2 protons and 1 neutron) is produced in fusion reactions from hydrogen, but it is a very small fraction compared to the highly favorable helium - 4.
The unusual stability of the helium - 4 nucleus is also important cosmologically: it explains the fact that in the first few minutes after the Big Bang, as the "soup '' of free protons and neutrons which had initially been created in about 6: 1 ratio cooled to the point that nuclear binding was possible, almost all first compound atomic nuclei to form were helium - 4 nuclei. So tight was helium - 4 binding that helium - 4 production consumed nearly all of the free neutrons in a few minutes, before they could beta - decay, and also leaving few to form heavier atoms such as lithium, beryllium, or boron. Helium - 4 nuclear binding per nucleon is stronger than in any of these elements (see nucleogenesis and binding energy) and thus, once helium had been formed, no energetic drive was available to make elements 3, 4 and 5. It was barely energetically favorable for helium to fuse into the next element with a lower energy per nucleon, carbon. However, due to lack of intermediate elements, this process requires three helium nuclei striking each other nearly simultaneously (see triple alpha process). There was thus no time for significant carbon to be formed in the few minutes after the Big Bang, before the early expanding universe cooled to the temperature and pressure point where helium fusion to carbon was no longer possible. This left the early universe with a very similar ratio of hydrogen / helium as is observed today (3 parts hydrogen to 1 part helium - 4 by mass), with nearly all the neutrons in the universe trapped in helium - 4.
All heavier elements (including those necessary for rocky planets like the Earth, and for carbon - based or other life) have thus been created since the Big Bang in stars which were hot enough to fuse helium itself. All elements other than hydrogen and helium today account for only 2 % of the mass of atomic matter in the universe. Helium - 4, by contrast, makes up about 23 % of the universe 's ordinary matter -- nearly all the ordinary matter that is not hydrogen.
Helium is the second least reactive noble gas after neon, and thus the second least reactive of all elements. It is chemically inert and monatomic in all standard conditions. Because of helium 's relatively low molar (atomic) mass, its thermal conductivity, specific heat, and sound speed in the gas phase are all greater than any other gas except hydrogen. For these reasons and the small size of helium monatomic molecules, helium diffuses through solids at a rate three times that of air and around 65 % that of hydrogen.
Helium is the least water - soluble monatomic gas, and one of the least water - soluble of any gas (CF, SF, and C F have lower mole fraction solubilities: 0.3802, 0.4394, and 0.2372 x / 10, respectively, versus helium 's 0.70797 x / 10), and helium 's index of refraction is closer to unity than that of any other gas. Helium has a negative Joule -- Thomson coefficient at normal ambient temperatures, meaning it heats up when allowed to freely expand. Only below its Joule -- Thomson inversion temperature (of about 32 to 50 K at 1 atmosphere) does it cool upon free expansion. Once precooled below this temperature, helium can be liquefied through expansion cooling.
Most extraterrestrial helium is found in a plasma state, with properties quite different from those of atomic helium. In a plasma, helium 's electrons are not bound to its nucleus, resulting in very high electrical conductivity, even when the gas is only partially ionized. The charged particles are highly influenced by magnetic and electric fields. For example, in the solar wind together with ionized hydrogen, the particles interact with the Earth 's magnetosphere, giving rise to Birkeland currents and the aurora.
Unlike any other element, helium will remain liquid down to absolute zero at normal pressures. This is a direct effect of quantum mechanics: specifically, the zero point energy of the system is too high to allow freezing. Solid helium requires a temperature of 1 -- 1.5 K (about − 272 ° C or − 457 ° F) at about 25 bar (2.5 MPa) of pressure. It is often hard to distinguish solid from liquid helium since the refractive index of the two phases are nearly the same. The solid has a sharp melting point and has a crystalline structure, but it is highly compressible; applying pressure in a laboratory can decrease its volume by more than 30 %. With a bulk modulus of about 27 MPa it is ~ 100 times more compressible than water. Solid helium has a density of 6999214000000000000 ♠ 0.214 ± 0.006 g / cm at 1.15 K and 66 atm; the projected density at 0 K and 25 bar (2.5 MPa) is 6999187000000000000 ♠ 0.187 ± 0.009 g / cm. At higher temperatures, helium will solidify with sufficient pressure. At room temperature, this requires about 114,000 atm.
Below its boiling point of 4.22 kelvins and above the lambda point of 2.1768 kelvins, the isotope helium - 4 exists in a normal colorless liquid state, called helium I. Like other cryogenic liquids, helium I boils when it is heated and contracts when its temperature is lowered. Below the lambda point, however, helium does not boil, and it expands as the temperature is lowered further.
Helium I has a gas - like index of refraction of 1.026 which makes its surface so hard to see that floats of Styrofoam are often used to show where the surface is. This colorless liquid has a very low viscosity and a density of 0.145 -- 0.125 g / mL (between about 0 and 4 K), which is only one - fourth the value expected from classical physics. Quantum mechanics is needed to explain this property and thus both states of liquid helium (helium I and helium II) are called quantum fluids, meaning they display atomic properties on a macroscopic scale. This may be an effect of its boiling point being so close to absolute zero, preventing random molecular motion (thermal energy) from masking the atomic properties.
Liquid helium below its lambda point (called helium II) exhibits very unusual characteristics. Due to its high thermal conductivity, when it boils, it does not bubble but rather evaporates directly from its surface. Helium - 3 also has a superfluid phase, but only at much lower temperatures; as a result, less is known about the properties of the isotope.
Helium II is a superfluid, a quantum mechanical state (see: macroscopic quantum phenomena) of matter with strange properties. For example, when it flows through capillaries as thin as 10 to 10 m it has no measurable viscosity. However, when measurements were done between two moving discs, a viscosity comparable to that of gaseous helium was observed. Current theory explains this using the two - fluid model for helium II. In this model, liquid helium below the lambda point is viewed as containing a proportion of helium atoms in a ground state, which are superfluid and flow with exactly zero viscosity, and a proportion of helium atoms in an excited state, which behave more like an ordinary fluid.
In the fountain effect, a chamber is constructed which is connected to a reservoir of helium II by a sintered disc through which superfluid helium leaks easily but through which non-superfluid helium can not pass. If the interior of the container is heated, the superfluid helium changes to non-superfluid helium. In order to maintain the equilibrium fraction of superfluid helium, superfluid helium leaks through and increases the pressure, causing liquid to fountain out of the container.
The thermal conductivity of helium II is greater than that of any other known substance, a million times that of helium I and several hundred times that of copper. This is because heat conduction occurs by an exceptional quantum mechanism. Most materials that conduct heat well have a valence band of free electrons which serve to transfer the heat. Helium II has no such valence band but nevertheless conducts heat well. The flow of heat is governed by equations that are similar to the wave equation used to characterize sound propagation in air. When heat is introduced, it moves at 20 meters per second at 1.8 K through helium II as waves in a phenomenon known as second sound.
Helium II also exhibits a creeping effect. When a surface extends past the level of helium II, the helium II moves along the surface, against the force of gravity. Helium II will escape from a vessel that is not sealed by creeping along the sides until it reaches a warmer region where it evaporates. It moves in a 30 nm - thick film regardless of surface material. This film is called a Rollin film and is named after the man who first characterized this trait, Bernard V. Rollin. As a result of this creeping behavior and helium II 's ability to leak rapidly through tiny openings, it is very difficult to confine liquid helium. Unless the container is carefully constructed, the helium II will creep along the surfaces and through valves until it reaches somewhere warmer, where it will evaporate. Waves propagating across a Rollin film are governed by the same equation as gravity waves in shallow water, but rather than gravity, the restoring force is the van der Waals force. These waves are known as third sound.
There are nine known isotopes of helium, but only helium - 3 and helium - 4 are stable. In the Earth 's atmosphere, one atom is He for every million that are He. Unlike most elements, helium 's isotopic abundance varies greatly by origin, due to the different formation processes. The most common isotope, helium - 4, is produced on Earth by alpha decay of heavier radioactive elements; the alpha particles that emerge are fully ionized helium - 4 nuclei. Helium - 4 is an unusually stable nucleus because its nucleons are arranged into complete shells. It was also formed in enormous quantities during Big Bang nucleosynthesis.
Helium - 3 is present on Earth only in trace amounts. Most of it has been present since Earth 's formation, though some falls to Earth trapped in cosmic dust. Trace amounts are also produced by the beta decay of tritium. Rocks from the Earth 's crust have isotope ratios varying by as much as a factor of ten, and these ratios can be used to investigate the origin of rocks and the composition of the Earth 's mantle. He is much more abundant in stars as a product of nuclear fusion. Thus in the interstellar medium, the proportion of He to He is about 100 times higher than on Earth. Extraplanetary material, such as lunar and asteroid regolith, have trace amounts of helium - 3 from being bombarded by solar winds. The Moon 's surface contains helium - 3 at concentrations on the order of 10 ppb, much higher than the approximately 5 ppt found in the Earth 's atmosphere. A number of people, starting with Gerald Kulcinski in 1986, have proposed to explore the moon, mine lunar regolith, and use the helium - 3 for fusion.
