question
stringlengths 15
100
| context
stringlengths 18
412k
|
|---|---|
what is the s p 500 ticker symbol | S&P 500 index - Wikipedia
The Standard & Poor 's 500, often abbreviated as the S&P 500, or just the S&P, is an American stock market index based on the market capitalizations of 500 large companies having common stock listed on the NYSE or NASDAQ. The S&P 500 index components and their weightings are determined by S&P Dow Jones Indices. It differs from other U.S. stock market indices, such as the Dow Jones Industrial Average or the Nasdaq Composite index, because of its diverse constituency and weighting methodology. It is one of the most commonly followed equity indices, and many consider it one of the best representations of the U.S. stock market, and a bellwether for the U.S. economy. The National Bureau of Economic Research has classified common stocks as a leading indicator of business cycles.
The S&P 500 was developed and continues to be maintained by S&P Dow Jones Indices, a joint venture majority - owned by S&P Global. S&P Dow Jones Indices publishes many stock market indices such as the Dow Jones Industrial Average, S&P MidCap 400, the S&P SmallCap 600, and the S&P Composite 1500. David M. Blitzer has overall responsibility for index security selection. The S&P 500 is a capitalization - weighted index, and is associated with many ticker symbols, such as: ^ GSPC, INX, and $ SPX, depending on market or website.
The "Composite Index '', as the S&P 500 was first called when it introduced its first stock index in 1923, began tracking a small number of stocks. Three years later in 1926, the Composite Index expanded to 90 stocks and then in 1957 it expanded to its current 500. Standard & Poor 's, a company that doles out financial information and analysis, was founded in 1860 by Henry Varnum Poor. In 1941, Poor 's Publishing (Henry Varnum Poor 's original company) merged with Standard Statistics (founded in 1906 as the Standard Statistics Bureau) and therein assumed the name Standard and Poor 's Corporation. Its primary daily stock market index was the "S&P 90 '', a value - weighted index based on 90 stocks. Standard & Poor 's also published a weekly index of the stocks of 425 industrial companies. The S&P 500 index in its present form began on March 4, 1957. Technology has allowed the index to be calculated and disseminated in real time. The S&P 500 is widely used as a measure of the general level of stock prices, as it includes both growth stocks and value stocks.
In September 1962, Ultronic Systems Corp. entered into an agreement with Standard and Poor 's. Under the terms of this agreement, Ultronics computed the S&P 500 Stock Composite Index, the 425 Stock Industrial Index, the 50 Stock Utility Index, and the 25 Stock Rail Index. Throughout the market day these statistics were furnished to Standard & Poor 's. In addition, Ultronics also computed and reported the 94 S&P sub-indexes.
On August 12, 1982, the index closed at 102.42.
The index reached a relative intraday high -- which was not exceeded for over seven years -- of 1,552.87, on March 24, 2000, during the dot - com bubble. The index then declined by approximately 50 %, to 768.63, on October 10, 2002, during the stock market downturn of 2002. On May 30, 2007, the S&P 500 closed at 1,530.23, to set its first all - time closing high in more than seven years. Although the index achieved a new all - time intraday high on October 11, 2007, at 1,576.09, following a record close of 1,565.15 on October 9, the index finished 2007 at 1,468.36 points -- just below its 1999 annual close. Less than a month later, it dropped to 1,400, and would not see similar levels again for five years.
In mid-2007, the subprime mortgage crisis spread to the wider U.S. financial sector. The resulting situation became acute in September 2008, ushering in a period of unusual market volatility, encompassing record 100 - point swings in both directions and reaching the highest levels since 1929. On November 20, 2008, the index closed at 752.44, its lowest since early 1997. A modest recovery the following day still left the index down 45.5 % for the year. This year - to - date loss was the greatest since 1931, when the broad market declined more than 50 %. The index closed the year at 903.25, for a loss of 38.5 %. The market continued to decline in early 2009, surrounding the financial crisis of 2008. The index reached a nearly 13 - year low, closing at 676.53, on March 9, 2009.
On March 23, 2009, the S&P 500 marked a 20 % gain when it hit 822.92. The Dow Jones Industrial Average soon followed. The close for 2009 was 1,115.10, making it the second - best year of the decade. On April 14, 2010 the index broke 1200 closing at 1210.65, but by July 2, 2010 it had closed at 1022.58. On April 29, 2011, the index closed at 1363.61, but it had a sharp drop in August and briefly broke 1100 in October (with the VIX hitting 40). Gains continued despite significant volatility amid electoral and fiscal uncertainty, and the 2012 close of the S&P 500 following QE3 was its third - highest ever, at 1,426.22 points. On March 28, 2013, it closed above the closing high from 2007. On April 10, 2013, it also closed above the intraday high from 2007.
On May 3, 2013 -- more than 13 years since its first close above 1,500 -- the S&P 500 closed above 1,600 for the first time, at 1,614.42. This would be the first of three 100 - point milestones in 2013: 1,600 on May 3, 2013; 1,700 on August 1, 2013; and 1,800 on November 22, 2013. The S&P 500 closed out 2013 at a record high, finishing the December 31, 2013, trading day at 1,848.36. On May 23, 2014, the index for the first time closed above 1,900, at 1,900.53. On August 26, 2014, the index closed above 2,000 for the very first time, and on December 22 the S&P 500 climbed to 2078, an all - time high. The index closed on December 29 at 2,090.57 with a closing of 2,058.90 at the end of 2014. This was a gain of 85 % (in price return, and 105 % in total return) for the five years 2010 -- 2014. On February 17, 2015, the index first closed above 2,100, closing at 2,100.34. On February 25, 2015 it reached 2,119.59 during mid-day, and on the following day it closed at record high of 2,115.48. On May 21, 2015, the index closed at 2,130.82, its high point for the year. At the end of 2015, the index closed at 2,043.94, down 0.73 % for the year. A period of over a year with no new record highs ended on July 11, 2016 (closing at 2,137.16). In June 2017, the index saw the largest weekly rise since the past presidential election in November 2016.
The components of the S&P 500 are selected by a committee. This is similar to the Dow Jones Industrial Average, but different from others such as the Russell 1000, which are strictly rule - based. When considering the eligibility of a new addition, the committee assesses the company 's merit using eight primary criteria: market capitalization, liquidity, domicile, public float, sector classification, financial viability, and length of time publicly traded and stock exchange. Each of these primary criteria have specific requirements that must be met. For example, in order to be added to the index, a company must satisfy the following liquidity - based size requirements:
The committee selects the companies in the S&P 500 so they are representative of the industries in the United States economy. The securities must be publicly listed on either the NYSE (including NYSE Arca or NYSE MKT) or NASDAQ (NASDAQ Global Select Market, NASDAQ Select Market or the NASDAQ Capital Market). Securities that are ineligible for inclusion in the index are limited partnerships, master limited partnerships, OTC bulletin board issues, closed - end funds, ETFs, ETNs, royalty trusts, tracking stocks, preferred stock, unit trusts, equity warrants, convertible bonds, investment trusts, ADRs, ADSs and MLP IT units.
The index includes non-U.S. companies, both formerly U.S. - incorporated companies that have re-incorporated outside the United States, as well as firms that have never been incorporated in the United States.
The "S&P 500 '' generally quoted is a price return index; there are also "total return '' and "net total return '' versions of the index. These versions differ in how dividends are accounted for. The price return version does not account for dividends; it only captures the changes in the prices of the index components. The total return version reflects the effects of dividend reinvestment. Finally, the net total return version reflects the effects of dividend reinvestment after the deduction of withholding tax.
Standard & Poor 's now calculates the market capitalization of each company relevant to the index using only the number of shares available for public trading (called the "float ''). The index has traditionally been capitalization - weighted; that is, movements in the prices of stocks with higher market capitalizations (the share price times the number of shares outstanding) had a greater impact on the value of the index than do companies with smaller market caps. The transition from capitalization - weighted to market capitalization was made in two steps, the first on March 18, 2005 and the second on September 16, 2005.
In order to keep the S&P 500 Index consistent over time, it is adjusted to capture corporate actions which affect market capitalization, such as additional share issuance, dividends and restructuring events such as mergers or spin - offs. Additionally, to remain indicative of the U.S. stock market, the constituent stocks are changed from time to time.
To prevent the value of the Index from changing merely as a result of corporate financial actions, all such actions affecting the market value of the Index require a divisor adjustment. Also, when a company is dropped and replaced by another with a different market capitalization, the divisor needs to be adjusted in such a way that the value of the S&P 500 Index remains constant. All divisor adjustments are made after the close of trading and after the calculation of the closing value of the S&P 500 Index. There is a large range of different corporate actions that can require the divisor to be adjusted. These are listed in the table below:
To calculate the value of the S&P 500 Index, the sum of the adjusted market capitalization of all 500 stocks is divided by a factor, usually referred to as the Divisor. For example, if the total adjusted market cap of the 500 component stocks is US $13 trillion and the Divisor is set at 8.933 billion, then the S&P 500 Index value would be 1,455.28. Although the adjusted market capitalization of the entire index can be accessed from Standard & Poor 's website, the Divisor is considered to be proprietary to the firm. However, the Divisor 's value is approximately 8.9 billion.
The formula to calculate the S&P 500 Index value is:
where P is the price of each stock in the index and Q is the number of shares publicly available for each stock.
The divisor is adjusted in the case of stock issuance, spin - offs or similar structural changes, to ensure that such events do not in themselves alter the numerical value of the Index.
The index value is updated every 15 seconds during trading sessions and is disseminated by Reuters America, Inc., a subsidiary of Thomson Reuters Corporation.
Many index funds and exchange - traded funds attempt to replicate (before fees and expenses) the performance of the S&P 500 by holding the same stocks as the index, in the same proportions. Many other mutual funds are benchmarked to the S&P 500. Consequently, a company whose stock is added to the list of S&P 500 stocks may see its stock price rise, as index funds must purchase that company 's stock in order to continue tracking the S&P 500 index. Mutual fund managers provide index funds that track the S&P 500, the first of which was The Vanguard Group 's Vanguard 500 in 1976.
In addition to investing in a mutual fund indexed to the S&P 500, investors may also purchase shares of an exchange - traded fund (ETF) which represents ownership in a portfolio of the equity securities that comprise the Standard & Poor 's 500 Index. These exchange - traded funds track the S&P 500 index and may be used to trade the index.
Investors may also invest in all the stocks of the S&P 500 directly, which is usually called index replication.
In the derivatives market, the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME) offers futures contracts (ticker symbols / SP for the full - sized contract and / ES for the E-mini contract that is one - fifth the size of / SP) that track the index and trade on the exchange floor in an open outcry auction, or on CME 's Globex platform, and are the exchange 's most popular product. Additionally, the Chicago Board Options Exchange (CBOE) offers options on the S&P 500 as well as S&P 500 ETFs, inverse ETFs and leveraged ETFs.
On October 11, 2007, S&P index set a milestone with its all - time intraday high of 1,576.09. On March 28, 2013, the S&P finally surpassed its closing high level of 1,565.15, recovering all its losses from the financial crisis. On March 2, 2015, the S&P finally closed at a new all - time inflation - adjusted closing high, though it has yet to achieve a new all - time inflation - adjusted intraday high, both of which were set back in 2000.
(total return) Calculation used for CAGR (Compound Annual Growth Rate, Annualized Return):
CAGR = ((Ending Value) / (Starting Value)) ∧ (1 / (# of years)) -- 1
The current CAGR through 2017 is calculated at 10.53 %.
|
who do the avengers fight in the next movie | Avengers: Infinity War - wikipedia
Avengers: Infinity War is a 2018 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics superhero team the Avengers, produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. It is the sequel to 2012 's The Avengers and 2015 's Avengers: Age of Ultron, and the nineteenth film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). The film is directed by Anthony and Joe Russo, written by Christopher Markus and Stephen McFeely, and features an ensemble cast including Robert Downey Jr., Chris Hemsworth, Mark Ruffalo, Chris Evans, Scarlett Johansson, Benedict Cumberbatch, Don Cheadle, Tom Holland, Chadwick Boseman, Paul Bettany, Elizabeth Olsen, Anthony Mackie, Sebastian Stan, Danai Gurira, Letitia Wright, Dave Bautista, Zoe Saldana, Josh Brolin, and Chris Pratt. In Avengers: Infinity War, the Avengers and the Guardians of the Galaxy attempt to stop Thanos from amassing the all - powerful Infinity Stones.
The film was announced in October 2014 as Avengers: Infinity War -- Part 1. The Russo brothers came on board to direct in April 2015 and by May, Markus and McFeely had signed on to write the script for the film, which drew inspiration from Jim Starlin 's 1991 The Infinity Gauntlet comic and Jonathan Hickman 's 2013 Infinity comic. In 2016, Marvel shortened the title to Avengers: Infinity War. Filming began in January 2017 at Pinewood Atlanta Studios in Fayette County, Georgia, and lasted until July 2017, shooting back - to - back with a direct sequel. Additional filming took place in Scotland, England, the Downtown Atlanta area, and New York City. With an estimated budget in the range of $316 -- 400 million, it is one of the most expensive films ever made.
Avengers: Infinity War held its world premiere on April 23, 2018 in Los Angeles and was released in the United States on April 27, 2018, in IMAX and 3D. The film received generally positive reviews from critics, who praised the cast, visual effects, emotional weight of the story, and action scenes. It has grossed over $1.9 billion worldwide, making it the fourth highest - grossing film of all time, as well as the highest - grossing film of 2018, the highest - grossing superhero film, and the sixth highest - grossing film in the United States and Canada. In its opening weekend, it grossed $641 million worldwide and $258 million domestically, setting the records for the highest - grossing openings for both. It also became the fastest film in history to reach a worldwide gross of $1 billion, doing so in 11 days. The untitled sequel is set to be released on May 3, 2019.
Having acquired the Power Stone from the planet Xandar, Thanos and his lieutenants -- Ebony Maw, Cull Obsidian, Proxima Midnight, and Corvus Glaive -- intercept the spaceship carrying the survivors of Asgard 's destruction. As they extract the Space Stone from the Tesseract, Thanos subdues Thor, overpowers Hulk, and kills Loki. Heimdall sends Hulk to Earth using the Bifröst before being killed. Thanos departs with his lieutenants and obliterates the spaceship.
Hulk crash - lands at the Sanctum Sanctorum in New York City, reverting to Bruce Banner. He warns Stephen Strange and Wong about Thanos ' plan to kill half of all life in the universe; in response, Strange recruits Tony Stark. Maw and Obsidian arrive to retrieve the Time Stone from Strange, drawing the attention of Peter Parker. Maw captures Strange, but fails to take the Time Stone due to an enchantment. Stark and Parker pursue Maw 's spaceship, Banner contacts Steve Rogers, and Wong stays behind to guard the Sanctum.
In Scotland, Midnight and Glaive ambush Wanda Maximoff and Vision in order to retrieve the Mind Stone in Vision 's forehead. Rogers, Natasha Romanoff, and Sam Wilson rescue them and take shelter with James Rhodes and Banner at the Avengers Compound. Vision offers to sacrifice himself by having Maximoff destroy the Mind Stone to keep Thanos from retrieving it. Rogers suggests they travel to Wakanda, which he believes has the resources to remove the stone without destroying Vision.
The Guardians of the Galaxy respond to a distress call from the Asgardian ship and rescue Thor, who surmises Thanos seeks the Reality Stone, which is in the possession of the Collector on Knowhere. Rocket and Groot accompany Thor to Nidavellir, where they and Eitri create a battle - axe capable of killing Thanos. On Knowhere, Peter Quill, Gamora, Drax, and Mantis find Thanos with the Reality Stone already in his possession. Thanos kidnaps Gamora, his adoptive daughter, who reveals the location of the Soul Stone to save her captive adoptive sister Nebula from torture. Thanos and Gamora travel to Vormir, where Red Skull, keeper of the Soul Stone, informs him the stone can only be retrieved by sacrificing someone he loves. Thanos reluctantly kills Gamora, earning the stone.
Nebula escapes captivity and asks the remaining Guardians to meet her on Thanos ' destroyed homeworld, Titan. Stark and Parker kill Maw and rescue Strange. Landing on Titan, they meet Quill, Drax, and Mantis. The group forms a plan to remove Thanos ' Infinity Gauntlet after Strange uses the Time Stone to view millions of possible futures, seeing only one in which Thanos loses. Thanos arrives, justifying his plans as necessary to ensure the survival of a universe threatened by overpopulation. The group subdues him until Nebula deduces that Thanos has killed Gamora. Enraged, Quill attacks him, allowing Thanos to break the group 's hold and overpower them. Stark is seriously wounded by Thanos, but is spared after Strange surrenders the Time Stone to Thanos.
In Wakanda, Rogers reunites with Bucky Barnes before Thanos ' army invades. The Avengers, alongside T'Challa and the Wakandan forces, mount a defense while Shuri works to extract the Mind Stone from Vision. Banner, unable to transform into the Hulk, fights in Stark 's Hulkbuster armor. Thor, Rocket, and Groot arrive to reinforce the Avengers; Midnight, Obsidian, and Glaive are killed and their army is routed. Thanos arrives and despite Maximoff 's attempt to destroy the Mind Stone, removes it from Vision, killing him.
Thor severely wounds Thanos, but Thanos activates the completed Infinity Gauntlet and teleports away. Half of all life across the universe disintegrates, including Barnes, T'Challa, Groot, Maximoff, Wilson, Mantis, Drax, Quill, Strange, and Parker. Stark and Nebula remain on Titan while Banner, M'Baku, Okoye, Rhodes, Rocket, Rogers, Romanoff, and Thor are left on the Wakandan battlefield. Meanwhile, Thanos rests on another planet.
In a post-credits scene, Nick Fury transmits a signal as he, Maria Hill, and others disintegrate. The transmitter displays a starburst insignia on a red - and - blue background.
Additionally, several other actors reprise their MCU roles: Danai Gurira as Okoye, the head of the Dora Milaje; Letitia Wright as T'Challa's sister Shuri; William Hurt as Thaddeus Ross, the U.S. Secretary of State; Kerry Condon as the voice of Stark 's A.I. F.R.I.D.A.Y.; Winston Duke as M'Baku, the leader of Wakanda 's mountain tribe the Jabari; Florence Kasumba as Ayo, a member of the Dora Milaje; Jacob Batalon as Parker 's friend Ned; Isabella Amara as Parker 's classmate Sally; Tiffany Espensen as Parker 's classmate Cindy; and Ethan Dizon as Parker 's classmate Tiny. Samuel L. Jackson and Cobie Smulders make uncredited cameos as Nick Fury and Maria Hill, the former director and deputy director of S.H.I.E.L.D, respectively, in the film 's post-credits scene.
Thanos ' henchmen, known collectively in the comics as the Black Order and in the film as the "Children of Thanos '', include Terry Notary as Cull Obsidian, Tom Vaughan - Lawlor as Ebony Maw, Carrie Coon as Proxima Midnight, and Michael James Shaw as Corvus Glaive. The foursome provided voices and motion - capture performances on set for their characters. As Coon was pregnant during filming, she mainly did facial capture for Proxima Midnight with some motion - capture, with stuntwoman Monique Ganderton standing - in and providing the rest on set. Ross Marquand portrays Johann Schmidt / Red Skull, the "Stonekeeper '' and former Nazi commander of Hydra during World War II. Marquand replaces Hugo Weaving, who had expressed reluctance to reprise the character from Captain America: The First Avenger. Avengers co-creator Stan Lee makes a cameo appearance in the film as Parker 's school bus driver, while screenwriter Stephen McFeely cameos as Secretary Ross 's aide. David Cross was invited to make a cameo appearance as Tobias Fünke, his character from the sitcom Arrested Development, which the Russo brothers had previously worked on; this was prevented by a scheduling conflict, but Fünke still appears in the film as a specimen in the Collector 's collection, played by an uncredited extra.
In October 2014, Marvel announced a two - part sequel to Avengers: Age of Ultron, titled Avengers: Infinity War. Part 1 was scheduled to be released on May 4, 2018, with Part 2 scheduled for May 3, 2019. In April 2015, Marvel announced that Anthony and Joe Russo would direct both parts of Avengers: Infinity War, with back - to - back filming expected to begin in 2016. The same month, Kevin Feige said that the Infinity War films would be two distinct films "because they (have) such shared elements, it felt appropriate... to (subtitle the films) like that. But I would n't call it one story that 's cut in half. I would say it 's going to be two distinct movies. '' By May 2015, Christopher Markus and Stephen McFeely had signed on to write the screenplays for both parts of the film, which draws inspiration from Jim Starlin 's 1991 "The Infinity Gauntlet '' comic and Jonathan Hickman 's 2013 "Infinity '' comic. Anthony Russo added the film was inspired by 1990s heist films, with Thanos "on a smash - and - grab (to acquire the Infinity Stones), and everybody 's trying to catch up the whole movie. '' In May 2016, the Russos revealed that they would retitle the two films, to further remove the misconception that they were one large film split in two, with Joe stating, "The intention is we will change (the titles), we just have n't come up with (them) yet. '' That July, Marvel revealed the film 's title would be shortened to simply Avengers: Infinity War.
Principal photography began on January 23, 2017, under the working title Mary Lou, at Pinewood Atlanta Studios in Fayette County, Georgia, with Trent Opaloch as director of photography. In early February, Marvel confirmed the involvement of Robert Downey Jr. as Tony Stark / Iron Man, Chris Pratt as Peter Quill / Star - Lord, and Tom Holland as Peter Parker / Spider - Man in the film. Additional filming took place in Scotland beginning in February 2017. The filming occurred in Edinburgh, Glasgow and the Scottish Highlands, with studio work taking place at Wardpark Studios in Cumbernauld. Filming also began at Durham Cathedral in Durham, England in early May 2017. In late June 2017, filming occurred in Downtown Atlanta, as well as Atlanta 's Central Park in early July, before moving to Queens, New York in the middle of the month. Filming concluded on July 14, 2017. For the film 's final scene, where Thanos emerges healed in a nipa hut, the filmmakers partnered with Indochina Productions, a studio based in Thailand, to acquire footage of the Banaue Rice Terraces at Ifugao, Philippines.
Later in July 2017, Joe Russo stated there were a couple of unfinished scenes for Infinity War that would be shot "in the next few months ''. In early March 2018, Disney moved the release of Infinity War in the United States to April 27, 2018, to have it be released the same weekend as some of its international markets. Visual effects for the film were created by Industrial Light & Magic, Framestore, Method Studios, Weta Digital, Double Negative, Cinesite, Digital Domain, Rise, Lola VFX, and Perception. With an estimated budget in the range of $316 -- 400 million, it is one of the most expensive films ever made.
In June 2016, Alan Silvestri, who composed the score for The Avengers, was revealed to be returning to score both Infinity War and its sequel. Silvestri started to record his score in January 2018, and concluded in late March. Silvestri felt working on the film "was a really different experience than anything I 'd done before, especially in regard to the approach and balancing quick shifts in tone. '' Ludwig Göransson 's theme from Black Panther is also used in the film. Hollywood Records and Marvel Music released the soundtrack album digitally on April 27, 2018, with a release on physical formats following on May 18. Two versions were released, a regular and deluxe edition, with the deluxe edition featuring some extended and additional tracks.
Avengers: Infinity War held its world premiere at the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles on April 23, 2018, screening also at the adjacent El Capitan Theatre and Grauman 's Chinese Theatre. It was released in most countries worldwide, including the United States, on April 27, 2018, with a few debuts beginning as early as April 25, and was shown in IMAX and 3D on select screens. In the United States, the film opened in 4,474 theaters, 408 of which were IMAX; this was the widest release for a Disney title ever and the second - widest ever after Despicable Me 3 's 4,529 theaters. Three of AMC Theatres ' locations screened the film for 24 hours straight, with 53 of their locations having showtimes at either 2 AM or 3 AM to accommodate demand. In India, the film had the biggest release ever for a Hollywood film, opening on nearly 2,000 screens in four languages. The film also screened in 515 4DX theaters in 59 countries. It was originally scheduled to be released on May 4, 2018 in the United States.
Select footage from the film was screened around various cities during the film 's press tour in early April, ahead of the film 's Los Angeles premiere. The Russos noted that only a limited amount of the film would be shown at these screenings to reduce the chance of spoilers being leaked. Adam Chitwood of Collider commented that this was "highly unusual as most Marvel movies are screened in their entirety for press about a month before they hit theaters. '' Ahead of the United States release, AMC Theatres in New York City and Orlando, Florida aired an eleven - MCU film marathon beginning on April 25, leading to a screening of Infinity War. The El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles also had a similar marathon ahead of the film 's release.
In May 2017, Robert Downey Jr. and his philanthropic organization Random Act Funding partnered with Omaze to initiate a contest to benefit the organization. A randomly chosen winner from those that donated would receive an Infinity War set visit. A life - sized statue of Thanos, created by Legacy Effects, was on display at D23 Expo 2017, alongside statues of the Black Order / "Children of Thanos '': Corvus Glaive, Proxima Midnight, Ebony Maw, and Cull Obsidian. Additionally, Feige, Joe Russo, Downey, Brolin, Bettany, Olsen, Klementieff, Gillan, Bautista, Cheadle, Mackie, Cumberbatch, Stan, Holland, Boseman, Ruffalo and Hemsworth appeared at D23 Expo to present a clip highlighting the 10 years of MCU films, along with footage from Infinity War. The footage, which was screened exclusively for the panel, received strong audience reaction, with fans "literally on their feet and jumping as the footage played ''. Julia Alexander of Polygon commented, "to say that there was quite a bit happening in the trailer would be one hell of an understatement, but that 's not what got me excited about the promises Infinity War may deliver upon. Seeing Spider - Man in the same movie as Iron Man, Thor, Star - Lord and the Scarlet Witch finally feels like Marvel has made the movie it always wanted to -- and the one we 've always wanted to see. For nearly ten years we dreamt of this reality and to see it play across a massive screen... it was impossible to not feel emotional. '' CinemaBlend 's Eric Eisenberg said the footage left him "literally shaking '', with the film looking "like it could be one of the most epic blockbusters ever created, '' concluding "the hype (for the film) most definitely feels very, very real. '' Haleigh Foutch for Collider said, "It looks dark and dramatic, and utterly epic. It 's clear Marvel is trying to do something different here... to pay off a decade 's worth of narrative and world - building. While it 's impossible to tell from two minutes work of footage, it certainly looks like that gamble paid off. '' The D23 footage was also shown at the 2017 San Diego Comic - Con International. Due to the two convention presentations, Avengers: Infinity War generated over 90,000 new conversations on social media from July 17 to 23, the third-most during that time period behind Thor: Ragnarok and Justice League, according to comScore and its PreAct service. Infinity War stayed in third the following week, with over 41,000 new social media conversations, behind Ragnarok and It. By the week of October 16, Infinity War had generated over 679,000 total social media conversations.
To promote the release of the film 's first trailer, Marvel released "a retrospective video looking back at some of its best trailers '' since Iron Man, "paired with fan reaction videos to those trailers. '' The first trailer for Avengers: Infinity War debuted on Good Morning America on November 29, 2017. Josh Spiegel of The Hollywood Reporter said, "The trailer promises, in many ways, exactly what anyone with a passing familiarity with superhero movies would expect... '' but "the most important part of the trailer is how it carefully, deliberately introduces the notion that the Infinity War films are going to function as a passing of the torch, from one set of Avengers to a newer group. '' Scott Mendelson writing, for Forbes, noted that even though the trailer was not much different from the convention footage screened earlier in the year, it was "damn impressive. Moreover, it uses Nick Fury 's big "Avengers Initiative '' speech, along with Alan Silvestri 's Avengers theme, to excellent effect. '' Conversely to Mendelson, Alexander commented on the different marketing strategy for the film between the convention footage scenes and the trailer scenes, feeling the "two could n't be more different ''. She noted how the convention footage ("meant to please a crowd running on little sleep and jittery with anticipation '') was released between Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 and Thor: Ragnarok, and "(i) t made sense to use Thor and the Guardians to hype up (Infinity War)... '' because "Marvel relied on the anticipation of Thor: Ragnarok and Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 's success to excite fans, and footage of older movies set to classic Marvel scores as a way to drive home how this movie is an event in itself. '' Conversely, the trailer ("designed to explain what 's about to happen, teasing it out with additional background '') heavily featured Black Panther and Wakanda, which Alexander said could not have been done earlier, without the additional marketing for Black Panther that happened after the conventions to provide additional context. Gael Cooper of CNET observed that the trailer was viewed nearly 500,000 times in its first 15 minutes after it was posted on YouTube, but questioned if the trailer broke the site after the view counter appeared to be stuck at 467,331. The trailer was viewed 230 million times in its first 24 hours, becoming the most viewed trailer in that time period, surpassing the record of It.
In January 2018, Marvel Comics published a two - issue prequel comic titled Avengers: Infinity War Prelude, which serves as a bridge between Captain America: Civil War and Avengers: Infinity War. A commercial for Infinity War aired during Super Bowl LII. The ad generated the most social media buzz out of all the films advertised during the Super Bowl, according to comScore and United Talent Agency; it was viewed 17.6 million times across YouTube and Facebook. On February 27, 2018, Disney and Marvel announced the Marvel: The Universe Unites charity campaign leading to the release of merchandise for the film on March 3. The week - long event saw stars from the film create social media challenges to provide funds and raise awareness for charities that support children and families impacted by serious illness. If their collective posts reached 1 million likes, Marvel said they would make a $250,000 donation to Starlight Children 's Foundation. Additionally, Disney planned to donate 10 % of sales of all Marvel products purchased at Disney Stores in the United States and online on the weekend of March 3 to the Make - A-Wish Foundation, up to $50,000. Hasbro donated $1 million worth of cash and products to Give Kids the World Village and Funko made a $1 million toy donation to Starlight.
A second trailer was released on March 16, 2018, which earned over 1 million views on YouTube in less than three hours after it was released. Alyssa Rosenberg of The Washington Post was not overly enthused about another superhero film having "special - effects - heavy villains, or the sight of yet another mysterious object hanging over the Manhattan skyline, '' but felt the trailer made her realize "that I 'm actually looking forward to seeing (the characters of the MCU) get to know each other. '' Josh Spiegel of The Hollywood Reporter agreed with Rosenberg about the potential for character interactions, noting the trailer "suggests that some of these meetings are going to keep up the playful tone of recent MCU movies ''. He continued, "It is arguably gimmicky to pile up all of the crossover - style introductions or combinations of heroes in a movie like this, like a superpowered version of two well liked TV shows crossing over primarily in the hopes of getting more viewers to pay attention. But the entire Marvel Cinematic Universe is built on a foundation of these heroes existing within the same space, so their eventual meetings have a level of anticipation that exceeds that of watching them face off against Thanos. '' The second trailer was viewed 179 million times in the first 24 hours, the third-most viewed trailer in that time period, behind the first trailer for the film and It, while also becoming the biggest release for a second trailer, surpassing Beauty and the Beast (128 million views).
A week before the film 's release, the Burj Khalifa in Dubai was lit up each night for the film, counting down to its release. Marvel also featured tie - in events across seven of their mobile games to promote the film. In early May 2018, Marvel and Epic Games announced the "Infinity Gauntlet Limited Time Mashup '' mode for Fortnite Battle Royale, where players can find the Infinity Gauntlet hidden on the game map and become Thanos with added abilities. The Russo brothers were fans of Fortnite and approached Donald Mustard, the worldwide creative director of Epic Games, about the potential for a crossover between the properties. On November 20, 2018, Little, Brown and Company will publish Marvel 's Avengers: Infinity War: Thanos -- Titan Consumed, written by Barry Lyga. Despite not existing within Marvel Studios ' MCU canon, the novel explores the origins of Thanos before the events of the film. Lyga noted he spoke with Marvel Studios to get an "outline of who Thanos is and what he means to the movies, '' and "was given great latitude and a free hand (in some areas of the story), while in others I had to tip - toe very carefully through the MCU. ''
Additional marketing partners for the film included Coca - Cola, Quicken Loans and their Rocket Mortgage service, the Infiniti QX50 (which is also featured in the film), Ziploc, Go - Gurt, Yoplait, Synchrony Bank, American Airlines, and Stand Up to Cancer. The partners created television commercials "inspired by or featuring the film 's characters and themes '', interactive digital initiatives, and robust in - store presences at numerous retailers. Duracell, Unilever, Quaker Oats Company, Chevron, and Samsung ran promotions in smaller markets. Coca - Cola, Ziploc, Go - Gurt, and Yoplait created special packaging in support of the film, with Synchrony implementing a "Save Like a Hero '' campaign, and Stand Up to Cancer and American Airlines launching a national campaign with a PSA starring Johansson and Hemsworth. In the United Kingdom, OnePlus released an Infinity War edition for one of their smartphones. Deadline Hollywood estimated the media value was $150 million, the largest for any Marvel film, with Coca - Cola contributing an estimated $40 million.
Avengers: Infinity War is scheduled to be released on digital download and 4K UHD by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on July 31, 2018.
As of May 28, 2018, Avengers: Infinity War has grossed $627.6 million in the United States and Canada, and $1.287 billion in other territories, for a worldwide total of $1.915 billion. It is currently the fourth highest - grossing film of all time, as well as the highest - grossing film of 2018, the highest - grossing MCU film, and the highest - grossing superhero film.
Its worldwide opening weekend of $640.5 million is the biggest of all time, beating The Fate of the Furious ' $541.9 million. It crossed the $1 billion threshold at the worldwide box office in 11 days, becoming the fastest film to reach the milestone, eclipsing Star Wars: The Force Awakens ' record of 12 days. Also in its second weekend, Infinity War passed $13.5 million from 4DX screens, which was the all - time record for the format. With $140 million worldwide from IMAX, the film is the third - largest worldwide in the format, behind Avatar and The Force Awakens, and the largest gross for a Marvel film. In May 2018, two weeks after its release, Deadline Hollywood deduced the film had already broken even, and estimated its net profit would be around $600 million, accounting for production budgets, P&A, talent participations and other costs, with box office grosses and ancillary revenues from home media.
In December 2017, a survey from Fandango indicated that Infinity War was the most anticipated film of 2018. Fandango reported that Infinity War achieved the largest initial 24 - hour ticket pre-sales for a superhero film in just six hours, surpassing the record from Black Panther. Atom Tickets also reported that Infinity War sold more tickets in its first pre-sales day than Black Panther sold in its first month. Within 72 hours, the film generated the biggest amount of pre-sales for any superhero film at AMC Theatres. AMC noted that Infinity War 's advance ticket sales were 257.6 % ahead of Black Panther 's, 751.5 % ahead of Captain America: Civil War, and 1,106.5 % ahead of Avengers: Age of Ultron during the same time frame. Two weeks before its release, Fandango revealed that advance ticket sales for Infinity War were outpacing the last seven MCU films combined in the same timeframe, and had become the company 's top April release. It was also on pace to become the top superhero film, with Fandango 's Erik Davis noting, "Infinity War has built up such unprecedented anticipation that it 's pacing to break records, the likes of which we have never seen before for a superhero movie. '' A week before the film released, The Wall Street Journal noted the film had sold more than $50 million worth of advance tickets, behind only Star Wars: The Force Awakens (2015) and Star Wars: The Last Jedi (2017), with Fandango reporting that more than 2,500 showtimes had sold out. On Atom Tickets, Infinity War had the most pre-sale volume, selling 7 % higher than The Last Jedi and 250 % higher than Black Panther at the same point in their sales. Atom also reported that ticket sales for Infinity War were doubling daily the week of its release, the fastest rate of increase the service has seen for any MCU title.
Avengers: Infinity War earned $106.7 million on its opening day in the United States and Canada (including $39 million from Thursday night previews), for an opening weekend total of $258.2 million. The Thursday night preview earning was the best for an MCU film (beating Avengers: Age of Ultron 's $27.6 million) and the fourth - best of all time, behind The Force Awakens ($57 million), The Last Jedi ($45 million) and Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 ($43.5 million). Fandango reported that $14 million of the $39 million came from ticket pre-sales from the company. The opening day gross was the second - best ever, behind The Force Awakens ' $119.1 million, its Saturday gross of $83 million was the best - ever Saturday gross, beating Jurassic World 's $69.6 million, and its Sunday gross of $69.2 million was the best - ever, beating The Force Awakens ' $60.5 million. The total weekend gross became highest - grossing opening weekend of all time, beating The Force Awakens ' $248 million. IMAX contributed $22.5 million to the opening weekend gross, which was the best opening for a Marvel film in the format and the third - biggest opening, behind The Force Awakens ($30 million) and The Last Jedi ($24.7 million). AMC reported that the film had the highest Friday and Saturday box office gross for a single title in the company 's history, while Fandango reported that approximately $84 million worth of tickets were sold through the service, approximately 30 %, which was the largest share of the weekend box office for any film in the company 's history. Avengers: Infinity War earned an additional $25 million the Monday after its opening weekend, which was the highest grossing Monday in April, beating Furious 7 ($14 million), and the second - best Monday gross for an MCU film, after Black Panther ($40.1 million). The next day, it earned $23.5 million, which was the highest grossing Tuesday for an MCU film, beating Black Panther ($20.8 million), and the highest grossing Tuesday in May, beating The Avengers ($17.6 million). It also tied The Force Awakens for the fastest to reach $300 million at five days.
The film remained number one in its second weekend, earning $115.5 million, which was the second - best second weekend ever after The Force Awakens ($149.2 million). Infinity War also surpassed $400 million in the weekend, doing so in nine days, becoming the second fastest film to reach that mark, again after The Force Awakens 's eight days. In its third weekend, Infinity War remained number one at the box office, and became the second - fastest film to surpass $500 million, doing so in 15 days (behind The Force Awakens 's 10 days). The weekend also saw its total domestic IMAX gross become $48.1 million, which was the highest for any MCU film. The film 's fourth weekend saw it come in second, behind Deadpool 2, and in its fifth it finished third behind Solo: A Star Wars Story and Deadpool 2. By May 23, Infinity War surpassed $600 million, becoming the second - fastest film to do so in 26 days, after The Force Awakens (12 days). It is currently the sixth highest - grossing film of all time and highest - grossing superhero film. The film is projected to gross $650 -- 675 million for its total final domestic gross.
Outside the United States and Canada, the film earned $382.7 million from 52 markets, opening number one in all, and became the number two opening internationally, behind The Fate of the Furious ($444.2 million). IMAX contributed $18.5 million, which was the best opening outside of the US, Canada, and China, surpassing The Force Awakens ($17.5 million). All - time opening weekend records were set in South Korea ($39.2 million), Mexico ($25.4 million), Brazil ($19.1 million), India (for a Western release, $18.6 million), the Philippines ($12.5 million), Thailand ($10 million), Indonesia ($9.6 million), Malaysia, Hong Kong, Vietnam, Central America, Peru, Chile, Ecuador, Venezuela, Bolivia, South Africa, Turkey, the United Arab Emirates, and West Africa, with many also setting opening day records. Australia opened with $6.7 million, which was the second biggest opening day of all time, behind The Force Awakens; it went on to have the second - highest opening weekend ever, with $23.2 million. France 's opening day gross of $3.9 million was the highest ever for the month of April and the largest ever for an MCU film, while the same amount in Italy was the third - highest opening day and biggest superhero and Disney opening ever. France went on to earn $17.7 million, the biggest superhero opening in the market. Denmark, Finland, Norway, Portugal, and Sweden had the best opening for a superhero film. The United Kingdom earned $8.9 million, which was the biggest MCU opening day and third highest opening day for a Disney film; it would go on to earn $41.4 million for the weekend, which was the third - highest of all time and the second - highest Disney opening. The United Kingdom also had the highest grossing Saturday ever. Argentina had the second highest opening day of all time, while Germany had the best superhero film opening day of all time, ultimately earning $14.7 million, which was the best superhero opening ever. Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Greece, Hungary, the Middle East, Poland, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Ukraine also broke superhero film records. Japan had the second - biggest opening for an MCU film with $9 million.
Avengers: Infinity War remained number one in its 54 markets in its second weekend. The $4.9 million opening day in Russia was the biggest of all time. Infinity War was also the first film in Russia to sell more than 1 million tickets in a single day, and went on to gross $17.6 million in the market, a new opening weekend record. IMAX contributed $2.2 million in the market, which was also an opening weekend record. In its third weekend, the film remained number one in a majority of its markets. Infinity War opened in China to $200 million (RMB 1.266 billion), which was the second highest opening weekend in local currency behind The Fate of the Furious ($184 million and RMB 1.352 million). IMAX contributed $20.5 million, which was the third - largest opening in China. Infinity War also broke China 's pre-sale record of 400 million yuan ($63 million). In India, Infinity War became the first Hollywood film to earn over ₹ 2 billion ($29.7 million), and became the highest grossing MCU film in the United Kingdom.
The film became the highest grossing release ever in Brazil, Indonesia, the Philippines, Central America, Bolivia, Venezuela, Latin America as a region, Mexico, Chile, Ecuador, Peru, Malaysia, Singapore, India (for a Western release), Vietnam, Indonesia, Thailand (for a Western release), and Mongolia, the second - highest in the Asia - Pacific region (for a Western release), Hong Kong, and South Korea (for a Western release) and the third - highest in China (for a Western release). It is also the highest - grossing superhero film in Belgium, Bosnia, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Macedonia, the Netherlands, Poland, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Switzerland, the United Arab Emirates, Ukraine, and the United Kingdom. As of May 28, 2018, the film 's top markets are China ($336.8 million), South Korea ($91.5 million), and the United Kingdom ($90.3 million). The film is currently the third highest - grossing film of all time in territories outside the United States and Canada.
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an 83 % approval rating based on 332 reviews, and an average rating of 7.4 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Avengers: Infinity War ably juggles a dizzying array of MCU heroes in the fight against their gravest threat yet, and the result is a thrilling, emotionally resonant blockbuster that (mostly) realizes its gargantuan ambitions. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the film a score of 68 out of 100, based on 53 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave it an 87 % overall positive score and a 68 % "definite recommend ''.
Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter praised the writers ' and directors ' ability to balance the large cast of characters, saying, "... writers Christopher Markus and Stephen McFeely and directors Anthony and Joe Russo, under the supervision of Marvel Films maestro Kevin Feige, acknowledge the traffic jam of egos and play it for laughs. '' Owen Gleiberman of Variety concurred, stating, Infinity War is a brashly entertaining jamboree, structured to show off each hero or heroine and give them just enough to do, and to update their mythologies without making it all feel like homework. '' Rolling Stone 's Peter Travers said the film is "too much of a good thing '' and wrote, "The Russo brothers have clearly never learned the concept that less is more. They 've used the premise of an Avengers reunion to put on a fireworks explosion of action and laughs that wo n't quit. '' Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun - Times called it Marvel 's "biggest and most ambitious movie yet '', but concluded "it 's certainly not the best. However, there 's plenty of action, humor and heart -- and some genuinely effective dramatic moments. '' Roeper went on to praise the film 's cast and Josh Brolin in particular, whom he called "the film 's most interesting performance ''. Gleiberman called Brolin 's motion capture performance "supremely effective '' and said, "Brolin infuses Thanos with his slit - eyed manipulative glower, so that the evil in this movie never feels less than personal. '' McCarthy wrote, "Brolin 's calm, considered reading of the character bestows this conquering beast with an unexpectedly resonant emotional dimension, making him much more than a thick stick figure of a supervillain. '' McCarthy also praised the film 's action sequences, saying "Infinity War brims with tensely spectacular combat sequences, even if the question of who 's going to win each one has that extravagantly arbitrary could - Mighty - Mouse - beat - up - Superman? quality. '' Gleiberman called the scale of the action, "astonishing '', and Travers wrote, "Avengers: Infinity War leaves viewers up in the air, feeling exhilarated and cheated at the same time, aching for a closure that never comes... at least not yet. '' Josh Spiegel, also of The Hollywood Reporter, said the film takes "a cue from the ending of The Empire Strikes Back in its super-sized finale; this is the equivalent of Han Solo frozen in the carbonite, on steroids. ''
A.O. Scott of The New York Times criticized the film 's reliance on other films in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, saying, "Considered on its own, as a single, nearly 2 - hour - 40 - minute movie, Avengers: Infinity War makes very little sense, '' but conceded that it "was never meant to be viewed or judged in isolation. '' Richard Brody of The New Yorker agreed, stating, "The insubstantiality of the film is n't due to the infinite yet flimsy malleability of C.G.I. gimmickry but, instead, to the dispersion of its drama throughout the many cinematic installations set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe. '' Stephanie Zacharek of Time said, "(It) is n't really a beginning, but more of a middle or an end with a new piece of yarn attached. You need to have seen and internalized every one of the previous 18 Marvel Cinematic Universe movies to fully get it. '' Justin Chang of the Los Angeles Times called it a "brisk, propulsive, occasionally rousing and borderline - gutsy continuation of a saga that finally and sensibly seems to be drawing to a close, '' but called its ultimate bid for catharsis "unsuccessful '', saying, "Not even the threat of universal annihilation, it seems, will keep this assembly line from chugging ahead with its signature polished, mechanized efficiency. '' Scott also criticized the action sequences, calling them "tedious and predictable '' and writing, "The noisy, bloated spectacles of combat were surely the most expensive parts of the movie, but the money seems less like an imaginative tool than a substitute for genuine imagination. '' Likewise, Zacharek said, "There 's no pacing in Avengers: Infinity War. It 's all sensation and no pulse. Everything is big, all of the time. ''
Avengers: Infinity War was nominated for three MTV Movie & TV Awards, including Best Movie, Best Villain (Josh Brolin), and Best Fight (Scarlett Johansson, Danai Gurira, Elizabeth Olsen vs. Carrie Coon).
An untitled sequel is scheduled to be released on May 3, 2019, with the Russos returning to direct, and Markus and McFeely once again writing the screenplay.
|
what is the current version of ie 11 | Internet Explorer 11 - wikipedia
Internet Explorer 11 (IE11) is the last version of the Internet Explorer web browser by Microsoft. It was officially released on 17 October 2013 for Windows 8.1 and on 7 November 2013 for Windows 7. The browser was also shipped with Windows 10 on its release on 29 July 2015, but Microsoft Edge is the default browser in this version of Windows. It is the default browser shipped with Windows Server 2016. After 12 January 2016, only the most recent version of Internet Explorer to be offered for installation on any given Windows operating system will continue to be supported with security updates, lasting until the end of the support lifecycle for that Windows operating system. On Windows 7, 8.1, and 10, only Internet Explorer 11 will receive security updates for the remainder of those Windows versions ' support lifecycles.
IE11 features redesigned developer tools, support for WebGL, enhanced scaling for high DPI screens, prerender and prefetch. After launch IE11 got support for HTTP / 2. In addition, IE11 supports Full Screen and Orientation APIs, CSS border image support, JavaScript enhancements, DOM mutation observers, Web Cryptography API, video text track support, encrypted media support and an improved HTML editor. IE11 uses Transport Layer Security v1. 2 as the default protocol for secure connections and deprecates RC4 cipher suite.
Internet Explorer 11 for Windows RT does not support Java and other add - ons.
In a November 2013 review by SitePoint, IE11 scored better than Google Chrome 30 and Firefox 26 in WebKit 's SunSpider test and Google 's WebGL test. It tied with Chrome for fastest in Microsoft 's fish aquarium benchmark for WebGL and came last in Google 's V8 performance benchmark. As a result of the speed improvements, the reviewer said "if you switched to Chrome for speed alone, you 're now using the wrong browser. '' IE11 was also observed to use less memory with multiple tabs open than contemporary versions of Chrome and Firefox.
In August 2015, SitePoint again benchmarked IE11 in its review for Microsoft Edge, where Edge 12, Chrome 44 and Firefox 39 were also present. IE11 came last in Apple 's JetSteam test (which replaced SunSpider) and Google 's Octane test (which replaces V8) but it came second in Microsoft 's fish aquarium test, after Edge.
Though an internal build of IE11 was leaked on 25 March 2013, its first preview version was not formally released until June 2013, during the Build 2013 conference, along with the preview release of Windows Server 2012 R2 and Windows 8.1. On 25 July 2013, Microsoft released the developer preview of Internet Explorer 11 for Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2.
Windows 8.1 only: cryptography (WebCrypto), adaptive bitrate streaming (Media Source Extensions), Encrypted Media Extensions, SPDY v3
While there was no other releases of Internet Explorer, Enterprise Mode, improved developer tools, improved support for WebGL and ECMAScript 5.1 were added in 2 April 2014 for Windows 7 and 8.1, with an update.
|
what is the name of israeli special forces | Israeli special forces units - wikipedia
Special forces units in the Israel Defense Forces encompass a broad definition of specialist units. Such units are usually a company or a battalion in strength.
Sayeret (Hebrew: סיירת, pl.: sayarot), or reconnaissance units in the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) nomenclature, specialize in intelligence gathering and surveillance. In practice, these units specialize in commando and other special forces roles, in addition to reconnaissance (the degree of specialization varies by units and current needs).
Mista'arvim (Hebrew: מסתערבים , lit. Arabized; Arabic: مستعربين , Musta'arabin), also spelled as mistaravim, are counter-terrorism units in whose members are specifically trained to operate undercover, in enemy territory, in order to assassinate or capture wanted terrorists.
Commando Unit 101, the founding Israeli special forces unit, was established and commanded by Ariel Sharon on orders from Prime Minister David Ben - Gurion in August 1953. They were armed with non-standard weapons and tasked with carrying out retribution operations across the state 's borders -- in particular, establishing small unit maneuvers, activation and tactical insertion and exit tactics.
Members of the unit were recruited only from agricultural Kibbutzs and Moshavs. Membership in the unit was by invitation only, and any new member had to be voted on by all existing members before they were accepted.
The unit was merged into the 890th Paratroop Battalion during January 1954, on orders of General Dayan, Chief of Staff, because he wanted their experience and spirit to be spread among all infantry units of IDF starting with the paratroopers. They are considered to have had a significant influence on the development of subsequent Israeli special forces units.
All combat brigades in the IDF have a unit with improved weaponry and training used for reconnaissance and special forces missions, trained to use advanced weapons and reconnaissance technology, as well as hand - to - hand combat. Historically the brigades used to only have one company - sized unit outfitted to do this job, known as Palsar (Hebrew contraction of: פלוגת - סיור, Plugat Siyur (singular) / Plugot Siyur (plural), "Reconnaissance Company ''). Although the Palsar are mostly oriented at battlefield support (which is their raison d'être), many have participated in special operations during recent years. All infantry units as well as some armored units have Palsar. While in the past there were differences between the Siyur units, due to the experiences of the past decades the IDF is now consolidating them into larger units with many different capabilities: battalion - sized units called Gadsar (contraction of Gdud Siyur, "Reconnaissance battalion ''). Each Gadsar is made up of three specialized Plugot (companies): demolitions and combat engineering (Plugat Habalah Handasit, or Palhan), reconnaissance (Plugat Siyur, Palsar) and anti-tank (Pluga Neged Tankim, or Palnat).
On late December 2015, some Ground Force special forces units have been assembled in the Oz Brigade.
Other SF units or Sayarot are larger units, operating directly under the General Staff. They are tasked with the most sensitive missions but they also support other conventional and SF units, if needed. Those units are Sayeret Matkal, Shayetet 13 and Shaldag.
These are the most well - known reconnaissance units. Their operators are proficient in long range solo navigation, as opposed to other special forces units in the IDF where long range navigation is done with a minimum of 2 fighters.
The regular five infantry brigades (Golani, Givati, Nahal, Kfir and the Paratroopers) operate their own Palsars (today joint with Pal'nat and Pal'han as "Gad'sar '' / G'dud Siur), the infantry Sayarot. Each unit is subordinate to a specific regiment command, though they are not restricted to it.
|
who dubbed pirates of the caribbean in hindi | Rajesh Khattar - Wikipedia
Rajesh Khattar (Hindi: राजेश खट्टर, born 24 September 1966) is an Indian television and film actor, voice actor and storywriter / screenwriter. He is fluent in the English, Hindi, Punjabi and Urdu languages. Khattar is an English (Hons.) graduate from Hansraj College, Delhi University. He is the father of actor Ishaan Khatter and the step - father of actor Shahid Kapoor. He has appeared in several television serials and films. For many years, Khattar has given his voice to dub more than 100 foreign films in Hindi. Khattar is best known for his Hindi voice as Captain Jack Sparrow, Iron Man, Ghost Rider and Shrek.
As a film actor, Khattar has worked in Hindi films like Don, Don 2, Khiladi 786, Race 2, the Satish Kaushik - directed Gang of Ghosts, Manjunath and Traffic. Khattar also appeared in English and other language TV series and TV films such as Sharpe 's Peril, the French series Fais pas ci, fais pas ça and German movie Gift (2017) directed by Daniel Harrich.
Khattar returned to Hindi television after 8 years with Beyhadh as Ashwin Mehrotra on Sony TV, followed by Kya Qusoor Hai Amala Ka? as Rishaan Malik on Star Plus. He also featured in Vikram Bhatt 's web series Spotlight on Viu. Khattar is currently acting in Bepannah as Harshvardhan Hooda on Colors TV.
As a Hindi voice - dubbing artist, Khattar has dubbed many famous celebrities including Hollywood actors Tom Hanks, Johnny Depp, Hugh Jackman, Robert Downey Jr., The Rock, Nicolas Cage, Lambert Wilson and Michael Fassbender.
Khattar owns an event and production company, Wide Span Entertainment, and is involved with producing ad movies and mega events.
|
when is amazon making a decision on hq2 | Amazon HQ2 - wikipedia
Amazon HQ2 is a proposed new corporate headquarters for online retailer and tech company Amazon in North America, to supplement the existing Seattle headquarters. Amazon announced the initiative, along with a request for proposals from governments and economic development organizations, in September 2017, attracting attention from more than 200 cities in Canada, the United States and Mexico. Amazon intends to have 50,000 workers at HQ2 and is planning to invest $5 billion in new construction. A shortlist of 20 finalists was announced January 18, 2018.
Amazon.com was founded in 1994 in Bellevue, Washington, and moved to leased space in the SoDo neighborhood of Seattle. As the company grew, it went through a series of office moves around Downtown Seattle, until announcing a move to a purpose - built headquarters campus in the South Lake Union neighborhood, then a light industrial enclave undergoing urban renewal. As of 2017, Amazon occupies 8.1 million square feet (750,000 m) of office space in 33 buildings, employing 40,000 white collar workers.
Amazon 's request for proposals outlined several core requirements, as well as optional preferences.
Optional preferences include airports with direct flights to Seattle, New York City, San Francisco, and Washington, D.C., urban locations, and proximity to major universities.
The deadline for Phase I bids was set at October 19, 2017. A final site is planned to be selected and announced in 2018, from a shortlist of 20 cities released in January.
As of October 23, 2017, 238 proposals had been submitted and received by Amazon, representing cities and regions from 54 states, provinces, districts, and territories. The only U.S. states that did not have a locality that submitted a formal proposal were Arkansas, Hawaii, Iowa, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Vermont and Wyoming. The Canadian provinces of New Brunswick and Saskatchewan also declined to bid, along with the Yukon Territory.
Sun Corridor, a Tucson, Arizona economic development firm, sent a 21 - foot saguaro cactus to Amazon in an attempt to promote the city 's bid. The gift was rejected due to the company 's corporate gifts policy, instead donating it to the Arizona - Sonora Desert Museum.
The city of Stonecrest, Georgia, a suburb of Atlanta, voted to de-annex 345 acres (140 ha) of land for Amazon to establish its own city named Amazon around its headquarters.
Sly James, mayor of Kansas City, Missouri, purchased 1,000 products from Amazon, which he donated to charity. James wrote 5 - star reviews for each one of them, in which every review mentioned positive attributes of Kansas City.
Primanti Brothers, a chain of sandwich shops based in Pittsburgh, offered free sandwiches to Amazon employees if they chose the city as their second headquarters.
The city of Birmingham, Alabama erected several giant Amazon boxes and dash buttons around public areas. The dash buttons sent out pre-generated tweets to lure Amazon to the city.
New York City Mayor Bill de Blasio announced that major landmarks in the city would be lit in orange to promote the city 's campaign for HQ2.
For one of Canada 's many bids, messages hoping to persuade Amazon to move to Calgary were sprayed onto sidewalks in Seattle 's South Lake Union neighborhood. During an Ottawa Senators hockey game, fans were encouraged to "make noise '' for the city of Ottawa 's Amazon bid.
Contrary to other cities, Little Rock, Arkansas, purchased a full - page ad in the Washington Post "breaking up '' with Amazon, where they described their decision to not submit a bid, while also touting the city 's positive attributes. A few days after the bid deadline, the campaign flew a banner plane over Seattle with the same message.
On January 18, 2018, Amazon announced its shortlist of 20 finalists for the HQ2 bidding process. The list focuses mainly on the East Coast and Midwest, with Los Angeles as the sole West Coast finalist. Toronto was the only finalist outside of the United States.
Amazon began tours of its finalist cities in late February. Bidding cities also signed non-disclosure agreements with Amazon for the duration of the bid process. NBC News reported in May that visits to the 20 finalists had been finished by Amazon and that it was close to making a decision.
The announcement came as a surprise in Seattle, where Amazon is actively expanding their South Lake Union campus and has 40,000 workers occupying almost 20 percent of the city 's office space. Former Seattle Mayor Ed Murray announced that he would begin conversations with Amazon about their long - term plans for the city, while the Seattle Metropolitan Chamber of Commerce characterized the announcement as a "wake - up call '' to improve the city 's business climate. Comparisons were made to Boeing 's decision to move their corporate headquarters from Seattle to Chicago in 2001, which came as a surprise to the city but ultimately only affected a few hundred corporate jobs.
Moody 's Analytics published an analysis of bidding metropolitan areas and determined that Austin, Texas, ranks highest among Amazon 's criteria, followed by Atlanta, Philadelphia, and Rochester, New York. The New York Times also completed an analysis which found Denver to be the best site based on Amazon 's criteria, followed closely by Boston and Washington D.C. Irish gambling site Paddy Power originally listed Atlanta as the odds on favorite to win HQ2, with 2 - to - 1 odds but, as of January 2018, lists Atlanta and Austin as sharing 3 - to - 1 odds of winning Amazon HQ2.
Steven Strauss, a visiting professor of public policy at Princeton University and an expert on economic development, in an editorial in USA Today suggested that metropolitan areas should be cautious about bidding too generously to win the Amazon bid. He points to examples where companies have gone bankrupt and / or not followed up on expansion plans and notes that it is possible cities could over pay (the so - called "winner 's curse '') by providing an overly generous incentive package that turns out to be a money - losing proposition for the municipality if all the promised jobs do n't materialize.
Conservative and liberal advocacy groups voiced their opposition to various tax breaks promised by cities in hopes of luring Amazon.
|
how much sports are there in the winter olympics | 2018 Winter Olympics - wikipedia
The 2018 Winter Olympics, officially known as the XXIII Olympic Winter Games (Korean: 제 23 회 동계 올림픽, translit. Jeisipsamhoe Donggye Ollimpik) and commonly known as PyeongChang 2018, was an international winter multi-sport event that was held between 9 and 25 February 2018 in Pyeongchang County, Gangwon Province, South Korea, with the opening rounds for certain events held on 8 February 2018, the eve of the opening ceremony.
Pyeongchang was elected as the host city in July 2011, during the 123rd IOC Session in Durban, South Africa. This was the first time that South Korea had hosted the Winter Olympics and the second Olympics held in the country overall, after the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul. It was the third time that an East Asian country had hosted the Winter Games, after Sapporo (1972) and Nagano (1998), both in Japan. It was also the first of three consecutive Olympics to be held in East Asia, the other two being the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo and the 2022 Winter Olympics in Beijing.
The Games featured 102 events in fifteen sports, with the addition of "big air '' snowboarding, mass start speed skating, mixed doubles curling, and mixed team alpine skiing to the Winter Olympic programme. 2,914 athletes from 92 NOCs competed, including the debuts of Ecuador, Eritrea, Kosovo, Malaysia, Nigeria and Singapore. After a state - sponsored doping program was exposed following the 2014 Winter Olympics, the Russian Olympic Committee was suspended, and selected athletes were allowed to compete neutrally under the IOC designation of "Olympic Athletes from Russia ''. Despite tense relations, North Korea agreed to participate in the Games, enter with South Korea during the opening ceremony as a unified Korea, and field a unified team in women 's ice hockey.
Norway led the total medal tally with 39, followed by Germany 's 31 and Canada 's 29. Germany and Norway were tied for the most gold medals won; both won fourteen golds. Host nation South Korea won seventeen medals, their highest medal haul at a Winter Olympics, five of which were gold.
Pyeongchang bid to host both the 2010 and 2014 Winter Olympics, but lost in the final rounds of voting to Vancouver and Sochi respectively.
Munich also launched a bid to host these Games. Prior to Beijing 's successful 2022 Winter Olympics bid, Munich would have become the first city to host both the Winter and the Summer Games, having previously hosted the 1972 Summer Olympics, but received only 25 votes. Annecy (in southeastern France) launched their own bid, which failed to secure public support from the local citizens. Their bid ended up receiving seven votes.
Pyeongchang was elected as the host city at the 123rd IOC Session in Durban in 2011, earning the necessary majority of at least 48 votes in just one round of voting, more votes than its competitors combined. With this, Pyeongchang became the third Asian city to host the Winter Games; the first two were in Japan, at Sapporo (1972) and Nagano (1998).
On 5 August 2011, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) announced the formation of the Pyeongchang 2018 Coordination Commission. On 4 October 2011, it was announced that the Organizing Committee for the 2018 Winter Olympics would be headed by Kim Jin - sun. The Pyeongchang Organizing Committee for the 2018 Olympic & Paralympic Winter Games (POCOG) was launched at its inaugural assembly on 19 October 2011. The first tasks of the organizing committee were putting together a master plan for the Games as well as forming a design for the venues. The IOC Coordination Commission for the 2018 Winter Olympics made their first visit to Pyeongchang in March 2012. By then, construction was already underway on the Olympic Village. In June 2012, construction began on a high - speed rail line that would connect Pyeongchang to Seoul.
The International Paralympic Committee met for an orientation with the Pyeongchang 2018 organizing committee in July 2012. Then - IOC President Jacques Rogge visited Pyeongchang for the first time in February 2013.
The Pyeongchang Organizing Committee for the 2018 Olympic & Paralympic Winter Games created Pyeongchang WINNERS in 2014 by recruiting university students living in South Korea to spread awareness of the Olympic Games through social networking services and news articles.
The Games ' medal designs were unveiled on 21 September 2017. Designed by Lee Suk - woo, they feature a pattern of diagonal ridges on both sides, with the front including the Olympic rings, and the obverse featuring the Games ' emblem, the event name and the discipline. The edge of the medals features extrusions of hangul alphabets, while the ribbons are made from a traditional South Korean textile.
The torch relay started on 24 October 2017 in Greece and ended at the start of the Olympics on 9 February 2018. On 1 November 2017 the relay entered Korea. The relay lasted 101 days. There were 7,500 torch bearers to represent the Korean population of 75 million people. There were also 2,018 support runners to guard the torch and act as messengers.
The torch and its bearers traveled by a diverse means of transportation, including by turtle ship in Hansando Island, sailboat on the Baengmagang River in Buyeo, marine cable car in Yeosu, zip - wire over Bamseom Island, steam train in the Gokseong Train Village, marine rail bike along the east coast in Samcheok, and by yacht in Busan Metropolitan City.
There were also robot torch relays in Jeju and Daejeon.
Most of the outdoor snow events were held in the county of Pyeongchang, while the downhill, combined and super-G events in the Alpine skiing were held in the neighboring county of Jeongseon. The indoor ice events were held in Pyeongchang 's neighboring city of Gangneung.
The Alpensia Sports Park in Daegwallyeong - myeon, Pyeongchang, was the focus of the 2018 Winter Olympics. It was home to the Olympic Stadium, the Olympic Village and most of the outdoor sports venues.
Additionally, a stand - alone outdoor sports venue was located in Bongpyeong - myeon, Pyeongchang:
Another stand - alone outdoor sports venue was located in Pyeongchang 's neighboring county of Jeongseon:
The Gangneung Olympic Park in the city of Gangneung includes four indoor sports venues, all in close proximity to one another.
Additionally, a stand - alone indoor sports venue was located in the grounds of Catholic Kwandong University.
Ticket prices for the 2018 Winter Olympics were announced in April 2016 and tickets went on sale in October 2016. Event tickets ranged in price from ₩ 20,000 (approx. US $ 17) to ₩ 900,000 (~ US $776) while tickets for the opening and closing ceremonies ranged from ₩ 220,000 (~ US $190) to ₩ 1.5 million (~ US $1293). The exact prices were determined through market research; around 50 % of the tickets were expected to cost about ₩ 80,000 (~ US $69) or less, and tickets in sports that are relatively unknown in the region, such as biathlon and luge, were made cheaper in order to encourage attendance. By contrast, figure skating and the men 's ice hockey gold - medal game carried the most expensive tickets of the Games.
As of 11 October 2017, domestic ticket sales for the Games were reported to be slow. Of the 750,000 seats allocated to South Koreans, only 20.7 % had been sold. International sales were more favorable, with 59.7 % of the 320,000 allocated tickets sold. However, as of 31 January 2018, 77 % of all tickets had been sold.
The opening ceremony of the 2018 Winter Olympics was held at the Pyeongchang Olympic Stadium on 9 February 2018; the US $100 million facility was only intended to be used for the opening and closing ceremonies of these Olympics and the subsequent Paralympics, and is scheduled to be demolished following their conclusion.
The 2018 Winter Olympics featured 102 events in 15 sports, making it the first Winter Olympics to surpass 100 medal events. Six new events in existing sports were introduced to the Winter Olympic program in Pyeongchang, including men 's and ladies ' big air snowboarding, mixed doubles curling, men 's and ladies ' mass start speed skating, and mixed team alpine skiing.
Numbers in parentheses indicate the number of medal events contested in each sport.
A total of 92 teams qualified at least one athlete to compete in the Games. The number of athletes who qualified per country is listed in the table below (number of athletes shown in parentheses). Six nations made their Winter Olympics debut: Ecuador, Eritrea, Kosovo, Malaysia, Nigeria and Singapore. Athletes from three further countries -- the Cayman Islands, Dominica and Peru -- qualified to compete, but all three National Olympic Committees returned the quota spots back to the International Ski Federation (FIS).
Under an historic agreement facilitated by the IOC, qualified athletes from North Korea were allowed to cross the Korean Demilitarized Zone into South Korea to compete in the Games. The two nations marched together under the Korean Unification Flag during the opening ceremony. A unified Korean team, consisting of 12 players from North Korea and 23 from South Korea, competed in the women 's ice hockey tournament under a special IOC country code designation (COR) following talks in Panmunjom on 17 January 2018. The two nations also participated separately: the South Korea team competed in every sport and the North Korea team competed in alpine skiing, cross-country skiing, figure skating and short track speed skating. See North Korea at the 2018 Winter Olympics for further details.
On 5 December 2017, the IOC announced that the Russian Olympic Committee had been suspended due to the Russian doping controversy and the investigation into the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi. Individual Russian athletes, who qualified and could demonstrate they had complied with the IOC 's doping regulations, were given the option to compete at the 2018 Games as "Olympic Athletes from Russia '' (OAR) under the Olympic flag and with the Olympic anthem played at any ceremony.
Apart from the respective delegations, North Korea and South Korea formed a unified Korean women 's ice hockey team. Russian athletes participated as Olympic Athletes from Russia (OAR) if individually cleared by the IOC.
To accommodate primetime broadcasts in the Americas, figure skating events were scheduled with morning start times; figure skating in particular has typically been one of the most popular Winter Olympic sports among U.S. viewers. This scheduling practice had an impact on the events themselves, including skaters having to adjust to the modified schedule, as well as the attendance levels of the sessions themselves.
Conversely, and somewhat controversially, eight of the eleven biathlon events were scheduled at night, making it necessary for competitors to ski and shoot under floodlights, with colder temperatures and blustery winds.
* Host nation (South Korea)
Three podium sweeps were recorded during the Games.
The closing ceremony of the 2018 Winter Olympics was held at the Pyeongchang Olympic Stadium on 25 February 2018, as Thomas Bach, the IOC president, declared the Games closed, and the cauldron extinguished.
Broadcast rights to the 2018 Winter Olympics in some countries were already sold as part of long - term broadcast rights deals, including the Games ' local rightsholder SBS, which in July 2011 had extended its rights to the Olympics through to 2024. SBS sub-licensed its rights to MBC and KBS.
On 29 June 2015, the IOC announced that Discovery Communications had acquired exclusive rights to the Olympics across all of Europe outside of Russia, from 2018 through to 2024. Discovery 's pan-European Eurosport networks were promoted as the main rightsholder of the Games, but Discovery free - to - air channels such as DMAX in Spain, Kanal 5 in Sweden and TVNorge in Norway, were also involved. Discovery was required to sub-licence at least 100 hours of coverage to free - to - air broadcasters in each market; some of these agreements required certain sports to be exclusive to Eurosport and its affiliated networks. The deal did not initially cover France due to France Télévisions ' rights, which run through to the 2020 Games. In the United Kingdom, Discovery held exclusive pay television rights under license from the BBC, in return for BBC sub-licencing the free - to - air rights to the 2022 and 2024 Olympics from Discovery.
Despite the Russian team being formally banned from competing under its flag in Pyeongchang, Russian state broadcaster Channel One, and sports channel Match TV, still committed to covering the Games with a focus on Russian athletes. Russia was not affected by the Eurosport deal, due to a pre-existing contract held by a marketing agency which runs through to 2024.
In the United States, the Games were once again broadcast by NBCUniversal properties under a long - term contract. As U.S. Eastern Time is fourteen hours behind Pyeongchang, morning events naturally fell within traditional U.S. prime time hours (8: 00 to 11: 00 pm). This allowed NBC to broadcast its prime time coverage live in all U.S. time zones, rather than showing "plausibly live '' delayed footage as they had in previous Olympics. As per previous Games, the ceremonies were still shown on TV via tape delay only, but NBC did, for the first time, offer live streaming of the opening ceremony online. Notably, figure skating events were deliberately scheduled for the morning in Pyeongchang to accommodate the network 's live broadcast to a peak U.S. audience in the evening.
NHK and Olympic Broadcasting Services (OBS) once again filmed portions of the Games, including 90 hours of footage of selected events and the opening ceremonies, in high - dynamic - range 8K resolution video. In South Korea, ATSC 3.0 digital terrestrial television at 4K resolution was introduced in 2017 in time for the Olympics. In the U.S., this footage was delivered in 4K by NBCUniversal parent Comcast to participating television providers, including its own Xfinity, as well as DirecTV and Dish Network. NBC 's Raleigh, North Carolina affiliate WRAL - TV also held demonstration viewings as part of its ATSC 3.0 test broadcasts.
The 2018 Winter Olympics were also used to showcase 5G wireless technologies, as part of a collaboration between domestic wireless sponsor KT, and worldwide sponsor Intel. Several venues were outfitted with 5G networks to facilitate features such as live camera feeds from bobsleds, and multi-camera views from cross-country and figure skating events. These were offered as part of public demonstrations coordinated by KT and Intel.
The emblem for the Games was unveiled on 3 May 2013. It is a stylised representation of the hangul letters ᄑ p and ᄎ ch, these being the initial sounds of 평창 Pyeongchang. The left - hand symbol is said to represent the Korean philosophical triad of heaven, earth and humanity (Korean: 천지인 cheon - ji - in), and the right - hand symbol represents a crystal of ice. In the emblem and all official materials, Pyeongchang was stylised in CamelCase as "PyeongChang '', in order to alleviate potential confusion with Pyongyang, the similarly - named capital of neighbouring North Korea.
The official mascots of the 2018 Winter Olympics and Paralympics were unveiled on 2 June 2016. The Olympic mascot, Soohorang (Korean: 수 호랑), is a white tiger. The mascot 's name is a portmanteau of "Sooho '', a Korean word for "protection '', and "Rang '' which is derived both from the Korean word for "tiger '' and from the name of a traditional Korean folk song originating from Gangwon Province. Tigers have a strong association with Korean culture and folklore.
In June 2017, Ubisoft announced that it would release an expansion pack for its winter sports video game Steep entitled Road to the Olympics, which features new game modes and content inspired by the 2018 Winter Olympics.
In November 2017, the IOC announced it would support and sponsor an Intel Extreme Masters StarCraft II tournament in Pyeongchang preceding the Games. Its support of the tournament as a de facto demonstration event came on the heels of a report by the IOC which recognised that eSports "could be considered as a sporting activity ''. The tournament was won by Sasha "Scarlett '' Hostyn of Canada; she became the second North American pro to place first at a major StarCraft II tournament in South Korea, and the first woman to win a major tournament.
The 2018 Winter Olympics saw increasing granularity in official sponsorships for technology vendors; Intel signed with the IOC to become part of its Worldwide Olympic Partner program, to promote 5G wireless technology, as well as broadcasting technology such as 360 - degree video and virtual reality. Alibaba Group was also named the official e-commerce and cloud services provider. These categories affected how the vendors were allowed to promote themselves within the context of the Olympics: Samsung could showcase VR experiences but only within the context of its own smartphones due to Intel 's sponsorship rights in relation to VR; Alibaba could not promote Alipay due to Visa Inc. sponsorship rights; and Intel could not promote end - user applications of 5G due to national sponsorship rights held by KT Corporation.
Due to the state of relations between North and South Korea, concerns were raised over the security of the 2018 Winter Olympics, especially in the wake of tensions over North Korean missile and nuclear tests. On 20 September 2017, South Korean president Moon Jae - in stated that the country would ensure the security of the Games. The next day, Laura Flessel - Colovic, the French Minister of Youth Affairs and Sports, stated that France would pull out of the Games if the safety of its delegation could not be guaranteed.
The next day, Austria and Germany raised similar concerns and also threatened to skip the Games. France later reaffirmed its participation. In early December 2017, the United States Ambassador to the United Nations, Nikki Haley, told Fox News that it was an "open question '' whether the United States was going to participate in the Games, citing security concerns in the region. However, days later the White House Press Secretary, Sarah Huckabee Sanders, stated that the United States would participate.
In his New Year 's address on 1 January 2018, North Korean leader Kim Jong - un proposed talks in Seoul over the country 's participation in the Games, which would be the first high - level talks between the North and South in over two years. Because of the talks, held on 9 January, North Korea agreed to field athletes in Pyeongchang. On 17 January 2018, it was announced that North and South Korea had agreed to field a unified Korean women 's ice hockey team at the Games, and to enter together under a Korean Unification Flag during the opening ceremony.
These moves were met with opposition in South Korea, including protests and online petitions; critics argued that the government was attempting to use the Olympics to spread pro-North Korean sentiment, and that the unified hockey team would fail. A rap video entitled "The Regret for Pyeongchang '' (평창 유감), which echoed this criticism and called the event the "Pyongyang Olympics '', went viral in the country. Japan 's foreign affairs minister Tarō Kōno warned South Korea to be wary of North Korea 's "charm offensive '', and not to ease its pressure on the country.
The South Korean President, Moon Jae - in, at the start of the Olympics shook hands with the sister of North Korean leader Kim Jong - un and a prominent figure of the regime, Kim Yo - jong. This marked the first time since the Korean War that a member of the ruling Kim dynasty had visited South Korea. In contrast, U.S. vice president Mike Pence met with Fred Warmbier (father of Otto Warmbier, who had died after being released from captivity in North Korea) and a group of North Korean defectors in Pyeongchang. American officials said that North Korea cancelled a meeting with Pence at the last minute.
At the closing ceremony, North Korea sent general Kim Yong - chol as its delegate. His presence was met with hostility from South Korean conservatives, as there were allegations that he had a role in the ROKS Cheonan sinking and other past attacks. The Ministry of Unification stated that "there is a limitation in pinpointing who was responsible for the incident. '' Although he is subject to sanctions, they did not affect his ability to visit the country for the Games.
Russia 's participation in the 2018 Winter Olympics was affected by the aftermath of its state - sponsored doping program. As a result, the IOC suspended the Russian Olympic Committee in December 2017, although Russian athletes whitelisted by the IOC were allowed to compete neutrally under the OAR (Olympic Athletes from Russia) designation. The official sanctions imposed by the IOC included: the exclusion of Russian government officials from the Games; the use of the Olympic Flag and Olympic Anthem in place of the Russian flag and anthem; and the submission of a replacement logo for the OAR uniforms.
By early January 2018, the IOC had banned 43 Russian athletes from competing in the 2018 Winter Olympics and all future Olympic Games (as part of the Oswald Commission). Of those athletes, 42 appealed against their bans to the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS) and 28 of the appeals were successful, but eleven of the athletes had their sanctions upheld due to the weight of evidence against them. The IOC stated that the court ruling did not prove that the 28 athletes were innocent and that they would not necessarily be invited to the 2018 Games. Three of the athletes who appealed are still awaiting their hearings.
The eventual number of neutral Russian athletes that participated at the 2018 Games was 168. These were selected from an original pool of 500 athletes that was put forward for consideration and, in order to receive an invitation to the Games, they were obliged to meet a number of pre-games conditions to rule out any possibility of doping.
Russian president Vladimir Putin and other officials had signalled in the past that it would be a humiliation if Russian athletes were not allowed to compete under the Russian flag. However, there were never actually any official plans to boycott the 2018 Games and in late 2017 the Russian government agreed to allow their athletes to compete at the Games as individuals under a neutral designation. Despite this public show of co-operation, there were numerous misgivings voiced by leading Russian politicians, including a statement from Putin himself saying that he believed the United States had used its influence within the IOC to "orchestrate the doping scandal ''. 86 % of the Russian population opposed participation at the Olympics under a neutral flag, and many Russian fans attended the Games wearing the Russian colours and chanting "Russia! '' in unison, in an act of defiance against the ban.
The IOC 's decision was heavily criticised by Jack Robertson, primary investigator of the Russian doping program on behalf of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), in whose opinion the judgement was commercially and politically motivated. He argued that not only was doping rife amongst Russian athletes but that there was no sign of it being eradicated. The CAS decision to overturn the life bans of 28 Russian athletes and restore their medals was also fiercely criticised, by Olympic officials, IOC president Thomas Bach and whistleblower Grigory Rodchenkov 's lawyer.
For the first time since 1998, the National Hockey League did not provide accommodations (including a break in the season for all teams during the Olympics) to allow its players to participate in the men 's ice hockey tournament. The NHL 's decision stemmed from their demands that the IOC cover the cost of insuring the NHL players who participated in the Games. Although the IOC did pay to insure NHL players in Sochi, the commission was unwilling to do so for Pyeongchang, and was concerned that the NHL 's demand could set a precedent for other professional sports bodies to follow. NHL Commissioner Gary Bettman added that a factor in the decision was that the IOC did not allow the NHL to promote the involvement of its players in the Olympics. The NHL secured the cooperation of the International Ice Hockey Federation and the IOC, who agreed to establish a blacklist forbidding national teams from nominating or accepting players under NHL contract to their Olympic rosters.
Other leagues, such as the Swedish Hockey League, did not close during the games, but teams had to accept that some players took part in the games instead of the league.
|
describe five links between neuroscience and the traditions of early childhood education | Educational neuroscience - wikipedia
Educational neuroscience (or neuroeducation, a component of Mind Brain and Education) is an emerging scientific field that brings together researchers in cognitive neuroscience, developmental cognitive neuroscience, educational psychology, educational technology, education theory and other related disciplines to explore the interactions between biological processes and education. Researchers in educational neuroscience investigate the neural mechanisms of reading, numerical cognition, attention and their attendant difficulties including dyslexia, dyscalculia and ADHD as they relate to education. Researchers in this area may link basic findings in cognitive neuroscience with educational technology to help in curriculum implementation for mathematics education and reading education. The aim of educational neuroscience is to generate basic and applied research that will provide a new transdisciplinary account of learning and teaching, which is capable of informing education. A major goal of educational neuroscience is to bridge the gap between the two fields through a direct dialogue between researchers and educators, avoiding the "middlemen of the brain - based learning industry ''. These middlemen have a vested commercial interest in the selling of "neuromyths '' and their supposed remedies.
The potential of educational neuroscience has received varying degrees of support from both cognitive neuroscientists and educators. Davis argues that medical models of cognition, "... have only a very limited role in the broader field of education and learning mainly because learning - related intentional states are not internal to individuals in a way which can be examined by brain activity ''. Pettito and Dunbar on the other hand, suggest that educational neuroscience "provides the most relevant level of analysis for resolving today 's core problems in education ''. Howard - Jones and Pickering surveyed the opinions of teachers and educators on the topic, and found that they were generally enthusiastic about the use of neuroscientific findings in the field of education, and that they felt these findings would be more likely to influence their teaching methodology than curriculum content. Some researchers take an intermediate view and feel that a direct link from neuroscience to education is a "bridge too far '', but that a bridging discipline, such as cognitive psychology or educational psychology can provide a neuroscientific basis for educational practice. The prevailing opinion, however, appears to be that the link between education and neuroscience has yet to realise its full potential, and whether through a third research discipline, or through the development of new neuroscience research paradigms and projects, the time is right to apply neuroscientific research findings to education in a practically meaningful way.
Several academic institutions around the world are beginning to devote resources and energy to the establishment of research centres focused on educational neuroscience research. For example, the Centre for Educational Neuroscience in London UK is an inter-institutional project between University College, London, Birkbeck and the Institute of Education. The centre brings together researchers with expertise in the fields of emotional, conceptual, attentional, language and mathematical development, as well as specialists in education and learning research with the aim of building a new scientific discipline (Educational Neuroscience) in order to ultimately promote better learning.
The emergence of educational neuroscience has been born out of the need for a new discipline that makes scientific research practically applicable in an educational context. Addressing the broader field of "mind, brain and education '', Kurt Fischer states, "The traditional model will not work. It is not enough for researchers to collect data in schools and make those data and the resulting research papers available to educators '', as this method excludes teachers and learners from contributing to the formation of appropriate research methods and questions.
Learning in cognitive psychology and neuroscience has focused on how individual humans and other species have evolved to extract useful information from the natural and social worlds around them. By contrast, education, and especially modern formal education, focuses on descriptions and explanations of the world that learners can not be expected to acquire by themselves. In this way, learning in the scientific sense, and learning in the educational sense can be seen as complementary concepts. This creates a new challenge for cognitive neuroscience to adapt to the real world practical requirements of educational learning. Conversely, neuroscience creates a new challenge for education, because it provides new characterizations of the current state of the learner -- including brain state, genetic state, and hormonal state - that could be relevant to learning and teaching. By providing new measures of the effects of learning and teaching, including brain structure and activity, it is possible to discriminate different types of learning method and attainment. For example, neuroscience research can already distinguish learning by rote from learning through conceptual understanding in mathematics.
The United States National Academy of Sciences published an important report, stressing that, "Neuroscience has advanced to the point where it is time to think critically about the form in which research information is made available to educators so that it is interpreted appropriately for practice -- identifying which research findings are ready for implementation and which are not. ''
In their book The Learning Brain, researchers from London 's "Centre for Educational Neuroscience '', Blakemore & Frith outline the developmental neurophysiology of the human brain that has given rise to many theories regarding educational neuroscience. One of the fundamental pillars supporting the link between education and neuroscience is the ability of the brain to learn. Neuroscience is developing and increasing our understanding of early brain development, and how these brain changes might relate to learning processes.
Almost all of the neurons in the brain are generated before birth, during the first three months of pregnancy, and the newborn child 's brain has a similar number of neurons to that of an adult. Many more neurons form than are needed, and only those that form active connections with other neurons survive. In the first year after birth the infant brain undergoes an intense phase of development, during which excessive numbers of connections between neurons are formed, and many of these excess connections must be cut back through the process of synaptic pruning that follows. This pruning process is just as important a stage of development as the early rapid growth of connections between brain cells. The process during which large numbers of connections between neurons are formed is called synaptogenesis. For vision and hearing (visual and auditory cortex), there is extensive early synaptogenesis. The density of connections peaks at around 150 % of adult levels between four and 12 months, and the connections are then extensively pruned. Synaptic density returns to adult levels between two and four years in the visual cortex. For other areas such as prefrontal cortex (thought to underpin planning and reasoning), density increases more slowly and peaks after the first year. Reduction to adult levels of density takes at least another 10 -- 20 years; hence there is significant brain development in the frontal areas even in adolescence. Brain metabolism (glucose uptake, which is an approximate index of synaptic functioning) is also above adult levels in the early years. Glucose uptake peaks at about 150 % of adult levels somewhere around four to five years. By the age of around ten years, brain metabolism has reduced to adult levels for most cortical regions. Brain development consists of bursts of synaptogenesis, peaks of density, and then synapse rearrangement and stabilisation. This occurs at different times and different rates for different brain regions, which implies that there may be different sensitive periods for the development of different types of knowledge. Neuroscience research into early brain development has informed government education policy for children under three years old in many countries including the USA and the United Kingdom. These policies have focused on enriching the environment of children during nursery and preschool years, exposing them to stimuli and experiences thought to maximise the learning potential of the young brain.
Although an increasing number of researchers are seeking to establish educational neuroscience as a productive field of research, debate still continues with regards to the potential for practical collaboration between the fields of neuroscience and education, and whether neuroscientific research really has anything to offer educators.
Daniel Willingham states that "whether neuroscience can be informative to educational theory and practice is not debatable - it has been. '' He draws attention to the fact that behavioural research alone was not decisive in determining whether developmental dyslexia was a disorder of primarily visual or phonological origin. Neuroimaging research was able to reveal reduced activation for children with dyslexia in brain regions known to support phonological processing, thus supporting behavioural evidence for the phonological theory of dyslexia.
While John Bruer suggests that the link between neuroscience and education is essentially impossible without a third field of research to link the two, other researchers feel that this view is too pessimistic. While acknowledging that more bridges must be built between basic neuroscience and education, and that so called neuromyths (see below) must be deconstructed, Usha Goswami suggests that cognitive developmental neuroscience has already made several discoveries of use to education, and has also led to the discovery of ' neural markers ' that can be used to assess development. In other words, milestones of neural activity or structure are being established, against which an individual can be compared in order to assess their development.
For example, event - related potential (ERP) research has uncovered several neural signatures of language processing, including markers of semantic processing (e.g. N400), phonetic processing (e.g. mismatch negativity) and syntactic processing (e.g. P600). Goswami points out that these parameters can now be investigated longitudinally in children, and that certain patterns of change may indicate certain developmental disorders. Furthermore, the response of these neural markers to focused educational interventions may be used as a measure of the intervention 's effectiveness. Researchers such as Goswami assert that cognitive neuroscience has the potential to offer various exciting possibilities to education. For special education, these include the early diagnosis of special educational needs; the monitoring and comparison of the effects of different kinds of educational input on learning; and an increased understanding of individual differences in learning and the best ways to suit input to learner.
A potential application of neuroimaging highlighted by Goswami is in differentiating between delayed development and atypical development in learning disorders. For instance, is a given child with dyslexia developing reading functions in a totally different way from typical readers, or is he / she developing along the same trajectory, but just taking longer to do so? Indeed, evidence already exists to suggest that in children with specific language impairments and dyslexia the development of the language system is delayed rather than fundamentally different in nature. In disorders such as autism however, brain development may be qualitatively different, showing a lack of development in brain regions associated with a "theory of mind ''.
Goswami also suggests that neuroimaging could be used to assess the impact of particular training programmes, such as the Dore, an exercise based programme based on the cerebellar deficit hypothesis that aims to improve reading through a series of balance exercises. Some brain imaging research is beginning to show that for children with dyslexia who receive targeted educational interventions, their brain activation patterns begin to look more like those of people without reading disorders, and in addition, that other brain regions are acting as compensatory mechanisms. Such findings may help educators understand that, even if dyslexic children show behavioural improvement, the neural and cognitive mechanisms by which they process written information may still be different, and this may have practical implications for the ongoing instruction of these children.
Neuroscience research has evidenced its ability to reveal ' neural markers ' of learning disorders, most notably in the case of dyslexia. EEG studies have revealed that human infants at risk of dyslexia (i.e. with immediate family members who suffer from dyslexia) show atypical neural responses to changes in speech sounds, even before they are able to understand the semantic content of language. Not only does such research allow for the early identification of potential learning disorders, but it further supports the phonological hypothesis of dyslexia in a manner unavailable to behavioural research.
Many researchers advocate a cautious optimism with regards to the marriage between education and neuroscience, and believe that to bridge the gap between the two, the development of new experimental paradigms is necessary and that these new paradigms should be designed to capture the relationships between neuroscience and education across different levels of analysis (neuronal, cognitive, behavioural).
Human language is a unique faculty of the mind and the ability to understand and produce oral and written language is fundamental to academic achievement and attainments. Children who experience difficulties with oral language raise significant challenges for educational policy and practice; National Strategies, Every Child a Talker, 2008). The difficulties are likely to persist during the primary school years where, in addition to core deficits with oral language, children experience problems with literacy, numeracy and behaviour and peer relations. Early identification and intervention to address these difficulties, as well as identification of the ways in which learning environments can support atypical language development are essential. Untreated speech and language needs result in significant costs both to the individual and to the national economy (ICAN, 2006).
Over the last decade, there has been a significant increase in neuroscience research examining young children 's processing of language at the phonetic, word, and sentence levels. There are clear indications that neural substrates for all levels of language can be identified at early points in development. At the same time, intervention studies have demonstrated the ways in which the brain retains its plasticity for language processing. Intense remediation with an auditory language processing program has been accompanied by functional changes in left temporo - parietal cortex and inferior frontal gyrus. However, the extent to which these results generalize to spoken and written language is debated.
The relationships between meeting the educational needs of children with language difficulties and the findings of neuroscience studies are not yet established. One concrete avenue for progress is to use neuroscientific methods to address questions that are significant to practice in learning environments. For example, the extent to which language skills are attributable to a single common trait, and the consistency of such a trait over development, are matters of debate. However, direct assessments of brain activity can inform these debates. A detailed understanding of the sub-components of the language system, and the ways these change over time may inevitably yield implications for educational practice.
Mathematical skills are important not only for the national economy but also for an individual 's life chances: low numeracy increases the probability of arrest, depression, physical illnesses, unemployment. One of the main causes of low numeracy is a congenital condition called dyscalculia. As the Foresight report on Mental Capital and Wellbeing puts it, "Developmental dyscalculia -- because of its low profile but high impacts, its priority should be raised. Dyscalculia relates to numeracy and affects between 4 - 7 % of children. It has a much lower profile than dyslexia but can also have substantial impacts: it can reduce lifetime earnings by £ 114,000 and reduce the probability of achieving five or more GCSEs (A * - C) by 7 -- 20 percentage points. Home and school interventions have again been identified by the Project. Also, technological interventions are extremely promising, offering individualised instruction and help, although these need more development. '' (Executive Summary, Section 5.3) Understanding typical and atypical mathematical development is a crucial underpinning for the design of both the mainstream mathematics curriculum and for helping those who fail to keep up. Over the past ten years, a brain system for simple number processing has been identified and a handful of studies of children 's brains that throw a little light on its development.
An increasing convergence of evidence suggests that dyscalculia may be due to a deficit in an inherited core system for representing the number of objects in a set, and how operations on sets affect number and in the neural systems that support these abilities. This core deficit affects the learner 's ability to enumerate sets and to order sets by magnitude, which in turn make it very difficult to understand arithmetic, and very hard to provide a meaningful structure for arithmetical facts. Twin and family studies suggest that dyscalculia is highly heritable, and genetic anomalies, such as Turner 's Syndrome, indicate an important role for genes in the X chromosome.
This suggestion that dyscalculia is caused by a deficits in a core deficit in number sense is analogous to the theory that dyslexia is due to a core deficit in phonological processing. Despite these similarities in terms of the scientific progress, public awareness of dyscalculia is much lower than it is for dyslexia. The UK 's Chief Scientific Advisor, John Beddington, notes that, "developmental dyscalculia is currently the poor relation of dyslexia, with a much lower public profile. But the consequences of dyscalculia are at least as severe as those for dyslexia. ''
The application of neuroscience to understanding mathematical processing has already resulted in understanding beyond the early cognitive theories. Cognitive neuroscience research has revealed the existence of an innate ' number sense ' system, present in animals and infants as well as adults, that is responsible for basic knowledge about numbers and their relations. This system is located in the parietal lobe of the brain in each hemisphere. This parietal system is active in children and adults during basic numerical tasks, but over the course of development it appears to become more specialised. Furthermore, children with mathematical learning disabilities (dyscalculia) show weaker activation in this region than typically developing children during basic number tasks. These results show how neuroimaging can provide important information about the links between basic cognitive functions and higher level learning, such as those between comparing two numbers and learning arithmetic.
In addition to this basic number sense, numerical information can be stored verbally in the language system, a system that neuroscience research is beginning to reveal as qualitatively different at the brain level to the number sense system. This system also stores information about other well learned verbal sequences, such as days of the week, months of the year and even poetry, and for numerical processing it supports counting and the learning of multiplication tables. While many arithmetic problems are so over learned that they are stored as verbal facts, other more complex problems require some form of visuo - spatial mental imagery. Showing that these subsets of arithmetic skills are supported by different brain mechanisms offers the opportunity for a deeper understanding of the learning processes required to acquire arithmetic proficiency.
Neuroimaging studies of mathematical learning disabilities are still rare but dyscalculia is an area of increasing interest for neuroscience researchers. Since different neural mechanisms contribute to different elements of mathematical performance, it may be that children with dyscalculia show variable patterns of abnormality at the brain level. For example, many children with dyscalculia also have dyslexia, and those that do may show different activation of the verbal networks that support maths, while those who have dyscalculia only, may show impairments of the parietal number sense system. Indeed, the few studies carried out on children with dyscalculia only point to a brain level impairment of the number sense system.
Such evidence is beginning to contribute to a theoretical debate between researchers who believe that dyscalculia is caused by a brain level deficit of the number sense and those who believe that the disorder stems from a problem in using numerical symbols to access the number sense information. With the continued development of theoretical models of dyscalculia that generate explicit testable hypotheses, progress should be rapid in developing research which investigates the link between mathematical learning disorders and their neural correlates.
In the last 10 years, there has been an explosion of interest in the role of emotional abilities and characteristics in contributing to success in all aspects of life. The concept of Emotional Intelligence (EI) has gained wide recognition and is featured in the Foresight report on Mental Capital and Wellbeing. Some have made influential claims that EI is more important than conventional cognitive intelligence, and that it can more easily be enhanced. Systematic research has yet to provide much support for these claims, although EI has been found to be associated with academic success and there is some evidence that it may be of particular importance for groups at - risk of academic failure and social exclusion. In spite of the weak evidence base, there has been a focus on promoting the social and emotional competence, mental health and psychological wellbeing of children and young people, particularly in schools as the result of the investment in universal services, prevention and early intervention (e.g., the Social and Emotional Aspects of Learning (SEAL) project in the UK (DfES, 2005, 2007)).
The neural basis of emotional recognition in typically developing children has been investigated, although there is little neuroimaging work on atypically developing children who process emotions differently. Males are commonly over-represented in these atypically developing populations and a female advantage is commonly reported both on EI measures and on most areas of emotion processing. In processing facial expressions the female advantage appears best explained by an integrated account considering both brain maturation and social interaction.
Prefrontal brain damage in children affects social behavior, causing insensitivity to social acceptance, approval or rejection. These brain areas process social emotions such as embarrassment, compassion and envy. Moreover, such damage impairs cognitive as well as social decision making in real world contexts supporting the Vygotskian view that social and cultural factors are important in cognitive learning and decision making. This view emphasizes the importance of bringing together neuroscientific and social constructionist perspectives, in this case in examining the influence of emotion on transferable learning.
However, there are currently many gaps in the attempt to bring together developmental science and neuroscience to produce a more complete understanding of the development of awareness and empathy. Educational research relies on pupil 's accurate self - report of emotion, which may not be possible for some pupils, e.g., those with alexithymia -- a difficulty in identifying and describing feelings, which is found in 10 % of typical adults. Emotional awareness can be measured using neuroimaging methods that show that differing levels of emotional awareness are associated with differential activity in amygdala, anterior insular cortex, and the medial prefrontal cortex. Studies of brain development in childhood and adolescence show that these areas undergo large - scale structural changes. Hence, the degree to which school - age children and young adults are aware of their emotions may vary across this time period, which may have an important impact on classroom behaviour and the extent to which certain teaching styles and curriculum approaches might be effective.
Neuroimaging work is also beginning to help in the understanding of social conduct disorders in children. For example, callous - unemotional traits in children are a particularly difficult problem for teachers to deal with, and represent a particularly serious form of conduct disturbance. Jones et al. (2009) showed that children with callous - unemotional traits revealed less brain activation in the right amygdala in response to fearful faces, suggesting that the neural correlates of that type of emotional disturbance are present early in development.
Researchers from the Centre for Educational Neuroscience in London have been instrumental in developing a research body that investigates how social cognition develops in the brain. In particular, Sarah - Jayne Blakemore, co-author of "The Learning Brain '', has published influential research on brain development related to social cognition during adolescence. Her research, suggests that activity in brain regions associated with emotional processing undergo significant functional changes during adolescence.
Attention refers to the brain mechanisms that allow us to focus on particular aspects of the sensory environment to the relative exclusion of others. Attention modulates sensory processing in "top - down '' fashion. Maintaining selective attention toward a particular item or person for a prolonged period is clearly a critical underpinning skill for the classroom. Attention is the key cognitive skill impaired in ADHD resulting in difficulty in completing tasks or attending to details. Aspects of attention may also be atypical in children showing anti-social behaviour and conduct disorders. From the perspective of basic neuroscience, recent evidence suggests that attention skills may be one of the human brain functions that respond best to early intervention and training (e.g.).
Further, from a neuroconstructivist perspective attention is a vital mechanism through which the child can actively select particular aspects of their environment for further learning. Executive functions include the abilities to inhibit unwanted information or responses, to plan ahead for a sequence of mental steps or actions, and to retain task - relevant and changing information for brief periods (working memory). Like attention, executive function abilities provide a critical platform for the acquisition of domain - specific knowledge and skills in an educational context. Further, recent studies show that preschool training of executive skills may prevent early school failure. Children with ADHD, anti-social behaviour, conduct disorders and autism can all show atypical patterns of executive function. Basic neuroscience studies have identified the primary brain structures and circuits involved in executive functions, including the prefrontal cortex, in adults. However, much research remains to be done to understand the development of this circuitry, and the genetic and neural bases of individual differences in executive function. Foresight Mental Capital and Wellbeing Project specifically identifies and highlights the importance of attention and executive function skills in the future challenges for difficulties in learning (sections 2.2. 4 and 2.4 in "Learning Difficulties: Future Challenges '').
Despite optimism from many who believe that neuroscience can make a meaningful contribution to education and that the potential exists for the establishment of a research field of educational neuroscience, some researchers believe that the differences between the two disciplines are too great for them to ever be directly linked in a practically meaningful way. In 1997 John Bruer published a major critique of what he called the "Neuroscience and education argument ''.
The ' neuroscience and education argument ' as Bruer defines it, stems from three major findings in developmental neurobiology.
The knowledge of early brain development afforded by neurobiology has been used to support various arguments with regards to education. For example, the idea that any subject can be taught to young children in some intellectually honest form, due to the great adaptability and learning potential of the young brain. Alternatively, the idea that critical periods exist for learning certain skills or knowledge sets appeals to the fact that in animal studies, if the developing brain is deprived of certain sensory inputs, the brain areas responsible for processing those inputs fail to develop fully later in development, and thus "if you miss the window, you are playing with a handicap ''.
One of Bruer 's major points of contention with reports in favour of neuroscience and education is the lack of actual neuroscience evidence. Reports such as Years of Promise: A Comprehensive Learning Strategy for America 's Children (Carnegie Corporation of New York, 1996) cite many cognitive and behavioural psychology studies, but no more than a handful of brain based studies, and yet draws dramatic inferences with regards to the role of the brain in learning.
Bruer argues that behavioural science can provide a basis for informing educational policy, but the link to neuroscience is "a bridge too far '', and the limitations of the application of neuroscience to education stem from the limitations of neuroscience knowledge itself. Bruer supports his critique by arguing the limitations of current knowledge regarding the three key tenets of the neuroscience and education argument. See Neuromyths.
Another problem is the discrepancy between spatial resolution of imaging methods and the spatial resolution of synaptic changes that are suggested to underlie learning processes. A similar problem is true with regards to the temporal resolution. This makes it hard to relate subcomponents of cognitive skills to brain function. However, the primary flaw of the education neuroscience argument in Bruer 's opinion is that it attempts to link what happens at the synaptic level to higher order learning and instruction. The terminology, "Mind, brain and education '' alludes to the idea that if we can not bridge education and neuroscience directly, then we can use two existing connections to inform education. These are the link between cognitive psychology and education, and between cognitive psychology and neuroscience.
Bruer contends that neuroscience in its current form has little to offer educators at the practical level. Cognitive science on the other hand, can serve as a basis for the development of an applied science of learning and education. Other researchers have suggested alternative bridges to the cognitive psychology suggested by Bruer. Mason suggests that the gap between education and neuroscience can be best bridged by educational psychology, which she outlines as being concerned with "developing descriptive, interpretive and prescriptive models of student learning and other educational phenomena ''.
Despite Willingham 's assertion that the potential for neuroscience to contribute to educational practice and theory is already beyond doubt, he highlights three challenges that must be overcome to marry the two disciplines effectively.
The Goals Problem: Willingham suggests that education is a so - called "artificial science '' that seeks to construct an ' artifact ', in this case a set of pedagogic strategies and materials. Neuroscience, on the other hand is a so - called "natural science '', concerned with the discovery of natural principles that describe neural structure and function. This difference means that some goals set by education are simply impossible to answer using neuroscience research, for example, the building of character or aesthetic sense in children.
The Vertical Problem: Levels of analysis: Willingham suggests that the highest level of analysis employed by neuroscientists is the mapping of brain structure and activity onto cognitive function, or even the interaction of cognitive functions (i.e. the impact of emotion on learning). Within neuroscience research these functions are studied in isolation for the sake of simplicity, and the nervous system as a whole, functioning in its entirety with all its huge composition of functional interactions, is not considered. For educators, on the other hand, the lowest level of analysis would be the mind of a single child, with levels increasing to incorporate the classroom, neighborhood, country etc.
Thus, importing research about a single cognitive factor in isolation, into a field in which context is essentially important creates an inherent difficulty. For example, while rote learning may be shown to improve learning in the research laboratory, the teacher can not implement that strategy without considering the impact on the child 's motivation. In return, it is difficult for neuroscientists to characterize such interactions in a research setting.
The Horizontal Problem: Translating research findings: While education theory and data are almost exclusively behavioral, findings from neuroscience research can take on many forms (e.g. electrical, chemical, spatial, temporal etc.). The most common form of data taken from neuroscience to education is the spatial mapping of brain activation to cognitive function. Willingham (2009) highlights the difficulty in applying such spatial information to educational theory. If a certain brain region is known to support a cognitive function relevant for education, what can actually be done with that information? Willingham suggests that this ' horizontal problem ' can be solved only when a rich body of behavioral data and theories already exist, and points out that such methods have already been successful in identifying subtypes of dyslexia (e.g.).
Willingham suggests that what is essential for a successful union of neuroscience and education is that both fields have realistic expectations of one another. For example, educators should not expect that neuroscience will provide prescriptive answers for educational practice, answers for educational goals that are incompatible with neuroscientific methods (e.g. aesthetic training), or levels of analysis beyond the individual level. Finally Willingham suggests that neuroscience will only be useful to educators when targeted at a specific problem at a fine grained level of analysis, such as how people read, but that these data will only be useful in the context of well developed behavioral theories.
Other researchers, such as Katzir & Pareblagoev have pointed out that neuroimaging methodology as it stands may not be suitable for the examination of higher level cognitive functions, because it relies primarily on the ' subtraction method '. By this method, brain activity during a simple control task is subtracted from that of a ' higher order ' cognitive task, thus leaving the activation that is related specifically to the function of interest. Katzir & Pareblagoev suggest that while this method may be very good for examining low level processing, such as perception, vision and touch, it is very hard to design an effective control task for higher order processing, such as comprehension in reading and inference making. Thus, some researchers argue that functional imaging technologies may not be best suited for the measurement of higher order processing. Katzir & Pareblagoev, suggest that this may not be a deficit of the technology itself, but rather of the design of experiments and the ability to interpret the results. The authors advocate using experimental measures in the scanner for which the behavioural data is already well understood, and for which there exists a strong theoretical framework.