Liquid helium - 4 can be cooled to about 1 kelvin using evaporative cooling in a 1 - K pot. Similar cooling of helium - 3, which has a lower boiling point, can achieve about 6999200000000000000 ♠ 0.2 kelvin in a helium - 3 refrigerator. Equal mixtures of liquid He and He below 6999800000000000000 ♠ 0.8 K separate into two immiscible phases due to their dissimilarity (they follow different quantum statistics: helium - 4 atoms are bosons while helium - 3 atoms are fermions). Dilution refrigerators use this immiscibility to achieve temperatures of a few millikelvins.
It is possible to produce exotic helium isotopes, which rapidly decay into other substances. The shortest - lived heavy helium isotope is helium - 5 with a half - life of 6978760000000000000 ♠ 7.6 × 10 s. Helium - 6 decays by emitting a beta particle and has a half - life of 0.8 second. Helium - 7 also emits a beta particle as well as a gamma ray. Helium - 7 and helium - 8 are created in certain nuclear reactions. Helium - 6 and helium - 8 are known to exhibit a nuclear halo.
Helium has a valence of zero and is chemically unreactive under all normal conditions. It is an electrical insulator unless ionized. As with the other noble gases, helium has metastable energy levels that allow it to remain ionized in an electrical discharge with a voltage below its ionization potential. Helium can form unstable compounds, known as excimers, with tungsten, iodine, fluorine, sulfur, and phosphorus when it is subjected to a glow discharge, to electron bombardment, or reduced to plasma by other means. The molecular compounds HeNe, HgHe, and WHe, and the molecular ions He, He, HeH, and HeD have been created this way. HeH is also stable in its ground state, but is extremely reactive -- it is the strongest Brønsted acid known, and therefore can exist only in isolation, as it will protonate any molecule or counteranion it contacts. This technique has also produced the neutral molecule He, which has a large number of band systems, and HgHe, which is apparently held together only by polarization forces.
Van der Waals compounds of helium can also be formed with cryogenic helium gas and atoms of some other substance, such as LiHe and He.
Theoretically, other true compounds may be possible, such as helium fluorohydride (HHeF) which would be analogous to HArF, discovered in 2000. Calculations show that two new compounds containing a helium - oxygen bond could be stable. Two new molecular species, predicted using theory, CsFHeO and N (CH) FHeO, are derivatives of a metastable FHeO anion first theorized in 2005 by a group from Taiwan. If confirmed by experiment, the only remaining element with no known stable compounds would be neon.
Helium atoms have been inserted into the hollow carbon cage molecules (the fullerenes) by heating under high pressure. The endohedral fullerene molecules formed are stable at high temperatures. When chemical derivatives of these fullerenes are formed, the helium stays inside. If helium - 3 is used, it can be readily observed by helium nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Many fullerenes containing helium - 3 have been reported. Although the helium atoms are not attached by covalent or ionic bonds, these substances have distinct properties and a definite composition, like all stoichiometric chemical compounds.
Under high pressures helium can form compounds with various other elements. Helium - nitrogen clathrate (He (N)) crystals have been grown at room temperature at pressures ca. 10 GPa in a diamond anvil cell. The insulating electride Na He has been shown to be thermodynamically stable at pressures above 113 GPa. It has a fluorite structure.
Although it is rare on Earth, helium is the second most abundant element in the known Universe (after hydrogen), constituting 23 % of its baryonic mass. The vast majority of helium was formed by Big Bang nucleosynthesis one to three minutes after the Big Bang. As such, measurements of its abundance contribute to cosmological models. In stars, it is formed by the nuclear fusion of hydrogen in proton - proton chain reactions and the CNO cycle, part of stellar nucleosynthesis.
In the Earth 's atmosphere, the concentration of helium by volume is only 5.2 parts per million. The concentration is low and fairly constant despite the continuous production of new helium because most helium in the Earth 's atmosphere escapes into space by several processes. In the Earth 's heterosphere, a part of the upper atmosphere, helium and other lighter gases are the most abundant elements.
Most helium on Earth is a result of radioactive decay. Helium is found in large amounts in minerals of uranium and thorium, including cleveite, pitchblende, carnotite and monazite, because they emit alpha particles (helium nuclei, He) to which electrons immediately combine as soon as the particle is stopped by the rock. In this way an estimated 3000 metric tons of helium are generated per year throughout the lithosphere. In the Earth 's crust, the concentration of helium is 8 parts per billion. In seawater, the concentration is only 4 parts per trillion. There are also small amounts in mineral springs, volcanic gas, and meteoric iron. Because helium is trapped in the subsurface under conditions that also trap natural gas, the greatest natural concentrations of helium on the planet are found in natural gas, from which most commercial helium is extracted. The concentration varies in a broad range from a few ppm to more than 7 % in a small gas field in San Juan County, New Mexico.
As of 2011 the world 's helium reserves were estimated at 40 billion cubic meters, with a quarter of that being in the South Pars / North Dome Gas - Condensate field owned jointly by Qatar and Iran. In 2015 and 2016 more probable reserves were announced to be under the Rocky Mountains in North America and in east Africa.
For large - scale use, helium is extracted by fractional distillation from natural gas, which can contain as much as 7 % helium. Since helium has a lower boiling point than any other element, low temperature and high pressure are used to liquefy nearly all the other gases (mostly nitrogen and methane). The resulting crude helium gas is purified by successive exposures to lowering temperatures, in which almost all of the remaining nitrogen and other gases are precipitated out of the gaseous mixture. Activated charcoal is used as a final purification step, usually resulting in 99.995 % pure Grade - A helium. The principal impurity in Grade - A helium is neon. In a final production step, most of the helium that is produced is liquefied via a cryogenic process. This is necessary for applications requiring liquid helium and also allows helium suppliers to reduce the cost of long distance transportation, as the largest liquid helium containers have more than five times the capacity of the largest gaseous helium tube trailers.
In 2008, approximately 169 million standard cubic meters (SCM) of helium were extracted from natural gas or withdrawn from helium reserves with approximately 78 % from the United States, 10 % from Algeria, and most of the remainder from Russia, Poland and Qatar. By 2013, increases in helium production in Qatar (under the company RasGas managed by Air Liquide) had increased Qatar 's fraction of world helium production to 25 %, and made it the second largest exporter after the United States. An estimated 54 billion cubic feet (1.5 × 10 m) deposit of helium was found in Tanzania in 2016.
In the United States, most helium is extracted from natural gas of the Hugoton and nearby gas fields in Kansas, Oklahoma, and the Panhandle Field in Texas. Much of this gas was once sent by pipeline to the National Helium Reserve, but since 2005 this reserve is being depleted and sold off, and is expected to be largely depleted by 2021, under the October 2013 Responsible Helium Administration and Stewardship Act (H.R. 527).
Diffusion of crude natural gas through special semipermeable membranes and other barriers is another method to recover and purify helium. In 1996, the U.S. had proven helium reserves, in such gas well complexes, of about 147 billion standard cubic feet (4.2 billion SCM). At rates of use at that time (72 million SCM per year in the U.S.; see pie chart below) this would have been enough helium for about 58 years of U.S. use, and less than this (perhaps 80 % of the time) at world use rates, although factors in saving and processing impact effective reserve numbers.
Helium must be extracted from natural gas because it is present in air at only a fraction of that of neon, yet the demand for it is far higher. It is estimated that if all neon production were retooled to save helium, that 0.1 % of the world 's helium demands would be satisfied. Similarly, only 1 % of the world 's helium demands could be satisfied by re-tooling all air distillation plants. Helium can be synthesized by bombardment of lithium or boron with high - velocity protons, or by bombardment of lithium with deuterons, but these processes are a completely uneconomical method of production.
Helium is commercially available in either liquid or gaseous form. As a liquid, it can be supplied in small insulated containers called dewars which hold as much as 1,000 liters of helium, or in large ISO containers which have nominal capacities as large as 42 m (around 11,000 U.S. gallons). In gaseous form, small quantities of helium are supplied in high - pressure cylinders holding as much as 8 m (approx. 282 standard cubic feet), while large quantities of high - pressure gas are supplied in tube trailers which have capacities of as much as 4,860 m (approx. 172,000 standard cubic feet).
According to helium conservationists like Nobel laureate physicist Robert Coleman Richardson, writing in 2010, the free market price of helium has contributed to "wasteful '' usage (e.g. for helium balloons). Prices in the 2000s had been lowered by the decision of the U.S. Congress to sell off the country 's large helium stockpile by 2015. According to Richardson, the price needed to be multiplied by 20 to eliminate the excessive wasting of helium. In their book, the Future of helium as a natural resource (Routledge, 2012), Nuttall, Clarke & Glowacki (2012) also proposed to create an International Helium Agency (IHA) to build a sustainable market for this precious commodity.
Estimated 2014 U.S. fractional helium use by category. Total use is 34 million cubic meters.
While balloons are perhaps the best known use of helium, they are a minor part of all helium use. Helium is used for many purposes that require some of its unique properties, such as its low boiling point, low density, low solubility, high thermal conductivity, or inertness. Of the 2014 world helium total production of about 32 million kg (180 million standard cubic meters) helium per year, the largest use (about 32 % of the total in 2014) is in cryogenic applications, most of which involves cooling the superconducting magnets in medical MRI scanners and NMR spectrometers. Other major uses were pressurizing and purging systems, welding, maintenance of controlled atmospheres, and leak detection. Other uses by category were relatively minor fractions.
Helium is used as a protective gas in growing silicon and germanium crystals, in titanium and zirconium production, and in gas chromatography, because it is inert. Because of its inertness, thermally and calorically perfect nature, high speed of sound, and high value of the heat capacity ratio, it is also useful in supersonic wind tunnels and impulse facilities.
Helium is used as a shielding gas in arc welding processes on materials that at welding temperatures are contaminated and weakened by air or nitrogen. A number of inert shielding gases are used in gas tungsten arc welding, but helium is used instead of cheaper argon especially for welding materials that have higher heat conductivity, like aluminium or copper.
One industrial application for helium is leak detection. Because helium diffuses through solids three times faster than air, it is used as a tracer gas to detect leaks in high - vacuum equipment (such as cryogenic tanks) and high - pressure containers. The tested object is placed in a chamber, which is then evacuated and filled with helium. The helium that escapes through the leaks is detected by a sensitive device (helium mass spectrometer), even at the leak rates as small as 10 mbar L / s (10 Pa m / s). The measurement procedure is normally automatic and is called helium integral test. A simpler procedure is to fill the tested object with helium and to manually search for leaks with a hand - held device.
Helium leaks through cracks should not be confused with gas permeation through a bulk material. While helium has documented permeation constants (thus a calculable permeation rate) through glasses, ceramics, and synthetic materials, inert gases such as helium will not permeate most bulk metals.
Because it is lighter than air, airships and balloons are inflated with helium for lift. While hydrogen gas is more buoyant, and escapes permeating through a membrane at a lower rate, helium has the advantage of being non-flammable, and indeed fire - retardant. Another minor use is in rocketry, where helium is used as an ullage medium to displace fuel and oxidizers in storage tanks and to condense hydrogen and oxygen to make rocket fuel. It is also used to purge fuel and oxidizer from ground support equipment prior to launch and to pre-cool liquid hydrogen in space vehicles. For example, the Saturn V rocket used in the Apollo program needed about 370,000 m (13 million cubic feet) of helium to launch.
Helium as a breathing gas has no narcotic properties, so helium mixtures such as trimix, heliox and heliair are used for deep diving to reduce the effects of narcosis, which worsen with increasing depth. As pressure increases with depth, the density of the breathing gas also increases, and the low molecular weight of helium is found to considerably reduce the effort of breathing by lowering the density of the mixture. This reduces the Reynolds number of flow, leading to a reduction of turbulent flow and an increase in laminar flow, which requires less work of breathing. At depths below 150 metres (490 ft) divers breathing helium -- oxygen mixtures begin to experience tremors and a decrease in psychomotor function, symptoms of high - pressure nervous syndrome. This effect may be countered to some extent by adding an amount of narcotic gas such as hydrogen or nitrogen to a helium -- oxygen mixture.
Helium -- neon lasers, a type of low - powered gas laser producing a red beam, had various practical applications which included barcode readers and laser pointers, before they were almost universally replaced by cheaper diode lasers.
For its inertness and high thermal conductivity, neutron transparency, and because it does not form radioactive isotopes under reactor conditions, helium is used as a heat - transfer medium in some gas - cooled nuclear reactors.
Helium, mixed with a heavier gas such as xenon, is useful for thermoacoustic refrigeration due to the resulting high heat capacity ratio and low Prandtl number. The inertness of helium has environmental advantages over conventional refrigeration systems which contribute to ozone depletion or global warming.
Helium is also used in some hard disk drives.
The use of helium reduces the distorting effects of temperature variations in the space between lenses in some telescopes, due to its extremely low index of refraction. This method is especially used in solar telescopes where a vacuum tight telescope tube would be too heavy.
Helium is a commonly used carrier gas for gas chromatography.
The age of rocks and minerals that contain uranium and thorium can be estimated by measuring the level of helium with a process known as helium dating.
Helium at low temperatures is used in cryogenics, and in certain cryogenics applications. As examples of applications, liquid helium is used to cool certain metals to the extremely low temperatures required for superconductivity, such as in superconducting magnets for magnetic resonance imaging. The Large Hadron Collider at CERN uses 96 metric tons of liquid helium to maintain the temperature at 1.9 kelvin.
Neutral helium at standard conditions is non-toxic, plays no biological role and is found in trace amounts in human blood.
The speed of sound in helium is nearly three times the speed of sound in air. Because the fundamental frequency of a gas - filled cavity is proportional to the speed of sound in the gas, when helium is inhaled there is a corresponding increase in the resonant frequencies of the vocal tract. The fundamental frequency (sometimes called pitch) does not change, since this is produced by direct vibration of the vocal folds, which is unchanged. However, the higher resonant frequencies cause a change in timbre, resulting in a reedy, duck - like vocal quality. The opposite effect, lowering resonant frequencies, can be obtained by inhaling a dense gas such as sulfur hexafluoride or xenon.
Inhaling helium can be dangerous if done to excess, since helium is a simple asphyxiant and so displaces oxygen needed for normal respiration. Fatalities have been recorded, including a youth who suffocated in Vancouver in 2003 and two adults who suffocated in South Florida in 2006. In 1998, an Australian girl (her age is not known) from Victoria fell unconscious and temporarily turned blue after inhaling the entire contents of a party balloon. Inhaling helium directly from pressurized cylinders or even balloon filling valves is extremely dangerous, as high flow rate and pressure can result in barotrauma, fatally rupturing lung tissue.
Death caused by helium is rare. The first media - recorded case was that of a 15 - year - old girl from Texas who died in 1998 from helium inhalation at a friend 's party; the exact type of helium death is unidentified.
In the United States only two fatalities were reported between 2000 and 2004, including a man who died in North Carolina of barotrauma in 2002. A youth asphyxiated in Vancouver during 2003, and a 27 - year - old man in Australia had an embolism after breathing from a cylinder in 2000. Since then two adults asphyxiated in South Florida in 2006, and there were cases in 2009 and 2010, one a Californian youth who was found with a bag over his head, attached to a helium tank, and another teenager in Northern Ireland died of asphyxiation. At Eagle Point, Oregon a teenage girl died in 2012 from barotrauma at a party. A girl from Michigan died from hypoxia later in the year.
On February 4, 2015 it was revealed that during the recording of their main TV show on January 28, a 12 - year - old member (name withheld) of Japanese all - girl singing group 3B Junior suffered from air embolism, losing consciousness and falling in a coma as a result of air bubbles blocking the flow of blood to the brain, after inhaling huge quantities of helium as part of a game. The incident was not made public until a week later. The staff of TV Asahi held an emergency press conference to communicate that the member had been taken to the hospital and is showing signs of rehabilitation such as moving eyes and limbs, but her consciousness has not been sufficiently recovered as of yet. Police have launched an investigation due to a neglect of safety measures.
On July 13, 2017 CBS News reported that a political operative who reportedly attempted to recover e-mails missing from the Clinton server, Peter W. Smith, "apparently '' committed suicide in May at a hotel room in Rochester, Minnesota and that his death was recorded as "asphyxiation due to displacement of oxygen in confined space with helium ''. More details followed in the Chicago Tribune.
The safety issues for cryogenic helium are similar to those of liquid nitrogen; its extremely low temperatures can result in cold burns, and the liquid - to - gas expansion ratio can cause explosions if no pressure - relief devices are installed. Containers of helium gas at 5 to 10 K should be handled as if they contain liquid helium due to the rapid and significant thermal expansion that occurs when helium gas at less than 10 K is warmed to room temperature.
At high pressures (more than about 20 atm or two MPa), a mixture of helium and oxygen (heliox) can lead to high - pressure nervous syndrome, a sort of reverse - anesthetic effect; adding a small amount of nitrogen to the mixture can alleviate the problem.
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who signed the declaration of independance on july 4th | United States Declaration of Independence - Wikipedia
The United States Declaration of Independence is the statement adopted by the Second Continental Congress meeting at the Pennsylvania State House (now known as Independence Hall) in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on July 4, 1776. The Declaration announced that the Thirteen Colonies then at war with the Kingdom of Great Britain would regard themselves as thirteen independent sovereign states no longer under British rule. With the Declaration, these new states took a collective first step toward forming the United States of America. The declaration was signed by representatives from New Hampshire, Massachusetts Bay, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia.