Another recent review of the educational neuroscience debate by Varma, McCandliss and Schwartz focuses on eight primary challenges, divided into scientific challenges and practical challenges, facing the field, and attempts to transform those challenges into opportunities.
Methods: Neuroscience methods create artificial environments and thus can not provide useful information about classroom contexts. Furthermore, the concern is that if neuroscience begins to influence educational practice too heavily, there may be a de-emphasis of contextual variables, and solutions to educational problems may become primarily biological rather than instructional. However, Varma et al. argue that novel experimental paradigms create the opportunity to investigate context, such as brain activation following different learning procedures and that neuroimaging can also allow for the examination of strategic / mechanistic developmental changes that can not be tapped by reaction time and behavioural measures alone. Furthermore, Varma et al. cite recent research that shows that the effects of cultural variables can be investigated using brain imaging (e.g.), and the results used to draw implications for classroom practice.
Data: Knowing the brain region that supports an elementary cognitive function tells us nothing about how to design instruction for that function. However, Varma et al. suggest that neuroscience provide the opportunity for a novel analyses of cognition, breaking down behaviour into elements invisible at the behavioural level. For example, the question of whether different arithmetic operations show different speed and accuracy profiles is the result of different efficiency levels within one cognitive system versus the use of different cognitive systems.
Reductionist Theories: Applying neuroscience terminology and theory to educational practice is a reduction and is of no practical use to educators. Nothing is gained be redescribing a behavioural deficit in neuroscientific terms. Varma et al. point out that reductionism is a mode by which sciences are unified, and that the co-opting of neuroscience terminology does not necessitate the elimination of education terminology, it simply provides the opportunity for interdisciplinary communication and understanding.
Philosophy: Education and neuroscience are fundamentally incompatible, because attempting to describe behavioural phenomena in the classroom by describing physical mechanisms of the individual brain is logically wrong. However, neuroscience may help to resolve internal conflicts within education resulting from differing theoretical constructs and terminologies used within subfields of education by providing a measure of uniformity with regards to results reporting.
Costs: Neuroscience methods are highly expensive, and the expected outcomes do not justify the costs. However, Varma et al. point out that educationally relevant neuroscience may attract addition funding to education research rather than usurping resources. The essential claim of educational neuroscience is that the two fields are interdependent and that a portion of the funding allocated collectively to the two fields should be directed towards shared questions.
Timing: Neuroscience, while expanding rapidly, is still in relative infancy with regards to the non-invasive study of healthy brains, and thus education researchers should wait until more data is collected and distilled into succinct theories. Contrary to this, Varma et al. argue that some success is already evident. For example, studies examining the success of dyslexia remediation programmes have been able to reveal the impact of these programmes on the brain networks supporting reading. This in turn leads to the generation of new research questions.
Control: If education allows neuroscience in the door, theories will increasingly be cast in terms of neural mechanisms and debates will rely increasingly on neuroimaging data. Neuroscience will cannibalise resources and education research will lose its independence. Varma et al. argue that the assumption of an asymmetric relationship between the two fields is unnecessary. Education has the potential to influence neuroscience, directing future research into complex forms of cognition and education researchers can help Educational Neuroscience to avoid naïve experiments and repetition of earlier mistakes.
Neuromyths: Thus far most of the neuroscience findings applied to education have turned out to be neuromyths, irresponsible extrapolations of basic research to education questions. Furthermore, such neuromyths have escaped beyond academia and are being marketed directly to teachers, administrators and the public. Varma et al. respond that the existence of neuromyths reveals a popular fascination with brain function. Appropriate translation of educational neuroscience results and well established collaborative research can decrease the likelihood of neuromyths.
Researchers such as Katzir & Pareblagoev and Cacioppo & Berntson (1992) argue that as well as neuroscience informing education, the educational research approach can contribute to the development of new experimental paradigms in neuroscience research. Katzir and Pareblagoev (2006) suggest the example of dyslexia research as a model of how this bidirectional collaboration might be achieved. In this case, theories of reading processes have guided both the design and interpretation of neuroscience research, but the existing theories were developed primarily from behavioural work. The authors suggest that the establishment of theories, which delineate required skills and subskills for educationally relevant tasks, is an essential requirement for educational neuroscience research to be productive. Furthermore, such theories need to suggest empirically testable connections between educationally relevant behaviours and brain function.
Kurt Fischer, director of Harvard University 's Mind, Brain and Education graduate program states "One of the reasons there is so much junk out there is that there are so few people who know enough about education and neuroscience to put the thing together ''. Educators have been reliant upon others ' expertise for the interpretations from Neuroscience hence have not been able to discern whether the claims made are valid or invalid representations of the research. Without a direct access to the primary research educators may be at risk of misusing results from neuroscience research. The need for so called ' middlemen ' in the translation of research to practice has led to a situation where the application of cognitive neuroscience research findings is running ahead of the research itself.
In order to negate the need for middlemen, some researchers have suggested the need to developed a group of neuro - educators, a specially trained class of professionals whose role would be to guide the introduction of cognitive neuroscience into educational practice in a sensible and ethical manner. Neuro - educators would play a pivotal role in assessing the quality of evidence purporting to be relevant to education, assessing who is best placed to employ newly developed knowledge, and with what safeguards, and how to deal with unexpected consequences of implemented research findings.
Byrnes & Fox (1998) have suggested that developmental psychologists, educational psychologists and teachers generally fall into one of four orientations with respect to neuroscientific research "(1) those who readily accept (and sometimes over interpret) the results of neuroscientific studies; (2) those who completely reject the neuroscientific approach and consider the results of neuroscientific studies meaningless; (3) those who are unfamiliar with and indifferent toward, neuroscientific research; and (4) those who cautiously accept neuroscientific findings as being a proactive part of the total pattern of findings that have emerged from different corners of the cognitive and neural sciences ''. Greenwood (2009) suggests that as the body of knowledge available to educators increases, and the ability to be expert in all areas diminishes, the most productive standpoint would the fourth outlined by, that of cautious acceptance of neuroscientific findings and proactive collaboration.
Bennett & Rolheiser - Bennett (2001) point out that "teachers must be aware of and act on the science within the art of teaching ''. They suggest that educators must become aware of other methods and incorporate them into their practice. Furthermore, Bennett and Rolheiser - Bennett suggest that specific bodies of knowledge will play an important role in informing educators when making important decisions with regards to the "design of learning environments ''. The bodies of knowledge discussed include multiple intelligences, emotional intelligences, learning styles, the human brain, children at risk and gender. As the authors explain these and other areas are just "lenses designed to extend teachers ' understanding of how students learn, and from that understanding, to make decisions about how and when to select, integrate, and enact items in the... list ''.
Mason supports calls for a two - way constructive collaboration between neuroscience and education, whereby, rather than neuroscience research simply being applied to education, findings from neuroscience research would be used to constrain educational theorizing. In return, education would influence the types of research questions and experimental paradigms used in neuroscience research. Mason also gives the example that while pedagogical practice in the classroom may give rise to educational questions regarding the emotional bases of performance on school tasks, neuroscience has the potential to reveal the brain basis of higher - order thinking processes and thus may help to understand the role that emotion plays in learning and open new areas of study of emotional thought in the classroom.
The term "neuromyths '' was first coined by an OECD report on understanding the brain. The term refers to the translation of scientific findings into misinformation regarding education. The OECD report highlights three neuromyths for special attention, although several others have been identified by researchers such as Usha Goswami.
The idea that the two hemispheres of the brain may learn differently has virtually no grounding in neuroscience research. The idea has arisen from the knowledge that some cognitive skills appear differentially localised to a specific hemisphere (e.g., language functions are typically supported by left hemisphere brain regions in healthy right handed people). However, massive amount of fibre connections link the two hemispheres of the brain in neurologically healthy individuals. Every cognitive skill that has been investigated using neuroimaging to date employs a network of brain regions spread across both cerebral hemispheres, including language and reading, and thus no evidence exists for any type of learning that is specific to one side of the brain.
The critical periods neuromyth is an overextension of certain neuroscience research findings (see above) primarily from research into the visual system, rather than cognition and learning. Although sensory deprivation during certain time periods can clearly impede the development of visual skills, these periods are sensitive rather than critical, and the opportunity for learning is not necessarily lost forever, as the term "critical '' implies. While children may benefit from certain types of environmental input, for example, being taught a second language during the sensitive period for language acquisition, this does not mean that adults are unable to acquire foreign language skills later in life.
The idea of critical periods comes primarily from the work of Hubel and Wiesel. Critical periods generally coincide with periods of excess synapse formation, and end at around the same time that synaptic levels stabilise. During these periods of synaptic formation, some brain regions are particularly sensitive to the presence or absence of certain general types of stimuli. There are different critical periods within specific systems, e.g. visual system has different critical periods for ocular dominance, visual acuity and binocular function as well as different critical periods between systems, for example, the critical period for the visual system appears to end around the age of 12 years, while that for acquiring syntax ends around 16 years.
Rather than talking of a single critical period for general cognitive systems, neuroscientists now perceive sensitive periods of time during which the brain is most able to be shaped in a subtle and gradual fashion. Furthermore, critical periods themselves may be divided into three phases. The first, rapid change, followed by continued development with the potential for loss or deterioration, and finally a phase of continued development during which the system can recover from deprivation.
Although there is evidence for sensitive periods, we do not know whether they exist for culturally transmitted knowledge systems such as educational domains like reading and arithmetic. Further, we do not know what role synaptogenesis plays in the acquisition of these skills.
The enriched environment argument is based on evidence that rats raised in complex environments perform better on maze tasks and have 20 - 25 % more synaptic connections than those raised in austere environments. However, these enriched environments were in laboratory cages, and did not come close to replicating the intensely stimulating environment a rat would experience in the wild. Furthermore, the formation of these additional connections in response to novel environmental stimuli occurs throughout life, not just during a critical or sensitive period. For example, skilled pianists show enlarged representations in the auditory cortex relating specifically to piano tones, while violinists have enlarged neural representations for their left fingers. Even London taxi drivers who learn the London street map in intense detail develop enlarged formations in the part of the brain responsible for spatial representation and navigation. These results show that the brain can form extensive new connections as the result of focused educational input, even when this input is received solely during adulthood. Greenough 's work suggests a second type of brain plasticity. Whereas synaptogenesis and critical periods relate to experience - expectant plasticity, synaptic growth in complex environments relates to "experience - dependent '' plasticity. This type of plasticity is concerned with environment specific learning, and not to features of the environment that are ubiquitous and common to all members of the species, such as vocabulary.
Experience dependent plasticity is important because it does potentially link specific learning and brain plasticity, but it is relevant throughout the lifetime, not just in critical periods. "Experience - expectant plasticity '', suggests that the environmental features necessary for fine tuning sensory systems are ubiquitous and of a very general nature. These kinds of stimuli are abundant in any typical child 's environment. Thus, experience - expectant plasticity does not depend on specific experiences within a specific environment, and therefore can not provide much guidance in choosing toys, preschools, or early childcare policies. The link between experience and brain plasticity is intriguing. No doubt learning affects the brain, but this relationship does not offer guidance on how we should design instruction.
Bruer also warns of the dangers of enriching environments on the basis of socio - economic value systems, and warns of a tendency to value typically middle class pursuits as more enriching than those associated with a working class lifestyle, when there is no neuroscientific justification for this.
In addition some critics of the Educational Neuroscience approach have highlighted limitations in applying the understanding of early physiological brain development, in particular synaptogenesis to educational theory.
Synaptogenesis research has primarily been carried out on animals (e.g. monkeys and cats). Measures of synaptic density are aggregate measures, and it is known that different types of neuron within the same brain region differ in their synaptic growth rates (70). Secondly, the purported "critical period '' of birth to three years is derived from research on rhesus monkeys, who reach puberty at the age of three, and assumes that the period of synaptogenesis in humans exactly mirrors that of monkeys. It may be more reasonable to assume that this period of neural growth actually lasts until puberty, which would mean until early teenage years in humans.
Periods of intense synaptogenesis are typically correlated with the emergence of certain skills and cognitive functions, such as visual fixation, grasping, symbol use and working memory. However, these skills continue to develop well after the period that synaptogenesis is thought to end. Many of these skills continue to improve even after synaptic density reaches adult levels, and thus the most we can say is that synaptogenesis may be necessary for the emergence of these skills, but it can not account entirely for their continued refinement. Some other form of brain change must contribute to ongoing learning.
Additionally, the types of cognitive changes usually seen to correlate with synaptogenesis revolve around visual, tactile, movement and working memory. These are not taught skills but rather skills that are usually acquired independent of schooling, even though they may support future learning. How these skills relate to later school learning is, however, unclear. We know that synaptogenesis occurs, and that the pattern of synaptogenesis is important for normal brain function. However, what is lacking is the ability of neuroscience to tell educators what sort of early childhood experiences might enhance children 's cognitive capacities or educational outcomes.
The idea that a person can have a "male '' brain or "female '' brain is a misinterpretation of terms used to describe cognitive styles by when attempting to conceptualise the nature of cognitive patterns in people with autism spectrum disorder. Baron - Cohen suggested that while men were better "systemisers '' (good at understanding mechanical systems), women were better "empathisers '' (good at communicating and understanding others), therefore he suggested that autism could be thought of as an extreme form of the "male brain ''. There was no suggestion that males and females had radically different brains or that females with autism had a male brain.
A common myth in the field of education is that individuals have different learning styles, such as ' visual ' or ' kinesthetic '. Many individuals will state preferences for the way in which they want to learn, but there is no evidence that matching a teaching technique to a preferred style will improve learning, despite this hypothesis being tested multiple times. There may even be harms associated with the use of learning styles, wherein learners become ' pigeonholed ', perceiving that they may not be suited to types of learning that are not matched to their ' learning style ' (e.g. so - called visual learners may not wish to learn music). Despite this lack of evidence, a 2012 study demonstrated that a belief in the use of learning styles is widespread amongst teachers, and a 2015 study showed that the majority of research papers in higher education research mistakenly endorse the use of learning styles.
|
in which year mandal praja parishad established in andhra pradesh | Andhra Pradesh State Election Commission - Wikipedia
Andhra Pradesh State Election Commission is a Constitutional authority of Andhra Pradesh, India. It was formed under the Articles 243 - K and 243 - ZA of Constitution of India. It conducts the Rural and Urban Local Body Elections in the State of Andhra Pradesh.
The Andhra Pradesh State Election Commission was formed in June 1994. The 1st Local body elections to Municipalities and Panchayat Raj Institutions were held in March 1995. The 2nd and 3rd Local Body elections were held in 2000 - 2001 and 2005 - 2006 respectively. The 4th ordinary elections to Gram Panchayats were held in July 2013. The 4th ordinary elections to Municipalities were held in March 2014 and to those of MPTCs and ZPTCs in April 2014.
Consequent on the bifurcation of the State, the Government of Andhra Pradesh constituted a State Election Commission for the State of Andhra Pradesh on 30.01. 2016.
The State Election commission is headed by a State Election Commissioner appointed by the Governor of Andhra Pradesh. The State Election Commissioner holds his term of five years from the date of assumption of office. Officers holding the post of Principle Secretary to Government and above are appointed to this post. Dr. N. Ramesh Kumar, IAS (Retd) has assumed office of the State Election Commissioner of Andhra Pradesh on 01.04. 2016 and he is currently holding the said post. The Government conferred the status of a Judge of High Court on the State Election Commissioner. The State Election Commissioner is assisted by a Secretary, who is a cadre officer (IAS), a Legal Advisor (District Judge rank) and one Joint Secretary. At present, the post of Secretary is vacant and Sri A.V. Satya Ramesh, Joint Secretary is holding full additional charge of the post of Secretary, A.P. State Election Commission w.e.f. 06.01. 2015. The other senior official is Joint Director.
Elections to the Rural and Urban bodies of Andhra Pradesh are held by both direct and indirect elections. The sole controlling authority rests on the Andhra Pradesh State Election Commission.
The A.P. State Election Commission adopts the Assembly Electoral Rolls prepared under the supervision of the Chief Electoral Officer, General Administration (Elections) Department (who is the representative of the Election Commission of India in the State) for preparation of ward-wise electoral rolls for conduct of elections to Rural and Urban Local Bodies in the State. Polling stations are identified based on the rolls. Once the pre-election exercises such as delimitation and reservation of seats and offices in local bodies are completed and communicated by the State Government, the State Election Commission issues Notification for conduct of elections.
Elections to the following posts are held by this Commission by Direct election.
The Urban Local Bodies consist of Municipal Corporations, Municipalities and Nagar Panchayats.
Indirect elections are held for the following positions: After taking oath by the directly elected Members, indirect elections are held as per the date and time appointed by the Commission in the respective local bodies.
|
what is the meaning of cash on delivery | Cash on delivery - wikipedia
Cash on delivery (COD), sometimes called collect on delivery, is the sale of goods by mail order where payment is made on delivery rather than in advance. If the goods are not paid for, they are returned to the retailer. Originally, the term applied only to payment by cash but as other forms of payment have become more common, the word "cash '' has sometimes been replaced with the word "collect '' to include transactions by checks, credit cards or debit cards.
The advantages of COD for online or mail order retailers are:
The principal disadvantage for retailers is that many more orders will be returned as buyers are less committed to the purchase than if they had paid in advance. This lead to a lot of infomercial products in the United States to stop using COD as an option by the mid 1980s.
Most operators impose a limit on the amount of money that can be collected per delivery or per day using COD services. Limits may be higher for non-cash payments. Canada Post, for instance, applies a limit of C $1000 for cash, but C $25,000 for payment by check or money order.
In some countries COD remains a popular option with internet - based retailers, since it is far easier to set up for small businesses and does not require the purchaser to have a credit card. Many small businesses prefer cash payment to credit card payment, as it avoids credit card processing fees. Some shops also offer discounts if paid in cash, because they can offer a better price to the consumer.
The overwhelming majority of e-shopping transactions in the Middle East are COD. 60 % of online transactions in the UAE and Middle East are done by cash on delivery and this has also led to the growth of courier companies offering a COD service.
|
where is john the baptist mentioned in the bible | John the Baptist - wikipedia
John the Baptist (Hebrew: יוחנן המטביל Yokhanan HaMatbil, Ancient Greek: Ἰωάννης ὁ βαπτιστής, Iōánnēs ho baptistḗs or Ἰωάννης ὁ βαπτίζων, Iōánnēs ho baptízōn, Coptic: ⲓⲱⲁⲛⲛⲏⲥ ⲡⲓⲡⲣⲟⲇⲣⲟⲙⲟⲥ or ⲓⲱ̅ⲁ ⲡⲓⲣϥϯⲱⲙⲥ, Arabic: يوحنا المعمدان ) was a Jewish itinerant preacher in the early first century AD. John is revered as a major religious figure in Christianity, Islam, the Bahá'í Faith, and Mandaeism. He is called a prophet by all of these traditions, and is honored as a saint in many Christian traditions. Other titles for John include John the Forerunner in Eastern Christianity and "the prophet John '' (Yaḥyā) in Islam. To clarify the meaning of "Baptist '', he is sometimes alternatively called John the Baptizer.
John used baptism as the central symbol or sacrament of his messianic movement. Most scholars agree that John baptized Jesus. Some scholars believe Jesus was a follower or disciple of John. This idea is strongly controverted, however, by John the Baptist 's own words in scripture, although several New Testament accounts report that some of Jesus ' early followers had previously been followers of John. John the Baptist is also mentioned by the Jewish historian Josephus. Some scholars maintain that John was influenced by the semi-ascetic Essenes, who expected an apocalypse and practiced rituals corresponding strongly with baptism, although no direct evidence substantiates this.
According to the New Testament, John anticipated a messianic figure greater than himself. Christians commonly refer to John as the precursor or forerunner of Jesus, since John announces Jesus ' coming. John is also identified as the spiritual successor of the prophet Elijah.
John the Baptist is mentioned in all four canonical Gospels and the non-canonical Gospel of the Nazarenes. The Synoptic Gospels (Mark, Matthew, and Luke) describe John baptising Jesus; in the Gospel of John it is implied in John 1: 32 -- 1: 34.
The Gospel of Mark introduces John as a fulfilment of a prophecy from the Book of Isaiah (in fact, a conflation of texts from Isaiah, Malachi and Exodus) about a messenger being sent ahead, and a voice crying out in the wilderness. John is described as wearing clothes of camel 's hair, living on locusts and wild honey. John proclaims baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sin, and says another will come after him who will not baptize with water, but with the Holy Spirit.
Jesus comes to John, and is baptized by him in the river Jordan. The account describes how; as he emerges from the water, the heavens open and the Holy Spirit descends on him ' like a dove '. A voice from heaven then says, "You are my Son, the Beloved; with you I am well pleased. '' (Mark 1: 1 -- 8)
Later in the gospel there is an account of John 's death. It is introduced by an incident where the Tetrarch Herod Antipas, hearing stories about Jesus, imagines that this is John the Baptist raised from the dead. It then explains that John had rebuked Herod for marrying Herodias, the ex-wife of his brother (named here as Philip). Herodias demands his execution, but Herod, who ' liked to listen ' to John, is reluctant to do so because he fears him, knowing he is a ' righteous and holy man '.
The account then describes how Herod 's daughter Herodias (NRSV; other translations refer to the girl as the daughter of Herodias) dances before Herod, who is pleased and offers her anything she asks for in return. When the girl asks her mother what she should request, she is told to demand the head of John the Baptist. Reluctantly, Herod orders the beheading of John, and his head is delivered to her, at her request, on a plate. John 's disciples take the body away and bury it in a tomb. (Mark 6: 17 -- 29)
There are a number of difficulties with this passage. The Gospel wrongly identifies Antipas as ' King ' and the ex-husband of Herodias is named as Philip, but he is known to have been called Herod. Although the wording clearly implies the girl was the daughter of Herodias, many texts describe her as "Herod 's daughter, Herodias ''. Since these texts are early and significant and the reading is ' difficult ', many scholars see this as the original version, corrected in later versions and in Matthew and Luke. Josephus says that Herodias had a daughter by the name of Salome.
Scholars have speculated about the origins of the story. Since it shows signs of having been composed in Aramaic, which Mark apparently did not speak, he is likely to have got it from a Palestinian source. There is a variety of opinions about how much actual historical material it contains, especially given the alleged factual errors. Many scholars have seen the story of John arrested, executed, and buried in a tomb as a conscious foreshadowing of the fate of Jesus.
As it is written in Isaiah the prophet, "Behold, I send my messenger before your face, who will prepare your way, the voice of one crying in the wilderness: ' Prepare the way of the Lord, make his paths straight, ' ''
John appeared, baptizing in the wilderness and proclaiming a baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins. And all the country of Judea and all Jerusalem were going out to him and were being baptized by him in the river Jordan, confessing their sins. Now John was clothed with camel 's hair and wore a leather belt around his waist and ate locusts and wild honey. And he preached, saying, "After me comes he who is mightier than I, the strap of whose sandals I am not worthy to stoop down and untie. I have baptized you with water, but he will baptize you with the Holy Spirit. ''
In those days Jesus came from Nazareth of Galilee and was baptized by John in the Jordan. And when he came up out of the water, immediately he saw the heavens being torn open and the Spirit descending on him like a dove. And a voice came from heaven, "You are my beloved Son, with you I am well pleased. ''
King Herod heard of it, for Jesus ' name had become known. Some said, "John the Baptist has been raised from the dead. That is why these miraculous powers are at work in him. '' But others said, "He is Elijah. '' And others said, "He is a prophet, like one of the prophets of old. '' But when Herod heard of it, he said, "John, whom I beheaded, has been raised. '' For it was Herod who had sent and seized John and bound him in prison for the sake of Herodias, his brother Philip 's wife, because he had married her. For John had been saying to Herod, "It is not lawful for you to have your brother 's wife. '' And Herodias had a grudge against him and wanted to put him to death. But she could not, for Herod feared John, knowing that he was a righteous and holy man, and he kept him safe. When he heard him, he was greatly perplexed, and yet he heard him gladly.
But an opportunity came when Herod on his birthday gave a banquet for his nobles and military commanders and the leading men of Galilee. For when Herodias 's daughter came in and danced, she pleased Herod and his guests. And the king said to the girl, "Ask me for whatever you wish, and I will give it to you. '' And he vowed to her, "Whatever you ask me, I will give you, up to half of my kingdom. '' And she went out and said to her mother, "For what should I ask? '' And she said, "The head of John the Baptist. '' And she came in immediately with haste to the king and asked, saying, "I want you to give me at once the head of John the Baptist on a platter. '' And the king was exceedingly sorry, but because of his oaths and his guests he did not want to break his word to her. And immediately the king sent an executioner with orders to bring John 's head. He went and beheaded him in the prison and brought his head on a platter and gave it to the girl, and the girl gave it to her mother. When his disciples heard of it, they came and took his body and laid it in a tomb.
(English Standard Version)
The Gospel of Matthew account begins with the same modified quotation from Isaiah, moving the Malachi and Exodus material to later in the text, where it is quoted by Jesus. The description of John is taken directly from Mark ("clothing of camel 's hair with a leather belt around his waist, and his food was locusts and wild honey ''), along with the proclamation that one was coming who would baptise with the Holy Spirit "and fire ''. (Matthew 3: 1 -- 12)
Unlike Mark, Matthew describes John as critical of Pharisees and Sadducees and as preaching "the kingdom of heaven is at hand '' and a "coming judgment ''.
Matthew shortens the account of the beheading of John, and adds two elements: that Herod Antipas wants John dead, and that the death is reported to Jesus by his disciples. Matthew 's approach is to shift the focus away from Herod and onto John as a prototype of Jesus. Where Mark has Herod killing John reluctantly and at Herodias ' insistence, Matthew describes him as wanting John dead.
In those days John the Baptist came preaching in the wilderness of Judea, "Repent, for the kingdom of heaven is at hand. '' For this is he who was spoken of by the prophet Isaiah when he said,
"The voice of one crying in the wilderness: ' Prepare the way of the Lord; make his paths straight. ' ''
Now John wore a garment of camel 's hair and a leather belt around his waist, and his food was locusts and wild honey. Then Jerusalem and all Judea and all the region about the Jordan were going out to him, and they were baptized by him in the river Jordan, confessing their sins.
But when he saw many of the Pharisees and Sadducees coming to his baptism, he said to them, "You brood of vipers! Who warned you to flee from the wrath to come? Bear fruit in keeping with repentance. And do not presume to say to yourselves, ' We have Abraham as our father, ' for I tell you, God is able from these stones to raise up children for Abraham. Even now the axe is laid to the root of the trees. Every tree therefore that does not bear good fruit is cut down and thrown into the fire.
"I baptize you with water for repentance, but he who is coming after me is mightier than I, whose sandals I am not worthy to carry. He will baptize you with the Holy Spirit and fire. His winnowing fork is in his hand, and he will clear his threshing floor and gather his wheat into the barn, but the chaff he will burn with unquenchable fire. ''
Then Jesus came from Galilee to the Jordan to John, to be baptized by him. John would have prevented him, saying, "I need to be baptized by you, and do you come to me? '' But Jesus answered him, "Let it be so now, for thus it is fitting for us to fulfill all righteousness. '' Then he consented. And when Jesus was baptized, immediately he went up from the water, and behold, the heavens were opened to him, and he saw the Spirit of God descending like a dove and coming to rest on him; and behold, a voice from heaven said, "This is my beloved Son, with whom I am well pleased. ''
Now when John heard in prison about the deeds of the Christ, he sent word by his disciples and said to him, "Are you the one who is to come, or shall we look for another? '' And Jesus answered them, "Go and tell John what you hear and see: the blind receive their sight and the lame walk, lepers are cleansed and the deaf hear, and the dead are raised up, and the poor have good news preached to them. And blessed is the one who is not offended by me. ''
As they went away, Jesus began to speak to the crowds concerning John: "What did you go out into the wilderness to see? A reed shaken by the wind? What then did you go out to see? A man dressed in soft clothing? Behold, those who wear soft clothing are in kings ' houses. What then did you go out to see? A prophet? Yes, I tell you, and more than a prophet. This is he of whom it is written,
"' Behold, I send my messenger before your face, who will prepare your way before you. '
Truly, I say to you, among those born of women there has arisen no one greater than John the Baptist. Yet the one who is least in the kingdom of heaven is greater than he. From the days of John the Baptist until now the kingdom of heaven has suffered violence, and the violent take it by force. For all the Prophets and the Law prophesied until John, and if you are willing to accept it, he is Elijah who is to come. He who has ears to hear, let him hear.
"But to what shall I compare this generation? It is like children sitting in the marketplaces and calling to their playmates,
"' We played the flute for you, and you did not dance; we sang a dirge, and you did not mourn. '
For John came neither eating nor drinking, and they say, ' He has a demon. ' The Son of Man came eating and drinking, and they say, ' Look at him! A glutton and a drunkard, a friend of tax collectors and sinners! ' Yet wisdom is justified by her deeds. ''
At that time Herod the tetrarch heard about the fame of Jesus, and he said to his servants, "This is John the Baptist. He has been raised from the dead; that is why these miraculous powers are at work in him. '' For Herod had seized John and bound him and put him in prison for the sake of Herodias, his brother Philip 's wife, because John had been saying to him, "It is not lawful for you to have her. '' And though he wanted to put him to death, he feared the people, because they held him to be a prophet. But when Herod 's birthday came, the daughter of Herodias danced before the company and pleased Herod, so that he promised with an oath to give her whatever she might ask. Prompted by her mother, she said, "Give me the head of John the Baptist here on a platter. '' And the king was sorry, but because of his oaths and his guests he commanded it to be given. He sent and had John beheaded in the prison, and his head was brought on a platter and given to the girl, and she brought it to her mother. And his disciples came and took the body and buried it, and they went and told Jesus.
(English Standard Version)
The Gospel of Luke adds an account of John 's infancy, introducing him as the miraculous son of Zechariah, an old man, and his wife Elizabeth, who was past the menopause and therefore unable to have children. According to this account, the birth of John was foretold by the angel Gabriel to Zechariah, while he was performing his functions as a priest in the temple of Jerusalem. Since he is described as a priest of the course of Abijah and Elizabeth as one of the daughters of Aaron, this would make John a descendant of Aaron on both his father 's and mother 's side. On the basis of this account, the Catholic as well as the Anglican and Lutheran liturgical calendars placed the feast of the Nativity of John the Baptist on June 24, six months before Christmas.
Elizabeth is described as a "relative '' of Mary, the mother of Jesus in Luke 1: 36. There is no mention of a family relationship between John and Jesus in the other Gospels, and Raymond E. Brown has described it as "of dubious historicity ''. Géza Vermes has called it "artificial and undoubtedly Luke 's creation ''. The many similarities between the Gospel of Luke story of the birth of John and the Old Testament account of the birth of Samuel suggest that Luke 's account of the annunciation and birth of Jesus are modeled on that of Samuel.
Unique to the Gospel of Luke, John the Baptist explicitly teaches charity, baptizes tax - collectors, and advises soldiers.
The text briefly mentions that John is imprisoned and later beheaded by Herod, but the Gospel of Luke lacks the story of a step - daughter dancing for Herod and requesting John 's head.
The Book of Acts portrays some disciples of John becoming followers of Jesus Acts 18: 24 -- 19: 6 a development not reported by the gospels except for the early case of Andrew, Simon Peter 's brother John 1: 35 -- 42
In the reign of Herod, king of Judea, there was a priest named Zechariah, who belonged to the division called after Abijah. His wife, whose name was Elizabeth, was also a descendant of Aaron. They were both righteous people, who lived blameless lives, guiding their steps by all the commandments and ordinances of the Lord. But they had no child, Elizabeth being barren; and both of them were advanced in years.
One day, when Zechariah was officiating as priest before God, during the turn of his division, it fell to him by lot, in accordance with the practice among the priests, to go into the Temple of the Lord and burn incense; and, as it was the Hour of Incense, the people were all praying outside. And an angel of the Lord appeared to him, standing on the right of the Altar of Incense. Zechariah was startled at the sight and was awe - struck. But the angel said to him: "Do not be afraid, Zechariah; your prayer has been heard, and your wife Elizabeth will bear you a son, whom you will call by the name John. He will be to you a joy and a delight; and many will rejoice over his birth. For he will be great in the sight of the Lord; he will not drink any wine or strong drink, and he will be filled with the Holy Spirit from the very hour of his birth, and will reconcile many of the Israelites to the Lord their God. He will go before him in the spirit and with the power of Elijah, ' to reconcile fathers to their children ' and the disobedient to the wisdom of the righteous, and so make ready for the Lord a people prepared for him. ''
"How can I be sure of this? '' Zechariah asked the angel. "For I am an old man and my wife is advanced in years. ''
"I am Gabriel, '' the angel answered, "who stand in the presence of God, and I have been sent to speak to you and to bring you this good news. And now you will be silent and unable to speak until the day when this takes place, because you did not believe what I said, though my words will be fulfilled in due course. ''
Meanwhile, the people were watching for Zechariah, wondering at his remaining so long in the Temple. When he came out, he was unable to speak to them, and they perceived that he had seen a vision there. But Zechariah kept making signs to them, and remained dumb. And, as soon as his term of service was finished, he returned home. After this his wife, Elizabeth, became pregnant and lived in seclusion for five months. "The Lord has done this for me, '' she said, "he has shown me kindness and taken away the public disgrace of childlessness under which I have been living. ''
Six months later the angel Gabriel was sent from God to a town in Galilee called Nazareth, to a maiden there who was engaged to a man named Joseph, a descendant of David. Her name was Mary. Gabriel came into her presence and greeted her, saying: "You have been shown great favor -- the Lord is with you. ''
Mary was much disturbed at his words, and was wondering to herself what such a greeting could mean, when the angel spoke again: "Do not be afraid, Mary, for you have found favor with God. And now, you will conceive and give birth to a son, and you will give him the name Jesus. The child will be great and will be called ' Son of the Most High, ' and the Lord God will give him the throne of his ancestor David, and he will reign over the descendants of Jacob for ever; And to his kingdom there will be no end. ''
"How can this be? '' Mary asked the angel. "For I have no husband. ''
"The Holy Spirit will descend on you, '' answered the angel, "and the Power of the Most High will overshadow you; and therefore the child will be called ' holy, ' and ' Son of God. ' And Elizabeth, your cousin, is herself also expecting a son in her old age; and it is now the sixth month with her, though she is called barren; for no promise from God will fail to be fulfilled. ''
"I am the servant of the Lord, '' exclaimed Mary; "let it be with me as you have said. '' Then the angel left her.
Soon after this Mary set out, and made her way quickly into the hill - country, to a town in Judah; and there she went into Zechariah 's house and greeted Elizabeth. When Elizabeth heard Mary 's greeting, the child moved within her, and Elizabeth herself was filled with the Holy Spirit, and cried aloud: "Blessed are you among women, and blessed is your unborn child! But how have I this honor, that the mother of my Lord should come to me? For, as soon as your greeting reached my ears, the child moved within me with delight! Happy indeed is she who believed that the promise which she received from the Lord would be fulfilled. ''
And Mary said:
"My soul exalts the Lord, my spirit delights in God my Savior; for he has remembered his humble servant girl; And from this hour all ages will count me happy!
Great things has the Almighty done for me; And holy is his name. From age to age his mercy rests On those who honor him.
Mighty are the deeds of his arm; He scatters the proud with their own devices, he casts down princes from their thrones, and the humble he uplifts, the hungry he loads with gifts, and the rich he sends empty away.
He has stretched out his hand to his servant Israel, Ever mindful of his mercy (As he promised to our forefathers) For Abraham and his race for ever. ''
Mary stayed with Elizabeth about three months, and then returned to her home. When Elizabeth 's time came, she gave birth to a son; and her neighbors and relations, hearing of the great goodness of the Lord to her, came to share her joy. A week later they met to circumcise the child, and were about to call him ' Zechariah ' after his father, when his mother spoke up: "No, he is to be called John. ''
"You have no relation of that name! '' they exclaimed; and they made signs to the child 's father, to find out what he wished the child to be called. Asking for a writing - tablet, he wrote the words -- ' His name is John. ' Everyone was surprised; and immediately Zechariah recovered his voice and the use of his tongue, and began to bless God. All their neighbors were awe - struck at this; and throughout the hill - country of Judea the whole story was much talked about; and all who heard it kept it in mind, asking one another -- "What can this child be destined to become? '' For the Power of the Lord was with him.
Then his father Zechariah was filled with the Holy Spirit, and, speaking under inspiration, said:
"Blessed is the Lord, the God of Israel, Who has visited his people and wrought their deliverance, and has raised up for us the Strength of our salvation In the house of his servant David --
As he promised by the lips of his holy prophets of old -- salvation from our enemies and from the hands of all who hate us, showing mercy to our forefathers, And mindful of his sacred covenant.
This was the oath which he swore to our forefather Abraham -- That we should be rescued from the hands of our enemies, and should serve him without fear in holiness and righteousness, In his presence all our days.
And you, child, will be called prophet of the Most High, For you will go before the Lord to make ready his way, to give his people the knowledge of salvation In the forgiveness of their sins,
through the tender mercy of our God, Whereby the Dawn will break on us from heaven, to give light to those who live in darkness and the shadow of death, And guide our feet into the way of peace. ''
The child grew and became strong in spirit; and he lived in the Wilds until the time came for his appearance before Israel.
In the fifteenth year of the reign of the Emperor Tiberius, when Pontius Pilate was Governor of Judea, Herod Ruler of Galilee, his brother Philip Ruler of the territory comprising Ituraea and Trachonitis, and Lysanias Ruler of Abilene, and when Annas and Caiaphas were high priests, a command from God came to John, the son of Zechariah, while he was in the wilderness. And John went through the whole district of the Jordan, proclaiming baptism on repentance, for the forgiveness of sins. This was in fulfillment of what is said in the writings of the prophet Isaiah --
' The voice of one crying aloud in the wilderness: "Make ready the way of the Lord, Make his paths straight. Every chasm will be filled, Every mountain and hill will be leveled, The winding ways will be straightened, The rough roads made smooth, and everyone will see the salvation of God. '' '
And John said to the crowds that went to be baptized by him: "You children of snakes! Who has prompted you to seek refuge from the coming judgment? Let your lives, then, prove your repentance; and do not begin to say among yourselves ' Abraham is our ancestor, ' for I tell you that out of these stones God is able to raise descendants for Abraham! Already, indeed, the axe is lying at the root of the trees. Therefore, every tree that fails to bear good fruit will be cut down and thrown into the fire. ''
"What are we to do then? '' the people asked. "Let anyone who has two coats, '' answered John, "share with the person who has none; and anyone who has food do the same. ''
Even tax - gatherers came to be baptized, and said to John: "Teacher, what are we to do? ''
"Do not collect more than you have authority to demand, '' John answered. And when some soldiers on active service asked "And we -- what are we to do? '' he said: "Never use violence, or exact anything by false accusation; and be content with your pay. ''
Then, while the people were in suspense, and were all debating with themselves whether John could be the Christ, John, addressing them all, said: "I, indeed, baptize you with water; but there is coming one more powerful than I, and I am not fit even to unfasten his sandals. He will baptize you with the Holy Spirit and with fire. His winnowing - fan is in his hand so that he may clear his threshing - floor, and store the grain in his barn, but the chaff he will burn with a fire that can not be put out. ''
And so with many different appeals John told his good news to the people. But Prince Herod, being rebuked by John respecting Herodias, the wife of Herod 's brother, and for all the evil things that he had done, crowned them all by shutting John up in prison. Now after the baptism of all the people, and when Jesus had been baptized and was still praying, the heavens opened, and the Holy Spirit came down on him in the form of a dove, and from the heavens came a voice -- "You are my dearly loved son; you bring me great joy. ''
"John 's disciples, '' they said to Jesus, "Often fast and say prayers, and so do the disciples of the Pharisees, while yours are eating and drinking! ''
All these events were reported to John by his disciples. So he summoned two of them, and sent them to the Master to ask -- "Are you ' the coming one, ' or are we to look for some one else? ''
When these men found Jesus, they said: "John the Baptist has sent us to you to ask -- ' Are you ' the coming one, ' or are we to look for somebody else? ' '' At that very time Jesus had cured many people of diseases, afflictions, and wicked spirits, and had given many blind people their sight. So his answer to the question was: "Go and report to John what you have witnessed and heard -- the blind recover their sight, the lame walk, the lepers are made clean, and the deaf hear, the dead are raised to life, the good news is told to the poor. And blessed is the person who finds no hindrance in me. ''
When John 's messengers had left, Jesus, speaking to the crowds, began to say with reference to John: "What did you go out into the wilderness to look at? A reed waving in the wind? If not, what did you go out to see? A man dressed in rich clothing? Why, those who are accustomed to fine clothes and luxury live in royal palaces. What then did you go to see? A prophet? Yes, I tell you, and far more than a prophet. This is the man of whom scripture says --
' I am sending my messenger ahead of you, and he will prepare your way before you. '
There is, I tell you, no one born of a woman who is greater than John; and yet the least in the kingdom of God is greater than he. ''
(All the people, when they heard this, and even the tax - gatherers, having accepted John 's baptism, acknowledged the justice of God. But the Pharisees and the students of the law, having rejected John 's baptism, frustrated God 's purpose in regard to them.)
The fourth gospel describes John the Baptist as "a man sent from God '' who "was not the light '', but "came as a witness, to bear witness to the light, so that through him everyone might believe ''. John clearly denies being the Christ or Elijah or ' the prophet ', instead describing himself as the "voice of one crying in the wilderness ''.
Upon literary analysis, it is clear that John is the "testifier and confessor par excellence '', particularly when compared to figures like Nicodemus.
Jesus 's baptism is implied but not depicted. Unlike the other gospels, it is John himself who testifies to seeing "the Spirit come down from heaven like a dove and rest on him ''. John explicitly announces that Jesus is the one "who baptizes with the Holy Spirit '' and John even professes a "belief that he is the Son of God '' and "the Lamb of God ''.
The Gospel of John reports that Jesus ' disciples were baptizing and that a debate broke out between some of the disciples of John and another Jew about purification. In this debate John argued that Jesus "must become greater, '' while he (John) "must become less '' (Latin Vulgate: illum oportet crescere me autem minui).
The Gospel of John then points out that Jesus ' disciples were baptizing more people than John. Later, the Gospel relates that Jesus regarded John as "a burning and shining lamp, and you were willing to rejoice for a while in his light ''.
There appeared a man sent from God, whose name was John; he came as a witness -- to bear witness to the light so that through him everyone might believe. He was not the light, but he came to bear witness to the light.
When the religious authorities in Jerusalem sent some Priests and Levites to ask John -- "Who are you? '', he told them clearly and simply: "I am not the Christ. ''
"What then? '' they asked. "Are you Elijah? '' "No, '' he said, "I am not. '' "Are you ' the prophet '? '' He answered, "No. '' "Who then are you? '' they continued; "tell us so that we have an answer to give to those who have sent us. What do you say about yourself? '' "I, '' he answered, "am -- ' The voice of one crying aloud in the wilderness -- "make a straight road for the Lord '' ', as the prophet Isaiah said. '' These men had been sent from the Pharisees; and their next question was: "Why then do you baptize, if you are not the Christ or Elijah or ' the prophet '? '' John 's answer was -- "I baptize with water, but among you stands one whom you do not know; he is coming after me, yet I am not worthy even to unfasten his sandal. '' This happened at Bethany, across the Jordan, where John was baptizing.
The next day John saw Jesus coming towards him, and exclaimed: "Here is the Lamb of God, who takes away the sin of the world! I was taking about him when I said ' After me there is coming a man who ranks ahead of me, because before I was born he already was. ' I did not know who he was, but I have come baptizing with water to make him known to Israel. ''
John also said: "I saw the Spirit come down from heaven like a dove and rest on him. I myself did not know him, but he who sent me to baptize with water, he said to me ' He on whom you see the Spirit descending, and remaining on him -- he it is who baptizes with the Holy Spirit. ' This I have seen myself, and I have declared my belief that he is the Son of God. '' The next day, when John was standing with two of his disciples, he looked at Jesus as he passed and exclaimed: "There is the Lamb of God! '' The two disciples heard him say this, and followed Jesus.
John, also, was baptizing at Aenon near Salim, because there were many streams there; and people were constantly coming and being baptized. (For John had not yet been imprisoned). Now a discussion arose between some of John 's disciples and a fellow Jew on the subject of ' purification; ' and the disciples came to John and said: "Rabbi, the man who was with you on the other side of the Jordan, and to whom you have yourself borne testimony -- he, also, is baptizing, and everybody is going to him. '' John 's answer was -- "A person can gain nothing but what is given them from heaven. You are yourselves witnesses that I said ' I am not the Christ, ' but ' I have been sent before him as a messenger. ' It is the groom who has the bride; but the groom 's friend, who stands by and listens to him, is filled with joy when he hears the groom 's voice. This joy I have felt to the full. He must become greater, and I less. ''
He who comes from above is above all others; but a child of earth is earthly, and his teaching is earthly, too. He who comes from heaven is above all others. He states what he has seen and what he heard, and yet no one accepts his statement. They who did accept his statement confirm the fact that God is true. For he whom God sent as his messenger gives us God 's own teaching, for God does not limit the gift of the Spirit. The Father loves his Son, and has put everything in his hands. The person who believes in the Son has eternal life, while a person who rejects the Son will not even see that life, but remains under ' God 's displeasure. '
Simon J. Joseph has argued that the Gospel demotes the historical John by painting him only as a prophetic forerunner to Jesus whereas his ministry actually complemented Jesus '.
Although Mark 's Gospel implies that the arrival of John the Baptist is the fulfilment of a prophecy from the Book of Isaiah, the words quoted ("I will send my messenger ahead of you, who will prepare your way -- a voice of one calling in the wilderness, ' Prepare the way for the Lord, make straight paths for him. ' '') are actually a composite of texts from Isaiah, Malachi and the Book of Exodus. (Matthew and Luke drop the first part of the reference.)
The gospels differ on the details of the Baptism. In Mark and Luke, Jesus himself sees the heavens open and hears a voice address him personally, saying, "You are my dearly loved son; you bring me great joy ''. They do not clarify whether others saw and heard these things. Although other incidents where the "voice came out of heaven '' are recorded in which, for the sake of the crowds, it was heard audibly, John did say in his witness that he did see the spirit coming down "out of heaven ''. John 12: 28 -- 30, John 1: 32
In Matthew, the voice from heaven does not address Jesus personally, saying instead "This is my beloved son, in whom I am well pleased. ''
In the Gospel of John, John the Baptist himself sees the spirit descend as a dove, testifying about the experience as evidence of Jesus 's status.
John 's knowledge of Jesus varies across gospels. In the Gospel of Mark, John preaches of a coming leader, but shows no signs of recognizing that Jesus is this leader. In Matthew, however, John immediately recognizes Jesus and John questions his own worthiness to baptize Jesus. In both Matthew and Luke, John later dispatches disciples to question Jesus about his status, asking "Are you he who is to come, or shall we look for another? '' In Luke, John is a familial relative of Jesus whose birth was foretold by Gabriel. In the Gospel of John, John the Baptist himself sees the spirit descend like a dove and he explicitly preaches that Jesus is the Son of God.
The Gospels vary in their depiction of John 's relationship to Elijah. Matthew and Mark describe John 's attire in a way reminiscent of the description of Elijah in 2 Kings 1: 8, who also wore a garment of hair and a leather belt. In Matthew, Jesus explicitly teaches that John is "Elijah who was to come '' (Matt. 11: 14 -- see also Matt. 17: 11 -- 13); many Christian theologians have taken this to mean that John was Elijah 's successor. In the Gospel of John, John the Baptist explicitly denies being Elijah. In the annunciation narrative in Luke, an angel appears to Zechariah, John 's father, and tells him that John "will turn many of the sons of Israel to the Lord their God, '' and that he will go forth "in the spirit and power of Elijah (Luke 1: 16 -- 17). ''
An account of John the Baptist is found in all extant manuscripts of the Antiquities of the Jews (book 18, chapter 5, 2) by Flavius Josephus (37 -- 100):
Now some of the Jews thought that the destruction of Herod 's (Antipas 's) army came from God, and that very justly, as a punishment of what he did against John, that was called the Baptist: for Herod slew him, who was a good man, and commanded the Jews to exercise virtue, both as to righteousness towards one another, and piety towards God, and so to come to baptism; for that the washing (with water) would be acceptable to him, if they made use of it, not in order to the putting away (or the remission) of some sins (only), but for the purification of the body; supposing still that the soul was thoroughly purified beforehand by righteousness. Now when (many) others came in crowds about him, for they were very greatly moved (or pleased) by hearing his words, Herod, who feared lest the great influence John had over the people might put it into his power and inclination to raise a rebellion, (for they seemed ready to do any thing he should advise,) thought it best, by putting him to death, to prevent any mischief he might cause, and not bring himself into difficulties, by sparing a man who might make him repent of it when it would be too late. Accordingly he was sent a prisoner, out of Herod 's suspicious temper, to Macherus, the castle I before mentioned, and was there put to death. Now the Jews had an opinion that the destruction of this army was sent as a punishment upon Herod, and a mark of God 's displeasure to him.
According to this passage, the execution of John was blamed for the defeat Herod suffered. Some have claimed that this passage indicates that John died near the time of the destruction of Herod 's army in 36 AD. However, in a different passage, Josephus states that the end of Herod 's marriage with Aretas ' daughter (after which John was killed) was only the beginning of hostilities between Herod and Aretas, which later escalated into the battle.
Divergences between the passage 's presentation and the biblical accounts of John include baptism for those whose souls have already been "purified beforehand by righteousness '' is for purification of the body, not general repentance of sin (Mark 1: 4). Biblical scholar John Dominic Crossan differentiates between Josephus 's account of John and Jesus, saying, "John had a monopoly, but Jesus had a franchise. '' To get baptized, Crossan writes, you went only to John; to stop the movement one only needed to stop John (therefore his movement ended with his death). Jesus invited all to come and see how he and his companions had already accepted the government of God, entered it and were living it. Such a communal praxis was not just for himself, but could survive without him, unlike John 's movement.
Matthew 14: 12 records that "his disciples came and took away (John 's) body and buried it ''. Theologian Joseph Benson refers to a belief that "it seems that (the body) had been thrown over the prison walls, without burial, probably by order of Herodias.
The burial - place of John the Baptist was traditionally said to be at the Nabi Yahya Mosque (Saint John the Baptiste Mosque) in Sebastia in current Palestinian territories, and mention is made of his relics being honored there around the middle of the 4th century. The historians Rufinus and Theodoretus record that the shrine was desecrated under Julian the Apostate around 362, the bones being partly burned. A portion of the rescued relics were carried to Jerusalem, then to Alexandria, where on 27 May 395, they were laid in the basilica newly dedicated to the Forerunner on the former site of the temple of Serapis. The tomb at Sebaste continued, nevertheless, to be visited by pious pilgrims, and Saint Jerome bears witness to miracles being worked there.
What became of the head of John the Baptist is difficult to determine. Nicephorus and Symeon Metaphrastes say that Herodias had it buried in the fortress of Machaerus (in accordance with Josephus). Other writers say that it was interred in Herod 's palace at Jerusalem; there it was found during the reign of Constantine I, and thence secretly taken to Emesa where it was concealed, the place remaining unknown for years, until it was manifested by revelation in 453. However, the decapitation cloth of Saint John is kept at the Aachen Cathedral. The Coptic Christian Orthodox Church also claim to hold the relics of Saint John the Baptist. These are to be found in a monastery in Lower Egypt between Cairo and Alexandria. It is possible, with permission from the monks, to see the original tomb where the remains were found.
Another obscure claim relates to the town of Halifax in West Yorkshire, United Kingdom, where, as patron saint of the town, the Baptist 's head appears on the official coat - of - arms. One legend (among others) bases the etymology of the town 's place - name on "halig '' (holy) and "fax '' (face), claiming that a relic of the head, or face, of John the Baptist once existed in the town. Also, in 2010, bones were discovered in the ruins of a Bulgarian church in the St. John the Forerunner Monastery (4th -- 17th centuries) on the Black Sea island of St. Ivan and two years later, after DNA and radio carbon testing proved the bones belonged to a Middle Eastern man who lived in the 1st century AD, scientists said that the remains could conceivably have belonged to John the Baptist. The remains, found in a reliquarium are presently kept in the Sts. Cyril and Methodius Cathedral in Sozopol.
Christians believe that John the Baptist had a specific role ordained by God as forerunner or precursor of Jesus, who was the foretold Messiah. The New Testament Gospels speak of this role. In Luke 1: 17 the role of John is referred to as being "to turn the hearts of the fathers to the children, and the disobedient to the wisdom of the just; to make ready a people prepared for the Lord. '' In Luke 1: 76 as "... thou shalt go before the face of the Lord to prepare his ways '' and in Luke 1: 77 as being "To give knowledge of salvation unto his people by the remission of their sins. ''
There are several passages within the Old Testament which are interpreted by Christians as being prophetic of John the Baptist in this role. These include a passage in the Book of Malachi (Malachi 3: 1) that refers to a prophet who would prepare the way of the Lord:
Behold, I will send my messenger, and he shall prepare the way before me: and the Lord, whom ye seek, shall suddenly come to his temple, even the messenger of the covenant, whom ye delight in: behold, he shall come, saith the LORD of hosts.
and also at the end of the next chapter in Malachi 4: 5 -- 6 where it says,
Behold, I will send you Elijah the prophet before the coming of the great and dreadful day of the LORD: And he shall turn the heart of the fathers to the children, and the heart of the children to their fathers, lest I come and smite the earth with a curse.
The Jews of Jesus ' day expected Elijah to come before the Messiah; indeed, some present day Jews continue to await Elijah 's coming as well, as in the Cup of Elijah the Prophet in the Passover Seder. This is why the disciples ask Jesus in Matthew 17: 10, ' Why then say the scribes that Elias must first come? ' The disciples are then told by Jesus that Elijah came in the person of John the Baptist,
Jesus replied, "To be sure, Elijah comes and will restore all things. But I tell you, Elijah has already come, and they did not recognize him, but have done to him everything they wished. In the same way the Son of Man is going to suffer at their hands. '' Then the disciples understood that he was talking to them about John the Baptist.
(see also 11: 14: "... if you are willing to accept it, he is Elijah who was to come. '')
These passages are applied to John in the Synoptic Gospels. But where Matthew specifically identifies John the Baptist as Elijah 's spiritual successor (Matthew 11.14, 17.13), the gospels of Mark and Luke are silent on the matter. The Gospel of John states that John the Baptist denied that he was Elijah.
Now this was John 's testimony when the Jews of Jerusalem sent priests and Levites to ask him who he was. He did not deny, but confessed freely, "I am not the Christ. '' They asked him, "Then who are you? Are you Elijah? '' He said, "I am not. '' "Are you the Prophet? '' He answered, "No. ''
Many scholars believe there was contact between the early church in the Apostolic Age and what is called the "Qumran - Essene community ''. The Dead Sea Scrolls were found at Qumran, which the majority of historians and archaeologists identify as an Essene settlement. John the Baptist is thought to have been either an Essene or "associated '' with the community at Khirbet Qumran. According to the Book of Acts, Paul met some "disciples of John '' in Ephesus.
Due to influence of Qumranic terminology and ideas in Paul 's Epistle to the Ephesians, some scholars believe that the "disciples '' mentioned in Acts 19: 1 -- 7 were disciples of John the Baptist. This view, which assumes that John was an Essene, is debated by scholars. While John the Baptist practiced baptism, the Essenes used ritual washing, also called ablution, as a form of spiritual purification.
The Catholic Church commemorates Saint John the Baptist on two feast days:
Some Catholics have held to a belief that John the Baptist never sinned, although this has never been a point of doctrine and is not binding in belief upon any adherent as is the sinlessness of Mary. In her Treatise of Prayer, Saint Catherine of Siena includes a brief altercation with the Devil regarding her fight due to the Devil attempting to lure her with vanity and flattery. Speaking in the first person, Catherine responds to the Devil with the following words:
... humiliation of yourself, and you answered the Devil with these words: ' Wretch that I am! John the Baptist never sinned and was sanctified in his mother 's womb. And I have committed so many sins...
The Eastern Catholic Churches and Eastern Orthodox faithful believe that John was the last of the Old Testament prophets, thus serving as a bridge between that period of revelation and the New Covenant. They also teach that, following his death, John descended into Hades and there once more preached that Jesus the Messiah was coming, so he was the Forerunner of Christ in death as he had been in life. Eastern Catholic and Orthodox churches will often have an icon of Saint John the Baptist in a place of honor on the iconostasis, and he is frequently mentioned during the Divine Services. Every Tuesday throughout the year is dedicated to his memory.
The Eastern Orthodox Church remembers Saint John the Forerunner on six separate feast days, listed here in order in which they occur during the church year (which begins on September 1):
In addition to the above, 5 September is the commemoration of Zechariah and Elizabeth, Saint John 's parents. The Russian Orthodox Church observes 12 October as the Transfer of the Right Hand of the Forerunner from Malta to Gatchina (1799).
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints (LDS Church) teaches that modern revelation confirms the biblical account of John and also makes known additional events in his ministry. According to this belief, John was "ordained by the angel of God '' when he was eight days old "to overthrow the kingdom of the Jews '' and to prepare a people for the Lord. Mormons also believe that "he was baptized while yet in his childhood. ''
Joseph Smith said: "Let us come into New Testament times -- so many are ever praising the Lord and His apostles. We will commence with John the Baptist. When Herod 's edict went forth to destroy the young children, John was about six months older than Jesus, and came under this hellish edict, and Zecharias caused his mother to take him into the mountains, where he was raised on locusts and wild honey. When his father refused to disclose his hiding place, and being the officiating high priest at the Temple that year, was slain by Herod 's order, between the porch and the altar, as Jesus said. ''
The LDS Church teaches that John the Baptist appeared on the banks of the Susquehanna River near Harmony Township, Susquehanna County, Pennsylvania as a resurrected being to Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery on May 15, 1829, and ordained them to the Aaronic Priesthood. According to LDS doctrine, John 's ministry has operated in three dispensations: he was the last of the prophets under the law of Moses; he was the first of the New Testament prophets; and he was sent to confirm the Aaronic Priesthood in our day (the dispensation of the fulness of times). Mormons believe John 's ministry was foretold by two prophets whose teachings are included in the Book of Mormon: Lehi and his son Nephi.
In Gnosticism, John the Baptist was a "personification '' of the Old Testament prophet Elijah. Elijah did not know the True God (as opposed to the Abrahamic God), and thus had to be reincarnated in Gnostic theology. As predicted by the Old Testament prophet Malachi, Elijah must "come first '' to herald the coming of Jesus Christ. Modern anthroposophy concurs with the idea that the Baptist was a reincarnation of Elijah, (cf. Mark 9: 11 -- 13), Matthew 11: 13 -- 14, Luke 7: 27 although the Gospel of John explicitly denies this (John 1: 21).
Among the early Judeo - Christian Gnostics the Ebionites held that John, along with Jesus and James the Just -- all of whom they revered -- were vegetarians. Epiphanius of Salamis records that this group had amended their Gospel of Matthew, known today as the Gospel of the Ebionites, to change where John eats "locusts '' to read "honey cakes '' or "manna ''.
John the Baptist is considered the chief prophet of the Mandaeans, and plays a large part in some of their writings, including the Ginza Rba and the Draša D - Iahia (The Mandaean Book of John). They view John as the only true Messiah, and are opposed to Jesus. The Mandaean scriptures state: "If the carpenter (Jesus) has joined together the god, who then has joined together the carpenter? ''
John is also honored as a Nabi (Arabic: نَـبِي , Prophet) as (Arabic: يحيى بن زكريا Yaḥyā ibn Zakarīyā) (Arabic: يحيى , translit. Yaḥyā), or "John, son of Zechariah ''. He is believed by Muslims to have been a witness to the word of God, and a prophet who would herald the coming of Jesus. His father Zechariah was also an Islamic prophet. Islamic tradition maintains that John was one of the prophets whom Muhammad met on the night of the Mi'raj, his ascension through the Seven Heavens. It is said that he met John and Jesus in the second heaven, where Muhammad greeted his two brothers before ascending with archangel Gabriel to the third heaven. John 's story was also told to the Abyssinian king during the Muslim refugees ' Migration to Abyssinia. According to the Qur'an, John was one on whom God sent peace on the day that he was born and the day that he died.
In the Quran, God frequently mentions Zechariah 's continuous praying for the birth of a son. Zechariah 's wife, mentioned in the New Testament as Elizabeth, was barren and therefore the birth of a child seemed impossible. As a gift from God, Zechariah (or Zakaria) was given a son by the name of "Yaḥya '', a name specially chosen for this child alone. In accordance with Zechariah 's prayer, God made John and Jesus, who according to exegesis was born six months later, renew the message of God, which had been corrupted and lost by the Israelites. As the Quran says:
(His prayer was answered): "O Zakariya! We give thee good news of a son: His name shall be Yahya: on none by that name have We conferred distinction before. ''
He said: "O my Lord! How shall I have a son, when my wife is barren and I have grown quite decrepit from old age? ''
He said: "So (it will be) thy Lord saith, ' that is easy for Me: I did indeed create thee before, when thou hadst been nothing! ' ''
(Zakarya) said: "O my Lord! give me a Sign. '' "Thy Sign, '' was the answer, "Shall be that thou shalt speak to no man for three nights. ''
John was exhorted to hold fast to the Scripture and was given wisdom by God while still a child. He was pure and devout, and walked well in the presence of God. He was dutiful towards his parents and he was not arrogant or rebellious. John 's reading and understanding of the scriptures, when only a child, surpassed even that of the greatest scholars of the time. Muslim exegesis narrates that Jesus sent John out with twelve disciples, who preached the message before Jesus called his own disciples. The Quran says:
"O Yaḥya! take hold of the Book with might '': and We gave him Wisdom even as a youth,
John was a classical prophet, who was exalted high by God, for his bold denouncing of all things sinful. Furthermore, the Qur'an speaks of John 's gentle pity and love and his humble attitude towards life, for which he was granted the Purity of Life:
And piety as from Us, and purity: He was devout, And kind to his parents, and he was not overbearing or rebellious. So Peace on him the day he was born, the day that he dies, and the day that he will be raised up to life (again)!
John is also honored highly in Sufism as well as Islamic mysticism, primarily because of the Quran 's description of John 's chastity and kindness. Sufis have frequently applied commentaries on the passages on John in the Quran, primarily concerning the God - given gift of "Wisdom '' which he acquired in youth as well as his parallels with Jesus. Although several phrases used to describe John and Jesus are virtually identical in the Quran, the manner in which they are expressed is different.
It has been claimed that the Quran is mistaken in saying that John the Baptist was the first to receive this name (Quran 19: 7 -- 10), since the name Yoḥanan occurs many times before John the Baptist. However, according to Islamic scholars, "Yaḥyā '' is not the same name as "Yoḥanan ''. Despite this, "Yaḥyā '' is etymologically the same name as the Biblical figure Yechîyâh (English rendering: "Jehiah '') of the Books of the Chronicles. Therefore, the Qur'an in Surah 19: 7 is likely not claiming that "no one was ever given the name Yahya before this child ''. Rather, this Qur'an verse is a clear reference to the Biblical account of the miraculous naming of John, which accounted that he was almost named "Zacharias '' (Greek: Ζαχαρίας) after his father 's name, as no one in the lineage of his father Zacharias (also known as Zechariah) had been named "John '' ("Yohanan '' / "Yoannes '') before him.
The exegetes frequently connected the name with the meaning of "to quicken '' or "to make alive '' in reference to John 's mother 's barrenness, which was cured by God, as well as John 's preaching, which, as Muslims believe, "made alive '' the faith of Israel. This is the same meaning as the Hebrew name Yechîyâh (יְחִיָּה; "Jehiah '') (lit.: "YHWH lives ''). Yechîyâh was also the name of one of the doorkeepers for the Ark of the Covenant during the reign of King David in the Bible. Because of this, it is supposed that this name "Yaḥyā '' was commonly used in the 6th -- 7th centuries CE by Arab Christians as an allegorical honorific of John the Baptist (Arabic: يُوحَنَّا الْمَعْمَدَانُ, Yūḥanna al - Mamadan), who considered him to be a "doorkeeper '' for the "Ark of the New Covenant '', Jesus Christ (Arabic: يَسُوعَ الْمَسِيحِ, Yasū'u l - Masīḥ).
The Quran also mentions a root used in the Hebrew name, ' Yohanan ' יוֹחָנָן (Yahweh is gracious). Sura Maryam: 12 -- 13 describes the virtues of Yahya: وَآتَيْنَاهُ الْحُكْمَ صَبِيًّا -- وَحَنَانًا مِّن لَّدُنَّا وَزَكَاةً (And We gave him judgement, while yet a boy -- And affection from Us, and purity.) Here ' Ḥanān ' (حنان , Affection) is an Arabic word corresponding to the same root used in the Hebrew / Aramaic ' Yohanan '.
Bahá'ís consider John to have been a prophet of God who like all other prophets was sent to instill the knowledge of God, promote unity among the people of the world, and to show people the correct way to live. There are numerous quotations in the writings of Bahá'u'lláh, Founder of the Bahá'í Faith mentioning John the Baptist. He is regarded by Bahá'ís as a lesser Prophet. Bahá'u'lláh claimed that his Forerunner, the Báb, was the spiritual return of John the Baptist. In his letter to Pope Pius IX, Bahá'u'lláh wrote:
O followers of the Son! We have once again sent John unto you, and He, verily, hath cried out in the wilderness of the Bayán: O peoples of the world! Cleanse your eyes! The Day whereon ye can behold the Promised One and attain unto Him hath drawn nigh! O followers of the Gospel! Prepare the way! The Day of the advent of the Glorious Lord is at hand! Make ready to enter the Kingdom. Thus hath it been ordained by God, He Who causeth the dawn to break.
John is believed to have had the specific role of foretelling and preparing the way for Jesus. In condemning those who had ' turned aside ' from him, Bahá'u'lláh, compared them to the followers of John the Baptist, who, he said, ' protested against Him Who was the Spirit (Jesus) saying: "The dispensation of John hath not yet ended; wherefore hast thou come? '' Bahá'u'lláh believed that the Báb played the same role as John in preparing the people for his own coming. As such Bahá'u'lláh refers to the Báb as ' My Forerunner ', the Forerunner being a title that Christians reserve for John the Baptist. However, Bahá'ís consider the Báb to be a greater Prophet (Manifestation of God) and thus possessed of a far greater station than John the Baptist.
The Unification Church teaches that God intended John to help Jesus during his public ministry in Judea. In particular, John should have done everything in his power to persuade the Jewish people that Jesus was the Messiah. He was to become Jesus ' main disciple and John 's disciples were to become Jesus ' disciples. Unfortunately John did n't follow Jesus and continued his own way of baptizing people. John 's failure to follow Jesus became the chief obstacle to the fulfillment of Jesus ' mission.
The beheading of Saint John the Baptist is a standard theme in Christian art, in which John 's head is often depicted on a platter, which represents the request of Herod 's stepdaughter, Salome. He is also depicted as an ascetic wearing camel hair, with a staff and scroll inscribed Ecce Agnus Dei, or bearing a book or dish with a lamb on it. In Orthodox icons, he often has angel 's wings, since Mark 1: 2 describes him as a messenger.
The Baptism of Christ was one of the earliest scenes from the Life of Christ to be frequently depicted in Early Christian art, and John 's tall, thin, even gaunt, and bearded figure is already established by the 5th century. Only he and Jesus are consistently shown with long hair from Early Christian times, when the apostles generally have trim classical cuts; in fact John is more consistently depicted in this way than Jesus. In Byzantine art the composition of the Deesis came to be included in every Eastern Orthodox church, as remains the case to this day. Here John and the Theotokos (Mary) flank a Christ Pantocrator and intercede for humanity; in many ways this is the equivalent of Western Crucifixions on roods and elsewhere, where John the Evangelist takes the place of John the Baptist (except in the idiosyncratic Isenheim Altarpiece). John the Baptist is very often shown on altarpieces designed for churches dedicated to him, or where the donor patron was named for him or there was some other connection of patronage -- John was the patron saint of Florence, among many other cities, which means he features among the supporting saints in many important works.
A number of narrative scenes from his life were often shown on the predella of altarpieces dedicated to John, and other settings, notably the large series in grisaille fresco in the Chiostro dello Scalzo (it), which was Andrea del Sarto 's largest work, and the frescoed Life by Domenico Ghirlandaio in the Tornabuoni Chapel, both in Florence. There is another important fresco cycle by Filippo Lippi in Prato Cathedral. These include the typical scenes: the Annunciation to Zechariah, John 's birth, his naming by his father, the Visitation, John 's departure for the desert, his preaching in the desert, the Baptism of Christ, John before Herod, the dance of Salome, and his beheading.
His birth, which unlike the Nativity of Jesus allowed a relatively wealthy domestic interior to be shown, became increasingly popular as a subject in the late Middle Ages, with depictions by Jan van Eyck in the Turin - Milan Hours and Ghirlandaio in the Tornabuoni Chapel being among the best known. His execution, a church feast - day, was often shown, and by the 15th - century scenes such as the dance of Salome became popular, sometimes, as in an engraving by Israhel van Meckenem, the interest of the artist is clearly in showing the life of Herod 's court, given contemporary dress, as much as the martyrdom of the saint. Salome bearing John 's head on a platter equally became a subject for the Northern Renaissance taste for images of glamorous but dangerous women (Delilah, Judith and others), and was often painted by Lucas Cranach the Elder and engraved by the Little Masters. These images remained popular into the Baroque, with Carlo Dolci painting at least three versions. John preaching, in a landscape setting, was a popular subject in Dutch art from Pieter Brueghel the Elder and his successors.
As a child (of varying age), he is sometimes shown from the 15th century in family scenes from the life of Christ such as the Presentation of Christ, the Marriage of the Virgin and the Holy Kinship. Leonardo da Vinci 's versions of the Virgin of the Rocks were influential in establishing a Renaissance fashion for variations on the Madonna and Child that included John, probably intended to depict the relative 's reunion in Egypt, when after Jesus ' Flight to Egypt John was believed to have been carried to join him by an angel. Raphael in particular painted many compositions of the subject, such as the Alba Madonna, La belle jardinière, Aldobrandini Madonna, Madonna della seggiola, Madonna dell'Impannata, which were among his best - known works. John was also often shown by himself as an older child or adolescent, usually already wearing his distinctive dress and carrying a long thin wooden cross -- another theme influenced by Leonardo, whose equivocal composition, reintroducing the camel - skin dress, was developed by Raphael Titian and Guido Reni among many others. Often he is accompanied by a lamb, especially in the many Early Netherlandish paintings which needed this attribute as he wore normal clothes. Caravaggio painted an especially large number of works including John, from at least five largely nude youths attributed to him, to three late works on his death -- the great Execution in Malta, and two sombre Salomes with his head, one in Madrid, and one in London.
Amiens cathedral, which holds one of the alleged heads of the Baptist, has a biographical sequence in polychrome relief, dating from the 16th century. This stresses the execution and the disposal of the saint 's remains.
A remarkable Pre-Raphaelite portrayal is Christ in the House of His Parents by John Everett Millais. Here the Baptist is shown as a child, wearing a loin covering of animal skins, hurrying into Joseph 's carpenter shop with a bowl of water to join Mary, Joseph, and Mary 's mother Anne in soothing the injured hand of Jesus. Artistic interest enjoyed a considerable revival at the end of the 19th century with Symbolist painters such as Gustave Moreau and Puvis de Chavannes (National Gallery, London). Oscar Wilde 's play Salome was illustrated by Aubrey Beardsley, giving rise to some of his most memorable images.
The Italian Renaissance poet Lucrezia Tornabuoni chose John the Baptist as one of biblical figures on which she wrote poetry.
John the Baptist has appeared in a number of screen adaptations of the life of Jesus. Actors who have played John include Robert Ryan in King of Kings (1961), Mario Socrate in The Gospel According to St. Matthew (1964), Charlton Heston in The Greatest Story Ever Told (1965), David Haskell in Godspell (1973), Michael York in Jesus of Nazareth (1977), and Andre Gregory in The Last Temptation of Christ (1988).
Saint John the Baptist is the patron saint of Jordan: his beheading is said to have taken place in Machaerus in central Jordan.
Saint John the Baptist is the patron saint of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and its capital city, San Juan. In 1521, the island was given its formal name, "San Juan Bautista de Puerto Rico '', following the custom of christening a town with its formal name and the name which Christopher Columbus had originally given the island. The names "San Juan Bautista '' and "Puerto Rico '' were eventually used in reference to both city and island, leading to a reversal in terminology by most inhabitants largely due to a cartographic error. By 1746, the city 's name ("Puerto Rico '') had become that of the entire island, while the name for the island ("San Juan Bautista '') had become that of the city. The official motto of Puerto Rico also references the saint: Joannes Est Nomen Eius (Latin for "his name is John '', from Luke 1: 63).
He is also a patron saint of French Canada, and Newfoundland. The Canadian cities of St. John 's, Newfoundland (1497) and Saint John, New Brunswick (1604) were both named in his honor. In the United Kingdom, Saint John is the patron of Penzance, Cornwall. His feast day of June 24, celebrated officially in Quebec as the Fête Nationale du Québec, and in Newfoundland as Discovery Day.
In Scotland, he is the patron saint of Perth, which used to be known as St. John 's Toun of Perth. The main church in the city is still the medieval Kirk of St. John the Baptist and the city 's professional football club is called St Johnstone F.C.
Also, on the night of June 23 on to the 24th, Saint John is celebrated as the patron saint of Porto, the second largest city in Portugal. An article from June 2004 in The Guardian remarked that "Porto 's Festa de São João is one of Europe 's liveliest street festivals, yet it is relatively unknown outside the country ''.
He is also patron of the Knights Hospitaller of Jerusalem, Malta, Florence, and Genoa, Italy. John is patron saint of Xewkija, Gozo, Malta, which remember him with a great feast on the Sunday nearest to June 24.
Calamba City, Laguna, Calumpit, Bulacan, Balayan and Lian in Batangas, and San Juan, Metro Manila are among several places in the Philippines that venerate John as the town or city patron. A common practise of many Filipino fiestas in his honour is bathing and the dousing of people in memory of John 's iconic act. The custom is similar in form to Songkran and Holi, and serves as a playful respite from the intense tropical heat. While famed for the Black Nazarene it enshrines, Quiapo Church in Manila is actually dedicated to Saint John.
He is also patron of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Charleston, which covers the whole of South Carolina in the United States.
The Baptistines are the name given to a number of religious orders dedicated to the memory of John the Baptist.
Along with John the Evangelist, John the Baptist is claimed as a patron saint by the fraternal society of Free and Accepted Masons (better known as the Freemasons).
In many Mediterranean countries, the summer solstice is dedicated to St. John. The associated ritual is very similar to Midsummer celebrations in the Anglo - Saxon tradition.
|
the three stages of savagery barbarism and civilization | Ancient society - wikipedia
Ancient Society is an 1877 book by the American anthropologist Lewis H. Morgan. Building on the data about kinship and social organization presented in his 1871 Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family, Morgan develops his theory of the three stages of human progress, i.e., from Savagery through Barbarism to Civilization. Contemporary European social theorists such as Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels were influenced by Morgan 's work on social structure and material culture, as shown by Engels ' The Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State (1884).
The dominant idea of Morgan 's thought is that of progress. He conceived it as a career of social states arranged in a scale on which man has worked his way up from the bottom. Progress is historically true of the entire human family, but not uniformly. Different branches of the family have evidenced human advancement to different conditions. He thought the scale had universal application or substantially the same in kind, with deviations from uniformity... produced by special causes. Morgan hopes therefore to discern the principal stages of human development.
Morgan arrived at the idea of a society 's progress in part through analogy to individual development. It is an ascent to human supremacy on the earth. The prime analogate is an individual working his way up in society; that is, Morgan, who was well read in classics, relies on the Roman cursus honorum, rising through the ranks, which became the basis of the English ideas of career and working your way up, to which he blends in the rationalist idea of a scala, or ladder, of life. The idea of growth or development is also borrowed from individuals. He proposed that a society has a life like that of an individual, which develops and grows.
He gives the analogy an anthropological twist and introduces the comparative method coming into vogue in other disciplines. Lewis names units called ethna, by which he means inventions, discoveries and domestic institutions. The ethna are compared and judged higher or lower on the scale, pair by pair. Morgan 's ethna appear to comprise at least some of Edward Burnett Tylor 's cultural objects. Morgan mentions Tylor a number of times in the book.
Morgan 's standard of higher or lower is not clearly expressed. By higher he appears to mean whatever contributes better to control over the environment, victory over competitors, and spread of population. He does not mention Charles Darwin 's theory of evolution, but Darwin referred to Morgan 's work in his own.
The substitutions of ethna better than the previous follow several lines of progress.
Morgan rejects the Ages of Stone, of Bronze, of Iron, the Three - Age System of pre-history, as being insufficient characterizations of progress. This theory had been explicated by J.J.A. Worsaae in his The Primeval Antiquities of Denmark, published in English in 1849. Worsaae had built his work on the foundation of evidence - based chronology by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen, whose Guideline to Scandinavian Antiquity (Ledetraad til Nordisk Oldkyndighed) (1836), was not published in English until 1848. The two works were highly influential to researchers in Great Britain and North America.
Morgan believed the prehistoric stages as defined by the Danish were difficult to distinguish, as they overlapped and refer only to material types of implements or tools. In addition, Morgan thought they did not fit the evidence he was finding among Native American societies in North America, in which he had closely studied social structure as an indicator of stages of civilization. Based on the lines of progress, he distinguishes ethnical periods, which each have a distinct culture and a particular mode of life and do not overlap in a region. He does admit to exceptions and a difficulty of determining precise borders between periods. Scientific archaeology was being developed at this time; Morgan did not have the techniques of stratigraphy or scientific dating available, but based his arguments on linguistic and historical speculation. (Thomsen and Worsaae are credited with the foundation of scientific archaeology, as they worked to have controlled excavations in which artifacts could be evaluated by which were found together: the beginning of stratigraphy. This evidence - based system was the start of chronological dating in archeology.)
|
where did democratic changes and revolutions take place | Democratic revolution - Wikipedia
A democratic revolution is a political science term denoting a revolution in which a democracy is instituted, replacing a previous non-democratic government, or in which revolutionary change is brought about through democratic means, usually without violence.
It involves revising a country 's constitution to allow for the people to have the power to have:
|
troy rise and fall of a city cast | Troy: Fall of a City - wikipedia
Troy: Fall of a City is a British - American miniseries based on the Trojan War and the love affair between Paris and Helen. The show tells the story of the 10 year siege of Troy, set in the 13th century BC. The series was commissioned by BBC One and is a co-production between BBC One and Netflix, with BBC One airing the show on 17 February 2018 in the United Kingdom, and Netflix streaming the show internationally outside the UK.
The story of the 10 year siege of Troy by the Greeks is told after the young prince of Troy, Paris, has an affair with Helen of Troy, the wife of the Greek king.
The series was filmed in Cape Town and consists of eight episodes. It is written by David Farr, Nancy Harris, Mika Watkins, and Joe Barton, and directed by Owen Harris and Mark Brozel.
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 71 % based on 12 reviews, and an average rating of 5.67 / 10.
|
who has the money in the bank wwe | WWE Money in the Bank - wikipedia
Money in the Bank is a professional wrestling pay - per - view (PPV) event, produced annually by WWE. It is named after the Money in the Bank ladder match, which previously only took place at WrestleMania. The Money in the Bank ladder match debuted at WrestleMania 21 in 2005. The Money in the Bank match would then be held at the next five WrestleMania events, after which the match concept was spun off on to its own pay - per - view beginning in 2010.
The "Money in the Bank '' pay - per - view centers around a ladder match, the prize of which is a briefcase containing a contract for a championship match. The winner of the contract (which has been contained in the various colored briefcases, e.g., red for Raw or Blue for SmackDown) can then cash in the contract at a time and place of their choosing anytime within the next year - beginning the night they win the briefcase - for a championship match. If the contract is not used within that year, the contract is voided - this has yet to happen.
In 2010 and 2011, the annual pay - per - views featured two Money in the Bank ladder matches. One ladder match was for the Raw brand with a contract for a WWE Championship match, while the other ladder match was for the SmackDown brand with a contract for a World Heavyweight Championship match. The brand split ended in August 2011, after which, the Money in the Bank pay - per - views continued to have two ladder matches for contracts for the respective titles, but they were not brand exclusive. After the two titles were unified in December 2013, a contract for the unified WWE World Heavyweight Championship became the prize of a single Money in the Bank ladder match. The brand split returned after the 2016 event, and the 2017 pay - per - view was made a SmackDown exclusive event. The contract in the ladder match was for a WWE Championship (formerly WWE World Heavyweight Championship) match. The 2017 event also featured the first - ever Women 's Money in the Bank ladder match with its contract being for a SmackDown Women 's Championship match. For 2018, the event will be an interbrand event, featuring both the Raw and SmackDown brands, the first time since 2011.
Money in the Bank is the only WWE pay - per - view event with a regular theme song, as all but the first event have used "Money in the Bank '' by in - house WWE composer Jim Johnston as its theme song. This is in stark contrast to other pay - per - view events, which use songs sponsored by mainstream recording artists, which was the case with the first event using "Money '' by I Fight Dragons. Before the advent of the pay - per - view, the "Money in the Bank '' song was used as the entrance music for the U.S. President Donald Trump for his numerous guest appearances on WWE television.
Only wrestlers with at least 2 appearances in the pay per view Money in the Bank match are shown. As of the 2017 Money in the Bank.
|
how many miles to vegas from my location | Las Vegas Valley - wikipedia
The Las Vegas Valley is a major metropolitan area located in the southern part of the U.S. state of Nevada. The largest urban agglomeration in the state, it is the heart of the Las Vegas -- Paradise - Henderson, NV MSA. The Valley is largely defined by the Las Vegas Valley landform, a 600 sq mi (1,600 km) basin area surrounded by mountains to the north, south, east and west of the metropolitan area. The Valley is home to the three largest incorporated cities in Nevada: Las Vegas, Henderson and North Las Vegas. Five unincorporated towns governed by the Clark County government are part of the Las Vegas Township and constitute the largest community in the state of Nevada.
The names Las Vegas and Vegas are interchangeably used to indicate the Valley, the Strip, and the city, and are used as a brand by the Las Vegas Convention and Visitors Authority to denominate the entire region. The Valley is affectionately known as the "ninth island '' by Hawaii natives and Las Vegans alike, in part due to the large number of people originally from Hawaii who live in and travel to Las Vegas on a regular basis.
Since the 1990s the Las Vegas Valley has seen exponential growth, more than doubling its population of 741,459 in 1990 to more than 2 million estimated in 2015. The Las Vegas Valley remains one of the fastest growing metropolitan areas in the United States, and in its relatively short history has established a diverse presence in international business, commerce, urban development and entertainment, as well as one of the most iconic and most visited tourist destinations in the world. In 2014, a record breaking 41 million visited the Las Vegas area, producing a gross metropolitan product of more than $100 billion.
The first reported non-Native American visitor to the Las Vegas Valley was the Mexican scout Rafael Rivera in 1829. Las Vegas was named by Mexicans in the Antonio Armijo party, including Rivera, who used the water in the area while heading north and west along the Old Spanish Trail from Texas. In the 19th century, areas of the valley contained artesian wells that supported extensive green areas, or meadows, hence the name Las Vegas (vegas being Spanish for "meadows '').
The area was previously settled by Mormon farmers in 1854 and later became the site of a United States Army fort in 1864, beginning a long relationship between southern Nevada and the U.S. military. Since the 1930s, Las Vegas has generally been identified as a gaming center as well as a resort destination, primarily targeting adults.
Nellis Air Force Base is located in the northeast corner of the valley. The ranges that the Nellis pilots use and various other land areas used by various federal agencies, limit growth of the valley in terms of geographic area.
Businessman Howard Hughes arrived in the late 1960s and purchased many casino hotels, as well as television and radio stations in the area. Legitimate corporations began to purchase casino hotels as well, and the mob was run out by the federal government over the next several years. The constant stream of tourist dollars from the hotels and casinos was augmented by a new source of federal money from the establishment of what is now Nellis Air Force Base. The influx of military personnel and casino job - hunters helped start a land building boom which is now leveling off.
The Las Vegas area remains one of the world 's top entertainment destinations.
The valley is contained in the Las Vegas Valley landform. This includes the cities of Las Vegas, North Las Vegas, and Henderson, and the unincorporated towns of Summerlin South, Paradise, Spring Valley, Sunrise Manor, Enterprise, Winchester, and Whitney. The valley is technically located within the larger metropolitan area, as the metropolitan area covers all of Clark County including parts that do not fall within the valley.
The government of Clark County has an "Urban Planning Area '' of Las Vegas. This definition is a roughly rectangular area, about 20 mi (32 km) from east to west and 30 miles (48 km) from north to south. Notable exclusions from the "Urban Planning Area '' include Red Rock, Blue Diamond, and Mount Charleston.
The Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department is the largest police department in the valley and the state and exercises jurisdiction in the entire county. There are approximately 3,000 police officers that cover the city of Las Vegas; unincorporated areas; the town of Laughlin, about 90 mi (140 km) from Downtown Las Vegas; and desert, park, and mountain areas within Clark County. The department does not exercise primary jurisdiction in areas with separate police forces such as North Las Vegas, Henderson, Boulder City, Nellis Air Force Base and the Paiute reservation.
The Las Vegas Valley lies in the Mojave Desert. The surrounding land is desert with mountains in the distance.
The Las Vegas Valley lies in a relatively high - altitude portion of the Mojave Desert, with a subtropical hot - desert climate. The Valley generally averages less than 5 in (130 mm) of rain annually. Daily daytime summer temperatures in July and August typically range from 100 ° F (38 ° C) to 110 ° F (43 ° C), while nights generally range from 72 ° F (22 ° C) to 80 ° F (27 ° C). Very low humidity, however, tempers the effect of these temperatures, though dehydration, heat exhaustion, and sun stroke can occur after even a limited time outdoors in the summer. The interiors of automobiles often prove deadly to small children and pets during the summer and surfaces exposed to the sun can cause first - and second - degree burns to unprotected skin. July and August can also be marked by "monsoon season '', when moist winds from the Gulf of California soak much of the Southwestern United States. While not only raising humidity levels, these winds develop into dramatic desert thunderstorms that can sometimes cause flash flooding.
Winters in the Las Vegas Valley are typically chilly, but sunny. Winter highs in December and January usually range from 52 ° F (11 ° C) to 60 ° F (16 ° C), while nighttime lows range from 34 ° F (1 ° C) to 42 ° F (6 ° C). The mountains surrounding the valley are snow - covered during the winter season, but snow accumulation in the area itself is uncommon. Every few years apart, however, Las Vegas does get a measurable snowfall.
Spring and fall are generally warm to hot.
The valley has seven known earthquake fault zones; Frenchman Mountain Fault; Whitney Mesa Fault; Cashman Fault; Valley View Fault; Decatur Fault; Eglington Fault; West Charleston Fault.
Having part of the region located in a desert basin creates issues with air quality. From the dust the wind picks up, to the smog produced by vehicles, to the pollen in the air, the valley has several bad air days.
Pollen can be a major issue several weeks a year, with counts occasionally in the 70,000 - plus range. Local governments are trying to control this by banning plants that produce the most pollen.
The dust problems usually happen on very windy days, so they tend to be short and seasonal, with full - fledged dust storms occurring rarely.
Smog, on the other hand, gets worse when there is no wind to move the air out of the valley. Also, in winter it is possible to get an inversion in the valley.
Since manufacturing is not a dominant industry of Las Vegas, and with Clark County working to control air quality problems, success has been shown over the years.
The native flora does little to help the soil retain water. During the intense rains of monsoon season or (relatively) wet months of January and February, a network of dry natural channels, called washes or arroyos, carved into the valley floor allows water to flow down from the mountains and converge in the Las Vegas Wash which runs through the Clark County Wetlands Park. The wash system used to form a large natural wetlands which then flowed into the Colorado River, until the construction of Hoover Dam on the Colorado River led to the creation of Lake Mead. Further development in the 1980s and 1990s made Lake Las Vegas, which required directing the Las Vegas Wash into tunnels which run under Lake Las Vegas and into Lake Mead.
Nevada receives an allocation 300,000 acre feet (370,000,000 m) of water each year from Lake Mead, with credits for water it returns to the lake. The allocations were made with the Colorado River Compact when Nevada had a much smaller population and very little agriculture. The allocations were also made during a wet string of years, which overstated the available water in the entire watershed. As a result, precipitation that is below normal for a few years can significantly affect the Colorado River reservoirs. The Las Vegas area uses most of this allocation with Laughlin, Nevada using most of the remaining allocation. In June 2007, the price of a cubic meter was 57 cents in Las Vegas. Las Vegas gets around 90 percent of its water from Lake Mead.
Early Vegas depended on the aquifer which fed the flowing springs supporting the meadows that gave the area its name, but the pumping of water from these caused a large drop in the water levels and ground subsidence over wide areas of the valley. Today, the aquifers are basically used to store water that is pumped from the lake during periods of low demand and pumped out during periods of high demand.
The population doubling time in the greater metropolitan area was under ten years, since the early 1970s and the Las Vegas metropolitan area now has a population approaching two million people. This rapid population growth led to a significant urbanization of desert lands into industrial and commercial areas (see suburbia).
The driving force in Las Vegas is the tourism industry and the area has about 150,000 hotel rooms, more than any other city in the world. In the past, casinos and celebrity shows were the two major attractions for the area. Now shopping, conventions, fine dining, and outdoor beauty are also major forces in attracting tourist dollars.
Las Vegas serves as world headquarters for the world 's two largest Fortune 500 gaming companies, Caesars Entertainment and MGM Resorts International. Several companies involved in the manufacture of electronic gaming machines, such as slot machines, are located in the Las Vegas area. In the first decade of the 21st century, shopping and dining have become attractions of their own. Tourism marketing and promotion are handled by the Las Vegas Convention and Visitors Authority, a county - wide agency. Its annual Visitors Survey provides detailed information on visitor numbers, spending patterns, and resulting revenues.
While Las Vegas has historically attracted high - stake gamblers from around the world, it is now facing tougher competition from the UK, Hong Kong and Macau (China), Eastern Europe and developing areas in the Middle East.
Las Vegas has recently enjoyed a boom in population and tourism. The urban area has grown outward so quickly that it borders Bureau of Land Management holdings along its edges. This has led to an increase in land values such that medium - and high - density development is occurring closer to the core. The Chinatown of Las Vegas was constructed in the early 1990s on Spring Mountain Road. Chinatown initially consisted of only one large shopping center complex, but the area was expanded with shopping centers that contain various Asian businesses. Over the past few years, retirees have been moving to the metro area, driving businesses that support them from housing to health care.
While the cost of housing spiked up over 40 % in 2004, the lack of business and income taxes still makes Nevada an attractive place for many companies to relocate to or expand existing operations. Being a true twenty - four - hour city, call centers have always seemed to find Las Vegas a good place to hire workers who are accustomed to working at all hours.
The construction industry accounts for a share of the economy in Las Vegas. Hotel casinos planned for the Strip can take years to build and employ thousands of workers. Developers discovered that there was demand for high - end condominiums. By 2005, more than 100 condominium buildings were in various stages of development, however, in 2008, the construction industry went into a downturn due to the credit crunch, though the industry has since seen a rebound.
In 2000 more than 21,000 new homes and 26,000 resale homes were purchased. In early 2005 there were 20 residential development projects of more than 300 acres (120 ha) each underway. During that same period, Las Vegas was regarded as the fastest - growing community in the United States.
Other promising residential and office developments have begun construction around Downtown Las Vegas. New condominium and high - rise hotel projects have changed the Las Vegas skyline dramatically in recent years. Many large high - rise projects are planned for Downtown Las Vegas, as well as the Las Vegas Strip.
Construction in Las Vegas is a major industry and quickly growing with the population. In March 2011, construction employed 40,700 people and is expected to grow with the recovering economy. Since the mega resorts that have defined Las Vegas today, began going up in the early 1970s, construction has played a vital role in both commercial and non commercial developments. Cranes are a constant part of the Las Vegas Skyline. At any given time there are 300 new homes being constructed in Las Vegas. Downtown and The Strip always have at least one hospitality project under construction. In addition, in recent years Las Vegas has seen a spike in high - rise housing units. Luxurious condos and penthouse suites are always being built. New suburban master planned communities are also becoming common in Las Vegas ever since The Howard Hughes Corporation began work on Summerlin, an upper - class community on the west side of the valley.
The massive project CityCenter broke ground on June 26, 2006. Now completed at 3780 Las Vegas Boulevard South, it is the largest privately funded building complex in the world. At a cost of $9.2 billion, CityCenter was one of the largest projects in Vegas history. It put a massive strain on the construction ability and workforce of the area due to number of laborers and amount of materials required. Because of this, prices of almost any construction project in Las Vegas doubled. It is currently held by MGM Resorts International and has three hotels, two condo towers, and a hotel - condo building along with a large shopping and entertainment center.
Traditionally, housing consisted primarily of single - family detached homes. Slab - on - grade foundations are the common base for residential buildings in the valley. Apartments generally were two story buildings. Until the 1990s, there were exceptions, but they were few and far between. In the 1990s, Turnberry Associates constructed the first high rise condominium towers. Prior to this, there were only a handful of mid-rise multi-family buildings. By the mid-2000s, there was a major move into high rise condominiums towers, which affected the region 's skyline around the Strip.
The Las Vegas Valley is home to various suburban master planned communities that include extensive recreational amenities such as lakes, golf courses, parks, bike paths and jogging trails. Planned communities in the valley include Aliante, Anthem, Centennial Hills, Green Valley, Inspirada, The Lakes, Mountain 's Edge, Peccole Ranch, Silverado Ranch, Seven Hills, Southern Highlands, and Summerlin.
Some technology companies have either relocated to Las Vegas or were created there. For various reasons, Las Vegas has had a high concentration of technology companies in electronic gaming and telecommunications industries.
Some current technology companies in southern Nevada include: Bigelow Aerospace, Petroglyph, Switch Communications, US Support LLC, and Zappos.
In 2015, Electric vehicle startup Faraday Future has chosen North Las Vegas 's Apex Industrial Park for its $1 billion car factory.
Companies that originally were formed in the Las Vegas region, but have since sold or relocated include Westwood Studios (sold to Electronic Arts), Systems Research & Development (Sold to IBM), Yellowpages.com (Sold to BellSouth and SBC), and MPower Communications.
The major attractions in the Las Vegas Valley are the hotel / casinos. These hotels generally consist of large gambling areas, theaters for live performances, shopping, bars / clubs, and several restaurants and cafes. There are clusters of large hotel / casinos located in both downtown Las Vegas and on the Las Vegas Strip. The largest hotels are mainly located on the Strip, which is a four - mile section of Las Vegas Boulevard. These hotels provide thousands of rooms of various sizes. Fifteen of the world 's 25 largest hotels by room count are on the Strip, with a total of over 62,000 rooms. There are many hotel / casinos in the city 's downtown area as well, which was the original focal point of the Valley 's gaming industry. Several hotel / casinos ranging from large to small are also located around the city and metro area. Many of the largest hotel, casino, and resort properties in the world are located on the Las Vegas Strip.
The valley 's casinos can be grouped into several locations. The largest is the Las Vegas Strip, followed by Downtown Las Vegas, and then the smaller Boulder Strip. There are also several one - off single standing hotel / casinos dotted around the valley and the metro area.
Las Vegas has expanded its attractiveness to visitors by offering both affordable and high - end merchandise in many shops and shopping malls. Many hotels on the Las Vegas Strip also have adjacent shopping malls, giving the Las Vegas area the highest concentration of shopping malls in any four mile stretch of road. In addition to the malls on the Strip, there are several outlying malls in the City of Las Vegas, Henderson, and the surrounding area. The monorail, lying somewhat east of the Strip, facilitates north -- south travel, including stations at several casinos and the Las Vegas Convention Center.
Las Vegas holds many of the world 's largest conventions each year, including CES, SEMA, and Conexpo. The Las Vegas Convention Center is one of the largest in the world with 1,940,631 sq ft (180,290.5 m) of exhibit space. These events bring in an estimated $7.4 billion of revenue to the city each year, and host over 5 million attendees.
Las Vegas Boulevard facing south and Planet Hollywood Las Vegas
Fremont East
The Bellagio (left) and Caesar 's Palace (right)
MacDonald Highlands, one of many affluent neighborhoods in the valley
CityCenter complex
Wynn Las Vegas
The Fashion Show Mall
Fountains of Bellagio
Crystals at City Center
The High Roller is the tallest observation wheel in the world.
The Forum Shops at Caesars
Red Rock Canyon National Conservation Area
The "First Friday '' celebration, held on the first Friday of each month, exhibits the works of local artists and musicians in an area just south of downtown. The city is home to an extensive Downtown Arts District which hosts numerous galleries, film festivals, and events.
The Southern Nevada Zoological - Botanical Park, also known as the Las Vegas Zoo, exhibits over 150 species of animals and plants. The Zoo closed its doors in September, 2013.
The Shark Reef Aquarium at Mandalay Bay is the only aquarium that is accredited by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums in the state of Nevada. It features over 2,000 animals and 1,200 species in 1.6 million gallons of seawater.
The $485 million Smith Center for the Performing Arts is located downtown in Symphony Park. The center is appropriate for Broadway shows and other major touring attractions as well as orchestral, opera, choir, jazz, and dance performances.
Bellagio Gallery of Fine Art is a facility presenting high - quality art exhibitions from major national and international museums. Past exhibits have included the works of Andy Warhol, Alexander Calder, and Peter Carl Fabergé. A self - guided audio tour is also offered.
The Las Vegas Natural History Museum features robot dinosaurs, live fish, and more than 26 species of preserved animals. There are several "hands - on '' areas where animals can be petted.
The Atomic Testing Museum, affiliated with the Smithsonian Institution, houses artifacts from the Nevada Test Site and records the dramatic history of the atomic age through a series of interactive modules, timelines, films, and actual equipment and gadgets from the site.
The valley is home to numerous other art galleries, orchestras, ballets, theaters, sculptures, and museums as well.
Las Vegas is served by 22 television and 46 radio stations. The area is also served by two NOAA Weather Radio transmitters (162.55 MHz located in Boulder City and 162.40 MHz located on Mount Potosi).
McCarran International Airport (LAS) provides commercial flights into the Las Vegas Valley. The airport serves domestic, international, and cargo flights, as well as some private aircraft. General aviation traffic, however, will typically use the much smaller North Las Vegas Airport, or other airfields in the county. Public transportation is provided by RTC Transit. Numerous bus routes cover Las Vegas, Henderson, North Las Vegas, and other suburban areas.
The Las Vegas Monorail runs from the MGM Grand Hotel at the south end of the Strip to the SLS Las Vegas at the north end of the Strip. The street numbering system is divided by the following streets:
Until 1997, the Amtrak Desert Wind train service ran through Las Vegas using the Union Pacific Railroad (UP) rails that run through the city; Amtrak service to Las Vegas has since been replaced by Amtrak 's Thruway Motorcoach bus service. Plans to restore Los Angeles to Las Vegas Amtrak service using a Talgo train have been discussed but no plan for a replacement has been implemented. The Las Vegas Amtrak station was located in the Plaza Hotel. It had the distinction of being the only train station located in a casino.
Two major freeways -- Interstate 15 and Interstate 515 / U.S. Route 95 -- cross in downtown Las Vegas. I - 15 connects Las Vegas to the Southern California coastal urban centers of Los Angeles and San Diego, and heads northeast to and beyond Salt Lake City, Utah. I - 515 goes southeast to Henderson, beyond which US 93 continues south of Hoover Dam over the new Mike O'Callaghan -- Pat Tillman Memorial Bridge towards Phoenix, Arizona and the Arizona Sun Corridor. US 95 connects the city to northwestern Nevada, including Carson City and Reno. US 93 splits from I - 15 northeast of Las Vegas and goes north through the eastern part of the state, serving Ely and Wells, and US 95 heads south from US 93 near Henderson through far eastern California. A three - quarters beltway has been built, consisting of Interstate 215 on the south and Clark County 215 on the west and north. Other radial routes include Blue Diamond Road (SR 160) to Pahrump and Lake Mead Boulevard (SR 147) to Lake Mead.
With the notable exceptions of Las Vegas Boulevard, Boulder Highway (SR 582), and Rancho Drive (SR 599), the majority of surface streets outside downtown Las Vegas are laid out along Public Land Survey System section lines. Many are maintained by the Nevada Department of Transportation as state highways.
While the Las Vegas area does not have any passenger rail service, proposals to revive passenger trains to Las Vegas have included the Desert Xpress high - speed train from Victorville, California; the California - Nevada Interstate Maglev, which would extend to Anaheim, California, with its first segment being to Primm, Nevada. The Las Vegas Railway Express; and the Z - Train, which would travel six days a week between Los Angeles Union Station and a new Z - Train Station adjacent to the Strip; and the Desert Lightning to Los Angeles and Phoenix. Las Vegas receives about 30 freight trains per day in 2004, and serves as a district crew change point, requiring all trains to stop in downtown. Freight traffic was 179,284 cars in 2004.
Two major freeways -- Interstate 15 and U.S. Route 95 -- cross in downtown Las Vegas. I - 15 connects Las Vegas to Los Angeles and San Diego, and heads northeast to and beyond Salt Lake City. Interstate 515 goes southeast to Henderson, beyond which U.S. Route 93 continues past the Hoover Dam towards Phoenix, Arizona. US 95 connects the city to northwestern Nevada, including Carson City and Reno. US 93 splits from I - 15 northeast of Las Vegas and goes north through the eastern part of the state, serving Ely and Wells, and US 95 heads south from US 93 near Henderson through far eastern California. A three - quarters beltway has been built, consisting of Interstate 215 on the south and Clark County 215 on the west and north. Other radial routes include SR 160 to Pahrump and SR 147 to Lake Mead.
With the notable exceptions of Las Vegas Boulevard, Boulder Highway, and Tonopah Highway (better known as the northern part of Rancho Drive), the majority of surface streets outside downtown Las Vegas are laid out along Public Land Survey System section lines. Many are maintained, in part, by the Nevada Department of Transportation as state highways.
The Las Vegas area is dependent on imported gasoline, diesel, and aviation fuel as is most of Nevada, which has only one refinery. The region is dependent on the Calnev Pipeline as its single supply. Limited diesel is delivered to a dedicated terminal in North Las Vegas by rail. Diversified supply is dependent on the planned UNEV pipeline.
About 25 % of the electric power from Hoover Dam goes to Nevada, and about 70 % of power to Southern Nevada comes from natural gas fired power stations.
Las Vegas is home to several notable minor league teams, as well as the UNLV Runnin ' Rebels, and two major professional teams: the Vegas Golden Knights of the NHL and (beginning in 2019 or 2020) the Las Vegas Raiders of the NFL.
Note: The Raiders will move to Las Vegas in 2019 or 2020; the Raiders franchise dates back to 1960 when it began in Oakland.
Las Vegas has many natural outdoor recreational options.
There are several multi-use trail systems within the valley operated by multiple organizations. The River Mountains Loop Trail is a 35 - mile - long (56 km) trail that connects the west side of the valley with Hoover Dam and Lake Mead. Summerlin offers more than 150 miles of award - winning trails within the 22,500 - acre (9,100 ha) community. There are also the 3 - mile (4.8 km) Angel Park Trail, Bonanza Trail, and the county 's Flamingo Arroyo Trail, I - 215 West Beltway Trail (5 miles (8.0 km)), I - 215 East Beltway Trail (4 miles (6.4 km)), Tropicana / Flamingo Washes Trail and the Western Trails Park Area Equestrian Trails (4 miles).