The Lee Resolution for independence was passed on July 2 with no opposing votes. The Committee of Five had drafted the Declaration to be ready when Congress voted on independence. John Adams, a leader in pushing for independence, had persuaded the committee to select Thomas Jefferson to compose the original draft of the document, which Congress edited to produce the final version. The Declaration was a formal explanation of why Congress had voted to declare independence from Great Britain, more than a year after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War. Adams wrote to his wife Abigail, "The Second Day of July 1776, will be the most memorable Epocha, in the History of America '' -- although Independence Day is actually celebrated on July 4, the date that the wording of the Declaration of Independence was approved.
After ratifying the text on July 4, Congress issued the Declaration of Independence in several forms. It was initially published as the printed Dunlap broadside that was widely distributed and read to the public. The source copy used for this printing has been lost and may have been a copy in Thomas Jefferson 's hand. Jefferson 's original draft is preserved at the Library of Congress, complete with changes made by John Adams and Benjamin Franklin, as well as Jefferson 's notes of changes made by Congress. The best - known version of the Declaration is a signed copy that is displayed at the National Archives in Washington, D.C., and which is popularly regarded as the official document. This engrossed copy was ordered by Congress on July 19 and signed primarily on August 2.
The sources and interpretation of the Declaration have been the subject of much scholarly inquiry. The Declaration justified the independence of the United States by listing colonial grievances against King George III and by asserting certain natural and legal rights, including a right of revolution. Its original purpose was to announce independence, and references to the text of the Declaration were few in the following years. Abraham Lincoln made it the centerpiece of his policies and his rhetoric, as in the Gettysburg Address of 1863. Since then, it has become a well - known statement on human rights, particularly its second sentence:
We hold these truths to be self - evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.
This has been called "one of the best - known sentences in the English language '', containing "the most potent and consequential words in American history ''. The passage came to represent a moral standard to which the United States should strive. This view was notably promoted by Lincoln, who considered the Declaration to be the foundation of his political philosophy and argued that it is a statement of principles through which the United States Constitution should be interpreted.
The Declaration of Independence inspired many similar documents in other countries, the first being the 1789 Declaration of Flanders issued during the Brabant Revolution in the Austrian Netherlands. It also served as the primary model for numerous declarations of independence in Europe and Latin America, as well as Africa (Liberia) and Oceania (New Zealand) during the first half of the 19th century.
Believe me, dear Sir: there is not in the British empire a man who more cordially loves a union with Great Britain than I do. But, by the God that made me, I will cease to exist before I yield to a connection on such terms as the British Parliament propose; and in this, I think I speak the sentiments of America.
By the time that the Declaration of Independence was adopted in July 1776, the Thirteen Colonies and Great Britain had been at war for more than a year. Relations had been deteriorating between the colonies and the mother country since 1763. Parliament enacted a series of measures to increase revenue from the colonies, such as the Stamp Act of 1765 and the Townshend Acts of 1767. Parliament believed that these acts were a legitimate means of having the colonies pay their fair share of the costs to keep them in the British Empire.
Many colonists, however, had developed a different conception of the empire. The colonies were not directly represented in Parliament, and colonists argued that Parliament had no right to levy taxes upon them. This tax dispute was part of a larger divergence between British and American interpretations of the British Constitution and the extent of Parliament 's authority in the colonies. The orthodox British view, dating from the Glorious Revolution of 1688, was that Parliament was the supreme authority throughout the empire, and so, by definition, anything that Parliament did was constitutional. In the colonies, however, the idea had developed that the British Constitution recognized certain fundamental rights that no government could violate, not even Parliament. After the Townshend Acts, some essayists even began to question whether Parliament had any legitimate jurisdiction in the colonies at all. Anticipating the arrangement of the British Commonwealth, by 1774 American writers such as Samuel Adams, James Wilson, and Thomas Jefferson were arguing that Parliament was the legislature of Great Britain only, and that the colonies, which had their own legislatures, were connected to the rest of the empire only through their allegiance to the Crown.
The issue of Parliament 's authority in the colonies became a crisis after Parliament passed the Coercive Acts (known as the Intolerable Acts in the colonies) in 1774 to punish the Province of Massachusetts for the Boston Tea Party of 1773. Many colonists saw the Coercive Acts as a violation of the British Constitution and thus a threat to the liberties of all of British America. In September 1774, the First Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia to coordinate a response. Congress organized a boycott of British goods and petitioned the king for repeal of the acts. These measures were unsuccessful because King George and the ministry of Prime Minister Lord North were determined not to retreat on the question of parliamentary supremacy. As the king wrote to North in November 1774, "blows must decide whether they are to be subject to this country or independent ''.
Most colonists still hoped for reconciliation with Great Britain, even after fighting began in the American Revolutionary War at Lexington and Concord in April 1775. The Second Continental Congress convened at the Pennsylvania State House in Philadelphia in May 1775, and some delegates hoped for eventual independence, but no one yet advocated declaring it. Many colonists no longer believed that Parliament had any sovereignty over them, yet they still professed loyalty to King George, who they hoped would intercede on their behalf. They were disappointed in late 1775, when the king rejected Congress 's second petition, issued a Proclamation of Rebellion, and announced before Parliament on October 26 that he was considering "friendly offers of foreign assistance '' to suppress the rebellion. A pro-American minority in Parliament warned that the government was driving the colonists toward independence.
Thomas Paine 's pamphlet Common Sense was published in January 1776, just as it became clear in the colonies that the king was not inclined to act as a conciliator. Paine had only recently arrived in the colonies from England, and he argued in favor of colonial independence, advocating republicanism as an alternative to monarchy and hereditary rule. Common Sense made a persuasive and impassioned case for independence, which had not yet been given serious intellectual consideration in the American colonies. Paine connected independence with Protestant beliefs as a means to present a distinctly American political identity, thereby stimulating public debate on a topic that few had previously dared to openly discuss, and public support for separation from Great Britain steadily increased after its publication.
Some colonists still held out hope for reconciliation, but developments in early 1776 further strengthened public support for independence. In February 1776, colonists learned of Parliament 's passage of the Prohibitory Act, which established a blockade of American ports and declared American ships to be enemy vessels. John Adams, a strong supporter of independence, believed that Parliament had effectively declared American independence before Congress had been able to. Adams labeled the Prohibitory Act the "Act of Independency '', calling it "a compleat Dismemberment of the British Empire ''. Support for declaring independence grew even more when it was confirmed that King George had hired German mercenaries to use against his American subjects.
Despite this growing popular support for independence, Congress lacked the clear authority to declare it. Delegates had been elected to Congress by 13 different governments, which included extralegal conventions, ad hoc committees, and elected assemblies, and they were bound by the instructions given to them. Regardless of their personal opinions, delegates could not vote to declare independence unless their instructions permitted such an action. Several colonies, in fact, expressly prohibited their delegates from taking any steps towards separation from Great Britain, while other delegations had instructions that were ambiguous on the issue; consequently, advocates of independence sought to have the Congressional instructions revised. For Congress to declare independence, a majority of delegations would need authorization to vote for it, and at least one colonial government would need to specifically instruct its delegation to propose a declaration of independence in Congress. Between April and July 1776, a "complex political war '' was waged to bring this about.
In the campaign to revise Congressional instructions, many Americans formally expressed their support for separation from Great Britain in what were effectively state and local declarations of independence. Historian Pauline Maier identifies more than ninety such declarations that were issued throughout the Thirteen Colonies from April to July 1776. These "declarations '' took a variety of forms. Some were formal written instructions for Congressional delegations, such as the Halifax Resolves of April 12, with which North Carolina became the first colony to explicitly authorize its delegates to vote for independence. Others were legislative acts that officially ended British rule in individual colonies, such as the Rhode Island legislature declaring its independence from Great Britain on May 4, the first colony to do so. Many "declarations '' were resolutions adopted at town or county meetings that offered support for independence. A few came in the form of jury instructions, such as the statement issued on April 23, 1776, by Chief Justice William Henry Drayton of South Carolina: "the law of the land authorizes me to declare... that George the Third, King of Great Britain... has no authority over us, and we owe no obedience to him. '' Most of these declarations are now obscure, having been overshadowed by the declaration approved by Congress on July 2, and signed July 4.
Some colonies held back from endorsing independence. Resistance was centered in the middle colonies of New York, New Jersey, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. Advocates of independence saw Pennsylvania as the key; if that colony could be converted to the pro-independence cause, it was believed that the others would follow. On May 1, however, opponents of independence retained control of the Pennsylvania Assembly in a special election that had focused on the question of independence. In response, Congress passed a resolution on May 10 which had been promoted by John Adams and Richard Henry Lee, calling on colonies without a "government sufficient to the exigencies of their affairs '' to adopt new governments. The resolution passed unanimously, and was even supported by Pennsylvania 's John Dickinson, the leader of the anti-independence faction in Congress, who believed that it did not apply to his colony.
-- John Adams, May 15, 1776
As was the custom, Congress appointed a committee to draft a preamble to explain the purpose of the resolution. John Adams wrote the preamble, which stated that because King George had rejected reconciliation and was hiring foreign mercenaries to use against the colonies, "it is necessary that the exercise of every kind of authority under the said crown should be totally suppressed ''. Adams 's preamble was meant to encourage the overthrow of the governments of Pennsylvania and Maryland, which were still under proprietary governance. Congress passed the preamble on May 15 after several days of debate, but four of the middle colonies voted against it, and the Maryland delegation walked out in protest. Adams regarded his May 15 preamble effectively as an American declaration of independence, although a formal declaration would still have to be made.
On the same day that Congress passed Adams 's radical preamble, the Virginia Convention set the stage for a formal Congressional declaration of independence. On May 15, the Convention instructed Virginia 's congressional delegation "to propose to that respectable body to declare the United Colonies free and independent States, absolved from all allegiance to, or dependence upon, the Crown or Parliament of Great Britain ''. In accordance with those instructions, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia presented a three - part resolution to Congress on June 7. The motion was seconded by John Adams, calling on Congress to declare independence, form foreign alliances, and prepare a plan of colonial confederation. The part of the resolution relating to declaring independence read:
Resolved, that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States, that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved.
Lee 's resolution met with resistance in the ensuing debate. Opponents of the resolution conceded that reconciliation was unlikely with Great Britain, while arguing that declaring independence was premature, and that securing foreign aid should take priority. Advocates of the resolution countered that foreign governments would not intervene in an internal British struggle, and so a formal declaration of independence was needed before foreign aid was possible. All Congress needed to do, they insisted, was to "declare a fact which already exists ''. Delegates from Pennsylvania, Delaware, New Jersey, Maryland, and New York were still not yet authorized to vote for independence, however, and some of them threatened to leave Congress if the resolution were adopted. Congress, therefore, voted on June 10 to postpone further discussion of Lee 's resolution for three weeks. Until then, Congress decided that a committee should prepare a document announcing and explaining independence in the event that Lee 's resolution was approved when it was brought up again in July.
Support for a Congressional declaration of independence was consolidated in the final weeks of June 1776. On June 14, the Connecticut Assembly instructed its delegates to propose independence and, the following day, the legislatures of New Hampshire and Delaware authorized their delegates to declare independence. In Pennsylvania, political struggles ended with the dissolution of the colonial assembly, and a new Conference of Committees under Thomas McKean authorized Pennsylvania 's delegates to declare independence on June 18. The Provincial Congress of New Jersey had been governing the province since January 1776; they resolved on June 15 that Royal Governor William Franklin was "an enemy to the liberties of this country '' and had him arrested. On June 21, they chose new delegates to Congress and empowered them to join in a declaration of independence.
Only Maryland and New York had yet to authorize independence towards the end of June. Previously, Maryland 's delegates had walked out when the Continental Congress adopted Adams 's radical May 15 preamble, and had sent to the Annapolis Convention for instructions. On May 20, the Annapolis Convention rejected Adams 's preamble, instructing its delegates to remain against independence. But Samuel Chase went to Maryland and, thanks to local resolutions in favor of independence, was able to get the Annapolis Convention to change its mind on June 28. Only the New York delegates were unable to get revised instructions. When Congress had been considering the resolution of independence on June 8, the New York Provincial Congress told the delegates to wait. But on June 30, the Provincial Congress evacuated New York as British forces approached, and would not convene again until July 10. This meant that New York 's delegates would not be authorized to declare independence until after Congress had made its decision.
Political maneuvering was setting the stage for an official declaration of independence even while a document was being written to explain the decision. On June 11, 1776, Congress appointed a "Committee of Five '' to draft a declaration, consisting of John Adams of Massachusetts, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, Robert R. Livingston of New York, and Roger Sherman of Connecticut. The committee left no minutes, so there is some uncertainty about how the drafting process proceeded; contradictory accounts were written many years later by Jefferson and Adams, too many years to be regarded as entirely reliable -- although their accounts are frequently cited. What is certain is that the committee discussed the general outline which the document should follow and decided that Jefferson would write the first draft. The committee in general, and Jefferson in particular, thought that Adams should write the document, but Adams persuaded the committee to choose Jefferson and promised to consult with him personally. Considering Congress 's busy schedule, Jefferson probably had limited time for writing over the next seventeen days, and likely wrote the draft quickly. He then consulted the others and made some changes, and then produced another copy incorporating these alterations. The committee presented this copy to the Congress on June 28, 1776. The title of the document was "A Declaration by the Representatives of the United States of America, in General Congress assembled. ''
Congress ordered that the draft "lie on the table ''. For two days, Congress methodically edited Jefferson 's primary document, shortening it by a fourth, removing unnecessary wording, and improving sentence structure. They removed Jefferson 's assertion that Britain had forced slavery on the colonies in order to moderate the document and appease persons in Britain who supported the Revolution. Jefferson wrote that Congress had "mangled '' his draft version, but the Declaration that was finally produced was "the majestic document that inspired both contemporaries and posterity, '' in the words of his biographer John Ferling.
Congress tabled the draft of the declaration on Monday, July 1, and resolved itself into a committee of the whole, with Benjamin Harrison of Virginia presiding, and they resumed debate on Lee 's resolution of independence. John Dickinson made one last effort to delay the decision, arguing that Congress should not declare independence without first securing a foreign alliance and finalizing the Articles of Confederation. John Adams gave a speech in reply to Dickinson, restating the case for an immediate declaration.
A vote was taken after a long day of speeches, each colony casting a single vote, as always. The delegation for each colony numbered from two to seven members, and each delegation voted amongst themselves to determine the colony 's vote. Pennsylvania and South Carolina voted against declaring independence. The New York delegation abstained, lacking permission to vote for independence. Delaware cast no vote because the delegation was split between Thomas McKean (who voted yes) and George Read (who voted no). The remaining nine delegations voted in favor of independence, which meant that the resolution had been approved by the committee of the whole. The next step was for the resolution to be voted upon by Congress itself. Edward Rutledge of South Carolina was opposed to Lee 's resolution but desirous of unanimity, and he moved that the vote be postponed until the following day.
On July 2, South Carolina reversed its position and voted for independence. In the Pennsylvania delegation, Dickinson and Robert Morris abstained, allowing the delegation to vote three - to - two in favor of independence. The tie in the Delaware delegation was broken by the timely arrival of Caesar Rodney, who voted for independence. The New York delegation abstained once again since they were still not authorized to vote for independence, although they were allowed to do so a week later by the New York Provincial Congress. The resolution of independence had been adopted with twelve affirmative votes and one abstention. With this, the colonies had officially severed political ties with Great Britain.
John Adams predicted in a famous letter, written to his wife on the following day, that July 2 would become a great American holiday. He thought that the vote for independence would be commemorated; he did not foresee that Americans -- including himself -- would instead celebrate Independence Day on the date when the announcement of that act was finalized.
"I am apt to believe that (Independence Day) will be celebrated, by succeeding Generations, as the great anniversary Festival. It ought to be commemorated, as the Day of Deliverance by solemn Acts of Devotion to God Almighty. It ought to be solemnized with Pomp and Parade, with shews, Games, Sports, Guns, Bells, Bonfires and Illuminations from one End of this Continent to the other from this Time forward forever more. ''
After voting in favor of the resolution of independence, Congress turned its attention to the committee 's draft of the declaration. Over several days of debate, they made a few changes in wording and deleted nearly a fourth of the text and, on July 4, 1776, the wording of the Declaration of Independence was approved and sent to the printer for publication.
There is a distinct change in wording from this original broadside printing of the Declaration and the final official engrossed copy. The word "unanimous '' was inserted as a result of a Congressional resolution passed on July 19, 1776:
Resolved, That the Declaration passed on the 4th, be fairly engrossed on parchment, with the title and stile of "The unanimous declaration of the thirteen United States of America, '' and that the same, when engrossed, be signed by every member of Congress.
Historian George Billias says:
The declaration is not divided into formal sections; but it is often discussed as consisting of five parts: introduction, preamble, indictment of King George III, denunciation of the British people, and conclusion.
Asserts as a matter of Natural Law the ability of a people to assume political independence; acknowledges that the grounds for such independence must be reasonable, and therefore explicable, and ought to be explained.
"When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature 's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. ''
Outlines a general philosophy of government that justifies revolution when government harms natural rights.
"We hold these truths to be self - evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.