The Las Vegas Valley also hosts world class mountain biking including Bootleg Canyon Mountain Bike Park located in Boulder City which boasts itself as one of the International Mountain Biking Association 's "epic rides ''.
The Clark County School District operates all of the public primary and secondary schools in the county with the exception of a few which are contracted out to a private organization.
The University of Nevada, Las Vegas (UNLV) is in Paradise, about three miles (5 km) south of the city limits and roughly two miles east of the Strip. The University of Nevada Medical School has a campus near downtown Las Vegas. Several national colleges, including the University of Phoenix and Le Cordon Bleu, have campuses in the Las Vegas area. Nevada State College, National University and Touro University Nevada are nearby Henderson. The College of Southern Nevada has campuses in Las Vegas, North Las Vegas and Henderson. Henderson also is home to DeVry University and the Keller Graduate School of Management, as well as the University of Southern Nevada. Other private entities in the Las Vegas Valley include Apollo College and ITT Technical Institute.
Coordinates: 36 ° 07 ′ 54 '' N 115 ° 11 ′ 02 '' W / 36.1318 ° N 115.1840 ° W / 36.1318; - 115.1840
|
the retinoid that has the most important physiological role in the human body is | Vitamin A - wikipedia
Vitamin A is a group of unsaturated nutritional organic compounds that includes retinol, retinal, retinoic acid, and several provitamin A carotenoids (most notably beta - carotene). Vitamin A has multiple functions: it is important for growth and development, for the maintenance of the immune system and good vision. Vitamin A is needed by the retina of the eye in the form of retinal, which combines with protein opsin to form rhodopsin, the light - absorbing molecule necessary for both low - light (scotopic vision) and color vision. Vitamin A also functions in a very different role as retinoic acid (an irreversibly oxidized form of retinol), which is an important hormone - like growth factor for epithelial and other cells.
In foods of animal origin, the major form of vitamin A is an ester, primarily retinyl palmitate, which is converted to retinol (chemically an alcohol) in the small intestine. The retinol form functions as a storage form of the vitamin, and can be converted to and from its visually active aldehyde form, retinal.
All forms of vitamin A have a beta - ionone ring to which an isoprenoid chain is attached, called a retinyl group. Both structural features are essential for vitamin activity. The orange pigment of carrots (beta - carotene) can be represented as two connected retinyl groups, which are used in the body to contribute to vitamin A levels. Alpha - carotene and gamma - carotene also have a single retinyl group, which give them some vitamin activity. None of the other carotenes have vitamin activity. The carotenoid beta - cryptoxanthin possesses an ionone group and has vitamin activity in humans.
Vitamin A can be found in two principal forms in foods:
Vitamin A deficiency is estimated to affect approximately one third of children under the age of five around the world. It is estimated to claim the lives of 670,000 children under five annually. Approximately 250,000 -- 500,000 children in developing countries become blind each year owing to vitamin A deficiency, with the highest prevalence in Southeast Asia and Africa. Vitamin A deficiency is "the leading cause of preventable childhood blindness, '' according to UNICEF. It also increases the risk of death from common childhood conditions such as diarrhea. UNICEF regards addressing vitamin A deficiency as critical to reducing child mortality, the fourth of the United Nations ' Millennium Development Goals.
Vitamin A deficiency can occur as either a primary or a secondary deficiency. A primary vitamin A deficiency occurs among children and adults who do not consume an adequate intake of provitamin A carotenoids from fruits and vegetables or preformed vitamin A from animal and dairy products. Early weaning from breastmilk can also increase the risk of vitamin A deficiency.
Secondary vitamin A deficiency is associated with chronic malabsorption of lipids, impaired bile production and release, and chronic exposure to oxidants, such as cigarette smoke, and chronic alcoholism. Vitamin A is a fat - soluble vitamin and depends on micellar solubilization for dispersion into the small intestine, which results in poor use of vitamin A from low - fat diets. Zinc deficiency can also impair absorption, transport, and metabolism of vitamin A because it is essential for the synthesis of the vitamin A transport proteins and as the cofactor in conversion of retinol to retinal. In malnourished populations, common low intakes of vitamin A and zinc increase the severity of vitamin A deficiency and lead physiological signs and symptoms of deficiency. A study in Burkina Faso showed major reduction of malaria morbidity with combined vitamin A and zinc supplementation in young children.
Due to the unique function of retinal as a visual chromophore, one of the earliest and specific manifestations of vitamin A deficiency is impaired vision, particularly in reduced light -- night blindness. Persistent deficiency gives rise to a series of changes, the most devastating of which occur in the eyes. Some other ocular changes are referred to as xerophthalmia. First there is dryness of the conjunctiva (xerosis) as the normal lacrimal and mucus - secreting epithelium is replaced by a keratinized epithelium. This is followed by the build - up of keratin debris in small opaque plaques (Bitot 's spots) and, eventually, erosion of the roughened corneal surface with softening and destruction of the cornea (keratomalacia) and leading to total blindness. Other changes include impaired immunity (increased risk of ear infections, urinary tract infections, Meningococcal disease), hyperkeratosis (white lumps at hair follicles), keratosis pilaris and squamous metaplasia of the epithelium lining the upper respiratory passages and urinary bladder to a keratinized epithelium. In relation to dentistry, a deficiency in vitamin A may lead to enamel hypoplasia.
Adequate supply, but not excess vitamin A, is especially important for pregnant and breastfeeding women for normal fetal development and in breastmilk. Deficiencies can not be compensated by postnatal supplementation. Excess vitamin A, which is most common with high dose vitamin supplements, can cause birth defects and therefore should not exceed recommended daily values.
Vitamin A metabolic inhibition as a result of alcohol consumption during pregnancy is the elucidated mechanism for fetal alcohol syndrome and is characterized by teratogenicity closely matching maternal vitamin A deficiency.
A 2012 systematic review found no evidence that beta - carotene or vitamin A supplements increase longevity in healthy people or in people with various diseases. A meta - analysis of 43 studies showed that vitamin A supplementation of children under five who are at risk of deficiency reduced mortality by up to 24 %. Vitamin A supplementation for infants up to six months of age reduces infant mortality or morbidity in low - and middle - income countries. The World Health Organization estimated that vitamin A supplementation averted 1.25 million deaths due to vitamin A deficiency in 40 countries since 1998. In 2008, it was estimated that an annual investment of US $60 million in vitamin A and zinc supplementation combined would yield benefits of more than US $1 billion per year, with every dollar spent generating benefits of more than US $17.
While strategies include intake of vitamin A through a combination of breast feeding and dietary intake, delivery of oral high - dose supplements remain the principal strategy for minimizing deficiency. About 75 % of the vitamin A required for supplementation activity by developing countries is supplied by the Micronutrient Initiative with support from the Canadian International Development Agency. Food fortification approaches are feasible, but can not ensure adequate intake levels. Observational studies of pregnant women in sub-Saharan Africa have shown that low serum vitamin A levels are associated with an increased risk of mother - to - child transmission of HIV. Low blood vitamin A levels have been associated with rapid HIV infection and deaths. Authoritative reviews of more recent and better - designed studies have found no relationship between the level of serum maternal and / or infant vitamin A and the likelihood of HIV transmission.
Since vitamin A is fat - soluble, disposing of any excesses taken in through diet takes much longer than with water - soluble B vitamins and vitamin C. This allows for toxic levels of vitamin A to accumulate. These toxicities only occur with preformed (retinoid) vitamin A (such as from liver). The carotenoid forms (such as beta - carotene as found in carrots), give no such symptoms, but excessive dietary intake of beta - carotene can lead to carotenodermia, a harmless but cosmetically displeasing orange - yellow discoloration of the skin.
In general, acute toxicity occurs at doses of 25,000 IU / kg of body weight, with chronic toxicity occurring at 4,000 IU / kg of body weight daily for 6 -- 15 months. However, liver toxicities can occur at levels as low as 15,000 IU (4500 micrograms) per day to 1.4 million IU per day, with an average daily toxic dose of 120,000 IU, particularly with excessive consumption of alcohol. In people with renal failure, 4000 IU can cause substantial damage. Signs of toxicity may occur with long - term consumption of vitamin A at doses of 25,000 -- 33,000 IU per day.
Excessive vitamin A consumption can lead to nausea, irritability, anorexia (reduced appetite), vomiting, blurry vision, headaches, hair loss, muscle and abdominal pain and weakness, drowsiness, and altered mental status. In chronic cases, hair loss, dry skin, drying of the mucous membranes, fever, insomnia, fatigue, weight loss, bone fractures, anemia, and diarrhea can all be evident on top of the symptoms associated with less serious toxicity. Some of these symptoms are also common to acne treatment with Isotretinoin. Chronically high doses of vitamin A, and also pharmaceutical retinoids such as 13 - cis retinoic acid, can produce the syndrome of pseudotumor cerebri. This syndrome includes headache, blurring of vision and confusion, associated with increased intracerebral pressure. Symptoms begin to resolve when intake of the offending substance is stopped.
Chronic intake of 1500 RAE of preformed vitamin A may be associated with osteoporosis and hip fractures because it suppresses bone building while simultaneously stimulating bone breakdown, although other reviews have disputed this effect, indicating further evidence is needed.
A 2012 systematic review found that beta - carotene and higher doses of supplemental vitamin A increased mortality in healthy people and people with various diseases. The findings of the review extend evidence that antioxidants may not have long - term benefits.
As some carotenoids can be converted into vitamin A, attempts have been made to determine how much of them in the diet is equivalent to a particular amount of retinol, so that comparisons can be made of the benefit of different foods. The situation can be confusing because the accepted equivalences have changed. For many years, a system of equivalencies in which an international unit (IU) was equal to 0.3 μg of retinol, 0.6 μg of β - carotene, or 1.2 μg of other provitamin - A carotenoids was used. Later, a unit called retinol equivalent (RE) was introduced. Prior to 2001, one RE corresponded to 1 μg retinol, 2 μg β - carotene dissolved in oil (it is only partly dissolved in most supplement pills, due to very poor solubility in any medium), 6 μg β - carotene in normal food (because it is not absorbed as well as when in oils), and 12 μg of either α - carotene, γ - carotene, or β - cryptoxanthin in food.
Newer research has shown that the absorption of provitamin - A carotenoids is only half as much as previously thought. As a result, in 2001 the US Institute of Medicine recommended a new unit, the retinol activity equivalent (RAE). Each μg RAE corresponds to 1 μg retinol, 2 μg of β - carotene in oil, 12 μg of "dietary '' beta - carotene, or 24 μg of the three other dietary provitamin - A carotenoids.
Because the conversion of retinol from provitamin carotenoids by the human body is actively regulated by the amount of retinol available to the body, the conversions apply strictly only for vitamin A-deficient humans. The absorption of provitamins depends greatly on the amount of lipids ingested with the provitamin; lipids increase the uptake of the provitamin.
A sample vegan diet for one day that provides sufficient vitamin A has been published by the Food and Nutrition Board (page 120). Reference values for retinol or its equivalents, provided by the National Academy of Sciences, have decreased. The RDA (for men) established in 1968 was 5000 IU (1500 μg retinol). In 1974, the RDA was revised to 1000 RE (1000 μg retinol). As of 2001, the RDA for adult males is 900 RAE (900 μg or 3000 IU retinol). By RAE definitions, this is equivalent to 1800 μg of β - carotene supplement dissolved in oil (3000 IU) or 10800 μg of β - carotene in food (18000 IU).
The U.S. Institute of Medicine (IOM) updated Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) and Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for vitamin A in 2001. For infants up to 12 months there was not sufficient information to establish a RDA, so Adequate Intake (AI) shown instead. As for safety the IOM sets tolerable upper intake levels (ULs) for vitamins and minerals when evidence is sufficient. Collectively the EARs, RDAs, AIs and ULs are referred to as Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs). The calculation of retinol activity equivalents (RAE) is each μg RAE corresponds to 1 μg retinol, 2 μg of β - carotene in oil, 12 μg of "dietary '' beta - carotene, or 24 μg of the three other dietary provitamin - A carotenoids.
For U.S. food and dietary supplement labeling purposes the amount in a serving is expressed as a percent of Daily Value (% DV). For vitamin A labeling purposes 100 % of the Daily Value was set at 5,000 IU, but as of May 27, 2016 it has been revised to 900 μg RAE. A table of the pre-change adult Daily Values is provided at Reference Daily Intake. The original deadline to be in compliance was July 28, 2018, but on September 29, 2017 the FDA released a proposed rule that extended the deadline to January 1, 2020 for large companies and January 1, 2021 for small companies.
The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) refers to the collective set of information as Dietary Reference Values, with Population Reference Intake (PRI) instead of RDA, and Average Requirement instead of EAR. AI and UL defined the same as in United States. For women and men ages 15 and older the PRIs are set at 650 and 750 μg / day, respectively. PRI for pregnancy is 700 μg / day, for lactation 1300 / day. For children ages 1 -- 14 years the PRIs increase with age from 250 to 600 μg / day. These PRIs are similar to the U.S. RDAs. The European Food Safety Authority reviewed the same safety question as the United States and set a UL at 3000 μg / day.
Vitamin A is found in many foods, including:
Bracketed values are retinol activity equivalences (RAEs) and percentage of the adult male RDA, per 100 grams of the foodstuff (average). Conversion of carotene to retinol varies from person to person and bioavailability of carotene in food varies.
Vitamin A plays a role in a variety of functions throughout the body, such as:
The role of vitamin A in the visual cycle is specifically related to the retinal form. Within the eye, 11 - cis - retinal is bound to the protein "opsin '' to form rhodopsin in rods and iodopsin (cones) at conserved lysine residues. As light enters the eye, the 11 - cis - retinal is isomerized to the all - "trans '' form. The all - "trans '' retinal dissociates from the opsin in a series of steps called photo - bleaching. This isomerization induces a nervous signal along the optic nerve to the visual center of the brain. After separating from opsin, the all - "trans '' - retinal is recycled and converted back to the 11 - "cis '' - retinal form by a series of enzymatic reactions. In addition, some of the all - "trans '' retinal may be converted to all - "trans '' retinol form and then transported with an interphotoreceptor retinol - binding protein (IRBP) to the pigment epithelial cells. Further esterification into all - "trans '' retinyl esters allow for storage of all - trans - retinol within the pigment epithelial cells to be reused when needed. The final stage is conversion of 11 - cis - retinal will rebind to opsin to reform rhodopsin (visual purple) in the retina. Rhodopsin is needed to see in low light (contrast) as well as for night vision. Kühne showed that rhodopsin in the retina is only regenerated when the retina is attached to retinal pigmented epithelium, which provides retinal. It is for this reason that a deficiency in vitamin A will inhibit the reformation of rhodopsin and lead to one of the first symptoms, night blindness.
Vitamin A, in the retinoic acid form, plays an important role in gene transcription. Once retinol has been taken up by a cell, it can be oxidized to retinal (retinaldehyde) by retinol dehydrogenases and then retinaldehyde can be oxidized to retinoic acid by retinaldehyde dehydrogenases. The conversion of retinaldehyde to retinoic acid is an irreversible step, meaning that the production of retinoic acid is tightly regulated, due to its activity as a ligand for nuclear receptors. The physiological form of retinoic acid (all - trans - retinoic acid) regulates gene transcription by binding to nuclear receptors known as retinoic acid receptors (RARs) which are bound to DNA as heterodimers with retinoid "X '' receptors (RXRs). RAR and RXR must dimerize before they can bind to the DNA. RAR will form a heterodimer with RXR (RAR - RXR), but it does not readily form a homodimer (RAR - RAR). RXR, on the other hand, may form a homodimer (RXR - RXR) and will form heterodimers with many other nuclear receptors as well, including the thyroid hormone receptor (RXR - TR), the Vitamin D receptor (RXR - VDR), the peroxisome proliferator - activated receptor (RXR - PPAR) and the liver "X '' receptor (RXR - LXR).
The RAR - RXR heterodimer recognizes retinoic acid response elements (RAREs) on the DNA whereas the RXR - RXR homodimer recognizes retinoid "X '' response elements (RXREs) on the DNA; although several RAREs near target genes have been shown to control physiological processes, this has not been demonstrated for RXREs. The heterodimers of RXR with nuclear receptors other than RAR (i.e. TR, VDR, PPAR, LXR) bind to various distinct response elements on the DNA to control processes not regulated by vitamin A. Upon binding of retinoic acid to the RAR component of the RAR - RXR heterodimer, the receptors undergo a conformational change that causes co-repressors to dissociate from the receptors. Coactivators can then bind to the receptor complex, which may help to loosen the chromatin structure from the histones or may interact with the transcriptional machinery. This response can upregulate (or downregulate) the expression of target genes, including Hox genes as well as the genes that encode for the receptors themselves (i.e. RAR - beta in mammals).
Vitamin A plays a role in many areas of the immune system, particularly in T cell differentiation and proliferation.
Vitamin A promotes the proliferation of T cells through an indirect mechanism involving an increase in IL - 2. In addition to promoting proliferation, Vitamin A, specifically retinoic acid, influences the differentiation of T cells. In the presence of retinoic acid, dendritic cells located in the gut are able to mediate the differentiation of T cells into regulatory T cells. Regulatory T cells are important for prevention of an immune response against "self '' and regulating the strength of the immune response in order to prevent host damage. Together with TGF - β, Vitamin A promotes the conversion of T cells to regulatory T cells. Without Vitamin A, TGF - β stimulates differentiation into T cells that could create an autoimmune response.
Hematopoietic stem cells are important for the production of all blood cells, including immune cells, and are able to replenish these cells throughout the life of an individual. Dormant hematopoietic stem cells are able to self - renew and are available to differentiate and produce new blood cells when they are needed. In addition to T cells, Vitamin A is important for the correct regulation of hematopoietic stem cell dormancy. When cells are treated with all - trans retinoic acid, they are unable to leave the dormant state and become active, however, when vitamin A is removed from the diet, hematopoietic stem cells are no longer able to become dormant and the population of hematopoietic stem cells decreases. This shows an importance in creating a balanced amount of vitamin A within the environment to allow these stem cells to transition between a dormant and activated state, in order to maintain a healthy immune system.
Vitamin A has also been shown to be important for T cell homing to the intestine, effects dendritic cells, and can play a role in increased IgA secretion which is important for the immune response in mucosal tissues.
Vitamin A, and more specifically, retinoic acid, appears to maintain normal skin health by switching on genes and differentiating keratinocytes (immature skin cells) into mature epidermal cells. Exact mechanisms behind pharmacological retinoid therapy agents in the treatment of dermatological diseases are being researched. For the treatment of acne, the most prescribed retinoid drug is 13 - cis retinoic acid (isotretinoin). It reduces the size and secretion of the sebaceous glands. Although it is known that 40 mg of isotretinoin will break down to an equivalent of 10 mg of ATRA -- the mechanism of action of the drug (original brand name Accutane) remains unknown and is a matter of some controversy. Isotretinoin reduces bacterial numbers in both the ducts and skin surface. This is thought to be a result of the reduction in sebum, a nutrient source for the bacteria. Isotretinoin reduces inflammation via inhibition of chemotactic responses of monocytes and neutrophils. Isotretinoin also has been shown to initiate remodeling of the sebaceous glands; triggering changes in gene expression that selectively induce apoptosis. Isotretinoin is a teratogen with a number of potential side - effects. Consequently, its use requires medical supervision.
Vitamin A deprived rats can be kept in good general health with supplementation of retinoic acid. This reverses the growth - stunting effects of vitamin A deficiency, as well as early stages of xerophthalmia. However, such rats show infertility (in both male and females) and continued degeneration of the retina, showing that these functions require retinal or retinol, which are interconvertible but which can not be recovered from the oxidized retinoic acid. The requirement of retinol to rescue reproduction in vitamin A deficient rats is now known to be due to a requirement for local synthesis of retinoic acid from retinol in testis and embryos.
Retinyl palmitate has been used in skin creams, where it is broken down to retinol and ostensibly metabolised to retinoic acid, which has potent biological activity, as described above. The retinoids (for example, 13 - cis - retinoic acid) constitute a class of chemical compounds chemically related to retinoic acid, and are used in medicine to modulate gene functions in place of this compound. Like retinoic acid, the related compounds do not have full vitamin A activity, but do have powerful effects on gene expression and epithelial cell differentiation. Pharmaceutics utilizing mega doses of naturally occurring retinoic acid derivatives are currently in use for cancer, HIV, and dermatological purposes. At high doses, side - effects are similar to vitamin A toxicity.
The discovery of vitamin A may have stemmed from research dating back to 1816, when physiologist François Magendie observed that dogs deprived of nutrition developed corneal ulcers and had a high mortality rate. In 1912, Frederick Gowland Hopkins demonstrated that unknown accessory factors found in milk, other than carbohydrates, proteins, and fats were necessary for growth in rats. Hopkins received a Nobel Prize for this discovery in 1929. By 1913, one of these substances was independently discovered by Elmer McCollum and Marguerite Davis at the University of Wisconsin -- Madison, and Lafayette Mendel and Thomas Burr Osborne at Yale University who studied the role of fats in the diet. McCollum and Davis ultimately received credit because they submitted their paper three weeks before Mendel and Osborne. Both papers appeared in the same issue of the Journal of Biological Chemistry in 1913. The "accessory factors '' were termed "fat soluble '' in 1918 and later "vitamin A '' in 1920. In 1919, Harry Steenbock (University of Wisconsin -- Madison) proposed a relationship between yellow plant pigments (beta - carotene) and vitamin A. In 1931, Swiss chemist Paul Karrer described the chemical structure of vitamin A. Vitamin A was first synthesized in 1947 by two Dutch chemists, David Adriaan van Dorp and Jozef Ferdinand Arens.
During World War II, German bombers would attack at night to evade British defenses. In order to keep the 1939 invention of a new on - board Airborne Intercept Radar system secret from German bombers, the British Royal Ministry told newspapers that the nighttime defensive success of Royal Air Force pilots was due to a high dietary intake of carrots rich in vitamin A, propagating the myth that carrots enable people to see better in the dark.
|
who played cyrus the virus in con air | Con Air - wikipedia
Con Air is a 1997 American action film directed by Simon West, written by Scott Rosenberg, and produced by Jerry Bruckheimer. The film stars Nicolas Cage, John Cusack, and John Malkovich, with Steve Buscemi, Colm Meaney, Mykelti Williamson, Ving Rhames, Nick Chinlund, Jesse Borrego, Jose Zuniga, and Monica Potter.
The picture was released theatrically on June 6, 1997 by Touchstone Pictures and was a box office success, grossing over $224 million against a production budget of $75 million. Critics gave the film mixed reviews, but praised Cage and the cast performances as well as its action sequences, stunts, and Malkovich 's portrayal of the villain. The film borrows its title from the nickname of the Justice Prisoner and Alien Transportation System.
Honorably discharged Army Ranger Cameron Poe is convicted of manslaughter after killing a drunken man who tried to attack his pregnant wife Tricia and imprisoned for ten years, communicating with his newborn daughter Casey through letters. Eight years later, he is paroled and takes a flight to Alabama on board the Jailbird, a Fairchild C - 123 Provider converted into a flying prison transport. He is accompanied by his diabetic cellmate and friend Mike "Baby - O '' O'Dell, who is being transferred. The flight is overseen by U.S. Marshal Vince Larkin, who is approached by DEA agents Duncan Malloy and Willie Sims, the latter planning to go undercover to get information from drug baron Francisco Cindino, who is to be picked up on route.
A number of inmates are being transferred to a new supermax prison, including mass murderer William Bedford, rapist John "Johnny 23 '' Baca, Black Guerrilla Family member Nathan "Diamond Dog '' Jones, and criminal mastermind "Cyrus the Virus '' Grissom. After taking off, inmate Joe "Pinball '' Parker incites a riot, releasing Grissom and Diamond Dog, taking over the plane, planning to land at Carson Airport as scheduled, pick up and transfer other prisoners, and then fly to a non-extradition country. Sims tries to take control of the plane, but Grissom kills him. Poe and Grissom also foil Johnny 23 's rape attempts on the plane 's only female guard, Sally Bishop.
As the transfer begins, most of the plane 's guards and the pilot are forced to pose as inmates. Amongst the new passengers are Cindino, new pilot Earl "Swamp Thing '' Williams, and serial killer Garland Greene. The authorities discover the hijacking upon finding evidence in Grissom 's old cell and a tape recorder placed with the disguised guards by Poe, but are unable to stop the plane from taking off. The inmates plan to land at Lerner Airport and transfer onto another plane. Poe finds Pinball 's corpse trapped in the landing gear, writing a message to Larkin on the body before throwing it out. Larkin learns of the news and heads out to Lerner with the National Guard. Bedford, raiding the cargo, discovers Poe 's identity, forcing Poe to kill him.
The Jailbird is grounded at Lerner, with no sign of the transfer aircraft. Poe leaves to find Baby - O some insulin shots, meeting Larkin and informing him of the situation. The duo discover Cindino planning to escape on a hidden private jet, with Larkin sabotaging it as it takes off. Grissom executes Cindino by igniting the crashed plane 's fuel. As the National Guard arrive, the inmates launch an assault on them, but Larkin defends the troops using a bulldozer as a makeshift shield. The inmates flee back onto the Jailbird and take flight.
Poe 's identity is revealed when Bedford 's body is found. Grissom is about to execute him and Baby - O when Larkin and Malloy arrive in attack helicopters, damaging the Jailbird 's fuel tank. Though Larkin orders the plane to land at McCarran International Airport, Swamp Thing is forced to land it on the Las Vegas Strip, causing mass destruction and killing Johnny 23. Cyrus, Diamond Dog, and Swamp Thing escape on a fire truck, pursued by Poe and Larkin on police motorcycles, leading to the deaths of all three convicts. Poe and Larkin form a friendship, just as Tricia and Casey arrive. Poe meets his daughter for the first time and gives her the toy rabbit he bought for her. The only criminal unaccounted for is Garland, now living the high life as a Las Vegas gambler.
With second - unit work beginning on June 24, 1996, principal photography began shortly after at Salt Lake City, on July 1, 1996 and continued until October 29, 1996, at a number of locations. While most of the interiors of the Fairchild C - 123 Provider transport aircraft were filmed in Hollywood Center Studios soundstage # 7, Wendover Airport in Utah, as the stand in for the fictional Lerner Airfield, was used for the C - 123 flying and taxi scenes. Director Simon West chose the barren and remote Wendover area "because it looked like the surface of the moon... My idea was that it was perfect for the convicts who had been locked up for 10, 20, 30 years in little cells. '' The old wartime bomber base was also used for the aircraft boneyard scenes while the original swimming pool at the base was used in a scene where Garland Greene was talking to a young girl.
On August 29, 1996, Phillip Swartz, a welder employed by Special Effects Unlimited, a Los Angeles - based firm, was crushed to death at Wendover when a static model of the C - 123 used in the film fell on him. The film credits end with "In Memory of Phil Swartz ''. After filming, the filmmakers donated the Jailbird movie model used for the taxi scenes to the Historic Wendover Airfield Foundation, where it is currently on display at the ramp as an attraction for visitors.
Other filming locations included Ogden Airport where the exchange of prisoners is seen. The scene where the aircraft 's left wing hits the Fender Stratocaster sign of Hard Rock Hotel and Casino, the place where its premiere was held, was filmed using a remodeled guitar of the hotel and a Jailbird miniature model. The crash site was filmed in the Sands Hotel before its demolition on November 26, 1996. Producer Jerry Bruckheimer found the right spot for the climactic finale, originally planned for a crash at the White House, but Las Vegas was more in keeping with the dichotomy of convicts "cashing in. '' "We got very lucky... The Sands was going to be demolished anyway. They blew up the tower on their own. We arranged to blow up the front of the building. '' The 2nd Street Tunnel in Los Angeles was also used for the tunnel chase scene near the end of the film.
The Jailbird movie model used during flight scenes in the film had a series of both military and private owners. In December 2003 it was sold to All West Freight Inc. in Delta Junction, Alaska. On August 1, 2010, the C - 123 was destroyed when it crashed into Mount Healy within Denali National Park in Alaska. The three member flight crew was killed in the crash.
On the DVD commentary of Chappelle 's Show, and later, on Inside the Actors Studio, Dave Chappelle recounted that he improvised most of his lines in Con Air.
Along with using several highly detailed models at 1 / 15th scale, and a multitude of military and private aircraft assembled for the desert boneyard scene, the following aircraft were prominently featured in Con Air:
The film featured the Diane Warren hit single "How Do I Live '', performed by Trisha Yearwood for the film.
The Con Air soundtrack album omits two songs featured in the film: "How Do I Live '', written by Diane Warren and performed by Trisha Yearwood and "Sweet Home Alabama '' by Lynyrd Skynyrd. Although a key element of the film, Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle noted, "The soundtrack kicks into loud, obtrusive gear... (and) remains so loud throughout the picture that it practically functions as a distancing device. ''
The film was a box office hit, grossed $224,012,234 worldwide, of which $101,117,573 was in North America.
The film holds a 56 % approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes and an average rating of 5.7 / 10 based on 63 reviews. On Metacritic, the film holds a score of 52 out of 100, sampled from 22 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews. '' Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B + '' on an A+ to F scale.
Roger Ebert awarded the film three out of four stars, saying it "moves smoothly and with visual style and verbal wit. '' Janet Maslin, reviewer for The New York Times considered Con Air an exemplar of the "thrill ride genre. '' In contrast, Rolling Stone reviewer Peter Travers decried the "flip, hip '' and ultimately, "depressing... pandering '' present in the treatment. Andrew Johnston, reviewer for Time Out New York stated: "Leaving The Rock last summer, I thought it seemed physically impossible for a more over-the - top action movie to be made. That was pretty short - sighted of me, since it was only a matter of time until producer Jerry Bruckheimer topped himself as he does with the wildly entertaining Con Air. ''
Con Air was nominated for Best Original Song (for "How Do I Live '') and Best Sound (Kevin O'Connell, Greg P. Russell and Art Rochester) at the 70th Academy Awards, but lost to Titanic in both categories.
Conversely, the film won the Golden Raspberry Award for "Worst Reckless Disregard for Human Life and Public Property '' at the 18th Golden Raspberry Awards. "How Do I Live '' was nominated for both the Academy Award for Best Original Song and the Razzie Award Worst Original Song, but won neither.
In the webcomic Homestuck, the character John Egbert is a fan of the film, and there are numerous references to Con Air throughout the story. This includes published covers of the song "How Do I Live ''.
An unrated extended edition of the film was released on DVD on May 15, 2006. Jason Morgan of Cinemablend.com gave the film 1 star out of 5, claiming the added scenes slowed down the film, and criticized the high price of the DVD for its lack of bonus content.
The theatrical version was released on Blu - ray Disc on January 8, 2008.
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
|
what kanye west song starts with a piano | Runaway (Kanye West song) - wikipedia
"Runaway '' is a song by American hip hop recording artist Kanye West, released as the second single from his fifth studio album, My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy (2010). It features Pusha T, who is signed to West 's label GOOD Music. The production was handled by West, alongside co-producers Emile, Jeff Bhasker, and Mike Dean. The composition features repetitive piano riffs, intricate samples and a production style with several similarities to West 's album 808s & Heartbreak (2008). Described as a deeply personal song in nature, it expresses West 's thoughts on his failed relationships, and his acceptance of the media 's perception of him. Lyrically the song explores criticism aimed at West in the past and serves as a "toast to the douchebags. ''
Before the song 's premiere at the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards, it generated substantial public interest due to what had happened the year prior at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards. West 's performance was rewarded with positive reviews, with the full song being released online on October 4, 2010. The song received critical acclaim from music critics and was listed amongst the best songs of the year by several publications, including MTV, Pitchfork Media, Rolling Stone, Complex, New York Post, amongst others. Critics praised the song for its sincere subject matter, the openness of the song and the soulful, clean production. Upon release, the song became one of the best reviewed singles released by West, with several critics noted that the track solidified West 's commercial comeback with the public.
The song debuted and peaked on the Billboard Hot 100 at position 12 and is the centerpiece of Runaway, a 35 - minute short film featuring the majority of songs from My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy. The song 's nearly ten - minute music video features ballet dancers performing elaborate choreography. The music video received mostly positive reviews from music critics, who praised the scope of the video, the degree of creativity and the production design. Multiple cover artworks were designed by contemporary visual artist George Condo. Along with the MTV Video Music Awards, the song was performed on Saturday Night Live, his Watch the Throne Tour and at the Coachella Music Festival with a guest appearance by Pusha T. Additionally Runaway was used in the trailer for The Hangover Part III, as well as being used in a scene in The Night Before. A modified version rearranged by Ramin Djawadi was also used in the Super Bowl trailer of the HBO series Westworld.
The original cover art for "Runaway '' is a photograph by contemporary visual artist George Condo of a ballerina. Condo produced two different promotional artworks, and also produced the cover artwork for My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy and several of its singles. On October 1, 2010, West released a newer cover art for "Runaway '' which is a painting also by Condo of a ballerina. On October 4, 2010, the song was released onto the iTunes Store as the album 's second single. The website uses the original photograph cover art.
Some of the inspiration of the song was derived from various media controversies, including West 's interruption of recording artist Taylor Swift at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards during her acceptance speech. The controversy caused West to exile himself in Oahu, Hawaii and record his fifth studio album mostly in a reclusive nature, shying away from collaborating with artists he was n't personally close to. Like the majority of My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy, "Runaway '' was produced there. Amongst the various artists invited down to Hawaii to record songs for the album was Pusha T, a rapper known for the hip - hop duo Clipse.
According to Pusha T, the song was recorded in either March or April 2010. Most of the recording crew on the project had forgotten and or forgiven West for the incident with Swift, including Pusha T, who described the event as "old news ''. By the time Pusha T was supposed to record his verse for the song, West had already recorded a majority of the song. Pusha T had to record his verse several times, because West did n't think Pusha T was being mean enough for the concept of the song the first few times. Pusha T commented that re-doing a verse was something he very rarely did. Generally, Pusha T would write his verses very quickly, and noted that he made the exception for West who he had described as a perfectionist. During the recording process, the two had collaborated on several songs together. Pusha T called the recording process of the song "interesting '', and stated:
We recorded quite a few songs. He had the record already and was like, ' Yo, I want you on this record. ' A lot of stuff from him comes from conversation. He 'll talk to you and get a feel for your perspective and your outlook on shit. And later, he 'll be like, ' Yo, I want you on this. I got a record that that perspective would fit on. ' That 's how he operates. (...) You will find yourself explaining yourself, and if you ca n't explain the reasoning behind the things you 're saying in a verse or whatever the case may be, it might not fly. He wo n't let you get away with it.
West was so impressed with Pusha - T 's performance while recording "Runaway '' that he signed him under his own personal label. About his portion of the song, West stated that he was interested in making a song that the average person could relate to, as he perceived himself as someone who identified with the average person. West mused that when writing the song he intended some parts of the song as a double entendre. According to West, some portions of the song sound like West is commenting about his relationship with a girl, when he is also talking about his relationship with the media and society. He mused, "I like leaving songs ambiguous a little bit, where it 's like, it could be about other people, It could be about yourself. '' The song was called an "anthem for both men and women '' by him, who stated he wanted both genders to be able to relate to the song. He summarized the song as a "toast for the douchebags ''.
While some of the inspiration of the song was drawn from the incident with Swift, it was noted that the song was not an apology. On his Twitter account, West commented that he had written a "beautiful '' song for her, noting "if she wo n't take it then I 'll perform it for her. '' Lawrence Dong was another artist who West had called down to Hawaii. Some of the drumming pattern featured on the song were sampled from "Expo 83 '' performed by the Backyard Heavies and written by John Roger Branch; the same drums used on "The Basement '' from Pete Rock 's album Mecca and the Soul Brother.
The song takes influences from the hip hop genre and contains a large array of musical instruments. The song begins with a sparse, isolated sounding piano melody that drones on during the start of the song. After about a minute and a half, West provides his first verse. West sings "you 've been putting up with my shit just way too long, '' before launching into the ironic chorus of "let 's have a toast for the douchebags ''. A vocal sample of "Look at you! Look at you! '' is also heard throughout the song at seemingly random points, excerpted from Rick James ' 1981 live performance in Long Beach, California. West begs his girlfriend to "run away '' from his destructive behavior, warning her of further behavior, while also dwelling on his own intimacy issues. The piano chord that introduces the song continues on, but the production then introduces a forceful cello and a light string section. The second verse is delivered by Pusha T who is used as a juxtaposition against West; where West is heartfelt and sincere towards his girlfriend the song, Pusha T is rude towards his and also glorifies cocaine dealing.
After the composition continues, West ends the song with a three - minute unintelligible outro containing a distorted West utilizing a vocoder. It begins with West mumbling something that sounds like "I'ma be honest... '' before the vocal effects drowns out what is audible in his words, to the point where what he is saying is impossible to understand. Allmusic editor Andy Kellman commented that "when West blows into a device and comes out sounding something like a muffled, bristly version of Robert Fripp 's guitar. '' Slant Magazine 's Matthew Cole interpreted the purpose of the outro as a "fantasy of escape through pure catharsis, with the vocoder literalizing Kanye 's ability to transform his personal shortcomings into art. '' Chicago Tribune writer Greg Kot described the production of the song in detail, writing:
"Ostensibly sung by a groom to his new bride at a wedding, the song plays as an apology, a warning and a defiant manifesto. The music mirrors that complexity. A midtempo funky - drummer beat glides underneath the melancholy, reverberating piano notes, while a deep, mushrooming bass tone threatens to swallow everything. Brusque cello strokes contrast with elegiac violins, while a dirty guitar wends through the string section like a drunk, knocking over music stands and splattering mud on the white - tablecloth beauty. It 's a turbulent combination of sounds: brooding and chastened in the verses, oddly triumphant and darkly humorous during the choruses. ''
Another explanation of the ending of the song is a commentary on how West, a rapper, has attempted to rap throughout his career but has been unable to do so because of the media. The media has drowned out his words with noise, like the ending of the song where what he 's attempting to say is unhearable. Another interpretation was proposed by Chicago Sun - Times writer Thomas Conner, who wrote "the last four minutes find him humming and singing, but his voice is Auto - Tuned and distorted beyond perceptibility. What 's he saying or singing? Ca n't really make it out, ca n't really understand him. Which, no doubt, is how he feels his clumsy public statements are often received. ''
"Runaway '' received rave reviews from music critics, and is widely considered to be West 's best song. Slant Magazine 's Matthew Cole described the song as West 's greatest showcase as a writer. Cole stated that the song was deeply personal in nature, viewing it as an agonizing portrait of a man "trying to exit the black hole of his own implacable ego. '' Entertainment Weekly 's Simon Vozick - Levinson stated that the song was a successful case of self - reflection lyrically, writing that it "casts the excesses around it in a new light. West may be obnoxious, but at least he 's interested in confronting those aspects of his identity through his music. Few stars of comparable wattage would dare do the same. '' Pitchfork Media 's Ryan Dombal commented that it was one of West 's best songs, describing it as funny, sad and relatable. Dombal mused that with the song, he "rousingly highlights his own douchebaggery, turning it into a rallying cry for all humanity '' and described the vocal manipulation towards the end as sounding like a "dying cyborg ''. Another writer for Pitchfork, Tom Breihan, dubbed the track ' Best New Music ' and was surprised with what he perceived to be West 's growth as a writer, reporting "as the VMA moment fades into the rearview, ' Runaway ' is able to stand as just that: a song, and a seriously goddam good one at that ''.
Thomas Conner of the Chicago Sun - Times cited the song as the thesis statement to the rest of the album, calling it "epic '' and musing that West 's "difficulty in communicating makes him a menace in the real world, but it 's pretty compelling on record. '' Jonah Weiner of Slate viewed that the three minute conclusion of the song was the most arresting moments on My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy. Chris Martins of Spin called the song a piano driven epic, and noted that there was only one way to "interpret the early message sent by ' Runaway ': he was calling himself an asshole ''. IGN 's Chad Grischow, felt that the three minute conclusion was over-long, but commented that with the "icy chill of the piano and naked beat sound fantastic '' while also calling the production soaring.
Kitty Empire of The Guardian complimented the scope of the track, stating "taking things to the next level is one of hip - hop 's great cliches, an achievement that West can comfortably claim. Being both a hero and something of a jackass all at the same time? That 's another thing entirely. '' Rolling Stone writer Rob Sheffield praised the ending of the song, writing that it came up at a point of the song when the song has already "sealed itself in your brain '', summarizing that "there 's no way it should work, but it keeps rolling for three more minutes without breaking the spell. '' David Browne of Time stated that the song, much like "Lost in the World '', feature "shimmering soundscapes that pinpoint a common ground between the hardness of hip - hop and the sweetness of indie rock. ''
Sputnikmusic 's Channing Freeman viewed that while the album featured a number of songs longer than five minutes in duration, "they all feel incredibly lean and devoid of bullshit ''. Freeman stated that the track primarily "slides right by because of its gorgeous beat and Kanye 's excellent vocals (808s - style singing sans autotune plus laid - back rapping), and the instrumental second half of the song is beautiful. '' HipHopDX writer complimented the track, calling it an "anthem '', writing that it contained some of West 's simplest and most melodic production. AbsolutePunk 's Drew Beringer reported that track embodied the "electronic melancholy of 808s & Heartbreak '' and cited the song as an example of the grandiose song composition featured on the album. Andrew Barber of Complex called the song a "centerpiece '', describing it as "Kanye 's toast to all the douchebags, assholes and scumbags resonated with even the biggest Kanye haters, putting the Louis Vuitton Don back in the world 's good graces. '' Kyle Anderson of MTV News proposed that the song was the best single of West 's career, writing "but there 's something about ' Runaway ' that makes it feel just a little bit more special, like it could really end up in the pantheon of great hip - hop moments ''.
"Runaway '' was included in a number of end of 2010 lists. Rolling Stone named "Runaway '' the best song of 2010, commenting that it was "Kanye 's musical response to the Taylor Swift affair, but it 's much more than that: a nine - minute meditation on romantic failure and public infamy. Kanye creates a huge, eerie beat out of thunderous drums and plinking piano. '' They ended the article with the comment, "in 2010, no other song was so crazily epic or jaw - droppingly gorgeous -- not on the radio, not anywhere. '' Kyle Anderson, writing for MTV, named it the 2nd Best Song of 2010, stating that the track began with a "haunting single tap of a piano key, kicking off one of the most epic, jaw - dropping, honest and thrilling pieces of music to hit the popular airwaves all year ''. Pitchfork Media named it the second - best song of 2010 stating that "Runaway '' puts "Kanye 's contradictory impulses on full display like they 're some immaculate museum exhibit. At nine minutes, it is My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy 's longest song, but also its simplest and most emotionally direct (...) ' Runaway ' marks the rare moment where Kanye sides with his detractors -- if the whole world thinks he 's a douchebag, well, this one time he 's inclined to agree. ''
Insalul Ahmed of Complex placed the song at number two on their best of the year list, reporting that "most artists might have avoided making a song like this after something like Swiftgate. But that 's why we love (Kan) Ye: He does n't give a fuck. '' New York Post also named the song as the best of the year, musing "whether he 's self - deprecating or pulling the wool over our eyes, we ca n't help running toward this talented bad boy when he tells us, ' Run away from me, baby '... Maybe it 's not his Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy, but ours. Rap Up listed the song as the fifth best of the year. In January 2011, The Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop annual critics ' poll ranked "Runaway '' at number four to find the best music of 2010; West 's other singles "Power '' and "Monster '' were ranked at numbers five and six, respectively, on the same poll (their parent album My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy was ranked as the best album on the poll as well).
The song is ranked as the most acclaimed song of 2010 and the 258th most acclaimed song of all time, according to Acclaimed Music.
While a significant critical success, "Runaway '' performed less well commercially. During the week entering 12 October 2010, "Runaway '' charted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 12; named as the week 's Hot Shot Debut. While the song attained a high debut, the song only remained there for one week, which was also the song 's peak. It remained on the chart for a total of 13 weeks. On 4 September 2010, the single also debuted on the UK Singles Chart at position 75. It became a top 30 single on both the US Billboard Hot Rap Songs and Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs charts. The ARIA certified the single Gold in Australia for sales surpassing 35,000.
The song was debuted during a live performance at the 2010 MTV Music Video Awards. Substantial media interest was generated with the performance, due to the controversy created the year prior by West. Prior to West 's stage appearance, Swift performed a song called "Innocent '' that some people perceived as a song about West. The performance began with West entering the stage by himself, walking over to a platform containing a MPC2000XL, an electronic musical instrument that allows for the player to program various samples into it. West began playing the song on the instrument, before a group of ballerinas entered the stage. The performance was accompanied by Pusha T, who delivered his verse. MTV failed to censor West 's use of the word "asshole. '' West 's performance received positive reviews and was described as a "comeback '' moment. Time writer Claire Saddath graded his performance with an ' A + ', and wrote that "it 's hard to take a song that includes the lyrics ' Let 's have a toast for the douche bags ' seriously, but with this clean, honest execution, Kanye pulls it off. ''
West performed "Runaway '' and "Power '' on Saturday Night Live on October 2. For the first time in the show 's history, the signature black instrument filled stage gave place to an all - white, backlit canvas. Pusha T joined West during the performance which featured the ballerinas that often accompanied West. HitFix 's Gregory Ellwood praised the performance, though noted that his performance of "Power '' was superior. Ellwood viewed that SNL was "very lucky to have him on such a weak overall show. '' Kevin O'Donnell of Spin wrote that West delivered one of the show 's "most unique performances of all - time. '' West performed the song in an entirely red outfit.
During his set at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival, West performed "Runaway '' during the end of the performance. West 's performance was described as "one of the most memorable performances in Coachella history. '' Todd Martens, critic for Los Angeles Times, described that the performance consisted of a "group of wayward ballerinas, seemingly caught in some sort of magnetic push and pull from the artist. '' During the ' Coke Live Musical Festival ' in Poland, West performed the song with a 20 minute long freestyle. West performed the song the way he normally did, ending the performance with a continuous freestyle lasting 20 minutes in duration. One lone ballerina performed an interpretive dance during the entire duration of the freestyle. The song was often performed at the Watch the Throne Tour.
The song became the basis for the short film Runaway. The film has four versions: the full - length film, a one minute - shorter clean version, the video version which is an excerpt of the film that matches the length of the song, and the extended video version which is nearly double the length of the video version. The video is a compilation of a total of nine songs featured on My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy, with 10 of the 35 minutes of its running time devoted to a sequence featuring "Runaway ''. West drew inspiration from other long - form music videos and music related cinema, including Purple Rain, Pink Floyd The Wall and Michael Jackson 's Thriller. West directed the video, drawing from director Stanley Kubrick as an inspiration. The film premiered on October 23, 2010. Model Selita Ebanks portrays the phoenix in the video. West 's original intention was for Ebanks to be naked for the entirety of the video, but Ebanks refused.
The music video revolves around a love story between West (known as "Griffin '' in the narrative) and a phoenix he discovers while driving through the woods. Griffin teaches her how to socialize with other people at first, and invites her to a dinner party. The other guests at the dinner party all react to Griffin 's girlfriend with negative comments, that offends Griffin. An upset Griffin responds with a performance of "Runaway '', backed by an interpretive dance sequence with ballerinas in black tutus, followed by a slow - motion sequence where lead dancers perform solos to a vocally distorted continuation of the song. The video ends with the phoenix bursting into flames with West frantically running into the forest. Nitsuh Abebe of New York offered an interpretation of the video, commenting:
In Runaway, the short film he released this fall, he uses a plinking piano to summon a ballet troupe, then sings about raising a toast to the douchebags and assholes of the world -- in other words, he sticks a symbol of classical refinement next to a lyric about being toxic and acting ugly. (Ballet already does this, too: All that beauty is built on twisted toes, bloody shoes, deformed legs.) (...) He 's attracted to these symbols of classical refinement and aristocracy -- ballet, golden goblets, ' Persian rugs with cherub imagery, ' Greek mythology, next - level luxury brands -- and then he sits among them reminding us that it does n't make him any different, or keep him from acting poisonous, or pissing the world off by grabbing people 's microphones.
The music video was praised by Entertainment Weekly 's Ken Tucker, calling it "a carefully modulated art - film made by a man on a mission '', noting the usage of dominant colors as well as the imagery in the film. Jozen Cummings of The Wall Street Journal described the video as "a cross between an epic music video and a charming indie - house flick '', stating that the greatest achievement of the video was how it "brought West 's music to life ''. Will Dean of The Guardian called the video as a creative promotional tool, praising the video 's scope and creativity, noting that it was "ridiculous, ostentatious and egotistical '', citing that it fit perfectly into West 's aesthetic.
Nicole Jones of MTV Buzzworthy stated that the majority of the video was nonsensical and added up to little coherently, but wrote that regardless of its true meaning, the video was "really pretty to watch, the music is great, and it reminds us once again why there is only one Mr. West. '' Jorge Cullar offered a less favorable opinion of the video, stating that the video failed to be coherent, because West did n't have the "creative polymath capable of combining disparate elements like those exemplified by the cunning of a Picasso, the deconstruction of a Derrida, the creativity of a Warhol, or the glam avant - garde of David Bowie ''. Clair Saddath of Time listed the video amongst the best of all time. The video was nominated for Video of the Year at the BET Awards of 2011, and West was nominated for Director of the Year. As of January 2015, Billboard named the video as one of the 20 best of the 2010s (so far). NME listed it as the fourth best video of the decade in 2014.
Technical
Musicians
|
the ⌀ symbol is used in engineering drawings to represent which of the following | Engineering drawing abbreviations and symbols - wikipedia
Engineering drawing abbreviations and symbols are used to communicate and detail the characteristics of an engineering drawing. This list includes abbreviations common to the vocabulary of people who work with engineering drawings in the manufacture and inspection of parts and assemblies.
Technical standards exist to provide glossaries of abbreviations, acronyms, and symbols that may be found on engineering drawings. Many corporations have such standards, which define some terms and symbols specific to them; on the national and international level, ASME standard Y14. 38 is probably the most widely used.
Jump to: 0 - 9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z see also
Jump to: 0 - 9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z see also
|
how many countries were in nato during the cold war | Member States of NATO - wikipedia
NATO (the North Atlantic Treaty Organization) is an international alliance that consists of 29 member states from North America and Europe. It was established at the signing of the North Atlantic Treaty on 4 April 1949. Article Five of the treaty states that if an armed attack occurs against one of the member states, it should be considered an attack against all members, and other members shall assist the attacked member, with armed forces if necessary.
Of the 29 member countries, two are located in North America (Canada and the United States) and 27 are European countries while Turkey is in Eurasia. All members have militaries, except for Iceland which does not have a typical army (but does, however, have a coast guard and a small unit of civilian specialists for NATO operations). Three of NATO 's members are nuclear weapons states: France, the United Kingdom, and the United States. NATO has 12 original founding member nation states, and from 18 February 1952 to 6 May 1955, it added three more member nations, and a fourth on 30 May 1982. After the end of the Cold War, NATO added 13 more member nations (10 former Warsaw Pact members and three former Yugoslav republics) from 12 March 1999 to 5 June 2017.
NATO has added new members seven times since its founding in 1949, and since 2017 NATO has had 29 members. Twelve countries were part of the founding of NATO: Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and the United States. In 1952, Greece and Turkey became members of the Alliance, joined later by West Germany (in 1955) and Spain (in 1982). In 1990, with the reunification of Germany, NATO grew to include the former country of East Germany. Between 1994 and 1997, wider forums for regional cooperation between NATO and its neighbors were set up, including the Partnership for Peace, the Mediterranean Dialogue initiative and the Euro - Atlantic Partnership Council. In 1997, three former Warsaw Pact countries, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and Poland, were invited to join NATO. After this fourth enlargement in 1999, the Vilnius group of The Baltics and seven East European countries formed in May 2000 to cooperate and lobby for further NATO membership. Seven of these countries joined in the fifth enlargement in 2004. The Adriatic States Albania and Croatia joined in the sixth enlargement in 2009, Montenegro in 2017.
Due to the 2016 -- 17 Turkish purges and Erdogan 's authoritarian politics some have speculated that Turkey could be expelled from NATO. United States President Donald Trump has also expressed interest in withdrawing from the organization during the 2016 election campaign, and only recently stated the United States would protect allies in the event that Article V is invoked.
Iceland has no armed forces. 2015 data.
The United States spends more on the organization than all other members combined. Criticism of the organization by then newly elected US President Donald Trump caused various reactions from American and European political figures, ranging from ridicule to panic. Pew Research Center 's 2016 survey among its member states showed that while most countries viewed NATO positively, most NATO members preferred keeping their military spending the same. The response to whether their country should militarily aid another NATO country if it were to get into a serious military conflict with Russia was also mixed. Only in the US and Canada did more than 50 % of the people answer that they should.
Population data from CIA World Factbook GDP data from IMF Expenditure data (except Iceland) from SIPRI Military Expenditure Database, Icelandic data (2013) from Statistics Iceland Military personnel data from NATO Iceland has no armed forces. 2015 data.
|
how many ways can a surface reflect light | Reflection (physics) - wikipedia
Reflection is the change in direction of a wavefront at an interface between two different media so that the wavefront returns into the medium from which it originated. Common examples include the reflection of light, sound and water waves. The law of reflection says that for specular reflection the angle at which the wave is incident on the surface equals the angle at which it is reflected. Mirrors exhibit specular reflection.
In acoustics, reflection causes echoes and is used in sonar. In geology, it is important in the study of seismic waves. Reflection is observed with surface waves in bodies of water. Reflection is observed with many types of electromagnetic wave, besides visible light. Reflection of VHF and higher frequencies is important for radio transmission and for radar. Even hard X-rays and gamma rays can be reflected at shallow angles with special "grazing '' mirrors.
Reflection of light is either specular (mirror - like) or diffuse (retaining the energy, but losing the image) depending on the nature of the interface. In specular reflection the phase of the reflected waves depends on the choice of the origin of coordinates, but the relative phase between s and p (TE and TM) polarizations is fixed by the properties of the media and of the interface between them.
A mirror provides the most common model for specular light reflection, and typically consists of a glass sheet with a metallic coating where the significant reflection occurs. Reflection is enhanced in metals by suppression of wave propagation beyond their skin depths. Reflection also occurs at the surface of transparent media, such as water or glass.
In the diagram, a light ray PO strikes a vertical mirror at point O, and the reflected ray is OQ. By projecting an imaginary line through point O perpendicular to the mirror, known as the normal, we can measure the angle of incidence, θ and the angle of reflection, θ. The law of reflection states that θ = θ, or in other words, the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.
In fact, reflection of light may occur whenever light travels from a medium of a given refractive index into a medium with a different refractive index. In the most general case, a certain fraction of the light is reflected from the interface, and the remainder is refracted. Solving Maxwell 's equations for a light ray striking a boundary allows the derivation of the Fresnel equations, which can be used to predict how much of the light is reflected, and how much is refracted in a given situation. This is analogous to the way impedance mismatch in an electric circuit causes reflection of signals. Total internal reflection of light from a denser medium occurs if the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle.
Total internal reflection is used as a means of focusing waves that can not effectively be reflected by common means. X-ray telescopes are constructed by creating a converging "tunnel '' for the waves. As the waves interact at low angle with the surface of this tunnel they are reflected toward the focus point (or toward another interaction with the tunnel surface, eventually being directed to the detector at the focus). A conventional reflector would be useless as the X-rays would simply pass through the intended reflector.
When light reflects off a material denser (with higher refractive index) than the external medium, it undergoes a polarity inversion. In contrast, a less dense, lower refractive index material will reflect light in phase. This is an important principle in the field of thin - film optics.
Specular reflection forms images. Reflection from a flat surface forms a mirror image, which appears to be reversed from left to right because we compare the image we see to what we would see if we were rotated into the position of the image. Specular reflection at a curved surface forms an image which may be magnified or demagnified; curved mirrors have optical power. Such mirrors may have surfaces that are spherical or parabolic.
If the reflecting surface is very smooth, the reflection of light that occurs is called specular or regular reflection. The laws of reflection are as follows:
These three laws can all be derived from the Fresnel equations.
In classical electrodynamics, light is considered as an electromagnetic wave, which is described by Maxwell 's equations. Light waves incident on a material induce small oscillations of polarisation in the individual atoms (or oscillation of electrons, in metals), causing each particle to radiate a small secondary wave in all directions, like a dipole antenna. All these waves add up to give specular reflection and refraction, according to the Huygens -- Fresnel principle.
In the case of dielectrics such as glass, the electric field of the light acts on the electrons in the material, and the moving electrons generate fields and become new radiators. The refracted light in the glass is the combination of the forward radiation of the electrons and the incident light. The reflected light is the combination of the backward radiation of all of the electrons.
In metals, electrons with no binding energy are called free electrons. When these electrons oscillate with the incident light, the phase difference between their radiation field and the incident field is π (180 °), so the forward radiation cancels the incident light, and backward radiation is just the reflected light.
Light -- matter interaction in terms of photons is a topic of quantum electrodynamics, and is described in detail by Richard Feynman in his popular book QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter.
When light strikes the surface of a (non-metallic) material it bounces off in all directions due to multiple reflections by the microscopic irregularities inside the material (e.g. the grain boundaries of a polycrystalline material, or the cell or fiber boundaries of an organic material) and by its surface, if it is rough. Thus, an ' image ' is not formed. This is called diffuse reflection. The exact form of the reflection depends on the structure of the material. One common model for diffuse reflection is Lambertian reflectance, in which the light is reflected with equal luminance (in photometry) or radiance (in radiometry) in all directions, as defined by Lambert 's cosine law.
The light sent to our eyes by most of the objects we see is due to diffuse reflection from their surface, so that this is our primary mechanism of physical observation.
Some surfaces exhibit retroreflection. The structure of these surfaces is such that light is returned in the direction from which it came.
When flying over clouds illuminated by sunlight the region seen around the aircraft 's shadow will appear brighter, and a similar effect may be seen from dew on grass. This partial retro - reflection is created by the refractive properties of the curved droplet 's surface and reflective properties at the backside of the droplet.
Some animals ' retinas act as retroreflectors (see tapetum lucidum for more detail), as this effectively improves the animals ' night vision. Since the lenses of their eyes modify reciprocally the paths of the incoming and outgoing light the effect is that the eyes act as a strong retroreflector, sometimes seen at night when walking in wildlands with a flashlight.
A simple retroreflector can be made by placing three ordinary mirrors mutually perpendicular to one another (a corner reflector). The image produced is the inverse of one produced by a single mirror. A surface can be made partially retroreflective by depositing a layer of tiny refractive spheres on it or by creating small pyramid like structures. In both cases internal reflection causes the light to be reflected back to where it originated. This is used to make traffic signs and automobile license plates reflect light mostly back in the direction from which it came. In this application perfect retroreflection is not desired, since the light would then be directed back into the headlights of an oncoming car rather than to the driver 's eyes.
When light reflects off a mirror, one image appears. Two mirrors placed exactly face to face give the appearance of an infinite number of images along a straight line. The multiple images seen between two mirrors that sit at an angle to each other lie over a circle. The center of that circle is located at the imaginary intersection of the mirrors. A square of four mirrors placed face to face give the appearance of an infinite number of images arranged in a plane. The multiple images seen between four mirrors assembling a pyramid, in which each pair of mirrors sits an angle to each other, lie over a sphere. If the base of the pyramid is rectangle shaped, the images spread over a section of a torus.
Note that these are theoretical ideals, requiring perfect alignment of perfectly smooth, perfectly flat perfect reflectors that absorb none of the light. In practice, these situations can only be approached but not achieved because the effects of any surface imperfections in the reflectors propagate and magnify, absorption gradually extinguishes the image, and any observing equipment (biological or technological) will interfere.
In this process (which is also known as phase conjugation), light bounces exactly back in the direction from which it came due to a nonlinear optical process. Not only the direction of the light is reversed, but the actual wavefronts are reversed as well. A conjugate reflector can be used to remove aberrations from a beam by reflecting it and then passing the reflection through the aberrating optics a second time.
Materials that reflect neutrons, for example beryllium, are used in nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons. In the physical and biological sciences, the reflection of neutrons off of atoms within a material is commonly used to determine the material 's internal structure.
When a longitudinal sound wave strikes a flat surface, sound is reflected in a coherent manner provided that the dimension of the reflective surface is large compared to the wavelength of the sound. Note that audible sound has a very wide frequency range (from 20 to about 17000 Hz), and thus a very wide range of wavelengths (from about 20 mm to 17 m). As a result, the overall nature of the reflection varies according to the texture and structure of the surface. For example, porous materials will absorb some energy, and rough materials (where rough is relative to the wavelength) tend to reflect in many directions -- to scatter the energy, rather than to reflect it coherently. This leads into the field of architectural acoustics, because the nature of these reflections is critical to the auditory feel of a space. In the theory of exterior noise mitigation, reflective surface size mildly detracts from the concept of a noise barrier by reflecting some of the sound into the opposite direction. Sound reflection can affect the acoustic space.
Seismic waves produced by earthquakes or other sources (such as explosions) may be reflected by layers within the Earth. Study of the deep reflections of waves generated by earthquakes has allowed seismologists to determine the layered structure of the Earth. Shallower reflections are used in reflection seismology to study the Earth 's crust generally, and in particular to prospect for petroleum and natural gas deposits.
|
what is a junior officer in the navy | Junior officer - Wikipedia
Junior officer, company officer or company grade officer refers to the lowest operational commissioned officer category of ranks in a military or paramilitary organization, ranking above non-commissioned officers and below senior officers.
The terms company officer or company - grade officer are used more in the Army, Air Force, or Marine Corps as the ranks of captain, lieutenant grades and other subaltern ranks originated from the officers in command of a company or equivalent (cavalry squadron / troop and artillery battery).
In many armed forces, a junior officer is specifically a commissioned officer holding rank equivalent to a naval lieutenant, an army captain or a flight lieutenant or below.
In the United States Armed Forces, the term junior officer is used by the Navy and the Coast Guard for officers in the ranks of ensign (O - 1), lieutenant, junior grade (O - 2), lieutenant (O - 3), and lieutenant commander (O - 4).
The U.S. commissioned officer corps is divided into ten pay grades (O - 1 through O - 10). Officers in pay grades O - 1 through O - 3 are considered company grade officers. In the Army, Marine Corps and Air Force, these pay grades correspond to the ranks of second lieutenant (O - 1), first lieutenant (O - 2), and captain (O - 3), and in the Navy, these pay grades correspond to ensign (O - 1), lieutenant (junior grade) (O - 2), and lieutenant (O - 3). Officers in pay grades O - 4 through O - 6 are considered field grade officers, with the exception of the Navy, as an O - 4 is still considered a junior officer. In the Army, Marine Corps, and Air Force, these pay grades correspond to the ranks of major (O - 4), lieutenant colonel (O - 5), and colonel (O - 6), and in the Navy, lieutenant commander, commander, and captain. The highest four pay grades are reserved for general officers in the Army, Marine Corps and Air Force and flag officers in the Navy. The ranks associated with each pay grade are as follows: in the Army, Marine Corps and Air Force, brigadier general (O - 7), major general (O - 8), lieutenant general (O - 9) and general (O - 10); in the Navy, rear admiral (lower half), rear admiral, vice admiral and admiral.
|
who does the voice of fairy godmother shrek 2 | Jennifer Saunders - wikipedia
Jennifer Jane Saunders (born 6 July 1958) is an English comedian, screenwriter, and actress. She has won three BAFTAs (including the BAFTA Fellowship), an International Emmy Award, a British Comedy Award, a Rose d'Or Light Entertainment Festival Award, two Writers ' Guild of Great Britain Awards, and a People 's Choice Award.
She first found widespread attention in the 1980s when she became a member of The Comic Strip after graduating from the Central School of Speech and Drama in London. With her comedy partner Dawn French, she wrote and starred in their eponymous sketch show, French and Saunders, for which she and French received a BAFTA fellowship in 2009. She received worldwide acclaim through the early to mid-1990s for writing and playing the lead role of Edina Monsoon in the BBC sitcom Absolutely Fabulous.
She has guest - starred in the American sitcoms Roseanne and Friends and won the People 's Choice Awards for voicing the evil Fairy Godmother in DreamWorks ' animated Shrek 2. In 2015, she voiced Queen Elizabeth II in the animated comedy film Minions, and in 2016 she voiced Nana Noodleman in the animated musical film Sing.
Jennifer Saunders was born on 6 July 1958 in Sleaford, Lincolnshire, England. Her mother, Jane, was a biology teacher, and her father, Robert Thomas Saunders, served as a pilot in the Royal Air Force (RAF), reached the rank of Air Marshal and later worked for British Aerospace. She has three brothers. Because her father was in the armed forces, Saunders moved to different schools many times. She was educated from the age of five to 18 in boarding schools and then at St Paul 's Girls ' School, an independent school in west London. After school, she worked for a year in Italy as an au pair.
She later received a place at the Central School of Speech and Drama in London on a drama teachers ' course in 1977, where she met her future comedy partner, Dawn French. Both came from RAF backgrounds. They had grown up on the same base, even having had the same best friend, without ever meeting. The comic duo originally did not get on well, and as far as Saunders was concerned, French was a "cocky little upstart ''. The distrust was mutual: French considered Saunders snooty and uptight. French actually wanted to become a drama teacher, whereas Saunders loathed the idea and had not fully understood what the course was about; thus, she disliked French for being enthusiastic and confident about the course. Saunders was shocked to find that she was actually taking courses to become a teacher, as her mother had filled out the application form. Her mother, however, was saddened when Saunders chose not to apply for an Oxbridge university education.
After the initial friction while at college, Saunders and French shared a flat together. French has remarked on Saunders 's messy habits when sharing the house, stating, "When we lived together in Chalk Farm, she had a room at the top of the house. We got broken into and the police said, ' Well, it is quite bad, but the worst is that room at the top. ' And, of course, nobody had been in there. '' The two performed together after graduation, working the festival, cabaret, and stand - up circuits. They formed a double - act called The Menopause Sisters. Saunders described the act, which involved wearing tampons in their ears, as "cringeworthy. '' The manager of the club where they performed recalled, "They did n't seem to give a damn. There was no star quality about them at all. ''
French and Saunders would eventually come to public attention as members of the informal comedy collective The Comic Strip, part of the alternative comedy scene in the early 1980s. They answered a 1980 advert in The Stage newspaper looking for female comedians to perform at The Comic Strip, which had, until that point, only had male performers. When they walked into the audition, they were immediately told, "You 're booked. When can you start? ''
Both Saunders and French became continuing members of The Comic Strip, which included Peter Richardson, Rik Mayall, and Robbie Coltrane, as well as Saunders ' future husband Adrian Edmondson. The group performed at the Boulevard Theatre, above Soho 's Raymond Revuebar, and gained a cult following, with visiting audience members including Dustin Hoffman, Jack Nicholson, and Robin Williams, who once joined in the performance. By the time French and Saunders became members of The Comic Strip, French was already working as a drama teacher, whilst Saunders was on the dole and spending a lot of her time sleeping in bed after the dole office closed for the day.
The comedy group appeared on Channel 4 's first night on air, in the first episode of The Comic Strip Presents: Five Go Mad In Dorset, broadcast on 2 November 1982. In the episodes "Bad News '' and "More Bad News '', Saunders plays a trashy rock journalist touring with the fictional heavy metal band Bad News. In 1985, Saunders starred in and co-wrote Girls on Top with French, Tracey Ullman, and Ruby Wax, which portrayed four eccentric women sharing a flat in London. Saunders also appeared in Ben Elton 's Happy Families where she played various members of the same family, including all four Fuddle sisters in the six - episode BBC situation comedy. Saunders starred in a Comic Strip film called The Supergrass, a little - known parody of slick 1980s police dramas directed by Peter Richardson. Saunders also played Meryl Streep playing Arthur Scargill 's wife in Strike, a Comic Strip spoof on the 1984 miners ' strike. Saunders also appeared twice as a guest on The Young Ones.
In 1987, she and French created French and Saunders, a popular sketch comedy series for the BBC, which aired until 2007. By the end of the 1980s, the show was an established comedy programme and became a staple in BBC viewing. Saunders has appeared in Amnesty International 's The Secret Policeman 's Biggest Ball live benefit in 1989, along with Dawn French and others.
Saunders and French followed separate careers as well as maintaining their comedy sketch show. Saunders ' biggest solo success has been Absolutely Fabulous. The comedy was, in fact, based largely on a fourteen - minute French & Saunders sketch called "Modern Mother and Daughter ''. Saunders and French were going to star in the comedy together, but just as the studio had been booked, French received a long - awaited phone call confirming that an adoption agency had a new baby for her to adopt. Saunders proceeded to star in the comedy. The series, which she wrote and starred in as the irresponsible fashion PR agent Edina Monsoon alongside Joanna Lumley, who played Patsy Stone, brought her international acclaim and attention. The show ran for five full series, two telemovies, three special episodes, and a feature film over the course of twenty - four years from 1992 to 2016. The series is also known as Ab Fab and was broadcast in the United States on Comedy Central and BBC America, becoming cult viewing.
Saunders has appeared on the American sitcoms Roseanne, playing Edina Monsoon in the episode "Satan, Darling '', and Friends as Andrea Waltham, the step - mother of Emily, Ross Geller 's fiancée, in the episodes "The One After Ross Says Rachel '' and "The One with Ross 's Wedding ''. In 1999, she appeared alongside French in Let Them Eat Cake.
Saunders wrote and starred in a comedy drama about a Women 's Institute entitled Jam & Jerusalem, also known as Clatterford in the United States. The first series aired in 2006, the second in 2008, and the third in 2009 on BBC One. The show starred David Mitchell, Sally Phillips, and Sue Johnston, as well as Dawn French and Joanna Lumley.
In 2007, Saunders and psychologist Tanya Byron wrote BBC Two 's The Life and Times of Vivienne Vyle about a neurotic daytime talk show host. The show ran for one series. Saunders played the eponymous character whose programme features crude headlines such as "Wife a slapper? Lie detector reveals all ''.
Also in 2007, the final series of French & Saunders aired. A Bucket o ' French & Saunders featured a compilation of old and new sketches and aired on BBC One in September 2007. It was the third show she had written in a year. In 2008 and 2009, French & Saunders completed their final live tour, French & Saunders: Still Alive.
Saunders appeared on the "Star in a Reasonably Priced Car '' segment of BBC Two 's motoring show Top Gear, posting a lap time of 1: 46.1 s, making her the fifth - fastest guest ever in the car that was used at that time. A self - confessed petrolhead, she has a passion for Alfa Romeos and has so far owned four.
In 2011, Saunders wrote and appeared in "Uptown Downstairs Abbey '', the Comic Relief parody of the critically acclaimed historical television dramas Downton Abbey and Upstairs Downstairs. Playing the Dowager Countess, she starred alongside Kim Cattrall, Joanna Lumley, Victoria Wood, Harry Enfield, Patrick Barlow, Dale Winton, Olivia Colman, Tim Vine, Simon Callow, Michael Gambon, and Harry Hill.
In 2012, Saunders guest - starred in Dead Boss, a BBC Three comedy set in the fictional Broadmarsh prison where she plays the cruel and work - shy governor, Margaret. The show 's creator, Sharon Horgan, stated that she ' begged ' Saunders to take the role, having been a fan of Saunders ' previous comedy work.
She also wrote the script for the Spice Girls - based jukebox musical Viva Forever!, which received some of the worst reviews of 2012 (and "arguably of all time '').
In 2013, Saunders starred as Connie in the BBC adaptation of Blandings by P.G. Wodehouse.
In 2017, Saunders appeared on the Simpsons episode "Looking for Mr. Goodbart '' as an elderly woman accompanied around by Bart.
Saunders has also appeared in several films, such as In the Bleak Midwinter (1995), Muppet Treasure Island (1996), Fanny & Elvis (1999), and also made cameo appearances in the Spice Girls 's film Spice World (1997) and Absolument fabuleux (2001), a French film based on Absolutely Fabulous.
She most notably appeared in the internationally successful DreamWorks animated movie Shrek 2 in 2004, providing the character voice of Princess Fiona 's evil Fairy Godmother and singing the songs "The Fairy Godmother Song '' and "Holding Out For a Hero. '' Her part took only four days to record. The sequel broke the first Shrek 's own box office record in the U.S in just a fortnight, and it proceeded to make $353 million in just three weeks in the U.S. Her role won the American People 's Choice Award for the best movie villain in 2005. She also voiced Miss Spink in the animated film Coraline, in which Dawn French also voiced a character called Miss Forcible. In 2015, she voiced Queen Elizabeth II in the animated film Minions, and in 2016, she voiced Miss Nana Noodleman in the animated film Sing.
Saunders married Adrian Edmondson on 11 May 1985, in Cheshire. They have three daughters: Eleanor "Ella '' Rose (born 22 January 1986, Hammersmith, London), Beatrice "Beattie '' Louise (born 19 June 1987), and Freya (born 1990).
In July 2010, she stated that she had been diagnosed with breast cancer the previous October and was in remission following a lumpectomy, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy.
On 27 August 2012, Saunders and Edmondson became grandparents when their daughter Ella gave birth to a boy, Fred. They became grandparents for the second time in February 2014 when Ella gave birth to another son, Albert Rafferty. Ella gave birth to their first granddaughter, Ivy, in August 2016.
Saunders published her autobiography, Bonkers: My Life in Laughs, in October 2013.
She has volunteered for Dress for Success, a non-profit organisation which gives free clothes and advice about job interviews to women who are unemployed.
Along with Dawn French, Saunders declined an OBE in 2001. In 2003, she was listed in The Observer as one of the 50 funniest acts in British comedy. Saunders was placed 93rd out of E! 's 100 Sexiest British Stars. She also came 18th for Best British Role Models for teenage girls in Britain according to Good Housekeeping magazine. Saunders was awarded an honorary doctorate by the University of Exeter in July 2007. In July 2011, she was awarded an honorary doctorate by Edge Hill University. In 2005, she was named the fourth funniest woman in Britain in a poll of 4,000 women. To date, she has been nominated for and received many awards, including:
|
what was the significance of the twelve tables | Twelve Tables - wikipedia
According to Roman tradition, the Law of the Twelve Tables (Latin: Leges Duodecim Tabularum or Duodecim Tabulae) was the legislation that stood at the foundation of Roman law. The Tables consolidated earlier traditions into an enduring set of laws.
The Twelve Tables are sufficiently comprehensive that their substance has been described as a ' code ', although modern scholars consider this characterisation exaggerated. The Tables were a sequence of definitions of various private rights and procedures. They generally took for granted such things as the institutions of the family and various rituals for formal transactions. The provisions were often highly specific and diverse.
The Twelve Tables of Roman society were said by the Romans to have come about as a result of the long social struggle between patricians and plebeians. After the expulsion of the last king of Rome, Tarquinius Superbus, the Republic was governed by a hierarchy of magistrates. Initially, only patricians were eligible to become magistrates and this, among other plebeian complaints, was a source of discontent for plebeians. In the context of this unequal status, plebeians would take action to secure concessions for themselves using the threat of secession. They would threaten to leave the city with the consequence that it would grind to a halt, as the plebeians were Rome 's labor force. Tradition held that one of the most important concessions won in this class struggle was the establishment of the Twelve Tables, establishing basic procedural rights for all Roman citizens in relation to each other. The drafting of the Twelve Tables may have been fomented by a desire for self - regulation by the patricians, or for other reasons.
Around 450 BC, the first decemviri (decemvirate, board of "Ten Men '') were appointed to draw up the first ten tables. According to Livy, they sent an embassy to Greece to study the legislative system of Athens, known as the Solonian Constitution, but also to find out about the legislation of other Greek cities. Some scholars dispute the veracity of any claim that the Romans imitated the Greeks in this respect or suggest that they visited the Greek cities of Southern Italy, and did not travel all the way to Greece. In 450 BC, the second decemviri started to work on the last two tables.
The first decemvirate completed the first ten codes in 450 BC. Here is how Livy describes their creation,
"... every citizen should quietly consider each point, then talk it over with his friends, and, finally, bring forward for public discussion any additions or subtractions which seemed desirable. '' (cf. Liv. III. 34)
In 449 BC, the second decemvirate completed the last two codes, and after a secessio plebis to force the Senate to consider them, the Law of the Twelve Tables was formally promulgated. According to Livy (AUC 3.57. 10) the Twelve Tables were inscribed on bronze (Pomponius (Dig. 1 tit. 2 s2 § 4) alone says on ivory), and posted publicly, so all Romans could read and know them.
Some of the provisions are procedural to ensure fairness amongst all Romans in the courts, while other established legal terms dictating the legality of capital crimes, international homicide, treason, perjury, judicial corruption, and writing slanderous poems. The Romans valued keeping peace in the city and the Twelve Tables were a mechanism of establishing and continuing peace and equality.
Following are excerpts from this very important table of laws:
The laws the Twelve Tables covered were a way to publicly display rights that each citizen had in the public and private sphere. These Twelve Tables displayed what was previously understood in Roman society as the unwritten laws. The public display of the copper tablets allowed for a more balanced playing field between the Roman patricians who were educated and understood the laws of legal transactions, and the Roman plebeians who had little education or experience in understanding law. By revealing the unwritten rules of society to the public, the Twelve Tables provided a means of safeguard for Plebeians allowing them the opportunity to avoid financial exploitation and added balance to the Roman economy.
Featured within the Twelve Tables are five rules about how to handle debtors and creditors. These rules show how the ancient Romans maintained peace with financial policy. In his article Development of the Roman Law of Debt Security, Donald E. Phillipson states the Twelve Tables were, "A set of statues known as the Twelve Tables that was passed by an early assembly served as the foundation of the Roman private law. The Twelve Tables were enacted in the mid-fifth century B.C. as the result of a conflict among social classes in ancient Rome. '' (page 1231 - 1232). Phillipson also describes the leniency of the relationship between debtor and creditor on how it was changed and arranged in the 5th century B.C. and how Roman law surrounding it was tweaked within the Twelve Tables that initially drew out the legal boundaries surrounding debt. Specially discussing the influence of creditors rights, Phillipson states, "In the fifth century B.C. only movables were pledged under pignus, although any res in which bonitary ownership was held was capable of being pledged. However, by the late Republic, land and buildings were increasingly pledged in pignus arrangements. This increased usage paralleled the expansion of creditors ' rights with respect to the pledged property. The right of possession and seizure (jus possidendi) and the right of foreclosure and sale (jus distrahendi) were probably the most important of the developing creditors ' rights. These increased creditors ' rights also encouraged and contributed to the expansion of the types of res in which bonitary ownership, and thus pignus arrangements, were possible. For example, the use of pignus expanded to include usufructs, rustic servitudes, rights of way, and even pledges themselves by the second century A.D. '' (page 1239).
In the book, The Twelve Tables, written by an anonymous source due to its origins being collaborated through a series of translations of tablets and ancient references, P.R. Coleman - Norton arranged and translated many of the significant features of debt that the Twelve Tables enacted into law during the 5th century. The translation of the legal features surrounding debt and derived from the known sources of the Twelve Tables are stated as such
"1. Of debt acknowledged and for matters judged in court (in iure) thirty days shall be allowed by law (for payment or for satisfaction).
2. After that (elapse of thirty days without payment) hand shall be laid on (manus iniectio) (the debtor). He shall be brought into court (in ius).
3. Unless he (the debtor) discharge the debt or unless some one appear in court (in iure) to guarantee payment for him, he (the creditor) shall take (the debtor) with him. He shall bind (him) either with thong or with fetters, of which the weight shall be not less than fifteen pounds or shall be more, if he (the creditor) choose.
4. If he (the debtor) choose, he shall live on his own (means). If he live not on his own (means), (the creditor,) who shall hold him in bonds, shall give (him) a pound of bread daily; if he (the creditor) shall so desire, he shall give (him) more.
5. Unless they (the debtors) make a compromise, they (the debtors) shall be held in bonds for sixty days. During those days they shall be brought to (the magistrate) into the comitium (meeting - place) on three successive market (...) ''
The five mandates of that the Twelve Tables encompassing debt created a new understanding within social classes in ancient Rome that insured financial exploitation would be limited within legal business transactions.
The Twelve Tables have three sections that pertain to women as they concern estates and guardianship, ownership and possession, and religion, which give a basic understanding as to the legal rights of females.
One of the aspects highlighted in the Twelve Tables is a woman 's legal status and standing in society. Women were considered to be a form of guardianship similar to that of minors, and sections on ownership and possession give off the impression that women were considered to be akin to a piece of real estate or property due to the use of terms such as "ownership '' and "possession ''.
The Twelve Tables are often cited as the foundation for ancient Roman law. Although faced with many issues, the Twelve Tables provided a premature understanding of some key concepts such as justice, equality, and punishment. While these ideas were not fully understood, the Twelve Tables play a significant role in the basis of the early American legal system. Political theorists, such as James Madison have highlighted the importance of the Twelve Tables in crafting the United States Bill of Rights. The idea of property was also perpetuated in the Twelve Tables, including the different forms of money, land, and slaves.
Although legal reform occurred soon after the implementation of the Twelve Tables, these ancient laws provided social protection and civil rights for both the patricians and plebeians. At this time, there was extreme tension between the privileged class and the common people resulting in the need for some form of social order. While the existing laws had major flaws that were in need of reform, the Twelve Tables eased the civil tension and violence between the plebeians and patricians.
The influence of the Twelve Tabes is still evident in the modern day. For example, the Twelve Tables are tied into the notion of Jus Commune, also known as "common law. '' Some countries including South Africa and San Marino still base their current legal system on aspects of common law. In addition, law school students throughout the world are still required to study the Twelve Tables as well as other facets of Roman Law in order to better understand the current legal system in place.
The Twelve Tables are no longer extant: although they remained an important source through the Republic, they gradually became obsolete, eventually being only of historical interest. The original tablets may have been destroyed when the Gauls under Brennus burned Rome in 387 BC. Cicero claimed that he learned them by heart as a boy in school, but that no one did so any longer. What we have of them today are brief excerpts and quotations from these laws in other authors, often in clearly updated language. They are written in an archaic, laconic Latin (described as Saturnian verse). As such, though it can not be determined whether the quoted fragments accurately preserve the original form, what is present gives some insight into the grammar of early Latin. Some claim that the text was written as such so plebeians could more easily memorise the laws, as literacy was not commonplace during early Rome. Roman Republican scholars wrote commentaries upon the Twelve Tables, such as L. Aelius Stilo, teacher of both Varro and Cicero.
Like most other early codes of law, they were largely procedural, combining strict and rigorous penalties with equally strict and rigorous procedural forms. In most of the surviving quotations from these texts, the original table that held them is not given. Scholars have guessed at where surviving fragments belong by comparing them with the few known attributions and records, many of which do not include the original lines, but paraphrases. It can not be known with any certainty from what survives that the originals ever were organised this way, or even if they ever were organised by subject at all.
|
teuful hunden - german nickname for us marines. devil dog recruiting station | Devil Dog - wikipedia
Devil Dog is a motivational nickname for a U.S. Marine. It is said by US Marines to be based on the use of "Teufel Hunde '' (sic) (idiomatic German: "Höllenhunde '') by German soldiers to describe Marines fighting in World War I.
According to United States Marine Corps legend, the moniker was used by German soldiers to describe U.S. Marines who fought in the Battle of Belleau Wood in 1918. The Marines fought with such ferocity that they were likened to "Dogs from Hell. '' The "Devil Dogs '' nickname for Marines first appeared in newspapers in the United States in April 1918 -- about two months before the Battle of Belleau Wood. The LaCrosse Tribune ran a story about the nickname on April 27, 1918, and other newspapers used the story as early as April 14, 1918. The Battle of Belleau Wood began on June 1, 1918.
The April 27th article from the LaCrosse Tribune was probably referring to the action on April 20, 1918, the first action between the Marines and the Germans. The Germans made several attacks against the Marines on that date and were unable to dislodge them. The article states that it was the first scrap between the Marines and the Germans, showing that it was prior to the major fighting in June. However, there are no sources to date of a German soldier referring to Americans as devil dogs.
In German grammar, a compound noun is always a single word, so using two words "Teufel Hunden '' is grammatically incorrect. The correct German would be Teufelshunde in nominative, genitive, and accusative cases, and Teufelshunden only in the dative. In either form, the linking element "s '' steps between the words. Examples:
Furthermore, the word "Teufelshund '', though not unknown in the German language, is rare, and this use may possibly be an example of Denglisch. The more common equivalent is "Höllenhund '' ("dog of hell '' or "hellhound ''), the German translation of the mythical Kerberos.
The term "Devil Dog '' is a very common nickname for all Marines. "Devil Dog '' is historically a well - accepted term of endearment, as a title of honor. The "dog '' in the phrase is usually associated with the bulldog, in line with the original 1918 poster, such as the bulldog being a common mascot in the Corps.
In contrast, the term may assume a negative connotation when its usage is connected to a disciplinary activity. The term "devil dogged '' or "devil dogging '' has come to mean lectured or otherwise reprimanded, prefaced with being called out as a "devil dog ''.
Other common nicknames for Marines are "Leatherneck '' and "Jarhead ''.
Navy Corpsmen assigned to Marine Corps units are sometimes referred to as "Devil Docs ''.
The amphibious assault ship USS Belleau Wood (LHA - 3) had the nickname "Devil Dog '' due to it being named after the Battle of Belleau Wood.
|
justification for basing criminal liability on mens rea | Mens rea - wikipedia
Mens rea (/ ˈmɛnz ˈriːə /; Law Latin for "guilty mind '') is the mental element of 1) intention to commit a crime or 2) knowledge that one 's action or lack of action would cause a crime to be committed. It is a necessary element of many crimes.
The standard common law test of criminal liability is expressed in the Latin phrase actus reus non facit reum nisi mens sit rea, i.e. "the act is not culpable unless the mind is guilty ''. In jurisdictions with due process, there must be both actus reus ("guilty act '') and mens rea for a defendant to be guilty of a crime (see concurrence). As a general rule, someone who acted without mental fault is not liable in criminal law. Exceptions are known as strict liability crimes.
In civil law, it is usually not necessary to prove a subjective mental element to establish liability for breach of contract or tort, for example. But if a tort is intentionally committed or a contract is intentionally breached, such intent may increase the scope of liability and the damages payable to the plaintiff.
In some jurisdictions, the terms mens rea and actus reus have been replaced by alternative terminology. In Australia, mens rea is now called "fault elements '' or "mental elements '' and actus reus is now called "physical elements '' or "external elements ''. The point of the changes was to replace Latin with plain English.
Under the traditional common law, the guilt or innocence of a person relied upon whether he had committed the crime (actus reus), and whether he intended to commit the crime (mens rea). However, many modern penal codes have created levels of mens rea called modes of culpability, which depend on the surrounding elements of the crime: the conduct, the circumstances, and the result, or what the Model Penal Code calls CAR (conduct, attendant circumstances, result). The definition of a crime is thus constructed using only these elements rather than the colorful language of mens rea:
Murder is the unlawful killing of a human being with malice aforethought.
A person commits an offense if he: (1) intentionally or knowingly causes the death of an individual
The traditional common law definitions and the modern definitions approach the crime from different angles.
In the traditional common law approach, the definition includes:
Modern law approaches the analysis somewhat differently. Homicide is a "results '' crime in that it forbids any "intentional '' or "knowing '' conduct that results in the death of another human being. "Intentional '' in this sense means the actor possessed a "purpose '' or "desire '' that his or her objective (i.e. death of another human being) be achieved. "Knowing '' means that the actor was aware or practically certain that the death would result. Thus, the actus reus and mens rea of homicide in a modern criminal statute can be considered as follows:
In the modern approach, the attendant circumstances tend to replace the traditional mens rea, indicating the level of culpability as well as other circumstances. For example, the crime of theft of government property would include as an attendant circumstance that the property belong to the government.
The levels of mens rea and the distinction between them vary between jurisdictions. Although common law originated from England, the common law of each jurisdiction with regard to culpability varies as precedents and statutes vary.
The vast majority of criminal prosecutions in the United States are carried out by the component states in accordance with the laws of the state in question. Historically, the states (with the partial exception of civil - law Louisiana) applied common law rules of mens rea similar to those extant in England, but over time American understandings of common law mens rea terms diverged from those of English law and from each other. By the late 1950s to early 1960s, the common law of mens rea was widely acknowledged to be a slippery, vague, and confused mess. This was one of several factors that led to the development of the Model Penal Code.
Since its publication in 1957, the formulation of mens rea set forth in the Model Penal Code has been highly influential throughout North America in clarifying the discussion of the different modes of culpability. The following levels of mens rea are found in the MPC:
Except for strict liability, these classes of mens rea are defined in Section 2.02 (2) of the MPC.
Since the federal government of the United States does not have a generalized police power like that of the states, the scope of its criminal statutes is necessarily circumscribed. Ordinary prosecutions are the province of the states, and only crimes of special federal import are pursued by the federal government. Consequently, Title 18 of the United States Code does not use the aforementioned culpability scheme but relies instead on more traditional definitions of crimes taken from common law. For example, malice aforethought is used as a requirement for committing capital murder.
The Supreme Court of Canada has found that the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms guarantees a minimum requirement for the mental state of various crimes. For example, the crime of murder must include a mental requirement of at least subjective foresight of death. For crimes where imprisonment is a sanction, there is a requirement of at least a defence of due diligence.
Mens rea needs to be proved by prosecution from offence to offence. If it is a common law offence, mens rea is found out by relevant precedent (DPP v Morgan (1976) AC 182). Where the offence is in legislation, the requisite mens rea is found by interpreting the intention of the legislation (He Kaw Teh). They must intend to commit the full offence.
Mens Rea in the Indian Penal Code 1860 sets out the definition of offences, the general conditions of liability, the conditions of exemptions from liability and punishments for the respective offences. Legislatures had not used the common law doctrine of mens rea in defining these crimes. However, they preferred to import it by using different terms indicating the required evil intent or mens rea as an essence of a particular offence.
Guilt in respect to almost all offences created under the IPC is fastened either on the ground of intention, knowledge or reason to believe. Almost all the offences under the IPC are qualified by one or other words such as ' wrongful gain or loss ', ' dishonesty ', ' fraudulently ', ' reason to believe ', ' criminal knowledge or intention ', ' intentional cooperation ', ' voluntarily ', ' malignantly ', ' wantonly ', ' maliciously '. All these words indicate the blameworthy mental condition required at the time of commission of the offence, nowhere found in the IPC, its essence is reflected in almost all the provisions of the Indian Penal Code 1860. Every offence created under the IPC virtually imports the idea of criminal intent or mens rea in some form or other.
The general rule under common law is that "ignorance of the law or a mistake of law is no defense to criminal prosecution. '' In some cases, courts have held if knowledge of a law, or the intent to break a law, is a material element of an offense a defendant may use ignorance as a defense to willfulness if his misunderstanding is in good faith:
The proliferation of statutes and regulations has sometimes made it difficult for the average citizen to know and comprehend the extent of the duties and obligations imposed by the tax laws... (T) he Court almost 60 years ago interpreted the statutory term "willfully '' as used in federal criminal tax statutes as carving out an exception to the traditional rule. ''
Crimes like tax evasion are specific intent crimes and require intent to violate the law as an element of the offense. In R. v. Klundert, for example, the Ontario Court of Appeal found as follows:
Not all offenses require specific intent, and a misreading, even in good faith, may not excuse the criminal conduct. A good - faith belief that a law is unjust or unconstitutional is no excuse, but "reasonable compliance upon an official statement of law, afterward determined to be invalid or erroneous '' does not constitute a criminal act.
The test for the existence of mens rea may be:
The court will have little difficulty in establishing mens rea if there is actual evidence -- for instance, if the accused made an admissible admission. This would satisfy a subjective test. But a significant proportion of those accused of crimes make no such admissions. Hence, some degree of objectivity must be brought to bear as the basis upon which to impute the necessary component (s). It is always reasonable to assume that people of ordinary intelligence are aware of their physical surroundings and of the ordinary laws of cause and effect (see causation). Thus, when a person plans what to do and what not to do, he will understand the range of likely outcomes from given behaviour on a sliding scale from "inevitable '' to "probable '' to "possible '' to "improbable ''. The more an outcome shades towards the "inevitable '' end of the scale, the more likely it is that the accused both foresaw and desired it, and, therefore, the safer it is to impute intention. If there is clear subjective evidence that the accused did not have foresight, but a reasonable person would have, the hybrid test may find criminal negligence. In terms of the burden of proof, the requirement is that a jury must have a high degree of certainty before convicting, defined as "beyond a reasonable doubt '' in the United States and "sure '' in the United Kingdom. It is this reasoning that justifies the defenses of infancy, and of lack of mental capacity under the M'Naghten Rules, an alternate common law rule (e.g., Durham test), and one of various statutes defining mental illness as an excuse. Moreover, if there is an irrebuttable presumption of doli incapax - that is, that the accused did not have sufficient understanding of the nature and quality of his actions -- then the requisite mens rea is absent no matter what degree of probability might otherwise have been present. For these purposes, therefore, where the relevant statutes are silent and it is for the common law to form the basis of potential liability, the reasonable person must be endowed with the same intellectual and physical qualities as the accused, and the test must be whether an accused with these specific attributes would have had the requisite foresight and desire.
In English law, s8 Criminal Justice Act 1967 provides a statutory framework within which mens rea is assessed. It states:
Under s8 (b) therefore, the jury is allowed a wide latitude in applying a hybrid test to impute intention or foresight (for the purposes of recklessness) on the basis of all the evidence.
One of the mental components often raised in issue is that of motive. If the accused admits to having a motive consistent with the elements of foresight and desire, this will add to the level of probability that the actual outcome was intended (it makes the prosecution case more credible). But if there is clear evidence that the accused had a different motive, this may decrease the probability that he or she desired the actual outcome. In such a situation, the motive may become subjective evidence that the accused did not intend, but was reckless or willfully blind.
Motive can not be a defense. If, for example, a person breaks into a laboratory used for the testing of pharmaceuticals on animals, the question of guilt is determined by the presence of an actus reus, i.e. entry without consent and damage to property, and a mens rea, i.e. intention to enter and cause the damage. That the person might have had a clearly articulated political motive to protest such testing does not affect liability. If motive has any relevance, this may be addressed in the sentencing part of the trial, when the court considers what punishment, if any, is appropriate.
In such cases, there is clear subjective evidence that the accused foresaw but did not desire the particular outcome. When the accused failed to stop the given behavior, he took the risk of causing the given loss or damage. There is always some degree of intention subsumed within recklessness. During the course of the conduct, the accused foresees that he may be putting another at risk of injury: A choice must be made at that point in time. By deciding to proceed, the accused actually intends the other to be exposed to the risk of that injury. The greater the probability of that risk maturing into the foreseen injury, the greater the degree of recklessness and, subsequently, sentence rendered. For example, at common law, an unlawful homicide committed recklessly would ordinarily constitute the crime of voluntary manslaughter. One committed with "extreme '' or "gross '' recklessness as to human life would constitute murder, sometimes defined as "depraved heart '' or "abandoned and malignant heart '' murder.
Here, the test is both subjective and objective. There is credible subjective evidence that the particular accused neither foresaw nor desired the particular outcome, thus potentially excluding both intention and recklessness. But a reasonable person with the same abilities and skills as the accused would have foreseen and taken precautions to prevent the loss and damage being sustained. Only a small percentage of offences are defined with this mens rea requirement. Most legislatures prefer to base liability on either intention or recklessness and, faced with the need to establish recklessness as the default mens rea for guilt, those practising in most legal systems rely heavily on objective tests to establish the minimum requirement of foresight for recklessness.
|
who are the net contributors to the eu budget | Budget of the European Union - wikipedia
This article is part of a series on the politics and government of the European Union
President Juncker (EPP)
Secretary - General Italianer
President Tajani (EPP)
Presidency
President Draghi
President Tusk (EPP)
The European Union has a budget to pay for policies carried out at European level (such as agriculture, assistance to poorer regions, trans - European networks, research, some overseas development aid) and for its administration, including a parliament, executive branch, and judiciary that are distinct from those of the member states. These arms administer the application of treaties, laws and agreements between the member states and their expenditure on common policies throughout the Union. According to the European Commission, 6 % of expenditure is on administration, compared with 94 % on policies.
To pay for this, the EU had an agreed budget of € 143 billion for the year 2014, representing around 1 % of the EU - 28 's gross national income (GNI). Prior to 2014, the EU had a budget of € 864.3 billion for the period 2007 -- 2013, representing 1.05 % of the EU - 27 's GNI for the period.
The EU budget is proposed annually by the European Commission. The proposed annual budget is then reviewed and negotiated by the Council of the European Union (which represents member states ' governments) and the European Parliament (which represents EU citizens). In order for the budget to be finalised, consensus of all member states is required.
The annual budget must remain within ceilings determined in advance by the Multiannual Financial Framework, laid down for a seven - year period by the Council (requiring the unanimous approval of every Member State) with the assent of the Parliament.
The budget for a year is determined in advance, but final calculations of payments required from each member state are not completed until after the budget year is over and information about revenue and expenditure is available, and correction mechanisms have been applied.
The European Court of Auditors is the fifth institution of the European Union (EU). It was established in 1975 in Luxembourg to audit the accounts of EU institutions.
Despite its name, the court has no judicial functions. It is, rather, a professional external investigatory audit agency. The primary role of the court is to externally check if the budget of the European Union has been implemented correctly, in that EU funds have been spent legally and with sound management. In doing so, the court checks the paperwork of all persons handling any income or expenditure of the union and carries out spot checks. The court is bound to report any problems in the court 's reports for the attention of other states and institutions, these reports include its general annual report as well as specific and special reports on certain bodies and issues. The court 's decision is the basis for the European Commission decisions, for example: when the court found problems in the management of EU funds in the regions of England, the commission suspended funds to those regions and prepared to fine those who did not come back up to acceptable standards.
In this role the court has to remain independent yet remain in touch with the other institutions, for example a key role is the presentation of the court 's annual report to the European Parliament. It is based on this report that the parliament makes its decision on whether or not to sign off the European Commission 's handling of the budget for that year. The court, if satisfied, also sends assurances to the council and parliament that the taxpayers money is being properly used and the court must be consulted before the adoption of any legislation with financial implications but the opinion is never binding.
The European Court of Auditors has signed off the European Union accounts every year since 2007, but has highlighted that they are materially affected by error and, while making it clear that the European Commission has more work to do, has highlighted that most of these errors take place at national level and concern decentralised programmes like agriculture and regional funding rather than money managed centrally in Brussels.
Following a report by the European Court of Auditors that found that 4.8 % of the EU budget in 2012 was affected by error, senior German MEP Inge Gräßle (CDU), a member of the European Parliament 's budgetary control committee, claimed that "numerous questions arise concerning the willingness of the court, to significantly correct downward, the level of error rate after discussions with the audited authority, the EU Commission... half of the errors in the structural funds sector were excluded from the estimate of the damage of the court, otherwise the numbers would be even worse ''.
On 29 June 2011 the European Commission presented the Communication "A Budget for Europe 2020 '' to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions.
Due to the tough economic times, seven member states (Austria, Czech Republic, Finland, Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden, and the United Kingdom) argued during the 26 March 2012 General Affairs Council meeting that the EC 's proposed overall amount for the seven - year EU budget plan should be reduced by € 100 billion, or in the case of Sweden, by more than € 100 billion.
On 8 February 2013, European Union leaders agreed to cut the budget by 3.3 %; the agreement on the proposed budget by the European Council has yet to be approved by the European Parliament, adopted unanimously by the Council of the European Union and ratified by the national parliaments of all member states; if adopted, it will be the first cut in its 56 - year history.
The Budget was finally approved by the European Parliament Tuesday 19 November 2013 by an overwhelming majority. MEPs voted 537 in favour, 126 against, and with 19 abstentions.
Pie chart showing EU revenue sources (2014)
The EU obtains its revenue from four main sources:
Traditional own resources are taxes raised on behalf of the EU as a whole, principally import duties on goods brought into the EU. These are collected by the state where import occurs and passed on to the EU. States are allowed to keep a proportion of the revenue to cover administration (20 %). The European Commission operates a system of inspectors to investigate the collection of these taxes in member states and ensure compliance with the rules. The effect of a state failing to collect these taxes is that other states will have to contribute more to the budget, so there is a potential conflict of interest on the part of the collecting authorities. Countries are liable to make good any loss of revenue due to their own administrative failure.
VAT - based own resources are taxes on EU citizens based on the proportion of VAT levied in each member country. VAT rates and exemptions vary in different countries, so a formula is used to create the ' harmonised tax base ', upon which the EU charge is levied. The starting point for calculations is the total VAT raised in a country. This is then adjusted using a weighted average of VAT rates applying in that country, producing the intermediate tax base. Further adjustments are made where there is a derogation from the VAT directive allowing certain goods to be zero - rated. The tax base is capped, such that it may not be greater than 50 % of a country 's gross national income (GNI).
Member countries generally pay 0.3 % of their harmonised tax base into the budget, but this is varied for some countries. The rate for Germany, the Netherlands and Sweden is 0.15 % in the 2014 - 2020 period, while Austria also had a reduced rate in the 2007 - 2013 period.
Countries are required to make an account of VAT revenues to the EU before July after the end of the budget year. The EU examines the submission for accuracy, including control visits by officials from the Directorate - General for Budget and Directorate - General for Taxation, and reports back to the country concerned.
The country may then respond to any issues raised in the report, and negotiations continue until both sides are satisfied, or the matter may be referred to the European Court of Justice for a final ruling. The Advisory committee on own resources, which has representatives from each member state, also receives and discusses the reports. In 2006, nine countries were inspected by controllers, including five new member states who were participating in the procedure for the first time. It is anticipated that 11 countries will be visited in 2007. The EU may be working on figures for three years at any one time.
GNI - based own resources currently forms the largest contribution to EU funding. A simple multiplier is applied to the calculated GNI for the country concerned. This is the last recourse for raising funding for a budget year, so the actual figure is adjusted within predetermined limits to obtain the budget total required. Revenue is currently capped at 1.23 % of gross national income in the European Union as a whole.
The GNI for own resource purposes is calculated by national accountants according to European law governing the sources and methods to compile GNI and the transmission of GNI data and related methodological information to the Commission (Eurostat). Basic information must be provided by the countries concerned to Eurostat before 22 September in the year following the budget year concerned.
Eurostat carries out information visits to the National Statistical Institutes forming part of the European Statistical System. Based on assessment reports by Eurostat, the Directorate - General for Budget (DG BUDG) of the Commission may notify to the Permanent Representative of the Member State concerned required corrections and improvements in the form of reservations on the country 's GNI data. Payments are made monthly by member states to the commission. Own resources payments are made monthly as they are collected, but monthly instalments of VAT - and GNI - based returns are based upon the budget estimates made for that year, subject to later correction.
Other revenue accounted for 6.9 % of EU revenue in 2014. This includes tax and deductions from EU staff remuneration, interest on deposits or late payments, payments from non-EU countries for certain programmes, underspent funding from community programs and any other surplus from the previous budget.
The EU budget has a number of correction mechanisms designed to re-balance excessive contribution by certain member states:
The United Kingdom withdrawal from the European Union has led the EU to reconsider its funding mechanisms, with the rebates likely to change.
Approximately 94 % of the EU budget funds programmes and projects both within member states and outside the EU. Approximately 6 % of the budget is used for administrative costs, and less than 3 % is spent on EU civil servants ' salaries.
2006 EU expenditure in millions of euros (Total 106,576 million)
In the 2006 budget, the largest single expenditure item was due to the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), with its direct aid, export refunds, storage and rural development and support and subsidies, which accounted for around 46.7 % of the total budget. In 2014, CAP spending had decreased to 39 %.
Next in 2006 came the EU 's structural funds, which are used to support specific regions in the EU, as part of EU 's regional policy, which aims to reduce regional disparities in terms of income, wealth and opportunities. Europe 's poorer regions receive most of the support, but all European regions are eligible for funding under the policy 's various funds and programmes. In 2006 approximately 30.4 % of the EU budget was used for such support. While the CAP spending is going down, the regional support is increasing, and is expected to reach almost 36 % in 2013.
Internal policies (training, youth, culture, audiovisual, media, information, energy, Euratom nuclear safeguards and environment, consumer protection, internal market, industry and Trans - European networks, research and technological development, other internal policies) took up around 8.5 % in the 2006 budget.