"That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security. ''
A bill of particulars documenting the king 's "repeated injuries and usurpations '' of the Americans ' rights and liberties.
"Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.
"He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.
"He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.
"He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only.
"He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their Public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.
"He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness of his invasions on the rights of the people.
"He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected, whereby the Legislative Powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within.
"He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands.
"He has obstructed the Administration of Justice by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary Powers.
"He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries.
"He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harass our people and eat out their substance.
"He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures.
"He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil Power.
"He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation:
"For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:
"For protecting them, by a mock Trial from punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States:
"For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:
"For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:
"For depriving us in many cases, of the benefit of Trial by Jury:
"For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences:
"For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies:
"For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments:
"For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.
"He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us.
"He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people.
"He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to compleat the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & Perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation.
"He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands.
"He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions.
"In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. ''
This section essentially finishes the case for independence. The conditions that justified revolution have been shown.
"Nor have We been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which, would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends. ''
The signers assert that there exist conditions under which people must change their government, that the British have produced such conditions and, by necessity, the colonies must throw off political ties with the British Crown and become independent states. The conclusion contains, at its core, the Lee Resolution that had been passed on July 2.
"We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these united Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor. ''
The first and most famous signature on the engrossed copy was that of John Hancock, President of the Continental Congress. Two future presidents (Thomas Jefferson and John Adams) and a father and great - grandfather of two other presidents (Benjamin Harrison) were among the signatories. Edward Rutledge (age 26) was the youngest signer, and Benjamin Franklin (age 70) was the oldest signer. The fifty - six signers of the Declaration represented the new states as follows (from north to south):
Historians have often sought to identify the sources that most influenced the words and political philosophy of the Declaration of Independence. By Jefferson 's own admission, the Declaration contained no original ideas, but was instead a statement of sentiments widely shared by supporters of the American Revolution. As he explained in 1825:
Neither aiming at originality of principle or sentiment, nor yet copied from any particular and previous writing, it was intended to be an expression of the American mind, and to give to that expression the proper tone and spirit called for by the occasion.
Jefferson 's most immediate sources were two documents written in June 1776: his own draft of the preamble of the Constitution of Virginia, and George Mason 's draft of the Virginia Declaration of Rights. Ideas and phrases from both of these documents appear in the Declaration of Independence. They were, in turn, directly influenced by the 1689 English Declaration of Rights, which formally ended the reign of King James II. During the American Revolution, Jefferson and other Americans looked to the English Declaration of Rights as a model of how to end the reign of an unjust king. The Scottish Declaration of Arbroath (1320) and the Dutch Act of Abjuration (1581) have also been offered as models for Jefferson 's Declaration, but these models are now accepted by few scholars.
Jefferson wrote that a number of authors exerted a general influence on the words of the Declaration. English political theorist John Locke is usually cited as one of the primary influences, a man whom Jefferson called one of "the three greatest men that have ever lived ''. In 1922, historian Carl L. Becker wrote, "Most Americans had absorbed Locke 's works as a kind of political gospel; and the Declaration, in its form, in its phraseology, follows closely certain sentences in Locke 's second treatise on government. '' The extent of Locke 's influence on the American Revolution has been questioned by some subsequent scholars, however. Historian Ray Forrest Harvey argued in 1937 for the dominant influence of Swiss jurist Jean Jacques Burlamaqui, declaring that Jefferson and Locke were at "two opposite poles '' in their political philosophy, as evidenced by Jefferson 's use in the Declaration of Independence of the phrase "pursuit of happiness '' instead of "property ''. Other scholars emphasized the influence of republicanism rather than Locke 's classical liberalism. Historian Garry Wills argued that Jefferson was influenced by the Scottish Enlightenment, particularly Francis Hutcheson, rather than Locke, an interpretation that has been strongly criticized.
Legal historian John Phillip Reid has written that the emphasis on the political philosophy of the Declaration has been misplaced. The Declaration is not a philosophical tract about natural rights, argues Reid, but is instead a legal document -- an indictment against King George for violating the constitutional rights of the colonists. Historian David Armitage has argued that the Declaration was strongly influenced by de Vattel 's The Law of Nations, the dominant international law treatise of the period, and a book that Benjamin Franklin said was "continually in the hands of the members of our Congress ''. Armitage writes, "Vattel made independence fundamental to his definition of statehood ''; therefore, the primary purpose of the Declaration was "to express the international legal sovereignty of the United States ''. If the United States were to have any hope of being recognized by the European powers, the American revolutionaries first had to make it clear that they were no longer dependent on Great Britain. The Declaration of Independence does not have the force of law domestically, but nevertheless it may help to provide historical and legal clarity about the Constitution and other laws.
The Declaration became official when Congress voted for it on July 4; signatures of the delegates were not needed to make it official. The handwritten copy of the Declaration of Independence that was signed by Congress is dated July 4, 1776. The signatures of fifty - six delegates are affixed; however, the exact date when each person signed it has long been the subject of debate. Jefferson, Franklin, and Adams all wrote that the Declaration had been signed by Congress on July 4. But in 1796, signer Thomas McKean disputed that the Declaration had been signed on July 4, pointing out that some signers were not then present, including several who were not even elected to Congress until after that date.
The Declaration was transposed on paper, adopted by the Continental Congress, and signed by John Hancock, President of the Congress, on July 4, 1776, according to the 1911 record of events by the U.S. State Department under Secretary Philander C. Knox. On August 2, 1776, a parchment paper copy of the Declaration was signed by 56 persons. Many of these signers were not present when the original Declaration was adopted on July 4. Signer Matthew Thornton from New Hampshire was seated in the Continental Congress in November; he asked for and received the privilege of adding his signature at that time, and signed on November 4, 1776.
Historians have generally accepted McKean 's version of events, arguing that the famous signed version of the Declaration was created after July 19, and was not signed by Congress until August 2, 1776. In 1986, legal historian Wilfred Ritz argued that historians had misunderstood the primary documents and given too much credence to McKean, who had not been present in Congress on July 4. According to Ritz, about thirty - four delegates signed the Declaration on July 4, and the others signed on or after August 2. Historians who reject a July 4 signing maintain that most delegates signed on August 2, and that those eventual signers who were not present added their names later.
Two future U.S. presidents were among the signatories: Thomas Jefferson and John Adams. The most famous signature on the engrossed copy is that of John Hancock, who presumably signed first as President of Congress. Hancock 's large, flamboyant signature became iconic, and the term John Hancock emerged in the United States as an informal synonym for "signature ''. A commonly circulated but apocryphal account claims that, after Hancock signed, the delegate from Massachusetts commented, "The British ministry can read that name without spectacles. '' Another apocryphal report indicates that Hancock proudly declared, "There! I guess King George will be able to read that! ''
Various legends emerged years later about the signing of the Declaration, when the document had become an important national symbol. In one famous story, John Hancock supposedly said that Congress, having signed the Declaration, must now "all hang together '', and Benjamin Franklin replied: "Yes, we must indeed all hang together, or most assuredly we shall all hang separately. '' The quotation did not appear in print until more than fifty years after Franklin 's death.
The Syng inkstand used at the signing was also used at the signing of the United States Constitution in 1787.
After Congress approved the final wording of the Declaration on July 4, a handwritten copy was sent a few blocks away to the printing shop of John Dunlap. Through the night, Dunlap printed about 200 broadsides for distribution. Before long, it was being read to audiences and reprinted in newspapers throughout the 13 states. The first formal public readings of the document took place on July 8, in Philadelphia (by John Nixon in the yard of Independence Hall), Trenton, New Jersey, and Easton, Pennsylvania; the first newspaper to publish it was the Pennsylvania Evening Post on July 6. A German translation of the Declaration was published in Philadelphia by July 9.
President of Congress John Hancock sent a broadside to General George Washington, instructing him to have it proclaimed "at the Head of the Army in the way you shall think it most proper ''. Washington had the Declaration read to his troops in New York City on July 9, with thousands of British troops on ships in the harbor. Washington and Congress hoped that the Declaration would inspire the soldiers, and encourage others to join the army. After hearing the Declaration, crowds in many cities tore down and destroyed signs or statues representing royal authority. An equestrian statue of King George in New York City was pulled down and the lead used to make musket balls.
British officials in North America sent copies of the Declaration to Great Britain. It was published in British newspapers beginning in mid-August, it had reached Florence and Warsaw by mid-September, and a German translation appeared in Switzerland by October. The first copy of the Declaration sent to France got lost, and the second copy arrived only in November 1776. It reached Portuguese America by Brazilian medical student "Vendek '' José Joaquim Maia e Barbalho, who had met with Thomas Jefferson in Nîmes.