External actions, i.e. EU 's international activities outside the EU (development aid, peace keeping and security work, election observers etc.) accounted for 4.9 % in 2006.
Finally, the pre-accession strategy, compensations and reserves brought up the rear of the budget, with approximately 2.1 %, 1 % and 0.1 % respectively in 2006.
2014 EU expenditure in millions of euros (Total 142,496 million)
For the period 2014 - 2020, the EU budget is used for six main categories of expenditure:
Net receipts or contributions vary over time, and there are various ways of calculating net contributions to the EU budget, depending, for instance, on whether countries ' administrative expenditure is included. Also, one can use either absolute figures, the proportion of gross national income (GNI), or per capita amounts. Different countries may tend to favour different methods, to present their country in a more favourable light.
|
what does it mean to donald duck someone | Donald Duck - wikipedia
Donald Duck is a cartoon character created in 1934 at Walt Disney Productions. Donald is an anthropomorphic white duck with a yellow - orange bill, legs, and feet. He typically wears a sailor shirt and cap with a bow tie. Donald is most famous for his semi-intelligible speech and his mischievous and temperamental personality. Along with his friend Mickey Mouse, Donald is one of the most popular Disney characters and was included in TV Guide 's list of the 50 greatest cartoon characters of all time in 2002. He has appeared in more films than any other Disney character, and is the most published comic book character in the world outside of the superhero genre.
Donald Duck rose to fame with his comedic roles in animated cartoons. Donald 's first appearance was in 1934 in The Wise Little Hen, but it was his second appearance in Orphan 's Benefit which introduced him as a temperamental comic foil to Mickey Mouse. Throughout the next two decades, Donald appeared in over 150 theatrical films, several of which were recognized at the Academy Awards. In the 1930s, he typically appeared as part of a comic trio with Mickey and Goofy and was given his own film series in 1937 starting with Don Donald. These films introduced Donald 's love interest Daisy Duck and often included his three nephews Huey, Dewey, and Louie. After the 1956 film Chips Ahoy, Donald appeared primarily in educational films before eventually returning to theatrical animation in Mickey 's Christmas Carol (1983). His most recent appearance in a theatrical film was 1999 's Fantasia 2000. Donald has also appeared in direct - to - video features such as Mickey, Donald, Goofy: The Three Musketeers (2004), television series such as Mickey Mouse Clubhouse (2006 -- 2016), and video games such as QuackShot (1991).
Beyond animation, Donald is primarily known for his appearances in comics. Donald was most famously drawn by Al Taliaferro, Carl Barks, and Don Rosa. Barks, in particular, is credited for greatly expanding the "Donald Duck universe '', the world in which Donald lives, and creating many additional characters such as Donald 's rich uncle Scrooge McDuck. Donald has been a very popular character in Europe, particularly in Nordic countries where his weekly magazine Donald Duck & Co was the most popular comics publication from the 1950s to 2009.
The origins of Donald Duck 's name may have been inspired by Australian cricket legend Donald Bradman. In 1932 Bradman and the Australian team were touring North America and he made the news after being dismissed for a duck against New York West Indians. Walt Disney was in the process of creating a friend for Mickey Mouse when he possibly read about Bradman 's dismissal in the papers and decided to name the new character "Donald Duck ''. Voice performer Clarence Nash auditioned for Walt Disney Studios when he learned that Disney was looking for people to create animal sounds for his cartoons. Disney was particularly impressed with Nash 's duck imitation and chose him to voice the new character. Besides, during that period Mickey Mouse had lost some of his edge since becoming a role model towards children, and so Disney wanted to create a character to portray some of the more negative character traits that could no longer be bestowed on Mickey. Disney came up with Donald 's iconic attributes including his short - temper and his sailor suit (based on ducks and sailors both being associated with water). While Dick Huemer and Art Babbit were first to animate Donald, Dick Lundy is credited for developing him as a character.
Donald 's two dominant personality traits are his short temper and his positive outlook on life. Many Donald shorts start with Donald in a happy mood, without a care in the world until something comes along and spoils his day. His anger is a great cause of suffering in his life. On multiple occasions, it has caused him to get in over his head and lose competitions. There are times when he fights to keep his temper in check, and he sometimes succeeds in doing so temporarily, but he always returns to his normal angry self in the end.
Donald 's aggressive nature has its advantages, however. While at times it is a hindrance, and even a handicap, it has also helped him in times of need. When faced with a threat of some kind, for example, Pete 's attempts to intimidate him, he is initially scared, but his fear is replaced by anger. As a result, instead of running away, he fights -- with ghosts, sharks, mountain goats, giant kites, and even the forces of nature. And, more often than not, when he fights, he comes out on top.
Donald is something of a prankster, and as a result, he can sometimes come across as a bit of a bully, especially in the way he sometimes treats Chip n ' Dale and Huey, Dewey and Louie, his nephews. As the animator Fred Spencer has put it:
The Duck gets a big kick out of imposing on other people or annoying them, but he immediately loses his temper when the tables are turned. In other words, he can dish it out, but he ca n't take it.
However, with a few exceptions, there is seldom any malice in Donald 's pranks. He almost never intends to hurt anyone, and whenever his pranks go too far, he is always very regretful. In Truant Officer Donald, for example, when he is tricked into believing he has accidentally killed Huey, Dewey, and Louie, he shows great remorse, blaming himself. His nephews appear in the form of angels, and he willingly endures a kick by one of them -- that is, of course, until he realizes he has been played for a sap, whereupon he promptly loses his temper.
Donald is also a bit of a show - off. He likes to brag, especially about how skilled he is at something. He does, in fact, have many skills -- he is something of a Jack of all Trades. Amongst other things, he is a good fisher and a good hockey player. However, his love of bragging often leads him to overestimate his abilities, so that when he sets out to make good on his boasts, he gets in over his head, usually to hilarious effect.
Another of his personality traits is tenacity. Even though he can at times be lazy, and likes to say that his favorite place to be is in a hammock, once he has committed to accomplishing something he goes for it 100 percent, sometimes resorting to extreme measures to reach his goal.
Donald has a few memorable phrases that he occasionally comes out with in certain situations. For example, when he stumbles across other characters in the midst of planning some sort of retaliation or prank, or when things do n't go as he 'd planned or do n't work properly, he often says, "What 's the big idea!? ''. When he has given up on something he 's been trying to do, or something he 's been hoping will happen, he tends to say, "Aw, phooey! ''. When he confronts someone who 's been antagonizing him or something that 's been frustrating him, he likes to exclaim, "So!! ''. He greets his friend Daisy, and occasionally others, with, "Hiya, toots! ''. And when he 's very excited about something, he usually mutters, "Oh boy, oh boy, oh boy... '' under his breath.
There 's a running gag in the Donald Duck comics about him being out of shape and unwilling to exercise. Usually, some character close to Donald annoys him by saying he 's being lazy and needs to get some exercise. But despite his apparent slothfulness, Donald proves that he is physically strong. In the short film, Sea Scouts, Donald is traveling with his nephews in a boat when it 's attacked by a shark. Donald makes several attempts to defeat the shark, each of which proves ineffective, but then finally triumphs and defeats the shark with a single well - placed punch. Additionally, as discussed below - Donald had a stint in the U.S. Army during World War II that culminated with him serving as a commando in the film Commando Duck, and he was frequently away serving in the U.S. Navy in the television cartoon series DuckTales.
Throughout his career, Donald has shown that he 's jealous of Mickey and wants his job as Disney 's greatest star, similar to the Bugs Bunny and Daffy Duck rivalry. In most Disney theatrical cartoons, Mickey and Donald are shown as partners and have little to no rivalry (exceptions being The Band Concert, Magician Mickey and near the end of Symphony Hour, which were due to Donald 's menacing attempts). However, by the time The Mickey Mouse Club aired on television (after Bugs vs. Daffy cartoons such as Rabbit Fire), it was shown that Donald always wanted the spotlight. One animated short that rivaled the famous Mickey Mouse March song was showing Huey, Dewey, and Louie as Boy Scouts and Donald as their Scoutmaster at a cliff near a remote forest and Donald leads them in a song mirroring the Mouseketeers theme "D-O-N-A-L-D D-U-C-K! Donald Duck! '' The rivalry would cause Donald some problems, in a 1988 TV special, where Mickey is cursed by a sorcerer to become unnoticed, the world believes Mickey to be kidnapped. Donald Duck is then arrested for the kidnapping of Mickey, as he is considered to be the chief suspect, due to their rivalry. However, Donald did later get the charges dismissed, due to lack of evidence. Walt Disney, in his Wonderful World of Color, would sometimes make reference to the rivalry. Walt, one time, had presented Donald with a gigantic birthday cake and commented how it was "even bigger than Mickey 's '', which pleased Donald. The clip was rebroadcast in November 1984 during a TV special honoring Donald 's 50th birthday, with Dick Van Dyke substituting for Walt.
The rivalry between Mickey and Donald has also been shown in Disney 's House of Mouse. It was shown that Donald wanted to be the Club 's founder and wanted to change the name from House of Mouse to House of Duck, which is obvious in the episodes "The Stolen Cartoons '' and "Timon and Pumbaa ''. In the episode "Everybody Loves Mickey '', Donald 's jealousy is explored and even joins sides with Mortimer Mouse. However, Donald has a change of heart when Daisy tells him how much of a friend Mickey is to him. Since then, Donald accepted that Mickey was the founder and worked with Mickey as a partner to make the club profitable and successful.
Donald has numerous enemies, who range from comical foil to annoying nemesis: Chip ' n ' Dale, Pete, Humphrey the Bear, Spike The Bee, Mountain Lion Louie, Bootle Beetle, Witch Hazel (in Trick or Treat), Aracuan Bird and Baby Shelby (in Mickey Mouse Works). During the Second World War, Donald was often enemies with Adolf Hitler.
In the comics, he is often pestered and tormented by the Beagle Boys, Magica De Spell, Gladstone Gander and Mr. Jones.
In the video game Donald Duck: Goin ' Quackers, he saves Daisy from Merlock.
The Italian - produced comic PKNA -- Paperinik New Adventures stars Donald Duck as Paperinik, or Duck Avenger, in his battles against new alien enemies: Evronian Empire, founded by emperor Evron.
Donald Duck first appeared in the 1934 cartoon The Wise Little Hen which was part of the Silly Symphonies series of theatrical cartoon shorts. The film 's release date of June 9 is officially recognized by the Walt Disney Company as Donald 's birthday despite a couple of in - universe contradictions. Donald 's appearance in the cartoon, as created by animator Dick Lundy, is similar to his modern look -- the feather and beak colors are the same, as is the blue sailor shirt and hat -- but his features are more elongated, his body plumper, and his feet smaller. Donald 's personality is not developed either; in the short, he only fills the role of the unhelpful friend from the original story.
Burt Gillett brought Donald back in his Mickey Mouse cartoon, Orphan 's Benefit, released August 11, 1934. Donald is one of a number of characters who are giving performances in a benefit for Mickey 's Orphans. Donald 's act is to recite the poems Mary had a little lamb and Little Boy Blue, but every time he tries, the mischievous orphans heckle him, leading the duck to fly into a squawking fit of anger. This explosive personality would remain with Donald for decades to come.
Donald continued to be a hit with audiences. The character began appearing regularly in most Mickey Mouse cartoons. Cartoons from this period, such as the 1935 cartoon The Band Concert -- in which Donald repeatedly disrupts the Mickey Mouse Orchestra 's rendition of The William Tell Overture by playing Turkey in the Straw -- are regularly hailed by critics as exemplary films and classics of animation. Animator Ben Sharpsteen also minted the classic Mickey, Donald, and Goofy comedy in 1935, with the cartoon Mickey 's Service Station.
In 1936, Donald was redesigned to be a bit fuller, rounder, and cuter, the first to feature this design was the cartoon Moving Day. He also began starring in solo cartoons, the first of which was January 9, 1937, Ben Sharpsteen cartoon, Don Donald. This short also introduced a love interest of Donald 's, Donna Duck, who evolved into Daisy Duck. Donald 's nephews, Huey, Dewey and Louie, would make their first animated appearance a year later in the April 15, 1938, film, Donald 's Nephews, directed by Jack King (they had been earlier introduced in the Donald Duck comic strip by Al Taliaferro, see below). By 1938, most polls showed that Donald was more popular than Mickey Mouse. Disney could, however, help Mickey regain popularity by redesigning him, giving him his most appealing design as production for the Fantasia segment "The Sorcerer 's Apprentice '' began in 1938.
After his early appearances, he went on to become part of the famed trio Mickey, Donald, and Goofy. He appeared in many of the cartoons, including Moving Day.
Several of Donald 's shorts during the war were propaganda films, most notably Der Fuehrer 's Face, released on January 1, 1943. In it, Donald plays a worker in an artillery factory in "Nutzi Land '' (Nazi Germany). He struggles with long working hours, very small food rations, and having to salute every time he sees a picture of the Führer (Adolf Hitler). These pictures appear in many places, such as on the assembly line in which he is screwing in the detonators of various sizes of shells. In the end, he becomes little more than a small part in a faceless machine with no choice but to obey until he falls, suffering a nervous breakdown. Then Donald wakes up to find that his experience was, in fact, a dream. At the end of the short, Donald looks to the Statue of Liberty and the American flag with renewed appreciation. Der Fuehrer 's Face won the 1942 Academy Award for Animated Short Film. Der Fuehrer 's Face was also the first of two animated short films to be set during the War to win an Oscar, the other being Tom and Jerry 's short film, The Yankee Doodle Mouse.
Other notable shorts from this period include a seven film mini-series that follows Donald 's life in the U.S. Army from his drafting to his experiences in basic training under Sergeant Pete to his first actual mission as a commando having to sabotage a Japanese air base. Titles in the series include:
Thanks in part to these films, Donald graced the nose artwork of virtually every type of World War II Allied combat aircraft, from the L - 4 Grasshopper to the B - 29 Superfortress.
Donald also appears as a mascot -- such as in the Army Air Corps 309th Fighter Squadron and the U.S. Coast Guard Auxiliary, which showed Donald as a fierce - looking pirate ready to defend the American coast from invaders. Donald also appeared as a mascot emblem for 415th Fighter Squadron; 438th Fighter Squadron; 479th Bombardment Squadron; 531st Bombardment Squadron. He also appears as the mascot for the United States Air Force 319 Aircraft Maintenance Unit at Luke Air Force Base. He is seen wearing an old - style pilot 's uniform with a board with a nail in it in one hand and a lightning bolt in the other hand. Donald 's most famous appearance, however, was on North American Aviation B - 25B Mitchell medium bomber (S / N 40 - 2261) piloted by Lt. Ted W. Lawson of the 95th Bombardment Squadron, USAAF. The aircraft, named the "Ruptured Duck '' and carrying a picture of Donald 's face above a pair of crossed crutches, was one of sixteen B - 25Bs which took off from the aircraft carrier USS Hornet to bomb Tokyo on April 18, 1942. The mission was led by Lieutenant Colonel (later General) Jimmy Doolittle. Like most of the aircraft that participated in the mission, the Ruptured Duck was unable to reach its assigned landing field in China following the raid and ended up ditching off the coast near Shangchow, China. The Ruptured Duck 's pilot survived, with the loss of a leg, and later wrote about the Doolittle Raid in the book, later to be the movie, Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo (Random House pub. 1943).
During World War II, Disney cartoons were not allowed to be imported into Occupied Europe owing to their propagandistic content. Since this cost Disney a lot of money, he decided to create a new audience for his films in South America. He decided to make a trip through various Latin American countries with his assistants, and use their experiences and impressions to create two feature - length animation films. The first was Saludos Amigos, which consisted of four short segments, two of them with Donald Duck. In the first, he meets his parrot pal José Carioca. The second film was The Three Caballeros, in which he meets his rooster friend Panchito.
Several decades after the war, on account of the fact that Donald was never officially separated from service in either his animated shorts or his comic strips - and as part of Donald 's 50th Birthday celebrations - the U.S. Army retired Donald Duck from active duty as a "Buck Sergeant '' (i.e. "Buck Sergeant Duck '') in a special ceremony and parade in Torrance, CA in 1984.
Many of Donald 's films made after the war recast the duck as the brunt of some other character 's pestering. Donald is seen repeatedly attacked, harassed, and ridiculed by his nephews, by the chipmunks Chip ' n ' Dale, or by other characters such as Humphrey the Bear, Spike the Bee, Bootle Beetle, the Aracuan Bird, Louie the Mountain Lion, or a colony of ants. In returning the favor (so to speak), Donald also has tempers and anger issues after returning from fighting in World War II; there is a theory on the Internet that says the reason why Donald is prone to having his tempers and anger issues is because Donald has Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder; said theory mentioned can also be found on YouTube. In effect, much like Bugs Bunny cartoons from Warner Bros. the Disney artists had reversed the classic screwball scenario perfected by Walter Lantz and others in which the main character is the instigator of these harassing behaviors, rather than the butt of them. The short ' Clown of the Jungle ' (1947) very much feels like either a Daffy Duck or a Woody Woodpecker cartoon.
The post-war Donald also starred in educational films, such as Donald in Mathmagic Land and How to Have an Accident at Work (both 1959), and made cameos in various Disney projects, such as The Reluctant Dragon (1941) and the Disneyland television show (1959). For this latter show, Donald 's uncles Ludwig von Drake (1961) and Scrooge McDuck (1967) were then created in animation.
In Who Framed Roger Rabbit, Donald has a piano duel scene with his Warner Brothers counterpart and rival Daffy Duck voiced by Mel Blanc. Donald has since appeared in several different television shows and (short) animated movies. He played roles in The Prince and the Pauper and made a cameo appearance in A Goofy Movie.
Donald had a rather small part in the animated television series DuckTales. There, Donald joins the U.S. Navy and leaves his nephews Huey, Dewey, and Louie with their Uncle Scrooge, who then has to take care of them. Donald 's role in the overall series was fairly limited, as he only ended up appearing in a handful of episodes when home on leave. Some of the stories in the series were loosely based on the comics by Carl Barks.
Donald made some cameo appearances in Bonkers, before getting his own television show Quack Pack. This series featured a modernized Duck family. Donald was no longer wearing his sailor suit and hat, but a Hawaiian shirt. Huey, Dewey, and Louie now are teenagers, with distinct clothing, voices, and personalities. Daisy Duck has lost her pink dress and bow and has a new haircut. No other family members, besides Ludwig von Drake, appear in Quack Pack, and all other Duckburg citizens are humans and not dogs.
He made a comeback as the star of the "Noah 's Ark '' segment of Fantasia 2000, as first mate to Noah. Donald musters the animals to the Ark and attempts to control them. He tragically believes that Daisy has been lost, while she believes the same of him, but they are reunited at the end. All this to Edward Elgar 's Pomp and Circumstance Marches 1 -- 4.
In an alternate opening for the 2005 Disney film Chicken Little, Donald would have made a cameo appearance as "Ducky Lucky ''. This scene can be found on the Chicken Little DVD.
Donald also played an important role in Mickey Mouse Works and House of Mouse. In the latter show, he is the co-owner of Mickey 's nightclub. He is part of the ensemble cast of classic characters in the TV show Mickey Mouse Clubhouse as well. He also appears in the new 3 - minute Mickey Mouse TV shorts for Disney Channel.
Donald also appears in the DuckTales reboot, in which he is a main character as opposed to his limited role in the original cartoon. The series depicts him as having once been Scrooge 's partner in adventure, apparently along with his sister; however, ten years prior to the series ' beginning they went their separate ways and did n't speak throughout that time. Donald later reluctantly brings the triplets - whom he is the guardian of - to Scrooge 's mansion so he can babysit them, though he clearly has n't forgiven Scoorge for their past history. He ends up being hired by Scrooge 's rival Flintheart Glomgold and ends up at the city of Atlantis, where Scrooge has also brought the boys; after some initial conflict Scrooge offers to let them stay with him in his mansion. Donald owns a boat in the series, which is relocated to Scrooge 's pool at the conclusion of the series premier.
Donald 's first voice was performed by Clarence Nash, who voiced him for 50 years. Nash voiced Donald for the last time in Mickey 's Christmas Carol in 1983, making Donald the only character in the film to be voiced by his original voice actor. He did, however, continue to provide Donald 's voice for commercials, promos, and other miscellaneous material until his death in 1985. Since Nash 's death, Donald 's voice has been performed by Disney animator, Tony Anselmo, who was mentored by Nash for the role. Anselmo 's first performances as Donald is heard in a 1986 D - TV special, D - TV Valentine on The Disney Channel, and in his first feature film, Who Framed Roger Rabbit, in 1988. For the new TV series Mickey and the Roadster Racers, Donald is voiced by voice actor Daniel Ross.
While Donald 's cartoons enjoy vast popularity in the United States and around the world, his weekly and monthly comic books enjoy their greatest popularity in many European countries, especially Italy, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Finland and Iceland, but also Germany, the Netherlands, and Greece. Most of them are produced and published by the Italian branch of the Walt Disney Company in Italy (Disney Italy) and by Egmont in Denmark, Norway, Finland and Sweden. In Germany, the comics are published by Ehapa which has since become part of the Egmont empire. Donald - comics are also being produced in The Netherlands and France. Donald also has been appeared in Japanese comics published by Kodansha and Tokyopop.
According to the INDUCKS, which is a database about Disney comics worldwide, American, Italian and Danish stories have been reprinted in the following countries. In most of them, publications still continue: Australia, Austria, Argentina, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, China, Colombia, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark (Faroe Islands), Egypt, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Guyana, Hungary, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Israel, Italy, Japan, Latvia, Lithuania, Mexico, the Netherlands, Norway, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Slovakia, Spain, Sweden, Thailand, Turkey, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the former Yugoslavia.
Though a 1931 Disney publication called Mickey Mouse Annual mentioned a character named Donald Duck, the character 's first appearance in comic - strip format was a newspaper cartoon that was based on the short The Wise Little Hen and published in 1934. For the next few years, Donald made a few more appearances in Disney - themed strips, and by 1936, he had grown to be one of the most popular characters in the Silly Symphonies comic strip. Ted Osborne was the primary writer of these strips, with Al Taliaferro as his artist. Osborne and Taliaferro also introduced several members of Donald 's supporting cast, including his nephews, Huey, Dewey, and Louie.
In 1937, an Italian publisher named Mondadori created the first Donald Duck story intended specifically for comic books. The eighteen - page story, written by Federico Pedrocchi, is the first to feature Donald as an adventurer rather than simply a comedic character. Fleetway in England also began publishing comic - book stories featuring the duck.
A daily Donald Duck comic strip drawn by Taliaferro and written by Bob Karp began running in the United States on February 2, 1938; the Sunday strip began the following year. Taliaferro and Karp created an even larger cast of characters for Donald 's world. He got a new St. Bernard named Bolivar, and his family grew to include cousin Gus Goose and grandmother Elvira Coot. Donald 's new rival girlfriends were Donna and Daisy Duck. Taliaferro also gave Donald his very own automobile, a 1934 Belchfire Runabout, in a 1938 story, which is often nicknamed by Donald 's "313 '' car plate in the comic incarnation of Donald 's world.
In 1942, Western Publishing began creating original comic - book stories about Donald and other Disney characters. Bob Karp worked on the earliest of these, a story called "Donald Duck Finds Pirate Gold ''. The new publisher meant new illustrators, however, Carl Barks and Jack Hannah would later repeat the treasure - hunting theme in many more stories.
Barks soon took over the major development of the duck as both writer and illustrator. Under his pen, Donald became more adventurous, less temperamental and more eloquent. Pete was the only other major character from the Mickey Mouse comic strip to feature in Barks ' new Donald Duck universe.
Barks placed Donald in the city of Duckburg, which he populated with a host of supporting players, including Neighbor Jones (1944), Uncle Scrooge McDuck (1947), Gladstone Gander (1948), the Beagle Boys (1951), Gyro Gearloose (1952), April, May and June (1953), Flintheart Glomgold (1956), Magica de Spell (1961), and John D. Rockerduck (1961). Many of Taliaferro 's characters made the move to Barks ' world as well, including Huey, Dewey, and Louie. Barks placed Donald in both domestic and adventure scenarios, and Uncle Scrooge became one of his favorite characters to pair up with Donald. Scrooge 's popularity grew, and by 1952, the character had a comic book of his own. At this point, Barks concentrated his major efforts on the Scrooge stories, and Donald 's appearances became more focused on comedy or he was recast as Scrooge 's helper, following his rich uncle around the globe.
Dozens of writers continued to utilize Donald in their stories around the world.
For example, the Disney Studio artists, who made comics directly for the European market. Two of them, Dick Kinney (1917 -- 1985) and Al Hubbard (1915 -- 1984) created Donald 's cousin Fethry Duck.
The American artists Vic Lockman and Tony Strobl (1915 -- 1991), who were working directly for the American comic books, created Moby Duck. Strobl was one of the most productive Disney artists of all time and drew many stories which Barks wrote and sketched after his retirement. In the 1990s and early 2000s, these scripts were re-drawn in a style closer to Barks ' own by Dutch artist Daan Jippes.
Italian publisher Mondadori created many of the stories that were published throughout Europe. They also introduced numerous new characters who are today well known in Europe. One example is Donald Duck 's alter - ego, a superhero called Paperinik in Italian, created in 1969 by Guido Martina (1906 -- 1991) and Giovan Battista Carpi (1927 -- 1999).
Giorgio Cavazzano and Carlo Chendi created Umperio Bogarto, a detective whose name is an obvious parody on Humphrey Bogart. They also created O.K Quack, an extraterrestrial Duck who landed on earth in a spaceship in the shape of a coin. He, however, lost his spaceship and befriended Scrooge, and now is allowed to search through his money bin time after time, looking for his ship.
Romano Scarpa (1927 -- 2005), who was a very important and influential Italian Disney artist, created Brigitta McBridge, a female Duck who is madly in love with Scrooge. Her affections are never answered by him, though, but she keeps trying. Scarpa also came up with Dickie Duck, the granddaughter of Glittering Goldie (Scrooge 's possible love - interest from his days in the Klondike) and Kildare Coot, a nephew of Grandma Duck.
Italian artist Corrado Mastantuono created Bum Bum Ghigno, a cynical, grumpy and not too good looking Duck who teams up with Donald and Gyro a lot.
The American artist William Van Horn also introduced a new character: Rumpus McFowl, an old and rather corpulent Duck with a giant appetite and laziness, who is first said to be a cousin of Scrooge. Only later, Scrooge reveals to his nephews Rumpus is actually his half - brother. Later, Rumpus also finds out.
Working for the Danish editor Egmont, artist Daniel Branca (1951 -- 2005) and script - writers Paul Halas and Charlie Martin created Sonny Seagull, an orphan who befriends Huey, Dewey and Louie, and his rival, Mr. Phelps.
One of the most productive Duck - artist used to be Victor Arriagada Rios, (deceased 2012) better known under the name Vicar. He had his own studio where he and his assistants drew the stories sent in by Egmont. With writer / editors Stefan and Unn Printz - Påhlson, Vicar created the character Oona, a prehistoric duck princess who traveled to modern Duckburg by using Gyro 's time - machine. She stayed and is still seen in occasional modern stories.
The best - known and most popular Duck - artist of this time is American Don Rosa. He started doing Disney comics in 1987 for the American publisher Gladstone. He later worked briefly for the Dutch editors but moved to work directly for Egmont soon afterwards. His stories contain many direct references to stories by Carl Barks, and he also wrote and illustrated a 12 - part series of stories about the life of Scrooge McDuck, which won him two Eisner Awards.
Other important artists who have worked with Donald are Freddy Milton and Daan Jippes, who made 18 ten - pagers which experts claim, were very difficult to separate from Barks ' own work from the late 1940s.
Japanese artist Shiro Amano worked with Donald on the graphic novel Kingdom Hearts based on the Disney - Square Enix video game.
Donald Duck has a slightly different character abroad.
Donald Duck (Kalle Anka in Sweden, Anders And in Denmark, Andrés Önd in Iceland, Donald Duck in Norway, and Aku Ankka in Finland) is a very popular character in Nordic countries. In the mid-1930s, Robert S. Hartman, a German who served as a representative of Walt Disney, visited Sweden to supervise the merchandise distribution of Sagokonst (The Art of Fables). Hartman found a studio called L'Ateljé Dekoratör, which produced illustrated cards that were published by Sagokonst. Since the Disney characters on the cards appeared to be exactly ' on - model ', Hartman asked the studio to create a local version of the English - language Mickey Mouse Weekly. In 1937 L'Ateljé Dekoratör began publishing Musse Pigg Tidningen (Mickey Mouse Magazine), which had high production values and spanned 23 issues; most of the magazine 's content came from local producers, while some material consisted of reprints from Mickey Mouse Weekly. The comic anthology ended in 1938. Hartman helped Disney establish offices in all Nordic countries before he left Disney in 1941. Donald became the most popular of the Disney characters in Scandinavia, and Scandinavians recognise him better than Mickey Mouse. Kalle Anka & Co, Donald 's first dedicated Swedish anthology, started in September 1948. In 2001 the Finnish Post Office issued a stamp set to commemorate the 50th year anniversary of Donald 's presence in Finland. By 2005 around one out of every four Norwegians read the Norwegian edition Donald Duck & Co. per week, translating to around 1.3 million regular readers. During the same year, every week 434,000 Swedes read Kalle Anka & Co. By 2005 in Finland the Donald Duck anthology Aku Ankka sold 270,000 copies per issue. Tim Pilcher and Brad Books, authors of The Essential Guide to World Comics, described the Donald anthologies as "the Scandinavian equivalent of the UK 's Beano or Dandy, a comic that generations have grown up with, from grandparents to grandchildren ''.
Hannu Raittila, an author, says that Finnish people recognize an aspect of themselves in Donald; Raittila cites that Donald attempts to retrieve himself from "all manner of unexpected and unreasonable scrapes using only his wits and the slim resources he can put his hands on, all of which meshes nicely with the popular image of Finland as driftwood in the crosscurrents of world politics ''. Finnish voters placing protest votes typically write "Donald Duck '' as the candidate. In Sweden voters often voted for Donald Duck or the Donald Duck Party as a nonexistent candidate until a 2006 change in voting laws, which prohibited voting for nonexistent candidates. In a twenty - year span, Donald won enough votes to be, in theory, Sweden 's ninth-most popular political organization. In 1985 Donald received 291 votes in an election for the Parliament of Sweden (Riksdag).
By 1978, within Finland, there was debate over the morality of Donald Duck. Matti Holopainen jokingly criticized Donald for living with Daisy while not being married to her, for not wearing trousers, and for, in the words of the Library Journal, being "too bourgeois ''. Some observers from Finland from the same time period supported Donald, referring to him as a "genuine proletarian... forced to sell his labor at slave rates to make a living ''. The Library Journal said it was revealed that, since 1950, Donald had secretly been married to Daisy. An annual Christmas special in Norway, Denmark, Finland and Sweden is From All of Us to All of You, in Norway and Sweden with a title of Donald Duck and His Friends Celebrate Christmas. Segments include Ferdinand the Bull, a short with Chip ' n ' Dale, a segment from Lady and the Tramp, a sneak preview of a coming Disney movie and concludes with Jiminy Cricket performing "When You Wish Upon a Star ''. To many people watching this special is a tradition as important as having a Christmas tree.
Donald Duck is very popular in Germany, where Donald themed comics sell an average of 250,000 copies each week, mostly published in the kids ' weekly Micky Maus and the monthlies Donald Duck Special (for adults) and Lustiges Taschenbuch. The Wall Street Journal called Donald Duck "The Jerry Lewis of Germany '', a reference to American star Jerry Lewis ' popularity in France. Donald 's dialogue in German comics tends to be more sophisticated and philosophical, he "quotes from German literature, speaks in grammatically complex sentences and is prone to philosophical musings, while the stories often take a more political tone than their American counterparts '', features especially associated with Erika Fuchs 's popular German translations of the comics created by The Good Duck Artist Carl Barks. Christian Pfeiler -- former president of D.O.N.A.L.D., a German acronym which stands for "German Organization for Non-commercial Followers of Pure Donaldism '' -- says Donald is popular in Germany because "almost everyone can identify with him. He has strengths and weaknesses; he lacks polish but is also very cultured and well - read. '' It is through this everyman persona that Donald is able to voice philosophical truths about German society that appeal to both children and adults. Donald 's writers and illustrators Carl Barks, Don Rosa and Ub Iwerks are well known in Germany and have their own fan clubs.
Donald Duck (named Paolino Paperino) is also a very popular character in Italy, where new stories about him and Scrooge McDuck are hosted in the kids ' weekly Topolino and the monthly Paperino. While Paperino is written by many authors, he still maintains several characteristics. He 's mostly an everyman, but the fierce, harsh temper he has in the American comic appears to be diluted into a meek, weaker personality, prone to comical fits of rage that are mostly subdued by the realization of its impotence. His frustration at Gladstone 's luck is comically enhanced: in the Italian comics, Donald is chronically unlucky, unable to do or get anything right, with Gladstone taking advantage of his superiority or taking genuine pity of his unlucky cousin and trying several plans to grant him some better luck, always failing.
However the constant search for an outlet to vent his frustration, led the Italian rendition of Donald Duck to seek his catharsis in several ways: in the sixties, vexed by Scrooge 's antics and Gladstone luck, he reinvented himself as Paperinik, the Duck Avenger (as he came to be known outside Italy), an anti-hero at first, a self - assured, well adjusted, brilliant hero in later stories, no longer bound by the self - doubt and the mockery Donald is constantly subjected. Further along the years, he fashioned for himself the additional identities of QQ7, a bumbling secret agent protecting Scrooge 's riches and DoubleDuck, a more confident and suave secret agent, in the mold of James Bond, a more equilibrate mold of the heroic Duck Avenger and the tricky QQ7, often accompanied by the beautiful spy Kay K. Donald 's "secret identies '' are hosted in the main Topolino comics, but also in several themed comics, like the now defunct Paperinik, PKNA, PK ^ 2 and the current Paperinik AppGrade, the latter hosting reprints and new stories as well.
Having several full lives to live does n't hamper Donald 's ability to live adventures on his own: he still lives adventures with his uncle Scrooge and his nephews (often acting as a reluctant bumbler, a ballast to the enthusiasm of his nephews and the wanderlust of his uncle), and he lived a star - crossed love story with a princess from another planet, Reginella. Despite Reginella leaving a deep trace in Donald 's heart, he is still depicted as extremely faithful to Daisy, with a small hiccup deriving by Daisy Duck having a secret identity on her own (Paperinika), with Paperinik and Paperinika, both unaware of their secret identities, cultivating a permanent status of belligerent tension.
He also keeps a cheerful rivalry with his neighbour Bum Bum Ghigno, more a bumbler and a nuisance than he is, but still a good person at heart.
Oddly enough, the Italian rendition of Donald Duck seldom, if ever, goes by his first name, having everyone, including his nephews, Daisy and Uncle Scrooge, address him as Paperino (his Italian surname).
He also appears in the Topolino comics depicting his childhood, called Paperino Paperotto (English: Donald Duckling), which were first produced in Italy in 1998. He lives in the fictional town, Quack Town with Grandma Duck and Billy Goat.
Donald Duck has played a major role in many Disney theme parks over the years. He has actually been seen in more attractions and shows at the parks than Mickey Mouse has. He has appeared over the years in such attractions as Animagique, Mickey Mouse Revue, Mickey 's PhilharMagic, Disneyland: The First 50 Magical Years, Gran Fiesta Tour Starring the Three Caballeros and the updated version of "It 's a Small World ''. He also is seen in the parks as a meet - and - greet character.
Donald has been a frequent character in children 's books beginning in 1935. Most of these books were published by Whitman Publishing, later called Western Publishing, or one of its subsidiaries. The following is a list of children 's books in which Donald is the central character. This does not include comic books or activity books such as coloring books.
|
who has won more world series american or national | World Series - Wikipedia
The World Series is the annual championship series of Major League Baseball (MLB) in North America, contested since 1903 between the American League (AL) champion team and the National League (NL) champion team. The winner of the World Series championship is determined through a best - of - seven playoff, and the winning team is awarded the Commissioner 's Trophy. As the series is played in October (and occasionally November), during the fall season in North America, it is sometimes referred to as the Fall Classic.
Prior to 1969, the team with the best regular season win - loss record in each league automatically advanced to the World Series; since then each league has conducted a championship series (ALCS and NLCS) preceding the World Series to determine which teams will advance. As of 2017, the World Series has been contested 113 times, with the AL winning 65 and the NL winning 48.
The 2017 World Series took place between the Los Angeles Dodgers and Houston Astros. Seven games were played, with the Astros victorious after game seven, played in Los Angeles. The final score was 5 -- 1. This was the first World Series won by the Astros.
In the American League, the New York Yankees have played in 40 World Series and won 27, the Philadelphia / Kansas City / Oakland Athletics have played in 14 and won 9, and the Boston Red Sox have played in 12 and won 8, including the first World Series. In the National League, the St. Louis Cardinals have appeared in 19 and won 11, the New York / San Francisco Giants have played in 20 and won 8, the Brooklyn / Los Angeles Dodgers have appeared in 19 and won 6, and the Cincinnati Reds have appeared in 9 and won 5.
As of 2017, no team has won consecutive World Series championships since the New York Yankees in 1998, 1999, and 2000 -- the longest such drought in Major League Baseball history.
Until the formation of the American Association in 1882 as a second major league, the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players (1871 -- 1875) and then the National League (founded 1876) represented the top level of organized baseball in the United States. All championships were awarded to the team with the best record at the end of the season, without a postseason series being played. From 1884 to 1890, the National League and the American Association faced each other in a series of games at the end of the season to determine an overall champion. These series were disorganized in comparison to the modern World Series, with the terms arranged through negotiation of the owners of the championship teams beforehand. The number of games played ranged from as few as three in 1884 (Providence defeated New York three games to zero), to a high of fifteen in 1887 (Detroit beat St. Louis ten games to five). Both the 1885 and 1890 Series ended in ties, each team having won three games with one tie game.
The series was promoted and referred to as "The Championship of the United States '', "World 's Championship Series '', or "World 's Series '' for short. In his book Krakatoa: The Day the World Exploded: August 27, 1883, Simon Winchester mentions in passing that the World Series was named for the New York World newspaper, but this view is disputed.
The 19th - century competitions are, however, not officially recognized as part of World Series history by Major League Baseball, as it considers 19th - century baseball to be a prologue to the modern baseball era. Until about 1960, some sources treated the 19th - century Series on an equal basis with the post-19th - century series. After about 1930, however, many authorities list the start of the World Series in 1903 and discuss the earlier contests separately. (For example, the 1929 World Almanac and Book of Facts lists "Baseball World 's Championships 1884 -- 1928 '' in a single table, but the 1943 edition lists "Baseball World Championships 1903 -- 1942 ''.)
Following the collapse of the American Association after the 1891 season, the National League was again the only major league. The league championship was awarded in 1892 by a playoff between half - season champions. This scheme was abandoned after one season. Beginning in 1893 -- and continuing until divisional play was introduced in 1969 -- the pennant was awarded to the first - place club in the standings at the end of the season. For four seasons, 1894 -- 1897, the league champions played the runners - up in the post season championship series called the Temple Cup. A second attempt at this format was the Chronicle - Telegraph Cup series, which was played only once, in 1900.
In 1901, the American League was formed as a second major league. No championship series were played in 1901 or 1902 as the National and American Leagues fought each other for business supremacy (in 1902, the top teams instead opted to compete in a football championship).
After two years of bitter competition and player raiding, the National and American Leagues made peace and, as part of the accord, several pairs of teams squared off for interleague exhibition games after the 1903 season. These series were arranged by the participating clubs, as the 1880s World 's Series matches had been. One of them matched the two pennant winners, Pittsburg Pirates of the NL and Boston Americans (later known as the Red Sox) of the AL; that one is known as the 1903 World Series. It had been arranged well in advance by the two owners, as both teams were league leaders by large margins. Boston upset Pittsburg by five games to three, winning with pitching depth behind Cy Young and Bill Dinneen and with the support of the band of Royal Rooters. The Series brought much civic pride to Boston and proved the new American League could beat the Nationals.
The 1904 Series, if it had been held, would have been between the AL 's Boston Americans (Boston Red Sox) and the NL 's New York Giants (now the San Francisco Giants). At that point there was no governing body for the World Series nor any requirement that a Series be played. Thus the Giants ' owner, John T. Brush, refused to allow his team to participate in such an event, citing the "inferiority '' of the upstart American League. John McGraw, the Giants ' manager, even went so far as to say that his Giants were already "world champions '' since they were the champions of the "only real major league ''. At the time of the announcement, their new cross-town rivals, the New York Highlanders (now the New York Yankees), were leading the AL, and the prospect of facing the Highlanders did not please Giants management. Boston won on the last day of the season, and the leagues had previously agreed to hold a World 's Championship Series in 1904, but it was not binding, and Brush stuck to his original decision. In addition to political reasons, Brush also factually cited the lack of rules under which money would be split, where games would be played, and how they would be operated and staffed.
During the winter of 1904 -- 1905, however, feeling the sting of press criticism, Brush had a change of heart and proposed what came to be known as the "Brush Rules '', under which the series were played subsequently. One rule was that player shares would come from a portion of the gate receipts for the first four games only. This was to discourage teams from "fixing '' early games in order to prolong the series and make more money. Receipts for later games would be split among the two clubs and the National Commission, the governing body for the sport, which was able to cover much of its annual operating expense from World Series revenue. Most importantly, the now - official and compulsory World 's Series matches were operated strictly by the National Commission itself, not by the participating clubs.
With the new rules in place and the National Commission in control, McGraw 's Giants made it to the 1905 Series, and beat the Philadelphia A 's four games to one. The Series was subsequently held annually, until 1994, when it was canceled due to a players ' strike.
The list of postseason rules evolved over time. In 1925, Brooklyn owner Charles Ebbets persuaded others to adopt as a permanent rule the 2 -- 3 -- 2 pattern used in 1924. Prior to 1924, the pattern had been to alternate by game or to make another arrangement convenient to both clubs. The 2 -- 3 -- 2 pattern has been used ever since save for the 1943 and 1945 World Series, which followed a 3 -- 4 pattern due to World War II travel restrictions; in 1944, the normal pattern was followed because both teams were based in the same home stadium.
Gambling and game - fixing had been a problem in professional baseball from the beginning; star pitcher Jim Devlin was banned for life in 1877, when the National League was just two years old. Baseball 's gambling problems came to a head in 1919, when eight players of the Chicago White Sox were alleged to have conspired to throw the 1919 World Series.
The Sox had won the Series in 1917 and were heavy favorites to beat the Cincinnati Reds in 1919, but first baseman Chick Gandil had other plans. Gandil, in collaboration with gambler Joseph "Sport '' Sullivan, approached his teammates and got six of them to agree to throw the Series: starting pitchers Eddie Cicotte and Lefty Williams, shortstop Swede Risberg, left fielder Shoeless Joe Jackson, center fielder Happy Felsch, and utility infielder Fred McMullin. Third baseman Buck Weaver knew of the fix but declined to participate, hitting. 324 for the series from 11 hits and committing no errors in the field. The Sox, who were promised $100,000 for cooperating, proceeded to lose the Series in eight games, pitching poorly, hitting poorly and making many errors. Though he took the money, Jackson insisted to his death that he played to the best of his ability in the series (he was the best hitter in the series, including having hit the series ' only home run, but had markedly worse numbers in the games the White Sox lost).
During the Series, writer and humorist Ring Lardner had facetiously called the event the "World 's Serious ''. The Series turned out to indeed have serious consequences for the sport. After rumors circulated for nearly a year, the players were suspended in September 1920.
The "Black Sox '' were acquitted in a criminal conspiracy trial. However, baseball in the meantime had established the office of Commissioner in an effort to protect the game 's integrity, and the first commissioner, Kenesaw Mountain Landis, banned all of the players involved, including Weaver, for life. The White Sox would not win a World Series again until 2005.
The events of the 1919 Series, segueing into the "live ball '' era, marked a point in time of change of the fortunes of several teams. The two most prolific World Series winners to date, the New York Yankees and the St. Louis Cardinals, did not win their first championship until the 1920s; and three of the teams that were highly successful prior to 1920 (the Boston Red Sox, Chicago White Sox and the Chicago Cubs) went the rest of the 20th century without another World Series win. The Red Sox and White Sox finally won again in 2004 and 2005, respectively. The Cubs had to wait over a century (until the 2016 season) for their next trophy. They did not appear in the Fall Classic from 1945 until 2016, the longest drought of any MLB club.
The New York Yankees purchased Babe Ruth from the Boston Red Sox after the 1919 season, appeared in their first World Series two years later in 1921, and became frequent participants thereafter. Over a period of 45 years from 1920 to 1964, the Yankees played in 29 World Series championships, winning 20. The team 's dynasty reached its apex between 1947 and 1964, when the Yankees reached the World Series 15 times in eighteen years, helped by an agreement with the Kansas City Athletics (after that team moved from Philadelphia during 1954 -- 1955 offseason) whereby the teams made several deals advantageous to the Yankees (until ended by new Athletics ' owner Charles O. Finley). During that span, the Yankees played in all World Series except 1948, 1954, and 1959, winning ten. From 1949 to 1953, the Yankees won the World Series five years in a row; from 1936 -- 1939 the Yankees won four World Series Championships in a row. There are only two other occasions when a team has won at least three consecutive World Series: 1972 to 1974 by the Oakland Athletics, and 1998 to 2000 by the New York Yankees.
In an 18 - year span from 1947 to 1964, except for 1948 and 1959, the World Series was played in New York City, featuring at least one of the three teams located in New York at the time. The Dodgers and Giants moved to California after the 1957 season, leaving the Yankees as the lone team in the city until the Mets were enfranchised in 1962. During this period, other than 1948, 1954, and 1959, the Yankees represented the American League in the World Series.
In the years 1947, 1949, 1951 -- 1953, and 1955 -- 1956, both teams in the World Series were from New York, with the Yankees playing against either the Dodgers or Giants.
In 1958, the Brooklyn Dodgers and New York Giants took their long - time rivalry to the west coast, moving to Los Angeles and San Francisco, respectively, bringing Major League Baseball west of St. Louis and Kansas City.
The Dodgers were the first of the two clubs to contest a World Series on the west coast, defeating the Chicago White Sox in 1959. The 1962 Giants made the first California World Series appearance of that franchise, losing to the Yankees. The Dodgers made three World Series appearances in the 1960s: a 1963 win over the Yankees, a 1965 win over the Minnesota Twins and a 1966 loss to the Baltimore Orioles.
In 1968, the Kansas City Athletics relocated to Oakland and the following year 1969, the National League granted a franchise to San Diego as the San Diego Padres. The A 's became a powerful dynasty, winning three consecutive World Series from 1972 -- 1974. In 1974, the A 's played the Dodgers in the first all - California World Series. The Padres have two World Series appearances (a 1984 loss to the Detroit Tigers, and a 1998 loss to the New York Yankees).
The Dodgers won two more World Series in the 1980s (1981, 1988). The A 's again went to three straight world series, from 1988 -- 1990, winning once. 1988 and 1989 were all - California series as the A 's lost to the Dodgers and beat the Giants, respectively. The Giants have been in four World Series ' in the new millennium, losing in 2002 to the Anaheim Angels (Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim since 2005), and winning in 2010 (Rangers), 2012 (Tigers), and 2014 (Royals).
Prior to 1969, the National League and the American League each crowned its champion (the "pennant winner '') based on the best win - loss record at the end of the regular season.
A structured playoff series began in 1969, when both the National and American Leagues were reorganized into two divisions each, East and West. The two division winners within each league played each other in a best - of - five League Championship Series to determine who would advance to the World Series. In 1985, the format changed to best - of - seven.
The National League Championship Series (NLCS) and American League Championship Series (ALCS), since the expansion to best - of - seven, are always played in a 2 -- 3 -- 2 format: Games 1, 2, 6 and 7 are played in the stadium of the team that has home - field advantage, and Games 3, 4 and 5 are played in the stadium of the team that does not.
MLB night games started being held in 1935 by the Cincinnati Reds, but the World Series remained a strictly daytime event for years thereafter. In the final game of the 1949 World Series, a Series game was finished under lights for the first time. The first scheduled night World Series game was Game 4 of the 1971 World Series at Three Rivers Stadium. Afterward, World Series games were frequently scheduled at night, when television audiences were larger. Game 6 of the 1987 World Series was the last World Series game played in the daytime, indoors at the Metrodome in Minnesota. (The last World Series played outdoors during the day was the final game of the 1984 series in Detroit 's Tiger Stadium.)
During this seven - year period, only three teams won the World Series: the Oakland Athletics from 1972 to 1974, Cincinnati Reds in 1975 and 1976, and New York Yankees in 1977 and 1978. This is the only time in World Series history in which three teams have won consecutive series in succession. This period was book - ended by World Championships for the Pittsburgh Pirates, in 1971 and 1979.
However, the Baltimore Orioles made three consecutive World Series appearances: 1969 (losing to the "amazing '' eight - year - old franchise New York Mets), 1970 (beating the Reds in their first World Series appearance of the decade), and 1971 (losing to the Pittsburgh Pirates, as well their 1979 appearance, when they again lost to the Pirates), and the Los Angeles Dodgers ' back - to - back World Series appearances in 1977 and 1978 (both losses to the New York Yankees), as well in 1974 losing against the cross-state rival Oakland Athletics.
Game 6 of the 1975 World Series is regarded by most as one of the greatest World Series games ever played. It found the Boston Red Sox winning in the 12th inning in Fenway Park, defeating the Cincinnati Reds to force a seventh and deciding game. The game is best remembered for its exciting lead changes, nail - biting turns of events, and a game - winning walk - off home run by Carlton Fisk, resulting in a 7 -- 6 Red Sox victory.
The National and American Leagues operated under essentially identical rules until 1973, when the American League adopted the designated hitter (DH) rule, allowing its teams to use another hitter to bat in place of the (usually) weak - hitting pitcher. The National League did not adopt the DH rule. This presented a problem for the World Series, whose two contestants would now be playing their regular - season games under different rules. From 1973 to 1975, the World Series did not include a DH. Starting in 1976, the World Series allowed for the use of a DH in even - numbered years only. (The Cincinnati Reds swept the 1976 Series in four games, using the same nine - man lineup in each contest. Dan Driessen was the Reds ' DH during the series, thereby becoming the National League 's first designated hitter.) Finally, in 1986, baseball adopted the current rule in which the DH is used for World Series games played in the AL champion 's park but not the NL champion 's. Thus, the DH rule 's use or non-use can affect the performance of the home team.
The 1984 Detroit Tigers gained distinction as just the third team in major league history (after the 1927 New York Yankees and 1955 Brooklyn Dodgers) to lead a season wire - to - wire, from opening day through their World Series victory. In the process, Tigers skipper Sparky Anderson became the first manager to win a World Series title in both leagues, having previously won in 1975 and 1976 with the Cincinnati Reds.
The 1988 World Series is remembered for the iconic home run by the Los Angeles Dodgers ' Kirk Gibson with two outs in the bottom of the ninth inning. The Dodgers were huge underdogs against the 104 - win Oakland Athletics, who had swept the Boston Red Sox in the ALCS. Baseball 's top relief pitcher, Dennis Eckersley, closed out all four games in the ALCS, and he appeared ready to do the same in Game 1 against a Dodgers team trailing 4 - 3 in the ninth. After getting the first two outs, Eckersley walked Mike Davis of the Dodgers, who were playing without Gibson, their best position player and the NL MVP. Gibson had injured himself in the NLCS and was expected to miss the entire World Series. Yet, despite not being able to walk without a noticeable limp, Gibson surprised all in attendance at Dodger Stadium (and all watching on TV) by pinch - hitting. After two quick strikes and then working the count full, Gibson hit a home run to right, inspiring iconic pronouncements by two legendary broadcasters calling the game, Vin Scully (on TV) and Jack Buck (on radio). On NBC, as Gibson limped around the bases, Scully famously exclaimed, "the impossible has happened! '' and on radio, Buck equally famously exclaimed, "I do n't believe what I just saw! '' Gibson 's home run set the tone for the series, as the Dodgers went on to beat the A 's 4 games to 1. The severity of Gibson 's injury prevented him from playing in any of the remaining games.
When the 1989 World Series began, it was notable chiefly for being the first ever World Series matchup between the two San Francisco Bay Area teams, the San Francisco Giants and Oakland Athletics. Oakland won the first two games at home, and the two teams crossed the bridge to San Francisco to play Game 3 on Tuesday, October 17. ABC 's broadcast of Game 3 began at 5 pm local time, approximately 30 minutes before the first pitch was scheduled. At 5: 04, while broadcasters Al Michaels and Tim McCarver were narrating highlights and the teams were warming up, the Loma Prieta earthquake occurred (having a surface - wave magnitude of 7.1 with an epicenter ten miles (16 km) northeast of Santa Cruz, California). The earthquake caused substantial property and economic damage in the Bay Area and killed 63 people. Television viewers saw the video signal deteriorate and heard Michaels say "I 'll tell you what, we 're having an earth -- '' before the feed from Candlestick Park was lost. Fans filing into the stadium saw Candlestick sway visibly during the quake. Television coverage later resumed, using backup generators, with Michaels becoming a news reporter on the unfolding disaster. Approximately 30 minutes after the earthquake, Commissioner Fay Vincent ordered the game to be postponed. Fans, workers, and the teams evacuated a blacked out (although still sunlit) Candlestick. Game 3 was finally played on October 27, and Oakland won that day and the next to complete a four - game sweep.
World Series games were contested outside of the United States for the first time in 1992, with the Toronto Blue Jays defeating the Atlanta Braves in six games. The World Series returned to Canada in 1993, with the Blue Jays victorious again, this time against the Philadelphia Phillies in six games. No other Series has featured a team from outside of the United States. Toronto is the only expansion team to win successive World Series titles. The 1993 World Series was also notable for being only the second championship concluded by a home run and the first concluded by a come - from - behind homer, after Joe Carter 's three - run shot in the bottom of the ninth inning sealed an 8 -- 6 Toronto win in Game 6. The first Series to end with a homer was the 1960 World Series, when Bill Mazeroski hit a ninth - inning solo shot in Game 7 to win the championship for the Pittsburgh Pirates.
In 1994, each league was restructured into three divisions, with the three division winners and the newly introduced wild card winner advancing to a best - of - five playoff round (the "division series ''), the National League Division Series (NLDS) and American League Division Series (ALDS). The team with the best league record is matched against the wild card team, unless they are in the same division, in which case, the team with the second - best record plays against the wild card winner. The remaining two division winners are pitted against each other. The winners of the series in the first round advance to the best - of - seven NLCS and ALCS. Due to a players ' strike, however, the NLDS and ALDS were not played until 1995. Beginning in 1998, home field advantage was given to the team with the better regular season record, with the exception that the Wild Card team can not get home - field advantage.
After the boycott of 1904, the World Series was played every year until 1994 despite the First World War, the global influenza pandemic of 1918 -- 1919, the Great Depression of the 1930s, America 's involvement in the Second World War, and even an earthquake in the host cities of the 1989 World Series. A breakdown in collective bargaining led to a strike in August 1994 and the eventual cancellation of the rest of the season, including the playoffs.
As the labor talks began, baseball franchise owners demanded a salary cap in order to limit payrolls, the elimination of salary arbitration, and the right to retain free agent players by matching a competitor 's best offer. The Major League Baseball Players Association (MLBPA) refused to agree to limit payrolls, noting that the responsibility for high payrolls lay with those owners who were voluntarily offering contracts. One difficulty in reaching a settlement was the absence of a commissioner. When Fay Vincent was forced to resign in 1992, owners did not replace him, electing instead to make Milwaukee Brewers owner Bud Selig acting commissioner. Thus, baseball headed into the 1994 work stoppage without a full - time commissioner for the first time since the office was founded in 1920.
The previous collective bargaining agreement expired on December 31, 1993, and baseball began the 1994 season without a new agreement. Owners and players negotiated as the season progressed, but owners refused to give up the idea of a salary cap and players refused to accept one. On August 12, 1994, the players went on strike. After a month passed with no progress in the labor talks, Selig canceled the rest of the 1994 season and the postseason on September 14. The World Series was not played for the first time in 90 years. The Montreal Expos, now the Washington Nationals, were the best team in baseball at the time of the stoppage, with a record of 74 -- 40 (since their founding in 1969, the Expos / Nationals have never played in a World Series.)
The labor dispute lasted into the spring of 1995, with owners beginning spring training with replacement players. However, the MLBPA returned to work on April 2, 1995 after a federal judge, future U.S. Supreme Court justice Sonia Sotomayor, ruled that the owners had engaged in unfair labor practices. The season started on April 25 and the 1995 World Series was played as scheduled, with Atlanta beating Cleveland four games to two.
The 2001 World Series was the first World Series to end in November, due to the week - long delay in the regular season after the September 11 attacks. Game 4 had begun on Oct. 31 but went into extra innings and ended early on the morning of Nov. 1, the first time the Series had been played in November. Yankee shortstop Derek Jeter won the game with a 12th inning walk - off home run and was dubbed "Mr. November '' by elements of the media -- echoing the media 's designation of Reggie Jackson as "Mr. October '' for his slugging achievements during the 1977 World Series.
With the 2006 World Series victory by the St. Louis Cardinals, Tony La Russa became the second manager to a win a World Series in both the American and National Leagues.
Prior to 2003, home - field advantage in the World Series alternated from year to year between the NL and AL. After the 2002 Major League Baseball All - Star Game ended in a tie, MLB decided to award home - field advantage in the World Series to the winner of the All - Star Game. Originally implemented as a two - year trial from 2003 to 2004, the practice was extended.
The American League had won every All - Star Game since this change until 2010 and thus enjoyed home - field advantage from 2002, when it also had home - field advantage based on the alternating schedule, through 2009. From 2003 to 2010, the AL and NL had each won the World Series four times, but none of them had gone the full seven games. Since then, the 2011, 2014, and 2016 World Series have gone the full seven games.
This rule is subject to debate, with various writers feeling that home - field advantage should be decided based on the regular season records of the participants, not on an exhibition game played several months earlier. Some writers especially questioned the integrity of this rule after the 2014 All - Star Game, when St. Louis Cardinals pitcher Adam Wainwright suggested that he intentionally gave Derek Jeter some easy pitches to hit in the New York Yankees ' shortstop 's final All - Star appearance before he retired at the end of that season.
As Bob Ryan of The Boston Globe wrote in July 2015 about the rule:
"So now we have a game that 's not real baseball determining which league hosts Games 1, 2, 6, and 7 in the World Series. It 's not a game if pitchers throw one inning. It 's not a game if managers try to get everyone on a bloated roster into the game. It 's not a game if every franchise, no matter how wretched, has to put a player on the team... If the game is going to count, tell the managers to channel their inner Connie Mack and go for it. ''
However, within the last seven seasons, home - field advantage, in terms of deciding World Series games, has not necessarily worked for teams of said games. Since 2014, the home team has not won the deciding game of a World Series.
The San Francisco Giants won the World Series in 2010, 2012, and 2014 while failing to qualify to play in the postseason in the intervening seasons.
The Texas Rangers were twice only one strike away from winning their first World Series title in 2011, but the St. Louis Cardinals scored late twice in Game 6 by the soon to become Series MVP, David Freese, to force a Game 7.
The Kansas City Royals reached the World Series in 2014, which was their first appearance in the postseason since winning the series in 1985. At the time, it was the longest postseason drought in baseball. They lost in 7 games to the Giants. The following season, the Royals finished with the American League 's best record, and won a second consecutive American League pennant. They defeated the New York Mets in the World Series 4 - 1, capturing their first title in 30 years. The 2015 contest was the first time that two expansion clubs met for the Fall Classic.
In 2016, the Chicago Cubs ended their 108 - year long drought without a World Series title by defeating the Cleveland Indians, rallying from a 3 -- 1 Series deficit in the process. That extended Cleveland 's World Series title drought to 68 years and counting -- the Indians last won the Series in 1948 -- now the longest title drought in the majors.
Beginning in 2017, home field advantage in the World Series will be awarded to the league champion team with the better regular season win - loss record. If both league champions have the same record, the second tie - breaker would be head - to - head record, and if that does not resolve it, the third tie - breaker would be best divisional record.
The Houston Astros won the 2017 World Series in 7 games against the Los Angeles Dodgers 5 to 1 on November 1st, 2017, winning their first World Series since their creation in 1962.
American League (AL) teams have won 65 of the 113 World Series played (57.5 %). The New York Yankees have won 27 titles, accounting for 23.9 % of all series played and 41.5 % of the wins by American League teams. The St. Louis Cardinals have won 11 World Series, accounting for 9.7 % of all series played and 23 % of the 48 National League victories.
When the first modern World Series was played in 1903, there were eight teams in each league. These 16 franchises, all of which are still in existence, have each won at least two World Series titles.
The number of teams was unchanged until 1961, with fourteen "expansion teams '' joining MLB since then. Twelve have played in a World Series (the Mariners and Expos / Nationals being the two exceptions). The expansion teams have won ten of the 22 Series (45 %) in which they have played, which is 9 % of all 112 series played since 1903. In 2015, the first World Series featuring only expansion teams was played between the Kansas City Royals and New York Mets.
This information is up to date through the present time:
When two teams share the same state or metropolitan area, fans often develop strong loyalties to one and antipathies towards the other, sometimes building on already - existing rivalries between cities or neighborhoods. Before the introduction of interleague play in 1997, the only opportunity for two teams playing in the same area but in different leagues to face each other in official competition would have been in a World Series.
The first city to host an entire World Series was Chicago in 1906, when the Chicago White Sox beat the Chicago Cubs in six games.
Fourteen "Subway Series '' have been played entirely within New York City, all including the American League 's New York Yankees. Thirteen of them matched the Yankees with either the New York Giants or the Brooklyn Dodgers of the National League. The initial instances occurred in 1921 and 1922, when the Giants beat the Yankees in consecutive World Series that were not technically "subway series '' since the teams shared the Polo Grounds as their home ballpark. The Yankees finally beat the Giants the following year, their first in their brand - new Yankee Stadium, and won the two teams ' three subsequent Fall Classic match - ups in 1936, 1937 and 1951. The Yankees faced Brooklyn seven times in October, winning their first five meetings in 1941, 1947, 1949, 1952 and 1953, before losing to the Dodgers in 1955, Brooklyn 's sole World Championship. The last Subway Series involving the original New York ballclubs came in 1956, when the Yankees again beat the Dodgers. The trio was separated in 1958 when the Dodgers and Giants moved to California (although the Yankees subsequently met and beat the now - San Francisco Giants in 1962, and played the now - Los Angeles Dodgers four times, losing to them in a four - game sweep in 1963, beating them back - to - back in 1977 and 1978 and losing to them in 1981). An all - New York Series did not recur until 2000, when the Yankees defeated the New York Mets in five games.
The last World Series played entirely in one ballpark was the 1944 "Streetcar Series '' between the St. Louis Cardinals and the St. Louis Browns. The Cardinals won in six games, all held in their shared home, Sportsman 's Park.
The 1989 World Series, sometimes called the "Bay Bridge Series '' or the "BART Series '' (after the connecting transit line), featured the Oakland Athletics and the San Francisco Giants, teams that play just across San Francisco Bay from each other. The series is most remembered for the major earthquake that struck the San Francisco Bay Area just before game 3 was scheduled to begin. The quake caused significant damage to both communities and severed the Bay Bridge that connects them, forcing the postponement of the series. Play resumed ten days later, and the A 's swept the Giants in four games. (The earthquake disruption of the Series almost completely overshadowed the fact that the 1989 Series represented a resumption after many decades of the October rivalry between the Giants and the A 's dating back to the early years of the 20th Century, when the then - New York Giants had defeated the then - Philadelphia Athletics in 1905, and had lost to them in 1911 and again in 1913.)
Two cross-town World Series match - ups were formerly possible but did not occur -- the Boston Red Sox vs. the Boston Braves, and the Philadelphia Phillies vs. the Philadelphia Athletics. (The Braves moved to Milwaukee in 1953, and the Athletics moved to Kansas City in 1955.)
Currently there are four metropolitan areas that have two Major League Baseball teams -- New York, Chicago, San Francisco, and Los Angeles. Of the four, only Los Angeles has not hosted a cross-town World Series. Such a contest would pit the Dodgers against the Angels.
Below is a chronological list of World Series played between teams from the same metropolitan area, with the winning teams listed in boldface.
The historic rivalry between Northern and Southern California added to the interest in the Oakland Athletics - Los Angeles Dodgers series in 1974 and 1988 and in the San Francisco Giants ' series against the then - Anaheim Angels in 2002.
Other than the St. Louis World Series of 1944, the only postseason tournament held entirely within Missouri was the I - 70 Series in 1985 (named for the Interstate Highway connecting the two cities) between the St. Louis Cardinals and the Kansas City Royals, who won at home in the seventh game.
Going into the 2017 season, there has never been an in - state World Series between the teams in Ohio (Cleveland Indians and Cincinnati Reds), Florida (Tampa Bay Rays and Miami Marlins), Texas (Texas Rangers and Houston Astros -- who now both play in the American League since the Astros changed leagues in 2013, making any future joint World Series appearance an impossibility unless one of the teams switches leagues), or Pennsylvania (the Philadelphia Phillies and the Pittsburgh Pirates have been traditional National League rivals going back to the late 19th Century). Neither the Phillies nor the Pirates ever faced the Athletics in October during the latter team 's tenure in Philadelphia, through 1954. The Boston Red Sox never similarly faced the Braves while the latter team played in Boston through 1952. There also was never an all - Canada World Series between the Toronto Blue Jays and the former Montreal Expos, who never won a National League pennant when they played in that Canadian city from 1969 through 2004. The Expos became the Washington Nationals in 2005 -- raising the possibility of a potential future "I - 95 World Series '' between the National League team and the AL 's Baltimore Orioles, who play just 50 miles to the north of Washington. Finally, the Los Angeles and / or Anaheim Angels have never faced off in October against either the Dodgers or against the San Diego Padres for bragging rights in Southern California, although all three of those teams have appeared in the World Series at various times.
At the time the first modern World Series began in 1903, each league had eight clubs, all of which survive today (although sometimes in a different city or with a new nickname), comprising the "original sixteen ''.
When the World Series was first broadcast on television in 1947, it was only televised to a few surrounding areas via coaxial inter-connected stations: New York City (WNBT); Philadelphia (WPTZ); Schenectady / Albany, New York (WRGB); Washington, D.C. (WNBW) and surrounding suburbs / environs. In 1948, games in Boston were only seen in the Northeast. Meanwhile, games in Cleveland were only seen in the Midwest and Pittsburgh. The games were open to all channels with a network affiliation. In all, the 1948 World Series was televised to fans in seven Midwestern cities: Cleveland, Chicago, Detroit, Milwaukee, St. Louis, and Toledo. By 1949, World Series games could now be seen east of the Mississippi River. The games were open to all channels with a network affiliation. By 1950, World Series games could be seen in most of the country, but not all. 1951 marked the first time that the World Series was televised coast to coast. Meanwhile, 1955 marked the first time that the World Series was televised in color.
^ *: Not currently broadcasting Major League Baseball.
^ * *: Per the current broadcast agreement, the World Series will be televised by Fox through 2021.
^ * * *: Gillette, which sponsored World Series telecasts exclusively from roughly 1947 to 1965 (prior to 1966, the Series announcers were chosen by the Gillette Company along with the Commissioner of Baseball and NBC), paid for airtime on DuMont 's owned - and - operated Pittsburgh affiliate, WDTV (now KDKA - TV) to air the World Series. In the meantime, Gillette also bought airtime on ABC, CBS, and NBC. More to the point, in some cities, the World Series was broadcast on three different stations at once.
^ * * * *: NBC was originally scheduled to televise the entire 1995 World Series; however, due to the cancellation of the 1994 Series (which had been slated for ABC, who last televised a World Series in 1989), coverage ended up being split between the two networks. Game 5 is, to date, the last Major League Baseball game to be telecast by ABC (had there been a Game 7, ABC would 've televised it). This was the only World Series to be produced under the "Baseball Network '' umbrella (a revenue sharing joint venture between Major League Baseball, ABC, and NBC). In July 1995, both networks announced that they would be pulling out of what was supposed to be a six - year - long venture. NBC would next cover the 1997 (NBC 's first entirely since 1988) and 1999 World Series over the course of a five - year - long contract, in which Fox would cover the World Series in even numbered years (1996, 1998, and 2000).
Despite its name, the World Series remains solely the championship of the major - league baseball teams in the United States and Canada, although MLB, its players, and North American media sometimes informally refer to World Series winners as "world champions of baseball ''.
The United States, Canada, and Mexico (Liga Méxicana de Béisbol, established 1925) were the only professional baseball countries until a few decades into the 20th century. The first Japanese professional baseball efforts began in 1920. The current Japanese leagues date from the late 1940s (after World War II). Various Latin American leagues also formed around that time.
By the 1990s, baseball was played at a highly skilled level in many countries. Reaching North America 's high - salary major leagues is the goal of many of the best players around the world, which gives a strong international flavor to the Series. Many talented players from Latin America, the Caribbean, the Pacific Rim, and elsewhere now play in the majors. One notable exception is Cuban citizens, because of the political tensions between the US and Cuba since 1959 (yet a number of Cuba 's finest ballplayers have still managed to defect to the United States over the past half - century to play in the American professional leagues). Japanese professional players also have a difficult time coming to the North American leagues. They become free agents only after nine years playing service in the NPB, although their Japanese teams may at any time "post '' them for bids from MLB teams, which commonly happens at the player 's request.
Several tournaments feature teams composed only of players from one country, similar to national teams in other sports. The World Baseball Classic, sponsored by Major League Baseball and sanctioned by the sport 's world governing body, the World Baseball Softball Confederation (WBSC), uses a format similar to the FIFA World Cup to promote competition between nations every four years. The WBSC has since added the Premier12, a tournament also involving national teams; the first event was held in 2015, and is planned to be held every four years (in the middle of the World Baseball Classic cycle). The World Baseball Classic is held in March and the Premier12 is held in November, allowing both events to feature top - level players from all nations. The predecessor to the WBSC as the sport 's international governing body, the International Baseball Federation, also sponsored a Baseball World Cup to crown a world champion. However, because the World Cup was held during the Northern Hemisphere summer, during the playing season of almost all top - level leagues, its teams did not feature the best talent from each nation. As a result, baseball fans paid little or no attention to the World Cup and generally disregarded its results. The Caribbean Series features competition among the league champions from Mexico, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, and Venezuela but unlike the FIFA Club World Cup, there is no club competition that features champions from all professional leagues across the world.
Rooftop view of a 1903 World Series game in Boston
Game action in the 1906 Series in Chicago (the only all - Chicago World Series to date)
Bill Wambsganss completes his unassisted triple play in 1920
Washington 's Bucky Harris scores his home run in the fourth inning of Game 7 (October 10, 1924)
The Chicago Cubs celebrate winning the 2016 World Series, which ended the club 's 108 - year championship drought.
|
who played the dance teacher in finding your feet | Finding Your Feet - wikipedia
Finding Your Feet is a 2017 romantic comedy film directed by Richard Loncraine and written by Nick Moorcroft and Meg Leonard. The film stars Imelda Staunton, Timothy Spall, Celia Imrie, Joanna Lumley, and David Hayman, and was released on 23 February 2018 in the United Kingdom.
' Lady ' Sandra Abbott (Imelda Staunton) discovers that her husband of forty years (John Sessions) is having an affair with her best friend (Josie Lawrence), she seeks refuge in London with her estranged, older sister Bif (Celia Imrie). Sandra is a fish out of water next to her outspoken, serial dating, free spirited sibling who lives on an inner - city council estate. But difference is just what Sandra needs and she reluctantly lets Bif drag her along to a community dance class where she meets her sister 's friends, Charlie (Timothy Spall), Jackie (Joanna Lumley) and Ted (David Hayman). This colorful group of defiant and energetic third - agers start to show Sandra that retirement is a beginning, and that divorce could be her new lease of life and love.
The film was announced at the 2016 Cannes Film Festival and started shooting on October 31, 2016, in London and Rome. The film wrapped on December 16, 2016. The film was released nationwide in the United Kingdom and Ireland on February 23, 2018. Roadside Attractions picked up the U.S distribution rights and will release the film theatrically in America on March 30, 2018. Roadside Attractions co-founders Howard Cohen and Eric d'Arbeloff said: "Finding Your Feet is one of Richard Loncraine 's best. It is brilliantly acted and completely endearing, emotional and delightfully charming and funny from start to finish. It is the kind of feel - good, character rich, second chance at life comedy that we absolutely love. ''
The film was sold at the American Film Market on November 2, 2017.
On 20 October 2017, it was announced that Finding Your Feet would open the 35th Torino Film Festival. The director Richard Loncraine, and the actors Timothy Spall and Celia Imrie presented the feature (re-titled Ricomincio da me) at the festival in Turin on 24 November 2017. TFF is the second largest film festival in Italy, following the Venice Film Festival. Finding Your Feet is distributed in Italy by CINEMA owned by veteran film distributor Valerio De Paolis.
It was announced in The Hollywood Reporter on the 15th December, 2017, the film will have its North American premiere at the 29th Palm Springs International Film Festival on January 6, 2018. The film was named as one of the ' best of the fest ' and screened again for the public on January 15.
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a fresh approval rating of 70 % based on 67 reviews, with an average rating of 5.7 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Finding Your Feet wears its heart on its sleeve, elevating undemanding material with a feel - good romance and sweet performances from its over-qualified cast. '' Metacritic gave the film a weighted average score of 53 out of 100, based on 15 critics, indicating "average or mixed reviews ''.
Australian film critic Stephen Romei of The Australian awarded the film 4 stars and said "Finding Your Feet is rightly billed as comedy - drama; yet, although it 's full of rib - tickling dialogue, it 's the drama that cuts deep ''. Mark Kermode reviewed the film favourably on BBC Radio 5 Live. Kevin Maher from The Times said it was "oddly adorable ''. Andy Lea of The Sunday Express awarded the film 4 stars and said "it 's big - hearted, touching, smartly - written and beautifully performed by a hugely talented cast ''. Allan Hunter said in The Daily Express that it was "a sentimental tearjerker elevated by a top - notch British cast ''. Linda Marric from HeyUGuys said the film was "a charming, oft - told tale of second chances in life and love, filled with fine performances. '' Francesca Rudkin of The New Zealand Herald compared Finding Your Feet to The Best Exotic Marigold Hotel and Calendar Girls and said the film was a charming, if somewhat predictable, crowd - pleaser about embracing life in your later years. Emma Simmonds from The List said "the joie de vivre of these convention - defying pensioners is ultimately irresistible. '' Louise Keller from Urban Cinefile said "Finding Your Feet may be predictable fare, but it has a heart of solid gold ''. James Mottram from Total Film said "Its love - in - later - life insights are well - worn, but with Staunton on song, Richard Loncraine 's film mines genuine feeling ''. In another positive review, The Film Blog called Finding Your Feet "A Billy Elliot for Seniors with a meaningful slice of warmth and humour ''.
The film was released on 23rd February in the United Kingdom and debuted at # 4 in the chart grossing $1,290,495 in its opening weekend. The film went on to gross $7,891,508. The film performed equally as well in Australia and New Zealand, grossing $5.53 million. As of May 13th, 2018, the film had grossed $15.6 million worldwide, making it one of the most successful independent British films of 2017 and 2018.
On 15 January 2018 the film won the Audience Award for Best Film at the Palm Springs International Film Festival.
|
what does the name emi mean in japanese | Emi - wikipedia
Emi (えみ, エミ, 絵美, 恵美) is a very common feminine Japanese given name and is occasionally used as a surname.
Emi can be written using different kanji characters and can mean:
The given name can also be written in hiragana or katakana.
|
difference between open circuit and closed circuit scba | Self - contained breathing apparatus - wikipedia
A self - contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) sometimes referred to as a compressed air breathing apparatus (CABA), or simply breathing apparatus (BA), is a device worn by rescue workers, firefighters, and others to provide breathable air in an immediately dangerous to life or health atmosphere (IDLH). When not used underwater, they are sometimes called industrial breathing sets. The term self - contained means that the breathing set is not dependent on a remote supply (e.g., through a long hose). If designed for use under water, it is called SCUBA (self - contained underwater breathing apparatus).
An SCBA typically has three main components: a high - pressure tank (e.g., 2,216 to 5,500 psi (15,280 to 37,920 kPa), about 150 to 374 atmospheres), a pressure regulator, and an inhalation connection (mouthpiece, mouth mask or face mask), connected together and mounted to a carrying frame.
A self - contained breathing apparatus may fall into two different categories. These are open circuit and closed circuit.
The closed - circuit type filters, supplements, and recirculates exhaled gas: see rebreather for more information. It is used when a longer - duration supply of breathing gas is needed, such as in mine rescue and in long tunnels, and going through passages too narrow for a big open - circuit air cylinder. Before open - circuit SCBA 's were developed, most industrial breathing sets were rebreathers, such as the Siebe Gorman Proto, Siebe Gorman Savox, or Siebe Gorman Salvus. An example of modern rebreather SCBAs would be the SEFA. Rebreathers used underwater have the advantage of not releasing tell - tale bubbles, making it more difficult to detect divers involved in covert operations (see frogman).
Open - circuit industrial breathing sets are filled with filtered, compressed air, rather than pure oxygen. Typical open - circuit systems have two regulators; a first stage to reduce the pressure of air to allow it to be carried to the mask, and a second stage regulator to reduce it even further to a level just above standard atmospheric pressure. This air is then fed to the mask via either a demand valve (activating only on inhalation) or a continuous positive pressure valve (providing constant airflow to the mask).
An open - circuit rescue or firefighter SCBA has a fullface mask, regulator, air cylinder, cylinder pressure gauge, remote pressure gauge (sometimes with an integrated PASS device), and a harness with adjustable shoulder straps and waist belt which lets it be worn on the back. The air cylinder usually comes in one of three standard sizes: 4 liter, 6 liter, or 6.8 liter. The duration of the cylinder can be calculated with this formula: volume (in liters) * pressure (in bars) / 40 - 10 in minutes (the 10 is subtracted to provide a safety margin), so a 6 - liter cylinder, of 300bar, is 6 X 300 / 40 - 10 = 35 minutes working duration. The relative fitness, and especially the level of exertion of the wearer, often results in variations of the actual usable time that the SCBA can provide air, often reducing the working time by 25 % to 50 %.
Air cylinders are made of aluminium, steel, or of a composite construction (usually carbon - fiber wrapped.) The composite cylinders are the lightest in weight and are therefore preferred by fire departments (UK: fire and rescue services previously called fire brigades), but they also have the shortest lifespan and must be taken out of service after 15 years. Air cylinders must be hydrostatically tested every 5 years. During extended operations, empty air cylinders can be quickly replaced with fresh ones and then refilled from larger tanks in a cascade storage system or from an air compressor brought to the scene.
The fullface masks of breathing apparatus designed for use out of water are sometimes designed in a way that makes them unsuitable for scuba diving, although some may allow emergency very shallow submersion:
The mask can have a big fullface window, or small eye windows.
The mask might have a small orinasal breathing mask inside, reducing breathing deadspace.
The mask can also incorporate a two - way radio communicator.
Some old industrial rebreathers (e.g., the Siebe Gorman Proto) had a mouthpiece and attached noseclip instead.
Open circuit SCBAs utilize either "positive pressure '' or "negative pressure '' operation.
There are two major application areas for SCBA: fire fighting; and industrial use. A third use now coming into practice is medical; for example, the American National Institutes of Health prescribe use of SCBAs for medical staff during treatment of ebola.
For fire fighting, the design emphasis is on heat and flame resistance above cost. SCBA designed for fire fighting tend to be expensive because of the exotic materials used to provide the flame resistance and to a lesser extent, to reduce the weight penalty on the fire fighter. In addition, modern firefighting SCBAs incorporate a PASS device (personal alert safety system) or an ADSU (automatic distress signal unit) into their design. These units emit distinctive high pitched alarm tones to help locate firefighters in distress by automatically activating if movement is not sensed for a certain length of time (typically between 15 and 30 seconds), also allowing for manual activation should the need arise. In firefighting use, the layout of this breathing set should not interfere with ability to carry a rescued person over the firefighter 's shoulders.
The other major application is for industrial users of various types. Historically, mining was an important area, and in Europe this is still reflected by limitations on use in the construction of SCBAs of metals that can cause sparks. Other important users are petrochemical, chemical, and nuclear industries. The design emphasis for industrial users depends on the precise application and extends from the bottom end which is cost critical, to the most severe environments where the SCBA is one part of an integrated protective environment which includes gas tight suits for whole body protection and ease of decontamination. Industrial users will often be supplied with air via an air line, and only carry compressed air for escape or decontamination purposes.
In the United States and Canada, SCBAs used in firefighting must meet guidelines established by the National Fire Protection Association, NFPA Standard 1981. If an SCBA is labeled as "1981 NFPA compliant '', it is designed for firefighting. The current version of the standard was published in 2013. These standards are revised every five years. Similarly, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has a certification program for SCBA that are intended to be used in chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear (CBRN) environments. See NIOSH Approved SCBAs.
Any SCBA supplied for use in Europe must comply with the requirements of the Personal Protective Equipment Directive (89 / 686 / EEC). In practice this usually means that the SCBA must comply with the requirements of the European Standard EN 137: 2006. This includes detailed requirements for the performance of the SCBA, the marking required, and the information to be provided to the user. Two classes of SCBA are recognised, Type 1 for industrial use and Type 2 for fire fighting. Any SCBA conforming to this standard will have been verified to reliably operate and protect the user from - 30 ° C to + 60 ° C under a wide range of severe simulated operational conditions.
The Royal Australian Navy uses the open circuit compressed air breathing apparatus (OCCABA), a backpack - style, positive pressure breathing apparatus, for fire - fighting roles.
The pressure gauge 's indicated gas pressure changes with ambient temperature. As temperature decreases, the pressure inside the cylinder decreases. The relationship between the temperature and the pressure of a gas is defined by the formula PV = nRT. (See Universal gas constant.) What is particularly important to understand from the formula is that the temperature is in kelvins, not degrees Fahrenheit. Consider the freezing point of water at 32 ° F (0 ° C, 273.15 K) and compare it to 96 ° F (35.6 ° C or 308.71 K; normal human body temperature is 37 ° C). While 96 is arithmetically three times 32, the difference in temperature from a scientific point of view is not threefold. Instead of comparing 32 ° F to 96 ° F, temperatures of 273.15 K and 308.71 K should be compared. The actual scientifically valid change in temperature from 32 to 96 ° F (0 to 36 ° C) is by a factor of 1.13 (308.71 K / 273.15 K), not 3. If an air cylinder is pressurized to 4,500 psi at 96 ° F and later the temperature drops to 32 ° F, the pressure gauge will indicate 4,000 psi (4,500 / 1.13). Stated differently, a drop in temperature of 10 ° F (5.5 ° C) causes a pressure decrease of about 82 psi. Failure to accurately account for the effect of temperature on pressure readings can result in underfilled air bottles, which in turn could lead to a firefighter running out of air prematurely.
Among the leading manufacturers of SCBA for the North American fire service are:
Among the leading manufacturers of SCBA for the European fire service and industrial safety:
Siebe Gorman produced these makes of open - circuit SCBA units:
In Australia, different firefighting agencies refer to SCBA by different acronyms in general terms. For example:
All these terms mean the same type of open - circuit equipment.
In New Zealand, SCBA is generally referred to by New Zealand Fire Service personnel as BA, breathing apparatus.
Unofficial names include air pack, air tank or simply pack, which are mostly used in firefighting as in a firefighter "packing up ''.
|
what letters are not in the gaelic alphabet | Scottish Gaelic orthography - wikipedia
Scottish Gaelic orthography has evolved over many centuries. Scottish Gaelic spelling is mainly based on etymological considerations.
Due to the etymological nature of the writing system, the same written form may result in a multitude of pronunciations depending on the spoken variant. For example, the word coimhead "watching '' may result in (khõ. ət̪), (khɔ̃jət̪), (khwi. ət̪), or (khɛ̃. ət̪).
The alphabet is known as the aibidil in Scottish Gaelic, and formerly the Beith Luis Nuin from the first three letters of the Ogham alphabet: b, l, n. The alphabet now used for writing the Scottish Gaelic language consists of the following letters of the Latin alphabet, whether written in Roman type or Gaelic type:
Modern loanwords also make use of jkqvwxyz.
From a language internal perspective, the following digraphs are considered single letters:
Older manuscripts made use of the acute accent over vowels, but these are no longer used in standard orthography. Since the 1980s the acute accent has not been used in Scottish high school examination papers, and many publishers have adopted the Scottish Examination Board 's (the Scottish Qualifications Authority 's after 1997) orthographic conventions for their books. The acute accent is still used in most Scottish universities (and several Scottish academics remain vociferously opposed to the SEB 's / SQA 's conventions) and by a minority of Scottish publishers, as well as in Canada.
The early Medieval treatise "Auraicept na n - Éces '' (' The Scholars ' Primer ') describes the origin of alphabets from the Tower of Babel. It assigns tree names and meanings to Ogham, to a lesser extent to Norse Runes, and by extension to Latin letters when used to write Gaelic. Robert Graves ' book The White Goddess has been a major influence on assigning divinatory meanings to the tree symbolism. (See also Bríatharogam.) Some of the names differ from their modern equivalents (e.g. dair > darach, suil > seileach).
The consonant letters generally correspond to the consonant phonemes as shown in this table. See Scottish Gaelic phonology for an explanation of the symbols used. Consonants are "broad '' (velarised) when the nearest vowel letter is one of a, o, u and "slender '' (palatalised) when the nearest vowel letter is one of e, i. A "back vowel '' is one of the following; o (ː), ɔ (ː), ɤ (ː), u (ː), ɯ (ː), a (ː), au; a "front vowel '' is any other kind of vowel.
Many of the rules in this section only apply in stressed syllables. In unstressed syllables, the vowels have different values. Only certain vowel graphs exist in unstressed syllables: a, ai, e, ea, ei and i and very infrequently o, oi, u and ui.
Lenited bh, dh, gh, mh are commonly pronounced as vowels or are deleted if they are followed by a consonant. For example, in cabhag the bh is usually / v / but in cabhlach the bh has turned into an / u / vowel, yielding / au / rather than / av / in the first syllable.
Where an l, n or r is followed (or in the case of m, preceded) by a b, bh, ch, g, gh, m or mh, an epenthetic vowel is inserted between the two. This is usually a copy of the vowel that preceded the l / n / r. Examples; Alba / aɫ̪apə /, marbh / maɾav /, tilg / thjilikj /, arm / aɾam /, iomradh / imiɾəɣ /.
If this process would lead to the sound sequence / ɛɾɛ /, the epenthetic vowel is an / a / in many dialects. Example; dearg / tjɛɾak /.
The acute accent is no longer used in standard Scottish Gaelic orthography, although it may be encountered in late twentieth century writings, and occasionally in contemporary writings, especially in Canadian Gaelic.
Certain spellings have also been regularised where they violate pronunciation rules. "Tigh '' in particular can still be encountered in house names and certain place names, notably Tighnabruaich and Eilean Tigh.
A comprehensive critique of the "New '' Gaelic Orthographic Conventions by a fluent speaker, originally published in the Stornoway Gazette
|
who are the two naturalists who first came up with the theory of natural selection | History of evolutionary thought - wikipedia
Evolutionary thought, the conception that species change over time, has roots in antiquity -- in the ideas of the ancient Greeks, Romans, and Chinese as well as in medieval Islamic science. With the beginnings of modern biological taxonomy in the late 17th century, two opposed ideas influenced Western biological thinking: essentialism, the belief that every species has essential characteristics that are unalterable, a concept which had developed from medieval Aristotelian metaphysics, and that fit well with natural theology; and the development of the new anti-Aristotelian approach to modern science: as the Enlightenment progressed, evolutionary cosmology and the mechanical philosophy spread from the physical sciences to natural history. Naturalists began to focus on the variability of species; the emergence of paleontology with the concept of extinction further undermined static views of nature. In the early 19th century Jean - Baptiste Lamarck (1744 -- 1829) proposed his theory of the transmutation of species, the first fully formed theory of evolution.
In 1858 Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace published a new evolutionary theory, explained in detail in Darwin 's On the Origin of Species (1859). Unlike Lamarck, Darwin proposed common descent and a branching tree of life, meaning that two very different species could share a common ancestor. Darwin based his theory on the idea of natural selection: it synthesized a broad range of evidence from animal husbandry, biogeography, geology, morphology, and embryology. Debate over Darwin 's work led to the rapid acceptance of the general concept of evolution, but the specific mechanism he proposed, natural selection, was not widely accepted until it was revived by developments in biology that occurred during the 1920s through the 1940s. Before that time most biologists regarded other factors as responsible for evolution. Alternatives to natural selection suggested during "the eclipse of Darwinism '' (c. 1880 to 1920) included inheritance of acquired characteristics (neo-Lamarckism), an innate drive for change (orthogenesis), and sudden large mutations (saltationism). Mendelian genetics, a series of 19th - century experiments with pea plant variations rediscovered in 1900, was integrated with natural selection by Ronald Fisher, J.B.S. Haldane, and Sewall Wright during the 1910s to 1930s, and resulted in the founding of the new discipline of population genetics. During the 1930s and 1940s population genetics became integrated with other biological fields, resulting in a widely applicable theory of evolution that encompassed much of biology -- the modern synthesis.
Following the establishment of evolutionary biology, studies of mutation and genetic diversity in natural populations, combined with biogeography and systematics, led to sophisticated mathematical and causal models of evolution. Paleontology and comparative anatomy allowed more detailed reconstructions of the evolutionary history of life. After the rise of molecular genetics in the 1950s, the field of molecular evolution developed, based on protein sequences and immunological tests, and later incorporating RNA and DNA studies. The gene - centered view of evolution rose to prominence in the 1960s, followed by the neutral theory of molecular evolution, sparking debates over adaptationism, the unit of selection, and the relative importance of genetic drift versus natural selection as causes of evolution. In the late 20th - century, DNA sequencing led to molecular phylogenetics and the reorganization of the tree of life into the three - domain system by Carl Woese. In addition, the newly recognized factors of symbiogenesis and horizontal gene transfer introduced yet more complexity into evolutionary theory. Discoveries in evolutionary biology have made a significant impact not just within the traditional branches of biology, but also in other academic disciplines (for example: anthropology and psychology) and on society at large.
Proposals that one type of animal, even humans, could descend from other types of animals, are known to go back to the first pre-Socratic Greek philosophers. Anaximander of Miletus (c. 610 -- 546 BC) proposed that the first animals lived in water, during a wet phase of the Earth 's past, and that the first land - dwelling ancestors of mankind must have been born in water, and only spent part of their life on land. He also argued that the first human of the form known today must have been the child of a different type of animal (probably a fish), because man needs prolonged nursing to live. In the late nineteenth century, Anaximander was hailed as the "first Darwinist '', but this characterization is no longer commonly agreed. Anaximander 's hypothesis could be considered "evolution '' in a sense, although not a Darwinian one.
Empedocles (c. 490 -- 430 BC), argued that what we call birth and death in animals are just the mingling and separations of elements which cause the countless "tribes of mortal things. '' Specifically, the first animals and plants were like disjointed parts of the ones we see today, some of which survived by joining in different combinations, and then intermixing during the development of the embryo, and where "everything turned out as it would have if it were on purpose, there the creatures survived, being accidentally compounded in a suitable way. '' Other philosophers who became more influential at that time, including Plato (c. 428 / 427 -- 348 / 347 BC), Aristotle (384 -- 322 BC), and members of the Stoic school of philosophy, believed that the types of all things, not only living things, were fixed by divine design.
Plato was called by biologist Ernst Mayr "the great antihero of evolutionism, '' because he promoted belief in essentialism, which is also referred to as the theory of Forms. This theory holds that each natural type of object in the observed world is an imperfect manifestation of the ideal, form or "species '' which defines that type. In his Timaeus for example, Plato has a character tell a story that the Demiurge created the cosmos and everything in it because, being good, and hence, "... free from jealousy, He desired that all things should be as like Himself as they could be. '' The creator created all conceivable forms of life, since "... without them the universe will be incomplete, for it will not contain every kind of animal which it ought to contain, if it is to be perfect. '' This "principle of plenitude '' -- the idea that all potential forms of life are essential to a perfect creation -- greatly influenced Christian thought. However some historians of science have questioned how much influence Plato 's essentialism had on natural philosophy by stating that many philosophers after Plato believed that species might be capable of transformation and that the idea that biologic species were fixed and possessed unchangeable essential characteristics did not become important until the beginning of biological taxonomy in the 17th and 18th centuries.
Aristotle, the most influential of the Greek philosophers in Europe, was a student of Plato and is also the earliest natural historian whose work has been preserved in any real detail. His writings on biology resulted from his research into natural history on and around the island of Lesbos, and have survived in the form of four books, usually known by their Latin names, De anima (On the Soul), Historia animalium (History of Animals), De generatione animalium (Generation of Animals), and De partibus animalium (On the Parts of Animals). Aristotle 's works contain accurate observations, fitted into his own theories of the body 's mechanisms. However, for Charles Singer, "Nothing is more remarkable than (Aristotle 's) efforts to (exhibit) the relationships of living things as a scala naturae. '' This scala naturae, described in Historia animalium, classified organisms in relation to a hierarchical but static "Ladder of Life '' or "great chain of being, '' placing them according to their complexity of structure and function, with organisms that showed greater vitality and ability to move described as "higher organisms. '' Aristotle believed that features of living organisms showed clearly that they had what he called a final cause, that is to say that their form suited their function. He explicitly rejected the view of Empedocles that living creatures might have originated by chance.
Other Greek philosophers, such as Zeno of Citium (334 -- 262 BC) the founder of the Stoic school of philosophy, agreed with Aristotle and other earlier philosophers that nature showed clear evidence of being designed for a purpose; this view is known as teleology. The Roman Stoic philosopher Cicero (106 -- 43 BC) wrote that Zeno was known to have held the view, central to Stoic physics, that nature is primarily "directed and concentrated... to secure for the world... the structure best fitted for survival. ''
Epicurus (341 -- 270 BC) anticipated the idea of natural selection. The Roman philosopher and atomist Lucretius (c. 99 -- 55 BC) explicated these ideas in his poem De rerum natura (On the Nature of Things). In the Epicurean system, it was assumed that many living forms had been spontaneously generated from Gaia in the past, but that only the most functional forms had survived to have offspring. The Epicureans did not anticipate the full theory of evolution as we now know it, but seem to have postulated separate abiogenetic events for each species.
Ancient Chinese thinkers such as Zhuang Zhou (c. 369 -- 286 BC), a Taoist philosopher, expressed ideas on changing biologic species. According to Joseph Needham, Taoism explicitly denies the fixity of biological species and Taoist philosophers speculated that species had developed differing attributes in response to differing environments. Taoism regards humans, nature and the heavens as existing in a state of "constant transformation '' known as the Tao, in contrast with the more static view of nature typical of Western thought.
Lucretius ' poem De rerum natura provides the best surviving explanation of the ideas of the Greek Epicurean philosophers. It describes the development of the cosmos, the Earth, living things, and human society through purely naturalistic mechanisms, without any reference to supernatural involvement. De rerum natura would influence the cosmological and evolutionary speculations of philosophers and scientists during and after the Renaissance. This view was in strong contrast with the views of Roman philosophers of the Stoic school such as Cicero, Seneca the Younger (c. 4 BC -- AD 65), and Pliny the Elder (23 -- 79 AD) who had a strongly teleological view of the natural world that influenced Christian theology. Cicero reports that the peripatetic and Stoic view of nature as an agency concerned most basically with producing life "best fitted for survival '' was taken for granted among the Hellenistic elite.
In line with earlier Greek thought, the third - century Christian philosopher and Church Father Origen of Alexandria argued that the creation story in the Book of Genesis should be interpreted as an allegory for the falling of human souls away from the glory of the divine, and not as a literal, historical account:
For who that has understanding will suppose that the first, and second, and third day, and the evening and the morning, existed without a sun, and moon, and stars? And that the first day was, as it were, also without a sky? And who is so foolish as to suppose that God, after the manner of a husbandman, planted a paradise in Eden, towards the east, and placed in it a tree of life, visible and palpable, so that one tasting of the fruit by the bodily teeth obtained life? And again, that one was a partaker of good and evil by masticating what was taken from the tree? And if God is said to walk in the paradise in the evening, and Adam to hide himself under a tree, I do not suppose that anyone doubts that these things figuratively indicate certain mysteries, the history having taken place in appearance, and not literally.
In the fourth century AD, the bishop and theologian Augustine of Hippo followed Origen in arguing that the Genesis creation story should not be read too literally. In his book De Genesi ad litteram (On the Literal Meaning of Genesis), he stated that in some cases new creatures may have come about through the "decomposition '' of earlier forms of life. For Augustine, "plant, fowl and animal life are not perfect... but created in a state of potentiality, '' unlike what he considered the theologically perfect forms of angels, the firmament and the human soul. Augustine 's idea ' that forms of life had been transformed "slowly over time '' ' prompted Father Giuseppe Tanzella - Nitti, Professor of Theology at the Pontifical Santa Croce University in Rome, to claim that Augustine had suggested a form of evolution.
Henry Fairfield Osborn wrote in From the Greeks to Darwin (1894):
"If the orthodoxy of Augustine had remained the teaching of the Church, the final establishment of Evolution would have come far earlier than it did, certainly during the eighteenth instead of the nineteenth century, and the bitter controversy over this truth of Nature would never have arisen... Plainly as the direct or instantaneous Creation of animals and plants appeared to be taught in Genesis, Augustine read this in the light of primary causation and the gradual development from the imperfect to the perfect of Aristotle. This most influential teacher thus handed down to his followers opinions which closely conform to the progressive views of those theologians of the present day who have accepted the Evolution theory. ''
In A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom (1896), Andrew Dickson White wrote about Augustine 's attempts to preserve the ancient evolutionary approach to the creation as follows:
"For ages a widely accepted doctrine had been that water, filth, and carrion had received power from the Creator to generate worms, insects, and a multitude of the smaller animals; and this doctrine had been especially welcomed by St. Augustine and many of the fathers, since it relieved the Almighty of making, Adam of naming, and Noah of living in the ark with these innumerable despised species. ''
In Augustine 's De Genesi contra Manichæos, on Genesis he says: "To suppose that God formed man from the dust with bodily hands is very childish... God neither formed man with bodily hands nor did he breathe upon him with throat and lips. '' Augustine suggests in other work his theory of the later development of insects out of carrion, and the adoption of the old emanation or evolution theory, showing that "certain very small animals may not have been created on the fifth and sixth days, but may have originated later from putrefying matter. '' Concerning Augustine 's De Trinitate (On the Trinity), White wrote that Augustine "... develops at length the view that in the creation of living beings there was something like a growth -- that God is the ultimate author, but works through secondary causes; and finally argues that certain substances are endowed by God with the power of producing certain classes of plants and animals. ''
Although Greek and Roman evolutionary ideas died out in Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire, they were not lost to Islamic philosophers and scientists. In the Islamic Golden Age of the 8th to the 13th centuries, philosophers explored ideas about natural history. These ideas included transmutation from non-living to living: "from mineral to plant, from plant to animal, and from animal to man. ''
In the medieval Islamic world, the scholar al - Jāḥiẓ (776 -- c. 868) wrote his Book of Animals in the 9th century. Conway Zirkle, writing about the history of natural selection in 1941, said that an excerpt from this work was the only relevant passage he had found from an Arabian scholar. He provided a quotation describing the struggle for existence, citing a Spanish translation of this work: "Every weak animal devours those weaker than itself. Strong animals can not escape being devoured by other animals stronger than they. And in this respect, men do not differ from animals, some with respect to others, although they do not arrive at the same extremes. In short, God has disposed some human beings as a cause of life for others, and likewise, he has disposed the latter as a cause of the death of the former. '' Al - Jāḥiẓ also wrote descriptions of food chains.
Some of Ibn Khaldūn 's thoughts, according to some commentators, anticipate the biological theory of evolution. In 1377, Ibn Khaldūn wrote the Muqaddimah in which he asserted that humans developed from "the world of the monkeys, '' in a process by which "species become more numerous '' In chapter 1 he writes: "This world with all the created things in it has a certain order and solid construction. It shows nexuses between causes and things caused, combinations of some parts of creation with others, and transformations of some existent things into others, in a pattern that is both remarkable and endless. ''
The Muqaddimah also states in chapter 6:
"We explained there that the whole of existence in (all) its simple and composite worlds is arranged in a natural order of ascent and descent, so that everything constitutes an uninterrupted continuum. The essences at the end of each particular stage of the worlds are by nature prepared to be transformed into the essence adjacent to them, either above or below them. This is the case with the simple material elements; it is the case with palms and vines, (which constitute) the last stage of plants, in their relation to snails and shellfish, (which constitute) the (lowest) stage of animals. It is also the case with monkeys, creatures combining in themselves cleverness and perception, in their relation to man, the being who has the ability to think and to reflect. The preparedness (for transformation) that exists on either side, at each stage of the worlds, is meant when (we speak about) their connection. ''
During the Early Middle Ages, Greek classical learning was all but lost to the West. However, contact with the Islamic world, where Greek manuscripts were preserved and expanded, soon led to a massive spate of Latin translations in the 12th century. Europeans were re-introduced to the works of Plato and Aristotle, as well as to Islamic thought. Christian thinkers of the scholastic school, in particular Peter Abelard (1079 -- 1142) and Thomas Aquinas (1225 -- 1274), combined Aristotelian classification with Plato 's ideas of the goodness of God, and of all potential life forms being present in a perfect creation, to organize all inanimate, animate, and spiritual beings into a huge interconnected system: the scala naturae, or great chain of being.
Within this system, everything that existed could be placed in order, from "lowest '' to "highest, '' with Hell at the bottom and God at the top -- below God, an angelic hierarchy marked by the orbits of the planets, mankind in an intermediate position, and worms the lowest of the animals. As the universe was ultimately perfect, the great chain of being was also perfect. There were no empty links in the chain, and no link was represented by more than one species. Therefore, no species could ever move from one position to another. Thus, in this Christianized version of Plato 's perfect universe, species could never change, but remained forever fixed, in accordance with the text of the Book of Genesis. For humans to forget their position was seen as sinful, whether they behaved like lower animals or aspired to a higher station than was given them by their Creator.
Creatures on adjacent steps were expected to closely resemble each other, an idea expressed in the saying: natura non facit saltum ("nature does not make leaps ''). This basic concept of the great chain of being greatly influenced the thinking of Western civilization for centuries (and still has an influence today). It formed a part of the argument from design presented by natural theology. As a classification system, it became the major organizing principle and foundation of the emerging science of biology in the 17th and 18th centuries.
While Christian theologians held that the natural world was part of an unchanging designed hierarchy, some theologians speculated that the world might have developed through natural processes. Thomas Aquinas went even farther than Augustine of Hippo in arguing that scriptural texts like Genesis should not be interpreted in a literal way that conflicted with or constrained what natural philosophers learned about the workings of the natural world. He saw that the autonomy of nature was a sign of God 's goodness, and detected no conflict between a divinely created universe and the idea that the universe had developed over time through natural mechanisms. However, Aquinas disputed the views of those (like the ancient Greek philosopher Empedocles) who held that such natural processes showed that the universe could have developed without an underlying purpose. Aquinas rather held that: "Hence, it is clear that nature is nothing but a certain kind of art, i.e., the divine art, impressed upon things, by which these things are moved to a determinate end. It is as if the shipbuilder were able to give to timbers that by which they would move themselves to take the form of a ship. ''
In the first half of the 17th century, René Descartes ' mechanical philosophy encouraged the use of the metaphor of the universe as a machine, a concept that would come to characterise the scientific revolution. Between 1650 and 1800, some naturalists, such as Benoît de Maillet, produced theories that maintained that the universe, the Earth, and life, had developed mechanically, without divine guidance. In contrast, most contemporary theories of evolution, such of those of Gottfried Leibniz and Johann Gottfried Herder, regarded evolution as a fundamentally spiritual process. In 1751, Pierre Louis Maupertuis veered toward more materialist ground. He wrote of natural modifications occurring during reproduction and accumulating over the course of many generations, producing races and even new species, a description that anticipated in general terms the concept of natural selection.
Maupertuis ' ideas were in opposition to the influence of early taxonomists like John Ray. In the late 17th century, Ray had given the first formal definition of a biological species, which he described as being characterized by essential unchanging features, and stated the seed of one species could never give rise to another. The ideas of Ray and other 17th - century taxonomists were influenced by natural theology and the argument from design.
The word evolution (from the Latin evolutio, meaning "to unroll like a scroll '') was initially used to refer to embryological development; its first use in relation to development of species came in 1762, when Charles Bonnet used it for his concept of "pre-formation, '' in which females carried a miniature form of all future generations. The term gradually gained a more general meaning of growth or progressive development.
Later in the 18th century, the French philosopher Georges - Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, one of the leading naturalists of the time, suggested that what most people referred to as species were really just well - marked varieties, modified from an original form by environmental factors. For example, he believed that lions, tigers, leopards and house cats might all have a common ancestor. He further speculated that the 200 or so species of mammals then known might have descended from as few as 38 original animal forms. Buffon 's evolutionary ideas were limited; he believed each of the original forms had arisen through spontaneous generation and that each was shaped by "internal moulds '' that limited the amount of change. Buffon 's works, Histoire naturelle (1749 -- 1789) and Époques de la nature (1778), containing well - developed theories about a completely materialistic origin for the Earth and his ideas questioning the fixity of species, were extremely influential. Another French philosopher, Denis Diderot, also wrote that living things might have first arisen through spontaneous generation, and that species were always changing through a constant process of experiment where new forms arose and survived or not based on trial and error; an idea that can be considered a partial anticipation of natural selection. Between 1767 and 1792, James Burnett, Lord Monboddo, included in his writings not only the concept that man had descended from primates, but also that, in response to the environment, creatures had found methods of transforming their characteristics over long time intervals. Charles Darwin 's grandfather, Erasmus Darwin, published Zoonomia (1794 -- 1796) which suggested that "all warm - blooded animals have arisen from one living filament. '' In his poem Temple of Nature (1803), he described the rise of life from minute organisms living in mud to all of its modern diversity.
In 1796, Georges Cuvier published his findings on the differences between living elephants and those found in the fossil record. His analysis identified mammoths and mastodons as distinct species, different from any living animal, and effectively ended a long - running debate over whether a species could become extinct. In 1788, James Hutton described gradual geological processes operating continuously over deep time. In the 1790s, William Smith began the process of ordering rock strata by examining fossils in the layers while he worked on his geologic map of England. Independently, in 1811, Cuvier and Alexandre Brongniart published an influential study of the geologic history of the region around Paris, based on the stratigraphic succession of rock layers. These works helped establish the antiquity of the Earth. Cuvier advocated catastrophism to explain the patterns of extinction and faunal succession revealed by the fossil record.
Knowledge of the fossil record continued to advance rapidly during the first few decades of the 19th century. By the 1840s, the outlines of the geologic timescale were becoming clear, and in 1841 John Phillips named three major eras, based on the predominant fauna of each: the Paleozoic, dominated by marine invertebrates and fish, the Mesozoic, the age of reptiles, and the current Cenozoic age of mammals. This progressive picture of the history of life was accepted even by conservative English geologists like Adam Sedgwick and William Buckland; however, like Cuvier, they attributed the progression to repeated catastrophic episodes of extinction followed by new episodes of creation. Unlike Cuvier, Buckland and some other advocates of natural theology among British geologists made efforts to explicitly link the last catastrophic episode proposed by Cuvier to the biblical flood.
From 1830 to 1833, geologist Charles Lyell published his multi-volume work Principles of Geology, which, building on Hutton 's ideas, advocated a uniformitarian alternative to the catastrophic theory of geology. Lyell claimed that, rather than being the products of cataclysmic (and possibly supernatural) events, the geologic features of the Earth are better explained as the result of the same gradual geologic forces observable in the present day -- but acting over immensely long periods of time. Although Lyell opposed evolutionary ideas (even questioning the consensus that the fossil record demonstrates a true progression), his concept that the Earth was shaped by forces working gradually over an extended period, and the immense age of the Earth assumed by his theories, would strongly influence future evolutionary thinkers such as Charles Darwin.
Jean - Baptiste Lamarck proposed, in his Philosophie Zoologique of 1809, a theory of the transmutation of species (transformisme). Lamarck did not believe that all living things shared a common ancestor but rather that simple forms of life were created continuously by spontaneous generation. He also believed that an innate life force drove species to become more complex over time, advancing up a linear ladder of complexity that was related to the great chain of being. Lamarck recognized that species adapted to their environment. He explained this by saying that the same innate force driving increasing complexity caused the organs of an animal (or a plant) to change based on the use or disuse of those organs, just as exercise affects muscles. He argued that these changes would be inherited by the next generation and produce slow adaptation to the environment. It was this secondary mechanism of adaptation through the inheritance of acquired characteristics that would become known as Lamarckism and would influence discussions of evolution into the 20th century.
A radical British school of comparative anatomy that included the anatomist Robert Edmond Grant was closely in touch with Lamarck 's French school of Transformationism. One of the French scientists who influenced Grant was the anatomist Étienne Geoffroy Saint - Hilaire, whose ideas on the unity of various animal body plans and the homology of certain anatomical structures would be widely influential and lead to intense debate with his colleague Georges Cuvier. Grant became an authority on the anatomy and reproduction of marine invertebrates. He developed Lamarck 's and Erasmus Darwin 's ideas of transmutation and evolutionism, and investigated homology, even proposing that plants and animals had a common evolutionary starting point. As a young student, Charles Darwin joined Grant in investigations of the life cycle of marine animals. In 1826, an anonymous paper, probably written by Robert Jameson, praised Lamarck for explaining how higher animals had "evolved '' from the simplest worms; this was the first use of the word "evolved '' in a modern sense.
In 1844, the Scottish publisher Robert Chambers anonymously published an extremely controversial but widely read book entitled Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation. This book proposed an evolutionary scenario for the origins of the Solar System and of life on Earth. It claimed that the fossil record showed a progressive ascent of animals, with current animals branching off a main line that leads progressively to humanity. It implied that the transmutations lead to the unfolding of a preordained plan that had been woven into the laws that governed the universe. In this sense it was less completely materialistic than the ideas of radicals like Grant, but its implication that humans were only the last step in the ascent of animal life incensed many conservative thinkers. The high profile of the public debate over Vestiges, with its depiction of evolution as a progressive process, would greatly influence the perception of Darwin 's theory a decade later.
Ideas about the transmutation of species were associated with the radical materialism of the Enlightenment and were attacked by more conservative thinkers. Cuvier attacked the ideas of Lamarck and Geoffroy, agreeing with Aristotle that species were immutable. Cuvier believed that the individual parts of an animal were too closely correlated with one another to allow for one part of the anatomy to change in isolation from the others, and argued that the fossil record showed patterns of catastrophic extinctions followed by repopulation, rather than gradual change over time. He also noted that drawings of animals and animal mummies from Egypt, which were thousands of years old, showed no signs of change when compared with modern animals. The strength of Cuvier 's arguments and his scientific reputation helped keep transmutational ideas out of the mainstream for decades.
In Great Britain, the philosophy of natural theology remained influential. William Paley 's 1802 book Natural Theology with its famous watchmaker analogy had been written at least in part as a response to the transmutational ideas of Erasmus Darwin. Geologists influenced by natural theology, such as Buckland and Sedgwick, made a regular practice of attacking the evolutionary ideas of Lamarck, Grant, and Vestiges. Although Charles Lyell opposed scriptural geology, he also believed in the immutability of species, and in his Principles of Geology, he criticized Lamarck 's theories of development. Idealists such as Louis Agassiz and Richard Owen believed that each species was fixed and unchangeable because it represented an idea in the mind of the creator. They believed that relationships between species could be discerned from developmental patterns in embryology, as well as in the fossil record, but that these relationships represented an underlying pattern of divine thought, with progressive creation leading to increasing complexity and culminating in humanity. Owen developed the idea of "archetypes '' in the Divine mind that would produce a sequence of species related by anatomical homologies, such as vertebrate limbs. Owen led a public campaign that successfully marginalized Grant in the scientific community. Darwin would make good use of the homologies analyzed by Owen in his own theory, but the harsh treatment of Grant, and the controversy surrounding Vestiges, showed him the need to ensure that his own ideas were scientifically sound.
It is possible to look through the history of biology from the ancient Greeks onwards and discover anticipations of almost all of Charles Darwin 's key ideas. For example, Loren Eiseley has found isolated passages written by Buffon suggesting he was almost ready to piece together a theory of natural selection, but states that such anticipations should not be taken out of the full context of the writings or of cultural values of the time which made Darwinian ideas of evolution unthinkable.
When Darwin was developing his theory, he investigated selective breeding and was impressed by Sebright 's observation that "A severe winter, or a scarcity of food, by destroying the weak and the unhealthy, has all the good effects of the most skilful selection '' so that "the weak and the unhealthy do not live to propagate their infirmities. '' Darwin was influenced by Charles Lyell 's ideas of environmental change causing ecological shifts, leading to what Augustin de Candolle had called a war between competing plant species, competition well described by the botanist William Herbert. Darwin was struck by Thomas Robert Malthus ' phrase "struggle for existence '' used of warring human tribes.
Several writers anticipated evolutionary aspects of Darwin 's theory, and in the third edition of On the Origin of Species published in 1861 Darwin named those he knew about in an introductory appendix, An Historical Sketch of the Recent Progress of Opinion on the Origin of Species, which he expanded in later editions.
In 1813, William Charles Wells read before the Royal Society essays assuming that there had been evolution of humans, and recognising the principle of natural selection. Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace were unaware of this work when they jointly published the theory in 1858, but Darwin later acknowledged that Wells had recognised the principle before them, writing that the paper "An Account of a White Female, part of whose Skin resembles that of a Negro '' was published in 1818, and "he distinctly recognises the principle of natural selection, and this is the first recognition which has been indicated; but he applies it only to the races of man, and to certain characters alone. ''
Patrick Matthew wrote in his book On Naval Timber and Arboriculture (1831) of "continual balancing of life to circumstance... (The) progeny of the same parents, under great differences of circumstance, might, in several generations, even become distinct species, incapable of co-reproduction. '' Darwin implies that he discovered this work after the initial publication of the Origin. In the brief historical sketch that Darwin included in the 3rd edition he says "Unfortunately the view was given by Mr. Matthew very briefly in scattered passages in an Appendix to a work on a different subject... He clearly saw, however, the full force of the principle of natural selection. ''
However, as historian of science Peter J. Bowler says, "Through a combination of bold theorizing and comprehensive evaluation, Darwin came up with a concept of evolution that was unique for the time. '' Bowler goes on to say that simple priority alone is not enough to secure a place in the history of science; someone has to develop an idea and convince others of its importance to have a real impact. Thomas Henry Huxley said in his essay on the reception of On the Origin of Species:
"The suggestion that new species may result from the selective action of external conditions upon the variations from their specific type which individuals present -- and which we call "spontaneous, '' because we are ignorant of their causation -- is as wholly unknown to the historian of scientific ideas as it was to biological specialists before 1858. But that suggestion is the central idea of the ' Origin of Species, ' and contains the quintessence of Darwinism. ''
The biogeographical patterns Charles Darwin observed in places such as the Galápagos Islands during the second voyage of HMS Beagle caused him to doubt the fixity of species, and in 1837 Darwin started the first of a series of secret notebooks on transmutation. Darwin 's observations led him to view transmutation as a process of divergence and branching, rather than the ladder - like progression envisioned by Jean - Baptiste Lamarck and others. In 1838 he read the new 6th edition of An Essay on the Principle of Population, written in the late 18th century by Thomas Robert Malthus. Malthus ' idea of population growth leading to a struggle for survival combined with Darwin 's knowledge on how breeders selected traits, led to the inception of Darwin 's theory of natural selection. Darwin did not publish his ideas on evolution for 20 years. However, he did share them with certain other naturalists and friends, starting with Joseph Dalton Hooker, with whom he discussed his unpublished 1844 essay on natural selection. During this period he used the time he could spare from his other scientific work to slowly refine his ideas and, aware of the intense controversy around transmutation, amass evidence to support them. In September 1854 he began full - time work on writing his book on natural selection.
Unlike Darwin, Alfred Russel Wallace, influenced by the book Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, already suspected that transmutation of species occurred when he began his career as a naturalist. By 1855, his biogeographical observations during his field work in South America and the Malay Archipelago made him confident enough in a branching pattern of evolution to publish a paper stating that every species originated in close proximity to an already existing closely allied species. Like Darwin, it was Wallace 's consideration of how the ideas of Malthus might apply to animal populations that led him to conclusions very similar to those reached by Darwin about the role of natural selection. In February 1858, Wallace, unaware of Darwin 's unpublished ideas, composed his thoughts into an essay and mailed them to Darwin, asking for his opinion. The result was the joint publication in July of an extract from Darwin 's 1844 essay along with Wallace 's letter. Darwin also began work on a short abstract summarising his theory, which he would publish in 1859 as On the Origin of Species.
By the 1850s, whether or not species evolved was a subject of intense debate, with prominent scientists arguing both sides of the issue. The publication of Charles Darwin 's On the Origin of Species fundamentally transformed the discussion over biological origins. Darwin argued that his branching version of evolution explained a wealth of facts in biogeography, anatomy, embryology, and other fields of biology. He also provided the first cogent mechanism by which evolutionary change could persist: his theory of natural selection.
One of the first and most important naturalists to be convinced by Origin of the reality of evolution was the British anatomist Thomas Henry Huxley. Huxley recognized that unlike the earlier transmutational ideas of Jean - Baptiste Lamarck and Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, Darwin 's theory provided a mechanism for evolution without supernatural involvement, even if Huxley himself was not completely convinced that natural selection was the key evolutionary mechanism. Huxley would make advocacy of evolution a cornerstone of the program of the X Club to reform and professionalise science by displacing natural theology with naturalism and to end the domination of British natural science by the clergy. By the early 1870s in English - speaking countries, thanks partly to these efforts, evolution had become the mainstream scientific explanation for the origin of species. In his campaign for public and scientific acceptance of Darwin 's theory, Huxley made extensive use of new evidence for evolution from paleontology. This included evidence that birds had evolved from reptiles, including the discovery of Archaeopteryx in Europe, and a number of fossils of primitive birds with teeth found in North America. Another important line of evidence was the finding of fossils that helped trace the evolution of the horse from its small five - toed ancestors. However, acceptance of evolution among scientists in non-English speaking nations such as France, and the countries of southern Europe and Latin America was slower. An exception to this was Germany, where both August Weismann and Ernst Haeckel championed this idea: Haeckel used evolution to challenge the established tradition of metaphysical idealism in German biology, much as Huxley used it to challenge natural theology in Britain. Haeckel and other German scientists would take the lead in launching an ambitious programme to reconstruct the evolutionary history of life based on morphology and embryology.
Darwin 's theory succeeded in profoundly altering scientific opinion regarding the development of life and in producing a small philosophical revolution. However, this theory could not explain several critical components of the evolutionary process. Specifically, Darwin was unable to explain the source of variation in traits within a species, and could not identify a mechanism that could pass traits faithfully from one generation to the next. Darwin 's hypothesis of pangenesis, while relying in part on the inheritance of acquired characteristics, proved to be useful for statistical models of evolution that were developed by his cousin Francis Galton and the "biometric '' school of evolutionary thought. However, this idea proved to be of little use to other biologists.
Charles Darwin was aware of the severe reaction in some parts of the scientific community against the suggestion made in Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation that humans had arisen from animals by a process of transmutation. Therefore, he almost completely ignored the topic of human evolution in On the Origin of Species. Despite this precaution, the issue featured prominently in the debate that followed the book 's publication. For most of the first half of the 19th century, the scientific community believed that, although geology had shown that the Earth and life were very old, human beings had appeared suddenly just a few thousand years before the present. However, a series of archaeological discoveries in the 1840s and 1850s showed stone tools associated with the remains of extinct animals. By the early 1860s, as summarized in Charles Lyell 's 1863 book Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man, it had become widely accepted that humans had existed during a prehistoric period -- which stretched many thousands of years before the start of written history. This view of human history was more compatible with an evolutionary origin for humanity than was the older view. On the other hand, at that time there was no fossil evidence to demonstrate human evolution. The only human fossils found before the discovery of Java Man in the 1890s were either of anatomically modern humans or of Neanderthals that were too close, especially in the critical characteristic of cranial capacity, to modern humans for them to be convincing intermediates between humans and other primates.
Therefore, the debate that immediately followed the publication of On the Origin of Species centered on the similarities and differences between humans and modern apes. Carolus Linnaeus had been criticised in the 18th century for grouping humans and apes together as primates in his ground breaking classification system. Richard Owen vigorously defended the classification suggested by Georges Cuvier and Johann Friedrich Blumenbach that placed humans in a separate order from any of the other mammals, which by the early 19th century had become the orthodox view. On the other hand, Thomas Henry Huxley sought to demonstrate a close anatomical relationship between humans and apes. In one famous incident, which became known as the Great Hippocampus Question, Huxley showed that Owen was mistaken in claiming that the brains of gorillas lacked a structure present in human brains. Huxley summarized his argument in his highly influential 1863 book Evidence as to Man 's Place in Nature. Another viewpoint was advocated by Lyell and Alfred Russel Wallace. They agreed that humans shared a common ancestor with apes, but questioned whether any purely materialistic mechanism could account for all the differences between humans and apes, especially some aspects of the human mind.
In 1871, Darwin published The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, which contained his views on human evolution. Darwin argued that the differences between the human mind and the minds of the higher animals were a matter of degree rather than of kind. For example, he viewed morality as a natural outgrowth of instincts that were beneficial to animals living in social groups. He argued that all the differences between humans and apes were explained by a combination of the selective pressures that came from our ancestors moving from the trees to the plains, and sexual selection. The debate over human origins, and over the degree of human uniqueness continued well into the 20th century.
The concept of evolution was widely accepted in scientific circles within a few years of the publication of Origin, but the acceptance of natural selection as its driving mechanism was much less widespread. The four major alternatives to natural selection in the late 19th century were theistic evolution, neo-Lamarckism, orthogenesis, and saltationism. Alternatives supported by biologists at other times included structuralism, Georges Cuvier 's teleological but non-evolutionary functionalism, and vitalism.
Theistic evolution was the idea that God intervened in the process of evolution, to guide it in such a way that the living world could still be considered to be designed. The term was promoted by Charles Darwin 's greatest American advocate Asa Gray. However, this idea gradually fell out of favor among scientists, as they became more and more committed to the idea of methodological naturalism and came to believe that direct appeals to supernatural involvement were scientifically unproductive. By 1900, theistic evolution had largely disappeared from professional scientific discussions, although it retained a strong popular following.
In the late 19th century, the term neo-Lamarckism came to be associated with the position of naturalists who viewed the inheritance of acquired characteristics as the most important evolutionary mechanism. Advocates of this position included the British writer and Darwin critic Samuel Butler, the German biologist Ernst Haeckel, and the American paleontologist Edward Drinker Cope. They considered Lamarckism to be philosophically superior to Darwin 's idea of selection acting on random variation. Cope looked for, and thought he found, patterns of linear progression in the fossil record. Inheritance of acquired characteristics was part of Haeckel 's recapitulation theory of evolution, which held that the embryological development of an organism repeats its evolutionary history. Critics of neo-Lamarckism, such as the German biologist August Weismann and Alfred Russel Wallace, pointed out that no one had ever produced solid evidence for the inheritance of acquired characteristics. Despite these criticisms, neo-Lamarckism remained the most popular alternative to natural selection at the end of the 19th century, and would remain the position of some naturalists well into the 20th century.
Orthogenesis was the hypothesis that life has an innate tendency to change, in a unilinear fashion, towards ever - greater perfection. It had a significant following in the 19th century, and its proponents included the Russian biologist Leo S. Berg and the American paleontologist Henry Fairfield Osborn. Orthogenesis was popular among some paleontologists, who believed that the fossil record showed a gradual and constant unidirectional change.
Saltationism was the idea that new species arise as a result of large mutations. It was seen as a much faster alternative to the Darwinian concept of a gradual process of small random variations being acted on by natural selection, and was popular with early geneticists such as Hugo de Vries, William Bateson, and early in his career, Thomas Hunt Morgan. It became the basis of the mutation theory of evolution.
The rediscovery of Gregor Mendel 's laws of inheritance in 1900 ignited a fierce debate between two camps of biologists. In one camp were the Mendelians, who were focused on discrete variations and the laws of inheritance. They were led by William Bateson (who coined the word genetics) and Hugo de Vries (who coined the word mutation). Their opponents were the biometricians, who were interested in the continuous variation of characteristics within populations. Their leaders, Karl Pearson and Walter Frank Raphael Weldon, followed in the tradition of Francis Galton, who had focused on measurement and statistical analysis of variation within a population. The biometricians rejected Mendelian genetics on the basis that discrete units of heredity, such as genes, could not explain the continuous range of variation seen in real populations. Weldon 's work with crabs and snails provided evidence that selection pressure from the environment could shift the range of variation in wild populations, but the Mendelians maintained that the variations measured by biometricians were too insignificant to account for the evolution of new species.
When Thomas Hunt Morgan began experimenting with breeding the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, he was a saltationist who hoped to demonstrate that a new species could be created in the lab by mutation alone. Instead, the work at his lab between 1910 and 1915 reconfirmed Mendelian genetics and provided solid experimental evidence linking it to chromosomal inheritance. His work also demonstrated that most mutations had relatively small effects, such as a change in eye color, and that rather than creating a new species in a single step, mutations served to increase variation within the existing population.
The Mendelian and biometrician models were eventually reconciled with the development of population genetics. A key step was the work of the British biologist and statistician Ronald Fisher. In a series of papers starting in 1918 and culminating in his 1930 book The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection, Fisher showed that the continuous variation measured by the biometricians could be produced by the combined action of many discrete genes, and that natural selection could change gene frequencies in a population, resulting in evolution. In a series of papers beginning in 1924, another British geneticist, J.B.S. Haldane, applied statistical analysis to real - world examples of natural selection, such as the evolution of industrial melanism in peppered moths, and showed that natural selection worked at an even faster rate than Fisher assumed.
The American biologist Sewall Wright, who had a background in animal breeding experiments, focused on combinations of interacting genes, and the effects of inbreeding on small, relatively isolated populations that exhibited genetic drift. In 1932, Wright introduced the concept of an adaptive landscape and argued that genetic drift and inbreeding could drive a small, isolated sub-population away from an adaptive peak, allowing natural selection to drive it towards different adaptive peaks. The work of Fisher, Haldane and Wright founded the discipline of population genetics. This integrated natural selection with Mendelian genetics, which was the critical first step in developing a unified theory of how evolution worked.
In the first few decades of the 20th century, most field naturalists continued to believe that alternative mechanisms of evolution such as Lamarckism and orthogenesis provided the best explanation for the complexity they observed in the living world. But as the field of genetics continued to develop, those views became less tenable. Theodosius Dobzhansky, a postdoctoral worker in Thomas Hunt Morgan 's lab, had been influenced by the work on genetic diversity by Russian geneticists such as Sergei Chetverikov. He helped to bridge the divide between the foundations of microevolution developed by the population geneticists and the patterns of macroevolution observed by field biologists, with his 1937 book Genetics and the Origin of Species. Dobzhansky examined the genetic diversity of wild populations and showed that, contrary to the assumptions of the population geneticists, these populations had large amounts of genetic diversity, with marked differences between sub-populations. The book also took the highly mathematical work of the population geneticists and put it into a more accessible form. In Britain, E.B. Ford, the pioneer of ecological genetics, continued throughout the 1930s and 1940s to demonstrate the power of selection due to ecological factors including the ability to maintain genetic diversity through genetic polymorphisms such as human blood types. Ford 's work would contribute to a shift in emphasis during the course of the modern synthesis towards natural selection over genetic drift.
The evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr was influenced by the work of the German biologist Bernhard Rensch showing the influence of local environmental factors on the geographic distribution of sub-species and closely related species. Mayr followed up on Dobzhansky 's work with the 1942 book Systematics and the Origin of Species, which emphasized the importance of allopatric speciation in the formation of new species. This form of speciation occurs when the geographical isolation of a sub-population is followed by the development of mechanisms for reproductive isolation. Mayr also formulated the biological species concept that defined a species as a group of interbreeding or potentially interbreeding populations that were reproductively isolated from all other populations.
In the 1944 book Tempo and Mode in Evolution, George Gaylord Simpson showed that the fossil record was consistent with the irregular non-directional pattern predicted by the developing evolutionary synthesis, and that the linear trends that earlier paleontologists had claimed supported orthogenesis and neo-Lamarckism did not hold up to closer examination. In 1950, G. Ledyard Stebbins published Variation and Evolution in Plants, which helped to integrate botany into the synthesis. The emerging cross-disciplinary consensus on the workings of evolution would be known as the modern synthesis. It received its name from the 1942 book Evolution: The Modern Synthesis by Julian Huxley.
The modern synthesis provided a conceptual core -- in particular, natural selection and Mendelian population genetics -- that tied together many, but not all, biological disciplines: developmental biology was one of the omissions. It helped establish the legitimacy of evolutionary biology, a primarily historical science, in a scientific climate that favored experimental methods over historical ones. The synthesis also resulted in a considerable narrowing of the range of mainstream evolutionary thought (what Stephen Jay Gould called the "hardening of the synthesis ''): by the 1950s, natural selection acting on genetic variation was virtually the only acceptable mechanism of evolutionary change (panselectionism), and macroevolution was simply considered the result of extensive microevolution.
The middle decades of the 20th century saw the rise of molecular biology, and with it an understanding of the chemical nature of genes as sequences of DNA and of their relationship -- through the genetic code -- to protein sequences. At the same time, increasingly powerful techniques for analyzing proteins, such as protein electrophoresis and sequencing, brought biochemical phenomena into realm of the synthetic theory of evolution. In the early 1960s, biochemists Linus Pauling and Emile Zuckerkandl proposed the molecular clock hypothesis (MCH): that sequence differences between homologous proteins could be used to calculate the time since two species diverged. By 1969, Motoo Kimura and others provided a theoretical basis for the molecular clock, arguing that -- at the molecular level at least -- most genetic mutations are neither harmful nor helpful and that mutation and genetic drift (rather than natural selection) cause a large portion of genetic change: the neutral theory of molecular evolution. Studies of protein differences within species also brought molecular data to bear on population genetics by providing estimates of the level of heterozygosity in natural populations.
From the early 1960s, molecular biology was increasingly seen as a threat to the traditional core of evolutionary biology. Established evolutionary biologists -- particularly Ernst Mayr, Theodosius Dobzhansky, and George Gaylord Simpson, three of the architects of the modern synthesis -- were extremely skeptical of molecular approaches, especially when it came to the connection (or lack thereof) to natural selection. The molecular - clock hypothesis and the neutral theory were particularly controversial, spawning the neutralist - selectionist debate over the relative importance of mutation, drift and selection, which continued into the 1980s without a clear resolution.
In the mid-1960s, George C. Williams strongly critiqued explanations of adaptations worded in terms of "survival of the species '' (group selection arguments). Such explanations were largely replaced by a gene - centered view of evolution, epitomized by the kin selection arguments of W.D. Hamilton, George R. Price and John Maynard Smith. This viewpoint would be summarized and popularized in the influential 1976 book The Selfish Gene by Richard Dawkins. Models of the period seemed to show that group selection was severely limited in its strength; though newer models do admit the possibility of significant multi-level selection.
In 1973, Leigh Van Valen proposed the term "Red Queen, '' which he took from Through the Looking - Glass by Lewis Carroll, to describe a scenario where a species involved in one or more evolutionary arms races would have to constantly change just to keep pace with the species with which it was co-evolving. Hamilton, Williams and others suggested that this idea might explain the evolution of sexual reproduction: the increased genetic diversity caused by sexual reproduction would help maintain resistance against rapidly evolving parasites, thus making sexual reproduction common, despite the tremendous cost from the gene - centric point of view of a system where only half of an organism 's genome is passed on during reproduction.
However, contrary to the expectations of the Red Queen hypothesis, Hanley et al. found that the prevalence, abundance and mean intensity of mites was significantly higher in sexual geckos than in asexuals sharing the same habitat. Furthermore, Parker, after reviewing numerous genetic studies on plant disease resistance, failed to find a single example consistent with the concept that pathogens are the primary selective agent responsible for sexual reproduction in their host. At an even more fundamental level, Heng and Gorelick and Heng reviewed evidence that sex, rather than enhancing diversity, acts as a constraint on genetic diversity. They considered that sex acts as a coarse filter, weeding out major genetic changes, such as chromosomal rearrangements, but permitting minor variation, such as changes at the nucleotide or gene level (that are often neutral) to pass through the sexual sieve. The adaptive function of sex, today, remains a major unresolved issue in biology. The competing models to explain the adaptive function of sex were reviewed by Birdsell and Wills. A principal alternative view to the Red Queen hypothesis is that sex arose, and is maintained, as a process for repairing DNA damage, and that genetic variation is produced as a byproduct.
The gene - centric view has also led to an increased interest in Charles Darwin 's old idea of sexual selection, and more recently in topics such as sexual conflict and intragenomic conflict.
W.D. Hamilton 's work on kin selection contributed to the emergence of the discipline of sociobiology. The existence of altruistic behaviors has been a difficult problem for evolutionary theorists from the beginning. Significant progress was made in 1964 when Hamilton formulated the inequality in kin selection known as Hamilton 's rule, which showed how eusociality in insects (the existence of sterile worker classes) and many other examples of altruistic behavior could have evolved through kin selection. Other theories followed, some derived from game theory, such as reciprocal altruism. In 1975, E.O. Wilson published the influential and highly controversial book Sociobiology: The New Synthesis which claimed evolutionary theory could help explain many aspects of animal, including human, behavior. Critics of sociobiology, including Stephen Jay Gould and Richard Lewontin, claimed that sociobiology greatly overstated the degree to which complex human behaviors could be determined by genetic factors. They also claimed that the theories of sociobiologists often reflected their own ideological biases. Despite these criticisms, work has continued in sociobiology and the related discipline of evolutionary psychology, including work on other aspects of the altruism problem.
One of the most prominent debates arising during the 1970s was over the theory of punctuated equilibrium. Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould proposed that there was a pattern of fossil species that remained largely unchanged for long periods (what they termed stasis), interspersed with relatively brief periods of rapid change during speciation. Improvements in sequencing methods resulted in a large increase of sequenced genomes, allowing the testing and refining of evolutionary theories using this huge amount of genome data. Comparisons between these genomes provide insights into the molecular mechanisms of speciation and adaptation. These genomic analyses have produced fundamental changes in the understanding of the evolutionary history of life, such as the proposal of the three - domain system by Carl Woese. Advances in computational hardware and software allow the testing and extrapolation of increasingly advanced evolutionary models and the development of the field of systems biology. One of the results has been an exchange of ideas between theories of biological evolution and the field of computer science known as evolutionary computation, which attempts to mimic biological evolution for the purpose of developing new computer algorithms. Discoveries in biotechnology now allow the modification of entire genomes, advancing evolutionary studies to the level where future experiments may involve the creation of entirely synthetic organisms.
Microbiology was largely ignored by early evolutionary theory. This was due to the paucity of morphological traits and the lack of a species concept in microbiology, particularly amongst prokaryotes. Now, evolutionary researchers are taking advantage of their improved understanding of microbial physiology and ecology, produced by the comparative ease of microbial genomics, to explore the taxonomy and evolution of these organisms. These studies are revealing unanticipated levels of diversity amongst microbes.
One important development in the study of microbial evolution came with the discovery in Japan in 1959 of horizontal gene transfer. This transfer of genetic material between different species of bacteria came to the attention of scientists because it played a major role in the spread of antibiotic resistance. More recently, as knowledge of genomes has continued to expand, it has been suggested that lateral transfer of genetic material has played an important role in the evolution of all organisms. These high levels of horizontal gene transfer have led to suggestions that the family tree of today 's organisms, the so - called "tree of life, '' is more similar to an interconnected web or net.
Indeed, the endosymbiotic theory for the origin of organelles sees a form of horizontal gene transfer as a critical step in the evolution of eukaryotes such as fungi, plants, and animals. The endosymbiotic theory holds that organelles within the cells of eukorytes such as mitochondria and chloroplasts, had descended from independent bacteria that came to live symbiotically within other cells. It had been suggested in the late 19th century when similarities between mitochondria and bacteria were noted, but largely dismissed until it was revived and championed by Lynn Margulis in the 1960s and 1970s; Margulis was able to make use of new evidence that such organelles had their own DNA that was inherited independently from that in the cell 's nucleus.
In the 1980s and 1990s, the tenets of the modern evolutionary synthesis came under increasing scrutiny. There was a renewal of structuralist themes in evolutionary biology in the work of biologists such as Brian Goodwin and Stuart Kauffman, which incorporated ideas from cybernetics and systems theory, and emphasized the self - organizing processes of development as factors directing the course of evolution. The evolutionary biologist Stephen Jay Gould revived earlier ideas of heterochrony, alterations in the relative rates of developmental processes over the course of evolution, to account for the generation of novel forms, and, with the evolutionary biologist Richard Lewontin, wrote an influential paper in 1979 suggesting that a change in one biological structure, or even a structural novelty, could arise incidentally as an accidental result of selection on another structure, rather than through direct selection for that particular adaptation. They called such incidental structural changes "spandrels '' after an architectural feature. Later, Gould and Elisabeth Vrba discussed the acquisition of new functions by novel structures arising in this fashion, calling them "exaptations. ''
Molecular data regarding the mechanisms underlying development accumulated rapidly during the 1980s and 1990s. It became clear that the diversity of animal morphology was not the result of different sets of proteins regulating the development of different animals, but from changes in the deployment of a small set of proteins that were common to all animals. These proteins became known as the "developmental - genetic toolkit. '' Such perspectives influenced the disciplines of phylogenetics, paleontology and comparative developmental biology, and spawned the new discipline of evolutionary developmental biology also known as evo - devo.
One of the tenets of population genetics since its inception has been that macroevolution (the evolution of phylogenic clades at the species level and above) was solely the result of the mechanisms of microevolution (changes in gene frequency within populations) operating over an extended period of time. During the last decades of the 20th century some paleontologists raised questions about whether other factors, such as punctuated equilibrium and group selection operating on the level of entire species and even higher level phylogenic clades, needed to be considered to explain patterns in evolution revealed by statistical analysis of the fossil record. Near the end of the 20th century some researchers in evolutionary developmental biology suggested that interactions between the environment and the developmental process might have been the source of some of the structural innovations seen in macroevolution, but other evo - devo researchers maintained that genetic mechanisms visible at the population level are fully sufficient to explain all macroevolution.
Epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in gene expression or cellular phenotype caused by mechanisms other than changes in the underlying DNA sequence. By the first decade of the 21st century it had become accepted that epigenetic mechanisms were a necessary part of the evolutionary origin of cellular differentiation. Although epigenetics in multicellular organisms is generally thought to be a mechanism involved in differentiation, with epigenetic patterns "reset '' when organisms reproduce, there have been some observations of transgenerational epigenetic inheritance. This shows that in some cases nongenetic changes to an organism can be inherited and it has been suggested that such inheritance can help with adaptation to local conditions and affect evolution. Some have suggested that in certain cases a form of Lamarckian evolution may occur.
Pierre Teilhard de Chardin 's metaphysical Omega Point theory, found in his book The Phenomenon of Man (1955), describes the gradual development of the universe from subatomic particles to human society, which he viewed as its final stage and goal.
Teilhard de Chardin 's ideas have been seen by advocates of the Gaia hypothesis proposed by James Lovelock, which holds that the living and nonliving parts of Earth can be viewed as a complex interacting system with similarities to a single organism, as being connected to Lovelock 's ideas. The Gaia hypothesis has also been viewed by Lynn Margulis and others as an extension of endosymbiosis and exosymbiosis. This modified hypothesis postulates that all living things have a regulatory effect on the Earth 's environment that promotes life overall.
The extended evolutionary synthesis (EES) is an extension of the Modern Synthesis of evolution which revisits the relative importance of different factors at play in evolutionary theory. EES includes concepts and mechanisms such as multilevel selection theory, transgenerational epigenetic inheritance, niche construction and evolvability.
The mathematical biologist Stuart Kauffman has suggested that self - organization may play roles alongside natural selection in three areas of evolutionary biology, namely population dynamics, molecular evolution, and morphogenesis. However, Kauffman does not take into account the essential role of energy (for example, using pyrophosphate) in driving biochemical reactions in cells, as proposed by Christian DeDuve and modelled mathematically by Richard Bagley and Walter Fontana. Their systems are self - catalyzing but not simply self - organizing as they are thermodynamically open systems relying on a continuous input of energy.
|
when will the new raiders stadium be finished | Las Vegas stadium - wikipedia
Las Vegas Stadium is the working name for a domed stadium under construction in Paradise, Nevada for the Las Vegas Raiders of the National Football League (NFL) and the UNLV Rebels football team of the University of Nevada, Las Vegas (UNLV). It is located on about 62 acres west of Mandalay Bay at Russell Road and Hacienda Avenue and between Polaris Avenue and Dean Martin Drive, just west of Interstate 15. Construction of the $1.8 billion stadium began in September 2017 and is expected to be completed in time for the 2020 NFL season.
In January 2016, reports emerged that Las Vegas Sands was considering developing a stadium in conjunction with Majestic Realty and UNLV, on a 42 - acre site on Tropicana Avenue owned by UNLV. UNLV had been in the market for a new stadium to replace Sam Boyd Stadium since at least 2011. Raiders owner Mark Davis visited Las Vegas on January 29 to tour the site and meet with Sands chairman Sheldon Adelson and other local figures. The Raiders, who had been trying to get a new stadium built for the team since the 1980s, had just missed out on relocating to Los Angeles that same month and were at an impasse in Oakland. In order for the team to relocate to Las Vegas, a new stadium was required, since Sam Boyd Stadium was undersized for the NFL and there were no other professional - caliber stadiums in Nevada.
On March 21, 2016, when asked about Las Vegas, Davis said, "I think the Raiders like the Las Vegas plan, '' and "it 's a very very very intriguing and exciting plan. '' Davis also met with Nevada Governor Brian Sandoval about the stadium plan. On April 1, 2016, Davis met with UNLV officials and toured Sam Boyd Stadium to evaluate whether it could serve as a temporary home for the team.
On April 28, 2016, Davis said he wanted to move the Raiders to Las Vegas and pledged $500 million toward the construction of the proposed $2.4 - billion domed stadium. "Together we can turn the Silver State into the silver and black state, '' Davis said.
In the spring of 2016, the board of directors of Las Vegas Sands rejected Adelson 's stadium proposal. Adelson decided to move ahead with the stadium as an individual investment, pledging $650 million of his personal wealth to the project.
The viability of the Tropicana Avenue site was called into serious question in June 2016, when Southwest Airlines objected to the location because its proximity to the northern end of one of McCarran Airport 's runways could negatively affect the safety and capacity of air traffic at the airport. The list of potential locations soon expanded to nine candidates, including the sites of the Wild Wild West casino, the Wynn golf course, the Riviera casino, the Las Vegas Festival Grounds, and Cashman Center. By September, the list was narrowed to two possibilities: the Bali Hai Golf Club, south of Mandalay Bay, and a vacant lot on Russell Road, just west of Interstate 15.
On August 25, 2016, the Raiders filed a trademark application for "Las Vegas Raiders '' on the same day renderings of a proposed stadium design were released. On September 15, 2016, the Southern Nevada Tourism Infrastructure Committee unanimously voted to recommend and approve $750 million for the Las Vegas stadium plan.
Majestic Realty revealed in October 2016 that it had withdrawn from the stadium project.
Sandoval called a special session of the Nevada Legislature to consider the stadium and other tourism - related proposals in October 2016. The funding bill for the stadium was approved by a 16 -- 5 vote in the Senate and by 28 -- 13 in the Assembly, and was signed into law by Sandoval on October 17. The bill allowed Clark County to increase its hotel tax to raise the $750 million in funding.
The Raiders filed relocation papers on January 19 to move from Oakland to Las Vegas. On January 26, 2017, the Raiders submitted a proposed lease agreement for the stadium. It was reported that the Raiders had selected the Russell Road site as the stadium location, the team would pay one dollar in rent, and that they could control the naming rights for both the stadium and plaza and in addition keep signage sponsorship revenue.
Days after the Raiders ' announced proposal, Adelson dropped out of the stadium project, pulling his proposed $650 million contribution Shortly after this announcement, Goldman Sachs, which had planned to finance part of the project, withdrew as well. As a result, the Raiders were expected to increase their contribution from $500 million to $1.15 billion.
On March 6, the Raiders revealed Bank of America would lend $650 million to replace the Adelson portion of the funding.
NFL owners voted to approve the move by a margin of 31 to 1 on March 27. The next day, the Raiders and the Las Vegas Stadium Authority began accepting deposits for season tickets for the new stadium. The Raiders announced that they planned to remain in Oakland until the stadium was complete.
The Raiders closed the purchase of the land for the stadium at the Russell Road site on May 1. The purchase price was reported at $77.5 million. On May 11, it was announced that in a joint venture Mortenson Construction and McCarthy Construction would be the developers for the stadium. Mortenson previously worked on U.S. Bank Stadium in Minneapolis. The stadium authority approved a stadium lease with the Raiders on May 18. The lease was to be for 30 years with four successive extension options of five years each.
On September 18, construction activity began on the stadium site with site preparation. A groundbreaking ceremony was held on November 13. The ceremony featured NFL Commissioner Roger Goodell, Raiders owner Mark Davis, his mother Carol Davis, various Raiders legends including Howie Long, Jim Plunkett, Tom Flores, and Ray Guy, Las Vegas and Nevada politicians such as Governor Brian Sandoval, Las Vegas Mayor Carolyn Goodman, Clark County Commissioner Steve Sisolak and stadium authority head Steve Hill. The event was hosted by George Lopez and included other celebrities like Carlos Santana, longtime Vegas icon Wayne Newton, and Howie D. and Nick Carter of the Backstreet Boys. There was also a tribute to the victims of the 2017 Las Vegas shooting that happened nearby with Judith Hill and the Las Vegas House of Blues Gospel Choir performing ' Rise up ' while 58 beams of light symbolizing the 58 victims were lit.
In January, construction crews began blasting caliche rock with dynamite to excavate and create the stadium bowl. On February 3, the Raiders opened a 7,500 - square - foot stadium preview center at Town Square, located a few miles from the stadium site, featuring interactive exhibits and team memorabilia, with plans for simulations of views from individual seats and a large - scale stadium model.
On August 27, Clark County changed the stadium 's address from 5617 Dean Martin Drive to 3333 Al Davis Way.
The budget for development of the stadium is estimated at $1.8 billion. Of this, $78 million was spent to purchase the land, $1.33 billion is estimated to be spent on construction, $123 million on furniture, fixtures, and equipment, $234 million on design and engineering, and $31 million on utilities and infrastructure. Some reports gave a budget of $1.9 billion, which also included $100 million to build a separate Raiders practice facility.
The financing for the project is expected to come in the form of $750 million in public funding and $1.1 billion from the Raiders. The public portion of the funding will come from municipal bonds issued by Clark County, backed by the proceeds of a special tax on hotel rooms in the Las Vegas area, which took effect in March 2017. The Raiders ' contribution was expected to include a $650 million loan from Bank of America, $200 million from the NFL 's stadium loan program, and $300 million from sales of personal seat licenses at the stadium, naming rights for the stadium, and sponsorships.
Local government can not receive any rent or revenue sharing from the stadium, because such an arrangement would not be compatible with the tax - exempt status of the bonds. Proponents instead argued that the public financing would be justified by increased economic activity and tax revenue related to the stadium. Critics have argued that the economic projections were based on overly optimistic assumptions.
A total of $645 million in construction bonds sold out in 90 minutes in April 2018, representing Clark County 's contribution to the project beyond room taxes already collected.
For Las Vegas Stadium, Mark Davis retained the same architecture firm, MANICA Architecture, that had designed the previously proposed Carson Stadium near Los Angeles. Davis retained much of the look from the Carson stadium because he "fell in love with the overall design of it ''. The stadium will be a 10 level domed stadium with a clear ETFE roof, silver and black exterior and large retractable curtain - like side windows facing the Las Vegas Strip. The design includes a large torch in one end that will house a flame in honor of Al Davis, the late long - time owner of the Raiders.
Updated renderings released after the relocation vote passed show the stadium with a roll - in natural grass field similar to the one at University of Phoenix Stadium in Glendale, Arizona. In an August 17, 2017 Las Vegas Stadium Authority meeting it was revealed that the stadium will have a designated pickup / drop off loop for ride sharing services such as Uber and Lyft, a first for a stadium in the NFL.
The stadium will replace Sam Boyd Stadium and will serve as the home of both the Raiders and the UNLV Rebels football program. In addition, it will host the annual Las Vegas Bowl.
Stadium backers project 20 to 25 additional events per year, with plausible possibilities including the Super Bowl, the Pro Bowl, the NFL Draft, the NCAA Final Four, the USA Sevens rugby tournament, the Monster Jam World Finals, boxing matches, Ultimate Fighting Championship events, the Pac - 12 Football Championship Game, neutral - site college football games, international soccer matches, concerts, and corporate shows.
David Beckham visited Las Vegas in 2016 to advocate for the stadium as a possible home for his Major League Soccer expansion team, although he ultimately announced the launch of the team with a stadium in Miami.
The stadium was submitted as a potential site for the 2026 FIFA World Cup, but was later withdrawn from consideration.
|
where is the uvula located in the human body | Palatine uvula - wikipedia
The palatine uvula, usually referred to as simply the uvula / ˈjuːvjʊlə /, is a conic projection from the posterior edge of the middle of the soft palate, composed of connective tissue containing a number of racemose glands, and some muscular fibers (musculus uvulae). It also contains a large number of serous glands that produce a lot of thin saliva.
The musculus uvulae, which lies entirely within the uvula, shortens and broadens the uvula. This changes the contour of the posterior part of the soft palate. This change in contour allows the soft palate to adapt closely to the posterior pharyngeal wall to help close the nasopharynx during swallowing.
It is innervated by the pharyngeal branch of the vagus nerve (cranial nerve X).
A bifid or bifurcated uvula is a split or cleft uvula. Newborns with cleft palate often also have a split uvula. The bifid uvula results from incomplete fusion of the palatine shelves but it is considered only a slight form of clefting. Bifid uvulas have less muscle in them than a normal uvula, which may cause recurring problems with middle ear infections. While swallowing, the soft palate is pushed backwards, preventing food and drink from entering the nasal cavity. If the soft palate can not touch the back of the throat while swallowing, food and drink can enter the nasal cavity. Splitting of the uvula occurs infrequently but is the most common form of mouth and nose area cleavage among newborns. Bifid uvula occurs in about 2 % of the general population, although some populations may have a high incidence, such as Native Americans who have a 10 % rate.
Bifid uvula is a common symptom of the rare genetic syndrome Loeys - Dietz syndrome, which is associated with an increased risk of aortic aneurysm.
During swallowing, the soft palate and the uvula move together to close off the nasopharynx, and prevent food from entering the nasal cavity.
It has also been proposed that the large amounts of thin saliva produced by the uvula serves to keep the throat well lubricated.
It has a function in speech as well. In many languages, the uvula is used to articulate a range of consonant sounds, known as uvular consonants. The voiced uvular trill, written (ʀ) in the International Phonetic Alphabet, is one example; it is used in French, Arabic and Hebrew, among other languages. Due to the large amount of saliva produced from glands in the uvula that are not present in other mammals it has been suggested that the uvula is an accessory speech organ.
Stimulation of the uvula causes the gag reflex to initiate. This is often an issue for people with uvula piercings, and a common method of inducing vomiting.
In a small number of people, the uvula does not close properly against the back of the throat, causing a condition known as velopharyngeal insufficiency or VPI. This causes "nasal '' (or more properly "hyper - nasal '') speech, where extra air comes down the nose, and the speaker is unable to say certain consonants, such as pronouncing ' b ' like ' m '.
The uvula can also contribute to snoring or heavy breathing during sleep; having an elongated uvula can cause vibrations that lead to snoring. In some cases this can lead to sleep apnea, which may be treated by removal of the uvula or part of it if necessary, an operation known as uvulopalatopharyngoplasty (commonly referred to as UPPP, or UP3). However, this operation can also cause sleep apnea if scar tissue forms and the airspace in the velopharynx is decreased. The success of UPPP as a treatment for sleep apnea is unknown, but some research has shown 40 -- 60 % effectiveness in reducing symptoms. Typically apnea subsides for the short term, but returns over the medium to long term, and sometimes is worse than it was before the UPPP.
During swallowing, the soft palate and the uvula move superiorly to close off the nasopharynx, preventing food from entering the nasal cavity. When this process fails, the result is called nasal regurgitation. It is common in people with VPI, the myositides, and neuromuscular disease. Regurgitation of fluids in this way may also occur if a particularly high volume of liquid is regurgitated, or during vigorous coughing, for example being caused by the accidental inhalation of water. Due to the action of coughing preventing the uvula from blocking the nasopharynx, liquid may be expelled back through the nose.
At times, the mucous membrane around the uvula may swell, causing the uvula to expand 3 -- 5 times its normal size. This condition is known as uvulitis. When the uvula touches the throat or tongue, it can cause sensations like gagging or choking, although there is no foreign matter present. This can cause problems with breathing, talking, and eating.
There are many theories about what causes the uvula to swell, including dehydration (e.g. from arid weather); excessive smoking or other inhaled irritants; snoring; allergic reaction; or a viral or bacterial infection. An aphthous ulcer which has formed on the uvula can also cause swelling and discomfort.
If the swelling is caused by dehydration, drinking fluids may improve the condition. If the cause is a bacterial infection, gargling salt water may help. However, it can also be a sign of other problems. Some people with a history of recurring uvulitis carry an epinephrine autoinjector to counteract symptoms of an attack. A swollen uvula is not normally life - threatening and subsides in a short time, typically within a day.
In some parts of Africa, including Ethiopia and Eritrea, the uvula or a section of it is ritually removed by a traditional healer. In this case, the uvula may be noticeably shortened. It is not thought to contribute to velopharyngeal inadequacy, except in cases where the tonsils have also been removed.
In Latin, ūvula means ' little grape ', the diminutive form of ūva ' grape ' (of unknown origin). A swollen uvula was called "ūva. ''
|
when did body style change on honda pilot | Honda Pilot - wikipedia
The Honda Pilot is a mid-size crossover SUV manufactured by Honda and introduced in 2002.
Primarily aimed at the North American market, the Pilot is the largest SUV from Honda and features three - row seating. Pilots are currently manufactured in Lincoln, Alabama, and the Pilot was produced in Alliston, Ontario until April 2007. The first generation Pilot was released in April 2002 as a 2003 model.
The Pilot shares its platform with the Acura MDX, as well as the Odyssey minivan and the Accord sedan. The Pilot 's unibody construction and independent suspension are designed to provide handling similar to that of a car, and it has integrated perimeter frame rails to allow towing and light off - road use.
Prior to the introduction of the Pilot, Honda marketed the compact crossover CR - V, and the Honda Passport, (a rebadged Isuzu Rodeo) that was a pickup truck - based design. The Pilot is Honda 's largest SUV, although the 2010 Crosstour surpassed the Pilot in length.
The Pilot is sold in North America, while the Honda MDX (first generation Acura MDX) was marketed in Japan and Australia for several years. The Pilot is badged Honda MR - V in the Middle East. The second generation Pilot is also marketed in Russia, Ukraine, and in the Dominican Republic. The Pilot is also sold in the Philippines.
The 2003 - 2004 Pilots featured the J35A4 motor, an aluminum - alloy 3.5 L V6 producing 240 HP and 242 lb - ft of torque. The 2005 Pilot received a new engine, the J35A6, which featured drive - by - wire throttle and produced 255 HP and 250 lb - ft of torque. Refreshed 2006 - 2008 Pilots came with either the J35Z1 (FWD) or the J35A9 (4WD). Both engines are rated at 244 HP and 240 lb - ft of torque. Refreshed FWD models feature Honda 's Variable Cylinder Management system, which can deactivate up to three cylinders under light load to increase fuel economy. All Pilots from this generation feature a 5 - speed automatic transmission. The Pilot has front struts with a coil - spring, multilink rear suspension for a flat rear load floor. Front track is 66.3 in (1,684 mm) and 66.5 in (1,689 mm) at the rear. The Pilot has a 4,500 lb (2,041 kg) boat / 3,500 lb (1,588 kg) trailer towing capability with the optional dealer installed towing package.
2003 - 2005 Pilots came with Honda 's Variable Torque Management 4WD system (VTM - 4). Under normal driving conditions, most power is transferred to the front wheels while some is sent to the back wheels. Under acceleration, or if wheel slippage is detected up front, up to 50 % of power can be sent to the rear wheels. The system features a VTM - 4 lock button on the dashboard which locks the rear differential and sends 25 % of the power to each rear wheel. However, the VTM - 4 lock function only operates in first, second, and reverse, and automatically disengages above 18mph, then re-engages when the speed drops below 18mph. 2006 refresh models were the first time a Pilot has been offered in FWD.
Design of the Pilot was by Honda 's Ricky Hsu through 1999, when styling was approved. The Pilot can accommodate up to eight passengers in three rows configured as stadium seating. The third row can seat three, but the limited legroom makes it suitable only for small children or adults on short trips. Similar to the Honda Odyssey, the rear seats can be folded into flat surfaces for larger cargo. Options include powered moonroof, DVD entertainment system, and a navigation system.
Other features include ABS - equipped four - wheel disc brakes, rack - and - pinion steering, four - wheel independent suspension, and 282 ° of outward visibility.
Honda revised the Pilot for the 2006 model year in October 2005. Changes to the exterior included a new fascia with a different grille insert and halogen projector headlights, and taillights with clear lenses. The EX trim level received redesigned wheels, and the original EX wheels were now found on the LX trim. On the inside, side airbags were provided in the C pillar, the gauge cluster was updated and the center console featured chrome trim and redesigned storage compartments and cup holders.
The larger second generation Pilot was unveiled as a prototype in January 2008 at the North American International Auto Show. Assembled at Honda Manufacturing of Alabama in Lincoln, Alabama, it was offered in five trims; LX, EX, EX-L, Touring, and SE (2015 only). It received a new 3.5 - liter V6 VTEC engine producing 250 hp (186 kW; 253 PS) SAE net at 5700 rpm and 253 lb ⋅ ft (343 N ⋅ m) of torque at 4800 rpm. EPA fuel economy is rated at 17 mpg city / 23 mpg highway with front - wheel - drive and 16 mpg city / 22 mpg highway for all - wheel - drive.
Both drivetrains were equipped with five - speed automatics. The second generation 's wheelbase is 109.2 in, with a length of 190.9 in, a width of 78.5 in, a height of 71.0 in and interior space of 153.7 cu - ft. The redesigned headlights lost the previous generation 's halogen projectors and return to standard halogen reflectors. Features included new two - position memory settings for the driver 's seat, a new power tailgate, and the gear shift was relocated from the steering column to the center console between the front seats. The Touring trim included a 120 - volt power outlet and a satellite - linked Honda navigation system.
The 2012 model year introduced a redesigned front fascia, new alloy wheels, and updates to the interior along with changes to the bumper.
The 2013 model year included a standard rearview backup camera, i - MID central dashboard 8 - inch LCD screen, USB connector, Bluetooth hands - free calling and wireless audio streaming, and tri-zone climate control.
The Pilot uses Honda 's Advanced Compatibility Engineering front bracket. For the 2013 model year a rear - view backup camera was made standard. The Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) found the Pilot a driver death rate of 2 deaths per million registered years among the ten lowest released in their report
The third - generation 2016 Pilot debuted at the Chicago Auto Show in February 2015, production began during May, and was made available for sale in June.
The exterior is sleeker in appearance compared to its boxier predecessor. Added to the exterior are optional LED headlamps with automatic high - low beam switching, LED daytime running lights (DRLs), and LED brake tail lights and the new Elite model. New features also include heated rear seats, ventilated front seats, and a panoramic roof to Elite models only. Alloy wheels became standard.
Newly available safety features include Honda 's LaneWatch passenger side mirror camera or Blind Spot Information (BSI) and rear Cross Traffic Monitor. Additional options include Lane Departure Warning (LDW) with Lane Keeping Assist System (LKAS) and Road Departure Mitigation (RDM), Forward Collision Warning (FCW) with Collision Mitigation Braking System (CMBS), Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC). A tri-angle backup camera is standard with dynamic guidelines optional.
The revised 3.5 - liter V6 engine has direct - injection and start - stop system with improved power at 280 hp (209 kW; 284 PS), a 6 - speed automatic is standard while a ZF 9 - speed automatic is optional. With all - wheel drive models the amount of engine torque sent to each rear wheel is variable. EPA - estimated fuel economy is improved with front - wheel drive (FWD) 6 - speed models registering 19 / 27 / 22 mpg, and all - wheel drive (AWD) models registering 18 / 26 / 21 mpg (city / highway / combined). 9 - speed models see fuel economy of 20 / 27 / 23 mpg in FWD configuration and 19 / 26 / 22 mpg in AWD.
Overall dimensions are larger, while weight is down approximately 300 pounds with noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH) reduced. Both 2 WD and AWD share the same platform. Structurally 21.3 % of the Pilot 's body is composed of 980, 1300 and 1,500 MPa ultra-high - strength steels, 5 % is from aluminum or magnesium, an additional 34.5 % is 270 MPa mild strength steel used in areas to minimize repair costs.
For the 2019 model year, Honda has refreshed the Pilot inside and out. The powertrain for the Pilot has remained unchanged, but Honda did revise the nine speed transmission only found in the Touring and Elite trims. The exterior now has new bumpers, grille, wheels, LED headlights, and revised taillights. A hands free tailgate is now available. In the interior the gauge cluster is replaced with a new one, similar to the one found on the Odyssey. The infotainment system is updated with Honda 's latest software and it also features CabinControl app, from the Odyssey. 4G LTE hotspot, CabinTalk, and a new rear entertainment system are now available. The volume slider is replaced with a knob. Honda has replaced the steering wheel with a new design, also from the Odyssey. Lastly, Honda Sensing is now standard on all trim levels for the Pilot.
|
who played bass on and justice for all | ... And Justice for All (album) - wikipedia
... And Justice for All is the fourth studio album by American heavy metal band Metallica, released on August 25, 1988, by Elektra Records. It was the band 's first studio album to feature bassist Jason Newsted after the death of Cliff Burton in 1986.... And Justice for All is musically progressive, with long and complex songs, fast tempos, and few verse - chorus structures. The album is noted for its sterile production, which producer Flemming Rasmussen attributed to his absence during the mixing process. The lyrics feature themes of political and legal injustice seen through the prisms of censorship, war, and nuclear brinkmanship.
The album 's front cover, designed by Stephen Gorman on a scheme by James Hetfield and Lars Ulrich, features a representation of Lady Justice, bound by ropes, with two breasts bare and its scales tipping toward one plate filled with money. The phrase "... And Justice for All '' appears spray - painted in the lower right corner. The album title is derived from the American Pledge of Allegiance. Three songs from the album were released as singles: "Harvester of Sorrow '', "Eye of the Beholder '', and "One ''; the title track was released as a promotional single.
... And Justice for All was acclaimed by music critics. It was included in The Village Voice 's annual Pazz & Jop critics ' poll of the year 's best albums, and the single "One '' earned Metallica its first Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance in 1990. The group 's best - selling album at the time, it was the first underground metal album to achieve chart success in the United States. The album was certified 8 × platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in 2003 for shipping eight million copies in the US, making it Metallica 's second - best - selling album in the country.
... And Justice for All was Metallica 's first full - length studio album to feature bassist Jason Newsted after the death of Cliff Burton in 1986. Newsted had previously played on Metallica 's The $5.98 E.P.: Garage Days Re-Revisited, an extended play released in 1987. The band intended to record the album earlier, but was sidetracked by the large number of festival dates scheduled for the summer of 1987, including the European leg of the Monsters of Rock festival. Another reason was frontman James Hetfield 's arm injury in a skateboarding accident. The band 's previous studio album, Master of Puppets, marked the end of Metallica 's contract with the Music for Nations label. Manager Peter Mensch wanted the band to sign with British record distributor Phonogram Records, and Phonogram chairman Martin Hooker was keen to obtain the band 's contract. To persuade Metallica to choose his label Hooker offered them a bigger deal, "worth well over £ 1 million, which at that time was the biggest deal we 'd ever offered anyone ''. His explanation was that the final figure for combined British and European sales of all three Metallica albums was more than 1.5 million copies. The album title was revealed in April 1988:... And Justice for All, after the final words of the Pledge of Allegiance. The artwork was created by Stephen Gorman, based on a concept developed by Hetfield and drummer Lars Ulrich. It depicts a cracked statue of a blindfolded Lady Justice, bound by ropes with her breasts exposed and her scales overflowing with dollar bills. The title appears graffiti - style in the lower right corner.
... And Justice for All was recorded from January to May 1988 at One on One Recording Studios in Los Angeles. Metallica produced the album with Flemming Rasmussen. Rasmussen was initially unavailable for the planned start on January 1, 1988, and the band brought in Mike Clink, who had caught their attention for producing Guns N ' Roses ' debut Appetite for Destruction (1987). Things did not work out as planned, and three weeks later Rasmussen became available after Ulrich gave him a call. Rasmussen listened to Clink 's rough mixes for the album on his February 14 flight to Los Angeles, and upon his arrival Clink was fired. Hetfield explained that recording with Clink did not work out so well, and Rasmussen came over as a last - minute replacement. However, Clink is credited with engineering the drums on two of the album 's tracks: "The Shortest Straw '' and "Harvester of Sorrow ''. While waiting for Rasmussen to arrive, the band recorded two cover songs -- "Breadfan '' and "The Prince '' -- to "fine ‐ tune the sound while they got into the studio vibe ''. Both were released as B - sides of the "Harvester of Sorrow '' CD single, as separate B - sides for "Eye of the Beholder '' and "One '' respectively, and were included on the covers album Garage Inc. (1998).
Rasmussen 's first task was to adjust and arrange the guitar sound with which the band was dissatisfied. A guide track for the tempos and a click track for Ulrich 's drumming were used. The band played in a live room, recording the instruments separately. Each song used three reels: one for drums, a second for bass and guitars and a third for anything else. Hetfield wrote lyrics during the recording sessions; these were occasionally unfinished as recording began, and Rasmussen said that Hetfield "was n't really interested in singing '' but instead "wanted that hard vibe ''. Metallica 's recording process was new to Jason Newsted, who questioned his impact on the overall sound and the lack of discussion with the rest of the team. Newsted had a different experience with his previous band, Flotsam and Jetsam, describing their style as "basically everybody playing the same thing like a sonic wall ''. He recorded his parts separately from the rest of the band, with only the assistant engineer present. Newsted noted that his parts were at the same audio frequency as Hetfield 's guitar parts, and this created a "(battle) for the same frequency ''. Steve Thompson, who mixed the album, claims that Ulrich was squarely to blame for the inaudible bass and unusual drums. Thompson wanted to be relieved of his mixing duties when Ulrich presented his ideas on the production, but Thompson was not allowed to leave and received the majority of the criticism for the misrepresentation of bass of the record.
... And Justice for All is a musically progressive album featuring long and complex songs, fast tempos and few verse - chorus structures. Metallica decided to broaden its sonic range, writing songs with multiple sections, heavy guitar arpeggios and unusual time signatures. Hetfield later explained: "Songwriting-wise, (the album) was just us really showing off and trying to show what we could do. ' We 've jammed six riffs into one song? Let 's make it eight. Let 's go crazy with it. ' '' Music critic Simon Reynolds noted the riff changes and experimentation with timing on the album 's epically constructed songs: "The tempo shifts, gear changes, lapses, decelerations and abrupt halts ''. BBC Music 's Eamonn Stack wrote that... And Justice for All sounds different from the band 's previous albums, with longer songs, sparser arrangements, and harsher vocals by Hetfield. According to journalist Martin Popoff, the album was less melodic than its predecessors because of its frequent tempo changes, unusual song structures and layered guitars. He argued that the album is more of a progressive metal record because of its intricately performed music and bleak sound. Music writer Joel McIver called the album 's music aggressive enough for Metallica to maintain its place with bands "at the mellower end of extreme metal ''. According to writer Christopher Knowles, Metallica took "the thrash concept to its logical conclusion '' on the album.
The album was noted for its "dry, sterile '' production. Rasmussen said that was not his intention, as he tried for an ambient sound similar to the previous two albums. He was not present during the album 's mixing, for which Steve Thompson and Michael Barbiero had been hired beforehand. Rasmussen felt that, in his absence from the mixing process, Thompson and Barbiero ended up using only the close microphones on the mix and none of the room microphones, thus causing the "clicking '', thin drum sound. Popoff noted that because of the strange production, the bass guitar was nearly inaudible, while the guitars sounded "strangled mechanistic ''. He saw the "synthetic '' percussion as another reason for the album 's compressed sound. The sound has nearly - inaudible bass guitar, which Rasmussen claims was ordered by Hetfield and Ulrich after hearing the initial mixes, resulting in his belief that "Jason Newsted, (engineer) Toby Wright and I are probably the only people who know what the bass parts actually sounded like on that album ''. Thompson similarly blamed Ulrich for the inaudible bass, stating that Ulrich ordered him to remove the bass from the mix. In their defense, Hetfield and Ulrich said that most of Newsted 's bass lines closely followed the rhythm guitar lines to the point of being indiscernible from each other. A lack of direction is also partly to blame; since the album was largely produced by the band, there was no one present in the studio to guide the band 's new bassist and tell him what was expected of him, something a producer would typically do. Newsted was not satisfied with the final mixes: "The Justice album was n't something that really felt good for me, because you really ca n't hear the bass. ''
The lyrical content of... And Justice for All is conceptually unified around notions of political and legal injustice as seen through the prism of war, censored speech, and nuclear brinksmanship. The majority of the songs raise issues that differ from the violent retaliation of the previous releases. Tom King wrote that for the first time the lyrics dealt with political and environmental issues. He named contemporaries Nuclear Assault as the only other band who applied ecological lyrics to thrash metal songs rather than singing about Satan and Egyptian plagues. McIver noted that Hetfield, the band 's main lyricist, wrote about topics that he had not addressed before, such as his revolt against the establishment. Ulrich described the songwriting process as their "CNN years '', with him and Hetfield watching the channel in search for song subjects -- "I 'd read about the blacklisting thing, we 'd get a title, ' The Shortest Straw, ' and a song would come out of that. ''
Concerns about the environmental plight of the planet ("Blackened ''), corruption ("... And Justice for All ''), and blacklisting and discrimination ("The Shortest Straw '') are emphasized with traditional existential themes. Issues such as freedom of speech and civil liberties are presented from a grim and pessimistic point of view. "One '' was unofficially entitled "antiwar anthem '' because of the lyrics which portray the suffering of a wounded soldier. "Dyers Eve '' is a lyrical rant from Hetfield to his parents. Burton received co-writing credit on "To Live Is to Die '' as the bass line was a medley of unused recordings Burton had performed prior to his death. Because the original recordings are not used on the track, the composition is credited as written by Burton and played by Newsted. The spoken word section of the song ("When a man lies, he murders some part of the world. These are the pale deaths which men miscall their lives. '') was written by German poet Paul Gerhardt, but was erroneously attributed to Burton in the liner notes. The second half of the speech ("All this I can not bear to witness any longer. Cannot the kingdom of salvation take me home? '') was written by Burton.
Released on August 25, 1988, by Elektra Records,... And Justice for All was acclaimed by music critics. In a contemporary review for Rolling Stone, Michael Azerrad said that Metallica 's compositions are impressive and called the album 's music "a marvel of precisely channeled aggression ''. Spin magazine 's Sharon Liveten called it a "gem of a double record '' and found the music both edgy and technically proficient. Simon Reynolds, writing in Melody Maker, said that "other bands would give their eye teeth '' for the songs ' riffs and found the album 's densely complicated style of metal to be distinct from the monotonous sound of contemporary rock music: "Everything depends on utter punctuality and supreme surgical finesse. It 's probably the most incisive music I 've ever heard, in the literal sense of the word. '' Borivoj Krgin of Metal Forces said that it was the most ideal album he has heard because of typically exceptional production and musicianship that is more impressive than that of Master of Puppets. In a less enthusiastic review for The Village Voice, Robert Christgau felt that the band 's compositions lack song form and that the album "goes on longer '' than Master of Puppets. In 1988,... And Justice for All was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Hard Rock / Metal Performance, but with much controversy, it lost to Jethro Tull 's Crest of a Knave. In 2007, Entertainment Weekly, named the win one of the 10 biggest upsets in Grammy history.
In a retrospective review, Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune said that... And Justice for All was both the band 's "most ambitious '' and ultimately "flattest - sounding '' album. AllMusic 's Steve Huey noted that Metallica followed the blueprint of the previous two albums, with more sophisticated songs and "apocalyptic '' lyrics that envisioned a society in decay. Music journalist Mick Wall was critical of the progressive elements on the album and felt that, apart from "One '' and "Dyers Eve '', most of the album sounded clumsy. Colin Larkin, writing in the Encyclopedia of Popular Music (2006), wrote that, apart from the praiseworthy "One '', the album diminished the band 's creativity by concentrating the songs with too many riffs. Ulrich said in retrospect that the album has improved with time and it is well - liked among their contemporaries.
In The Village Voice 's annual Pazz & Jop critics poll,... And Justice for All was voted the 39th best album of 1988, having received 117 votes, including 12 first - place votes. The album was ranked at number nine on IGN 's Top 25 Metal Albums. In a 2006 reader poll by Guitar World,... And Justice for All was placed 12th among the 100 Greatest Guitar Albums. All of the album 's tracks were featured on "The 100 Greatest Metallica Songs of All Time '' made by the same magazine. Kerrang! listed the album at number 42 among the "100 Greatest Heavy Metal Albums of All Time ''. Martin Popoff ranks the effort at number 19 in his book The Top 500 Heavy Metal Albums of All Time, the fourth highest ranked Metallica album on the list. The album is featured in Robert Dimery 's 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die. In 2017, it was ranked 21st on Rolling Stone 's list of "100 Greatest Metal Albums of All Time ''.
After years of refusing to release music videos, Metallica released its first for "One ''. The video was controversial among fans, who had valued the band 's apparent opposition to MTV and other forms of mainstream music. Slant Magazine ranked it number 48 on their list of the "100 Greatest Music Videos '', saying that Metallica "evoke a revolution of the soul far more devastating than that presented in the original text ''. The guitar solo was ranked number seven in Guitar World 's compilation of the 100 Greatest Guitar Solos of all time. Additionally, heavy metal website Noisecreep classed the song ninth among the "10 Best ' 80s Metal Songs ''.
Although Metallica 's music was considered unappealing for mainstream radio,... And Justice for All became the first underground metal album to achieve chart success in the US. It became Metallica 's best - selling album upon release, peaking at number six on the Billboard 200, where it charted for 83 weeks. Since 1991, when Nielsen SoundScan began tracking sales,... And Justice for All has sold 5,330,000 copies in the United States. It was certified platinum nine weeks after it was released in stores, and sold 1.7 million copies in the US by the end of 1988. Since its release, the album has scanned more than 8 million copies in the US and, according to MTV 's Chris Harris, "helped cement (Metallica 's) status as a rock and roll force to be reckoned with ''. Classic Rock explained that with this album, Metallica received substantial media exposure, becoming a multi-platinum act by 1990. The group broke through on radio in early 1989 with "One '', which was released as the third single from the record. According to Billboard,... And Justice for All found the band evolving into arena headliners, as "One '', accompanied by the group 's first music video, garnered significant airplay.
... And Justice for All achieved similar chart success outside the United States. It peaked within the top 5 on the charts in Germany, Sweden, and the United Kingdom, and remained on the UK chart for six weeks. The album managed to peak in the top 10 on the Finnish, Norwegian, and Swiss album charts. It was less successful in Spain, Mexico and France, where it peaked at number 92 on the former chart, number 130 on the latter, and number 64 in Spain.... And Justice for All received a three times platinum certification from Music Canada for shipping 300,000 copies, a platinum certification from IFPI Finland for having a shipment of little over 50,000 copies, and was certified gold by the Bundesverband Musikindustrie (BVMI) for shipments of 250,000 copies. It was awarded gold by the British Phonographic Industry in 2013 for shipping 100,000 copies in the UK.... And Justice for All was surpassed commercially by the band 's following album, Metallica (1991).
Guitarist Kirk Hammett noted that the length of the songs was problematic for fans and for the band: "Touring behind it, we realized that the general consensus was that songs were too fucking long. One day after we played ' Justice ' and got off the stage one of us said, ' we 're never fucking playing that song again. ' '' Nevertheless, "One '' quickly became a permanent fixture in the band 's setlist. When performed live, the opening war sound is lengthened from seventeen seconds to approximately two minutes. At the song 's conclusion, the stage turns pitch - black and fire erupts from various places. The live performance is characterized as a "musical and visual highlight '' by Rolling Stone journalist Denise Sheppard. Other songs from... And Justice for All that have frequently been performed are "Blackened '' and "Harvester of Sorrow '', which were often featured during the album 's promotional Damaged Justice Tour.
Metallica played the title track in the opening show of the Sick of the Studio ' 07 tour, for the first time since October 1989, and made it a set - fixture for the remainder of that tour. A statue of Lady Justice is commonly placed on the scene, to be torn down as the song approaches its conclusion. "Eye of the Beholder '' has not been played live since 1989; one such performance appears on Metallica 's live extended play, Six Feet Down Under. During the World Magnetic Tour in 2009, "The Shortest Straw '' made its way back into the setlist after a 12 - year absence, and has been sporadically performed since. "The Frayed Ends of Sanity '' debuted live in Helsinki on the Metallica By Request tour in 2014, although the band had previously played segments during solos, impromptu jams, or in a "Justice '' medley. "To Live Is to Die '' premiered at the band 's 30th - anniversary concert at The Fillmore in San Francisco. "Dyers Eve '' debuted live sixteen years after it was recorded, during the Madly in Anger with the World Tour at The Forum in Inglewood, California.
All lyrics written by James Hetfield, except "To Live Is to Die '' written by Cliff Burton.
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
|
what channel is the uefa champions league on | List of UEFA Champions League broadcasters - wikipedia
This is a list of television broadcasters which provide coverage of the UEFA Champions League, European football 's top level continental competition, as well as the UEFA Super Cup. All matches kick - off at 20: 45 Central European Time (CET), with the exception of matches held in Azerbaijan, Russia and Kazakhstan.
UEFA sells the broadcast rights in a three - season basis and various packages are available for bidders, with UEFA weighing balance between free and pay television under the UEFA and European Union (EU) agreement. While balancing between free and pay television, if the rights do not sell within "sales windows '', the rights may be sold on an individual basis to pay - per - view television broadcasters.
The 2010 final attracted an audience of 109 million people around the world, a record number for the competition, and replaced the Super Bowl as the most - watched annual sports event.
|
where is the land of the lotus eaters located | Lotus - eaters - wikipedia
In Greek mythology the lotus - eaters (Greek: λωτοφάγοι, lōtophagoi), also referred to as the lotophagi or lotophaguses (singular lotophagus / ləˈtɒfəɡəs /) or lotophages (singular lotophage / ˈloʊtəfeɪdʒ /), were a race of people living on an island dominated by lotus plants. The lotus fruits and flowers were the primary food of the island and were a narcotic, causing the inhabitants to sleep in peaceful apathy.
In the Odyssey Book IX, Odysseus tells how adverse north winds blew him and his men off course as they were rounding Cape Malea, the southernmost tip of the Peloponnesus, headed westwards for Ithaca:
I was driven thence by foul winds for a space of 9 days upon the sea, but on the tenth day we reached the land of the Lotus - eaters, who live on a food that comes from a kind of flower. Here we landed to take in fresh water, and our crews got their mid-day meal on the shore near the ships. When they had eaten and drunk I sent two of my company to see what manner of men the people of the place might be, and they had a third man under them. They started at once, and went about among the Lotus - eaters, who did them no hurt, but gave them to eat of the lotus, which was so delicious that those who ate of it left off caring about home, and did not even want to go back and say what had happened to them, but were for staying and munching lotus with the Lotus - eaters without thinking further of their return; nevertheless, though they wept bitterly I forced them back to the ships and made them fast under the benches. Then I told the rest to go on board at once, lest any of them should taste of the lotus and leave off wanting to get home, so they took their places and smote the grey sea with their oars.
Herodotus, in the fifth century BC, was sure that the lotus - eaters still existed in his day, in coastal Libya:
A promontory jutting out into the sea from the country of the Gindanes is inhabited by the lotus - eaters, who live entirely on the fruit of the lotus - tree. The lotus fruit is about the size of the lentisk berry and in sweetness resembles the date. The lotus - eaters even succeed in obtaining from it a sort of wine.
Polybius identifies the land of the lotus - eaters as the island of Djerba (ancient Meninx), off the coast of Tunisia. Later this identification is supported by Strabo.
Because the Greek word lôtos can refer to several different plants, there is some ambiguity as to which "lotus '' appears in the Odyssey. Some of the proposed species, based in part on Herodotus ' assertion, include:
It is the last of these, or another member of the genus Ziziphus, that is traditionally taken to be the plant meant in the Odyssey.
Alternatives could be: i) The Loquat Eriotrya japonica, (Pronounced ' Luo gwat ' in Cantonese), is a native of China, Himachal Pradesh Province of India and northern Pakistan. (Aithiops or "Ethiopian, '' a Greek concoction meaning "sunburnt face, '', so perhaps The ' Ethiopians ' means the ' Indians ' rather than the Africans). The Loquat is a mild sedative, because the leaves and pips contain cyanogenic glycosides that have a sedative effect lasting 24 hours, but presumably could be fatal in high dosages. ii) The apricot, Prunus armeniaca,. "Apricot kernels pose risk of cyanide poisonins '' (European Food Safety Authority. 27 April 2016). The Greek word "lotus '' means ' the fruit that brings oblivion to those who eat it '. Perhaps suggestive of the dangers of over-eating loquats or apricots.
Fenugreek seeds.
Nymphaea lotus.
Lotus corniculatus.
Nelumbo nucifera seeds.
Celtis australis.
Fresh jujube fruits.
Nymphaea caerulea.
Diospyros lotus "date - plums ''
Land of the Lotus Eaters leveled book
|
who plays rachel zane's father on suits | List of suits characters - wikipedia
Suits is an American legal drama created by Aaron Korsh and premiered on USA Network in June 2011. The series revolves around Harvey Specter (Gabriel Macht), a senior partner at a top law firm in Manhattan, and his recently hired associate attorney Mike Ross (Patrick J. Adams) as they hide the fact that Mike does not have a law degree. Each episode focuses on a single legal case and its challenges while examining the work environment of the firm, Mike 's and Harvey 's personal relationships, and problems stemming from Mike 's lack of a degree. The rest of the starring cast portray other employees at the firm: Louis Litt (Rick Hoffman), Rachel Zane (Meghan Markle), a paralegal who develops feelings for Mike; Donna Paulsen (Sarah Rafferty), Harvey 's long - time legal secretary, close friend, and confidant; and Jessica Pearson (Gina Torres), the co-founder and managing partner of the firm.
* ^ 1 Gina Torres is part of the main cast until episode 6x10. In later episodes, she is still credited as main cast, but only for the episodes in which she appears.
Harvey Reginald Specter (Gabriel Macht) is a newly promoted senior partner at the prestigious New York law firm Pearson Hardman, and is known as one of the city 's top litigators. He was born and raised in Boston. In the pilot episode, he is told of his promotion to senior partner -- the youngest to hold that position -- and is forced to hire a Harvard Law School graduate to be his associate attorney. He is impressed with Mike Ross ' quick thinking and drive to be a good lawyer, as well as his inherent ability to absorb enormous amounts of information (his eidetic memory) and his extensive knowledge of law. Mike, however, does not have a law degree, but is hired anyways because Harvey does not want to waste time interviewing less promising candidates. Mike reminds Harvey of a younger version of himself, and so they agree to conspire to pretend that Mike is, in fact, a Harvard graduate. He acts as Mike 's mentor, as well as his immediate superior: although he performs these roles somewhat reluctantly and emotionally distantly at first, he later begins to show that he does care about Mike and Mike 's future as a lawyer.
Harvey began working in the mail room, went to New York University (NYU) for his undergraduate degree and Jessica Pearson later paid for his tuition at Harvard Law, from which he graduated in 1997. Though years later Jessica muses to him that he did not take his studies seriously, he still graduated fifth in his class. Although he intended to start his law career at Gordon, Schmidt & Van Dyke (Pearson Hardman 's previous name partners), Jessica sent him to the New York County District Attorney 's Office for mentoring and he worked as an assistant district attorney (ADA) under District Attorney Cameron Dennis (Gary Cole). While there, he met his legal secretary Donna Paulsen, who became his close friend and confidant. After two years, he discovered a case with which Dennis was suppressing evidence, and rather than report it, Harvey abruptly left the DA 's office to go into private practice at Pearson Hardman. Five years before the events of the series, while a senior associate, Jessica informs him that she has discovered an embezzler in the firm and requests that Harvey discreetly investigate; in return, he requests a promotion to junior partner upon its successful completion. With help from several other lawyers at the firm, including Louis Litt, Specter discovers that the money is being embezzled by Daniel Hardman, the founding managing partner of the firm. When Harvey discovers this, he insists that Jessica must report it to the DA; she refuses, choosing to instead confront Daniel, who claims the money is being used to fund his wife 's cancer treatments, but after further investigation Harvey discovers that in reality the money is being used to finance an affair with a colleague. Shortly afterwards, Harvey learns that his father Gordon succumbed to a myocardial infarction; though visibly devastated at this news, he mourns quietly, choosing to celebrate his promotion instead.
To win his cases, which he tries to do at all costs, Harvey will not hesitate to use unorthodox methods, including coercive persuasion, bluffing, and calling in the many favors owed to him by various influential and powerful people. Although he may be unconventional, Specter is a fair lawyer; he will not tamper with facts to win cases, and he hates any lawyer who will. Many wrongly believe that he lacks in integrity and expect that he will break the law to win; these incorrect assumptions helped him win a case by bluffing the opposing counsel into believing he was willing to commit perjury to win, while having no such intention whatsoever.
In stark contrast to the methods of Louis Litt, Specter strongly prefers out - of - court settlements over going to court; Harvey 's longstanding belief is that a courtroom has too many variables for him to be able to control, a tenet that was instilled into him by DA Cameron Dennis, his mentor. Despite the fact Jessica Pearson, his immediate superior, is much more cautious and tends to favor less risk over greater reward, Specter ignores her instructions, openly challenges her decisions, and does as he wants. Although Harvey generally wins his cases to far greater profit than had he followed Pearson 's instructions, his risky methods tend to perpetuate her belief that he needs to remain on a leash. Harvey places his own interests above those of his colleagues, although his job performance always benefits his clients, and, by extension, Pearson Hardman and its employees. He dislikes cases pro bono publico, most likely due to their simplicity; generally, he will assign such cases to Mike Ross. On occasion, however, Specter will waive his right to collect legal fees for less wealthy clients; in these cases, he insists that this be kept secret for the sake of his reputation.
He has a rivalry with Louis Litt that began when they were associates; though Harvey feels superior to Louis and often mocks him, he respects Louis, acknowledging his financial expertise and commitment to the firm, and considers him a skilled lawyer. This rivalry is later shown to be friendly; Louis characterizes it as similar to that between Ralph the Wolf and Sam the Sheepdog in the Looney Tunes cartoons. Louis, in turn, reluctantly realizes Harvey 's value to the firm. In a Season 2 episode, Louis (standing in for Travis Tanner) humiliates Donna on the witness stand in a preparatory mock trial, and Harvey confronts Louis afterwards, stating that Louis has taken their rivalry too far. Louis fires back that, although the experience pained him greatly, he did it to accurately portray the lengths Tanner would have gone to in court if the case had gone to trial.
He never becomes emotionally attached to his clients, either; he performs his work with cold professionalism, rarely showing emotional attachment to his client. However, Harvey expresses a strong loyalty for those who have been loyal to him, such as Donna, his longtime secretary, Ray Benghazi, his chauffeur, and (eventually) Mike Ross, his associate. When confronted about his emotional distance, he states that caring makes a person appear weak, and that a lawyer who shows feelings gets trampled. Because of this belief, he never shows any vulnerability, even to romantic interests.
Harvey has several female romantic interests, but he has trouble committing to a long - term relationship. He attempted to have a real relationship with Dana "Scottie '' Scott in the second half of season 3, which was revealed to be a rekindling of a past relationship. But this ended in the season 3 finale when the two realized they could not handle the necessary separation between their personal and business lives.
He seems to have had a good relationship with his father Gordon Specter, a saxophone player; Gordon was immensely proud of Harvey, called him at work, and constantly wondered why his son had not been promoted to partner. It is insinuated by Travis Tanner that his mother (Lily Specter) was promiscuous, and Jessica 's statements about Harvey 's personality suggest his early life was emotionally damaging; Harvey later reveals in a conversation with Mike that Tanner 's insinuations were true. Lily repeatedly dishonored Gordon Specter (James McCaffrey), and Harvey witnessed one of these events at the age of sixteen. He kept quiet about it so as not to distress his father; his mother eventually left the family. Harvey also has a younger brother (Marcus Specter); little else is known about his past or family.
Harvey is a car and sports enthusiast, and was a star pitcher for his high school baseball team. However, a shoulder injury prevented him from pitching in the state championship; the team won without his help, a fact that has continued to haunt him. His office features an extensive vinyl record collection and a collection of signed basketballs and baseballs. He also loves Macallan single malt Scotch. He dated Elizabeth Hurley in 1998.
He constantly quotes movies, such as Top Gun, The Untouchables, The Breakfast Club, Fast Times at Ridgemont High, Silence of the Lambs, and Highlander.
Michael "Mike '' James Ross (Patrick J. Adams) is a lawyer with an eidetic memory who never attended law school. While in college, he aspired to be a lawyer and even passed the bar examination on a dare. However, he was expelled after his friend Trevor Evans convinced him to memorize a calculus test and sell it in order to pay off Trevor 's debts to a drug dealer, and they unknowingly sold the answers to the Dean 's daughter, forcing the dean to resign under scrutiny, but not before revoking Mike 's scholarship and expelling him. Since then, he began smoking marijuana and took the LSAT as a proxy for others to pay the nursing home bills of his grandmother, who raised him after his parents died when he was eleven. To keep his grandmother in the private nursing home, he agrees to deliver marijuana for Trevor. However, he discovers that the delivery is a sting operation. He escapes the police by accidentally slipping into the hotel room where Harvey Specter 's interviews for prospective associate attorneys is taking place. He impresses Harvey with his encyclopedic knowledge of law and drive to become a better lawyer than any graduate of Harvard Law School, the only school from which the Pearson Hardman law firm hires.
Harvey hires him and becomes his reluctant mentor, keeping Mike 's lack of a law degree a secret from everyone at the firm except Donna. Later, a hacker alters Harvard Law 's records to show that Mike is a graduate. Mike often comes across as naive and initially has trouble adjusting to daily life as an attorney. He often gets emotionally involved with clients and even with some opponents, a trait both Harvey and Jessica Pearson view as weakness. Despite this, Mike does not want to be a cold - hearted and emotionally distant person like Harvey.
Mike has feelings for Trevor 's girlfriend Jenny Griffith and is her boyfriend after she breaks up with Trevor. However, Jenny breaks up with him because he has feelings for Rachel Zane, a colleague. He does not want to base his relationship with Rachel on a lie, so he intends to tell her that he does not have a law degree. Harvey advises him against this, and Rachel senses Mike is hiding something and breaks up with him. He eventually does tell her but the timing is awful, as Rachel had just found out that she was denied admission to Harvard Law. She smacks Mike in the face a few times, and they have sex in the file room. Mike later takes a job as an investment banker to avoid having his fraud come back to haunt him, jeopardizing his future as well as Harvey 's.
In a third season flashback episode, it is revealed that Mike was accepted to Harvard as an undergraduate transfer student ten years before the series began; however, Trevor was caught selling a calculus test that Mike had memorized, which put him in danger of expulsion. In order to save Trevor, Mike confessed, believing the dean would n't go to such extremes in punishing him. But it is revealed the test was sold to the dean 's daughter, resulting in the university board demanding the dean 's resignation. As his last act, the dean expels Mike then further punishes him by calling Harvard to inform them of his transgressions. Thus, Mike is unable to pursue his dream, until the series began.
As season 4 begins, Mike gets his feet wet with his first case as an investment banker on a takeover with Gillis Industries. This puts he and Harvey at edge, seeing as how the other party working on the takeover, is Logan Sanders, and he is represented by Harvey and Pearson Specter. Mike boldly goes head to head with Harvey, holding his own until finally succumbing when Louis undoes a deal Mike was working with Charles Forstman for money. As a direct result of the deal with Forstman, of which Mike agreed to cut his boss Jonathan Sidwell out of, and which Forstman himself notified Sidwell, Mike was promptly fired. Before taking a job with Charles Forstman, Louis Litt, guilty over his own deal with Forstman, uses a favor with Jessica to rehire Mike to Pearson Specter. His relationship with Rachel is tumultuous during this period, finding out that she had a history with Logan and also that she had kissed him. At first they had broken off their relationship following this betrayal. Mike then relented, realizing he cared greatly for her, enough to over look the incident and he moved back in after she approached him and convinced him to do so. For the remainder of the season, Mike is in the background, doing side work, and helping solve issues as Louis Litt 's deal with Forstman falls apart. Mike, through his own compassion in the final Summer episode of Suits "This is Rome... '' returns Louis 's possessions to his house. When there, and attempting to comfort Louis, he asked about a key he found in Louis ' box of things. At first, Louis takes it as playful and dismisses him. However, after Mike asks about the key again when he failed to get Louis hired with Robert Zane, Louis is able to piece together that Mike truly is n't a Harvard graduate.
Louis Marlow Litt (Rick Hoffman) is a name partner at Pearson Hardman (later Pearson Specter Litt) who is the firm 's leading authority and expert on all financial matters and the direct supervisor of the firm 's associate attorneys. He is self - serving and often bends rules to get what he wants, including faking a positive drug test to blackmail Mike Ross. He is overly pedantic, jealous to the point of paranoia, highly suspicious, snobbish, and cruel. Louis tends to be someone who would be considered a "Wanna be '' person. Louis often fails to understand how he appears to others, honestly surprised to find people hold grudges over his behavior and that he can be hurtful. However, he highly values loyalty to his colleagues and the firm. Unlike Harvey, who is known to almost always prefer settlements to trials, Louis believes that trials are not necessarily a bad thing. He is known to be the firm 's highest billing attorney in terms of hours, and has a strong work ethic, on one occasion proving it by finishing the associates ' monthly work in a single evening. Louis has a love of Broadway, ballet, origami, mudding, tennis, and recreational gun target practice. His address is 601 E 59th St., New York City.
He has a rivalry with Harvey Specter that began when they were associates. Louis is particularly jealous of Harvey 's success and feels that his own contributions to the firm have been overlooked as a result. He was promoted to junior partner before Harvey was, but Harvey is promoted to senior partner first, a promotion Louis believes he should have gotten instead. Jessica tells him that she does appreciate his work and is able to trust him with cases that require her instructions to be carried out precisely and without question, something the brash, self - centered Harvey can not be relied upon to do. Despite his animosity toward Harvey, Louis believes that Harvey is a great lawyer and does his best to help Harvey when the good of the firm is at stake. Harvey, in return, acknowledges Louis 's value, financial expertise, and commitment to the firm, with Harvey himself expressing more than once that Louis is the firm 's hardest - working attorney.
He has been rightfully suspicious of Mike Ross ' status as a Harvard graduate since he was hired, going so far as to fake a positive drug test in an attempt to trick him into admitting it. When Harvey is accused of suppressing evidence, Louis is asked to stand - in for prosecutor (to - be) Travis Tanner in the mock trial. He uses the mock trial to confront Jessica about Harvey 's better treatment.
In the season two episode "Sucker Punch '', Louis has Mike hooked up to a lie detector (as a means of getting information about Harvey) and asks Mike where he attended law school. Mike answers that he has a diploma from Harvard Law School, which is an essentially true statement, and it seems to have eased Louis ' suspicions. As of the Season 2 episode "Asterisk, '' Louis has been promoted to senior partner by Daniel Hardman. He has the deciding vote in the firm 's managing partner vote; though he is angry with Hardman for treating him poorly in the past, he is also angry with Jessica for the way she has constantly overlooked him in recent years. He ultimately votes in favor of Hardman which gives Jessica 's position to Hardman by one vote, although this is short - lived.
After Hardman has been ousted once again and Jessica reinstated as managing partner, his relationship with Harvey is severely damaged, but Louis tries to move on. As a newly minted senior partner, Louis is entitled to hire a Harvard Law graduate as an associate attorney of his own. He becomes smitten with Maria (the secretary of her Harvard class and former US Supreme Court clerk) who accepts his offer; but by chance when she is introduced to Donna and it becomes clear that Mike 's undercover status as a fraudulent HLS graduate could be put in jeopardy, Jessica is forced to order Louis to rescind the offer, leaving him angry and embittered.
Harvey 's resentment and anger towards Louis does n't die off. In the episode "Blood in the Water '' after Hardman 's dismissal, Harvey seethingly confronts Louis in his office and accuses him (falsely) of betrayal, leaking a list of the best Pearson Hardman associates to Alison Holt at Bratton Gould. Louis emphatically insists that he did n't, which Harvey eventually accepts, but Harvey goes on to recite many of Louis 's worst transgressions against himself and Jessica as reasons not to trust Louis whatsoever: bugging Harvey 's office, leaking the CM lawsuit to Hardman (significantly damaging Jessica 's already tenuous position as managing partner with Hardman back); spying on Mike 's clandestine meeting with Monica Eaton and telling Hardman; accepting Hardman 's offer of a senior partnership, casting the swing vote for Hardman as managing partner, and once successful, sneaking into Harvey 's office and searching it after hours for information to damage Harvey 's credibility, and immediately instituting a new partner drug test policy less than 12 hours later specifically (and solely) designed to force Harvey 's resignation; all reasons to make Harvey tell him that for all intents and purposes (other than strict business required by Jessica) their relationship is finished and will never be repaired. The intensity of Harvey 's confrontation leaves Louis seriously shaken, and, convinced he has no future at Pearson Hardman, approaches Alison Holt to inquire about a moving to a position at Bratton Gould. He comes to Jessica (convinced that she sent Harvey to intimidate him into leaving) requesting her to waive the non-compete clause of his partner 's agreement so he can join Bratton Gould; Jessica does as he asks, but reveals that Harvey 's actions were not under her direction whatsoever and requests that he stay at Pearson Hardman. She also verbally acknowledges face - to - face (seriously and unprompted) for the first time that she was wrong, and (in contrast to her initial reaction in the episode "Asterisk '') that Hardman 's decision to grant Louis a senior partnership was indeed correct and well - deserved; Louis is visibly moved by this rare show of remorse (on Jessica 's part). Despite this, Louis initially decided to submit his resignation regardless, but later changes his mind and decides to stay.
Starting off Season 4, Louis is torn inside following the events of the previous season, and his former love Sheila seeming out of reach he dives into his work and into mild depression. Highly critical of his own actions, things are made more complicated by the introduction of Jeff Malone during "One - Two - Three Go... '', prosecutor for the SEC comes to Pearson Specter. Louis, still unsure of what to do, goes to Donna to advice who tells him "to wait for Jessica to come to him '' with a large offer. His secretary Katrina, however, after seeing Jeff Malone 's entrance tells Louis that if he waits, he may miss his chance, which he does. Things continue downhill for Louis, Malone being offered a senior partner position only worsens things as it was seen as an attempt to make himself obsolete. As friction between Louis and Jeff increase, Donna helps intervene on Louis 's behalf, and convinces her to give Louis, the large coveted corner office to help soothe his ego, which it does. The friction however, continues over into "Two in the knees '' as the firm becomes increasingly pressed by the SEC and Louis rebuffs Jeff 's attempt to calm the waters during the broker investigation. Louis is heavily offended by Mike, when going into a courtroom right before their hearing, when Mike shows him doctored photos of his love Sheila, seemingly being engaged, which rattles him to the core. This however, turns out to be fake and as revenge, in "Leverage '' Louis goes above Mike 's head to prevent him from getting much needed investment funds from Tony Gianopolous in the takeover war that Mike is waging with Pearson Specter over Gillis Industries. Louis attempts to patch his relationship in several episodes, failing miserably and actually putting Harvey at arms length. Defeated, and intent on proving his worth to his friend, Jessica provides him that opportunity when she offers him a chance to invalidate the sale of Wexler stocks so that the firm never bought them and prevent the SEC from being able to scrutinize the firm further. Louis finds a loophole, and instead of waiting for Jessica 's approval or consulting Harvey, he unwinds the sale and puts the deal, which at that moment takes Harvey off his feet as he was just using those shares of Wexler to try and leverage a deal with Forstman, who had as a result of Louis 's actions purchased them already on the open market.
Louis, feeling bad and guilty for betraying Harvey; albeit without knowing it, is intent on fixing the problem. Going to Forstman, Louis makes a deal with Forstman to sell the shares to Logan Sanders, Harvey 's former client through the Gillis takeover arc. Only after this does Louis confide in Katrina that in order to do the deal, he had to funnel money through offshore accounts, which amounted to Tax Evasion, and is a felony. While impressing Harvey, the sale wracks on Louis 's nerves as he frantically searches for a way to undo the deal when Forstman then seals him into it, by forcing Louis to take a payoff as "incentive '' to not rat him out or turn on him over the deal.
Louis, still enraged from his Forstman deal and seemingly at his own pity, is offered a reward from Jessica for his save - the - day move. Originally, he chooses that he wants to finally be named partner in the firm, which Jessica says is still off the table. He then chooses to get more vacation and work - from - home time, giving him an opportunity to fix things with Sheila. However, after encountering Mike on his way to take a job with Forstman which Louis interrupts, he instead uses his reward from Jessica to rehire Mike and prevent him from taking a job with Forstman.
Hoping the Gillis deal is behind them, Louis buries his fee receipt deep in the Gillis files, but then is immediately dismayed when Mike informs him of Sean Cahill 's attempt from the SEC to get the Gillis takeover files. This panics Louis as Mike proposes to turn over all Gillis files to get the SEC off their backs. Louis desperately tries to get Forstman to undo their deal, but Forstman will only agree if he can get Harvey involved in a similar deal. As Louis is there, Harvey and Mike both figure out what Louis is doing and try to find him, but in their effort, Louis has already gone to Jessica and explained what he did. As Harvey arrives she fills him in, and expresses her discontent and promises to fire Louis after the deals are done.
Louis goes then to the SEC the next day and confesses in person to Cahill, but unable to reach him, speaking to Woodall first. He is quickly rushed from the building and told by Woodall that the SEC is "only going after the big fish '' and is not interested in his confession. Louis, perplexed, returned to the office and the next morning, realizes that the reason for this is that Woodall must have made a similar deal with Forstman in the past, which if the SEC were to begin investigations on, would find that Woodall had taken money from Forstman. Louis, knowing that Jessica intends to fire him but still wanting to help, tags along with Mike and Harvey as they convince to Sean Cahill that instead of coming to Pearson Specter, that he should focus his attention on his own boss for malicious prosecution. They offer up Woodall, who plays right into their hand by denying access to his bank records.
After returning to the firm, Louis leaves his resignation in "Gone '' before Jessica has the chance to fire him. "This Is Rome '' starts with Louis coming to Harvey and asking for three of his own clients to start looking for other work in the city, but because of the company by - laws, he ca n't take them without Jessica 's approval. Louis is then given a job opportunity in Boston via Harvey, where Sheila also works. Happy and trusting, Louis goes to Sheila who quickly rebuffs his love advances as not genuine, and she dismisses him. Determined to help Louis, Mike gets him an interview with Robert Zane, Rachel 's father. Zane is impressed with Louis ' billables at Pearson Specter, but insists that Louis must steal ONE client from Harvey to get hired. Acting on a tip from Katrina, his former associate, Louis steals Versalife, a client that Harvey would possibly have to drop due to antitrust complications. Harvey however, with Mike 's assistance, approaches Walter Gillis and convinces him to buy a division of Versalife, thus getting Pearson Specter under the antitrust threshold. Mike returns the contents of Louis ' office to him and attempts to console him. In doing so, Mike drops a clue that accidentally gives away his secret about never attending Harvard. Mike asks about a key in Louis ' box several times. Louis then explains the significance of the key, that it is an item given to Harvard graduates of the Order of the Coif. After Mike leaves, Louis deduces that Mike, as a magna cum laude graduate of Harvard Law, should have known about the key. (The key is fictional; Harvard Law School does not have a chapter of Order of the Coif.)
Taking his allegations to Jessica in the final scenes of "This Is Rome '', Louis angrily gets her to admit to being a liar and a hypocrite with regard to Mike. He demands to be named partner, and in a tense standoff, stammers out the name "Pearson - Specter - LITT! ''
Rachel Elizabeth Zane (Meghan Markle) is a paralegal who has worked at Pearson Hardman for six years (as of season 4). She is at first Mike Ross ' friend, and she later develops romantic feelings for him. She aspires to be an attorney, but she suffers from test anxiety and can not score well enough on the LSAT. Mike tries to help her score higher on the LSAT, but she learns that he used to take tests for others when she inadvertently tries to hire him to take the test for her.
Late in Season 1, she kisses Mike, leaving him confused about his feelings for her. She later leaves him a voice - mail, which Mike never hears. However, Mike 's girlfriend Jenny learns about it and become suspicious about Mike 's feelings for Rachel. After Rachel goes on a double - date with Mike and Jenny, Jenny breaks up with Mike, opening the door to a relationship between Mike and Rachel. However, the relationship ended before it started as Rachel sensed that Mike was hiding something and broke up with him.
Her father, Robert Zane, is a name partner at Rand, Calder, and Zane, a fact she does not want people to know. Her family is wealthy, but she lives on her own income to prove a point to her father, who always wanted a son and who has told her multiple times that she should consider another career. She is a foodie and loves ballet. However, she does stun Mike with the revelation that she has n't seen classic movies like "Casablanca '' or "Citizen Kane, '' dismissing them as "old. ''
In a season 2 episode, Rachel is seen taking the LSAT after work. (However, none of the actual LSAT exams are administered in the evening.) Rachel eventually gets a 172 on her LSAT, passing the criteria to gain admission into Harvard Law. It is revealed late in season 2 that, despite her score and being a legacy via her father, she does not rate highly enough among all the applicants to get into the next semester 's Harvard Law class. Louis discovers this and, to spare Rachel 's feelings, blames it on his affair with Sheila Sasz going badly.
The season 3 episode "She 's Mine '' reveals that Rachel has been admitted into Columbia Law School. Two episodes later, she learns she was also accepted into Stanford Law School, much to the chagrin of Mike who does not want her to move 3,000 miles away. She finally decides to attend Columbia Law School to stay close to Mike and also work as a part - time associate at the firm. In season 4, Rachel replaces Mike as Harvey 's associate, but is often snubbed and mistreated by him, unlike Mike. Harvey is involved in keeping together Logan Sanders ' company, who is revealed to be Rachel 's ex-boyfriend. After a series of events Rachel and Logan share a passionate kiss, which makes her guilty and she immediately confesses to Mike, who is hurt and leaves her for a while. At the end of the season Mike proposes Rachel for marriage. In season five, Rachel continually struggles to keep Mike 's secret from her parents. When Mike 's former love interest Claire turns out to be the opposite attorney on Mike 's first case as a senior partner, Rachel handles the entire case on Mike 's behalf and ultimately has to beg Claire for keeping Mike 's secret. When Mike gets arrested, Anida Gibbs tries to get Rachel to testify against Mike and Harvey by using her contacts with Rachel 's professor, threatening her entire career. When Mike decides to settle with Anida Gibbs, he decides to marry Rachel, however changing his decision at the last moment out of guilt leaving her in her wedding dress. In season six, Rachel 's abilities as a lawyer are put to test when she handles an innocence project and against all odds saves Leonard Bailey from getting hanged for a crime that he did n't commit. Later she is given assurance by Louis that she will be admitted as a Second year associate after her graduation. However her career is once again threatened when in midst of a plan to get Harvey 's help, an ethics board member refuses her the opportunity to pass the bar although Harvey later saves her. She also constantly supports Louis through his tempestuous relationship with Tara and is the only one holding him through his trauma when it ends.