The Spanish - American authorities banned the circulation of the Declaration, but it was widely transmitted and translated: by Venezuelan Manuel García de Sena, by Colombian Miguel de Pombo, by Ecuadorian Vicente Rocafuerte, and by New Englanders Richard Cleveland and William Shaler, who distributed the Declaration and the United States Constitution among Creoles in Chile and Indians in Mexico in 1821. The North Ministry did not give an official answer to the Declaration, but instead secretly commissioned pamphleteer John Lind to publish a response entitled Answer to the Declaration of the American Congress. British Tories denounced the signers of the Declaration for not applying the same principles of "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness '' to African Americans. Thomas Hutchinson, the former royal governor of Massachusetts, also published a rebuttal. These pamphlets challenged various aspects of the Declaration. Hutchinson argued that the American Revolution was the work of a few conspirators who wanted independence from the outset, and who had finally achieved it by inducing otherwise loyal colonists to rebel. Lind 's pamphlet had an anonymous attack on the concept of natural rights written by Jeremy Bentham, an argument that he repeated during the French Revolution. Both pamphlets asked how the American slaveholders in Congress could proclaim that "all men are created equal '' without freeing their own slaves.
William Whipple, a signer of the Declaration of Independence who had fought in the war, freed his slave Prince Whipple because of revolutionary ideals. In the postwar decades, other slaveholders also freed their slaves; from 1790 to 1810, the percentage of free blacks in the Upper South increased to 8.3 percent from less than one percent of the black population. All Northern states abolished slavery by 1804.
The official copy of the Declaration of Independence was the one printed on July 4, 1776, under Jefferson 's supervision. It was sent to the states and to the Army and was widely reprinted in newspapers. The slightly different "engrossed copy '' (shown at the top of this article) was made later for members to sign. The engrossed version is the one widely distributed in the 21st century. Note that the opening lines differ between the two versions.
The copy of the Declaration that was signed by Congress is known as the engrossed or parchment copy. It was probably engrossed (that is, carefully handwritten) by clerk Timothy Matlack. A facsimile made in 1823 has become the basis of most modern reproductions rather than the original because of poor conservation of the engrossed copy through the 19th century. In 1921, custody of the engrossed copy of the Declaration was transferred from the State Department to the Library of Congress, along with the United States Constitution. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the documents were moved for safekeeping to the United States Bullion Depository at Fort Knox in Kentucky, where they were kept until 1944. In 1952, the engrossed Declaration was transferred to the National Archives and is now on permanent display at the National Archives in the "Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom ''.
The document signed by Congress and enshrined in the National Archives is usually regarded as the Declaration of Independence, but historian Julian P. Boyd argued that the Declaration, like Magna Carta, is not a single document. Boyd considered the printed broadsides ordered by Congress to be official texts, as well. The Declaration was first published as a broadside that was printed the night of July 4 by John Dunlap of Philadelphia. Dunlap printed about 200 broadsides, of which 26 are known to survive. The 26th copy was discovered in The National Archives in England in 2009.
In 1777, Congress commissioned Mary Katherine Goddard to print a new broadside that listed the signers of the Declaration, unlike the Dunlap broadside. Nine copies of the Goddard broadside are known to still exist. A variety of broadsides printed by the states are also extant.
Several early handwritten copies and drafts of the Declaration have also been preserved. Jefferson kept a four - page draft that late in life he called the "original Rough draught ''. It is not known how many drafts Jefferson wrote prior to this one, and how much of the text was contributed by other committee members. In 1947, Boyd discovered a fragment of an earlier draft in Jefferson 's handwriting. Jefferson and Adams sent copies of the rough draft to friends, with slight variations.
During the writing process, Jefferson showed the rough draft to Adams and Franklin, and perhaps to other members of the drafting committee, who made a few more changes. Franklin, for example, may have been responsible for changing Jefferson 's original phrase "We hold these truths to be sacred and undeniable '' to "We hold these truths to be self - evident ''. Jefferson incorporated these changes into a copy that was submitted to Congress in the name of the committee. The copy that was submitted to Congress on June 28 has been lost and was perhaps destroyed in the printing process, or destroyed during the debates in accordance with Congress 's secrecy rule.
On April 21, 2017, it was announced that a second engrossed copy had been discovered in the archives at West Sussex County Council in Chichester, England. Named by its finders the "Sussex Declaration '', it differs from the National Archives copy (which the finders refer to as the "Matlack Declaration '') in that the signatures on it are not grouped by States. How it came to be in England is not yet known, but the finders believe that the randomness of the signatures points to an origin with signatory James Wilson, who had argued strongly that the Declaration was made not by the States but by the whole people.
The Declaration was given little attention in the years immediately following the American Revolution, having served its original purpose in announcing the independence of the United States. Early celebrations of Independence Day largely ignored the Declaration, as did early histories of the Revolution. The act of declaring independence was considered important, whereas the text announcing that act attracted little attention. The Declaration was rarely mentioned during the debates about the United States Constitution, and its language was not incorporated into that document. George Mason 's draft of the Virginia Declaration of Rights was more influential, and its language was echoed in state constitutions and state bills of rights more often than Jefferson 's words. "In none of these documents '', wrote Pauline Maier, "is there any evidence whatsoever that the Declaration of Independence lived in men 's minds as a classic statement of American political principles. ''
Many leaders of the French Revolution admired the Declaration of Independence but were also interested in the new American state constitutions. The inspiration and content of the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789) emerged largely from the ideals of the American Revolution. Its key drafts were prepared by Lafayette, working closely in Paris with his friend Thomas Jefferson. It also borrowed language from George Mason 's Virginia Declaration of Rights. The declaration also influenced the Russian Empire. The document had a particular impact on the Decembrist revolt and other Russian thinkers.
According to historian David Armitage, the Declaration of Independence did prove to be internationally influential, but not as a statement of human rights. Armitage argued that the Declaration was the first in a new genre of declarations of independence that announced the creation of new states.
Other French leaders were directly influenced by the text of the Declaration of Independence itself. The Manifesto of the Province of Flanders (1790) was the first foreign derivation of the Declaration; others include the Venezuelan Declaration of Independence (1811), the Liberian Declaration of Independence (1847), the declarations of secession by the Confederate States of America (1860 -- 61), and the Vietnamese Proclamation of Independence (1945). These declarations echoed the United States Declaration of Independence in announcing the independence of a new state, without necessarily endorsing the political philosophy of the original.
Other countries have used the Declaration as inspiration or have directly copied sections from it. These include the Haitian declaration of January 1, 1804, during the Haitian Revolution, the United Provinces of New Granada in 1811, the Argentine Declaration of Independence in 1816, the Chilean Declaration of Independence in 1818, Costa Rica in 1821, El Salvador in 1821, Guatemala in 1821, Honduras in (1821), Mexico in 1821, Nicaragua in 1821, Peru in 1821, Bolivian War of Independence in 1825, Uruguay in 1825, Ecuador in 1830, Colombia in 1831, Paraguay in 1842, Dominican Republic in 1844, Texas Declaration of Independence in March 1836, California Republic in November 1836, Hungarian Declaration of Independence in 1849, Declaration of the Independence of New Zealand in 1835, and the Czechoslovak declaration of independence from 1918 drafted in Washington D.C. with Gutzon Borglum among the drafters. The Rhodesian declaration of independence, ratified in November 1965, is based on the American one as well; however, it omits the phrases "all men are created equal '' and "the consent of the governed ''. The South Carolina declaration of secession from December 1860 also mentions the U.S. Declaration of Independence, though it, like the Rhodesian one, omits references to "all men are created equal '' and "consent of the governed ''.
Interest in the Declaration was revived in the 1790s with the emergence of the United States 's first political parties. Throughout the 1780s, few Americans knew or cared who wrote the Declaration. But in the next decade, Jeffersonian Republicans sought political advantage over their rival Federalists by promoting both the importance of the Declaration and Jefferson as its author. Federalists responded by casting doubt on Jefferson 's authorship or originality, and by emphasizing that independence was declared by the whole Congress, with Jefferson as just one member of the drafting committee. Federalists insisted that Congress 's act of declaring independence, in which Federalist John Adams had played a major role, was more important than the document announcing it. But this view faded away, like the Federalist Party itself, and, before long, the act of declaring independence became synonymous with the document.
A less partisan appreciation for the Declaration emerged in the years following the War of 1812, thanks to a growing American nationalism and a renewed interest in the history of the Revolution. In 1817, Congress commissioned John Trumbull 's famous painting of the signers, which was exhibited to large crowds before being installed in the Capitol. The earliest commemorative printings of the Declaration also appeared at this time, offering many Americans their first view of the signed document. Collective biographies of the signers were first published in the 1820s, giving birth to what Garry Wills called the "cult of the signers ''. In the years that followed, many stories about the writing and signing of the document were published for the first time.