Donna Roberta Paulsen (Sarah Rafferty) is Harvey Specter 's legal secretary, close friend, and confidant. She has worked with him since his first year as an Assistant District Attorney, and she left the DA 's office with him to work with him at Pearson Hardman. She listens in on all the conversations in his office, partially because he never turns the intercom off. She knows the private details of his personal life and relationships. She is also an integral part of Harvey 's pre-trial ritual.
Donna, like Harvey, is brashly confident and self - assured, but unlike Harvey, she is able to understand her own feelings well and intuitively understand the feelings of others around her and how those people 's feelings are reflected through their corresponding actions. She often explains Harvey 's feelings to him when he is on the verge of making a gut decision with significant potential for future repercussions for him or his relationships with his clients or co-workers. She often also takes pride at knowing things before Harvey asks for them, and is usually able to out - think everyone, except for Harvey, who is usually able to quickly discern when Donna has an ulterior motive and makes a point of calling her out on it, despite her efforts to prevent him from doing so.
Donna is considered the best legal secretary in New York City, and she carries enough power in the firm to intimidate senior partner Louis Litt, especially since she remembers most of Louis ' indiscretions. Mike Ross often comes to her when he thinks he needs help, and she mocks him because he does not really need help; when Mike actually needs help, she provides all the assistance she can. She often jokes that she knows everything, and she is witty and has sardonic sense of humor. Whenever she solves a seemingly impossible problem for Harvey, Louis or Mike, they inevitably ask how she did it and she often gives the simple response, "I 'm Donna. ''
Donna is friends with Rachel Zane. During a conversation with Mike in Season 2, it is implied that Donna once had romantic feelings for Harvey. In an earlier conversation with Rachel, she says that she was never romantically involved with Harvey because if the relationship did not work out, she could not continue working for him. However, it is revealed that she once had a boyfriend who broke up with her because she placed her working relationship with Harvey over her romantic relationship with her boyfriend. When she learns that Harvey believes she loves him, she tells him that despite what she once told him, she loves him "like a brother or a cousin. ''
In the Season 2 episode "Break Point '', Donna found that she signed in an allegedly buried document and then lost it. When she finds it, she succumbs to pressure from outside counsel and illegally destroys it, exposing and causing trouble for the firm; She is soon after fired by Jessica Pearson for her actions. Afterwards, Donna is furious with Harvey because he did not fight aggressively for her job, did not fire her himself, and never personally called her. She hires her own attorney and intends to plead the Fifth in the trial. She refuses to participate in the mock trial, even though Harvey asks her in person. Mike eventually convinces her, but she declines to answer any questions as she intended. Louis, playing the part of prosecutor, asks her if she loves Harvey. She tries to say that she can not answer with a simple yes or no, but Louis aggressively pursues a simple answer. When Harvey comes to her defense and ends the questioning, she leaves without a word and is later furious with Mike for not anticipating that Louis would ask such a question. At the end of the episode "High Noon '', when it is revealed that Hardman forged and planted the document that Donna allegedly signed, Harvey resolves to get Donna her job back. Though she is initially upset with Harvey for defending her against Louis and letting Louis believe she loves Harvey, she returns to the firm after Harvey admits he needs her.
In season 3, Donna begins a romantic relationship with Darby 's fixer, Stephen Huntley. The morning after their first date, she goes to the copy room to flirt with Stephen, leaving Harvey to ask where she was upon her returning to her desk. Not wanting to tell Harvey about her and Stephen dating, she simply says she was helping Stephen with some copying, leaving Harvey to sternly remind her, "You work for me. ''
In the fifth episode of the third season, when Donna tells Harvey that she 's sleeping with Stephen; though visibly a bit uneasy, he responds that it is ultimately a matter of indifference to him, so long as Donna keeps it fully separate from her life and work in the office, where she is responsible only to him, to which she fully agrees. Later though, in the season 3 episode "The Other Time '', Harvey admits that her relationship with Stephen does aggravate him.
In the sixth episode of the third season, it is revealed that Harvey and Donna slept together once when he quit the DA 's office 10 years ago, since Donna had told him she does n't date people she works with and they did n't work together any longer (for the time being). When Harvey was promoted at Pearson Hardman, he tells her he needs her there and that he does n't want to be a lawyer without her. She decides to accept his offer to be his secretary and they both agree that they will forget their night together, and from there starts the mysterious can - opener tradition.
After remembering all they 've been through, Harvey admits to Donna that her relationship with Stephen does bother him but implies that it does not mean he wants her for himself. She tells him she knows and says, "This is exactly why I had that policy. '' When he asks her why she changed it for Stephen, she replies, "Because I have to live my life, Harvey. ''
In season 4, Donna falls into significant legal jeopardy when she illegally acquires evidence from Mike and it forces Harvey and her to put the problem of defining their relationship under a microscope. Harvey has often said that he loves her, but it often leaves Donna perplexed and upset with Harvey, who is unwilling to outwardly move past it strictly platonic emotion and show a romantic interest because of the vulnerabilities it would force him to be exposed to. Donna eventually realizes that she can not deal with this never - ending lack of definition to their relationship, and decides to leave Harvey to go to work for Louis, whose previous secretary had just died in the season finale. Season 5 starts where the previous one leaves off, with Harvey feeling gutted and abandoned. He angrily rebuffs her offer of a standard 2 - week transitional period to look for a replacement.
In season 6, Donna works with office I / T guy Benjamin to develop a digital personal assistant featuring her quips and advice. While their efforts to market the device are frustrating and ultimately fail, the experience inspires Donna to want more out of her career at PSL. In season 7, she demands that Harvey give her a "seat at the table '' as a senior partner. Harvey initially agrees, but later says it wo n't work because it dilutes what it means to be a senior partner at the firm. Donna agrees but now has a new demand: she wants to be Chief Operating Officer (COO).
Jessica Lourdes Pearson (Gina Torres) is the co-founder, name / managing partner of Pearson Hardman (later Pearson Darby, Pearson Darby Specter, Pearson Specter, and finally Pearson Specter Litt). She received her undergraduate degree from Vassar College on a full scholarship, graduated second in her class from Harvard Law, served on the Law Review, and did one year as the first black female clerk in the Third US Circuit Court of Appeals. Although she is well - respected, her "overbearing nature '' and "holier - than - thou attitude '', as described by Harvey Specter, often makes it difficult for those working with / for her. When faced with a dilemma, she will choose the less risky choice, although it may have diminished returns. If, in spite of this, Harvey or Mike Ross choose a riskier but more profitable course of action, she will harshly rebuke him, even if the risk pays off. Despite outward appearances, Jessica has performed unethical, immoral, and possibly illegal deeds. She takes loyalty seriously and will react badly to those who betray her as in season 1 when she discovers a good friend has been stealing from the firm for years and harshly leads a lawsuit against her.
While in college, she felt that classmate (currently a Judge) Ella Medeiros was too uptight; simultaneously they were competing for a job they both wanted. To neutralize her as a threat to Jessica 's chances she caused Ella to become heavily intoxicated and placed her in the nude while unconscious in a lecture classroom. This comes back to haunt Jessica when Ella becomes the judge assigned to a case involving her client. Whenever Jessica feels that someone is too uptight, she "straightens them out ''; to straighten Louis Litt out, she did to him what she did to Ella, and she told him to blame Harvey, to straighten Harvey out.
Jessica is in a quandary with respect to Harvey: she realizes Harvey is her greatest asset and the firm 's best rainmaker because of his willingness to do whatever it takes to win, but she has difficulty controlling him and she can not trust him to do exactly as she instructs. Jessica is divorced from Quentin Sainz, a pharmaceutical chemist and businessman who was diagnosed with ALS, and later dies in the third - season episode ' Yesterday 's Gone '.
At the end of Season 1, Trevor Evans tells her that Mike does not have a law degree and Harvey is protecting Mike. When Jessica investigates, she discovers that Harvard 's records show that Mike has a law school diploma, but she also finds that he has no record of an undergraduate degree, convincing her that the Harvard degree is a fraud. Even though she plans to have Harvey fire Mike, she lets Mike continue working because Daniel Hardman returns to the firm and Harvey threatens to quit if Mike is fired, leaving her vulnerable to Daniel.
Jessica uses Mike 's secret against him at the end of season 2, when she has him deliberately lose a case to ensure her merger with Darby International goes through, under the threat that she will use an anonymous letter to reveal Mike 's status as an unlicensed attorney. This puts her at odds with Harvey, and even though she and Harvey work together on a case while she tries to make amends, she admits that if she had to do it all over again, she would. In the meantime, Mike cashed in a favor with the firm 's I / T specialist to gain proof that the anonymous letter came from Jessica 's hard drive, meaning Mike can now put Jessica 's career in jeopardy should she reveal his secret. With this threat lifted, Harvey plots (with Darby 's apparent compliance) to take over the New York office from Jessica. Eventually Harvey admits this to her, and their relationship is temporarily destroyed. She remains angry for a while and make that clear to both Harvey and Edward. Eventually she begins to empathize with Harvey, and as a consolation prize, makes him a name partner.
After Ava 's charges are dropped, Jessica forces Darby to begin negotiations to dissolve the merger. She agrees to waive the Harvard rule for Rachel and, after noting her long presence at the firm and overwhelming expertise as a paralegal, agrees to also pay for Rachel 's law school tuition (as she did for Harvey).
In season 4, it is revealed that Jessica had been engaging in a romantic relationship with a senior prosecutor for the SEC (Jeff Malone) for quite some time. She hires him at the firm at the beginning of the season, but insists to him that the romantic side of their relationship is finished as long as he is at the firm. She eventually relents and changes her mind on this, after Malone 's respectful but incessant forcing of emotions on her, him wanting to keep both parts of their relationship. Eventually she is forced to lie to Jeff about the truth behind Louis sudden resignation and near - immediate return, which puts their relationship on the line. When Jeff finds out that she had been lying, he breaks up with her, and resigns from the firm a few days later.
Jenny Griffith (Vanessa Ray) is Trevor Evans ' girlfriend and a close friend of Trevor 's best friend Mike Ross. Though she is Trevor 's girlfriend, she has had feelings for Mike since their first meeting and kisses him while she is still dating Trevor. She is initially unaware that Trevor is dealing marijuana. When she learns the truth, she is upset that both Trevor and Mike lied to her. She asks Mike to convince Trevor to stop dealing, but before Mike can talk to him, Trevor again lies and tells her that he stopped dealing because of his conversation with Mike. Mike tells Jenny that the conversation never happened, and she breaks up with Trevor. She is happy to learn that Mike is working as a lawyer and keeps the fact that he does not have a law degree secret. She agrees to act as a witness in Mike 's mock trial, and they begin their relationship while practicing for the trial. However, Trevor tells her about a voice - mail Rachel Zane left for Mike, and Jenny becomes suspicious of Mike 's true feelings for Rachel. After meeting Rachel on a double date, Jenny breaks up with Mike to allow him to pursue a relationship with Rachel.
Trevor Evans (Tom Lipinski) is a marijuana dealer and a computer programmer of dubious skill. He is also Mike Ross ' best friend and is Jenny Griffith 's boyfriend. He has become financially well - off dealing drugs, but he allows Jenny to believe that he makes his money through computer programming. In the pilot episode, a cash - strapped Mike agrees to deliver drugs for Trevor, but Trevor accidentally sends him into a sting operation. Mike stops talking to Trevor, partially because of the operation and partially because his boss Harvey Specter orders him to do so, and their friendship begins to deteriorate. Because Trevor refuses to stop dealing drugs, Jenny breaks up with him. In the episode "Bail Out '', Trevor is held for ransom, and Harvey rescues him. Mike then buys Trevor a bus ticket to Montana, where Trevor stays for most of the season. He later returns and helps Harvey and Mike intimidate a witness into telling the truth. However, Trevor learns that Mike and Jenny are dating through a voice - mail Rachel Zane left Mike. Angry, he tells Jenny about the voicemail, casting doubt over Mike 's feelings for Rachel, and tells Jessica Pearson that Mike does not have a law degree in the season 1 finale. At the end of the season 2 premiere, Mike meets in person with Trevor, who threatens to ruin Mike 's life more than he already has. Mike responds by revealing that he knows Trevor 's social security number and will use the information against Trevor if the need arises.
In Seasons 2, 3, and 4, Trevor reappears, but only in flashback episodes.
In Season 5, Trevor reappears in the present, meeting Mike for a drink at a bar to discuss Mike 's wedding. Trevor apologizes and takes responsibility for his actions at their last encounter in person (Season 2, episode 1). Trevor explains to Mike that, though he graciously appreciates the invitation, he can not attend because his wife has forbid him from staying in contact with anyone from his past who was associated with him and his criminal activities, and that Mike 's current status as a fraudulently licensed (and practicing) attorney fits that category. Later in the season, he appears as a witness for the prosecution against Mike, after promising Mike that he would n't. Trevor insists that he had no choice but to comply with Anita Gibbs (the ADA prosecuting the case) and that she showed him that they had an airtight case. While on the stand, Harvey is able to destroy his credibility and testimony in open court, pointing out that Trevor has a long criminal past, his girlfriend (Jenny) left him for Mike once she found out he was dealing, and that he is only appearing because he was promised immunity.
Edith Ross (Rebecca Schull) is Mike Ross ' paternal grandmother and guardian after his parents ' deaths. Mike placed her in a nursing home after she fell while she was alone. To pay for a private nursing home and keep her out of a state facility, he began taking the LSAT for others and accepts a temporary job dealing marijuana for his friend Trevor Evans. Edith dislikes Trevor and referred to him as an anchor dragging Mike down. She knows that Mike has been smoking marijuana and only wants him to live up to his potential. She dies at the end of the season two episode "Asterisk ''.
In seasons 3, 4 and 5, Edith reappears, but only in flashback sequences.
Kyle Durant (Ben Hollingsworth) is an associate attorney at Pearson Hardman during season 1. He is a favorite of Louis Litt, under whom all the associates work, and Louis frequently pits him against Mike Ross, the protégé of Louis ' own rival Harvey Specter. Louis comments to Harvey that the rivalry between Kyle and Mike reminds him of their own rivalry as associates. Kyle is arrogant and lacking in morals, going so far as to renege on an oral settlement agreement in a mock trial against Mike and then mocking him in a whisper. When Rachel Zane needed a date for her double date with Mike and his girlfriend late in season one, she asks Kyle to go with her though she knows about Kyle and Mike 's rivalry, and Mike suspects she was using Kyle to make Mike jealous. The character did not appear after season 1, with no mention of what happened to Kyle.
Harold Gunderson (Max Topplin) is a former associate attorney at Pearson Hardman. Harold is socially awkward, sensitive, and his infatuation with Rachel Zane is not reciprocated and makes her uncomfortable. He gets along well with Mike Ross, and the two are sometimes seen working together. Louis Litt tends to treat Harold poorly; Louis verbally abuses Harold and once forced him to watch over his ill cat even after discovering that Harold is severely allergic to cats. Despite Harold 's clumsiness and seemingly poor legal skills, he was actually a very good student at Harvard, confiding to Mike that it is only Louis ' domineering management that makes him appear flustered and incompetent. Louis eventually fires Harold in the wake of clients leaving the firm. However, through his connections with Jimmy, a former Pearson Hardman associate, Mike is able to get Harold a new job at Jimmy 's new firm Bratton Gould.
Harold resurfaces in season 3, as the attorney asked by Mike to represent the foreign nationals who are witnesses in the pending Ava Hessington murder trial, getting the witnesses to settle on an undisclosed amount in a civil suit so that they would therefore not be called as witnesses in the murder trial. He later appears in a mock trial as a witness called by Nigel Nesbitt, testifying against Louis. But the move backfires when Rachel (acting as Louis ' "lawyer '') gets Harold to admit that Louis actually prepared him quite well to be a successful lawyer at Bratton Gould. Harold 's deal with Mike in the Hessington case gets them both investigated by the New York Bar Association at the end of season 3. Ironically, it is Louis who gets Harold released.
Jimmy Kirkwood (Pooch Hall) is a former associate attorney at Pearson Hardman who works at Bratton Gould as of season 2. Jimmy came from a working - class background, made his own way to get accepted into Harvard Law, graduate and become an associate attorney at Pearson Hardman, having been hired around the same time as Mike Ross. First appearing in the season 1 episode ' Undefeated ', Jimmy leaks a confidential witness list to a rival law firm Wakefield Cady, in exchange for a junior partnership; Jimmy has very large outstanding law school debts. His actions cause the firm 's leadership to suspect Rachel Zane as the source of the leak and get her temporarily suspended. Mike goes to Benjamin, and makes a wager to convince Benjamin to reveal the name of the person who came to him asking for the confidential employee codes which identify individual employees who use the firm 's resources for personal reasons. Benjamin comes to Mike later to make good on the favor, and as he walks away, addresses Jimmy as "Louis '' indicating that Jimmy had posed as Louis to Benjamin in order to get the employee codes. Mike is able to deduce this and confronts Jimmy, who eventually admits to leaking the list. Mike gives him an ultimatum: either he comes forward and admits to leaking the list, or Mike will turn him in. It is never shown that Jimmy or indicated comes forward, but Rachel gets reinstated, and the next time Jimmy appears, it is in the season two episode "Blood in the Water '' he is working for Bratton Gould. Jimmy does not appear again until the season five episode "Compensation '', in which he asks for Mike 's help in a personal matter.
Dana "Scottie '' Scott (Abigail Spencer) was Harvey 's on - and - off again girlfriend at Harvard and rival in the professional world. She graduated first in their class at Harvard Law. She also clerked for a US Supreme Court Justice. She works at Edward Darby 's London based international law firm. She first appears as the opposing counsel in a merger that Harvey 's client, Jones (a British - born luxury hotel chain proprietor) is seemingly eager to complete with Scottie 's client Daniel Vega, which Harvey believes he is pushing through too hastily. When Harvey discovers Scottie is opposing counsel he is taken aback and becomes incredibly cautious, wary of Scottie 's methods. Scottie tries to con Harvey into believing that her client wants to merge when in reality it is a hostile takeover in disguise. When Harvey discovers this, he instructs his client to immediately put his hotel chain 's most valuable assets on the market, foiling her plan and making the advantages of a hostile acquisition disappear. Harvey then confronts her about it. Embarrassed, she pleads with him to not go through with it, knowing that it would make her look very foolish and risk her losing her client. Harvey agrees, in exchange for her admitting her mistake to both parties of the deal, who reconcile with each other and agree to go back to the original negotiations stipulating a merger. Vega ends up terminating her services and firing her anyways following the deal 's closing.
In Season 2 she returns, offering her firm 's cooperation and resources on a multi jurisdictional class action lawsuit and, after its success, creates a merger situation that will make both Harvey and herself name partners at the merged Darby / Pearson firm. But because of inside information she gave to Harvey and Mike to help them beat Jessica, Darby personally fires her. Eventually Harvey convinces Darby to keep Scottie, insisting that without her, Darby would n't have the merger. Darby gives Harvey the option of where to send Scottie; he eventually decides to have Darby send her back to London instead of remaining in New York as she desired.
In Season 3, Harvey begins an "official '' romantic relationship with Scottie while also convincing Jessica to offer her a senior partnership at the firm. But this is short lived, ending in the season 3 finale when the two realized they could not handle the necessary separation between their personal and business lives.
In season 4, Harvey goes to Scottie to fulfill a favor to Robert Zane, asking her to settle her case against him. She initially refuses, but after a genuine plea from Harvey, she relents and agrees to do so.
In season 5, Harvey and Mike go to Scottie to see whether it was her who had reported Mike for being a fraud.
Travis Tanner (Eric Close) is a rival lawyer of Harvey 's. He is introduced in the season - one episode "Undefeated '' as a senior partner at Clyde McPhee, a firm in Boston. He received both his undergraduate and law degrees from Yale, with honors in both. He was a junior tennis champion and played at Yale as well. Before he met Harvey, Tanner had never lost a case. It is shown that he is willing to break the law to win, and he believes that Harvey is the same way. In his first case against Harvey, Tanner is initially successful (Harvey admits to Mike, "he (Tanner) has been a step ahead of me this entire time '') but Harvey soon makes a comeback. He obtains an electronic wiretap recording (from his private investigator) of Tanner admitting to witness tampering with Harvey 's plaintiffs in the case; since the wiretap was placed without a warrant, the recording is inadmissible as evidence for the case in court unless the person submitting it claims to have no knowledge of its origin. Harvey bluffs, threatening to submit an affidavit to this regard; if he had followed through on this ultimatum, Harvey would 've been authorizing the submittal to court of a sworn document making a perjurious claim, regardless of its simultaneously proving Tanner 's guilt. Tanner notes this to Harvey, but nevertheless backs down under threat of Harvey 's evidence against him and accepts the terms, signing the settlement agreement; once Tanner does this, it leaves Harvey with no need to actually submit the affidavit.
At the beginning of Season 2 he returns to the show as a senior partner at Smith Devane, a firm in New York, accusing Harvey of burying evidence in the season two episode "Discovery ''. He is determined to have Harvey disbarred and insists that it be included in the settlement. He eviscerates Harvey while deposing him, to the point where Harvey punches Tanner in the face. However, Daniel Hardman is able to blackmail him into dropping Harvey 's disbarment from the agreement. The episode "High Noon '' reveals that Hardman created the memo and told Tanner that the memo was fake, forcing the him to drop the suit. Though Tanner privately implies this to Harvey, he refuses to testify in court to this regard.
At the end of Season 3, Tanner returns as the lawyer representing Ava Hessington who is now suing the still - undissolved Pearson Darby Specter firm, and all of the people involved with her case, for malpractice. His strategy is attacking Scottie both personally and professionally. Tanner is aware that Harvey still has feelings for Scottie, and he is well aware of their past dalliances. He utilizes this as a vulnerability by humiliating Scottie while deposing her, forcing Harvey to think twice before responding while putting his ability to constrain his emotions under serious pressure, hoping that it will provoke him into intervening on Scottie 's behalf by succumbing to Tanner 's financially outrageous settlement demands. Tanner gets Stephen to sign an affidavit claiming that Scottie was complicit in the murders, but Donna is able to neutralize this. She visits Stephen in prison with Mike, then asks Mike to leave the room and gets Stephen to admit that he lied, unaware that he was being recorded. Ava later agrees to withdraw the suit.
In Season 5, Tanner appears in the episode ' Toe to Toe ' as the lawyer representing a young female entrepreneur in an intellectual property / contract dispute against one of Harvey 's clients, for whom she was a long time employee but has recently quit to start her own company. Upon taking the case, Harvey seems eager, almost giddy, about going up against Tanner, which he sees as an opportunity to strike back at someone who has caused him no small amount of pain and scrutiny, both personally and professionally. Taking into account Tanner 's skills and expertise based on their past cases against him, Mike initially reacts warily and cautions Harvey, noting that he has recently been suffering from a string of panic attacks, and that past experience against Tanner would indicate that it 's prudent to assume the upcoming case will be intense and complicated and put Harvey 's psychological endurance under serious pressure. But instead, Tanner, claiming to be a changed man, displays a marked difference from his well - known cocky and brashly confident personality, instead conducting himself as a consummate professional: relatively mild - mannered and humble, and reacting instead of immediately attacking, though still confident in his own abilities. Harvey refuses to believe it, and continues to use a combative nature, both during litigation and physically (punching Tanner in the face out on the street outside the office). Eventually, as the case continues, Mike starts to see that Tanner is no longer attacking Harvey indiscriminately or below the belt (as in their past cases), only responding as a veteran attorney might be expected to react to Harvey 's disproportionate attacks. He comes to the conclusion that Tanner may be acting honestly, but because of past experiences Harvey is unwilling to take Tanner at his word and agree to his initial settlement offer, which Harvey himself admits to Mike in private is relatively fair, but still refuses to consider as a possibility because Tanner is the one presenting it. Mike realizes that Harvey 's emotions are guiding his judgment, and he meets with Tanner privately without Harvey 's knowledge, and convinces Tanner to voluntarily remove himself as the case 's attorney of record, and allow Katrina Bennett to replace him. Mike then takes the first offer back to Harvey, who immediately agrees to take the deal once Mike points out that Tanner is no longer involved.
Cameron Dennis (Gary Cole) is the former New York County (Manhattan) District Attorney. Jessica sent Harvey to the Manhattan DA 's office to be mentored by Cameron straight after graduating from Harvard Law. He had a history of altering the evidence in cases to ensure high conviction rates, even at the cost of sending the innocent to jail. In season one he makes a deal with the state attorney general 's office to save himself by selling out Harvey. It is n't until Donna secretly presents evidence to Jessica of Cameron 's past malfeasance behind Harvey 's back that Jessica is able to force Cameron into changing his deal with the AG 's office and resign from his position as DA, saving Harvey.
In season 3, Dennis returns (with a personal vendetta against Harvey) after being appointed as the special prosecutor in the US Attorney 's case against Dr. Ava Hessington and her oil company, and he later brings murder charges against her when six dissidents are killed by the foreign colonel she bribed. He admits to Harvey that he took the case as retribution for Harvey 's "betrayal '' of him when he was forced to resign from his post as DA, when in reality Harvey knew nothing about Donna 's actions at the time (and was furious with her once he did) until long after Cameron had stepped down. Jessica visits him and tells him that Harvey did n't betray him and that he should be mad at Jessica and not take it out on Harvey 's client. Cameron realizes Jessica 's implication that it was Donna (' the redhead '), but claims it 's irrelevant as Harvey did nothing to prevent Jessica from using the evidence against him; Jessica replies, "so after you threw him under the bus and I saved him, he should 've thrown himself back under the bus? '' Dennis ignores the question, claiming that "you (Jessica) just do n't get it! '', going on to imply that Jessica (as he has to Harvey in the past) has no right to point out occasional indiscretions in the morality of his methods, given that she is an expensive attorney for the wealthy while he is a state prosecutor (with a mediocre salary in comparison) serving the public interest.
The battle between Harvey and Cameron continues for the rest of the first half of the season, through litigation and eventually to trial, until Darby convinces Harvey to go to Cameron with a deal: drop the charges against Ava, Darby will plead guilty to five years probation, and will testify at Stephen Huntley 's murder trial. Cameron agrees to the deal, but Jessica convinces him to allow her to slip in an additional provision: Darby also must forfeit his legal license and agree to initiate dissolution negotiations. Darby reluctantly agrees to the final deal.
Daniel Hardman (David Costabile) is the co-founder of Pearson Hardman, former managing partner, and former mentor of Jessica. Five years before the events of the series, he had been secretly embezzling money from the firm 's clients. When confronted, he told Jessica that he needed the money to afford breast cancer treatments for his wife Alicia. However, Harvey and Donna discover that the money is financing Daniel 's affair with a colleague. Once this is discovered, Harvey deemed Daniel a liability and forced Daniel to resign and name Jessica as his successor by threatening to tell Alicia about the affair. Daniel resigns to prevent his wife 's distress. Daniel first appears in the season two premiere following Alicia 's death. He returns to the firm, this time working under Jessica instead of above her. Though he is a self - professed "changed man '', Harvey and Jessica are not convinced. His role at the firm is more like a guide and voice of logic rather than a disciplinarian. Though he disagrees with Jessica 's decision to fight for Harvey when he is accused of suppressing evidence rather than settle and lose Harvey, he does not go against her decision and urges her to prepare for the trial. He has a strong work ethic and is willing to work around the clock to accomplish a goal. At the end of "Sucker Punch '', he takes advantage of the partners ' apparent lack of faith in Jessica and requests a leadership vote to regain control of the firm. He wins the vote in "High Noon '', but Harvey and Mike discover that Hardman forged the supposedly buried memo and orchestrated the lawsuit against the firm. When this is revealed at a partners meeting, Hardman is voted out of the firm. Though he agrees to not sue the firm in return for Jessica not revealing the incident and signing a confidentiality agreement, he tells her that this is not the end of their battle.
Hardman later returns to battle his old firm as a contractor, working for Rachel 's father, Robert Zane, representing the name defendant in a class action gender discrimination lawsuit being led by Harvey against Folsom Foods, Robert Zane 's client. Daniel manipulates the situation and the confidentiality agreement that Jessica signed on the night of his expulsion to get Monica Eaton to sue Jessica Pearson simultaneously for wrongful termination, knowing that the combined assault will box the firm into a corner and damage its credibility; as Harvey insists to Jessica, "you ca n't be the name defendant in a gender discrimination case while we 're suing Folsom Foods for the same thing! ''. His efforts to drain Jessica 's resources and ruin what is left of her firm by having Monica file suit against Jessica are thwarted by Jessica 's decision to merge with Darby 's firm, giving her an insurmountable advantage in resources and (not including Darby learning of Daniel 's prior embezzlement from to the due diligence required for merger negotiations, nullifying the confidentiality agreement 's repercussions). He later appears in season 4 during a flashback episode.
In season 5, Hardman returns to make another run at taking back control of the firm from Jessica. He first appears when Jessica confronts him about having helped Jack Soloff to land Fletcher Engines as a client. He insists that Jack came to him looking for advice on Fletcher, with no ulterior motives or intentions against the firm itself; Jessica refuses to believe him. In the episode ' Uninvited Guests ' Jack Soloff tries to convince the firm 's senior partners to let Hardman back into the firm on a trial basis in exchange for sharing the revenues from a billion dollar client that Hardman just recently signed. It is later revealed that the client is the disgraced billionaire Charles Forstman, now incarcerated. Harvey is able to thwart all of Hardman 's funding by agreeing to resign from the firm.
Sheila Sazs (Rachael Harris) is a high - level official in the Harvard Law School placement department, whose job is to place graduates as associate attorney positions at law firms. As such, she works with recruiters from top law firms such as Pearson Hardman, always trying to get maximum return for her graduates. She and Louis have had an on - off sexual relationship, and she appears to be turned on by his power, especially after he makes senior partner. Louis ' relationship with Sheila helps him discover that there is no record of Mike Ross attending Harvard Law. Sheila and Louis get engaged in Season 3, but break up soon after when they discover they want very different things after marriage. Louis returns to Sheila in the wake of being fired from Pearson Specter in season 4, stating that he has secured a job in Boston and that they can finally be together. But Sheila rejects Louis ' offer of reconciliation, feeling that it was work circumstances, more than love, that brought him back. In season 5, it is revealed that Sheila leaked the information to Anita Gibbs that got Mike arrested for fraud.
Monica Eton (Gina Holden) is a former senior associate attorney at Pearson Hardman, who was Daniel Hardman 's mistress. She first appears in the second season flashback episode ' Rewind '. Five years before the events of Season 1, Monica was a senior associate at Pearson Hardman and a close friend of Rachel Zane. Louis Litt had a huge crush on her, waiting for her outside her office, following her in the hallways, and perpetually asked her out despite the fact that she rebuffed and rejected him again and again. He also followed her outside the office; he would sit and stare at her while she took her lunch at a nearby diner, and follow her home. When Rachel Zane notices this, she mentions to Monica that there are legal avenues to prevents this; Monica dismisses this with reassurance, saying that ' the day I need laws to protect myself from Louis Litt is the day I stop being a lawyer '. Throughout this time, she is conducting a clandestine affair with the firm 's managing partner; during Harvey 's investigation of Daniel Hardman 's embezzlement, Rachel mentions to Donna that Monica is absent every Tuesday for pilates, coincidentally at the same time when Hardman is absent from the office weekly for lunches at the Harvard Club, which he claims (later found out to be falsely so) to Jessica is in reality taking his wife to chemotherapy. Donna tells Harvey, who investigates and deduces that the money he 's been embezzling is actually for supporting his affair with Monica; Harvey forces him into resigning by threatening to tell his wife, and name Jessica as his successor. Despite lacking evidence of Monica 's complicity in the embezzlement, Jessica deems Monica a liability and demands her immediate resignation from the firm, which Louis Litt accepts from Monica on Jessica 's behalf.
Monica returns in the second half of the second season as the main plaintiff in a wrongful termination suit against Jessica Pearson, and hires Daniel Hardman as her attorney, who manipulates the suit by intentionally stalling the proceedings and dragging it out, stretching the firm 's resources to the limit. Hardman admits this to Harvey, but insists that it is on behalf of Monica. Approached by Mike, Monica later agrees to settle the wrongful termination suit against Jessica.
Katrina Bennett (Amanda Schull) is a fifth - year associate attorney recently hired at Pearson Hardman. She first appears in the season two episode "Blind - Sided '' as an assistant district attorney in the Manhattan DA 's office, assigned to prosecute a hit - and - run accident case involving the son of a longtime client of Harvey 's. She offers Mike a deal on the case in exchange for Mike putting in a good word for her with Harvey, indicating her desire to leave the DA 's office and enter private practice. She was soon after hired by Harvey, but solely to protect Mike from being investigated after he broke privilege during the case 's proceedings. Once hired, she constantly uses her "fifth '' year status to intimidate everyone beneath her at the firm; she browbeats both Rachel and Mike into following her orders as if they were her subordinates under her purview (she might outrank them in terms of seniority, but they do n't report to her and are n't required to follow her instructions). In the episode "Unfinished Business '', she desires to be involved in a case that Harvey and Mike are working on, so she sneaks into Harvey 's office while Harvey is gone and Donna is away from her desk and places a file with important (though unsolicited) research on Harvey 's desk. When confronted by Mike in Harvey 's office, she refuses to back off, only doing so after being sternly reprimanded by Donna in support of Mike. She later attempts to make amends with Mike, but he rebuffs her. Suspicious of her motives, Mike points out her mistreatment of everyone below her level at the firm since her arrival. In response, she deliberately humiliates Mike to the whole firm by creating a prank cartoon with Mike 's face attached to a baby in a stroller with a pacifier, then displays it on all the computer monitors in the entire firm by hacking the firm 's server. When confronted by Harvey, she claims to be resentful of the fact that he hired her to solve a crucial problem, but since then he completely ignores her, not giving her any cases or instructions. She insists that he should be also working with her, not only Mike.
Ultimately, her actions against Mike lead her to be left to only work with Louis, to whom she had initially refused a request to be his personal associate. Louis eventually gives in and gives her a case to work on, becoming his protege. After she and Mike are forced to work together on Louis ' case and they come up with a solution, she tells Louis that Mike deserves the credit. Katrina and Mike call a truce, though she assures him that her allegiance is now to Louis. Her loyalty to Louis gets her fired by Jessica in the Season 3 episode "Know When to Fold ' Em '', but Rachel is able to convince Jessica that Katrina was not at fault, and she is soon reinstated.
In season 4, she helps Louis navigate through the Gillis Industries takeover battle, and his dealings with Charles Forstman, even forging a document to cover up Louis 's part in the tax evasion on Forstman 's behalf. In the episode "This is Rome '', she gives the recently fired Louis information that allows him to steal a Pearson Specter client, which is a condition of Louis 's offer of a senior partnership from Robert Zane. She assumes that she will be Louis ' associate at his new firm, and is therefore not bothered when Jessica finds out and fires her -- that is, until Jessica reveals that Mike was able to win the client back, meaning Louis will not be getting the job he was promised. Later in the season, Rachel gets the presently unemployed Katrina a job at her father 's firm.
In season 5, Katrina reappears while Mike is at the offices of Rand, Kaldore, & Zane, to help him work on Mike and Robert Zane 's class - action lawsuit against Kelton Insurance. In season 6, Katrina is lured back to the struggling Pearson Specter Litt firm, after Louis convinces her she will have a much quicker path to senior partner at her old place of employment.
Robert Zane (Wendell Pierce) is Rachel 's father, a well known Harvard - educated attorney (and former classmate of Daniel Hardman) who is a name partner at Rand, Kaldore and Zane, a powerful and respected New York law firm and a Pearson Hardman (later Specter) competitor. Rachel does n't like to let people know she is his daughter, choosing instead to prove she can make it in the legal profession without his help. Robert has not been very supportive of Rachel 's endeavors, especially when her test anxiety kept her from passing the LSAT, and he has on more than one occasion suggested that she choose another career path. Robert was the lawyer who replaced an attorney who died who was representing Folsom Foods against Pearson Hardman in a multi-case gender discrimination suit (season 2), until his daughter personally got involved with the case. That led Robert to drop the case and hire the recently dismissed Daniel Hardman to take over as an independent outside counsel for the case.
In season 3, he makes several appearances: once while hosting Mike and Rachel for dinner, and later towards the end of the season when Mike approaches him and tries to convince him to give the firm an advance on the settlement from the Folsom Foods case, in exchange for a 20 % cut in the settlement payout. He eventually agrees, but only after Mike leverages his relationship with Rachel in order to convince him to do it (to Rachel 's wrath upon her discovery), souring their relationship for a while.
In the second half of season 4, Mike approaches Zane to consider hiring Louis, who had been recently fired from Pearson Specter and was having trouble finding another job in New York. He agrees to meet with Louis, and the two of them hit it off. Upon hearing about Mike 's actions, Rachel tells him another reason why she did not want to work for her father: he is not the kind of person to whom you want to owe a favor. But when Louis tells him that he can not bring any PS clients to Zane, he responds with indifference, making a counteroffer: Zane will offer a him a senior partnership if Louis can steal a client from Jessica by breaking the Pearson Specter partnership agreement. After Mike foils Louis 's attempt to poach a client, Harvey goes to Zane and asks him to hire Louis anyway as a personal favor to Harvey. After Louis becomes a name partner, Harvey visits Zane and retracts the favor, unaware that Zane already knows that Louis was not just reinstated at the firm, but that Louis told Zane that he was also immediately made name partner, igniting Zane 's suspicions about the real reason behind Louis ' abrupt departure and near - immediate return. In light of this, Zane makes clear to Harvey that regardless of the status of Zane 's offer to Louis, Harvey still owes him a favor.
In season 5, Mike and Rachel are engaged, and Robert appears in several episodes. He tries to get Rachel to have Mike sign a prenuptial agreement, which Rachel does not want him to do. Mike tells Robert he is willing to sign it, but Rachel holds firm and refuses, nullifying it. In the episode ' Compensation ' Mike takes on a case given to him by his friend Jimmy from Bratton Gould, a pro-bono class - action lawsuit against Kelton Insurance for the negligent deaths of 200 people. Jessica refuses to provide the funding necessary to support the case 's inevitably long and complicated litigation and orders him to drop it. Mike, left without recourse, goes to Robert and asks him to take on the case. Robert agrees that Mike and he will co-counsel the case (to Jessica 's dismay) and Robert is able to persuade one of his clients, a $20 billion hedge fund, to fund the lawsuit. The case is litigated over the next 2 episodes, and eventually they are able to extract a large settlement from Kelton.
Edward Darby (Conleth Hill) is managing partner of Darby International, a law firm headquartered in London. He is Jessica 's newly named managing partner as of the Season 2 finale, following a successful merger of Pearson Hardman and Darby International. It is revealed in the Season 3 premiere that the merger caused the firm to be officially renamed Darby Pearson (Darby retains 51 % control over the combined firm, leaving Jessica as a 49 % minority stakeholder), but as a show of good faith and chivalry, Darby let the New York office 's sign read Pearson Darby. This was not only in recognition of Jessica 's contingent having been there originally, but also that Pearson 's staff, clients and influence make up the majority of the combined firm 's presence in New York.
While Daniel Hardman is representing Folsom Foods against Jessica, Darby 's intervention alone was responsible for the firm winning the case. Jessica could not reveal Daniel 's prior embezzlement to anyone on her own without violating the confidentiality agreement she signed; as part of the due diligence of the merger negotiations, Darby is given access to the firm 's financials, allowing him indirectly to learn of Daniel 's past illicit actions while nullifying the confidentiality agreement 's effects, which apply strictly to Jessica and her use of the information. (Since he learned of it legally and was n't specifically bound by the agreement himself, he can reveal the embezzlement to anyone without the repercussions of breaching confidentiality.) After he discovers the embezzlement, Darby threatens to reveal this to Daniel 's own client unless he immediately settles the case on Jessica 's terms; left without options and his own reputation at stake, Daniel is forced to advise the company to accept her settlement terms.
In season 3, Darby assigns Harvey the case of Ava Hessington and Hessington Oil. He takes this case personally partly due to two factors: the first factor being Ava 's father was his first client, and the second factor being her father was his former romantic companion. The case and the litigation involved continues for most of the third season, until it is discovered that Stephen orchestrated the killings of the protestors against the Hessington Oil pipeline in the EIR and Darby only found out after Stephen had done it, but that his discovery of Stephen 's actions had taken place before he approached Jessica with merger proposal at the end of season two. During a recess from Ava 's murder trial, Harvey finds himself boxed in without options, and Darby comes up with the idea to approach Cameron Dennis with an offer: Darby will plead to obstruction of justice and 5 years probation, in exchange for Ava 's full acquittal and Darby 's testimony at Stephen 's murder trial. Cameron agrees to the offer; but while signing the final paperwork at Pearson Darby 's offices, Edward realizes that an additional condition has been added to the terms of the settlement: forfeiture of his legal license to practice in the United States, which would consequently force him to resign his name partnership in the combined firm and agree to initiate dissolution negotiations with Jessica. Unwilling to re-involve Ava and without recourse, he caves and signs the agreement.
Nigel Nesbitt (Adam Godley) is Louis ' British counterpart, as he fills a similar role to Louis ' at Darby International. He initially tries to make a deal with Louis to ensure each will keep his job after the merger goes through. But Louis backhandedly found a way to ensure that if one or the other had to be fired, it would be Nigel. Nigel managed to keep his job as quartermaster at the new Pearson Darby, then used the position to taunt Louis. Louis meets with Darby to present his case that he, not Nigel, would serve the firm best in the quartermaster role. Ultimately, Nigel reveals that he tricked Louis into stealing the quartermaster position, so that Nigel could then take over Louis ' role and be in charge of the huge pool of associates at the combined firm. Nesbitt has cat called Mikado. His address is 3291 Belgrave Place, London.
In Season 3, Nigel and Louis cross swords repeatedly, as Louis refuses to accept having lost his post as head of the combined firm 's associates to Nigel. Louis acts as if nothing ever changed, calling his former subordinates into his office to reprimand them for mistakes in their work; though in reality they are in most cases just following Nigel 's directives. Nigel has a much more hands - off management style than Louis; He is often away on business overseas (whereas Louis is never really ever seen leaving New York or traveling on business) and issues his instructions and assigns cases through weekly memos. When Louis hears of this, he is outraged; believing that anything unlike his pedantic, humiliating, drill - sergeant manner to be an improper managerial style, he begins to regularly undermine Nigel 's authority by issuing orders and distributing assignments to the associates contrary to Nigel 's initial instructions whenever he is not physically present in the office. Louis confronts Nigel at the mud club, where he accuses Nigel of neglecting his responsibilities for overseeing the associates by not forcefully policing them. Nigel tries to explain his reasoning for his more subtle but firm approach; Louis refuses to accept any of it, and declares that he is going to continue flouting Nigel 's authority until Nigel adopts Louis 's harsh, rude and overbearing attitude, and proceeds to melodramatically storm out of the mud club. In response, Nigel retaliates at Louis by distributing a molded glass art piece engraved with the caption, "Louis Litt blew me '' on it (Louis 's own words during the confrontation at the mud club) to all of the associates, embarrassing him. This makes Louis even more angry, and he confronts Nigel, claiming that his own actions against Nigel are completely justified (him being the expert on handling the associates) while none of Nigel 's responses are. This continues for most of the third season.
Stephen Huntley (Max Beesley) is Harvey 's British counterpart, a senior partner at Darby International 's London office. He is Darby 's "fixer '' and right - hand man. Jessica tells Harvey of him, "He is to Darby what you are to me ''. After meeting him, Harvey admits to Jessica that they have much in common. He is, like Harvey, strikingly handsome and brashly confident (he also wears a handkerchief in the outer breast pocket of his suit jacket), and also appears to be fond of expensive clothing, fine dining, rare sports cars, and women. He states to everyone at the New York office (and Harvey initially) of being in town to help smooth out "cultural integration '' between the two firms. He later reveals while out to lunch with Harvey that in reality he was sent by Darby to help Harvey take over the New York office for him from Jessica. He admits to Harvey that he is intrigued by Donna saying, "she has a body like Elizabeth Hurley and the sass of a Maggie Thatcher ''. He reveals that had dated Elizabeth Hurley in 1999; Harvey states that he had dated her the year before. He is later seen, while driving a 1956 Porsche Speedster (from Harvey 's car club) attempting to ask Donna to see a production of Macbeth with Daniel Day - Lewis with him, and appears unsuccessful; but, shortly after, Donna accepts his proposal to help him with his "short - term needs '' while he is in New York, and the two go on a real date. Further on, it is revealed that Stephen administered the bribe money to Colonel Moriga on behalf of Ava Hessington, while also (unknown to Ava) ordering the Colonel to murder six leaders opposed to Hessington Oil 's pipeline. Harvey eventually cuts a deal with Cameron Dennis to have him arrested and charged with the murders, and he is publicly taken into custody while at a restaurant with Donna.
During the dissolution negotiations, while he is in prison awaiting trial, Donna and Mike visit him to convince him to recant a sworn, but false affidavit he signed at the behest of Travis Tanner, claiming that Scottie was fully aware of the murders before the initial merger negotiations. Tanner had drawn up the affidavit specifically to leverage Harvey into settling Ava 's malpractice allegations against him by targeting Scottie for eviscerating scrutiny under oath while deposing her. Donna eventually convinces him to tell the truth, which he does (once Mike has left the room) unaware that, since the entire conversation is unprivileged, it has been fully recorded; this allows Harvey to confront Tanner with recordings from the conversation and neutralize the affidavit entirely.
Dr. Ava Hessington (Michelle Fairley) is CEO of Hessington Oil, a UK - based international oil company that she took over from her father. She has PhDs in petroleum exploration and chemical engineering. The local US Attorney 's office is investigating her for bribing foreign government officials to gain access to their oil fields for a pipeline -- a crime that she admits (to Harvey) to being guilty of, but something that is considered "standard practice '' in the oil business, especially in countries that are less than politically stable. Harvey has Scottie look into her background and discovers that she bribed a corporate whistleblower in 2010, covered up an oil spill in 2008, and had an environmental study doctored in 2006. She and her father have been clients of Darby 's firm for some time, dating back to her father being Darby 's first client, as well as simultaneously being his lover. Her bribery case is assigned by Darby to Harvey, because of Harvey 's familiarity with the sitting US Attorney prosecuting the case. She remains his client after being acquitted of the bribery charges, and is later arrested for conspiracy to commit murder by Cameron Dennis (also someone Harvey is very familiar with).
After she is fully acquitted of all charges she leaves the country for a short time, but later reappears after hiring Travis Tanner to bring a relatively frivolous malpractice suit against Pearson Darby Specter, claiming Harvey 's handling of her case caused her damages and hardship, in spite of Darby and Stephen 's culpability in the murder charges and Harvey 's non-involvement. After an emotional plea and a full apology in person from Harvey, she eventually agrees to fully drop the malpractice suit (to Tanner 's grumbling dismay).
Jonathan Sidwell (Brandon Firla) is the CEO of the Sidwell Investment Group, and Mike 's boss as an investment banker for the first part of season 4. He first appears in the season 3 episode, "Conflict of Interest '' as hedge fund magnate / corporate raider Tony Gianopolous 's deputy at Gianapolous Limited Holdings (GLH). In his first scene, Louis meets with him to try to prevent Gianapolous from taking over Hessington Oil by providing proof of GLH 's investments in a wide swath of several industries, enough to draw the FTC 's attention for grounds to open an anti-trust investigation. Louis threatens to use his connections at the FTC to do so unless Gianapolous backs off; Sidwell thwarts this by pointing out that the FTC 's commissioner himself is a personal friend of Gianapolous 's and has obtained an exception in regards to the Hessington Oil situation. He next appears in the episode "Bad Faith '', once again meeting with Louis, who comes Sidwell with a proposal to reorganize all of Sidwell 's finances in a manner to allow him to legally avoid paying taxes; Sidwell, impressed by Louis 's demonstration, hires him on the spot to be his personal attorney, misunderstanding that Louis 's intention is to get GLH to decide to move all of their business to Pearson Specter. Sidwell refuses to recommend that to Gianapolous, claiming Louis 's professional stature is not significant enough to warrant his consideration. Louis goes to Harvey, knowing that his famous reputation and status as a name partner will likely be enough to convince Gianapolous, and they are successful.
In the episode "Heartburn '' with Louis recovering from his heart attack and not present in the office, Sidwell seeks out Mike for some career advice. He confides that he wants to quit GLH and move to a different company, feeling that his career progress is stalling, but is aware that his employment contract contains a non-compete clause. Mike initially refuses to help, only conceding when Sidwell makes clear of his intention to fire Louis for not being able to help him. Once Harvey discovers what he did Mike is forced to derail Sidwell 's plans, but then goes back to him with another idea, which manages to convince Gianapolous to let Sidwell go run a spun - off division as an independent investment firm which will boost the stock price of both entities.
At the beginning of Season 4, Sidwell is the founding CEO of his own investment firm and Mike 's new boss. He is portrayed as a straight - talking, concise, tough but fair boss to Mike. At the beginning, it seems that every conversation he has with Mike ends with him threatening to fire Mike unless he meets his pressing demands, but is shown later to become a bit of a mentor figure to him. In order to stay alive in the Gillis Industries takeover battle against Logan Sanders and Harvey, Mike is forced to buy 100,000 shares of Gillis Industries stock without Sidwell 's prior approval. He summons Mike, compliments him on brazenly purchasing the stock without permission but gives him one week to find someone to refund the investment and deleverage Sidwell or it will cost him his job. Eventually on realizing Mike 's plan with Forstman of sidelining him from Forstman 's investment, he fires Mike.
Eric Woodall (Zeljko Ivanek) is a recurring character in seasons 3 and 4. First appearing in the season 3 finale as the US Attorney for the Southern District of New York, he has a reputation as a prosecutor who will use his position to bend the rules of the law and deliberately target and investigate certain attorneys in private practice whom he deems "dirty ''. After finishing a case that took 4 years to complete, he sets his sights on Harvey. He sends his deputies to corner Mike Ross on the street outside the firm 's building to coerce Mike voluntarily be taken in for interrogation without having gotten an arrest warrant; This way, whatever Mike says under questioning could be self - incriminating and be used by Woodall later to make a case against Harvey, without having basis for a case to begin with. Woodall tells him that he is investigating the disappearance of the foreign nationals who were supposed to have been witnesses in the Ava Hessington case that Mike and Harold settled out of court... Mike quickly recognizes what Woodall might be trying to do and refuses to talk to him or answer any of his questions long enough for Harvey to show up and force Woodall to release him.
Woodall later formally arrests both Harold and Mike, using the Patriot Act as basis for taking them in for questioning without processing him or allowing him to call his attorney, in violation of his 4th Amendment rights, hoping that will give him enough time to pressure Harold to break down, start talking and implicate Mike. This time Louis gets wind of what 's going on and retrieves Harvey from his office before they both go downtown, hoping to get there before Harold caves. Eventually they show up just in time and manage to keep Harold from talking. As the four of them leave, Woodall stops Harvey, telling him that he wo n't be dropping the case just because Harold did n't talk. Harvey responds with indifference, saying that he will sue Woodall for malicious prosecution if he refuses to drop the case, noting that Woodall arrested Mike without letting him call his attorney, on the basis of deliberately twisting a provision of the Patriot Act and manufacturing a fabricated terrorist claim to justify doing so. It is understood that Woodall later was forced to resign from his position as US Attorney because of Harvey 's reporting his actions to Woodall 's superiors.
In Season 4, Woodall reappears, now as a senior administrator at the New York office of the SEC. He has Sean Cahill file lawsuits against 7 PS clients in order to get them to drop the firm from representation. As part of the court battle, Harvey and Jessica depose Woodall, presenting emails from a past case from while he was US Attorney as proof to support their malicious prosecution claim against him. Under pressure during Harvey 's interrogation, he admits that their proof is valid, after which Cahill immediately intervenes and ends the deposition. As they leave the conference room, he implicitly admits to Harvey that he is specifically going after him because of his vendetta against him.
Sean Cahill (Neal McDonough) is a senior SEC official and long - time friend of Eric Woodall who appears in season 4. He first appears in a meeting with Jessica and Malone at the SEC 's offices where they confront him about the SEC 's recently begun harassment of Pearson Specter 's clients, likely on behalf of Eric Woodall, and inform him of their recently filed lawsuit against him. Cahill has launched a formal investigation against 4 major New York law firms; the only reason Cahill is targeting the other firms is to back a cover story in order to specifically target Pearson Specter clients but not be accused of unfairly singling them out for extra scrutiny, but still maintain that they are being impartial. The court battle between Cahill and the firm continues for the rest of the first half of the season.
After Woodall 's deposition, Jessica and Harvey go to court in order to try to get the case dismissed based on proof that Woodall has a propensity for malicious prosecution, but Cahill thwarts her plans by telling the judge that Jeff Malone, the former SEC prosecutor whose last assignment was to target PS 's clients, resigned instead of following instructions, and then virtually immediately took a job to work for Jessica. Cahill calls the coincidental nature of this into question by asserting that she did it so readily because she and Malone had been engaging in a clandestine romantic relationship. Confronted by this directly by Cahill in front of the judge, Jessica, though infuriated for being cornered with no way out under penalty of perjury, is left with no recourse other than to reluctantly confirm that Cahill 's allegations are true. The judge responds by denying Jessica 's motion, allowing Cahill to proceed with his depositions. He next deposes both Harvey and Mike simultaneously (without Woodall present), and tries to further probe and prove his collusion allegations. Mike and Harvey hold firm, noting that neither of them were financial beneficiaries of any alleged collusion and Cahill has no proof to the contrary; from this, Cahill comes to the conclusion that he must look elsewhere.
After Katrina brings Louis a copy of the deposition, Louis realizes that it is inevitable that Cahill will eventually find his illegal transaction with Forstman. He goes to see Cahill at his office, intending to confess in exchange for shielding the firm, but runs into Woodall instead, who sends Louis home after hearing his confession. Louis, having confessed to a felony to a senior federal official yet not charged, processed, or booked, is left perplexed, and goes and tells Harvey and Jessica, who come to the conclusion that Woodall must have done a deal with Forstman as well, and thus has no interest in investigating Louis 's actions. After spending all night trying to find a link with no success, they go see Cahill in the morning, explaining their assertions of Woodall 's collusion with Forstman, and make him an offer: they will give him hard proof of Louis 's illegal collusion, but he must force Woodall to allow them access to his bank accounts and prove he has nothing to hide; if Woodall allows them, they are proven wrong and Cahill has all he needs to make an airtight case in court against Louis; if he refuses (indicating their assertions were correct), Cahill must agree to not prosecute Louis. Woodall walks into the room at the end of the conversation, and Cahill explains the situation and asks him provide access to his accounts. Woodall hesitates in his response, first trying to shrug them off, eventually refusing altogether by pulling rank on Cahill; after a long pause, Cahill, realizing their assertions were accurate, asks them to leave him alone with Woodall.
Cahill returns in season 6 with a proposal for Harvey that could get Mike out of prison early, but it involves Mike informing on Kevin, his cellmate and only friend in prison. It is revealed that Kevin 's father - in - law, William Sutter, is under investigation by Cahill for insider trading.
Logan Sanders (Brendan Hines) is a recurring character in season 4. First appearing in the premiere episode, he the son of billionaire businessman Max Sanders, the founder and longtime CEO of Sanders International, and a client of Harvey 's. Years before, he and Rachel Zane carried on an extramarital affair while Logan was married to his wife, Alison. They fell in love, but Rachel broke off the affair. Max has just recently decided to retire, appointing Logan to succeed him as CEO. Having had a longtime reputation as brashly confident, aggressive, and often reckless, he is eager to prove himself to Harvey and the world as a competent CEO to be taken seriously. Not having earned his respect yet, Harvey initially ducks Logan 's calls to set up a meeting, forcing Logan to call Jessica and have her put it on Harvey 's schedule, to Harvey 's annoyance and dismay. Logan tells him he wants to pursue a hostile takeover attempt on Gillis Industries, which is coincidentally the same company that Mike had earlier pitched to Harvey, forcing Harvey to resolve a conflict of interest. He ends up choosing Logan, because Mike had also put Harvey 's representation of the Sidwell Investment Group (Mike 's employer) formally under review due to Harvey 's earlier stonewalling of Mike 's intentionally non-hostile takeover strategy of Gillis.
The takeover battle between Logan and Mike lasts for the first 6 episodes, and puts Rachel in the crossfire and adds an emotional side to the takeover battle, as it is clear that Logan 's feelings for Rachel have been reignited in part due to them working together again, and he often tries to force emotions with her while doing so (despite her making clear to him of her present commitment to Mike). Logan 's actions include requesting Harvey hire a private investigator to look into Mike. Knowing it is likely that his secret will be discovered, Harvey is forced try prevent that by thwarting Logan 's request while still working towards winning the takeover. Rachel decides to go to Logan separately and manages to convince him to stop trying to win by pursuing personal attacks against Mike. Eventually Logan wins the takeover battle and dismembers Gillis ' company as originally planned, but once Harvey hears of Logan 's inappropriate accosting of Rachel and her brief reciprocation, he makes clear to Donna of his disgust with both of their actions, and that he stands firmly behind Mike. Harvey eventually drops Logan as a client, once Louis rehires Mike back at the firm.
Jeff Malone (D.B. Woodside) is a senior SEC prosecutor who joins Pearson Specter as a senior partner at the beginning of season 4. He is also Jessica 's lover. First appearing in the season premiere, he shows up unannounced at the firm 's offices to see Harvey and Jessica, who is well aware of his feared reputation as a career prosecutor at the SEC. He informs them that Eric Woodall will soon be taking a position as a senior official at the New York office of the SEC, and will be pursuing a vendetta against Harvey by using his position to deliberately target Pearson Specter clients with disproportionately invasive scrutiny (the SEC 's purview does not usually include formally investigating law firms). Malone offers to leave his position at the SEC and lead Pearson Specter 's defense against Woodall in exchange for a senior partnership. Jessica initially balks at the offer because she does n't appreciate Malone ambushing her and banking on her secret romantic relationship with him as leverage to coerce her to hire him. She also had initially intended to assign this responsibility to Louis, but Harvey, impressed by Malone 's brash approach, dismissively rejects the idea of Louis out of hand and convinces her to hire Malone instead. She does so but makes clear to Malone that the romantic side of their relationship is finished so long as they are colleagues.
Initially, Louis and Malone have a bit of an acrimonious relationship, due to Louis 's bitter humiliation from being passed over in favor of someone who was just recently hired strictly for the purpose instead. Eventually they put it behind them and become more friendly with each other. He constantly tries to force affections with Jessica, including getting Louis thrown off of a case in order to be able to work one - on - one with Jessica. She initially rebuffs his advances steadfastly, but later changes her mind. This makes for a very complicated dynamic and it eventually forces her to lie to him about Mike 's status (and how it factored into Louis 's becoming a name partner) in her capacity as his superior and thus puts their romantic relationship at risk. Eventually Malone discovers that she had been lying to him about Louis (though not discovering Mike 's secret) and breaks up with her, and resigns his senior partnership a few days later.
Malone appears in the Season 5 episode "Live to Fight ''. Jessica approaches him at his new office requesting that he represent the firm as an outside counsel in the ongoing court proceedings of Mike 's fraud case, and if need be, her personal attorney. He is now aware of Mike 's fraudulent status, with the criminal allegations against him being public information, and thus he now understands what she had been lying to him about. He initially balks at her request, insisting that he will only consider it if she confides everything in him before formally retaining him - making it unprivileged knowledge. At the end of the episode he drops her as a client, but does tell her that he would be willing to consider resuming their interpersonal relationship if she approaches him.
Charles Forstman (Eric Roberts) is a multi-billionaire investor and corporate raider who seems to reside in New York. First appearing in the season 4 episode ' Leverage ', he is a ripe investment opportunity that Mike goes to as a last resort while trying to save Gillis Industries from a hostile takeover. A twisted and corrupt businessman, it is revealed that he has a widespread influence, and has done deals in the past with both Harvey Specter and Eric Woodall, the latter losing his job at the SEC at the end of "Gone '' due to this relationship.
After Forstman does a deal with Louis Litt to sell the Wexler block to Logan Sanders and renege on his verbal agreement with Mike, Forstman 's intention was to hire Mike afterwards, going so far as to sabotage Mike 's relationship with Jonathan Sidwell, Mike 's then - boss, to make sure that Mike got fired and would be left with little choice other than to accept Forstman 's job offer. He offers Mike a $1 million signing bonus, and is surprised that Mike wants time to think about it. He forces Louis to wire Logan 's payments through Switzerland and the Cayman Islands in order to illegally avoid US taxes. Louis wires the money as Forstman wants, but he also forces Louis to accept a $1 million fee for putting the deal together, as a form of self - protection for Forstman to cover his act of tax evasion. Louis signs the agreement anyway, implicating himself in an act of embezzlement. Louis later tries and fails to get the deal nullified when the SEC begins investigating Pearson Specter; Forstman tells him that he 'd only reverse the deal if Louis could pin similar dirt on Harvey; Louis refuses. After Louis admits to Harvey and Jessica what he did, Harvey goes to Forstman to again try to convince him to nullify the deal and let Louis off the hook, noting to Forstman that Louis has never wronged him and his grudge is against Harvey, not Louis. Forstman acknowledges this, but still refuses to do so.
In the Season 4 finale flashback scenes, Harvey 's first encounters with Forstman 12 years beforehand are explained. Back while Harvey was an ADA at the Manhattan DA 's office under Cameron Dennis, the first case he took to trial was a white collar criminal case which ended up with Forstman 's biggest rival being sentenced to prison. Forstman sends Harvey a drink while they are at the same bar and offers him a job with a $1 million signing bonus. Harvey firmly but respectfully refuses the offer outright. But when his brother Marcus comes to him asking for $150,000 to open a restaurant, Harvey reconsiders, especially since Marcus tells him he will go ask their mother for a loan if Harvey can not come through. Marcus also can not get a bank loan, because he has a gambling problem that Harvey caused and it destroyed his credit rating. Harvey first goes to Jessica, who refuses and warns him about Forstman and his slippery reputation. Harvey finally goes to Forstman and explains the situation and tells him he wants to take his offer. Forstman initially refuses but impressed by Harvey 's persistence and brash offer of a bet, he agrees to a wager: If Harvey can beat Forstman in a car race, he will give him the money.
But what Harvey did n't realize was that Forstman was using the entire situation to con Harvey into revealing information on the status of a rumored yet publicly unconfirmed criminal investigation by Cameron Dennis against a major investment firm that Forstman holds a large stock interest in. Harvey implicitly confirms that Cameron will indeed press charges soon, unwittingly giving Forstman the heads up he was looking for to sell short and make $100 million before the company 's share price inevitably tanked after the investigation was announced publicly. Harvey confronts Forstman after the market opens, realizing what he had done, and tells him that not only is he refusing his job offer, he is going to prosecute him as well. But Forstman had covered himself, and sent to Marcus the $150,000 for the restaurant directly, though making it appear that it had come from Harvey, knowing that he would not be able to muster the courage necessary to tell his brother the truth about the source of the money and give it all back once he had received it.
In Season 5, Forstman appears in the episode ' Uninvited Guests ' when Harvey visits him in prison to confront him about funding Daniel Hardman 's renewed run at taking over the firm. Forstman admits to providing Hardman with full power of attorney over his assets for the duration of his prison sentence. But it becomes clear that there is a gap between Hardman 's and Forstman 's objectives; Hardman is using Forstman as a blank checkbook to target the firm 's clients for hostile takeover and eroding Jessica 's base of support among the senior partners in order to take over the firm from her. But Forstman is shown to be willing to ditch Hardman and cut off all of his funding immediately in exchange for Harvey 's resignation from the firm. In the next episode ' Faith ' after significant thought and consulting his therapist for advice, Harvey agrees to resign, and is shown at the vote of no confidence meeting presenting proof of Forstman 's termination of Hardman 's representation services.
Jack Edward Soloff (John Pyper - Ferguson) is a senior partner at Pearson Specter Litt. He is first mentioned in the season 5 premiere, but does not appear in person until the episode ' Compensation '. Described by Louis as having "a pirate beard and a stupid pen that he carries around like Linus 's blanket '' he is the newly appointed chair of PSL 's compensation committee. Brashly confident and ambitious, he comes to Louis to propose an alteration to the firm 's compensation formula to put more emphasis on billable hours than on contingent fees, which Soloff is well aware would specifically target Harvey (who operates on a contingent fee basis) hoping to earn the respect of the partners and a boost in esteem by successfully picking a fight and beating the firm 's de facto chief of staff and second-most - powerful partner. He is temporarily successful, and with Louis 's help he manages to illegally publicize Harvey 's salary while maintaining deniability, humiliating him in front of the whole firm in order to get the support necessary to win a vote on his desired compensation alteration. He and Harvey battle for the next few episodes, with Harvey poaching some of Soloff 's clients, and with Mike 's help, eventually gets him to back off. Later that season, Soloff is shown to be complicit in Daniel Hardman 's efforts to remove Jessica and regain control of PSL, using Charles Forstman 's money, which causes Jessica and Harvey to become convinced that Hardman holds some kind of damaging information on Soloff.
Gretchen Bodinski (Aloma Wright) is the legal secretary who Harvey eventually hires to replace Donna after she goes to work for Louis in season 5. At first, Harvey is hoping Donna will come back; when he finally accepts her departure, he looks for a replacement. Surveying the sexy younger applicants waiting outside his office, he immediately calls in Gretchen who, as an older African American woman, is the physical opposite of Donna. Harvey hires Gretchen and, though he has low expectations for her performance, she proves herself as capable and intuitive as Donna. Gretchen and Donna formally meet and clash in the episode "Privilege '', but soon respect and even like each other as equals.
|
is the carnegie deli in new york city open | Carnegie Deli - wikipedia
The Carnegie Deli was an iconic small delicatessen chain based in New York City. Its main branch, opened in 1937 adjacent to Carnegie Hall, was located at 854 7th Avenue (between 54th and 55th Streets) in Midtown Manhattan. There are subsidiaries in Las Vegas, Nevada; Bethlehem, Pennsylvania; Six Flags Great Adventure; and Foxwoods Resort Casino. The deli, though having had its main branch closed, still operates a wholesale distribution service.
The Parker family 's delicatessen was in its third generation of owners. Among the United States ' most renowned delis, it was operated by a second - generation owner, Marian Harper Levine.
The restaurant offered pastrami, corned beef, and other sandwiches containing at least 1 pound (0.45 kg) of meat, as well as traditional Jewish fare such as matzoh ball soup, latkes, chopped chicken livers, and lox. The restaurant also offered other, non-Jewish (or at least non-kosher) food such as ham, sausage, and bacon. Available for order were cheesecake portions of over a pound per serving. The restaurant 's motto was: "If you can finish your meal, we 've done something wrong ''. In addition to the large servings, the restaurant was also known for its surly waiters, who allegedly tried to impart some of the stereotypical gruffness of New York to visitors.
The main branch on Seventh Avenue closed on December 31, 2016. The other three branches and the distribution service remain open.
Leo Steiner (c. 1939 -- December 31, 1987) was a Jewish American restaurateur who was co-owner of the first Carnegie Deli, located at 55th Street and Seventh Avenue in Midtown Manhattan near Carnegie Hall. While his partner, Milton Parker, mostly worked behind the scenes, Steiner worked the crowd with his Jewish humor in the restaurant, which became a destination for both celebrities and tourists in the theater district. Steiner was born in Newark, New Jersey. He worked in his parents ' grocery store in nearby Elizabeth, New Jersey, where he grew up. The one - time owner of Pastrami & Things, a delicatessen located at Third Avenue and 23rd Street, he joined Milton Parker and Fred Klein in 1976, purchasing the Carnegie Deli from the trio of Bernie Gross, Max Hudas and Thomas North. Klein, who had not been actively involved in running the business, dropped out shortly thereafter.
Under the management of Parker and Steiner, the deli became known nationwide, attracting celebrities such as Woody Allen, Jackie Mason and Henny Youngman, and opened branch locations in Atlantic City, New Jersey; Secaucus, New Jersey; and Tysons Corner, Virginia. Steiner became the public face of Jewish food, appearing in a television commercial for rye bread. He created a 60 - pound Statue of Liberty carved from chopped liver, complete with a torch fashioned from a turkey wing, for the United States Bicentennial and was asked to prepare corned beef and pastrami for visiting heads of state attending the G7 economic summit meeting held in 1983 in Williamsburg, Virginia. Portions of Woody Allen 's 1984 movie Broadway Danny Rose were filmed in the restaurant.
Milton Parker, who died in 2009, had written a book (with Allyn Freeman) called How to Feed Friends and Influence People: The Carnegie Deli, providing the history of the family 's ownership.
On April 24, 2015, the main, Midtown Manhattan branch of Carnegie Deli was closed temporarily due to the discovery of an illegal gas line in the restaurant. Con Edison was investigating the restaurant, later fining the eatery $40,050. On July 28, 2015, Carnegie Deli was subsequently closed for upgrades to its energy lines after the discovery of improperly siphoning off natural gas for the previous six years. The deli reopened on February 9, 2016.
On September 30, 2016, it was announced that the Midtown Manhattan branch of the deli would close by the end of the year. The owner, Marian Harper Levine, stated that she needed a more permanent break from operating the restaurant, saying, "At this stage of my life, the early morning to late night days have taken a toll, along with my sleepless nights and grueling hours that come with operating a restaurant business in Manhattan. '' Two branches in Las Vegas, Nevada, and in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, will remain open, as well as its wholesale distribution service.
At midnight on December 31, 2016, Carnegie Deli on Seventh Avenue closed after almost eighty years of service.
The deli 's corned beef and pastrami, celebrated by smoked meat connoisseurs nationwide, were cured in the store 's cellar using Steiner 's own recipe in a two - week - long curing process. The Carnegie Deli used a half - ton of brisket to prepare a week 's supply of corned beef by the time of his death. Steiner admitted, "You could eat it after seven days, but if you wait until the 13th you 're in heaven. '' The Carnegie Deli was the favorite hangout of comedian Henny Youngman, and Adam Sandler included a reference to the deli in "The Chanukah Song '' in 1996. Steiner was eulogized by comedian Henny Youngman as "the deli lama ''.
The walls of the deli are nearly completely covered with autographed pictures of celebrities who have eaten there. Menu items have been named after famous patrons, including a corned beef and pastrami sandwich named after Woody Allen after the deli served as a filming location for Broadway Danny Rose. A number of items on the menu feature Broadway themes and Yiddish vocabulary, including dishes like "nosh, nosh, Nanette '' (after the musical, "No, No, Nanette '') and "the egg and oy '' ("The Egg and I ''). There are also some humorous items in the menu, like the famous liver sandwich named "50 Ways to Love Your Liver '' after the Paul Simon song "50 Ways to Leave Your Lover. '' It is a place many reporters in the city frequent, including staffers from Black Rock (aka the CBS Building) like Bob Simon.
In March 2012, the deli introduced a sandwich dedicated to newly arrived New York Jets quarterback Tim Tebow. The sandwich, named the "Jetbow '', is priced at $22.22, weighs in at 3.5 lbs and consists of corned beef, pastrami, roast beef, American cheese, lettuce and tomato on white bread.
The deli opened several branch locations in the 1980s, including two New Jersey branches in Secaucus and Atlantic City and one in the Washington, D.C. suburbs in Tysons Corner. However, most of these branches have since closed and are no longer in operation. One, in Beverly Hills, California, was financed by oil billionaire Marvin Davis and designed by restaurant designer Pat Kuleto at a cost of $4 million to be the "best deli in the world '', in response to Davis ' complaint that the delis in California were not as good as those in New York.
The deli operates a second location on the Las Vegas Strip, which opened at The Mirage in 2005. A third location opened in 2006 at the Six Flags Great Adventure in New Jersey and serves as the "healthy choice '' restaurant at the park; however, the menu is smaller and only has the restaurant 's most popular items. A fourth deli, limited to corned beef and pastrami sandwiches, is at Foxwoods Resort Casino. The fifth location is at the Sands Casino Resort in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, and opened November 22, 2009.
In addition to the retail operation, the restaurant sells cheesecakes and merchandise such as T - shirts and baseball caps online.
In 2013, Zagat gave it a food rating of 23, and rated it the 8th - best deli in New York City.
USA Today has called the restaurant the "most famous '' deli in the United States.
Interior of restaurant
A pastrami sandwich from the Carnegie Deli
A Reuben sandwich from the Carnegie Deli
A corned beef sandwich from the Carnegie Deli
A slice of Strawberry Cheesecake from the Carnegie Deli
Notes
Sources
|
where is sum of all thrills in epcot | The Sum of All Thrills - wikipedia
The Sum of All Thrills was an attraction at Epcot. Sponsored by Raytheon, the ride lets park guests custom - design their own thrill ride using mathematical tools, an innovative touch - screen table and a robotic simulator.
It opened to the public on October 14, 2009 as the first ride to be located within INNOVENTIONS at Epcot.
Guests design a thrill ride using an interactive touch screen that lets them determine height and speed while adding features such as dips and corkscrew turns. Once "built '', guests climb aboard their customized design in the 4 - D robotic simulator that uses sight, sound and movement to give them a realistic experience.
The ride closed on September 14, 2016.
The first - ever Innoventions ride at Epcot Theme Park, The Sum of all Thrills, presented by Raytheon, is a simulated thrill ride. The ride lets guests use a computer program to specify the drops, curves, and loops of a coaster track before boarding an industrial robotic arm to experience their creation. Three vehicle options are available: bobsled, roller coaster, and jet aircraft. It 's possible to program actual loops into both the coaster and jet courses, and the robot arm will swing the rider upside down.
In addition to the vehicle, guests also select the kinds of turns, loops, and hills in their track design. Choices range from mild, broad curves to extreme multiple - loop inversions. Using computer - design tools, they can further customize these components by changing the height and width of each piece.
|
where does the name strictly come dancing come from | Strictly Come Dancing - wikipedia
Strictly Come Dancing (informally known as Strictly) is a British television dance contest, featuring celebrity contestants, with professional dance partners competing in a ballroom and Latin dance competition. Each couple is scored out of 10 by a panel of judges. The title of the show suggests a continuation of the long - running series Come Dancing, with an allusion to the film Strictly Ballroom. The format has been exported to over 40 other countries, and has also inspired a modern dance - themed spin - off Strictly Dance Fever. The show is currently presented by Tess Daly and Claudia Winkleman.
The show has run on BBC One since 15 May 2004, primarily on Saturday evenings with a following Sunday night results show (with certain exceptions) and with its high viewing figures Strictly Come Dancing has become a significant programme in British popular culture. The thirteenth series ended on 19 December 2015. A further eleven stand - alone Christmas specials have also been produced, in consecutive years from 2004 onwards. Nine charity specials have also been produced since 2008. Since the fourth series, the show has also been aired in high definition on BBC HD, and BBC One HD from series 8.
On 7 November 2013 it was announced that Sir Bruce Forsyth would be retiring from presenting the main series. While intended to return as host for each Children in Need and Christmas special, he only did both in 2014 and Children in Need in 2015 (sending a video message for the 2015 Christmas special) and was thereafter unable to appear due to ill health. Forsyth died on 18 August 2017.
Producer Richard Hopkins, who had produced the first UK series of Big Brother, unsuccessfully pitched the idea of a modern Come Dancing to the BBC under the title of Pro-Celebrity Dancing in 2003. Later, entertainment executive Fenia Vardanis also suggested reviving Come Dancing, so Jane Lush, the then head of BBC Entertainment, put Hopkins and Vardanis together to develop the show.
Hopkins then called in Karen Smith, who had just produced Comic Relief Does Fame Academy for BBC One and The Games for Channel 4, to help lead the development of the show and launch the series. Smith was the show running Executive Producer of the first three series, and of sister show It Takes Two. She then took the role of Creative Director of BBC Entertainment whilst still overseeing series 4 and 5.
Hopkins later took the format to America himself when the BBC dismissed the idea of selling it abroad, as they felt it was too British.
From series 1 to 11, Sir Bruce Forsyth and Tess Daly presented the pro-celebrity ballroom dancing competition. From series 8 to 11, Forsyth only presented the main show and was replaced for the results show by Claudia Winkleman, at which point Daly assumed Forsyth 's role as main presenter and Winkleman assumed Daly 's role as co-presenter. Winkleman has joined Daly as full - time co-presenter for series 12 following Forsyth 's departure after the 2013 series. Through telephone voting, viewers vote for who they would like to be in the next round, the results of the poll being combined with the ranking of the judges. For example, with ten contestants left, the judges ' favourite would receive ten points, second favourite nine points, and so on, and similarly with the viewers ' rankings. The bottom ranked couple gets one point. The profits from the telephone lines were donated to Sport Relief in series 1, and to Children in Need from series 2 to 5.
The show is broadcast live on BBC One on Saturday evenings, and is currently presented by Tess Daly and Claudia Winkleman (however Zoë Ball covered for Winkleman for a number of weeks in 2014). Sir Bruce Forsyth presented the live shows alongside Daly from 2004 to 2013, announcing his departure in 2014. He was to continue to present special editions of the show. For some of the second series, Natasha Kaplinsky stood in temporarily for Daly while she took maternity leave; Claudia Winkleman hosted the results show and editions that Forsyth had missed between 2010 and 2013. The judging panel initially consisted of Bruno Tonioli, Arlene Phillips, Len Goodman and Craig Revel Horwood. Alesha Dixon took Phillips ' place from series 7 to 9, after which she left the programme to judge Britain 's Got Talent which led retired ballerina Darcey Bussell to replace her; Bussell remains a judge alongside Tonioli and Revel Horwood. Tonioli commutes weekly between Hollywood and London to judge both the American and British versions of the show simultaneously. Each judge gives the performance a mark out of ten, giving an overall total out of forty. The voice - over announcer is Alan Dedicoat. During series four, an hour - long highlights show was shown on Sundays at 19: 00 on BBC Two, and during series five and six, the results show moved to Sunday evenings, although it was filmed on Saturday and then broadcast "as live '' on the Sunday.
The singers on the show are Tommy Blaize, Hayley Sanderson, Lance Ellington, Andrea Grant and formerly the well known UK dance music vocalist Tara McDonald. The music director is David Arch. Tommy Blaize has been part of Strictly since its beginning. David Arch joined in the fourth series and Hayley Sanderson in the fifth.
The show was broadcast from a specially constructed set at the BBC Television Centre, moving to the Elstree Studios in 2013. However, in the first two series, shows were also filmed at the Tower Ballroom in Blackpool, where the original Come Dancing series was filmed in the 1970s.
In the second series, two shows were filmed at the Tower Ballroom, show five and the Grand Final which was broadcast live on 11 December 2004. In 2005 though the BBC announced that they would not be returning to the venue for the third series due to "logistical problems ''. In October 2008, Craig Revel Horwood called for the series to return to the Tower Ballroom, saying, "the atmosphere was electric. It 's huge and has so much history. The Tower Ballroom puts a lot of pressure on the professionals and the celebrities to perform to the best of their potential. What a wonderful place to go live to 12 million people. We have got to get the BBC to bring Strictly Come Dancing back to Blackpool. '' Eventually, the show did return to the Tower Ballroom, for series 7, where Blackpool - born Craig Kelly was eliminated. The episode was aired live on 7 November 2009. Strictly Come Dancing returned to Blackpool for the 2010 and 2011 series. Then after series 10 when Strictly Come Dancing did not go to Blackpool, they announced that they would return for series 11.
Key:
Some of the dancers form professional partnerships, dancing together competitively or on the show. Darren Bennet and Lilia Kopylova, and James and Ola Jordan are married, while Matthew and Nicole Cutler are divorced but still professional partners. Anton du Beke and Erin Boag have danced as professional couples since 1997; Vincent Simone and Flavia Cacace are a former Argentine Tango world champion couple. Brendan Cole and Katya Virshilas danced professionally for several years before parting in November 2009. Karen Hauer and Kevin Clifton were engaged when Kevin entered the show in 2013 and were married prior to the 2015 season, Janette Manrara and Aljaž Škorjanec were married in 2017. Neil and Katya Jones are also married.
On average dances last for approximately 90 seconds. The music for the dances are performed by The Strictly Come Dancing Band.
Prior to series 10, the dances performed in the early weeks are switched between one Ballroom and one Latin, and are divided as evenly as possible depending on the number of contestants left. As the competition progressed further, this system is abandoned and many styles, not just two, can be performed in one week by each of the remaining contestants. From series 4 through 7, the remaining contestants who made it to the semifinals are granted to perform the semifinal - exclusive Argentine Tango. Beginning with series 10, this has all changed. The contestants are now allowed to dance whichever dance they are bestowed to (not accustomed to any patterns), though the Argentine Tango remains to be somewhat reserved for the latter stages of the series. The Showdance, however, is still restricted only for the finalists from the very first series until now.
As of series four, coaches are Jaclyn Spencer and Chris Marques (aka Cuban Groove) for Salsa and Mambo, and Jenny Thomas and Ryan Francois for Swing, Jive, Rock n Roll and The Charleston. The Argentine Tango coaches in series three were Flavia Cacace and Vincent Simone, both of whom have subsequently competed in the show.
From Series 1 - 4, the results show was shown live, later on the Saturday after 1 hour after the performances.
From Series 5 onwards, the results show is recorded on the Saturday night directly after the live show and incorporates the result of the viewers ' votes which are completed by 21: 30. This was confirmed by the official BBC website in 2008:
The Sunday show is recorded on Saturday night but no element involving the results of the vote will start recording until after lines are closed and votes counted and verified.
Throughout the Sunday results show the presenters refer to ' last night ' in reference to the main show, due to the timing of the Sunday programme, and Tess Daly, Claudia Winkleman 's and the judges ' outfits are changed to present an illusion of a second live broadcast.
For Series 7, the Sunday results show was axed and put back to Saturday nights as a result of a revamp of the show. It was then put back on Sundays in Series 8.
From Series 5 to Series 7 a new system called the dance - off began. In Series 8 and Series 9 the dance - off was axed, the following series resumed the dance - off and continued since. There are two couples in each dance - off, the two of which have the lowest scores between the judges and the public. The aim of the dance off is for the couples to convince the judges that they deserve to go through to the following week 's competition. Before they attempt the dance a second time the couple sometimes gets advice from the judges. The judges decide based on the dance performed the second time. If the judges agree with the exception of Len Goodman the couple is through to the following week 's competition. If one couple has two votes and the other couple has one vote, then the final vote is down to the Head Judge, Len Goodman. He has the deciding vote and whichever couple he chooses to save is through to the following week meaning the other couple is eliminated. However, when Craig, Arlene / Alesha / Darcey and Bruno agree and Len disagrees, then Len 's vote does not count as already the safe couple would have had more votes. The eliminated couple talk about their experience or watch a video of their time on the show. Afterwards, the eliminated couple perform one final dance or some people call it waltzing out of the ballroom. The day after they are eliminated they chat to Zoë Ball about their time on the show. For the first time in history, in series 14, the dance off was cancelled due to an injury sustained by Anastacia during the rehearsals for the live shows.
During the run of Strictly Come Dancing, Strictly: It Takes Two is broadcast each weeknight on BBC Two. The series was previously hosted by Claudia Winkleman; but, due to her pregnancy in 2011, she had to leave the series, and Zoë Ball took over from Series 9.
The show features reviews of the performances during the previous Saturday 's show, and interviews with, and training footage of, the couples preparing for the next show. The judges and other celebrities also provide their opinions on how the couples are doing. It Takes Two replaced Strictly Come Dancing on Three, hosted by Justin Lee Collins, which ran on BBC Three during the first series. Prior to 2010, BBC Two Scotland aired the programme on four nights only, running their own Gaelic - language programming on Thursdays instead.
In Spring 2004, Strictly Come Dancing commenced its first series. The professional dancers were: Brendan, Hanna, Anton, Erin, John, Paul, Camilla and Kylie. This is the only series that took place in the Spring / Summer months. From the second series onwards, the show takes place from September / October to December each year. Natasha Kaplinsky & Brendan Cole were crowned the first winners of Strictly Come Dancing. This was the shortest series, with 8 weeks.
In Autumn 2004, the second series commenced. 5 of the 8 professionals returned. These professionals were: Brendan, Anton, Erin, Paul and Camilla. There were 5 new professionals who are: Darren, Ian, Lilia, Nicole and Hazel. Hazel only participated in this series while the other professionals competed in following series.
A new spin - off show called Strictly Come Dancing: It Takes Two presented by Claudia Winkleman was created this series and has continued to air alongside each following series, now hosted by Zoë Ball on BBC Two.
In 2005, the third series commenced. Brendan, Anton, Erin, Camilla, Darren, Ian and Lilia returned from last series. Nicole, Paul and Hazel did not return. They were replaced by Karen, Hanna, Izabela, Andrew and Matthew.
The celebrities that took part in this series were as follows:
The show ran from 7 October to 23 December 2006. Over 12 million votes were cast, raising £ 1.5 million for Children in Need. A peak of 13 million viewers tuned into the final show of series four to see Mark and Karen crowned 2006 Strictly Come Dancing champions.
This series introduced four new professional dancers -- Flavia Cacace, James Jordan, Ola Jordan and Vincent Simone. Andrew Cuerden, Hanna Haarala and Izabela Hannah did not return to the series. This series also saw the return of Nicole Cutler, who had taken part in Series 2 but not in Series 3.
The couples in order of elimination:
The fifth series of Strictly Come Dancing began on BBC One on 29 September 2007, with Bruce Forsyth and Tess Daly returning as presenters. For the first and only time, the line up of professionals was unchanged from the previous series. The first programme was a catch - up show and preview to the new series, before the start of the competition on 6 October, which ran for 12 weeks.
The show featured 14 new celebrities, who were paired with 14 professional dancers. In a change to the previous format, the results show was recorded on Saturday and broadcast on Sunday, rather than shown live later on Saturday. In addition to this, the two couples who were at the bottom of the table after the viewers ' vote were subject to a dance - off, where they reprised their routine, for the judges to decide who left. Head Judge Len Goodman had the casting vote in case of a tie. The series raised just over a million pounds for Children in Need.
A sixth series of the show was confirmed after the dancers ' pay dispute was called off in late June 2008. The series lasted for 14 weeks, which is the longest series so far. The series involved three new professional dancers, Brian Fortuna, Hayley Holt and Kristina Rihanoff. Nicole Cutler did not return to the series.
In July 2008 it was reported that current EastEnders cast members were banned from taking part in the competition due to the length of the series.
The sixth series began on 13 September with a behind - the - scenes look at the new series, followed by the first live show on 20 September.
On 19 November 2008, John Sergeant announced that he would be leaving the show because he believed he may "win it ''.
The seventh series of Strictly Come Dancing ran from 18 September until 19 December 2009. Tess Daly signed a two - year deal to continue presenting the programme for at least the 2009 and 2010 series '.
On 9 July 2009, former competitor Alesha Dixon was confirmed to be joining the judging panel for this series, and that Darcey Bussell would be a guest judge towards the end of the series run. Dixon replaced Arlene Phillips who moved to The One Show as a Strictly Come Dancing expert. It has been reported in the media that many of the show 's professional dancers are furious at Phillips being replaced by Dixon. They apparently feel that they "will be judged by someone who knows less than they do about dancing ''. The BBC were also accused of sexism, as none of the male judges on the show had been replaced. The BBC received over 5,000 complaints. Dixon 's fans were also unhappy as she had to cancel a number of dates on her autumn tour to do the programme.
The official line - up was revealed on 25 August 2009 and the winner was BBC Breakfast presenter Chris Hollins:
The eighth series of Strictly Come Dancing began with a launch show on 11 September 2010, then three weeks later the live shows started on 1 October 2010. Three new professional dancers were announced, The celebrities were revealed on 8 September 2010 and the professional partners were revealed during the launch show.
Strictly returned with a launch show on 10 September 2011, with the final in December at the Tower Ballroom, Blackpool. Bruce Forsyth and Tess Daly returned to front the main show, and Claudia Winkleman presented the Sunday night results show along with Daly.
For Strictly Come Dancing: It Takes Two, a new presenter joined the team. Winkleman had to pull out of the 2011 series as it would be difficult to do a daily programme so soon after giving birth and was replaced by Zoë Ball.
All of series eight 's judges returned to the show. Jennifer Grey served as a cover judge for Len Goodman during week six due to his break from the show. This was the last series to feature Alesha Dixon as a judge after she left the show after the final to become a judge on Britain 's Got Talent
The professional line - up was announced on 15 June 2011 with most of the Series 8 professionals returning, except for Jared Murillo who was replaced by Siberian dancer Pasha Kovalev. The celebrity line - up was announced on 6 September 2011 on The One Show and the couples were paired up for the first time on the launch show.
The tenth series began on 15 September 2012 with a launch show to reveal the celebrity / professional partnerships, and the live shows began on 5 October.
On 25 April 2012, it was confirmed that Darcey Bussell would be joining the judging panel, replacing Alesha Dixon who left the show to be a judge on Britain 's Got Talent.
Katya Virshilas was the only professional dancer not returning to this series, and she was replaced by Burn the Floor 's Karen Hauer. The full line - up was revealed on 10 September during The One Show.
Aliona Vilani was originally Johnny Ball 's partner, but injury resulted in her being replaced by Iveta Lukosiute.
Strictly Come Dancing returned with the launch show on 7 September 2013 and its live shows on 27 September 2013 for its eleventh series. Rod Stewart and Jessie J performed on the premiere show.
On 1 June 2013, it was announced that Aliona Vilani, Vincent Simone, Flavia Cacace, and Erin Boag would all leave this series. Aljaž Skorjanec, Emma Slater, Janette Manrara and Iveta Lukosiute, who partnered Johnny Ball in the first few weeks of series 10, would all join the cast. However, it was confirmed on 22 August 2013 that Anya Garnis and Kevin Clifton joined the series, replacing Slater. On 2 September 2013, it was announced that a foot fracture injury meant Natalie Lowe would not be able to participate this series, and she was replaced by returning professional Vilani.
The series started on 7 September 2014 with a launch show, followed by the live shows starting on 26 and 27 September. This series was the first not to be presented by Sir Bruce Forsyth after announcing his departure from the live shows on 4 April (He made his final regular appearance in this series ' launch show). However, Forsyth would continue to present special editions of the show, such as Children in Need and Christmas specials. It was announced on 9 May that Claudia Winkleman would join the main show as co-presenter and the duties would mirror the existing result show format, with Tess Daly taking over Forsyth 's role as main presenter and Winkleman taking Daly 's role as co-presenter.
It was announced on 1 June 2014 that professional dancers Artem Chigvintsev, James Jordan and Anya Garnis would not be returning for the new series, although Garnis would remain on the show 's choreography team. It was also announced that Tristan MacManus and Joanne Clifton would be joining the show 's professional line - up. It was then announced in August that Robin Windsor had pulled out of the competition due to a back injury. Windsor will be replaced by new professional Trent Whiddon. In the third week entertainer Donny Osmond joined the four regular judges, making the maximum score that week 50 points. Due to Winkleman 's absence in weeks 6, 7, and 8, It Takes Two presenter Zoë Ball co-presented with Daly.
Strictly Come Dancing returned for the thirteenth series with a launch show on 5 September 2015, followed by the live shows starting on 25 and 26 September.
On 23 April 2015, the list of professionals participating in the thirteenth series was revealed. Professionals from the last series who did not return included Trent Whiddon, Iveta Lukosiute and Joanne Clifton. Clifton would remain involved in group dances and would feature on Strictly Come Dancing: It Takes Two as a dance expert. Robin Windsor, absent from the previous series because of injury, also did not return for this series. Three new professional dancers were introduced: Russian dancer Gleb Savchenko (from the American, Australian, and Russian versions of Dancing with the Stars), South African dancer Oti Mabuse (from Germany 's Let 's Dance) and Italian dancer Giovanni Pernice.
On 3 October 2015, the judges performed The Strictly, a signature dance made up of some iconic moves from the show 's history for fans to do at home when they hear the theme tune; subsequently, a tutorial for the dance was made available on the show 's website and iPlayer hosted by Natalie Lowe and Tristan MacManus. Ola Jordan later announced that she had quit the show and claimed that the results were "fixed ''.
Series 13 was the last to feature Tristan MacManus, Kristina Rihanoff, Ola Jordan and Gleb Savchenko as professional dancers. Aliona Vilani announced three days after winning that she was leaving the show, however, she did do the 2016 live tour. Savchenko announced he was leaving the show on 28 June 2016. For series 14, Katya Jones, Gorka Márquez, Oksana Platero, and Joanne Clifton replaced them.
Strictly Come Dancing returned for its fourteenth series with a launch show on 3 September 2016 on BBC One. This was Len Goodman 's final series as head judge.
On 28 June 2016, the list of professionals who were returning for the fourteenth series was revealed. Professionals from the last series who would not return included last series ' champion and two - time professional winner of the show Aliona Vilani, former professional winner Ola Jordan, and two - times professional finalist Kristina Rihanoff as well as Gleb Savchenko and Tristan MacManus. Joanne Clifton was returning after a one series hiatus. The leaving professionals were replaced by Katya Jones, Burn the Floor dancer Gorka Márquez and former Dancing with the Stars U.S. troupe member Oksana Platero. On 26 July 2016, three more new professional dancers were announced as AJ Pritchard, Chloe Hewitt and Neil Jones, husband of new dancer Katya. Chloe Hewitt and Neil Jones did not partner a celebrity as the professionals outnumbered the celebrities, although they were still in group dances and appeared on It Takes Two.
On May 4, 2017, Series 7 finalist, Natalie Lowe announced that she would be departing the show. Five days later, Shirley Ballas announced that she would be replacing Len Goodman as head judge. On June 21, 2017, previous series professional champion, Joanne Clifton, as well as Oksana Platero announced that they would also be leaving. The new professionals replacing them are Australian Open champion, Dianne Buswell, Welsh dancer, Amy Dowden, and Ukrainian two - time world champion, Nadiya Bychkova. On 7 August, Nick Grimshaw announced that Mollie King is the first celebrity to be taking part this series. This is the first series to be broadcast since Sir Bruce Forsyth 's death in August that year.
The Christmas specials have been broadcast each year since 2004. The first special was broadcast the week before Christmas 2004, in 2005 it was broadcast on Christmas Eve, and from 2006 they have been broadcast on Christmas Day. Every Christmas Special has been hosted by Bruce Forsyth and Tess Daly and Forsyth continued to host these editions from 2014 after he left the live shows until he announced he would not be appearing on the 2015 Christmas special - due to ill health - from which he died in 2017, so Daly and Winkleman have presented the special together since 2016.
Strictly Ice Dancing was broadcast as a one - off special on 26 December 2004; with Carol Smillie, Jessica Taylor, Scarlett Alice Johnson, Marcus Patric, David Seaman, and Rowland Rivron paired with professional skaters. This was won by David Seaman (who was a late replacement for Paul Gascoigne) and his partner Zoia Birmingham.
In order of elimination, the competitors were:
Strictly Ice Dancing was identical to the ITV format Dancing on Ice, although details of Dancing on Ice were revealed before Strictly Ice Dancing was commissioned.
A further one - off special was broadcast on BBC One on 9 July 2005 as part of the BBC 's Africa Lives season. It featured six celebrities of African descent performing traditional African dances with a professional troupe. The contestants were Tunde Baiyewu, Tupele Dorgu, Robbie Earle, Antonia Okonma, Louis Emerick, and Tessa Sanderson. The programme was presented by Natasha Kaplinsky and Martin Offiah, and the winner was Robbie Earle. Professional dancers Darren Bennett and Lilia Kopylova, who have appeared on Strictly Come Dancing since the second series, also appeared on this special to perform a traditional African Samba.
In order of elimination:
The London cast of the musical The Lion King, led by South - African actress Brown Lindiwe Mkhize, took part in this broadcast. The company performed the trademark song Circle of Life.
A Strictly Come Dancing one - off special for Sport Relief was broadcast on 14 March 2008, with Craig Revel Horwood, Arlene Phillips and Len Goodman judging. Five former Strictly contestants related to sport partnered a new celebrity.
The results were as follows:
The ranking of the bottom three couples was not announced -- they were eliminated from the competition in a random order.
A BBC spokesperson commented: "Sport Relief features Strictly Come Dancing with a difference. ''
Strictly Come Dancing did an underwater special for Sport Relief 2012. The contestants were Strictly Come Dancing 2011 champion Harry Judd and runner - up Chelsee Healey. The judges were Len Goodman, Craig Revel Horwood, Bruno Tonioli and Mark Foster. It was presented by Claudia Winkleman.
After the initial scores resulted in a draw, Len (as Head Judge) had the deciding vote. He chose Chelsee and Pasha therefore they won the contest.
Strictly Come Dancing did a Paralympians special for Sport Relief 2014. The contestants were David Clarke, Hannah Cockroft, Nathan Stephens and Martine Wright. The judges were Goodman, Tonioli, Darcey Bussell and Lee Pearson; however, no scores were given. The series was presented by Tess Daly.
A Strictly Come Dancing one - off special for Children in Need was broadcast on 14 November 2008, with Fearne Cotton presenting and Len Goodman, Bruno Tonioli, Arlene Phillips and Craig Revel Horwood judging.
The results were as follows:
The dancers performed alongside Alesha Dixon singing The Boy Does Nothing at the start of the show and also Ricky Whittle was seen backstage, supporting the Hollyoaks cast who performed and Alesha told him to go back to rehearsals. The presenters and judges did not appear in this unlike the previous year when judges rated Terry 's performance.
A Strictly Come Dancing one - off special for Children in Need was broadcast on 19 November 2010, with Tess Daly presenting the show and Craig Revel Horwood, Len Goodman, Terry Wogan and Pudsey Bear judging.
The results were as follows:
In November 2011, BBC newsreaders Sian Williams, Sophie Raworth, Susanna Reid and Emily Maitlis performed a group dance to Katy Perry 's "Firework ''. Susanna and Robin won with three of the judges ' votes. Angela Rippon also made an appearance in the dance, alongside the women. Susanna then went on to compete as a contestant in the eleventh series of the show in 2013.
A one - off special for Children in Need 2012 was broadcast on 16 November 2012 with Sir Bruce Forsyth and Tess Daly hosting, and judges Craig Revel Horwood, Darcey Bussell, Len Goodman, and Bruno Tonioli. Fan favourites Ann Widdecombe and Russell Grant made a special appearance in a parody of The Queen 's Olympic opening ceremony scene with Daniel Craig as James Bond, and danced an "Angels and Demons '' routine with their partners Anton du Beke and Flavia Cacace. Bruno voted for Ann and Anton, but Craig, Darcey, and Len all chose Russell and Flavia, who took home the Pudsey - on - a-glitter - ball trophy.
A one - off special was broadcast for Children in Need 2013 on 15 November 2013. Sir Bruce Forsyth and Tess Daly hosted the show, and was judged by Len Goodman, Darcey Bussell and Bruno Tonioli. The show featured professional ice skaters Jayne Torvill and Christopher Dean, who were partnered with James Jordan and Aliona Vilani. Bussell voted for Chris and Aliona, but Tonioli and Goodman voted for Jayne and James, who won the show and took home the Pudsey - on - a-glitter - ball trophy.
The judges were: Revel Horwood, Bussell, Goodman & Tonioli. There were two teams with one children couple and one of the shows professional as a couple, Team Glitter 's pros were Natalie Lowe & Anton Du Beke and Team Sparkle 's pros were Aliona Vilani & Tristan MacManus. Team Glitter took home the trophy.
On 13 August 2015, it was announced that Call the Midwife actors Jenny Agutter, Laura Main, Stephen McGann and Jack Ashton would appear on the 2015 Children in Need special. Tess Daly hosted the show, along with former presenter Sir Bruce Forsyth in what was Forsyth 's final formal television appearance prior to his death in 2017.
On the 18 November 2016, British olympians Canoeist Joe Clarke, Hockey player Hollie Webb, Taekwando athlete, Lutalo Muhammad and Rower Helen Glover competed in the 2016 Children in Need Special. Tess Daly and Claudia Winkleman presented the show, making it the first Children in Need not co-presented by Sir Bruce Forsyth.
The BBC announced that former and current Blue Peter presenters would take part in the 2017 special.
On 11 September 2014, the BBC announced that a special non-celebrity version of the show would air for Comic Relief 2015. It featured six inspirational heroes who underwent four weeks of training before performing live in the studio.
The series began airing on 25 February 2015 over four pre-recorded episodes, the first two episodes introduced the contestants, the third episode on 5 March followed their training and preparation for the show. The fourth episode on 11 March saw the couples take to the dance floor, with the winner decided via an online public vote and announced live on Red Nose Day 2015 on 13 March.
The series was hosted by Tess Daly and Claudia Winkleman, and judged by Bussell, Tonioli and Goodman alongside guest judge Anton du Beke. Craig Revel Horwood did not take part as a judge due to prior commitments. The judges ' scores were for guidance only.
On 27 December 2008, a special episode of The Weakest Link was broadcast on BBC One featuring participants of Strictly Come Dancing. The game was won by series 6 celebrity Mark Foster, who beat professional dancer Anton du Beke in the final. Participants in order of elimination were:
Strictly Come Dancing went on tour at the beginning of 2008 for the first time. The tour was hosted by Kate Thornton, and judged by Craig Revel Horwood, Arlene Phillips, and Len Goodman. Bruno Tonioli was not a judge in this competition due to him being in Los Angeles. The tour began on 18 January 2008 in Glasgow and finished on 19 February 2008 in Birmingham.
Celebrity dancers taking part were:
Christopher Parker 's original partner Hannah Karttunen did not dance with him as she had left the show before this tour. Denise Lewis also had a different partner as her original partner Ian Waite danced with more recent partner Zoë Ball. Instead she danced with Matthew Cutler
Strictly Professionals James Jordan and Ola Jordan also performed a routine together.
The results of the tour are as follows:
Denise Lewis, Christopher Parker or James Martin were not winners or runners up at any stage of the tour.
The Strictly Come Dancing Tour returned in January and February 2009. Kate Thornton returned to host, and all four judges from the TV series took part.
Celebrity dancers taking part were:
The couples and results of the tour were as follows:
Gethin Jones and Julian Clary were paired with new professional partners -- Jones ' partner Camilla Dallerup danced with her series six celebrity Tom Chambers, whilst Clary 's partner (Erin Boag) did not take part in the tour, as she and her professional partner Anton du Beke were on their own Cheek To Cheek tour of the UK.
Strictly Come Dancing professionals Matthew Cutler and Kristina Rihanoff also performed a routine together.
The DVD was released on 9 November 2009.
The Strictly Come Dancing Live Tour took place in January and February 2010. Amanda Byram and Kate Thornton hosted on different nights.
The judging panel consisted of four members:
The following celebrities and professional dancers starred in the tour:
Two other pro dancers danced on the tour:
Nine professional show dancers took part in the first Strictly Come Dancing -- The Professionals Tour between April to July 2010. It featured:
The Strictly Come Dancing 2011 UK tour returned to UK arenas during January and February 2011. Zoë Ball joined as host. Craig Revel Horwood, Bruno Tonioli and Len Goodman returned as judges. The celebrities and professionals who participated were:
Also making a guest appearance in the tour was Fever Dance Company and their amazing formation team.
The Strictly Come Dancing 2012 UK tour began its run on 20 January and finished on 26 February. The venues hosting the tour were:
Kate Thornton returned as host. Craig Revel Horwood, Bruno Tonioli and Len Goodman returned as judges. Horwood directed the tour for the second year.
The celebrities and professionals who participated were:
Ian Waite performed with Natalie on the tour, but did not partner a celebrity.
The Strictly Come Dancing 2013 UK tour began its run on 18 January 2013. The confirmed line - up of celebrities and professionals for the tour is as follows:
Kate Thornton returned as host; Craig Revel Horwood, Bruno Tonioli and Len Goodman returned as judges. Iveta Lukosiute also performed on the tour, but did not partner a celebrity. Louis Smith and Ola Jordan were the overall champions of the tour, with the most wins.
The Strictly Come Dancing 2014 UK Tour begun on 17 January 2014 at the National Indoor Arena in Birmingham and ended at The O2 Arena on 7 February. The tour was hosted by former contestant Lisa Riley, and Bruno Tonioli, Craig Revel Horwood and Len Goodman returned as judges.
The following celebrities and professionals took part:
Natalie Lowe also featured on the tour, but did not partner a celebrity.
This is the first series of The Live Tour! in which all of the celebrities danced with their original partners.
The Strictly Come Dancing 2015 UK Tour began on 16 January 2015 at the National Indoor Arena in Birmingham and concluded at The O2 Arena on 8 February 2015. The tour was hosted by former contestant and It Takes Two host Zoë Ball for the second time. Craig Revel Horwood returned as judge, but Len Goodman and Bruno Tonioli did not take part due to other commitments including Dancing with the Stars in the United States, so they were replaced by Series 6 champion Tom Chambers and his professional partner Camilla Dallerup. Anton du Beke was also a judge in the Echo Arena, Liverpool and Wembley Arena, London. Len Goodman was a judge just for the O2 show on 8 February and on that same show the presenter was Lisa Riley.
The following celebrities and professionals took part:
Caroline Flack danced with Tristan MacManus not her partner in the series Pasha Kovalev
Trent Whiddon also featured on the tour to dance with Iveta, but did not partner a celebrity. Simon Webbe and Kristina Rihanoff are the overall champions of the tour, with the most wins.
Pro Partners on the tour were as follows:
The 2016 tour started on 22 January and finished on 14 February. The new presenter was Mel Giedroyc and the judges were Craig Revel Horwood, Len Goodman and Bruno Tonioli.
Joanne Clifton was also featured on the tour, but not partner a celebrity.
Pro Partners on the tour were as follows:
Natalie Lowe was scheduled to dance on the tour but she sustained an injury during tour rehearsals. Karen Clifton, who was already set to dance on the tour without a celebrity partner, took over for Lowe.
Mel Giedroyc was ill on 9 February so Anita Rani hosted instead. However, she still performed her Paso Doble but not for votes.
The 2017 tour was presented by 2015 semi-finalist Anita Rani. The judges were Craig Revel Horwood, Len Goodman and Karen Hardy. The tour started on 20 January and finished on 12 February.
The full tour line up was announced on 14 December:
Due to Ed Balls not dancing in Manchester, Judge Rinder and Oksana Platero will replace him on the 4 and 5 February.
Extra Dancers on Tour who are dancing in Group Dances:
The scores presented below represent the best overall accumulative average scores the celebrities gained each series.
Female
Male
The scores presented below represent the worst overall accumulative average score the celebrities gained each series.
Female
Male
On forty - seven occasions, a perfect 40 out of 40 has been awarded inside the main series (including three perfect 50 out of 50s in Series 7). Caroline Flack and Pasha Kovalev, and Danny Mac and Oti Mabuse both hold the record for most perfect scores with four forties. Kovalev also holds the record for most perfect scores by a professional dancer with eight forties. On another eight occasions, a couple scored 40 / 40 on a Christmas Special. The Rumba is the only dance style not to have received the perfect score.
Here is a table showing all of the perfect scores achieved by number of perfect scores
By Celebrity:
By Professional:
The lowest score the judges have ever awarded was 8 / 40 (1, 1, 3, 3) to Quentin Willson and Hazel Newberry for their Cha Cha Cha. Nine individual ones have been awarded in the entirety of Strictly Come Dancing, with eight of those coming from Craig Revel Horwood and the other coming from Arlene Philips. Ann Widdecombe holds the current record for the most ones, receiving ones from Revel Horwood for her Salsa, Samba, and Rumba. The biggest margin between two singular judges scores is five, awarded to Jason Wood and Kylie Jones for their Rumba (2, 5, 7, 5), Christopher Parker and Hanna Karttunen for their Tango (2, 6, 7, 6), Gary Rhodes and Karen Hardy for their Cha - Cha - Cha (1, 5, 6, 5), Scott Maslen and Natalie Lowe for their Rumba (4, 9, 7, 8), Mark Benton and Iveta Lukosiute for their Cha - Cha - Cha (3, 8, 8, 7), and Scott Mills and Joanne Clifton for their Samba with Donny Osmond (2, 5, 7, 5, 6).
Ricky Whittle and his partner Natalie Lowe hold the record for the most tens with 28. However, if the four tens given by Darcey Bussell during her tenure as a fifth judge are removed, he is behind Danny Mac and Oti Mabuse, with 26 tens, and Rachel Stevens and her partner Vincent Simone and Harry Judd and his partner Aliona Vilani with 25 each. They are followed by Natalie Gumede and Artem Chigvintsev, and Ore Oduba and Joanne Clifton with 24 each, Caroline Flack and Pasha Kovalev with 23, Abbey Clancy and Aljaž Skorjanec with 22, Kara Tointon and Artem Chigvintsev with 21 and Lisa Snowdon and Brendan Cole, Kimberley Walsh and Pasha Kovalev and Denise van Outen and James Jordan with 20. Of these celebrities, Snowdon and Cole and Flack and Kovalev are the only pairings to receive straight tens from the judges in all of their dances in their respective series finals. Flack and Kovalev are the only pair to manage three sets of perfect 40 marks in the final, and also hold the records for the longest consecutive streak of 40 marks with four, that includes their Salsa in the semi-final show, and the longest consecutive streak of tens, that adds to a total of 16.
Gumede and Chigvintsev also have the best average score from the judges out of all contestants on every series being 36.9 / 40 for their dances. Danny Mac and Oti Mabuse, and Alesha Dixon and her partner Matthew Cutler, follow, with averages of 36.6 and 36.5 respectively. Quentin Willson, Diarmuid Gavin and Nicholas Owen hold averages of 8.0, 13.8 and 14.0, the lowest of any celebrities so far.
The best and worst performances in each dance according to the judges ' marks (out of 40) are as follows (not including scores earned on Christmas or any other specials).
For a more accurate comparison Darcey Bussell 's scores have been subtracted from the totals of the Series 7 quarter - finalists where relevant; specifically Ali Bastian 's American Smooth, Chris Hollins ' Charleston and Ricky Whittle 's Quickstep. Bussell scored all of them a ten. Whittle 's Showdance has not been included as it did not receive the perfect score from Bussell, and therefore can not be considered the same standard. The Rumba is the only dance that has not received the full mark of 40, the highest score being 39 / 40. Winner of series 12, Caroline Flack, and runner - up of series 14, Danny Mac, hold the record for receiving the most perfect scores as a celebrity with four. With eight perfect scores, Flack 's partner Pasha Kovalev holds the record for most perfect scores by a professional dancer.
Television presenter Johnny Ball, who was 74 when he competed in 2012, is the oldest contestant; he was older than magician Paul Daniels and actress Lesley Joseph, who were 72 & 71 when they competed in 2010 & 2016 respectively. Actress Louisa Lytton, who was 17 when she competed in 2006, remains the youngest contestant. TV presenter Chris Hollins, who was 38 when he competed in 2009, is the oldest series winner and gymnast Louis Smith, who was 23 when he competed in 2012, is the youngest series winner. At 20, Christopher Parker and Matt Di Angelo are the youngest contestants to make it to the finale. while Dr. Pamela Stephenson is the oldest, at the age of 61.
Series 8 contestant Ann Widdecombe holds the record for the most lowest scores, with a highest score of 21 / 40 and lowest score of 12 / 40. Series 2 contestant Quentin Willson holds the record for the overall lowest score of 8 / 40 (1, 1, 3, 3) and lowest average 8.0 / 40.0. Series 11 contestant Natalie Gumede holds the highest average score with 36.9 / 40.0. Series 12 winner Caroline Flack and series 14 runner - up Danny Mac hold the record for the most perfect scores with four 40s. Series 13 contestant Jamelia holds the record for being in the most dance - offs, which is 5. Series 15 contestant Debbie McGee holds the record for getting the earliest ever 40 in the competition which was in week 7, for her Tango. This was also the first 40 with Shirley Ballas as the head judge.
In December 2008, the show hit the headlines when viewers were able to register telephone votes for a couple that effectively they could not save from the dance off irrespective of how many public votes were cast in their favour. Tom Chambers and Camilla Dallerup had finished bottom of the leaderboard, whilst the two other couples were tied above them; this meant they could not mathematically survive given the scoring system, however viewers were invited to call in to save their favourites at a cost of 15p per vote. This resulted in the elimination for that week being cancelled and all the votes being carried over to the final.
The decision to drop Arlene Phillips from the judging line - up for the 2009 series of Strictly Come Dancing led to much criticism being directed at the BBC by various UK newspapers, notably The Sun, running the axe as a headline story for its handling of older female television personalities. Accusations resurfaced that the BBC routinely discriminates against women in television based on their age. The most notable examples of purported age discrimination in the BBC include the release of newsreader Moira Stuart in 2007 and the retirement of Anna Ford in 2006. Other high - profile BBC personalities such as Selina Scott and Kate Adie accused the BBC of age discrimination towards women.
The axing of Phillips led to an unprecedented intervention from the government 's Minister for Women and Equality, Harriet Harman. During a session in the House of Commons, Harman responded to questions stating that she believed the decision to drop Phillips was motivated by age discrimination and called on the BBC to ensure that she would be taking part in the new series. The BBC has not formally responded to this request, but has repeated its comments that the decision was not due to age. The appointment of Alesha Dixon to the judging panel prompted 5,000 complaints to the BBC, and her judging debut was met with hostility among viewers and tabloids alike but she was subsequently believed by some to be a successful judge, giving both praise and constructive criticism. Dixon was lured away from the show after series 9 by ITV to join the judging panel of Britain 's Got Talent. Phillips was a popular media choice to replace her, but the role instead went to series 7 guest judge Darcey Bussell.
In 2009, a scandal embroiled the show involving professional dancer Anton du Beke, who in an off air conversation commented "Oh my God, you look like a Paki. '' to his dance partner of Moroccan descent Laila Rouass for which he has subsequently unreservedly apologised. Whilst both of the people involved insisted that the comments had been intended as humorous banter, the news nevertheless prompted numerous complaints filed by viewers calling for du Beke to be removed from his position.
In 2015, CJ de Mooi said that he was turned down for the show because he had wanted to dance with a same - sex partner. In response, the BBC said "Strictly is a family show and we have chosen the traditional format of mixed - sex couples ''. The issue came up again in 2016 when Will Young (who is gay) was due to appear on the show. The BBC said he would be appearing alongside a female dancer, and released a statement saying "The show has chosen the traditional Latin and Ballroom format of mixed - sex couples. ''
An example of Strictly Come Dancing 's popularity is that after episodes, electricity use in the United Kingdom rises significantly as viewers who have waited for the show to end begin boiling water for tea, a phenomenon known as TV pick - up. National Grid personnel watch the show to know when closing credits begin so they can prepare for the surge.
All ratings are from BARB. Series averages exclude Christmas special and launch show.
The show has won a highly prestigious Rose D'Or award for ' Best Variety Show ', beating off competition from reality shows from twelve other different countries. It has also won two awards for ' Best Reality Show ' at the TRIC Awards and two at the TV Quick Awards for ' Best Talent Show '. It has also received four BAFTA Award nominations.
The show won the award of ' Most Popular Talent Show ' at the National Television Awards in 2008, 2013, 2014, 2016 and 2017
In the Guinness Book of World Records 2010 edition, the format of Strictly Come Dancing was named the most successful television show with the format being sold to more than 38 countries worldwide.
|
why was india split into two countries in 1947 | Partition of India - Wikipedia
The Partition of India was the division of British India in 1947 which accompanied the creation of two independent dominions, India and Pakistan. The Dominion of India is today the Republic of India, and the Dominion of Pakistan is today the Islamic Republic of Pakistan and the People 's Republic of Bangladesh. The partition involved the division of two provinces, Bengal and the Punjab, based on district-wise Hindu or Muslim majorities. The boundary demarcating India and Pakistan became known as the Radcliffe Line. It also involved the division of the British Indian Army, the Royal Indian Navy, the Indian Civil Service, the railways, and the central treasury, between the two new dominions. The partition was set forth in the Indian Independence Act 1947 and resulted in the dissolution of the British Raj, as the British government there was called. The two self - governing countries of Pakistan and India legally came into existence at midnight on 14 -- 15 August 1947.
The partition displaced between 10 and 12 million people along religious lines, creating overwhelming refugee crises in the newly constituted dominions; there was large - scale violence, with estimates of loss of life accompanying or preceding the partition disputed and varying between several hundred thousand and two million. The violent nature of the partition created an atmosphere of hostility and suspicion between India and Pakistan that plagues their relationship to the present.
The term partition of India does not cover the secession of Bangladesh from Pakistan in 1971, nor the earlier separations of Burma (now Myanmar) and Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) from the administration of British India. The term also does not cover the political integration of princely states into the two new dominions, nor the disputes of annexation or division arising in the princely states of Hyderabad, Junagadh, and Jammu and Kashmir, though violence along religious lines did break out in some princely states at the time of the partition. It does not cover the incorporation of the enclaves of French India into India during the period 1947 -- 1954, nor the annexation of Goa and other districts of Portuguese India by India in 1961. Other contemporaneous political entities in the region in 1947, Sikkim, Bhutan, Nepal, and the Maldives were unaffected by the partition.
1909 Percentage of Hindus.
1909 Percentage of Muslims.
1909 Percentage of Sikhs, Buddhists and Jains.
In 1905, the viceroy, Lord Curzon, in his second term, divided the largest administrative subdivision in British India, the Bengal Presidency, into the Muslim - majority province of East Bengal and Assam and the Hindu - majority province of Bengal (present - day Indian states of West Bengal, Bihār, Jharkhand and Odisha). Curzon 's act, the Partition of Bengal -- which some considered administratively felicitous, and, which had been contemplated by various colonial administrations since the time of Lord William Bentinck, but never acted upon -- was to transform nationalist politics as nothing else before it. The Hindu elite of Bengal, among them many who owned land in East Bengal that was leased out to Muslim peasants, protested fervidly. The large Bengali Hindu middle - class (the Bhadralok), upset at the prospect of Bengalis being outnumbered in the new Bengal province by Biharis and Oriyas, felt that Curzon 's act was punishment for their political assertiveness. The pervasive protests against Curzon 's decision took the form predominantly of the Swadeshi ("buy Indian '') campaign led by two - time Congress president, Surendranath Banerjee, and involved a boycott of British goods. Sporadically -- but flagrantly -- the protesters also took to political violence that involved attacks on civilians. The violence, however, was not effective, as most planned attacks were either preempted by the British or failed. The rallying cry for both types of protest was the slogan Bande Mataram (Bengali, lit: "Hail to the Mother ''), the title of a song by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, which invoked a mother goddess, who stood variously for Bengal, India, and the Hindu goddess Kali. The unrest spread from Calcutta to the surrounding regions of Bengal when Calcutta 's English - educated students returned home to their villages and towns. The religious stirrings of the slogan and the political outrage over the partition were combined as young men, in groups such as Jugantar, took to bombing public buildings, staging armed robberies, and assassinating British officials. Since Calcutta was the imperial capital, both the outrage and the slogan soon became nationally known.
The overwhelming, but predominantly Hindu, protest against the partition of Bengal and the fear, in its wake, of reforms favouring the Hindu majority, now led the Muslim elite in India, in 1906, to meet with the new viceroy, Lord Minto, and to ask for separate electorates for Muslims. In conjunction, they demanded proportional legislative representation reflecting both their status as former rulers and their record of cooperating with the British. This led, in December 1906, to the founding of the All - India Muslim League in Dacca. Although Curzon, by now, had resigned his position over a dispute with his military chief Lord Kitchener and returned to England, the League was in favour of his partition plan. The Muslim elite 's position, which was reflected in the League 's position, had crystallized gradually over the previous three decades, beginning with the 1871 Census of British India, which had first estimated the populations in regions of Muslim majority. (For his part, Curzon 's desire to court the Muslims of East Bengal had arisen from British anxieties ever since the 1871 census, the first comprehensive census there -- and in light of the history of Muslims fighting them in the 1857 Mutiny and the Second Anglo - Afghan War -- about Indian Muslims rebelling against the Crown.) In the three decades since that census, Muslim leaders across northern India, had intermittently experienced public animosity from some of the new Hindu political and social groups. The Arya Samaj, for example, had not only supported Cow Protection Societies in their agitation, but also -- distraught at the 1871 Census 's Muslim numbers -- organized "reconversion '' events for the purpose of welcoming Muslims back to the Hindu fold. In the United Provinces, Muslims became anxious when, in the late 19th century, political representation increased, giving more power to Hindus, and Hindus were politically mobilized in the Hindi - Urdu controversy and the anti-cow - killing riots of 1893. In 1905, when Tilak and Lajpat Rai attempted to rise to leadership positions in the Congress, and the Congress itself rallied around symbolism of Kali, Muslim fears increased. It was not lost on many Muslims, for example, that the rallying cry, "Bande Mataram '', had first appeared in the novel Anand Math in which Hindus had battled their Muslim oppressors. Lastly, the Muslim elite, and among it Dacca Nawab, Khwaja Salimullah, who hosted the League 's first meeting in his mansion in Shahbag, was aware that a new province with a Muslim majority would directly benefit Muslims aspiring to political power.
Indian medical orderlies attending to wounded soldiers with the Mesopotamian Expeditionary Force in Mesopotamia during World War I.
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (seated in carriage, on the right, eyes downcast, with black flat - top hat) receives a big welcome in Karachi in 1916 after his return to India from South Africa.
Muhammad Ali Jinnah, seated, third from the left, was a supporter of the Lucknow Pact, which, in 1916, ended the three - way rift between the Extremists, the Moderates and the League.
World War I would prove to be a watershed in the imperial relationship between Britain and India. 1.4 million Indian and British soldiers of the British Indian Army would take part in the war and their participation would have a wider cultural fallout: news of Indian soldiers fighting and dying with British soldiers, as well as soldiers from dominions like Canada and Australia, would travel to distant corners of the world both in newsprint and by the new medium of the radio. India 's international profile would thereby rise and would continue to rise during the 1920s. It was to lead, among other things, to India, under its own name, becoming a founding member of the League of Nations in 1920 and participating, under the name, "Les Indes Anglaises '' (British India), in the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp. Back in India, especially among the leaders of the Indian National Congress, it would lead to calls for greater self - government for Indians.
The 1916 Lucknow Session of the Congress was also the venue of an unanticipated mutual effort by the Congress and the Muslim League, the occasion for which was provided by the wartime partnership between Germany and Turkey. Since the Turkish Sultan, or Khalifah, had also sporadically claimed guardianship of the Islamic holy sites of Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem, and since the British and their allies were now in conflict with Turkey, doubts began to increase among some Indian Muslims about the "religious neutrality '' of the British, doubts that had already surfaced as a result of the reunification of Bengal in 1911, a decision that was seen as ill - disposed to Muslims. In the Lucknow Pact, the League joined the Congress in the proposal for greater self - government that was campaigned for by Tilak and his supporters; in return, the Congress accepted separate electorates for Muslims in the provincial legislatures as well as the Imperial Legislative Council. In 1916, the Muslim League had anywhere between 500 and 800 members and did not yet have its wider following among Indian Muslims of later years; in the League itself, the pact did not have unanimous backing, having largely been negotiated by a group of "Young Party '' Muslims from the United Provinces (UP), most prominently, two brothers Mohammad and Shaukat Ali, who had embraced the Pan-Islamic cause; however, it did have the support of a young lawyer from Bombay, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who was later to rise to leadership roles in both the League and the Indian independence movement. In later years, as the full ramifications of the pact unfolded, it was seen as benefiting the Muslim minority élites of provinces like UP and Bihar more than the Muslim majorities of Punjab and Bengal; nonetheless, at the time, the "Lucknow Pact '', was an important milestone in nationalistic agitation and was seen so by the British.
Secretary of State for India, Montagu and Viceroy Lord Chelmsford presented a report in July 1918 after a long fact - finding trip through India the previous winter. After more discussion by the government and parliament in Britain, and another tour by the Franchise and Functions Committee for the purpose of identifying who among the Indian population could vote in future elections, the Government of India Act of 1919 (also known as the Montagu -- Chelmsford Reforms) was passed in December 1919. The new Act enlarged both the provincial and Imperial legislative councils and repealed the Government of India 's recourse to the "official majority '' in unfavorable votes. Although departments like defence, foreign affairs, criminal law, communications, and income - tax were retained by the Viceroy and the central government in New Delhi, other departments like public health, education, land - revenue, local self - government were transferred to the provinces. The provinces themselves were now to be administered under a new dyarchical system, whereby some areas like education, agriculture, infrastructure development, and local self - government became the preserve of Indian ministers and legislatures, and ultimately the Indian electorates, while others like irrigation, land - revenue, police, prisons, and control of media remained within the purview of the British governor and his executive council. The new Act also made it easier for Indians to be admitted into the civil service and the army officer corps.
A greater number of Indians were now enfranchised, although, for voting at the national level, they constituted only 10 % of the total adult male population, many of whom were still illiterate. In the provincial legislatures, the British continued to exercise some control by setting aside seats for special interests they considered cooperative or useful. In particular, rural candidates, generally sympathetic to British rule and less confrontational, were assigned more seats than their urban counterparts. Seats were also reserved for non-Brahmins, landowners, businessmen, and college graduates. The principle of "communal representation '', an integral part of the Minto - Morley Reforms, and more recently of the Congress - Muslim League Lucknow Pact, was reaffirmed, with seats being reserved for Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo - Indians, and domiciled Europeans, in both provincial and Imperial legislative councils. The Montagu - Chelmsford reforms offered Indians the most significant opportunity yet for exercising legislative power, especially at the provincial level; however, that opportunity was also restricted by the still limited number of eligible voters, by the small budgets available to provincial legislatures, and by the presence of rural and special interest seats that were seen as instruments of British control.
The two - nation is the ideology that the primary identity and unifying denominator of Muslims in the Indian subcontinent is their religion, rather than their language or ethnicity, and therefore Indian Hindus and Muslims are two distinct nations, regardless of ethnic or other commonalities. The two - nation theory was a founding principle of the Pakistan Movement (i.e. the ideology of Pakistan as a Muslim nation - state in South Asia), and the partition of India in 1947.
The ideology that religion is the determining factor in defining the nationality of Indian Muslims was undertaken by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who termed it as the awakening of Muslims for the creation of Pakistan. It is also a source of inspiration to several Hindu nationalist organizations, with causes as varied as the redefinition of Indian Muslims as non-Indian foreigners and second - class citizens in India, the expulsion of all Muslims from India, establishment of a legally Hindu state in India, prohibition of conversions to Islam, and the promotion of conversions or reconversions of Indian Muslims to Hinduism.
There are varying interpretations of the two - nation theory, based on whether the two postulated nationalities can coexist in one territory or not, with radically different implications. One interpretation argued for sovereign autonomy, including the right to secede, for Muslim - majority areas of the Indian subcontinent, but without any transfer of populations (i.e. Hindus and Muslims would continue to live together). A different interpretation contends that Hindus and Muslims constitute "two distinct, and frequently antagonistic ways of life, and that therefore they can not coexist in one nation. '' In this version, a transfer of populations (i.e. the total removal of Hindus from Muslim - majority areas and the total removal of Muslims from Hindu - majority areas) is a desirable step towards a complete separation of two incompatible nations that "can not coexist in a harmonious relationship ''.
Opposition to the theory has come from two sources. The first is the concept of a single Indian nation, of which Hindus and Muslims are two intertwined communities. This is a founding principle of the modern, officially secular, Republic of India. Even after the formation of Pakistan, debates on whether Muslims and Hindus are distinct nationalities or not continued in that country as well. The second source of opposition is the concept that while Indians are not one nation, neither are the Muslims or Hindus of the subcontinent, and it is instead the relatively homogeneous provincial units of the subcontinent which are true nations and deserving of sovereignty; this view has been presented by the Baloch, Sindhi, and Pashtun sub-nationalities of Pakistan and the Assamese and Punjabi sub-nationalities of India.
Allama Muhammad Iqbal, fifth from left, arriving at the 1930 session of the All India Muslim League, where he delivered his presidential address outlining his plan for a homeland for the Muslims of British India.
Jawaharlal Nehru, Sarojini Naidu, Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, and Maulana Azad at the 1940 Ramgarh session of the Congress in which Azad was elected president for the second time.
Chaudhari Khaliquzzaman (left) seconding the 1940 Lahore Resolution of the All - India Muslim League with Jinnah (right) presiding, and Liaquat Ali Khan centre.
Although Choudhry Rahmat Ali had in 1933 produced a pamphlet, Now or never, in which the term "Pakistan '', "the land of the pure '', comprising the Punjab, North West Frontier Province (Afghania), Kashmir, Sindh, and Balochistan, was coined for the first time, the pamphlet did not attract political attention. A little later, a Muslim delegation to the Parliamentary Committee on Indian Constitutional Reforms gave short shrift to the Pakistan idea, calling it "chimerical and impracticable ''.
Two years later, the Government of India Act 1935 introduced provincial autonomy, increasing the number of voters in India to 35 million. More significantly, law and order issues were for the first time devolved from British authority to provincial governments headed by Indians. This increased Muslim anxieties about eventual Hindu domination. In the Indian provincial elections, 1937, the Muslim League turned out its best performance in Muslim - minority provinces such as the United Provinces, where it won 29 of the 64 reserved Muslim seats. However, in the Muslim - majority regions of the Punjab and Bengal regional parties outperformed the League. In the Punjab, the Unionist Part of Sikandar Hayat Khan, won the elections and formed a government, with the support of the Indian National Congress and the Shiromani Akali Dal, which lasted five years. In Bengal, the League had to share power in a coalition headed by A.K. Fazlul Huq, the leader of the Krishak Praja Party.
The Congress, on the other hand, with 716 wins in the total of 1585 provincial assemblies seats, was able to form governments in 7 out of the 11 provinces of British India. In its manifesto the Congress maintained that religious issues were of lesser importance to the masses than economic and social issues, however, the election revealed that the Congress had contested just 58 out of the total 482 Muslim seats, and of these, it won in only 26. In UP, where the Congress won, it offered to share power with the League on condition that the League stop functioning as a representative only of Muslims, which the League refused. This proved to be a mistake as it alienated the Congress further from the Muslim masses. In addition, the new UP provincial administration promulgated cow protection and the use of Hindi. The Muslim elite in UP was further alienated, when they saw chaotic scenes of the new Congress Raj, in which rural people who sometimes turned up in large numbers in Government buildings, were indistinguishable from the administrators and the law enforcement personnel.
The Muslim League conducted its own investigation into the conditions of Muslims under Congress - governed provinces. The findings of such investigations increased fear among the Muslim masses of future Hindu domination. The view that Muslims would be unfairly treated in an independent India dominated by the Congress was now a part of the public discourse of Muslims. With the outbreak of World War II in 1939, the viceroy, Lord Linlithgow, declared war on India 's behalf without consulting Indian leaders, leading the Congress provincial ministries to resign in protest. The Muslim League, which functioned under state patronage, in contrast, organized "Deliverance Day '', celebrations (from Congress dominance) and supported Britain in the war effort. When Linlithgow, met with nationalist leaders, he gave the same status to Jinnah as he did to Gandhi, and a month later described the Congress as a "Hindu organization. ''
In March 1940, in the League 's annual three - day session in Lahore, Jinnah gave a two - hour speech in English, in which were laid out the arguments of the Two - nation theory, stating, in the words of historians Talbot and Singh, that "Muslims and Hindus... were irreconcilably opposed monolithic religious communities and as such no settlement could be imposed that did not satisfy the aspirations of the former. '' On the last day of its session, the League passed, what came to be known as the Lahore Resolution, sometimes also "Pakistan Resolution '', demanding that "the areas in which the Muslims are numerically in majority as in the North - Western and Eastern zones of India should be grouped to constitute independent states in which the constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign. '' Though it had been founded more than three decades earlier, the League would gather support among South Asian Muslims only during the Second World War.
In March 1942, with the Japanese fast moving up the Malayan Peninsula after the Fall of Singapore, and with the Americans supporting independence for India, Winston Churchill, the wartime Prime Minister of Britain, sent Sir Stafford Cripps, the leader of the House of Commons, with an offer of dominion status to India at the end of the war in return for the Congress 's support for the war effort. Not wishing to lose the support of the allies they had already secured -- the Muslim League, Unionists of the Punjab, and the Princes -- the Cripps offer included a clause stating that no part of the British Indian Empire would be forced to join the post-war Dominion. As a result of the proviso, the proposals were rejected by the Congress, which, since its founding as a polite group of lawyers in 1885, saw itself as the representative of all Indians of all faiths. After the arrival in 1920 of Gandhi, the preeminent strategist of Indian nationalism, the Congress had been transformed into a mass nationalist movement of millions. In August 1942, the Congress launched the Quit India Resolution which asked for drastic constitutional changes, which the British saw as the most serious threat to their rule since the Indian rebellion of 1857. With their resources and attention already spread thin by a global war, the nervous British immediately jailed the Congress leaders and kept them in jail until August 1945, whereas the Muslim League was now free for the next three years to spread its message. Consequently, the Muslim League 's ranks surged during the war, with Jinnah himself admitting, "The war which nobody welcomed proved to be a blessing in disguise. '' Although there were other important national Muslim politicians such as Congress leader Abul Kalam Azad, and influential regional Muslim politicians such as A.K. Fazlul Huq of the leftist Krishak Praja Party in Bengal, Sikander Hyat Khan of the landlord - dominated Punjab Unionist Party, and Abd al - Ghaffar Khan of the pro-Congress Khudai Khidmatgar (popularly, "red shirts '') in the North West Frontier Province, the British were to increasingly see the League as the main representative of Muslim India. The Muslim League 's demand for Pakistan pitted it against the British and Congress.
Members of the 1946 Cabinet Mission to India meeting Muhammad Ali Jinnah. On the extreme left is Lord Pethick Lawrence; on the extreme right, Sir Stafford Cripps.
An aged and abandoned Muslim couple and their grand children sitting by the roadside on this arduous journey. "The old man is dying of exhaustion. The caravan has gone on, '' wrote Bourke - White.
An old Sikh man carrying his wife. Over 10 million people were uprooted from their homeland and travelled on foot, bullock carts and trains to their promised new home.
Gandhi in Bela, Bihar, after attacks on Muslims, 28 March 1947.
Labour Prime Minister Clement Attlee had been deeply interested in Indian independence since the 1920s, and for years had supported independence. He now took charge of the government position and gave the issue highest priority. Some Indian writers assume that localised mutinies in the Royal Indian Navy in 1946 prompted his actions, but historians find little evidence from the British records. The mutiny was repressed with force by British troops and Royal Navy warships. The total number of casualties was 8 mutineers dead and 33 other mutineers wounded. Only the Communist Party supported the strikers; the Congress and the Muslim League condemned it. Attlee sent a Cabinet Mission to India which was led by the Secretary of State for India, Lord Pethick Lawrence, and it included Sir Stafford Cripps, who had visited India four years before. It failed because Congress and the Muslim League could not agree.
In early 1946, new elections were held in India. With the announcement of the elections the line had been drawn for Muslim voters to choose between a united Indian state or Partition. Earlier, at the end of the war in 1945, the colonial government had announced the public trial of three senior officers of Subhas Chandra Bose 's defeated Indian National Army who stood accused of treason. Now as the trials began, the Congress leadership, although it never supported the INA, chose to defend the accused officers. The subsequent convictions of the officers, the public outcry against the convictions, and the eventual remission of the sentences created positive propaganda for the Congress, which enabled it to win the party 's subsequent electoral victories in eight of the eleven provinces. The negotiations between the Congress and the Muslim League, however, stumbled over the issue of the partition.
British rule had lost its legitimacy for most Hindus and conclusive proof of this came in the form of the 1946 elections with the Congress winning 91 percent of the vote among non-Muslim constituencies, thereby gaining a majority in the Central Legislature and forming governments in eight provinces, and becoming the legitimate successor to the British government for most Hindus. If the British intended to stay in India the acquiescence of politically active Indians to British rule would have been in doubt after these election results, although the views of many rural Indians were uncertain even at that point. The Muslim League won the majority of the Muslim vote as well as most reserved Muslim seats in the provincial assemblies and it also secured all the Muslim seats in the Central Assembly. Recovering from its performance in the 1937 elections, the Muslim League was finally able to make good on the claim that it and Jinnah alone represented India 's Muslims and Jinnah quickly interpreted this vote as a popular demand for a separate homeland. However, tensions heightened while the Muslim League was unable to form ministries outside the two provinces of Sind and Bengal, with the Congress forming a ministry in the NFWP and the key Punjab province coming under a coalition ministry of the Congress, Sikhs and Unionists.
Britain wanted India and its army to remain united for the purpose of keeping India in its system of ' imperial defence '. With India 's two political parties unable to come to an agreement, Britain devised the Cabinet Mission Plan. Through this mission, Britain hoped to preserve the united India which they and the Congress desired, while concurrently securing the essence of Jinnah 's demand for a Pakistan through ' groupings '. The Cabinet Mission was composed of three Cabinet ministers from England. The Cabinet Mission engaged with various Indian political parties for three weeks but could not reach an agreement. Finally, the mission released its own recommendations on May 16, 1946. In its recommendations the Cabinet Mission rejected the idea of a separate Pakistan and favoured an undivided, although decentralized, India. The Cabinet Mission recommended groupings of Muslim - majority provinces, separate from Hindu - majority provinces, which were to be provided almost complete autonomy. The Congress, having wanted a strong centre, rejected the proposals concerning decentralization.
After the Cabinet Mission broke down, Jinnah proclaimed 16 August 1946 Direct Action Day, with the stated goal of peacefully highlighting the demand for a Muslim homeland in British India. However, on the morning of the 16th, armed Muslim gangs gathered at the Ochterlony Monument in Calcutta to hear Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, the League 's Chief Minister of Bengal, who, in the words of historian Yasmin Khan, "if he did not explicitly incite violence certainly gave the crowd the impression that they could act with impunity, that neither the police nor the military would be called out and that the ministry would turn a blind eye to any action they unleashed in the city. '' That very evening, in Calcutta, Hindus were attacked by returning Muslim celebrants, who carried pamphlets distributed earlier which showed a clear connection between violence and the demand for Pakistan, and directly implicated the celebration of Direct Action Day with the outbreak of the cycle of violence that would later be called the "Great Calcutta Killing of August 1946 ''. The next day, Hindus struck back and the violence continued for three days in which approximately 4,000 people died (according to official accounts), Hindus and Muslims in equal numbers. Although India had had outbreaks of religious violence between Hindus and Muslims before, the Calcutta killings were the first to display elements of "ethnic cleansing '', in modern parlance. Violence was not confined to the public sphere, but homes were entered and destroyed and women and children were attacked. Although the Government of India and the Congress were both shaken by the course of events, in September, a Congress - led interim government was installed, with Jawaharlal Nehru as united India 's prime minister.
The communal violence spread to Bihar (where Muslims were attacked by Hindus), to Noakhali in Bengal (where Hindus were targeted by Muslims), to Garhmukteshwar in the United Provinces (where Muslims were attacked by Hindus), and on to Rawalpindi in March 1947 in which Hindus were attacked or driven out by Muslims.
Vallabhbhai Patel was one of the first Congress leaders to accept the partition of India as a solution to the rising Muslim separatist movement led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah. He had been outraged by Jinnah 's Direct Action campaign, which had provoked communal violence across India and by the viceroy 's vetoes of his home department 's plans to stop the violence on the grounds of constitutionality. Patel severely criticised the viceroy 's induction of League ministers into the government, and the revalidation of the grouping scheme by the British without Congress approval. Although further outraged at the League 's boycott of the assembly and non-acceptance of the plan of 16 May despite entering government, he was also aware that Jinnah did enjoy popular support amongst Muslims, and that an open conflict between him and the nationalists could degenerate into a Hindu - Muslim civil war of disastrous consequences. The continuation of a divided and weak central government would in Patel 's mind, result in the wider fragmentation of India by encouraging more than 600 princely states towards independence. Between the months of December 1946 and January 1947, Patel worked with civil servant V.P. Menon on the latter 's suggestion for a separate dominion of Pakistan created out of Muslim - majority provinces. Communal violence in Bengal and Punjab in January and March 1947 further convinced Patel of the soundness of partition. Patel, a fierce critic of Jinnah 's demand that the Hindu - majority areas of Punjab and Bengal be included in a Muslim state, obtained the partition of those provinces, thus blocking any possibility of their inclusion in Pakistan. Patel 's decisiveness on the partition of Punjab and Bengal had won him many supporters and admirers amongst the Indian public, which had tired of the League 's tactics, but he was criticised by Gandhi, Nehru, secular Muslims and socialists for a perceived eagerness to do so. When Lord Louis Mountbatten formally proposed the plan on 3 June 1947, Patel gave his approval and lobbied Nehru and other Congress leaders to accept the proposal. Knowing Gandhi 's deep anguish regarding proposals of partition, Patel engaged him in frank discussion in private meetings over the perceived practical unworkability of any Congress - League coalition, the rising violence and the threat of civil war. At the All India Congress Committee meeting called to vote on the proposal, Patel said:
I fully appreciate the fears of our brothers from (the Muslim - majority areas). Nobody likes the division of India and my heart is heavy. But the choice is between one division and many divisions. We must face facts. We can not give way to emotionalism and sentimentality. The Working Committee has not acted out of fear. But I am afraid of one thing, that all our toil and hard work of these many years might go waste or prove unfruitful. My nine months in office has completely disillusioned me regarding the supposed merits of the Cabinet Mission Plan. Except for a few honorable exceptions, Muslim officials from the top down to the chaprasis (peons or servants) are working for the League. The communal veto given to the League in the Mission Plan would have blocked India 's progress at every stage. Whether we like it or not, de facto Pakistan already exists in the Punjab and Bengal. Under the circumstances I would prefer a de jure Pakistan, which may make the League more responsible. Freedom is coming. We have 75 to 80 percent of India, which we can make strong with our own genius. The League can develop the rest of the country.
Following Gandhi 's denial but Congress ' approval of the plan, Patel represented India on the Partition Council, where he oversaw the division of public assets, and selected the Indian council of ministers with Nehru. However, neither he nor any other Indian leader had foreseen the intense violence and population transfer that would take place with partition.
Late in 1946, the Labour government in Britain, its exchequer exhausted by the recently concluded World War II, decided to end British rule of India, and in early 1947 Britain announced its intention of transferring power no later than June 1948. However, with the British army unprepared for the potential for increased violence, the new viceroy, Louis Mountbatten, advanced the date for the transfer of power, allowing less than six months for a mutually agreed plan for independence. In June 1947, the nationalist leaders, including Nehru and Abul Kalam Azad on behalf of the Congress, Jinnah representing the Muslim League, B.R. Ambedkar representing the Untouchable community, and Master Tara Singh representing the Sikhs, agreed to a partition of the country along religious lines in stark opposition to Gandhi 's views. The predominantly Hindu and Sikh areas were assigned to the new India and predominantly Muslim areas to the new nation of Pakistan; the plan included a partition of the Muslim - majority provinces of Punjab and Bengal. The communal violence that accompanied the announcement of the Radcliffe Line, the line of partition, was even more horrific.
Describing the violence that accompanied the Partition of India, historians Ian Talbot and Gurharpal Singh write:
There are numerous eyewitness accounts of the maiming and mutilation of victims. The catalogue of horrors includes the disembowelling of pregnant women, the slamming of babies ' heads against brick walls, the cutting off of victims limbs and genitalia and the displaying of heads and corpses. While previous communal riots had been deadly, the scale and level of brutality during the Partition massacres was unprecedented. Although some scholars question the use of the term ' genocide ' with respect to the Partition massacres, much of the violence was manifested with genocidal tendencies. It was designed to cleanse an existing generation and prevent its future reproduction. ''
On 14 August 1947, the new Dominion of Pakistan came into being, with Muhammad Ali Jinnah sworn in as its first Governor General in Karachi. The following day, 15 August 1947, India, now a smaller Union of India, became an independent country with official ceremonies taking place in New Delhi, and with Jawaharlal Nehru assuming the office of prime minister, and the viceroy, Louis Mountbatten, staying on as its first Governor General; Gandhi, however, remained in Bengal, preferring instead to work with the new refugees from the partitioned subcontinent.
The actual division of British India between the two new dominions was accomplished according to what has come to be known as the 3 June Plan or Mountbatten Plan. It was announced at a press conference by Mountbatten on 3 June 1947, when the date of independence was also announced -- 15 August 1947. The plan 's main points were:
The Indian political leaders accepted the Plan on 2 June. It did not deal with the question of the princely states, but on 3 June Mountbatten advised them against remaining independent and urged them to join one of the two new dominions.
The Muslim League 's demands for a separate state were thus conceded. The Congress ' position on unity was also taken into account while making Pakistan as small as possible. Mountbatten 's formula was to divide India and at the same time retain maximum possible unity.
Abul Kalam Azad expressed concern over the likelihood of violent riots, to which Mountbatten replied:
At least on this question I shall give you complete assurance. I shall see to it that there is no bloodshed and riot. I am a soldier and not a civilian. Once partition is accepted in principle, I shall issue orders to see that there are no communal disturbances anywhere in the country. If there should be the slightest agitation, I shall adopt the sternest measures to nip the trouble in the bud.
Jagmohan has stated that this and what followed shows the "glaring '' "failure of the government machinery ''.
On 3 June 1947, the partition plan was accepted by the Congress Working Committee. Boloji states that in Punjab there were no riots but there was communal tension, while Gandhi was reportedly isolated by Nehru and Patel and observed maun vrat (day of silence). Mountbatten visited Gandhi and said he hoped that he would not oppose the partition, to which Gandhi wrote the reply: "Have I ever opposed you? ''
Within British India, the border between India and Pakistan (the Radcliffe Line) was determined by a British Government - commissioned report prepared under the chairmanship of a London barrister, Sir Cyril Radcliffe. Pakistan came into being with two non-contiguous enclaves, East Pakistan (today Bangladesh) and West Pakistan, separated geographically by India. India was formed out of the majority Hindu regions of British India, and Pakistan from the majority Muslim areas.
On 18 July 1947, the British Parliament passed the Indian Independence Act that finalized the arrangements for partition and abandoned British suzerainty over the princely states, of which there were several hundred, leaving them free to choose whether to accede to one of the new dominions. The Government of India Act 1935 was adapted to provide a legal framework for the new dominions.
Following its creation as a new country in August 1947, Pakistan applied for membership of the United Nations and was accepted by the General Assembly on 30 September 1947. The Dominion of India continued to have the existing seat as India had been a founding member of the United Nations since 1945.
The Punjab -- the region of the five rivers east of Indus: Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej -- consists of interfluvial doabs, or tracts of land lying between two confluent rivers. These are the Sind - Sagar doab (between Indus and Jhelum), the Jech doab (Jhelum / Chenab), the Rechna doab (Chenab / Ravi), the Bari doab (Ravi / Beas), and the Bist doab (Beas / Sutlej) (see map on the right). In early 1947, in the months leading up to the deliberations of the Punjab Boundary Commission, the main disputed areas appeared to be in the Bari and Bist doabs, although some areas in the Rechna doab were claimed by the Congress and Sikhs. In the Bari doab, the districts of Gurdaspur, Amritsar, Lahore, and Montgomery were all disputed. All districts (other than Amritsar, which was 46.5 % Muslim) had Muslim majorities; albeit, in Gurdaspur, the Muslim majority, at 51.1 %, was slender. At a smaller area - scale, only three tehsils (sub-units of a district) in the Bari doab had non-Muslim majorities. These were: Pathankot (in the extreme north of Gurdaspur, which was not in dispute), and Amritsar and Tarn Taran in Amritsar district. In addition, there were four Muslim - majority tehsils east of Beas - Sutlej (with two where Muslims outnumbered Hindus and Sikhs together).
Before the Boundary Commission began formal hearings, governments were set up for the East and the West Punjab regions. Their territories were provisionally divided by "notional division '' based on simple district majorities. In both the Punjab and Bengal, the Boundary Commission consisted of two Muslim and two non-Muslim judges with Sir Cyril Radcliffe as a common chairman. The mission of the Punjab commission was worded generally as: "To demarcate the boundaries of the two parts of the Punjab, on the basis of ascertaining the contiguous majority areas of Muslims and non-Muslims. In doing so, it will take into account other factors. '' Each side (the Muslims and the Congress / Sikhs) presented its claim through counsel with no liberty to bargain. The judges too had no mandate to compromise and on all major issues they "divided two and two, leaving Sir Cyril Radcliffe the invidious task of making the actual decisions. ''
Train to Pakistan being given an honour - guard send - off. New Delhi railway station, 1947
Rural Sikhs in a long oxcart train headed towards India. 1947.
Two Muslim men (in a rural refugee train headed towards Pakistan) carrying an old woman in a makeshift doli or palanquin. 1947.
A refugee train on its way to Punjab, Pakistan
Massive population exchanges occurred between the two newly formed states in the months immediately following the Partition. "The population of undivided India in 1947 was approx 390 million. After partition, there were 330 million people in India, 30 million in West Pakistan, and 30 million people in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh). '' Once the lines were established, about 14.5 million people crossed the borders to what they hoped was the relative safety of religious majority. The 1951 Census of Pakistan identified the number of displaced persons in Pakistan at 7,226,600, presumably all Muslims who had entered Pakistan from India. Similarly, the 1951 Census of India enumerated 7,295,870 displaced persons, apparently all Hindus and Sikhs who had moved to India from Pakistan immediately after the Partition. The two numbers add up to 14.5 million. Since both censuses were held about 3.6 years after the Partition, the enumeration included net population increase after the mass migration.
About 11.2 million (77.4 % of the displaced persons) were in the west, with the Punjab accounting for most of it: 6.5 million Muslims moved from India to West Pakistan, and 4.7 million Hindus and Sikhs moved from West Pakistan to India; thus the net migration in the west from India to West Pakistan (now Pakistan) was 1.8 million.
The remaining 3.3 million (22.6 % of the displaced persons) were in the east: 2.6 million moved from East Pakistan to India and 0.7 million moved from India to East Pakistan (now Bangladesh); thus net migration in the east was 1.9 million into India.
The Partition of British India split the former British province of Punjab between the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan. The mostly Muslim western part of the province became Pakistan 's Punjab province; the mostly Sikh and Hindu eastern part became India 's East Punjab state (later divided into Punjab, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh). Many Hindus and Sikhs lived in the west, and many Muslims lived in the east, and the fears of all such minorities were so great that the Partition saw many people displaced and much intercommunal violence. Some have described the violence in Punjab as a retributive genocide.
The newly formed governments were completely unequipped to deal with migrations of such staggering magnitude, and massive violence and slaughter occurred on both sides of the border. Estimates of the number of deaths vary, with low estimates at 200,000 and high estimates at 2,000,000. Virtually no Muslim survived in East Punjab (except in Malerkotla) and virtually no Hindu or Sikh survived in West Punjab.
Lawrence James observed that "' Sir Francis Mudie, the governor of West Punjab, estimated that 500,000 Muslims died trying to enter his province, while the British high commissioner in Karachi put the full total at 800,000... This makes nonsense of the claim by Mountbatten and his partisans that only 200,000 were killed ' (James 1998: 636) ''.
According to political scientist Ishtiaq Ahmed, "in March 1947 the Muslims started large - scale violence, mainly against Sikhs but also against Hindus, in the Muslim - majority districts of northern Punjab. Yet at the end of that year more Muslims had been killed in East Punjab than Hindus and Sikhs together in West Punjab. ''
The province of Bengal was divided into the two separate entities of West Bengal, awarded to the Dominion of India, and East Bengal, awarded to the Dominion of Pakistan. East Bengal was renamed East Pakistan in 1955, and later became the independent nation of Bangladesh after the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971.
While the Muslim majority districts of Murshidabad and Malda were given to India, the Hindu majority district of Khulna and the Buddhist majority, but sparsely populated, Chittagong Hill Tracts were given to Pakistan by the Radcliffe award.
Thousands of Hindus, located in the districts of East Bengal which were awarded to Pakistan, found themselves being attacked and this religious persecution forced hundreds of thousands of Hindus from East Bengal to seek refuge in India. The huge influx of Hindu refugees into Calcutta affected the demographics of the city. Many Muslims left the city for East Pakistan and some of their homes and properties were occupied by the refugee families.
Most of Sindh 's prosperous middle class at the time of Partition was Hindu. At the time of Partition there were 1,400,000 Hindu Sindhis, though most were concentrated in cities such as Hyderabad, Karachi, Shikarpur, and Sukkur. Hundreds of Hindus residing in Sindh were forced to migrate. Some anti-Hindu violence in Sindh was precipitated by the arrival of Muslim refugees from India with minimal local Muslim support for the rioters. Sindhi Hindus faced low scale rioting unlike the Punjabi Hindus and Sikhs who had to migrate from West Punjab.
On 6 December 1947, communal violence broke out in Ajmer in India, precipitated by an argument between Sindhi Hindu refugees and local Muslims in the Dargah Bazaar. Violence in Ajmer again broke out in the middle of December with stabbings, looting and arson resulting in mostly Muslim casualties. Many Muslims fled across the Thar Desert to Sindh in Pakistan. This sparked further anti-Hindu riots in Hyderabad, Sindh. On 6 January anti-Hindu riots broke out in Karachi, leading to an estimate of 1100 casualties. 776,000 Sindhi Hindus fled to India. The arrival of Sindhi Hindu refugees in North Gujarat 's town of Godhra sparked the March 1948 riots there which led to an emigration of Muslims from Godhra to Pakistan.
Despite the migration, a significant Sindhi Hindu population still resides in Pakistan 's Sindh province where they number at around 2.28 million as per Pakistan 's 1998 census; the Sindhi Hindus in India were at 2.57 million as per India 's 2001 Census. Some bordering districts in Sindh had a Hindu majority like Tharparkar District, Umerkot, Mirpurkhas, Sanghar and Badin, but their population is decreasing and they consider themselves a minority in decline. In fact, only Umerkot still has a majority of Hindus in the district. The Sindhi community did not face large scale violence, but felt deprivation of homeland and culture.
For centuries Delhi had been the capital of the Mughal Empire and of previous Turkic Muslim rulers of North India. The series of Islamic rulers keeping Delhi as a stronghold of their empires left a vast array of Islamic architecture in Delhi and a strong Islamic culture permeated the city. The 1941 Census listed Delhi 's population as being 33.22 % Muslim.
However thousands of Hindu and Sikh refugees from Punjab poured into the city. This created an atmosphere of upheavals as anti-Muslim pogroms rocked the historical stronghold of Indo - Islamic culture and politics. Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru estimated 1000 casualties in the city. However other sources claimed that the casualty rate had been 20 times higher. Gyanendra Pandey 's more recent account of the Delhi violence puts the figure of Muslim casualties in Delhi as being between 20,000 -- 25,000.
Tens of thousands of Muslims were driven to refugee camps regardless of their political affiliations and numerous historic sites in Delhi such as the Purana Qila, Idgah and Nizamuddin were transformed into refugee camps. At the culmination of the tensions in Delhi 330,000 Muslims were forced to flee the city to Pakistan. The 1951 Census registered a drop of the Muslim population in the city from 33.22 % in 1941 to 5.33 % in 1951.
Alwar and Bharatpur were two princely states of Rajputana (modern day Rajasthan) which were the scene of a bloody confrontation between the dominant, land - holding community of Hindu Jats and the cultivating community of Muslim Meos from May 1947 onwards. Well - organised bands of Hindu Jats, Ahirs and Gujars started attacking Muslim Meos in April 1947. By June more than fifty Muslim villages had been destroyed after attacks by all sides. The Muslim League was outraged and demanded that the Viceroy provide Muslim troops. Accusations emerged in June of the involvement of Indian State Forces from Alwar and Bharatpur in the destruction of Muslim villages both inside their states and in British India.
In the wake of unprecedented violent attacks unleashed against them in 1947, 100,000 Muslim Meos from Alwar and Bharatpur was forced to flee their homes and an estimated 30,000 Meos are said to have been massacred. On 17 November, a column of 80,000 Meo refugees went on their way to Pakistan. However, 10,000 stopped travelling due to the risk of trying to reach and settle in Pakistan.
In September -- November 1947 in the Jammu region of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, a large number of Muslims were massacred and others driven away to West Punjab. The impetus for this violence was partly provided by the influx of a large number of Hindu and Sikh refugees since March 1947, who brought with them "harrowing stories of Muslim atrocities '', to Jammu from West Punjab. The killings were carried out by extremist Hindus and Sikhs, aided and abetted by the forces of the Dogra State headed by the Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir Hari Singh. Observers state that Hari Singh 's aim was to alter the demographics of the region by eliminating the Muslim population, in order to ensure a Hindu majority in the region.
According to the 1951 Census of India, 2 % of India 's population were refugees (1.3 % from West Pakistan and 0.7 % from East Pakistan). Delhi received the largest number of refugees for a single city -- the population of Delhi grew rapidly in 1947 from under 1 million (917,939) to a little less than 2 million (1,744,072) during the period 1941 -- 1951. The refugees were housed in various historical and military locations such as the Purana Qila, Red Fort, and military barracks in Kingsway Camp (around the present Delhi University). The latter became the site of one of the largest refugee camps in northern India with more than 35,000 refugees at any given time besides Kurukshetra camp near Panipat. The camp sites were later converted into permanent housing through extensive building projects undertaken by the Government of India from 1948 onwards. A number of housing colonies in Delhi came up around this period like Lajpat Nagar, Rajinder Nagar, Nizamuddin East, Punjabi Bagh, Rehgar Pura, Jangpura and Kingsway Camp. A number of schemes such as the provision of education, employment opportunities, and easy loans to start businesses were provided for the refugees at the all - India level.
Many Sikhs and Hindu Punjabis came from West Punjab and settled in East Punjab (which then also included Haryana and Himachal Pradesh) and Delhi. Hindus fleeing from East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) settled across Eastern India and Northeastern India, many ending up in neighbouring Indian states such as West Bengal, Assam, and Tripura. Some migrants were sent to the Andaman islands where Bengalis today form the largest linguistic group.
Sindhi Hindus settled predominantly in Gujarat, Maharashtra and Rajasthan. Some, however, settled further afield in Madhya Pradesh. A new township was established for Sindhi Hindu refugees in Maharashtra. The Governor - General of India, Sir Rajagopalachari, laid the foundation for this township and named it Ulhasnagar (namely ' city of joy ').
The 1951 Census of Pakistan recorded that the largest number of Muslim refugees came from the East Punjab and nearby Rajputana states (Alwar and Bharatpur). They were a number of 5,783,100 and constituted 80.1 % of Pakistan 's total refugee population. This was the effect of the retributive ethnic cleansing on both sides of the Punjab where the Muslim population of East Punjab was forcibly expelled like the Hindu / Sikh population in West Punjab.
Migration from other regions of India were as follows: Bihar, West Bengal and Orissa, 700,300 or 9.8 %; UP and Delhi 464,200 or 2.4 %; Gujarat and Bombay, 160,400 or 2.2 %; Bhopal and Hyderabad 95,200 or 1.2 %; and Madras and Mysore 18,000 or 0.2 %.
So far as their settlement in Pakistan is concerned, 97.4 % of the refugees from East Punjab and its contiguous areas went to West Punjab; 95.9 % from Bihar, West Bengal and Orissa to the erstwhile East Pakistan; 95.5 % from UP and Delhi to West Pakistan, mainly Karachi and Sind; 97.2 % from Bhopal and Hyderabad to West Pakistan, mainly Karachi; and 98.9 % from Bombay and Gujarat to West Pakistan, largely to Karachi; and 98.9 % from Madras and Mysore went to West Pakistan, mainly Karachi.
West Punjab received the largest number of refugees (73.1 %), mainly from East Punjab and its contiguous areas. East Bengal received the second largest number of refugees, 699,100, who constituted 9.7 % of the total Muslim refugee population in Pakistan. 66.69 % of the refugees in East Bengal originated from West Bengal, 14.50 % from Bihar and 11.84 % from Assam.
Karachi received 8.5 % of the total migrant population while Sind received 7.6 %. NWFP and Baluchistan received the lowest number of migrants. NWFP received 51,100 migrants (0.7 % of the migrant population) while Baluchistan received 28,000 (0.4 % of the migrant population).
The Government undertook a census of refugees in West Punjab in 1948, which displayed their place of origin in India.
Data on the Number of Muslim refugees in West Punjab from the Districts of East Punjab and Neighbouring Regions
Data on the Number of Muslim refugees in West Punjab from the Princely states in East Punjab and Rajputana
A study of the total population inflows and outflows in the districts of the Punjab, using the data provided by the 1931 and 1951 Census has led to an estimate of 1.26 million missing Muslims who left western India but did not reach Pakistan. The corresponding number of missing Hindus / Sikhs along the western border is estimated to be approximately 0.84 million. This puts the total of missing people, due to Partition - related migration along the Punjab border, to around 2.23 million.
Both sides promised each other that they would try to restore women abducted and raped during the riots. The Indian government claimed that 33,000 Hindu and Sikh women were abducted, and the Pakistani government claimed that 50,000 Muslim women were abducted during riots. By 1949, there were governmental claims that 12,000 women had been recovered in India and 6,000 in Pakistan. By 1954, there were 20,728 Muslim women recovered from India and 9,032 Hindu and Sikh women recovered from Pakistan. Most of the Hindu and Sikh women refused to go back to India, fearing that they would never be accepted by their family, a fear mirrored by Muslim women.
Even after the 1951 Census many Muslim families from India continued migrating to Pakistan throughout the 1950s and the early 1960s. According to historian Omar Khalidi the Indian Muslim migration to West Pakistan between December 1947 and December 1971 was from U.P., Delhi, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The next stage of migration, which lasted between 1973 and the 1990s, was when the migration of Indian Muslims to Pakistan was reduced to its lowest levels since 1947. The primary destination for these migrants was Karachi and other urban centers in Sindh.
In 1959, the International Labour Organisation (ILO) published a report stating that from 1951 to 1956, a total of 650,000 Muslims from India relocated to West Pakistan. However, Visaria (1969) raised doubts about the authenticity of the claims about Indian Muslim migration to Pakistan, since the 1961 Census of Pakistan did not corroborate these figures. However, the 1961 Census of Pakistan did incorporate a statement suggesting that there had been a migration of 800,000 people from India to Pakistan throughout the previous decade. Of those who had left for Pakistan, most never came back.
Indian Muslim migration to Pakistan declined drastically in the 1970s, a trend noticed by the Pakistani authorities. On June 1995, Pakistan 's interior minister, Naseerullah Babar, informed the National Assembly that between the period of 1973 -- 1994, as many as 800,000 visitors came from India on valid travel documents. Of these only 3,393 stayed. In a related trend, intermarriages between Indian and Pakistani Muslims have declined sharply. According to a November 1995 statement of Riaz Khokhar, the Pakistani High Commissioner in New Delhi, the number of cross-border marriages has declined from 40,000 a year in the 1950s and 1960s to barely 300 annually.
In the aftermath of the Indo - Pakistani War of 1965, 3,500 Muslim families migrated from the Indian part of the Thar Desert to the Pakistani section of the Thar Desert. 400 families were settled in Nagar after the 1965 war and an additional 3000 settled in the Chachro taluka in Sind province of West Pakistan. The government of Pakistan provided each family with 12 acres of land. According to government records this land totalled 42,000 acres.
The 1951 census in Pakistan recorded 671,000 refugees in East Pakistan, the majority of which came from West Bengal. The rest were from Bihar. According to the ILO in the period 1951 -- 1956, half a million Indian Muslims migrated to East Pakistan. By 1961 the numbers reached 850,000. In the aftermath of the riots in Ranchi and Jamshedpur, Biharis continued to migrate to East Pakistan well into the late sixties and added up to around a million. Crude estimates suggest that about 1.5 million Muslims migrated from West Bengal and Bihar to East Bengal in the two decades after partition.
Due to religious persecution in Pakistan, Hindus continue to flee to India. Most of them tend to settle in the state of Rajasthan in India. According to the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan data, just around 1,000 Hindu families fled to India in 2013. In May 2014, a member of the ruling Pakistan Muslim League - Nawaz (PML - N), Dr Ramesh Kumar Vankwani, revealed in the National Assembly of Pakistan that around 5,000 Hindus are migrating from Pakistan to India every year. Since India is not a signatory to the 1951 United Nations Refugee Convention it refuses to recognise Pakistani Hindu migrants as refugees.
The population in the Tharparkar district in the Sind province of West Pakistan was 80 % Hindu and 20 % Muslim at the time of independence in 1947. During the Indo - Pakistani wars of 1965 and 1971, the Hindu upper castes and their retainers fled to India. This led to a massive demographic shift in the district. In 1978 India gave citizenship to 55,000 Pakistanis. By the time of the 1998 census of Pakistan, Muslims made up 64.42 % of the population and Hindus 35.58 % of the population in Tharparkar.
The migration of Hindus from East Pakistan to India continued unabated after partition. The 1951 census in India recorded that 2.523 million refugees arrived from East Pakistan, of which 2.061 million migrated to West Bengal while the rest migrated to Assam, Tripura and other states. These refugees arrived in waves and did not come solely at partition. By 1973 their number reached over 6 million. The following data displays the major waves of refugees from East Pakistan and the incidents which precipitated the migrations.
The Partition was a highly controversial arrangement, and remains a cause of much tension on the Indian subcontinent today. According to Allen McGrath many British leaders including the British Viceroy, Mountbatten, were unhappy over the partition of India. Lord Mountbatten of Burma had not only been accused of rushing the process through, but also is alleged to have influenced the Radcliffe Line in India 's favour. The commission took longer to decide on a final boundary than on the partition itself. Thus the two nations were granted their independence even before there was a defined boundary between them.
Some critics allege that British haste led to increased cruelties during the Partition. Because independence was declared prior to the actual Partition, it was up to the new governments of India and Pakistan to keep public order. No large population movements were contemplated; the plan called for safeguards for minorities on both sides of the new border. It was a task at which both states failed. There was a complete breakdown of law and order; many died in riots, massacre, or just from the hardships of their flight to safety. What ensued was one of the largest population movements in recorded history. According to Richard Symonds, at the lowest estimate, half a million people perished and twelve million became homeless.
However, many argue that the British were forced to expedite the Partition by events on the ground. Once in office, Mountbatten quickly became aware that if Britain were to avoid involvement in a civil war, which seemed increasingly likely, there was no alternative to partition and a hasty exit from India. Law and order had broken down many times before Partition, with much bloodshed on both sides. A massive civil war was looming by the time Mountbatten became Viceroy. After the Second World War, Britain had limited resources, perhaps insufficient to the task of keeping order. Another viewpoint is that while Mountbatten may have been too hasty he had no real options left and achieved the best he could under difficult circumstances. The historian Lawrence James concurs that in 1947 Mountbatten was left with no option but to cut and run. The alternative seemed to be involvement in a potentially bloody civil war from which it would be difficult to get out.
Conservative elements in England consider the partition of India to be the moment that the British Empire ceased to be a world power, following Curzon 's dictum: "the loss of India would mean that Britain drop straight away to a third rate power. ''
Venkat Dhulipala rejects the idea that the British divide and rule policy was responsible for partition and elaborates on the perspective that Pakistan was popularly imagined as a sovereign Islamic state or a ' New Medina ', as a potential successor to the defunct Turkish caliphate and as a leader and protector of the entire Islamic world. Islamic scholars debated over creating Pakistan and its potential to become a true Islamic state The majority of Barelvis supported the creation of Pakistan and believed that any co-operation with Hindus would be counter productive. Most Deobandis, who were led by Maulana Husain Ahmad Madani, were opposed to the creation of Pakistan and the two - nation theory. According to them Muslims and Hindus could be one nation.
In their authoritative study of the partition, Ian Talbot and Gurharpal Singh have shown that the partition was not the inevitable end of the so - called British ' divide and rule policy ' nor was it the inevitable end of Hindu - Muslim differences.
A cross-border student initiative, The History Project, was launched in 2014 to explore the differences in perception of the events during the British era which led to the partition. The project resulted in a book that explains both interpretations of the shared history in Pakistan and India.
Berkeley, California based non-profit organization The 1947 Partition Archive collects oral histories from people who lived through the Partition and consolidates the interviews into an archive.
The partition of India and the associated bloody riots inspired many in India and Pakistan to create literary / cinematic depictions of this event. While some creations depicted the massacres during the refugee migration, others concentrated on the aftermath of the partition in terms of difficulties faced by the refugees in both side of the border. Even now, more than 60 years after the partition, works of fiction and films are made that relate to the events of partition. The early members of the Progressive Artist 's Group of Bombay cite "The Partition '' of India and Pakistan as a key reason for its founding in December 1947. They included FN Souza, MF Husain, SH Raza, SK Bakre, HA Gade and KH Ara, who went on to become some of the most important and influential Indian artists of the 20th Century.
Literature describing the human cost of independence and partition comprises Bal K. Gupta 's memoirs Forgotten Atrocities (2012), Khushwant Singh 's Train to Pakistan (1956), several short stories such as Toba Tek Singh (1955) by Saadat Hassan Manto, Urdu poems such as Subh - e-Azadi (Freedom 's Dawn, 1947) by Faiz Ahmad Faiz, Bhisham Sahni 's Tamas (1974), Manohar Malgonkar 's A Bend in the Ganges (1965), Chaman Nahal 's AZADI (1975) originally written in English and winner of the Sahitya Akedemi Award in India (1977), and Bapsi Sidhwa 's Ice - Candy Man (1988), among others. Salman Rushdie 's novel Midnight 's Children (1980), which won the Booker Prize and The Best of the Booker, wove its narrative based on the children born with magical abilities on midnight of 14 August 1947. Freedom at Midnight (1975) is a non-fiction work by Larry Collins and Dominique Lapierre that chronicled the events surrounding the first Independence Day celebrations in 1947.
There is a paucity of films related to the independence and partition. Early films relating to the circumstances of the independence, partition and the aftermath include Nemai Ghosh 's Chinnamul (Bengali) (1950), Dharmputra (1961) Lahore (1948), Chhalia (1956), Nastik (1953). George Cukor 's Bhowani Junction (1956), Ritwik Ghatak 's trilogy of Meghe Dhaka Tara (Bengali) (1960) / Komal Gandhar (Bengali) (1961) / Subarnarekha (Bengali) (1962); later films include Garm Hava (1973) and Tamas (1987). From the late 1990s onwards, more films on this theme were made, including several mainstream ones, such as Earth (1998), Train to Pakistan (1998) (based on the aforementined book), Hey Ram (2000), Gadar: Ek Prem Katha (2001), Khamosh Pani (2003), Pinjar (2003), Partition (2007), Madrasapattinam (2010) and Viceroy 's House (2017). The biographical films Gandhi (1982), Jinnah (1998) and Sardar (1993) also feature independence and partition as significant events in their screenplay. A Pakistani drama Daastan, based on the novel Bano, highlights the plight of Muslim girls who were abducted and raped during partition.
The novel Lost Generations (2013) by Manjit Sachdeva describes the March 1947 massacre in rural areas of Rawalpindi by the Muslim League, followed by massacres on both sides of the new border in August 1947 seen through the eyes of an escaping Sikh family, their settlement and partial rehabilitation in Delhi, and ending in ruin (including death), for the second time in 1984, at the hands of mobs after a Sikh assassinated the prime minister.
The 2013 Google India advertisement Reunion (about the Partition of India) has had a strong impact in India and Pakistan, leading to hope for the easing of travel restrictions between the two countries. It went viral and was viewed more than 1.6 million times before officially debuting on television on 15 November 2013.
|
sinners in the hands of an angry god what is the purpose | Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God - wikipedia
"Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God '' is a sermon written by British Colonial Christian theologian Jonathan Edwards, preached to his own congregation in Northampton, Massachusetts to unknown effect, and again on July 8, 1741 in Enfield, Connecticut. Like Edwards ' other works, it combines vivid imagery of Hell with observations of the world and citations of the scripture. It is Edwards ' most famous written work, is a fitting representation of his preaching style, and is widely studied by Christians and historians, providing a glimpse into the theology of the Great Awakening of c. 1730 -- 1755.
This is a typical sermon of the Great Awakening, emphasizing the belief that Hell is a real place. Edwards hoped that the imagery and language of his sermon would awaken audiences to the horrific reality that he believed awaited them should they continue life without devotion to Christ. The underlying point is that God has given humanity a chance to rectify their sins. Edwards says that it is the will of God that keeps wicked men from the depths of Hell. This act of restraint has given humanity a chance to mend their ways and return to Christ.
"There is nothing that keeps wicked men at any one moment out of hell, but the mere pleasure of God. ''
Most of the sermon 's text consists of ten "considerations '':
One church in Enfield, Connecticut, had been largely unaffected during the Great Awakening of New England. Edwards was invited by the pastor of the church to preach to them. Edwards 's aim was to teach his listeners about the horrors of hell, the dangers of sin and the terrors of being lost. Edwards described the shaky position of those who do not follow Christ 's urgent call to receive forgiveness.
In the final section of "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God, '' Edwards shows his theological argument throughout scripture and biblical history. Invoking stories and examples throughout the whole Bible. Edwards ends the sermon with one final appeal, "Therefore let everyone that is out of Christ, now awake and fly from the wrath to come. '' According to Edwards, only by returning to Christ can one escape the stark fate he outlines.
Jonathan Edwards was interrupted many times before finishing the sermon by people moaning and crying out, "What shall I do to be saved? '' Although the sermon has received criticism, Edwards ' words have endured and are still read to this day. Edwards ' sermon continues to be the leading example of a Great Awakening sermon and is still used in religious and academic studies.
Over the last sixty years, a number of critical perspectives were used to analyse the sermon. The first comprehensive academic analysis of "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God '' was published by Edwin Cady in 1949, who comments on the imagery of the sermon and distinguishes between the "cliché '' and "fresh '' figurative images, stressing how the former related to the colonial life. Lee Stuart questions that the message of the sermon was solely negative and attributes its success to the final passages in which the sinners are actually "comforted ''. Rosemary Hearn argues that it is the logical structure of the sermon that constitutes its most important persuasive element. Lemay looks into the changes in the syntactic categories, like grammatical tenses, in the text of the sermon. Lukasik stresses how in the sermon Edwards appropriates Newtonian physics, especially the image of the gravitational pull that would relentlessly bring the sinners down. Gallagher focuses on the "beat '' of the sermon, and on how the consecutive structural elements of the sermon serve different persuasive aims. Choiński suggests that the rhetorical success of the sermon consists in the use of the "deictic shift '' that transported the hearers mentally into the figurative images of hell.
|
what happened to ted's wife how i met your mother | The Mother (How I Met Your Mother) - wikipedia
Tracy McConnell, better known as "The Mother '', is the title character from the CBS television sitcom How I Met Your Mother. The show, narrated by Future Ted, tells the story of how Ted Mosby met The Mother. Tracy McConnell appears in 8 episodes from "Lucky Penny '' to "The Time Travelers '' as an unseen character; she was first seen fully in "Something New '' and was promoted to a main character in season 9. The Mother is played by Cristin Milioti.
The story of how Ted met The Mother is the framing device behind the series; many facts about her are revealed throughout the series, including the fact that Ted once unwittingly owned her umbrella before accidentally leaving it behind in her apartment. Ted and The Mother meet at the Farhampton train station following Barney Stinson and Robin Scherbatsky 's wedding; this scene is shown in "Last Forever '', the series finale. The Mother 's death from an unspecified terminal illness in 2024, also revealed in the series finale, received a mixed reaction from fans.
An alternate ending was released in the ninth season DVD. In the alternate ending, Tracy Mosby is still living when Ted is telling the story in 2030. In the video, future Ted is heard saying, "... When I think how lucky I am to wake up next to your mom every morning, I ca n't help but be amazed how easy it all really was... '', indirectly stating that The Mother is alive. The video ends right after the train passes at Farhampton station and credits start rolling, implying that Ted never went back to Robin as he lived a successful married life with Tracy Mosby.
During its first eight seasons, the successful sitcom How I Met Your Mother often hinted at the unseen character of The Mother. Well - known actresses often made guest appearances on the show. Many fans expected that another would play one of the most - wanted roles in Hollywood, but creators Carter Bays and Craig Thomas wanted an unknown. Using Anne Hathaway and Amy Adams as examples, Thomas said that "We did n't want it to be a big famous star because we did n't want the wider audience to have associations with whatever actress this would be... The whole idea is that Ted 's never seen this woman before, so it better feel that way to the audience '', similar to how Cobie Smulders being cast as Robin Scherbatsky had "kept the show alive '' when it began. Bays and Thomas also did not want a large casting call.
They chose Cristin Milioti after seeing her on 30 Rock and Once; her musical ability was also helpful, as The Mother had been described as a band member. After competing for the role against at least two others, Milioti filmed her first scene -- for the last episode of season 8 -- having never watched How I Met Your Mother; she recalled, "I had ignorance on my side. So I did n't know what it meant. '' Milioti learned of the character 's importance only after binge watching the show during the summer.
The Mother was born on September 19, 1984.
The Mother, joined by her roommate Kelly awaits the arrival of her boyfriend Max only to receive a call informing her of his death. After the funeral service, she returns to the apartment to open Max 's last gift to her -- a ukulele. The Mother spends the next few years grieving the passing of the man she believes was her one true love.
In "Wait for It '', it is revealed that the short story of how they met involved her yellow umbrella. In "No Tomorrow '', Ted finds the umbrella at a club and takes it home after attending a St. Patrick 's Day party which she also attended, as it had been two and a half years since the death of Max, her late boyfriend. She is still grieving, but her roommate Kelly encourages her to go out and date again, bringing her to the same bar where Ted and Barney are celebrating. The two women run into Mitch, her old orchestra instructor; The Mother offers to give Mitch her cello for his work at a school and they head to her apartment. After they start talking, Mitch encourages her to pursue her dreams. The Mother expresses her desire to end poverty by taking up economics in college.
On his first day of teaching as Professor Mosby, as seen in the season 4 finale "The Leap '', he is seen in front of the classroom of students, one of which Future Ted says is the titular mother. But in the first episode of season 5, "Definitions '', it is revealed that he was actually in the wrong classroom -- Economics instead of Architecture. At the same time in "How Your Mother Met Me '', the Mother sits her first session in Economics 305 and meets another graduate student named Cindy (Rachel Bilson), whom she offers to move in with her as her roommate. They see Ted enter the room, but when he announces the subject, The Mother thinks she is in the wrong room and runs off. She heads back to the room after seeing Ted scramble to his actual classroom.
Later, in "Girls Versus Suits '', Ted dates Cindy, not knowing that her roommate is his future wife. Throughout the episode, Ted notes that Cindy had spent most of their first date talking jealously about her roommate. When in Cindy and the mother 's apartment he picks up many of The Mother 's belongings, attempting to show how compatible he and Cindy are (thinking the items are Cindy 's) and glimpses the mother 's foot as she disappears into her room after taking a shower. Ted finds out at this time that she plays bass guitar in a band. Ted forgets to take the yellow umbrella with him when he goes out and Future Ted mentions, "this is how your mother got her yellow umbrella back. '' In "How Your Mother Met Me '', it is revealed that, after Ted left the apartment, the Mother had discovered the umbrella and, upon going to question Cindy, finds her in a state. As she tried to console her, Cindy said that she was a much better match for Ted, and began to lovingly list all of the reasons that Ted would find the mother attractive, before spontaneously kissing her, revealing that her jealousy towards her roommate was actually a crush. While this incident made Cindy realise that she is a lesbian, it also made the Mother decide to go back into dating, as the kiss was her first in a long time.
Some time after this, a man named Darren approaches The Mother and is welcomed into her band named Superfreakonomics. Darren gradually takes over the band.
In the season 6 opener "Big Days '' it is revealed Ted meets his future wife "the day of '' the wedding at which he is the best man. In the episode "False Positive '' Robin asks Ted to be her future best man, should she ever get married. In the episode "Challenge Accepted '', it is revealed that Ted meets the mother of his children the day of Barney 's wedding. In the last episode of season 7, "The Magician 's Code '' it is shown that Barney will marry Robin, and Ted will meet the mother "the day of '' their wedding. On the premiere of season 8, Ted 's wife appears after Barney and Robin 's wedding, outside at the "Farhampton '' station while holding a yellow umbrella and her bass guitar.
In the season 8 episode "Band or DJ?, '' Ted runs into Cindy on the subway and tells her that the band Barney and Robin hired to play at their wedding cancelled at the last minute. The end result of the encounter is that Cindy 's (now ex -) roommate 's band plays at Barney and Robin 's wedding.
The Mother is first shown meeting Louis in "How Your Mother Met Me '' as she is left to carry the band equipment while the now - lead band member Darren talks to his fans. Later at MacLaren 's Pub, she tells him she 's not yet ready to date. Louis asks her to give him a call if she changes her mind and they begin dating not long after.
The Mother meets all of Ted 's best friends (Barney, Lily, Marshall and Robin) before she meets him. The Mother is responsible for convincing Barney to pursue Robin, as revealed through a flashback in "Platonish ''. In "The Locket '', Tracy meets Lily on a train journey.
In "Bass Player Wanted '', the Mother picks up a hitchhiking Marshall, carrying his son Marvin, on her way to Farhampton Inn. On their way, it is revealed that the Mother is a bass player in the band, that is scheduled to play at the wedding reception. But the band 's leader, Darren, forced her to quit. The Mother ultimately decides to confront Darren and retake the band. She ends up alone at the bar, and while practicing a speech to give Darren, Darren walks up to her furious the groom 's best man punched him for "no reason. '' Amused by this, the Mother laughs, and Darren quits the band in anger.
In "How Your Mother Met Me '', it is shown that after this incident, the Mother returns to Louis ' summer cottage not far from the Farhampton Inn where she has been staying for the duration of the wedding weekend. As she walks in the door, Louis proposes to her, but she goes outside to think about it for a few minutes. She declines Louis ' proposal and leaves his cottage, going to check in at Farhampton Inn. On her room 's balcony, she plays the ukulele and sings "La Vie en Rose ''. Ted hears her singing from his room next door.
In "Gary Blauman '', Ted and the Mother are on their first date. Ted picks her up at her New York City apartment and they proceed to walk to a Scottish - Mexican fusion restaurant for dinner. On the way there, Ted is telling her a story when they nearly have a run - in with Louis. She says that she is in the "weirdest place on earth '' right now and that it is too soon for her to be dating. Ted walks her back to her apartment. They say goodnight and Ted begins to walk away. The Mother then stops him and asks him to finish the story he was telling her. When the story is over, they say goodnight again. The Mother takes a step towards Ted and they kiss for the first time, before deciding to carry on their date.
In a flashforward in "The Lighthouse '', Ted proposes to the Mother at the top of the lighthouse near Farhampton Inn. She immediately accepts. In another flashfoward in "Unpause '', the Mother is revealed to be pregnant with their second child, Luke, in the year 2017. She goes into labor while she and Ted are staying at Farhampton.
The Mother 's real name is not revealed until the series finale, "Last Forever ''. When Ted meets her at the Farhampton train station, she reveals that her name is Tracy McConnell. In the season 1 episode "Belly Full of Turkey '', Ted meets a stripper named Tracy and says "... that, kids, is the true story of how I met your mother ''. The children react in surprise and appear to believe Ted before he admits he is joking, which led some fans to correctly guess that The Mother 's name is Tracy.
In the series finale, it is revealed that six years prior to Ted telling the story to his children, Tracy died in 2024 from an undisclosed illness. In the finale the characters do not directly state that the mother is dead. Ted says that she "became sick '' and his children saying that she has been "gone '' for six years. Many fans expressed considerable disappointment to The Mother 's death. Milioti cried when she learned her character was supposed to die, but came to accept the ending was what the writers had planned from the beginning. Bill Kuchman from Popculturology said that The Mother was "an amazing character '' and that "over the course of this final season HIMYM made us care about Tracy. Kuchman said that "asking fans to drop all of that with a simple line about The Mother getting sick and passing away was a very difficult request '', that the finale "advanced too quickly '' and that "HIMYM was a victim of its own success on this issue ''.
A petition was started, aiming to rewrite and reshoot the finale. The petition has over 20,000 signatures and considerable online news coverage. On April 5, 2014, Carter Bays announced on Twitter that an alternate ending would be included on the Season 9 DVD. No new material was shot for this scene. In the alternate ending, the mother is still living when Ted is telling the story in 2030.
|
journey to the centre of the earth images | Journey to the Center of the Earth - wikipedia
Journey to the Center of the Earth (French: Voyage au centre de la Terre, also translated under the titles A Journey to the Centre of the Earth and A Journey to the Interior of the Earth) is an 1864 science fiction novel by Jules Verne. The story involves German professor Otto Lidenbrock who believes there are volcanic tubes going toward the centre of the Earth. He, his nephew Axel, and their guide Hans descend into the Icelandic volcano Snæfellsjökull, encountering many adventures, including prehistoric animals and natural hazards, before eventually coming to the surface again in southern Italy, at the Stromboli volcano.
The genre of subterranean fiction already existed long before Verne. However, the present book considerably added to its popularity and influenced later such writings. For example, Edgar Rice Burroughs explicitly acknowledged Verne 's influence on his own Pellucidar series.
The story begins in May 1863, in the Lidenbrock house in Hamburg, Germany, with Professor Lidenbrock rushing home to peruse his latest purchase, an original runic manuscript of an Icelandic saga written by Snorri Sturluson (Snorre Tarleson in some versions of the story), "Heimskringla ''; the chronicle of the Norwegian kings who ruled over Iceland. While looking through the book, Lidenbrock and his nephew Axel find a coded note written in runic script along with the name of a 16th - century Icelandic alchemist, Arne Saknussemm. (This was a first indication of Verne 's love for cryptography. Coded, cryptic, or incomplete messages as a plot device would continue to appear in many of his works and in each case Verne would go a long way to explain not only the code used but also the mechanisms used to retrieve the original text.) Lidenbrock and Axel transliterate the runic characters into Latin letters, revealing a message written in a seemingly bizarre code. Lidenbrock attempts a decipherment, deducing the message to be a kind of transposition cipher; but his results are as meaningless as the original.
Professor Lidenbrock decides to lock everyone in the house and force himself and the others (Axel, and the maid, Martha) to go without food until he cracks the code. Axel discovers the answer when fanning himself with the deciphered text: Lidenbrock 's decipherment was correct, and only needs to be read backwards to reveal sentences written in rough Latin. Axel decides to keep the secret hidden from Professor Lidenbrock, afraid of what the Professor might do with the knowledge, but after two days without food he can not stand the hunger and reveals the secret to his uncle. Lidenbrock translates the note, which is revealed to be a medieval note written by the (fictional) Icelandic alchemist Arne Saknussemm, who claims to have discovered a passage to the centre of the Earth via Snæfell in Iceland. In what Axel calls bad Latin, the deciphered message reads:
In Snefflls (sic) Iokulis kraterem kem delibat umbra Skartaris Iulii intra kalendas deskende, audas uiator, te (sic) terrestre kentrum attinges. Kod feki. Arne Saknussemm.
In slightly better Latin, with errors amended:
In Sneffels Jokulis craterem, quem delibat umbra Scartaris, Julii intra kalendas descende, audax viator, et terrestre centrum attinges; quod feci. Arne Saknussemm
which, when translated into English, reads:
Descend, bold traveller, into the crater of the jökull of Snæfell, which the shadow of Scartaris touches (lit: tastes) before the Kalends of July, and you will attain the centre of the earth. I did it. Arne Saknussemm
Professor Lidenbrock is a man of astonishing impatience, and departs for Iceland immediately, taking his reluctant nephew with him. Axel, who, in comparison, is cowardly and anti-adventurous, repeatedly tries to reason with him, explaining his fears of descending into a volcano and putting forward various scientific theories as to why the journey is impossible, but Professor Lidenbrock repeatedly keeps himself blinded against Axel 's point of view. After a rapid journey via Kiel and Copenhagen, they arrive in Reykjavík, where the two procure the services of Hans Bjelke (a Danish - speaking Icelander eiderdown hunter) as their guide, and travel overland to the base of the volcano.
In late June, they reach the volcano, which has three craters. According to Saknussemm 's message, the passage to the center of the Earth is through the one crater that is touched by the shadow of a nearby mountain peak at noon. However, the text also states that this is only true during the last days of June. During the next few days, with July rapidly approaching, the weather is too cloudy for any shadows. Axel silently rejoices, hoping this will force his uncle -- who has repeatedly tried to impart courage to him only to succeed in making him even more cowardly still -- to give up the project and return home. Alas for Axel, however, on the second to last day, the sun comes out and the mountain peak shows the correct crater to take.
After descending into the crater, the three travellers set off into the bowels of the Earth, encountering many strange phenomena and great dangers, including a chamber filled with firedamp, and steep - sided wells around the "path ''. After taking a wrong turn, they run out of water and Axel almost dies, but Hans taps into a neighbouring subterranean river. Lidenbrock and Axel name the resulting stream the "Hansbach '' in his honour and the three are saved. At another point, Axel becomes separated from the others and is lost several miles from them. Luckily, a strange acoustic phenomenon allows him to communicate with them from some miles away, and they are soon reunited.
After descending many miles, following the course of the Hansbach, they reach an unimaginably vast cavern. This underground world is lit by electrically charged gas at the ceiling, and is filled with a very deep subterranean ocean, surrounded by a rocky coastline covered in petrified trees and giant mushrooms. The travelers build a raft out of trees and set sail. The Professor names this sea the "Lidenbrock Sea '' and the port as "Port Gräuben '', after the name of his goddaughter. While on the water, they see several prehistoric creatures such as a giant Ichthyosaurus, which fights with a Plesiosaurus and wins. After the battle between the monsters, the party comes across an island with a huge geyser, which Lidenbrock names "Axel Island ''.
A lightning storm again threatens to destroy the raft and its passengers, but instead throws them onto the coastline. This part of the coast, Axel discovers, is alive with prehistoric plant and animal life forms, including giant insects and a herd of mastodons. On a beach covered with bones, Axel discovers an oversized human skull. Axel and Lidenbrock venture some way into the prehistoric forest, where Professor Lidenbrock points out, in a shaky voice, a prehistoric human, more than twelve feet in height, leaning against a tree and watching a herd of mastodons. Axel can not be sure if he has really seen the man or not, and he and Professor Lidenbrock debate whether or not a proto - human civilization actually exists so far underground. The three wonder if the creature is a man - like ape, or an ape - like man. The sighting of the creature is considered the most alarming part of the story, and the explorers decide that it is better not to alert it to their presence as they fear it may be hostile.
The travellers continue to explore the coastline, and find a passageway marked by Saknussemm as the way ahead. However, it is blocked by what appears to be a recent cave - in and two of the three, Hans and the Professor, despair at being unable to hack their way through the granite wall. The adventurers plan to blast the rock with gun cotton and paddle out to sea to escape the blast. Upon executing the plan, however, they discover that behind the rockfall was a seemingly bottomless pit, not a passage to the center of the Earth. The travellers are swept away as the sea rushes into the large open gap in the ground. After spending hours being swept along at lightning speeds by the water, the raft ends up inside a large volcanic chimney filling with water and magma. Terrified, the three are rushed upwards, through stifling heat, and are ejected onto the surface from a side - vent of a stratovolcano. When they regain consciousness, they discover that they have been ejected from Stromboli, a volcanic island located in southern Italy. They return to Hamburg to great acclaim -- Professor Lidenbrock is hailed as one of the great scientists of history, Axel marries his sweetheart Gräuben, and Hans eventually returns to his peaceful life in Iceland. The Professor has some regret that their journey was cut short.
At the very end of the book, Axel and Lidenbrock realize why their compass was behaving strangely after their journey on the raft. They realize that the needle was pointing the wrong way after being struck by an electric fireball which nearly destroyed the wooden raft.
The book was inspired by Charles Lyell 's Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man of 1863 (and probably also influenced by Lyell 's earlier ground - breaking work Principles of Geology, published 1830 -- 33). By that time geologists had abandoned a literal biblical account of Earth 's development and it was generally thought that the end of the last glacial period marked the first appearance of humanity, but Lyell drew on new findings to put the origin of human beings much further back in the deep geological past. Lyell 's book also influenced Louis Figuier 's 1867 second edition of La Terre avant le déluge ("The Earth before the flood '') which included dramatic illustrations of savage men and women wearing animal skins and wielding stone axes, in place of the Garden of Eden shown in the 1863 edition.
It is noteworthy that at the time of writing Verne had no hesitation with having sympathetic German protagonists with whom the reader could identify. Verne 's attitude to Germans would drastically change in the aftermath of the 1871 Franco - Prussian War. After 1871, the sympathetic if eccentric Professor Otto Lidenbrock would be replaced in Verne 's fiction by the utterly evil and demonic Professor Schultze of The Begum 's Fortune.
The first English edition was published in its entirety by Henry Vickers in 12 installments of a Boys magazine entitled "The Boys Journal ''. The plates are more numerous than the book form which was published with an 1872 title page. If it was released in 1871 as a single volume it was late in the year. This "True '' first edition also found in an octavo normal book size (not Annual size), has been overlooked by bibliographers. It has a place of pre-eminence up to about a 3rd of the way through the 12 monthly issues and then slides down into the main body of the journal. The Magazine does not seem to have survived in its loose format of 12 individual parts.
Walt Disney Pictures began work on a "Journey '' in the late 1990s, but was not happy with the appearance of the subterranean caverns, so the project was scrapped and the cavern scenes were altered and used in the production of their 2001 film Atlantis: The Lost Empire.
|
why did imagine dragons change next to me | Next to Me (Imagine Dragons song) - wikipedia
"Next to Me '' is a song recorded by American rock band Imagine Dragons. Written by all four members of the band and producer Alex da Kid, it was released through Kidinakorner and Interscope Records on February 21, 2018, as the fourth single from the band 's third studio album Evolve, appearing as the first track on a re-issue of the album.
The band first teased the song on February 14, 2018, with a tweet that contains the cover artwork, which features two people in a canyon. They captioned the picture: "2 / 21 the evolution begins. '' The single premiered on Zane Lowe 's Beats 1 radio show as the day 's "World Record '', and was released alongside the announcement of extended summer tour dates.
"Next to Me '' was referred to as the band 's first love song. Dan Reynolds, lead singer of the song, admitted that it was an unexpected theme change in the interview with Lowe, saying: "Yeah I do n't typically write love songs. I started writing when I was about 13 years old and it was a source of an escape from school from depression from feeling lost and it was never a romance. So for me this is some of the first times that I 've really explored diving into my mind and musicality and sonicality of romance. '' He regarded it as "something everybody can relate to '', which is the "feeling like you are going to fail sometimes in a relationship and the true value of a relationship is what happens then ''.
An accompanying short film for the song was released on March 13, 2018. The video stars the lead singer, Dan Reynolds, and his wife, Aja Volkman. In the video, Aja leaves Dan due to his problems, leading to him attempting to sell his wedding ring. The clerk tells him that the ring is not worth much, and in his anger, Dan attempts to rob and later kills the clerk. The rest of the video features a series of flashbacks while Dan is on death row, and his eventual execution.
Ryan Reed of Rolling Stone opined that the band manages to "blend the experimental and accessible '' on the track, writing that it "builds to an arena - worthy chorus with massive, choral - style backing vocals and electronic effects ''. Scott T. Sterling of CBS Radio deemed the song "a big and powerful ballad that highlights Reynolds soaring and impassioned vocals ''. Mike Wass of Idolator stated that the song features a "sleepy tempo ''.
Credits adapted from Tidal.
Imagine Dragons
Additional musician
Technical personnel
sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
|
who does edward marry in sense and sensibility | Edward Ferrars - Wikipedia
Edward Ferrars is a fictional character in Jane Austen 's Sense and Sensibility. He is the elder of Fanny Dashwood 's two brothers and forms an attachment to Elinor Dashwood.
As first described in Sense and Sensibility: "Edward Ferrars was not recommended to their good opinion by any peculiar graces of person or address. He was not handsome, and his manners required intimacy to make them pleasing. He was too diffident to do justice to himself; but when his natural shyness was overcome, his behaviour gave every indication of an open, affectionate heart. His understanding was good, and his education had given it solid improvement. But he was neither fitted by abilities nor disposition to answer the wishes of his mother and sister, who longed to see him distinguished -- as -- they hardly knew what. ''
His personality, while it lacks the flash of Marianne Dashwood 's romantic interest Willoughby, indicates more fortitude. Despite the good common sense that links him to Elinor, he is able to attach himself to other people and form bonds of friendship and love with ease. He exemplifies great loyalty when he sacrifices his potential happiness with Elinor to honor a promise he made to another girl when he was younger. He and Marianne 's future husband Colonel Brandon are both models of great character under unimpressive exteriors. This simplicity makes them rather less three - dimensional than Pride and Prejudice 's Fitzwilliam Darcy and Emma 's Mr. Knightley.
He eventually marries Elinor after he is abandoned by Lucy Steele for his now propertied brother.
|
who sings the song at the end of a wrinkle in time | A Wrinkle in Time (Soundtrack) - wikipedia
A Wrinkle in Time (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) is the soundtrack album to the 2018 film of the same name. The soundtrack features seven original songs written for the film, as well as the film score by Ramin Djawadi. Walt Disney Records released the soundtrack digitally and on streaming services on March 9, 2018, and physically released it on CD on March 30.
Track listing adapted from Complex.com
|
how much did it cost to make the movie baby driver | Baby Driver - Wikipedia
Baby Driver is a 2017 action crime film written and directed by Edgar Wright. It stars Ansel Elgort, Kevin Spacey, Lily James, Eiza González, Jon Hamm, Jamie Foxx, and Jon Bernthal. The plot follows Baby, a young getaway driver and music lover who must work for a kingpin. The film is best known for its choreography, in which the actors ' timing and movements are synced with the soundtrack.
Baby Driver was co-produced by Working Title Films, Big Talk Productions and Media Rights Capital, and was distributed worldwide by Sony Pictures and by TriStar Pictures in the US. It premiered at South by Southwest on March 11, 2017, and was released theatrically on June 28, 2017. The film received critical acclaim and has grossed $225 million worldwide against a production budget of $34 million, making it Wright 's highest - grossing film as director.
Baby is a getaway driver in Atlanta, Georgia. When he was a child, a car accident killed his parents and left him with tinnitus, which he blocks out by listening to music on iPods. He ferries crews of robbers assembled by Doc, a heist mastermind, to pay off a debt he incurred after stealing one of Doc 's cars. Between jobs, he creates remixes from snippets of conversations he records, and cares for his deaf foster father Joseph. At a diner, he meets a waitress, Debora, and they start dating.
Baby 's next robbery goes awry after an armed bystander chases them down, but Baby evades him and the police. Informed by Doc that they are now "straight '', Baby quits his life of crime and starts delivering pizzas. While Baby is on a date with Debora, Doc insists he join a heist at a post office, threatening to hurt Debora if he refuses.
The crew consists of easy - going Buddy, his sharpshooter wife Darling, and trigger - happy Bats, who takes an immediate dislike to Baby. While the crew attempts to purchase illegal arms for the job, Bats realizes the dealers are police and opens fire, killing them all. Afterwards, Bats forces Baby to stop at Debora 's diner, unaware of Baby and Debora 's romance, and nearly kills her in a hold - up.
Doc, furious at the botched deal, tries to cancel the heist, but Baby convinces him to go through with it. He attempts to flee later that night, hoping to take Debora and leave Atlanta. He is stopped by Buddy and Bats, who have discovered his recordings and believe he is an informant; when they and Doc hear his mixtapes, they are convinced of his innocence.
During the heist, Bats kills a security guard. Disgusted, Baby refuses to drive the crew, causing Bats to hit him. Baby rams the car into rebar which impales Bats, killing him. The three flee the police on foot. After police kill Darling, Buddy blames Baby for her death, and vows to kill him. Baby steals another car and flees to his apartment. After leaving Joseph at an assisted living home, Baby drives to Debora 's diner to pick her up, where he discovers Buddy waiting. Baby shoots Buddy and flees with Debora as the police close in.
Baby seeks help from Doc, who initially refuses to help as he blames Baby for ruining the heist. After seeing he truly loves Debora, Doc supplies them with cash and directions to get out of the country, stating that he was also in love once. Buddy ambushes them in the parking garage and hits and kills Doc with a stolen police car. A cat - and - mouse game ensues until Buddy has Baby at his mercy. Debora disarms Buddy with a crowbar and Baby shoots him with the pistol, causing him to fall to his death.
Fleeing Atlanta, Baby and Debora run into a police roadblock. Debora prepares to ram it, but Baby stops her and surrenders, telling her she does not belong in the world of crime. At Baby 's trial, Joseph, Debora, and several people Baby saved during the robberies testify in his defense. Baby is sentenced to 25 years in prison with a parole hearing after five years. He receives postcards from Debora, who promises to wait for him. Baby is released and finds Debora waiting, and they kiss.
Filmmaker Walter Hill makes a vocal cameo appearance as a courtroom interpreter during Baby 's trial hearing near the end of the film. Wright has cited Hill 's 1978 film The Driver as a major inspiration for Baby Driver.
Writer - director Edgar Wright conceived Baby Driver in 1994; he adapted the film 's original planned beginning into a 2003 music video he directed for Mint Royale 's "Blue Song '', which starred Noel Fielding as a music - loving getaway driver for a group of bank robbers. A clip of the music video is shown briefly in the movie as the main character flips between television channels. Inspirations for the film came from the films Straight Time, Point Break, Reservoir Dogs and Heat
The film was announced in July of 2014 By January 2015 it was reported that Ansel Elgort was in talks to star. Elgort 's audition required him to lip sync and dance to the song of his choosing. Elgort chose Easy by The Commodores which resonated with Wright to the point where he would include the song in the movie.
Emma Stone and Michael Douglas were also rumoured to be in the cast. On May 7, 2015, Lily James was reported to be in talks to be the female lead, a waitress and Elgort 's character 's love interest.
Jamie Foxx was reported to be in talks to join the film on September 8, 2015. On October 20, 2015, Jon Hamm signed on to play one of the villains, a former Wall Street trader turned member of the gang. On November 3, 2015, it was announced that Kevin Spacey had been cast as a veteran criminal and the boss of the crew. On December 16, 2015, Eiza González joined the film to play one of the bank robbers -- the wife of Hamm 's character. Jon Bernthal was cast as Griff, another one of the gang, on February 23, 2016.
Wright enlisted the choreographer Ryan Heffington to sync the actors ' timing and movements with the soundtrack.
Principal photography, which took place in Atlanta, Georgia, began on February 17, 2016, and concluded on May 13.
Baby Driver (Music from the Motion Picture) is the soundtrack album of the film. The soundtrack was released on June 23, 2017, on CD, vinyl and digital music via the Columbia Records imprint, 30th Century Records. The album features a combination of artists, from various decades, including Blur, Run the Jewels, Sky Ferreira, Jon Spencer Blues Explosion, Queen and Golden Earring.
The film takes its name from "Baby Driver '', a song from the Simon & Garfunkel album Bridge over Troubled Water. The song is played during the end credits. Wright consulted with James Gunn, director of Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2, before Vol. 2 released to ensure the two films did not feature the same songs on their soundtracks.
The soundtrack features three original tracks: a cover of "Easy '' by Sky Ferreira; "Chase Me '' by Danger Mouse (featuring Run the Jewels and Big Boi); and "Was He Slow? '' by Kid Koala.
In August 2017, Rolan Feld, son of T. Rex lead vocalist Marc Bolan, sued Sony Pictures, Media Rights Capital, and Bambino Films for using the band 's song "Debora '' without permission.
In August 2015, Sony Pictures Entertainment announced that the film would be released on March 17, 2017. It was briefly pushed back to August 11, 2017 before a final date of June 28, 2017 was settled on. Baby Driver had its world premiere at the South by Southwest film festival on March 11, 2017. On the weekend of August 25, the film was re-released in 1,074 theaters.
As of October 1, 2017, Baby Driver has grossed $107.7 million in the United States and Canada and $117.1 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $224.7 million (against a production budget of $34 million).
In North America, Baby Driver was initially projected to gross $12 -- 20 million from 3,150 theaters over its first five days, with the possibility to earn more due to strong reviews. The film made $5.7 million on its first day (including $2.1 million from Tuesday - night previews) and $3.3 million on Thursday. It made $6 million on Friday, increasing five - day projections to $27 million. It ended up opening to $21 million (and a five - day total of $30 million), finishing second behind another new release, Despicable Me 3 ($72.4 million). This marked the biggest American debut of Wright 's career, doubling the $10.6 million opening of Scott Pilgrim vs. the World in 2010. In its second weekend, Baby Driver grossed $13 million (a drop of 36.7 %), finishing third at the box office; in its third weekend, the film made $8.8 million, finishing fourth. The film was re-released into 1,074 theaters on August 25 and made $1.2 million, up 34 % from the previous week.
On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 93 % based on 288 reviews, with an average rating of 8 out of 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Stylish, exciting, and fueled by a killer soundtrack, Baby Driver hits the road and it 's gone -- proving fast - paced action movies can be smartly written without sacrificing thrills. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film has a score of 86 out of 100, based on 52 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A - '' on an A+ to F scale.
Peter Debruge of Variety called the film "a blast, featuring wall - to - wall music and a surfeit of inspired ideas ''. The New York Times ' Manohla Dargis listed the film as a "NYT Critic 's Pick '', writing that the film "is so good that you want it to be better and go deeper, for it to put down its guns (or at least hold them differently) and transcend its clichés and cine - quotes so it can rocket out of the genre safe box into the cosmic beyond where craft and technique transform into art ''. Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian gave the film five out of five stars, listing it as his "film of the week '' and calling it an "outrageously enjoyable petrolhead heist caper ''.
CNN 's Brian Lowry wrote that the film "is a crackling - good ride, one that organically weaves music and humor into a slick showcase for its cast. Despite a few plotholes toward the end, writer - director Edgar Wright 's stylish thriller consistently clicks on all cylinders ''. Brian Tallerico of RogerEbert.com gave the film three - and - a-half out of four stars, and called it "fluid and jaw - dropping -- the kind of thing you want to see immediately again after it 's over to catch all the things you missed ''. Empire 's Terri White gave the film five out of five stars, calling it an "awe - inspiring piece of filmmaking '' and "one of the most utterly original films in years ''.
However, there were several less positive reviews. Rating Baby Driver three out of five stars, Joyce Slaton of Common Sense Media praised the driving sequences and music, but felt that the film "quickly slump (s) into stereotypes '' and "fails to grab viewers on a visceral level '', particularly criticizing Baby 's backstory and the portrayal of Debora and Darling. In a dismissive review, Richard Brody of The New Yorker cited many flaws, calling it "an imitation of generation 's worth of imitations. ''
|
what year did oscar de la hoya fight mayweather | Oscar De La Hoya vs. Floyd Mayweather Jr.. - Wikipedia
De La Hoya vs. Mayweather: The World Awaits was a super welterweight superfight that took place on May 5, 2007, at the MGM Grand Arena in Las Vegas, Nevada between six - division world champion Oscar De La Hoya (38 -- 4, 30 KO) and undefeated four - division champion Floyd Mayweather Jr. (37 -- 0, 24 KO). At the time, the bout was the most lucrative boxing match ever, with over $130 million in generated revenue.
Mayweather Jr. won by split decision over De La Hoya in 12 rounds, capturing the World Boxing Council (WBC) light middleweight title.
The fight took place at the MGM Grand Garden Arena in Las Vegas, Nevada under the promotion of Golden Boy Promotions. It was contested at 154 pounds, with De La Hoya defending his WBC light middleweight championship.
Tickets sold out three hours after they went on sale on Saturday, January 27, 2007. With the sellout, the bout generated over $19 million in live gate, beating the previous record of $16,860,300 set by the June 28, 1997, heavyweight championship rematch between Evander Holyfield and Mike Tyson at the Thomas & Mack Center.