When interest in the Declaration was revived, the sections that were most important in 1776 were no longer relevant: the announcement of the independence of the United States and the grievances against King George. But the second paragraph was applicable long after the war had ended, with its talk of self - evident truths and unalienable rights. The Constitution and the Bill of Rights lacked sweeping statements about rights and equality, and advocates of groups with grievances turned to the Declaration for support. Starting in the 1820s, variations of the Declaration were issued to proclaim the rights of workers, farmers, women, and others. In 1848, for example, the Seneca Falls Convention of women 's rights advocates declared that "all men and women are created equal ''.
John Trumbull 's painting Declaration of Independence has played a significant role in popular conceptions of the Declaration of Independence. The painting is 12 - by - 18 - foot (3.7 by 5.5 m) in size and was commissioned by the United States Congress in 1817; it has hung in the United States Capitol Rotunda since 1826. It is sometimes described as the signing of the Declaration of Independence, but it actually shows the Committee of Five presenting their draft of the Declaration to the Second Continental Congress on June 28, 1776, and not the signing of the document, which took place later.
Trumbull painted the figures from life whenever possible, but some had died and images could not be located; hence, the painting does not include all the signers of the Declaration. One figure had participated in the drafting but did not sign the final document; another refused to sign. In fact, the membership of the Second Continental Congress changed as time passed, and the figures in the painting were never in the same room at the same time. It is, however, an accurate depiction of the room in Independence Hall, the centerpiece of the Independence National Historical Park in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Trumbull 's painting has been depicted multiple times on U.S. currency and postage stamps. Its first use was on the reverse side of the $100 National Bank Note issued in 1863. A few years later, the steel engraving used in printing the bank notes was used to produce a 24 - cent stamp, issued as part of the 1869 Pictorial Issue. An engraving of the signing scene has been featured on the reverse side of the United States two - dollar bill since 1976.
The apparent contradiction between the claim that "all men are created equal '' and the existence of American slavery attracted comment when the Declaration was first published. As mentioned above, Jefferson had included a paragraph in his initial draft that strongly indicted Great Britain 's role in the slave trade, but this was deleted from the final version. Jefferson himself was a prominent Virginia slave holder, having owned hundreds of slaves. Referring to this seeming contradiction, English abolitionist Thomas Day wrote in a 1776 letter, "If there be an object truly ridiculous in nature, it is an American patriot, signing resolutions of independency with the one hand, and with the other brandishing a whip over his affrighted slaves. ''
In the 19th century, the Declaration took on a special significance for the abolitionist movement. Historian Bertram Wyatt - Brown wrote that "abolitionists tended to interpret the Declaration of Independence as a theological as well as a political document ''. Abolitionist leaders Benjamin Lundy and William Lloyd Garrison adopted the "twin rocks '' of "the Bible and the Declaration of Independence '' as the basis for their philosophies. "As long as there remains a single copy of the Declaration of Independence, or of the Bible, in our land, '' wrote Garrison, "we will not despair. '' For radical abolitionists such as Garrison, the most important part of the Declaration was its assertion of the right of revolution. Garrison called for the destruction of the government under the Constitution, and the creation of a new state dedicated to the principles of the Declaration.
The controversial question of whether to add additional slave states to the United States coincided with the growing stature of the Declaration. The first major public debate about slavery and the Declaration took place during the Missouri controversy of 1819 to 1821. Antislavery Congressmen argued that the language of the Declaration indicated that the Founding Fathers of the United States had been opposed to slavery in principle, and so new slave states should not be added to the country. Proslavery Congressmen led by Senator Nathaniel Macon of North Carolina argued that the Declaration was not a part of the Constitution and therefore had no relevance to the question.
With the antislavery movement gaining momentum, defenders of slavery such as John Randolph and John C. Calhoun found it necessary to argue that the Declaration 's assertion that "all men are created equal '' was false, or at least that it did not apply to black people. During the debate over the Kansas -- Nebraska Act in 1853, for example, Senator John Pettit of Indiana argued that the statement "all men are created equal '' was not a "self - evident truth '' but a "self - evident lie ''. Opponents of the Kansas -- Nebraska Act, including Salmon P. Chase and Benjamin Wade, defended the Declaration and what they saw as its antislavery principles.
The Declaration 's relationship to slavery was taken up in 1854 by Abraham Lincoln, a little - known former Congressman who idolized the Founding Fathers. Lincoln thought that the Declaration of Independence expressed the highest principles of the American Revolution, and that the Founding Fathers had tolerated slavery with the expectation that it would ultimately wither away. For the United States to legitimize the expansion of slavery in the Kansas - Nebraska Act, thought Lincoln, was to repudiate the principles of the Revolution. In his October 1854 Peoria speech, Lincoln said:
Nearly eighty years ago we began by declaring that all men are created equal; but now from that beginning we have run down to the other declaration, that for some men to enslave others is a "sacred right of self - government ''.... Our republican robe is soiled and trailed in the dust.... Let us repurify it. Let us re-adopt the Declaration of Independence, and with it, the practices, and policy, which harmonize with it.... If we do this, we shall not only have saved the Union: but we shall have saved it, as to make, and keep it, forever worthy of the saving.
The meaning of the Declaration was a recurring topic in the famed debates between Lincoln and Stephen Douglas in 1858. Douglas argued that the phrase "all men are created equal '' in the Declaration referred to white men only. The purpose of the Declaration, he said, had simply been to justify the independence of the United States, and not to proclaim the equality of any "inferior or degraded race ''. Lincoln, however, thought that the language of the Declaration was deliberately universal, setting a high moral standard to which the American republic should aspire. "I had thought the Declaration contemplated the progressive improvement in the condition of all men everywhere, '' he said. During the seventh and last joint debate with Steven Douglas at Alton, Illinois on October 15, 1858, Lincoln said about the declaration:
I think the authors of that notable instrument intended to include all men, but they did not mean to declare all men equal in all respects. They did not mean to say all men were equal in color, size, intellect, moral development, or social capacity. They defined with tolerable distinctness in what they did consider all men created equal -- equal in "certain inalienable rights, among which are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. '' This they said, and this they meant. They did not mean to assert the obvious untruth that all were then actually enjoying that equality, or yet that they were about to confer it immediately upon them. In fact, they had no power to confer such a boon. They meant simply to declare the right, so that the enforcement of it might follow as fast as circumstances should permit. They meant to set up a standard maxim for free society which should be familiar to all, constantly looked to, constantly labored for, and even, though never perfectly attained, constantly approximated, and thereby constantly spreading and deepening its influence, and augmenting the happiness and value of life to all people, of all colors, everywhere.
According to Pauline Maier, Douglas 's interpretation was more historically accurate, but Lincoln 's view ultimately prevailed. "In Lincoln 's hands, '' wrote Maier, "the Declaration of Independence became first and foremost a living document '' with "a set of goals to be realized over time ''.
Abraham Lincoln, 1858
Like Daniel Webster, James Wilson, and Joseph Story before him, Lincoln argued that the Declaration of Independence was a founding document of the United States, and that this had important implications for interpreting the Constitution, which had been ratified more than a decade after the Declaration. The Constitution did not use the word "equality '', yet Lincoln believed that the concept that "all men are created equal '' remained a part of the nation 's founding principles. He famously expressed this belief in the opening sentence of his 1863 Gettysburg Address: "Four score and seven years ago (i.e. in 1776) our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. ''
Lincoln 's view of the Declaration became influential, seeing it as a moral guide to interpreting the Constitution. "For most people now, '' wrote Garry Wills in 1992, "the Declaration means what Lincoln told us it means, as a way of correcting the Constitution itself without overthrowing it. '' Admirers of Lincoln such as Harry V. Jaffa praised this development. Critics of Lincoln, notably Willmoore Kendall and Mel Bradford, argued that Lincoln dangerously expanded the scope of the national government and violated states ' rights by reading the Declaration into the Constitution.
In July 1848, the first woman 's rights convention, the Seneca Falls Convention, was held in Seneca Falls, New York. The convention was organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott, Mary Ann McClintock, and Jane Hunt. In their "Declaration of Sentiments '', patterned on the Declaration of Independence, the convention members demanded social and political equality for women. Their motto was that "All men and women are created equal '' and the convention demanded suffrage for women. The suffrage movement was supported by William Lloyd Garrison and Frederick Douglass.
The Declaration was chosen to be the first digitized text (1971).
The Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence was dedicated in 1984 in Constitution Gardens on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., where the signatures of all the original signers are carved in stone with their names, places of residence, and occupations.
The new One World Trade Center building in New York City (2014) is 1776 feet high to symbolize the year that the Declaration of Independence was signed.
The adoption of the Declaration of Independence was dramatized in the 1969 Tony Award -- winning musical 1776 and the 1972 film version, as well as in the 2008 television miniseries John Adams. In 1970, The 5th Dimension recorded the opening of the Declaration on their album Portrait in the song "Declaration ''. It was first performed on the Ed Sullivan Show on December 7, 1969, and it was taken as a song of protest against the Vietnam War. The Declaration of Independence is also a plot device in the 2004 American film National Treasure.
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