The fight was televised on HBO pay - per - view, with the cost to watch the fight at $55 in the U.S.
Mayweather won by a split decision in 12 close - fought rounds, capturing the World Boxing Council (WBC) title. Judges Jerry Roth (115 -- 113) and Chuck Giampa (116 -- 112) scored the fight for Mayweather while judge Tom Kaczmarek had De La Hoya winning, 115 -- 113.
As part of the buildup for the fight, HBO produced an unprecedented four - part prelude. The series, titled De La Hoya - Mayweather 24 / 7, aired installments on the final three Sundays of April, with the fourth installment airing on Thursday, May 3, two days before the fight. The series focused on each fighter 's training and preparation for the bout.
A subplot to the fight concerned whether De La Hoya would be trained by Floyd Mayweather Sr., the estranged father of Mayweather Jr. Mayweather Sr. had served as De La Hoya 's trainer since 2001. Mayweather Sr. announced his willingness to train De La Hoya after initially declining to oppose his son, but demanded a $2 million fee in light of the enormous revenue to be generated by the fight. De La Hoya declined to meet Mayweather Sr. 's demands, making a counteroffer of $500,000 guaranteed plus an additional $500,000 contingent on De La Hoya winning the fight. Ultimately, the sides were unable to come to an agreement and De La Hoya hired the highly respected Freddie Roach to be his cornerman instead.
Although Mayweather Sr. reunited with his son at the start of Floyd Jr. 's training camp, he had no official role, as Floyd Jr. opted to retain his uncle, Roger Mayweather, as his trainer instead. Mayweather Sr. left the camp by the end of April, upset over not being chosen as trainer and by comments made by his son and brother during the taping of the 24 / 7 show.
The De La Hoya - Mayweather fight set the record for most PPV buys for a boxing match with 2.4 million households, beating the previous record of 1.99 million for Evander Holyfield - Mike Tyson II. Around $136 million in revenue was generated by the PPV. Until, it was surpassed in 2015 by Mayweather vs. Pacquiao, which generated more than 400 million dollars from 4.6 million households in PPV buys. Becoming the most lucrative fight in history and one of the most lucrative sport events of all time. Factoring in the percentages, Oscar De La Hoya ended up earning $52 million, the highest purse ever for a fighter. The previous record was $35 million, held by Tyson and Holyfield. Floyd Mayweather earned $25 million for the fight.
De la Hoya and Mayweather were scheduled for a rematch on September 20, 2008. However, unlike the first fight, the fight would have been contracted for 147 lbs. or the welterweight limit. The first fight was contracted at light middleweight or 154 lbs and de la Hoya 's WBC junior middleweight title was on the line. However, Mayweather would have come in as champion and defended his WBC / The Ring welterweight titles. As a tune - up fight, De la Hoya fought Stephen Forbes (33 -- 6) on May 3, with Floyd Mayweather, Sr. as his trainer. De La Hoya (39 -- 5, 30 KOs) looked extremely sluggish but ultimately won a unanimous decision over Forbes, 119 -- 109, 119 -- 109 and 120 -- 108.
The rematch never took place due to Mayweather 's retirement in 2008 and De La Hoya 's retirement in 2009, although Mayweather would return to boxing in 2009 and after further retirement again in 2017 to face Conor McGregor.
|
what are some of japans and the koreas important natural resources | Geography of Japan - Wikipedia
Japan is an island nation in East Asia comprising a volcanic archipelago extending along the continent 's Pacific coast. It lies between 24 ° to 46 ° north latitude and from 123 ° to 146 ° east longitude. Japan is southeast of the Russian Far East, separated by the Sea of Okhotsk; slightly east of the Korean Peninsula, separated by the Sea of Japan; and east - northeast of China and Taiwan, separated by the East China Sea. The closest neighboring country to Japan is Russia.
The major islands, sometimes called the "Home Islands '', are (from east to west) Hokkaido, Honshu (the "mainland ''), Shikoku and Kyushu. There are 6,852 islands in total, including the Nansei Islands, the Nanpō Islands and islets, with 430 islands being inhabited and others uninhabited. In total, as of 2006, Japan 's territory is 377,923.1 km (145,916.9 sq mi), of which 374,834 km (144,724 sq mi) is land and 3,091 km (1,193 sq mi) water.
Location: Eastern Asia, island chain between the North Pacific Ocean and the Sea of Japan, east of the Korean Peninsula.
Map references: Asia, Oceania
Area:
Land boundaries: the ocean
Coastline: 29,751 km (18,486 mi)
Maritime claims:
Climate: varies from tropical in south to cool temperate in north
Terrain: mostly rugged and mountainous, can easily be compared to Norway, both having about 70 % of their land in the mountains.
Natural resources: small deposits of coal, oil, iron, and minerals. Major fishing industry.
Land use:
Irrigated land: 25,000 km2 (2010)
Total renewable water resources: 430 km (2011)
Freshwater withdrawal (domestic / industrial / agricultural):
About 73 % of Japan is mountainous, with a mountain range running through each of the main islands. Japan 's highest mountain is Mount Fuji, with an elevation of 3,776 m (12,388 ft). Japan 's forest cover rate is 68.55 % since the mountains are heavily forested. The only other developed nations with such a high forest cover percentage are Finland and Sweden.
Since there is little level ground, many hills and mountainsides at lower elevations around towns and cities are often cultivated. As Japan is situated in a volcanic zone along the Pacific deeps, frequent low - intensity earth tremors and occasional volcanic activity are felt throughout the islands. Destructive earthquakes occur several times a century. Hot springs are numerous and have been exploited as an economic capital by the leisure industry.
The mountainous islands of the Japanese archipelago form a crescent off the eastern coast of Asia. They are separated from the mainland by the Sea of Japan, which historically served as a protective barrier. The country consists of four major islands: Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu; with more than 6,500 adjacent smaller islands and islets ("island '' defined as land more than 100 m in circumference), including the Izu Islands and Ogasawara Islands in the Nanpō Islands, and the Satsunan Islands, Okinawa Islands, and Sakishima Islands of the Ryukyu Islands.
The national territory also includes the Volcano Islands (Kazan Retto) such as Iwo Jima, located some 1,200 kilometers south of mainland Tokyo. A territorial dispute with Russia, dating from the end of World War II, over the two southernmost of the Kuril Islands, Etorofu and Kunashiri, and the smaller Shikotan Island and Habomai Islands northeast of Hokkaido remains a sensitive spot in Japanese -- Russian relations (as of 2005). Excluding disputed territory, the archipelago covers about 377,000 square kilometers. No point in Japan is more than 150 kilometers from the sea.
The four major islands are separated by narrow straits and form a natural entity. The Ryukyu Islands curve 970 kilometers southward from Kyūshū.
The distance between Japan and the Korean Peninsula, the nearest point on the Asian continent, is about 200 kilometers at the Korea Strait. Japan has always been linked with the continent through trade routes, stretching in the north toward Siberia, in the west through the Tsushima Islands to the Korean Peninsula, and in the south to the ports on the south China coast.
The Japanese islands are the summits of mountain ridges uplifted near the outer edge of the continental shelf. About 73 percent of Japan 's area is mountainous, and scattered plains and intermontane basins (in which the population is concentrated) cover only about 27 percent. A long chain of mountains runs down the middle of the archipelago, dividing it into two halves, the "face '', fronting on the Pacific Ocean, and the "back '', toward the Sea of Japan. On the Pacific side are steep mountains 1,500 to 3,000 meters high, with deep valleys and gorges.
Central Japan is marked by the convergence of the three mountain chains -- the Hida, Kiso, and Akaishi mountains -- that form the Japanese Alps (Nihon Arupusu), several of whose peaks are higher than 3,000 meters. The highest point in the Japanese Alps is Mount Kita at 3,193 meters. The highest point in the country is Mount Fuji (Fujisan, also erroneously called Fujiyama), a volcano dormant since 1707 that rises to 3,776 meters above sea level in Shizuoka Prefecture. On the Sea of Japan side are plateaus and low mountain districts, with altitudes of 500 to 1,500 meters.
None of the populated plains or mountain basins are extensive in area. The largest, the Kantō Plain, where Tokyo is situated, covers only 13,000 square kilometers. Other important plains are the Nōbi Plain surrounding Nagoya, the Kinai Plain in the Osaka -- Kyoto area, the Sendai Plain around the city of Sendai in northeastern Honshū, and the Ishikari Plain on Hokkaidō. Many of these plains are along the coast, and their areas have been increased by reclamation throughout recorded history.
The small amount of habitable land has prompted significant human modification of the terrain over many centuries. Land was reclaimed from the sea and from river deltas by building dikes and drainage, and rice paddies were built on terraces carved into mountainsides. The process continued in the modern period with extension of shorelines and building of artificial islands for industrial and port development, such as Port Island in Kobe and the new Kansai International Airport in Osaka Bay. Hills and even mountains have been razed to provide flat areas for housing.
Rivers are generally steep and swift, and few are suitable for navigation except in their lower reaches. Although most rivers are less than 300 kilometers in length, their rapid flow from the mountains provides a valuable, renewable resource: hydroelectric power generation. Japan 's hydroelectric power potential has been exploited almost to capacity. Seasonal variations in flow have led to extensive development of flood control measures. Most of the rivers are very short. The longest, the Shinano River, which winds through Nagano Prefecture to Niigata Prefecture and flows into the Sea of Japan, is only 367 kilometers long. The largest freshwater lake is Lake Biwa, northeast of Kyoto.
Extensive coastal shipping, especially around the Seto Inland Sea (Seto Naikai), compensates for the lack of navigable rivers. The Pacific coastline south of Tokyo is characterized by long, narrow, gradually shallowing inlets produced by sedimentation, which has created many natural harbors. The Pacific coastline north of Tokyo, the coast of Hokkaidō, and the Sea of Japan coast are generally unindented, with few natural harbors.
In November 2008, Japan filed a request to expand its claimed continental shelf. In April 2012, the U.N. Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf recognized around 310,000 square kilometres (120,000 sq mi) of seabed around Okinotorishima, giving Japan priority over access to seabed resources in nearby areas. According to U.N. Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf, the approved expansion is equal to about 82 % of Japan 's total land area. The People 's Republic of China and South Korea have opposed Japan 's claim because they view Okinotorishima not as an island, but as a group of rocks.
Most regions of Japan, such as much of Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu, belong to the temperate zone with humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa) characterized by four distinct seasons. However, its climate varies from cool humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfb) in the north such as northern Hokkaido, to warm tropical rainforest climate (Köppen climate classification Af) in the south such as Ishigaki in the Yaeyama Islands.
The two primary factors influences in Japan 's climate are a location near the Asian continent and the existence of major oceanic currents. Two major ocean currents affect Japan: the warm Kuroshio Current (Black Current; also known as the Japan Current); and the cold Oyashio Current (Parent Current; also known as the Okhotsk Current). The Kuroshio Current flows northward on the Pacific side of Japan and warms areas as north as the South Kantō region; a small branch, the Tsushima Current, flows up the Sea of Japan side. The Oyashio Current, which abounds in plankton beneficial to coldwater fish, flows southward along the northern Pacific, cooling adjacent coastal areas. The intersection of these currents at 36 north latitude is a bountiful fishing ground.
Japan 's varied geographical features divide it into six principal climatic zones.
Japan is generally a rainy country with high humidity. Because of its wide range of latitude, seasonal winds and different types of ocean currents, Japan has a variety of climates, with a latitude range of the inhabited islands from 24 ° to 46 ° north, which is comparable to the range between Nova Scotia and The Bahamas in the east coast of North America. Tokyo is at about 35 degrees north latitude, comparable to that of Tehran, Athens, or Las Vegas.
Regional climatic variations range from humid continental in the northern island of Hokkaido extending down through northern Japan to the Central Highland, then blending with and eventually changing to a humid subtropical climate on the Pacific Coast and ultimately reaching tropical rainforest climate on the Yaeyama Islands of the Ryukyu Islands. Climate also varies dramatically with altitude and with location on the Pacific Ocean or on the Sea of Japan.
Northern Japan has warm summers but long, cold winters with heavy snow. Central Japan in its elevated position, has hot summers and moderate to short winters with some areas having very heavy snow, and southwestern Japan has long hot summer and short mild winters. The generally temperate climate exhibits marked seasonal variation such as the blooming of the spring cherry blossoms, the calls of the summer cicada and fall foliage colors that are celebrated in art and literature.
The climate from June to September is marked by hot, wet weather brought by tropical airflows from the Pacific Ocean and Southeast Asia. These airflows are full of moisture and deposit substantial amounts of rain when they reach land. There is a marked rainy season, beginning in early June and continuing for about a month. It is followed by hot, sticky weather. Five or six typhoons pass over or near Japan every year from early August to early October, sometimes resulting in significant damage. Annual precipitation averages between 1,000 and 2,500 mm (40 and 100 in) except for the areas such as Kii Peninsula and Yakushima Island which is Japan 's wettest place with the annual precipitation being one of the world 's highest at 4,000 to 10,000 mm.
Maximum precipitation, like the rest of East Asia, occurs in the summer months except on the Sea of Japan coast where strong northerly winds produce a maximum in late autumn and early winter. Except for a few sheltered inland valleys during December and January, precipitation in Japan is above 25 millimetres (1 in) of rainfall equivalent in all months of the year, and in the wettest coastal areas it is above 100 millimetres (4 in) per month throughout the year.
In winter, the Siberian High develops over the Eurasian land mass and the Aleutian Low develops over the northern Pacific Ocean. The result is a flow of cold air southeastward across Japan that brings freezing temperatures and heavy snowfalls to the central mountain ranges facing the Sea of Japan, but clear skies to areas fronting on the Pacific.
Mid June to mid July is generally the rainy season in Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu, excluding Hokkaidō since the seasonal rain front or baiu zensen (梅雨 前線) dissipates in northern Honshu before reaching Hokkaido. In Okinawa, the rainy season starts early in May and continues until mid June. Unlike the rainy season in mainland Japan, it rains neither everyday nor all day long during the rainy season in Okinawa. Between July and October, typhoons, grown from tropical depressions generated near the equator, can attack Japan with furious rainstorms.
The warmest winter temperatures are found in the Nanpō and Bonin Islands, which enjoy a tropical climate due to the combination of latitude, distance from the Asian mainland, and warming effect of winds from the Kuroshio, as well as the Volcano Islands (at the latitude of the southernmost of the Ryukyu Islands, 24 ° N). The coolest summer temperatures are found on the northeastern coast of Hokkaidō in Kushiro and Nemuro Subprefectures.
Sunshine, in accordance with Japan 's uniformly heavy rainfall, is generally modest in quantity, though no part of Japan receives the consistently gloomy fogs that envelope the Sichuan Basin or Taipei. Amounts range from about six hours per day in the Inland Sea coast and sheltered parts of the Pacific Coast and Kantō Plain to four hours per day on the Sea of Japan coast of Hokkaidō. In December there is a very pronounced sunshine gradient between the Sea of Japan and Pacific coasts, as the former side can receive less than 30 hours and the Pacific side as much as 180 hours. In summer, however, sunshine hours are lowest on exposed parts of the Pacific coast where fogs from the Oyashio current create persistent cloud cover similar to that found on the Kuril Islands and Sakhalin.
As an island nation, Japan has the 7th longest coastline in the world. A few prefectures are landlocked: Gunma, Tochigi, Saitama, Nagano, Yamanashi, Gifu, Shiga, and Nara. As Mt. Fuji and the coastal Japanese Alps provide a rain shadow, Nagano and Yamanashi Prefectures receive the least precipitation in Honshu, though it still exceeds 900 millimetres (35 in) annually. A similar effect is found in Hokkaido, where Okhotsk Subprefecture receives as little as 750 millimetres (30 in) per year. All other prefectures have coasts on the Pacific Ocean, Sea of Japan, Seto Inland Sea or have a body of salt water connected to them. Two prefectures -- Hokkaido and Okinawa -- are composed entirely of islands.
The hottest temperature ever measured in Japan, 41.0 ° C (105.8 ° F), occurred in Shimanto, Kochi on August 12, 2013.
Environment - current issues: In the 2006 environment annual report, the Ministry of Environment reported that current major issues are: global warming and preservation of the ozone layer, conservation of the atmospheric environment, water and soil, waste management and recycling, measures for chemical substances, conservation of the natural environment and the participation in the international cooperation.
Environment - international agreements: party to: Antarctic - Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes (Basel Convention), Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection (Montreal Protocol), Ship Pollution (MARPOL 73 / 78), Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands (Ramsar Convention), Whaling signed and ratified: Climate Change - Kyoto Protocol
Ten percent of the world 's active volcanoes -- forty in the early 1990s (another 148 were dormant) -- are found in Japan, which lies in a zone of extreme crustal instability. As many as 1,500 earthquakes are recorded yearly, and magnitudes of 4 to 7 are common. Minor tremors occur almost daily in one part of the country or another, causing slight shaking of buildings. Major earthquakes occur infrequently; the most famous in the twentieth century was the great Kantō earthquake of 1923, in which 130,000 people died. Undersea earthquakes also expose the Japanese coastline to danger from tsunamis (津波).
On March 11, 2011 Japan was subject to a devastating magnitude 9.0 earthquake and a massive tsunami as a result. The March 11 quake was the largest ever recorded in Japan and is the world 's fourth largest earthquake to strike since 1900, according to the U.S. Geological Service. It struck offshore about 371 kilometres (231 mi) northeast of Tokyo and 130 kilometres (81 mi) east of the city of Sendai, and created a massive tsunami that devastated Japan 's northeastern coastal areas. At least 100 aftershocks registering a 6.0 magnitude or higher have followed the main shock. At least 15,000 people died as a result.
Japan has become a world leader in research on causes and prediction of earthquakes. The development of advanced technology has permitted the construction of skyscrapers even in earthquake - prone areas. Extensive civil defence efforts focus on training in protection against earthquakes, in particular against accompanying fire, which represents the greatest danger.
Another common hazard are several typhoons that reach Japan from the Pacific every year and heavy snowfall during winter in the snow country regions, causing landslides, flooding, and avalanches.
Japan is informally divided into eight regions. Each contains several prefectures, except the Hokkaido region, which covers only Hokkaido Prefecture.
The region is not an official administrative unit, but has been traditionally used as the regional division of Japan in a number of contexts: for example, maps and geography textbooks divide Japan into the eight regions, weather reports usually give the weather by region, and many businesses and institutions use their home region as part of their name (Kinki Nippon Railway, Chūgoku Bank, Tohoku University, etc.). While Japan has eight High Courts, their jurisdictions do not correspond to the eight regions.
This is a list of the extreme points of Japan, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.
The only part of Japan with antipodes over land are the Ryukyu Islands, though the islands off the western coast of Kyūshū are close.
The northernmost antipodal island in the Ryukyu Island chain, Nakanoshima, is opposite the Brazilian coast near Capão da Canoa. The other islands south to the Straits of Okinawa correspond to southern Brazil, with Gaja Island being opposite the outskirts of Santo Antônio da Patrulha, Takarajima with Jua, Amami Ōshima covering the villages of Carasinho and Fazenda Pae João, Ginoza, Okinawa with Palmas, Paraná, the Kerama Islands with Pato Branco, Tonaki Island with São Lourenço do Oeste, and Kume Island corresponding to Palma Sola. The main Daitō Islands correspond to near Guaratuba, with Oki Daitō Island near Apiaí.
The Sakishima Islands beyond the straits are antipodal to Paraguay, from the Brazilian border almost to Asunción, with Ishigaki overlapping San Isidro de Curuguaty, and the uninhabited Senkaku Islands surrounding Villarrica.
|
when did avatar the last air bender come out | Avatar: the Last Airbender - wikipedia
Avatar: The Last Airbender (Avatar: The Legend of Aang in some regions) is an American animated television series that aired for three seasons on Nickelodeon. The series began in February 2005 and concluded with a two - hour episode titled Sozin 's Comet in July 2008. Avatar: The Last Airbender is set in an Asiatic - like world in which some people can manipulate the classical elements with psychokinetic variants of the Chinese martial arts known as "bending ''. The series is presented in a style that combines anime with American cartoons and relies on the imagery of East - and - South Asian, Inuit, and New World societies. It follows the protagonist, twelve - year - old Aang and his friends, who must bring peace and unity to the world by ending the Fire Lord 's war with three nations.
The series was commercially successful and was acclaimed by audiences and critics who praised its art direction, humor, cultural references, characters, and themes. It was nominated for -- and won -- Annie Awards, Genesis Awards, a Primetime Emmy Award, and a Peabody Award. The first season 's success prompted Nickelodeon to order a second and third season and the series inspired a critically panned but financially successful live - action film, The Last Airbender, considered one of the worst movies ever made, which was directed by M. Night Shyamalan. Merchandising for the series consisted of action figures, a trading card game, three video games, stuffed animals distributed by Paramount Parks, and two Lego sets. An art book was published in June 2010. A sequel series titled The Legend of Korra aired from 2012 to 2014. The complete series was released on Blu - ray on June 5, 2018 for the 10th anniversary of season 3 's finale.
Avatar: The Last Airbender is set in a world -- adjacent to a parallel spirit world -- that is home to humans and hybrid animals. Human civilization is divided into four nations, named after the four classical elements: the Water Tribes, the Earth Kingdom, the Fire Nation, and the Air Nomads. Each nation has a distinct society in which select people, known as "benders '' (waterbenders, earthbenders, firebenders and airbenders), have the ability to telekinetically manipulate and control their nation 's element using martial arts.
Only the Avatar has the ability to bend all four elements. The Avatar, who may be male or female, is an international arbiter whose duty is to maintain harmony among the four nations, and act as a mediator between humans and spirits. When the Avatar dies, their spirit is reincarnated into the next of the four nations in what is known as the Avatar cycle: the Fire Nation, Air Nomads, Water Tribe and Earth Kingdom. An Avatar is required to master each bending art, beginning with the element of their home nation, and proceeding to learn the others in the order of the Avatar cycle, starting at the age of sixteen. Avatars also possess the ability to enter a condition known as the Avatar State, in which they gain the knowledge and abilities of all past Avatars. Although it is when they are most powerful, if an Avatar were ever to be killed while in the Avatar State, the reincarnation cycle would end and the avatar would never again be reborn.
More than a century before the events of the series begin, Fire Lord Sozin, ruler of the Fire Nation, planned a world war to expand his nation 's territory and influence. He was prevented from carrying out his plans by Avatar Roku, who was born in the Fire Nation. After Roku 's death, the Avatar was reincarnated as an Airbender named Aang. Because the Avatar was now a child, Sozin saw his chance and proceeded with his militant plans. At the age of twelve, Aang learned about his avatar status because of the threat of Sozin 's war. Afraid of his new responsibilities and of separation from his mentor Gyatso, he fled his home on his flying bison, Appa. Aang was forced into the ocean by a storm; he entered the Avatar State and encased himself and Appa in suspended animation in an iceberg near the South Pole for one hundred years. Sozin, knowing the avatar 's reincarnation cycle mandated an Air Nomad was the new Avatar, carried out a genocide against the Air Nomads during the passage of a once - a-century comet that increased the Firebenders ' power, and continued his world conquest.
In the present day, as the Fire Nation continues its war against the other nations, Katara, a fourteen - year - old waterbender of the Southern Water Tribe, and her older brother, Sokka, find and revive Aang and Appa. Aang learns about the war and the siblings join him to reach the Northern Water Tribe at the North Pole so he and Katara can learn waterbending. Aang 's return attracts the attention of Prince Zuko, the exiled son of the current Fire Lord Ozai, who pursues them, accompanied by his uncle Iroh. Aang is also pursued by Zhao, a Fire Nation admiral who intends to win Ozai 's favor and rob Zuko of his redemption. En route to the North Pole, Aang learns about the genocide against his people when he visits the ruins of the Southern Air Temple. During the winter solstice, Aang meets the spirit of his predecessor, Avatar Roku, and comes to terms with his responsibilities. With the Northern Water Tribe, Aang and Katara learn advanced waterbending from Master Pakku; Sokka falls in love with the chief 's daughter, Princess Yue. Zhao 's navy lays siege to the tribe, seizing the mortal forms of the ocean and moon spirits -- the source of waterbending -- and causing a lunar eclipse. Zhao kills the moon spirit to deprive the waterbenders of their abilities but Aang joins with the ocean spirit to drive off the enemy fleet while Yue sacrifices her life to revive the moon spirit. When Ozai hears about his older brother Iroh 's resistance to Zhao, he sends his daughter Azula to capture Iroh and Zuko.
After leaving the Northern Water Tribe, Katara continues teaching Aang waterbending while the group searches for an earthbending teacher. They meet Toph Beifong, a twelve - year - old, blind earthbending prodigy who wants independence from her upper - class family. Pursued by Azula, Zuko and Iroh lead new lives in the Earth Kingdom as wanderers and refugees, settling in the capital city Ba Sing Se. At a library guarded by the spirit Wan Shi Tong, Aang and his group learn an imminent solar eclipse could let them stop the Fire Nation before Sozin 's Comet arrives. They journey to Ba Sing Se to inform the Earth King of this information. In the city, they find that the Earth King Kuei is a puppet ruler, manipulated by Long Feng, leader of the Dai Li secret police. After Aang 's group exposes Long Feng 's political machinations, Toph is captured but escapes by learning to bend metal. The Dai Li join Azula to instigate a coup d'état of Ba Sing Se, and Zuko, who has spent his time in Ba Sing Se trying to come to terms with his identity, sides with his sister Azula. During a face off in the catacombs underneath the ancient city, Azula nearly kills Aang, forcing the protagonists to retreat with help from Iroh and leaving the Earth Kingdom under the control of the Fire Nation.
Aang emerges from a coma to find his friends and allies disguised as soldiers on a Fire Nation ship, preparing to invade the Fire Nation capital during the solar eclipse. The invasion is at first successful but Aang and his friends can not find Ozai and are forced to retreat. Zuko learns about his father 's intention to destroy the Earth Kingdom during the return of Sozin 's Comet; he begins to regret his decision, and abandons the Fire Nation to join Aang and teach him firebending. As the comet approaches, Aang, a pacifist, wrestles with the possibility that he will have to kill Ozai to end the war. As he, in seclusion, consults the spirits of his predecessors for advice, Katara and the others encounter Iroh, who is leading a secret society called the Order of the White Lotus. The Order liberates Ba Sing Se. Sokka, Toph, and the warrior Suki attack the Fire Nation 's airships, while Zuko and Katara confront Azula to prevent her from being crowned as the new Fire Lord. As the comet arrives, Aang confronts Ozai but can not get the upper hand until Ozai triggers Aang 's connection to the Avatar State. Aang strips Ozai of his firebending powers. Zuko is crowned the new Fire Lord and arranges an armistice, establishing peace in the world.
The series consists of sixty - one episodes. The first episode -- an - hour - long premiere -- aired on February 21, 2005, on Nickelodeon. The series concluded with a two - hour television movie broadcast on July 19, 2008. Each season of the series is known as a "book '', in which each episode is referred to as a "chapter ''. Each book takes its name from one of the elements Aang, the protagonist, must master; Water, Earth, and Fire. The show 's first two seasons each consists of twenty episodes and the third season has twenty - one. The entire series has been released on DVD in regions 1, 2 and 4.
Avatar: The Last Airbender was co-created and produced by Michael Dante DiMartino and Bryan Konietzko at Nickelodeon Animation Studios in Burbank, California. Its animation was mostly done by South Korean studios JM Animation, DR Movie, and MOI Animation. According to Konietzko, the series was conceived in early 2001 when he took an old sketch of a balding, middle - aged man and imagined the man as a child. He drew the character herding bison in the sky and showed the sketch to DiMartino, who was watching a documentary about explorers trapped at the South Pole. Konietzko described their early development of the concept; "There 's an air guy along with these water people trapped in a snowy wasteland... and maybe some fire people are pressing down on them ''. The co-creators successfully pitched the idea to Nickelodeon vice-president and executive producer Eric Coleman two weeks later.
The series was introduced to the public in a teaser reel at Comic - Con 2004, and premiered on February 21, 2005.
In an interview, Konietzko said: "Mike and I were really interested in other epic ' Legends & Lore ' properties, like Harry Potter and Lord of the Rings, but we knew that we wanted to take a different approach to that type of genre. Our love for Japanese anime, Hong Kong action and kung fu cinema, yoga, and Eastern philosophies led us to the initial inspiration for Avatar: The Last Airbender. ''
The series is notable for borrowing extensively from East Asian art and mythology for its universe. Its creators employed cultural consultants Edwin Zane and calligrapher Siu - Leung Lee to help determine its art direction and settings. Its character designs are influenced by Chinese art and history, Hinduism, Taoism and Buddhism, and Yoga. Jeremy Zuckerman and Benjamin Wynn composed the series ' music and sound; they experimented with a wide range of instruments, including the guzheng, pipa, and duduk, to match the show 's Asia - influenced setting. The art style of the fictitious locations used in the series are based on real locations in Asia. Sites such as the Forbidden City and the Great Wall of China in Beijing were inspirations for the Earth Kingdom city of Ba Sing Se, and Water Tribe locations were based off of Inuit and Sireniki cultures. According to writer Aaron Ehasz, early Fire Nation designs were entirely based off of Japanese culture. In order to avoid accidentally making broad statements, they redesigned many settings and peoples to be more "broadly inspired ''.
The fighting styles employed by the show 's characters are derived from Chinese martial arts, for which the film - makers employed Sifu Kisu of the Harmonious Fist Chinese Athletic Association as a consultant. Each fighting style is unique to the "benders '' who use them or characters who are aligned to a certain element. For example, practitioners of "waterbending '' use movements influenced by T'ai chi and focused on alignment, body structure, breath, and visualization. Hung Gar was the inspiration for practitioners of "earthbending '', and was chosen for its firmly rooted stances and powerful strikes as a representation of the solidity of earth. Northern Shaolin, which uses strong arm and leg movements, was chosen to represent "firebending ''. Ba Gua, which uses dynamic circular movements and quick directional changes, was used for "airbending ''. The Chu Gar Southern Praying Mantis style can be seen practiced by the earthbender Toph, who develops a unique fighting style as a result of her blindness. Asian cinema influenced the presentation of these martial - art bending moves.
The series explored many concepts rarely touched on in children 's television shows, including issues relating to war, genocide, and imperialism, gender discrimination and female empowerment, marginalization and oppression, and the philosophical questions surrounding fate and destiny.
The show is set during a period where the entire world is engulfed in a imperialistic war initiated by the Fire Nation. While war is a constant backdrop, the show depicts these effects through the eyes of common people -- the oppressed Earth Kingdom citizens as well as brainwashed Fire Nation schoolchildren -- to show how war makes victims of everyone. And while the Fire Nation is presented as the instigator of violence, the show also depicts the systemic inequality experienced by residents in the Earth Kingdom city of Ba Sing Se as well as the nefarious activities of the city 's secret police. These situations show the corrupting nature of power and the nuances of good and evil. The show introduces viewers to genocide early on when protagonist Aang visits his former home in the Southern Air Temple. He arrives to discover his people have been massacred, and allows him to display a range of emotions, from rage to loss.
The character Zuko and his relationship with his father and Uncle Iroh is the series ' main redemption arc and represents the show 's message that destiny and fate are not binding or set by other people, but can be changed. In season one, he struggles to conform to the destiny and path determined by his father, but Iroh prods him, asking, "who are you, what do you want? '' The show also represents a diverse cast of characters in order to tackle the issue of marginalization. For example, in introducing a blind character like Toph and a paraplegic boy like Teo, the show depicted characters with vulnerabilities overcoming their physical and societal limitations. This is also true when it comes to the show 's female characters. For example, female protagonist Katara faces systemic sexism when she reaches the Northern Water Tribe to learn waterbending. In another instance, her brother, Sokka is initially dismissive of the all - female Kyoshi Warriors, but learns to respect and appreciate their skills. According to Kirk Hamilton of Kotaku, these themes represent the show 's message that it 's more important to be yourself than to hew to the roles society expects of you. ''
Several books based on the show have been published. Dark Horse Comics published an art book titled Avatar: The Last Airbender -- The Art of the Animated Series on June 2, 2010, with 184 pages of original art from the series. Several comic - book short stories were published in Nickelodeon Magazine, and Dark Horse published Avatar: The Last Airbender -- The Lost Adventures -- a collection of these and new comics -- on June 15, 2011.
Dark Horse published a graphic - novel series by Gene Yang that continues Aang 's story after the Hundred Years ' War. Avatar: The Last Airbender -- The Promise, published in three volumes in 2012, explores the fate of the Fire Nation colonies that become The Legend of Korra 's United Republic. A second set of three comic books, Avatar: The Last Airbender -- The Search, focuses on Zuko and Azula, and the fate of their mother Ursa. The third set, Avatar: The Last Airbender -- The Rift, shifts the focus to Aang, the creation of Republic City, and Toph 's relationship with her family. The Rift was followed by Avatar: The Last Airbender -- Smoke and Shadow about a resistance force in the Fire Nation against Firelord Zuko, who at the end of the original series assumed the throne. The fifth graphic novel was Avatar: The Last Airbender -- North and South, which follows the events of Smoke and Shadow and is about Katara and Sokka returning to the Water Tribe to see various changes to their homeland. The next planned graphic novel is titled Imbalance and is planned to be released in October 2018. The series explores the emerging conflict between the benders and non-benders that becomes the center for the conflict in the first season of the sequel the Legend of Korra. Unlike the previous five books it is will not be written by Gene Yang.
A video - game trilogy based on the series has been released. The Avatar: The Last Airbender video game was released on October 10, 2006, and Avatar: The Last Airbender -- The Burning Earth was released on October 16, 2007. Avatar: The Last Airbender -- Into the Inferno was released on October 13, 2008. Avatar: Legends of the Arena, a massively multiplayer online role - playing game (MMORPG) for Microsoft Windows, was released on September 15, 2008, by Nickelodeon. Players can create their own character and interact with other players around the world. Avatar: The Last Airbender was THQ 's bestselling Nickelodeon game in 2006 and was one of Sony CEA 's Greatest Hits.
The series ' first season was the basis of the 2010 live - action film The Last Airbender, which was written and directed by M. Night Shyamalan. It was intended as the first of a trilogy of films, each of which would be based upon one of the three television seasons. The film 's reception from critics and fans of the television series was overwhelmingly negative; it had a six - percent approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes and received five Razzies at the 31st Golden Raspberry Awards, including Worst Picture. Although the film originally shared the title of the television series, the title The Last Airbender was used because producers feared it would be confused with James Cameron 's film Avatar. The Last Airbender stars Noah Ringer as Aang, Nicola Peltz as Katara, Jackson Rathbone as Sokka, Dev Patel as Zuko, and Shaun Toub as Iroh.
The Legend of Korra, a sequel series to Avatar: The Last Airbender, premiered on Nickelodeon on April 14, 2012. It was written and produced by Michael Dante DiMartino and Bryan Konietzko, the creators and producers of the original series. The show was initially titled Avatar: Legend of Korra, then The Last Airbender: Legend of Korra; its events occur seventy years after the end of Avatar: The Last Airbender. The series ' protagonist is Korra, a 17 - year - old woman from the Southern Water Tribe who is the incarnation of the Avatar after Aang 's death.
The Avatar: The Last Airbender was the highest - rated animated television series in its demographic at its premiere; an average of 3.1 million viewers watched each new episode. It had 5.6 million viewers for its highest - rated episode and was a highly rated part of the Nicktoons lineup beyond its 6 - to - 11 - year - old target demographic. A one - hour special, The Secret of the Fire Nation, consisting of the episodes "The Serpent 's Pass '' and "The Drill '', aired on September 15, 2006, and attracted 5.1 million viewers. According to the Nielsen Media Research, the special was the highest - rated cable - television program that week. In 2007, Avatar: The Last Airbender was syndicated to more than 105 countries and was one of Nickelodeon 's top - rated programs. The series ranked first on Nickelodeon in Germany, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Colombia.
The four - part series finale, "Sozin 's Comet '', had the series ' highest ratings. Its first airing averaged 5.6 million viewers, 95 percent more than Nickelodeon had in mid-July 2007. During the week of July 14, it was the most - viewed program by the under - 14 demographic. The finale 's popularity was reflected in online media; Rise of the Phoenix King, a Nick.com online game based on "Sozin 's Comet '', had almost 815,000 game plays in three days. IGN ranked the series 35th on its list of top 100 animated TV shows.
Avatar: The Last Airbender received critical acclaim. Max Nicholson of IGN called it a "must - watch '' and described it as "one of the greatest animated series of all time ''. Nick Hartel of DVD Talk called the series a remarkable, "child friendly show '' whose legacy "should endure for years to come ''. Erik Amaya of Bleeding Cool described the series as "impressive in its sophistication '' and "fantastic ''. Henry Glasheen of SLUG Magazine called the series "adventurous and exciting '', a "classic '' and occasionally moving. According to Brittany Lovely of Hypable, it tells "complex and beautiful '' stories. Joe Corey of Inside Pulse described the series as an anime - action hybrid. Chris Mitchell of Popzara called it one of best shows to air on Nickelodeon, praising the series ' background music and voice acting. D.F. Smith of IGN recommended it to viewers who enjoy action - adventure cartoons.
Rob Keyes of Screen Rant called the series "one of the greatest cartoons ever made ''. Mike Noyes of Inside Pulse recommended it to viewers who enjoy "great '' adventure. Gord Lacey of TVShowsonDVD.com called the series "one of the finest animated shows ever ''. According to Todd Douglass, Jr. of DVD Talk, adults will enjoy the series as much as children do. Joshua Miller of CHUD.com called it "phenomenal '' and "one of the most well animated programs (children 's or adult) American TV has ever had ''; according to Miller, the series is heavily influenced by anime. Tim Janson of Cinefantastique described it as "one of the most engaging animated shows produced ''. Dennis Amith of J! ENT called the series "one of the best animated TV series shown in the US by American creators ''. Amith praised its sophisticated storylines, edginess, humor, and action. Franco "Cricket '' Te of Nerd Society described Avatar: The Last Airbender as "one of the best cartoon (s) '' he had ever seen, recommending the series for its characters and plot. Scott Thill of Wired called the series engaging and its setting, influenced by the Eastern world, "fantastic ''. Kirk Hamilton of Kotaku said the series should be part of the golden age of television, and recommended "the sophisticated kids show '' to others.
The show 's writing and theme have been widely praised by critics. Michael S. Mammano of Den of Geek called the plot "smartly - written '' and praised the animation. Nicole Clark, writing for Vice News, wrote that the show 's narrative depth was "its greatest asset '', and praised the story 's "emotional authenticity '' and how it "expose (d) very young viewers to darker subject matter, like genocide and authoritarianism, while giving them a framework for understanding these issues. '' Jenifer Rosenberg of ComicMix liked the program 's emphasis on family, friends, community, and education. According to Nick Hartel, the series touches on themes of "genocide and self - doubt '' without frightening younger children; rogue characters are redeemable, sending an important message that people can change and are not bonded to "destiny ''. Chris Mitchell called the plot "fantastic ''. D.F. Smith compared the series ' plot to Japanese action cartoons, calling its tone and dialogue "very American '' and praising the humor leavening an epic, dramatic theme suitable for all ages. Rob Keyes also praised the series ' humor and affecting plot: "(It) will capture your hearts ''.
According to Mike Noyes, the series amalgamates elements of "classic fantasy epics ''. Todd Douglass, Jr. called the plot engaging, well - thought - out, and meaningful. The series ' concept is "well - realized '', with a consistent story. Douglass wrote that the characters "(have) a real sense of progression '', and praised the writers for their humor, drama, and emotion. Joshua Miller called the series surprisingly dark despite its "silly '' theme; the plot is livelier than that of Lost and, similar to the latter show, emphasizes character development. According to Miller, its writing was "true adult levels of storytelling ''. Tim Janson described the series as more than fantasy - and superhero - themed, seeing the characters as central and relateable. "Cricket '' Te praised the series ' use of Buddhist philosophies and the diverse presentation of its themes of courage and life. Kirk Hamiltion praises the series for expressing towards its audience to be themselves and for its quiet progressivism.
Critics also praised Avatar: The Last Airbender 's character development, art, animation, and choreography; Eric Amaya enjoyed the expressive animation that complements the writing. According to Amaya, the elements were influenced by Hayao Miyazaki. Todd Douglass, Jr. called the character development interesting, while Nicole Clark wrote that the show "managed to do what so few shows even today have: assemble a cast of characters that depicts the world as it is, with a range of identities and experiences. '' Jenifer Rosenburg praised the series ' portrayal of females as "strong, responsible, (and) intelligent ''. According to Joshua Miller, the bender characters ' use of bending for everyday activities brings "depth and believability '' to the avatar world. Miller called the series ' designs "rich and immersive '', with each nation having its own, detailed look. He praised the action scenes as "well rendered '', comparing the development of the avatar world to that of The Lord of the Rings, and the fight choreography as "wonderful in its most minor details ''. D.F. Smith enjoyed the series ' painstaking backgrounds. "Cricket '' Te praised each episode 's color palette and the choreography 's combination of martial arts and magic. Nick Hartel criticized the animation, although he found it an improvement over previous Nickelodeon shows. Chris Mitchell called the animation fluid. "Cricket '' Te agreed, noting its manga influence. According to Brittany Lovely, non-bender characters in battle are "overshadowed '' by their bender counterparts. Joe Corey called the animation 's action and environments a "great achievement '', and Rob Keyes praised the series ' fight choreography. According to Kirk Hamilton, the action sequences in the series are amazing while being child - appropriate and exciting.
|
what is the significance of the dust bowl | Dust Bowl - Wikipedia
The Dust Bowl, also known as the Dirty Thirties, was a period of severe dust storms that greatly damaged the ecology and agriculture of the American and Canadian prairies during the 1930s; severe drought and a failure to apply dryland farming methods to prevent wind erosion (the Aeolian processes) caused the phenomenon. The drought came in three waves, 1934, 1936, and 1939 -- 1940, but some regions of the high plains experienced drought conditions for as many as eight years. With insufficient understanding of the ecology of the plains, farmers had conducted extensive deep plowing of the virgin topsoil of the Great Plains during the previous decade; this had displaced the native, deep - rooted grasses that normally trapped soil and moisture even during periods of drought and high winds. The rapid mechanization of farm equipment, especially small gasoline tractors, and widespread use of the combine harvester contributed to farmers ' decisions to convert arid grassland (much of which received no more than 10 inches (~ 250 mm) of precipitation per year) to cultivated cropland.
During the drought of the 1930s, the unanchored soil turned to dust, which the prevailing winds blew away in huge clouds that sometimes blackened the sky. These choking billows of dust -- named "black blizzards '' or "black rollers '' -- traveled cross country, reaching as far as the East Coast and striking such cities as New York City and Washington, D.C. On the plains, they often reduced visibility to 3 feet (1 m) or less. Associated Press reporter Robert E. Geiger happened to be in Boise City, Oklahoma, to witness the "Black Sunday '' black blizzards of April 14, 1935; Edward Stanley, Kansas City news editor of the Associated Press coined the term "Dust Bowl '' while rewriting Geiger 's news story. While the term "the Dust Bowl '' was originally a reference to the geographical area affected by the dust, today it usually refers to the event itself.
The drought and erosion of the Dust Bowl affected 100,000,000 acres (400,000 km) that centered on the panhandles of Texas and Oklahoma and touched adjacent sections of New Mexico, Colorado, and Kansas.
The Dust Bowl forced tens of thousands of poverty - stricken families to abandon their farms, unable to pay mortgages or grow crops, and losses reached US $ 25 million per day by 1936 (equivalent to US $440,000,000 in 2017). Many of these families, who were often known as "Okies '' because so many of them came from Oklahoma, migrated to California and other states to find that the Great Depression had rendered economic conditions there little better than those they had left.
The Dust Bowl has been the subject of many cultural works, notably the novel The Grapes of Wrath (1939) by John Steinbeck, the folk music of Woody Guthrie, and photographs depicting the conditions of migrants by Dorothea Lange.
The Dust Bowl area lies principally west of the 100th meridian on the High Plains, characterized by plains which vary from rolling in the north to flat in the Llano Estacado. Elevation ranges from 2,500 feet (760 m) in the east to 6,000 feet (1,800 m) at the base of the Rocky Mountains. The area is semiarid, receiving less than 20 inches (510 mm) of rain annually; this rainfall supports the shortgrass prairie biome originally present in the area. The region is also prone to extended drought, alternating with unusual wetness of equivalent duration. During wet years, the rich soil provides bountiful agricultural output, but crops fail during dry years. The region is also subject to high winds. During early European and American exploration of the Great Plains, this region was thought unsuitable for European - style agriculture; explorers called it the Great American Desert. The lack of surface water and timber made the region less attractive than other areas for pioneer settlement and agriculture.
The federal government encouraged settlement and development of the Plains for agriculture via the Homestead Act of 1862, offering settlers 160 - acre (65 ha) plots. With the end of the Civil War in 1865 and the completion of the First Transcontinental Railroad in 1869, waves of new migrants and immigrants reached the Great Plains, and they greatly increased the acreage under cultivation. An unusually wet period in the Great Plains mistakenly led settlers and the federal government to believe that "rain follows the plow '' (a popular phrase among real estate promoters) and that the climate of the region had changed permanently. While initial agricultural endeavors were primarily cattle ranching, the adverse effect of harsh winters on the cattle, beginning in 1886, a short drought in 1890, and general overgrazing, led many landowners to increase the amount of land under cultivation.
Recognizing the challenge of cultivating marginal arid land, the United States government expanded on the 160 acres (65 ha) offered under the Homestead Act -- granting 640 acres (260 ha) to homesteaders in western Nebraska under the Kinkaid Act (1904) and 320 acres (130 ha) elsewhere in the Great Plains under the Enlarged Homestead Act (1909). Waves of European settlers arrived in the plains at the beginning of the 20th century. A return of unusually wet weather seemingly confirmed a previously held opinion that the "formerly '' semiarid area could support large - scale agriculture. At the same time, technological improvements such as mechanized plowing and mechanized harvesting made it possible to operate larger properties without increasing labor costs.
The combined effects of the disruption of the Russian Revolution, which decreased the supply of wheat and other commodity crops, and World War I increased agricultural prices; this demand encouraged farmers to dramatically increase cultivation. For example, in the Llano Estacado of eastern New Mexico and northwestern Texas, the area of farmland was doubled between 1900 and 1920, then tripled again between 1925 and 1930. The agricultural methods favored by farmers during this period created the conditions for large - scale erosion under certain environmental conditions. The widespread conversion of the land by deep plowing and other soil preparation methods to enable agriculture eliminated the native grasses which held the soil in place and helped retain moisture during dry periods. Furthermore, cotton farmers left fields bare during winter months, when winds in the High Plains are highest, and burned the stubble as a means to control weeds prior to planting, thereby depriving the soil of organic nutrients and surface vegetation.
After fairly favourable climatic conditions in the 1920s with good rainfall and relatively moderate winters, which permitted increased settlement and cultivation in the Great Plains, the region entered an unusually dry era in the summer of 1930. During the next decade, the northern plains suffered four of their seven driest calendar years since 1895, Kansas four of its twelve driest, and the entire region south to West Texas lacked any period of above - normal rainfall until record rains hit in 1941. When severe drought struck the Great Plains region in the 1930s, it resulted in erosion and loss of topsoil because of farming practices at the time. The drought dried the topsoil and over time it became friable, reduced to a powdery consistency in some places. Without the indigenous grasses in place, the high winds that occur on the plains picked up the topsoil and created the massive dust storms that marked the Dust Bowl period. The persistent dry weather caused crops to fail, leaving the plowed fields exposed to wind erosion. The fine soil of the Great Plains was easily eroded and carried east by strong continental winds.
On November 11, 1933, a very strong dust storm stripped topsoil from desiccated South Dakota farmlands in just one of a series of severe dust storms that year. Beginning on May 9, 1934, a strong, two - day dust storm removed massive amounts of Great Plains topsoil in one of the worst such storms of the Dust Bowl. The dust clouds blew all the way to Chicago, where they deposited 12 million pounds of dust (~ 5500 tonnes). Two days later, the same storm reached cities to the east, such as Cleveland, Buffalo, Boston, New York City, and Washington, D.C. That winter (1934 -- 1935), red snow fell on New England.
On April 14, 1935, known as "Black Sunday '', 20 of the worst "black blizzards '' occurred across the entire sweep of the Great Plains, from Canada south to Texas. The dust storms caused extensive damage and turned the day to night; witnesses reported that they could not see five feet in front of them at certain points. Denver - based Associated Press reporter Robert E. Geiger happened to be in Boise City, Oklahoma that day. His story about Black Sunday marked the first appearance of the term Dust Bowl; it was coined by Edward Stanley, Kansas City news editor of the Associated Press, while rewriting Geiger 's news story.
Spearman and Hansford County have been literaly (sic) in a cloud of dust for the past week. Ever since Friday of last week, there has n't been a day pass but what the county was beseieged (sic) with a blast of wind and dirt. On rare occasions when the wind did subside for a period of hours, the air has been so filled with dust that the town appeared to be overhung by a fog cloud. Because of this long seige of dust and every building being filled with it, the air has become stifling to breathe and many people have developed sore throats and dust colds as a result. ''
Much of the farmland was eroded in the aftermath of the Dust Bowl. In 1941, a Kansas agricultural experiment station released a bulletin that suggested reestablishing native grasses by the "hay method ''. Developed in 1937 to speed up the process and increase returns from pasture, the "hay method '' was originally supposed to occur in Kansas naturally over 25 -- 40 years. After much data analysis, the causal mechanism for the droughts can be linked to ocean temperature anomalies. Specifically, Atlantic Ocean sea surface temperatures appear to have had an indirect effect on the general atmospheric circulation, while Pacific sea surface temperatures seem to have had the most direct influence.
This catastrophe intensified the economic impact of the Great Depression in the region.
In 1935, many families were forced to leave their farms and travel to other areas seeking work because of the drought (which at that time had already lasted four years). The abandonment of homesteads and financial ruin resulting from catastrophic topsoil loss led to widespread hunger and poverty. Dust Bowl conditions fomented an exodus of the displaced from Texas, Oklahoma, and the surrounding Great Plains to adjacent regions. More than 500,000 Americans were left homeless. Over 350 houses had to be torn down after one storm alone. The severe drought and dust storms had left many homeless; others had their mortgages foreclosed by banks, or felt they had no choice but to abandon their farms in search of work. Many Americans migrated west looking for work. Parents packed up "jalopies '' with their families and a few personal belongings, and headed west in search of work. Some residents of the Plains, especially in Kansas and Oklahoma, fell ill and died of dust pneumonia or malnutrition.
The Dust Bowl exodus was the largest migration in American history within a short period of time. Between 1930 and 1940, approximately 3.5 million people moved out of the Plains states; of those, it is unknown how many moved to California. In just over a year, over 86,000 people migrated to California. This number is more than the number of migrants to that area during the 1849 Gold Rush. Migrants abandoned farms in Oklahoma, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, Texas, Colorado, and New Mexico, but were often generally referred to as "Okies '', "Arkies '', or "Texies ''. Terms such as "Okies '' and "Arkies '' came to be known in the 1930s as the standard terms for those who had lost everything and were struggling the most during the Great Depression.
Not all migrants traveled long distances; some simply went to the next town or county. So many families left their farms and were on the move that the proportion between migrants and residents was nearly equal in the Great Plains states.
Historian James N. Gregory examined Census Bureau statistics and other records to learn more about the migrants. Based on a 1939 survey of occupation by the Bureau of Agricultural Economics of about 116,000 families who arrived in California in the 1930s, he learned that only 43 percent of southwesterners were doing farm work immediately before they migrated. Nearly one - third of all migrants were professional or white - collar workers. The poor economy displaced more than just farmers as refugees to California; many teachers, lawyers, and small business owners moved west with their families during this time. After the Great Depression ended, some moved back to their original states. Many others remained where they had resettled. About one - eighth of California 's population is of Okie heritage.
The greatly expanded participation of government in land management and soil conservation was an important outcome from the disaster. Different groups took many different approaches to responding to the disaster. To identify areas that needed attention, groups such as the Soil Conservation Service generated detailed soil maps and took photos of the land from the sky. To create shelterbelts to reduce soil erosion, groups such as the United States Forestry Service 's Prairie States Forestry Project planted trees on private lands. Finally, groups like the Resettlement Administration, which later became the Farm Security Administration, encouraged small farm owners to resettle on other lands, if they lived in dryer parts of the Plains.
During President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's first 100 days in office in 1933, his administration quickly initiated programs to conserve soil and restore the ecological balance of the nation. Interior Secretary Harold L. Ickes established the Soil Erosion Service in August 1933 under Hugh Hammond Bennett. In 1935, it was transferred and reorganized under the Department of Agriculture and renamed the Soil Conservation Service. It is now known as the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS).
As part of New Deal programs, Congress passed the Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act in 1936, requiring landowners to share the allocated government subsidies with the laborers who worked on their farms. Under the law, "benefit payments were continued as measures for production control and income support, but they were now financed by direct Congressional appropriations and justified as soil conservation measures. The Act shifted the parity goal from price equality of agricultural commodities and the articles that farmers buy to income equality of farm and non-farm population. '' Thus, the parity goal was to re-create the ratio between the purchasing power of the net income per person on farms from agriculture and that of the income of persons not on farms that prevailed during 1909 -- 1914.
To stabilize prices, the government paid farmers and ordered more than six million pigs to be slaughtered. It paid to have the meat packed and distributed to the poor and hungry. The Federal Surplus Relief Corporation (FSRC) was established to regulate crop and other surpluses. FDR in an address on the AAA commented,
Let me make one other point clear for the benefit of the millions in cities who have to buy meats. Last year the Nation suffered a drought of unparalleled intensity. If there had been no Government program, if the old order had obtained in 1933 and 1934, that drought on the cattle ranges of America and in the corn belt would have resulted in the marketing of thin cattle, immature hogs and the death of these animals on the range and on the farm, and if the old order had been in effect those years, we would have had a vastly greater shortage than we face today. Our program -- we can prove it -- saved the lives of millions of head of livestock. They are still on the range, and other millions of heads are today canned and ready for this country to eat. ''
The FSRC diverted agricultural commodities to relief organizations. Apples, beans, canned beef, flour and pork products were distributed through local relief channels. Cotton goods were later included, to clothe the needy.
In 1935, the federal government formed a Drought Relief Service (DRS) to coordinate relief activities. The DRS bought cattle in counties which were designated emergency areas, for $14 to $20 a head. Animals determined unfit for human consumption were killed; at the beginning of the program, more than 50 percent were so designated in emergency areas. The DRS assigned the remaining cattle to the Federal Surplus Relief Corporation (FSRC) to be used in food distribution to families nationwide. Although it was difficult for farmers to give up their herds, the cattle slaughter program helped many of them avoid bankruptcy. "The government cattle buying program was a blessing to many farmers, as they could not afford to keep their cattle, and the government paid a better price than they could obtain in local markets. ''
President Roosevelt ordered the Civilian Conservation Corps to plant a huge belt of more than 200 million trees from Canada to Abilene, Texas to break the wind, hold water in the soil, and hold the soil itself in place. The administration also began to educate farmers on soil conservation and anti-erosion techniques, including crop rotation, strip farming, contour plowing, terracing, and other improved farming practices. In 1937, the federal government began an aggressive campaign to encourage farmers in the Dust Bowl to adopt planting and plowing methods that conserved the soil. The government paid reluctant farmers a dollar an acre to practice the new methods. By 1938, the massive conservation effort had reduced the amount of blowing soil by 65 %. The land still failed to yield a decent living. In the fall of 1939, after nearly a decade of dirt and dust, the drought ended when regular rainfall finally returned to the region. The government still encouraged continuing the use of conservation methods to protect the soil and ecology of the Plains.
At the end of the drought, the programs which were implemented during these tough times helped to sustain a positive relationship between America 's farmers and the federal government.
The President 's Drought Committee issued a report in 1935 covering the government 's assistance to agriculture during 1934 through mid-1935: it discussed conditions, measures of relief, organization, finances, operations, and results of the government 's assistance. Numerous exhibits are included in this report.
In many regions, more than 75 % of the topsoil was blown away by the end of the 1930s. Land degradation varied widely. Aside from the short - term economic consequences caused by erosion, there were severe long - term economic consequences caused by the Dust Bowl.
By 1940, counties that had experienced the most significant levels of erosion had a greater decline in agricultural land values. The per - acre value of farmland declined by 28 % in high - erosion counties and 17 % in medium - erosion counties, relative to land value changes in low - erosion counties. Even over the long - term, the agricultural value of the land often failed to recover to pre-Dust Bowl levels. In highly eroded areas, less than 25 % of the original agricultural losses were recovered. The economy adjusted predominantly through large relative population declines in more - eroded counties, both during the 1930s and through the 1950s.
The economic effects persisted, in part, because of farmers ' failure to switch to more appropriate crops for highly eroded areas. Because the amount of topsoil had been reduced, it would have been more productive to shift from crops and wheat to animals and hay. During the Depression and through at least the 1950s, there was limited relative adjustment of farmland away from activities that became less productive in more - eroded counties.
Some of the failure to shift to more productive agricultural products may be related to ignorance about the benefits of changing land use. A second explanation is a lack of availability of credit, caused by the high rate of failure of banks in the Plains states. Because banks failed in the Dust Bowl region at a higher rate than elsewhere, farmers could not get the credit they needed to buy capital to shift crop production. In addition, profit margins in either animals or hay were still minimal, and farmers had little incentive in the beginning to change their crops.
Patrick Allitt recounts how fellow historian Donald Worster responded to his return visit to the Dust Bowl in the mid-1970s when he revisited some of the worst afflicted counties:
In contrast with Worster 's pessimism, historian Mathew Bonnifield argued that the long - term significance of the Dust Bowl was "the triumph of the human spirit in its capacity to endure and overcome hardships and reverses. ''
The crisis was documented by photographers, musicians, and authors, many hired during the Great Depression by the federal government. For instance, the Farm Security Administration hired numerous photographers to document the crisis. Artists such as Dorothea Lange were aided by having salaried work during the Depression. She captured what have become classic images of the dust storms and migrant families. Among her most well - known photographs is Destitute Pea Pickers in California. Mother of Seven Children, which depicted a gaunt - looking woman, Florence Owens Thompson, holding three of her children. This picture expressed the struggles of people caught by the Dust Bowl and raised awareness in other parts of the country of its reach and human cost. Decades later, Thompson disliked the boundless circulation of the photo and resented the fact she did not receive any money from its broadcast. Thompson felt it gave her the perception as a Dust Bowl "Okie. ''
The work of independent artists was also influenced by the crises of the Dust Bowl and the Depression. Author John Steinbeck, borrowing closely from field notes taken by Farm Security Administration worker and author Sanora Babb, wrote The Grapes of Wrath (1939) about migrant workers and farm families displaced by the Dust Bowl. Babb 's own novel about the lives of the migrant workers, Whose Names Are Unknown, was written in 1939 but was eclipsed and shelved in response to the success of the Steinbeck 's work, and was finally published in 2004. Many of the songs of folk singer Woody Guthrie, such as those on his 1940 album Dust Bowl Ballads, are about his experiences in the Dust Bowl era during the Great Depression when he traveled with displaced farmers from Oklahoma to California and learned their traditional folk and blues songs, earning him the nickname the "Dust Bowl Troubadour ''.
Migrants also influenced musical culture wherever they went. Oklahoma migrants, in particular, were rural Southwesterners who carried their traditional country music to California. Today, the "Bakersfield Sound '' describes this blend, which developed after the migrants brought country music to the city. Their new music inspired a proliferation of country dance halls as far south as Los Angeles.
The 2014 science fiction film Interstellar features a ravaged 21st - century America which is again scoured by dust storms (caused by a worldwide pathogen affecting all crops). Along with inspiration from the 1930s crisis, director Christopher Nolan features interviews from the 2012 documentary The Dust Bowl to draw further parallels.
In 2017, Americana recording artist Grant Maloy Smith released the album Dust Bowl -- American Stories, which was inspired by the history of the Dust Bowl. In a review, the music magazine No Depression wrote that the album 's lyrics and music are "as potent as Woody Guthrie, as intense as John Trudell and dusted with the trials and tribulations of Tom Joad -- Steinbeck and The Grapes of Wrath. ''
The change in the total value of agricultural land and revenue was quite similar over the twentieth century. Agricultural land and revenue boomed during World War I, but fell during the Great Depression and the 1930s. The land and revenue began increasing again in 1940, and has been increasing since then. From 1910 to the 1940s, total farmland increased and remained constant until 1970 when it slightly declined. During this time, total population increased steadily, but there was a slight dip in trend from 1930 to 1960.
|
who played bass on papa was a rollin stone | Papa Was a Rollin ' Stone - wikipedia
"Papa Was a Rollin ' Stone '' is a psychedelic soul song, written by Motown songwriters Norman Whitfield and Barrett Strong as a single for Motown act The Undisputed Truth in 1971. This version of "Papa '' was released as a single in early 1972 and peaked at # 63 on the Pop Charts and # 24 on the R&B Charts, and was included on The Undisputed Truth 's 1973 album Law of the Land.
Later that year, Whitfield, who also produced the song, took "Papa Was a Rollin ' Stone '' and remade it as a 12 - minute record for The Temptations, which was a number - one hit on the Billboard Hot 100 and won three Grammy Awards in 1973. While the original Undisputed Truth version of the song has been largely forgotten, The Temptations ' version of the song has been an enduring and influential soul classic. It was ranked number 168 on Rolling Stone 's list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time, one of the group 's three songs on the list. In retrospect, The Temptations ' Otis Williams considers "Papa '' to be the last real classic the group recorded (it would be the Temptations ' last number one hit and would win them their second and final Grammy Award in a competitive category).
Beginning with an extended instrumental introduction (3: 53 in length), each of the song 's three verses is separated by extended musical passages, in which Whitfield brings various instrumental textures in and out of the mix. A solo plucked bass guitar part, backed by hi - hat cymbals drumming, establishes the musical theme, a simple three - note figure; the bass is gradually joined by other instruments, including a blues guitar, wah - wah guitar, Wurlitzer Electric Piano notes, handclaps, horns, and strings; all are tied together by the ever - present bass guitar line and repeating hi - hat rhythm. A very unusual thing about this song is that it uses only one chord throughout -- B - flat minor.
Vocal jobs are performed in a true ensemble style: Temptations singers Dennis Edwards, Melvin Franklin, Richard Street (who was a frequent fill - in for Paul Williams and his eventual replacement) and Damon Harris (who had replaced Eddie Kendricks as the group 's falsetto singer the previous year) alternate vocal lines, taking the role of siblings questioning their mother about their now - deceased father; their increasingly pointed questions, and the mother 's repeated response ("Papa was a rollin ' stone / wherever he laid his hat was his home / and when he died, all he left us was alone '') paint a somber picture for the children who have never seen their father and have "never heard nothing but bad things about him. ''
Friction arose during the recording of "Papa Was a Rollin ' Stone '' for a number of reasons. The Temptations did not like the fact that Whitfield 's instrumentation had been getting more emphasis than their vocals on their songs at the time, and that they had to press Whitfield to get him to produce ballads for the group. Norman Whitfield forced Dennis Edwards to re-record his parts dozens of times until he finally got the angered, bitter grumble he desired out of the usually fiery - toned Edwards. Whitfield 's treatment of the group eventually led to his dismissal as their producer. Although legend was that Edwards was angered by the song 's first verse: "It was the third of September / That day I 'll always remember / ' cause that was the day / that my daddy died '', as his father was said to have died on that date. It actually was on the third of October, however.
The guitar parts were played by a young Paul Warren and Melvin "Wah - Wah Watson '' Ragin The Temptations ' version of "Papa Was a Rollin ' Stone '' followed in the extended - length "cinematic soul '' tradition of the work of Isaac Hayes and others, and future songs like Donna Summer 's fourteen - minute "Love to Love You Baby '' and the instrumentals of MFSB expanded upon the concept in the mid-1970s.
A seven - minute edited version of "Papa Was a Rollin ' Stone '' was released as a single in September 1972. For this mix, congas were added to bolster the song 's sparse percussion; this version appeared on the 1973 Anthology triple LP. The Temptations ' box set Emperors of Soul has the edited version in stereo, but without the congas. The B - side was the instrumental backing by The Funk Brothers without the Temptations ' vocals (except for a single "Unngh! '' at the end of the second verse). "Papa '' rose to number one on the U.S. pop charts and number five on the U.S. R&B charts, becoming the Temptations ' final pop number - one hit. The song, the anchor of the 1972 Temptations album All Directions, won three 1973 Grammys: its a-side won for Best R&B Vocal Performance by a Group; its B - side won for Best R&B Instrumental (awarded to Whitfield and arranger / conductor Paul Riser); and Whitfield and Barrett Strong won for Best R&B Song as the song 's composers.
A number of notable covers of "Papa Was a Rollin ' Stone '' have been recorded:
|
what cuts are on a t bone steak | T - bone steak - wikipedia
The T - bone and porterhouse are steaks of beef cut from the short loin (called the sirloin in Commonwealth countries and Ireland). Both steaks include a "T '' - shaped bone with meat on each side. Porterhouse steaks are cut from the rear end of the short loin and thus include more tenderloin steak, along with (on the other side of the bone) a large strip steak. T - bone steaks are cut closer to the front, and contain a smaller section of tenderloin. The smaller portion of a T - bone, when sold alone, is known as a filet mignon, especially if it 's cut from the small forward end of the tenderloin.
There is little agreement among experts on how large the tenderloin must be to differentiate a T - bone steak from porterhouse. The U.S. Department of Agriculture 's Institutional Meat Purchase Specifications state that the tenderloin of a porterhouse must be at least 1.25 inches (32 mm) thick at its widest, while that of a T - bone must be at least 0.5 inches (13 mm). However, steaks with a large tenderloin are often called a "T - bone '' in restaurants and steakhouses despite technically being porterhouse.
Owing to their large size and the fact that they contain meat from two of the most prized cuts of beef (the short loin and the tenderloin), T - bone steaks are generally considered one of the highest quality steaks, and prices at steakhouses are accordingly high. Porterhouse steaks are even more highly valued owing to their larger tenderloin.
In the United States, the T - bone has the meat - cutting classification IMPS 1174; the porterhouse is IMPS 1173.
In British usage, followed in Commonwealth countries, "porterhouse '' often means a UK sirloin steak (i.e. US strip steak) on the bone, i.e. without the tenderloin on the other side of T - bone. However, nowadays some British on - line butchers also offer American style porterhouse steaks.
In New Zealand and Australia, a Porterhouse is striploin steak off the bone.
The origin of the term "porterhouse '' is contentious, with several cities and establishments claiming to have coined it. The Oxford English Dictionary traces the etymology from proprietor Martin Morrison serving large T - bones in his Pearl Street (Manhattan) "Porter House '' around 1814, while noting the lack of contemporary evidence to support the tale. This origin story gained traction in the late 19th century, but others contend a Cambridge, Massachusetts hotel and restaurant proprietor named Zachariah B. Porter lent his name to the cut of beef, and others claim the steak takes its name from various 19th Century U.S. hotels or restaurants called Porter House, such as the Porter House Hotel in Flowery Branch, Georgia.
To cut a T - bone from butchered cattle, a lumbar vertebra is sawn in half through the vertebral column. The downward prong of the ' T ' is a transverse process of the vertebra, and the flesh surrounding it is the spinal muscles. The small semicircle at the top of the ' T ' is half of the vertebral foramen.
T - bone and porterhouse steaks are suited to fast, dry heat cooking methods, such as grilling or broiling. Since they contain a small amount of collagen relative to other cuts, longer cooking times are not necessary to tenderize the meat. The bone also conducts heat within the meat so that it cooks more evenly and prevents meat drying out and shrinking during cooking. The meat near the bone will cook more slowly than the rest of the steak, and the tenderloin will tend to reach the desired temperature before the strip.
Bistecca alla fiorentina, or ' beefsteak Florentine style ', consists of a T - bone traditionally sourced from either the Chianina or Maremmana breeds of cattle. A favorite of Tuscan cuisine, the steak is grilled over a wood or charcoal fire, seasoned with salt, sometimes with black pepper, and olive oil, applied immediately after the meat is retired from the heat. Thickly cut and very large, "Bistecca '' are often shared between two or more persons, and traditionally served very rare, sometimes garnished with lemon wedges, if not accompanied by red wine, and accompanied by Tuscan beans as a side dish.
The same cut of meat, but from a calf, is used for Cotoletta alla milanese, which consists of 1.5 cm - thick cuts which are battered in breadcrumbs and fried in clarified butter with salt.
|
the light at the end of the world a flock of seagulls | The Light at the End of the World (a Flock of Seagulls album) - wikipedia
The Light at the End of the World is a 1995 US - only studio album by the band A Flock of Seagulls; their fifth and final album to - date. It was produced by David Brodie. The album itself appears back to be a fusion of New Romanticism. Three singles were released from the album, "Magic '', "Burnin ' Up '' and "Rainfall ''. The single "Rainfall '' had a promotional video made.
Left as the band 's only original member, Mike Score would be working with many different musicians under the band 's personnel. He and the members of his band mostly played live gigs, but then got back to recording after releasing the single "Magic '' in 1989. They released this album in 1995. The album mainly seems to be a fusion of New wave and Pop rock, but also has roots of their New Romanticism era influences. Some of the songs, including "Burnin ' Up, '' "Magic, '' and "Setting Sun, '' were already being performed live as far back as the late 1980s. The album produced three singles (one, "Rainfall '', would have a promotional video made) which all had no chart success (although "Rainfall '' would appear in many AFOS compilations). More than half the album made the live set during the tour from 1995 to 1997. Even today songs from the album are continually being incorporated into the band 's live performances. The album 's artwork was done by Klaus Heesch, who also did the artwork for the single "Burnin ' Up ''.
The critics who reviewed the album gave it generally unfavorable reviews. Allmusic.com called it "dull, tedious and embarrassing to listen to ''. They gave it a 1 and a half out of 5.
A Flock of seagulls: Discography
|
who made the album to pimp a butterfly | To Pimp a Butterfly - wikipedia
To Pimp a Butterfly is the third studio album by American rapper Kendrick Lamar. It was released on March 15, 2015, by Top Dawg Entertainment, Aftermath Entertainment and Interscope Records. The album was recorded in studios throughout the United States, with production from Sounwave, Terrace Martin, Taz "Tisa '' Arnold, Thundercat, Rahki, LoveDragon, Flying Lotus, Pharrell Williams, Boi - 1da, and several other high - profile hip hop producers, as well as executive production from Dr. Dre and Anthony "Top Dawg '' Tiffith. The album incorporates elements of jazz, funk, soul, spoken word, and avant - garde music and explores a variety of political and personal themes concerning African - American culture, racial inequality, depression, and institutional discrimination.
The album was supported by five singles -- "i '', "The Blacker the Berry '', "King Kunta '', "Alright '' and "These Walls ''. All five singles entered the US Billboard Hot 100. Lamar also went on the Kunta 's Groove Sessions Tour, which included eight shows in eight cities, in late 2015 to early 2016.
To Pimp a Butterfly debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 and received widespread acclaim from critics, who praised its musical scope and the social relevance of Lamar 's lyrics. It was ranked as the best album of 2015 by many publications, including Rolling Stone, Billboard and Pitchfork. It was nominated for Album of the Year and won Best Rap Album at the 58th Grammy Awards. Its singles "i '' (in 2015) and "Alright '' (in 2016) each won a Grammy for Best Rap Song and Best Rap Performance, with the latter also nominated for Song of the Year. Additionally, "These Walls '' won Best Rap / Sung Collaboration. The album was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). By June 2017, the album had sold one million copies in the United States.
On February 28, 2014, Kendrick Lamar first revealed the plans to release a follow - up to his second studio album, Good Kid, M.A.A.D City (2012), during an interview with Billboard. In an interview with Rolling Stone, he was quoted as saying, "Just putting the word ' pimp ' next to ' butterfly '... It 's a trip. That 's something that will be a phrase forever. It 'll be taught in college courses -- I truly believe that. '' In an interview with MTV, Lamar said: "To Pimp a Caterpillar was the original name and they caught it because the abbreviation was Tupac, Tu - P-A-C. Me changing it to Butterfly, I just really wanted to show the brightness of life and the word ' pimp ' has so much aggression and that represents several things. For me, it represents using my celebrity for good. Another reason is, not being pimped by the industry through my celebrity. '' The album was at one point believed by many to be called Return of Enoch. Between the releases of Good Kid, M.A.A.D City and To Pimp a Butterfly, Lamar traveled to South Africa. Touring the country -- visiting historic sites such as Nelson Mandela 's jail cell on Robben Island, heavily influenced the direction of the record.
The album continues a nuanced dialogue about weighty topics that affect the African - American community. Releasing his album in a time of renewed black activism, Lamar 's song "Alright '' has become a rallying cry for the Black Lives Matter movement. With lyrics like "and we hate po - po / Wanna kill us dead in the street fo sho, '' He makes it clear that he is supportive of the movement and the families of black men and women like Mike Brown, Sandra Bland, and Tamir Rice who have fallen victim to police brutality in the United States. Lamar takes his opinions further to lend his position on black on black crime in the song "The Blacker the Berry ''. He criticizes himself and his community by rapping, "So why did I weep when Trayvon Martin was in the street? / When gang banging make me kill a nigga blacker than me? '' Some critics claim that his attitude facilitates the rhetoric that silences the Black Lives Matter movement. Stereo Williams of The Daily Beast wrote in response to his lyrics that "it 's dangerous to use that violence as a silencing tactic when the public is angry about the systematic subjugation of black people. ''
To Pimp a Butterfly was recorded from 2012 to 2015 at a variety of studios; including Chalice Recording Studios, Downtown Studios, House Studios, Notifi Studios and No Excuses Studios. Lamar wrote the lyrics to the song "Mortal Man '', while on Kanye West 's Yeezus Tour. During the whole tour, producer Flying Lotus played Lamar a selection of tracks that was intended for Captain Murphy 's album (Flying Lotus 's alter ego). Lamar kept all the tracks, but only opener "Wesley 's Theory '', which also features Thundercat and George Clinton, made the final cut onto the album. Lotus had produced a version of "For Sale? (Interlude) '' that was ultimately discarded, with Lamar using Taz Arnold 's version of the song on the album instead. Lotus stated that it is unlikely his version of the song will see a release. American rapper Rapsody appeared on the album, contributing a verse to the song "Complexion (A Zulu Love) ''. Lamar had requested that 9th Wonder contact Rapsody and request her appearance. Rapsody and Lamar discussed the song but there was little instruction from Lamar regarding her contribution. Speaking about the song, she stated that Lamar had already decided on the concept of the song and stated that the only instructions he gave were the song 's title and the idea that "... we are beautiful no matter our race but he really wanted to speak to our people and address this light versus dark complex ''.
In 2014, Pharrell Williams, who previously worked with Lamar, along with producer Sounwave, played the "Alright '' - track at the Holy Ship Festival. The track features the same unidentified sample that Williams used on Rick Ross ' track "Presidential '' from his album God Forgives, I Do n't (2012). Reportedly, at one time it featured a guest appearance from American rapper Fabolous. The album went through three different phases before the production team could move forward with the idea. Afterwards, producer Thundercat was brought into the process, after Flying Lotus brought him along to see Lamar 's performance on The Yeezus Tour. The album 's lead single, titled "i '', was produced by Rahki, who also produced a song for the album entitled "Institutionalized ''. Although the version of "i '' appearing on the album is drastically different from that on the single release, both versions contained a sample of the song "That Lady '' performed by The Isley Brothers. Lamar personally visited The Isley Brothers ', to receive permission from lead vocalist Ronald Isley to sample the song.
Lamar began traveling to St. Louis and began working with Isley at the studio. Isley also performed on the song "How Much a Dollar Cost '' alongside the singer - songwriter James Fauntleroy. Producer and rapper Pete Rock provided some backing vocals and scratches to the song "Complexion (A Zulu Love) '', and as he stated, the contribution was unusual, as he was not the producer for the track. Singer Bilal features on the songs "Institutionalized '' and "These Walls '', and has provided un-credited backing vocals on the songs "u '', "For Sale? (Interlude) '', "Momma '' and "Hood Politics ''. Bilal stated that he and Lamar were initially unsure of how many songs he would be featured on, stating he worked on various tracks, but did not yet know the outcome. "For a lot of the material, Kendrick had a idea of what he wanted. He would sing out the melody and some of the words, and I would interpret what he was telling me. '' On the songs where Bilal added backing vocals, he stated that "... some of it was freestyle; just adding color to make it a fuller sound. '' Lamar also reportedly worked with American musician Prince, however, the duo were too pressed for time during the recording session and therefore were unable to complete any work for inclusion on the album. Lamar professed to having listened often to Miles Davis and Parliament - Funkadelic during the album 's recording.
In 2016, Lamar released Untitled Unmastered, a compilation album, which contains previously unreleased demos that originated during the recording of To Pimp a Butterfly. According to producer Thundercat, it "completes the sentence '' of Lamar 's third studio album.
The booklet included with To Pimp a Butterfly 's CD version was produced with braille letterings, which when translated reveal, according to Lamar, the "actual full title of the album. '' Complex commissioned a braille translator, who found that it literally translated to A Kendrick by Letter Blank Lamar which Complex noted was most likely supposed to read as A Blank Letter by Kendrick Lamar.
Stereogum described To Pimp a Butterfly as an "ambitious avant - jazz - rap statement, '' while Billboard categorized it as a "politically - charged '' conscious rap album, and The Source categorized the album as an experimental hip hop release. Lamar described the release as an "honest, fearful and unapologetic '' work that draws on funk, hard bop, spoken word and soul while critics also noted elements of West Coast hip hop and the avant - garde. Kyle Anderson of Entertainment Weekly described the album as "embracing the entire history of black American music. '' Dan Weiss of Spin noted "shades of Miles Davis ' On the Corner and free jazz all over (...), as well as Sly Stone 's There 's a Riot Goin ' On and Funkadelic and Erykah Badu 's similarly wah - crazy but comparatively lo - fi New Amerykah (4th World War), '' but stated nonetheless that "the sense of this album is vividly contemporary. '' Greg Kot of Chicago Tribune also noted the album 's affinities with previous black music, but argued that "Lamar takes familiar musical tropes into new territory. '' The Atlantic noted the influence of collaborator Flying Lotus, writing that "his signature sound -- jazz instrumentation and hip - hop layered into chaotic collages -- is all over the album. '' Steve Mallon of The Quietus noted an "eerily warped psychedelia bursting out of its idiosyncratic arrangements. ''
The album 's lyrics explore a variety of political and personal themes related to race, culture, and discrimination. Critic Neil Kulkarni said it appraises "the broken promises and bloody pathways in and out of America 's heartland malaise ''. In an interview with MTV, Kendrick discussed the meaning behind the tracks "Wesley 's Theory '' and "King Kunta ''. The album 's opening track, "Wesley 's Theory '', is a reference to Wesley Snipes and how the actor was jailed for tax evasion. In the interview Lamar stated that "no one teaches poor black males how to manage money or celebrity, so if they do achieve success, the powers that be can take it from right under them ''. "King Kunta '' is concerned with the "history of negative stereotypes all African - Americans have to reconcile ''. Lamar also explained his criticism of rappers who use ghostwriters on "King Kunta '', revealing that he came to prominence as a ghostwriter, and has respect for writers, but says that "as a new artist, you have to stand behind your work. ''
"These Walls '' has been described by Billboard as "pondering sex and existence in equal measure; it 's a yoni metaphor about the power of peace, with sugar walls being escape and real walls being obstacles. '' Lamar revealed that "u '' was inspired by his own experience of depression and suicidal thoughts. He also mentioned feelings of survivor 's guilt as inspirations for the album. "Alright '' begins as a spoken - word treatise before exploding into a shapeshifting portrait of America that brings in jazz horns, skittering drum beats and Lamar 's mellifluous rapping as he struggles with troubles and temptations. Yet at the end of each verse, he reassures himself that "We gon ' be alright '' -- a simple rallying cry for a nation reeling from gun violence and police brutality. For critics a "celebration of being alive '', Lamar described "Alright '' as a message of hope. "The Blacker the Berry '' features a "boom bap beat '' and lyrics that celebrate Lamar 's African - American heritage and "tackle hatred, racism, and hypocrisy head on. '' The song 's hook is performed by Jamaican dancehall artist Assassin, notable for performing on Kanye West 's 2013 LP Yeezus, whose lyrics similarly address racial inequality, specifically against African Americans.
To Pimp a Butterfly was first released to the iTunes Store and Spotify on March 15, 2015, eight days ahead of its scheduled release date. According to Anthony Tiffith, CEO of Top Dawg Entertainment, the album 's early release was unintentional, apparently caused by an error on the part of Interscope Records. The following day, it was made unavailable on iTunes, and the release was rescheduled for March 23, although it was still available for streaming on Spotify. To Pimp a Butterfly debuted at number one on record charts in the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States, where it sold 324,000 copies in its first week. The album was streamed 9.6 million times in its first day on Spotify, setting the service 's global first - day streaming record. It reached sales of one million copies worldwide at the end of 2015. By March 2016, it had sold 850,000 copies in the US, where it was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). As of June 2017, it has sold one million copies in the country.
The album 's release was preceded by the release of two singles, "i '', on September 23, 2014, and "The Blacker the Berry '' in February 2015. The former became Lamar 's sixth top - 40 single on the US Billboard Hot 100 and was performed on Saturday Night Live. Following the album release, "King Kunta '' was released as the third single in March 2015, and "Alright '' was released to radio stations on June 30. With its release, several contemporary progressive news outlets, including BET, raised the idea of "Alright '' being the modern Black National Anthem, while the media reported youth - lead protests against police brutality across the country chanting the chorus of the song. Primarily for the latter, Lamar was featured on Ebony Power 100, an annual list that recognizes many leaders of the African - American community. "These Walls '' was released as the album 's fifth single on October 13.
Aside from the singles ' accompanying music videos, the song "For Free? (Interlude) '' also featured visuals, as did "u '' with "For Sale? (Interlude) '' as part of the short film God Is Gangsta. In October 2015, Lamar announced the Kunta 's Groove Sessions Tour, which included eight shows in eight cities.
To Pimp a Butterfly received widespread acclaim from critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album received an average score of 96, based on 44 reviews. Spin magazine 's Dan Weiss hailed it as the "Great American Hip - Hop Album '' and an essential listen, while Neil McCormick from The Daily Telegraph called it a dense but dazzling masterpiece. Writing for Entertainment Weekly, Kyle Anderson found the record twice as substantial as Lamar 's debut major label album and more comprehensive of African - American music styles, with supremely "cinematic '' production qualities but "the freedom of a mixtape ''. Irish Times journalist Jim Carroll deemed it "a record for the times we 're in '', in which Lamar transitioned from his past narratives about Compton to fierce but precise reflections on "black America ''. In Rolling Stone, Greg Tate deemed To Pimp a Butterfly "a masterpiece of fiery outrage, deep jazz and ruthless self - critique '' that along with D'Angelo 's third album Black Messiah, made 2015 "the year radical Black politics and for - real Black music resurged in tandem to converge on the nation 's pop mainstream. '' Robert Christgau wrote in his review on Cuepoint that not many artists were as passionate and understanding as Lamar, who offered "a strong, brave effective bid to reinstate hip hop as black America 's CNN '' during an era of social media. New York Times critic Jon Caramanica was less enthusiastic, feeling Lamar still struggled in reconciling his density as a lyricist with the music he rapped over: "He has n't outrun his tendency towards clutter (and) still runs the risk of suffocation. '' In The Guardian, Alexis Petridis found the music somewhat erratic and lamented "moments of self - indulgence '' such as the twelve - minute "Mortal Man '' and Lamar 's reflections on fame.
At the end of 2015, To Pimp a Butterfly was the most frequently ranked record in top ten lists of the year 's best albums. According to Metacritic, it appeared 101 times in the top ten of lists published by critics, magazines, websites, and music stores. The record topped 51 lists, including those by Rolling Stone, Billboard, Pitchfork, Slant Magazine, Spin, The Guardian, Complex, Consequence of Sound, The Irish Times, and Vice. NME ranked it second on their list, while Time named it the year 's third best album. It was voted the best album of 2015 in the Pazz & Jop, an annual poll of American critics nationwide, published by The Village Voice. Christgau, the Pazz & Jop 's creator, ranked it fourth in his ballot for the poll. The album placed ninth in British magazine The Wire 's annual critics ' poll.
To Pimp a Butterfly also earned Lamar 11 nominations at the 58th Grammy Awards, which was the most nominations for any rapper in a single night. It was nominated in the categories of Album of the Year and Best Rap Album, winning the latter. "Alright '' won for Best Rap Performance and Best Rap Song while also being nominated for Song of the Year and Best Music Video. "These Walls '' won for Best Rap / Sung Performance. At the previous year 's ceremony, "i '' had won Grammy Awards for Best Rap Song and Best Rap Performance. To Pimp a Butterfly also received a nomination for Top Rap Album at the 2016 Billboard Music Awards.
According to Gigwise writer Will Butler, To Pimp a Butterfly was universally hailed by critics as an "instant classic '' and its immediate influence was felt as "a pantheon for racial empowerment ''. Of its long - term impact, Butler argued that the record helped create a respected space for conscious hip hop and "will be revered not just at the top of some list at the end of the year, but in the subconscious of music fans for decades to come ''. According to Tony Visconti, To Pimp a Butterfly was an influence on David Bowie 's 2016 album Blackstar, which Visconti produced: "(We were) listening to a lot of Kendrick Lamar... we loved the fact Kendrick was so open - minded and he did n't do a straight - up hip - hop record. He threw everything on there, and that 's exactly what we wanted to do. ''
To Pimp a Butterfly has been subject to a number of scholarly treatments from academic areas including history, critical race theory, religion, musicology, and psychology.
California State University, Fullerton professor Natalie Graham compared To Pimp a Butterfly to the television miniseries Roots. She argued that while "Roots compresses and simplifies '' black history, To Pimp a Butterfly "radically disrupt (s) meanings of black respectability, heroic morality, trauma, and memory. '' Will Fulton, a musicologist, wrote in the American Music Review that To Pimp a Butterfly -- like D'Angelo's 2014 album, Black Messiah -- engages in and celebrates the black music tradition. Fulton described Lamar and D'Angelo as "consciously index (ing) African American musical styles of the past in a dynamic relationship of nostalgic revivalism and vanguardism. ''
In the Toronto Journal of Theology, James D. McLeod Jr. drew parallels between Lamar 's examination of death 's domineering significance in the African - American experience and the works of Christian theologian Paul Tillich, with McLeod calling To Pimp a Butterfly an original example of "existentialist hip hop. '' Meanwhile, Adam Blum discerned connections between To Pimp a Butterfly and the writings of psychoanalysts such as Wilfred Bion, Nicolas Abraham, and Sigmund Freud. In an essay published in The Lancet Psychiatry, University of Cambridge professors Akeem Sule and Becky Inkster described Lamar as the "street poet of mental health, '' noting how To Pimp a Butterfly (as well as its predecessor, Good Kid, M.A.A.D City) explore topics such as addiction, anxiety, depression, and resilience.
Credits adapted from the album 's liner notes.
Notes
Sample credits
Credits for To Pimp a Butterfly adapted from AllMusic and the album 's digital booklet.
shipments figures based on certification alone
|
difference between delta function and dirac delta function | Dirac delta function - wikipedia
In science and mathematics, the Dirac delta function, or δ function, is a generalized function, or distribution that was historically introduced by the physicist Paul Dirac for modelling the density of an idealized point mass or point charge, as a function that is equal to zero everywhere except for zero and whose integral over the entire real line is equal to one. As there is no function that has these properties, the computations that were done by the theoretical physicists appeared to mathematicians as nonsense, until the introduction of distributions by Laurent Schwartz, for formalizing and validating mathematically these computations. This amounts, in particular, to define Dirac delta function as a linear functional, which maps every function to its value at zero. The Kronecker delta function, which is usually defined on a discrete domain and takes values 0 and 1, is a discrete analog of Dirac delta function.
In engineering and signal processing, the delta function, also known as the unit impulse symbol, may be regarded through its Laplace transform, as coming from the boundary values of a complex analytic function of a complex variable. The formal rules obeyed by this function are part of the operational calculus, a standard tool kit of physics and engineering. In many applications, the Dirac delta is regarded as a kind of limit (a weak limit) of a sequence of functions having a tall spike at the origin. The approximating functions of the sequence are thus "approximate '' or "nascent '' delta functions.
The graph of the delta function is usually thought of as following the whole x-axis and the positive y - axis. The Dirac delta is used to model a tall narrow spike function (an impulse), and other similar abstractions such as a point charge, point mass or electron point. For example, to calculate the dynamics of a billiard ball being struck, one can approximate the force of the impact by a delta function. In doing so, one not only simplifies the equations, but one also is able to calculate the motion of the ball by only considering the total impulse of the collision without a detailed model of all of the elastic energy transfer at subatomic levels (for instance).
To be specific, suppose that a billiard ball is at rest. At time t = 0 (\ displaystyle t = 0) it is struck by another ball, imparting it with a momentum P, in k g m / s (\ displaystyle kg \, m / s). The exchange of momentum is not actually instantaneous, being mediated by elastic processes at the molecular and subatomic level, but for practical purposes it is convenient to consider that energy transfer as effectively instantaneous. The force therefore is P δ (t) (\ displaystyle P \ delta (t)). (The units of δ (t) (\ displaystyle \ delta (t)) are s − 1 (\ displaystyle s ^ (- 1)).)
To model this situation more rigorously, suppose that the force instead is uniformly distributed over a small time interval Δ t (\ displaystyle \ Delta t). That is,
Then the momentum at any time t is found by integration:
Now, the model situation of an instantaneous transfer of momentum requires taking the limit as Δ t → 0 (\ displaystyle \ Delta t \ to 0), giving
Here the functions F Δ t (\ displaystyle F_ (\ Delta t)) are thought of as useful approximations to the idea of instantaneous transfer of momentum.
The delta function allows us to construct an idealized limit of these approximations. Unfortunately, the actual limit of the functions (in the sense of ordinary calculus) lim Δ t → 0 F Δ t (\ displaystyle \ lim _ (\ Delta t \ to 0) F_ (\ Delta t)). is zero everywhere but a single point, where it is infinite. To make proper sense of the delta function, we should instead insist that the property
which holds for all Δ t > 0 (\ displaystyle \ Delta t > 0), should continue to hold in the limit. So, in the equation F (t) = P δ (t) = lim Δ t → 0 F Δ t (t) (\ displaystyle F (t) = P \ delta (t) = \ lim _ (\ Delta t \ to 0) F_ (\ Delta t) (t)), it is understood that the limit is always taken outside the integral.
In applied mathematics, as we have done here, the delta function is often manipulated as a kind of limit (a weak limit) of a sequence of functions, each member of which has a tall spike at the origin: for example, a sequence of Gaussian distributions centered at the origin with variance tending to zero.
Despite its name, the delta function is not truly a function, at least not a usual one with range in real numbers. For example, the objects f (x) = δ (x) and g (x) = 0 are equal everywhere except at x = 0 yet have integrals that are different. According to Lebesgue integration theory, if f and g are functions such that f = g almost everywhere, then f is integrable if and only if g is integrable and the integrals of f and g are identical. A rigorous approach to regarding the Dirac delta function as a mathematical object in its own right requires measure theory or the theory of distributions.
Joseph Fourier presented what is now called the Fourier integral theorem in his treatise Théorie analytique de la chaleur in the form:
which is tantamount to the introduction of the δ - function in the form:
Later, Augustin Cauchy expressed the theorem using exponentials:
Cauchy pointed out that in some circumstances the order of integration in this result is significant (contrast Fubini 's theorem).
As justified using the theory of distributions, the Cauchy equation can be rearranged to resemble Fourier 's original formulation and expose the δ - function as:
where the δ - function is expressed as:
A rigorous interpretation of the exponential form and the various limitations upon the function f necessary for its application extended over several centuries. The problems with a classical interpretation are explained as follows:
Further developments included generalization of the Fourier integral, "beginning with Plancherel 's pathbreaking L - theory (1910), continuing with Wiener 's and Bochner 's works (around 1930) and culminating with the amalgamation into L. Schwartz 's theory of distributions (1945)... '', and leading to the formal development of the Dirac delta function.
An infinitesimal formula for an infinitely tall, unit impulse delta function (infinitesimal version of Cauchy distribution) explicitly appears in an 1827 text of Augustin Louis Cauchy. Siméon Denis Poisson considered the issue in connection with the study of wave propagation as did Gustav Kirchhoff somewhat later. Kirchhoff and Hermann von Helmholtz also introduced the unit impulse as a limit of Gaussians, which also corresponded to Lord Kelvin 's notion of a point heat source. At the end of the 19th century, Oliver Heaviside used formal Fourier series to manipulate the unit impulse. The Dirac delta function as such was introduced as a "convenient notation '' by Paul Dirac in his influential 1930 book The Principles of Quantum Mechanics. He called it the "delta function '' since he used it as a continuous analogue of the discrete Kronecker delta.
The Dirac delta can be loosely thought of as a function on the real line which is zero everywhere except at the origin, where it is infinite,
and which is also constrained to satisfy the identity
This is merely a heuristic characterization. The Dirac delta is not a function in the traditional sense as no function defined on the real numbers has these properties. The Dirac delta function can be rigorously defined either as a distribution or as a measure.
One way to rigorously capture the notion of the Dirac delta function is to define a measure, which accepts as an argument a subset A of the real line R, and returns δ (A) = 1 if 0 ∈ A, and δ (A) = 0 otherwise. If the delta function is conceptualized as modeling an idealized point mass at 0, then δ (A) represents the mass contained in the set A. One may then define the integral against δ as the integral of a function against this mass distribution. Formally, the Lebesgue integral provides the necessary analytic device. The Lebesgue integral with respect to the measure δ satisfies
for all continuous compactly supported functions f. The measure δ is not absolutely continuous with respect to the Lebesgue measure -- in fact, it is a singular measure. Consequently, the delta measure has no Radon -- Nikodym derivative -- no true function for which the property
holds. As a result, the latter notation is a convenient abuse of notation, and not a standard (Riemann or Lebesgue) integral.
As a probability measure on R, the delta measure is characterized by its cumulative distribution function, which is the unit step function
This means that H (x) is the integral of the cumulative indicator function 1 with respect to the measure δ; to wit,
Thus in particular the integral of the delta function against a continuous function can be properly understood as a Riemann -- Stieltjes integral:
All higher moments of δ are zero. In particular, characteristic function and moment generating function are both equal to one.
In the theory of distributions, a generalized function is considered not a function in itself but only in relation to how it affects other functions when "integrated '' against them. In keeping with this philosophy, to define the delta function properly, it is enough to say what the "integral '' of the delta function is against a sufficiently "good '' test function (φ). Test functions are also known as bump functions. If the delta function is already understood as a measure, then the Lebesgue integral of a test function against that measure supplies the necessary integral.
A typical space of test functions consists of all smooth functions on R with compact support that have as many derivatives as required. As a distribution, the Dirac delta is a linear functional on the space of test functions and is defined by
δ (φ) = φ (0) (\ displaystyle \ delta (\ varphi) = \ varphi (0))
(1)
for every test function φ.
For δ to be properly a distribution, it must be continuous in a suitable topology on the space of test functions. In general, for a linear functional S on the space of test functions to define a distribution, it is necessary and sufficient that, for every positive integer N there is an integer M and a constant C such that for every test function φ, one has the inequality
With the δ distribution, one has such an inequality (with C = 1) with M = 0 for all N. Thus δ is a distribution of order zero. It is, furthermore, a distribution with compact support (the support being (0)).
The delta distribution can also be defined in a number of equivalent ways. For instance, it is the distributional derivative of the Heaviside step function. This means that, for every test function φ, one has
Intuitively, if integration by parts were permitted, then the latter integral should simplify to
and indeed, a form of integration by parts is permitted for the Stieltjes integral, and in that case one does have
In the context of measure theory, the Dirac measure gives rise to a distribution by integration. Conversely, equation (1) defines a Daniell integral on the space of all compactly supported continuous functions φ which, by the Riesz representation theorem, can be represented as the Lebesgue integral of φ with respect to some Radon measure.
Generally, when the term "Dirac delta function '' is used, it is in the sense of distributions rather than measures, the Dirac measure being among several terms for the corresponding notion in measure theory. Some sources may also use the term Dirac delta distribution.
The delta function can be defined in n - dimensional Euclidean space R as the measure such that
for every compactly supported continuous function f. As a measure, the n - dimensional delta function is the product measure of the 1 - dimensional delta functions in each variable separately. Thus, formally, with x = (x, x,..., x), one has
δ (x) = δ (x 1) δ (x 2) ⋯ δ (x n). (\ displaystyle \ delta (\ mathbf (x)) = \ delta (x_ (1)) \ delta (x_ (2)) \ cdots \ delta (x_ (n)).)
(2)
The delta function can also be defined in the sense of distributions exactly as above in the one - dimensional case. However, despite widespread use in engineering contexts, (2) should be manipulated with care, since the product of distributions can only be defined under quite narrow circumstances.
The notion of a Dirac measure makes sense on any set. Thus if X is a set, x ∈ X is a marked point, and Σ is any sigma algebra of subsets of X, then the measure defined on sets A ∈ Σ by
is the delta measure or unit mass concentrated at x.
Another common generalization of the delta function is to a differentiable manifold where most of its properties as a distribution can also be exploited because of the differentiable structure. The delta function on a manifold M centered at the point x ∈ M is defined as the following distribution:
δ x 0 (φ) = φ (x 0) (\ displaystyle \ delta _ (x_ (0)) (\ varphi) = \ varphi (x_ (0)))
(3)
for all compactly supported smooth real - valued functions φ on M. A common special case of this construction is when M is an open set in the Euclidean space R.
On a locally compact Hausdorff space X, the Dirac delta measure concentrated at a point x is the Radon measure associated with the Daniell integral (3) on compactly supported continuous functions φ. At this level of generality, calculus as such is no longer possible, however a variety of techniques from abstract analysis are available. For instance, the mapping x 0 ↦ δ x 0 (\ displaystyle x_ (0) \ mapsto \ delta _ (x_ (0))) is a continuous embedding of X into the space of finite Radon measures on X, equipped with its vague topology. Moreover, the convex hull of the image of X under this embedding is dense in the space of probability measures on X.
The delta function satisfies the following scaling property for a non-zero scalar α:
and so
δ (α x) = δ (x) α. (\ displaystyle \ delta (\ alpha x) = (\ frac (\ delta (x)) (\ alpha)).)
(4)
In particular, the delta function is an even distribution, in the sense that
which is homogeneous of degree − 1.
The distributional product of δ with x is equal to zero:
Conversely, if xf (x) = xg (x), where f and g are distributions, then
for some constant c.
The integral of the time - delayed Dirac delta is given by:
This is sometimes referred to as the sifting property or the sampling property. The delta function is said to "sift out '' the value at t = T.
It follows that the effect of convolving a function f (t) with the time - delayed Dirac delta is to time - delay f (t) by the same amount:
This holds under the precise condition that f be a tempered distribution (see the discussion of the Fourier transform below). As a special case, for instance, we have the identity (understood in the distribution sense)
More generally, the delta distribution may be composed with a smooth function g (x) in such a way that the familiar change of variables formula holds, that
provided that g is a continuously differentiable function with g ′ nowhere zero. That is, there is a unique way to assign meaning to the distribution δ ∘ g (\ displaystyle \ delta \ circ g) so that this identity holds for all compactly supported test functions f. Therefore, the domain must be broken up to exclude the g ′ = 0 point. This distribution satisfies δ (g (x)) = 0 if g is nowhere zero, and otherwise if g has a real root at x, then
It is natural therefore to define the composition δ (g (x)) for continuously differentiable functions g by
where the sum extends over all roots of g (x), which are assumed to be simple. Thus, for example
In the integral form the generalized scaling property may be written as
The delta distribution in an n - dimensional space satisfies the following scaling property instead:
so that δ is a homogeneous distribution of degree − n. Under any reflection or rotation ρ, the delta function is invariant:
As in the one - variable case, it is possible to define the composition of δ with a bi-Lipschitz function g: R → R uniquely so that the identity
for all compactly supported functions f.
Using the coarea formula from geometric measure theory, one can also define the composition of the delta function with a submersion from one Euclidean space to another one of different dimension; the result is a type of current. In the special case of a continuously differentiable function g: R → R such that the gradient of g is nowhere zero, the following identity holds
where the integral on the right is over g (0), the (n − 1) - dimensional surface defined by g (x) = 0 with respect to the Minkowski content measure. This is known as a simple layer integral.
More generally, if S is a smooth hypersurface of R, then we can associate to S the distribution that integrates any compactly supported smooth function g over S:
where σ is the hypersurface measure associated to S. This generalization is associated with the potential theory of simple layer potentials on S. If D is a domain in R with smooth boundary S, then δ is equal to the normal derivative of the indicator function of D in the distribution sense:
where n is the outward normal. For a proof, see e.g. the article on the surface delta function.
The delta function is a tempered distribution, and therefore it has a well - defined Fourier transform. Formally, one finds
Properly speaking, the Fourier transform of a distribution is defined by imposing self - adjointness of the Fourier transform under the duality pairing ⟨ ⋅, ⋅ ⟩ (\ displaystyle \ langle \ cdot, \ cdot \ rangle) of tempered distributions with Schwartz functions. Thus δ ^ (\ displaystyle (\ hat (\ delta))) is defined as the unique tempered distribution satisfying
for all Schwartz functions φ. And indeed it follows from this that δ ^ = 1. (\ displaystyle (\ hat (\ delta)) = 1.)
As a result of this identity, the convolution of the delta function with any other tempered distribution S is simply S:
That is to say that δ is an identity element for the convolution on tempered distributions, and in fact the space of compactly supported distributions under convolution is an associative algebra with identity the delta function. This property is fundamental in signal processing, as convolution with a tempered distribution is a linear time - invariant system, and applying the linear time - invariant system measures its impulse response. The impulse response can be computed to any desired degree of accuracy by choosing a suitable approximation for δ, and once it is known, it characterizes the system completely. See LTI system theory § Impulse response and convolution.
The inverse Fourier transform of the tempered distribution f (ξ) = 1 is the delta function. Formally, this is expressed
and more rigorously, it follows since
for all Schwartz functions f.
In these terms, the delta function provides a suggestive statement of the orthogonality property of the Fourier kernel on R. Formally, one has
This is, of course, shorthand for the assertion that the Fourier transform of the tempered distribution
is
which again follows by imposing self - adjointness of the Fourier transform.
By analytic continuation of the Fourier transform, the Laplace transform of the delta function is found to be
The distributional derivative of the Dirac delta distribution is the distribution δ ′ defined on compactly supported smooth test functions φ by
The first equality here is a kind of integration by parts, for if δ were a true function then
The k - th derivative of δ is defined similarly as the distribution given on test functions by
In particular, δ is an infinitely differentiable distribution.
The first derivative of the delta function is the distributional limit of the difference quotients:
More properly, one has
where τ is the translation operator, defined on functions by τ φ (x) = φ (x + h), and on a distribution S by
In the theory of electromagnetism, the first derivative of the delta function represents a point magnetic dipole situated at the origin. Accordingly, it is referred to as a dipole or the doublet function.
The derivative of the delta function satisfies a number of basic properties, including:
Furthermore, the convolution of δ ′ with a compactly supported smooth function f is
which follows from the properties of the distributional derivative of a convolution.
More generally, on an open set U in the n - dimensional Euclidean space R, the Dirac delta distribution centered at a point a ∈ U is defined by
for all φ ∈ S (U), the space of all smooth compactly supported functions on U. If α = (α,..., α) is any multi-index and ∂ denotes the associated mixed partial derivative operator, then the αth derivative ∂ δ of δ is given by
That is, the αth derivative of δ is the distribution whose value on any test function φ is the αth derivative of φ at a (with the appropriate positive or negative sign).
The first partial derivatives of the delta function are thought of as double layers along the coordinate planes. More generally, the normal derivative of a simple layer supported on a surface is a double layer supported on that surface, and represents a laminar magnetic monopole. Higher derivatives of the delta function are known in physics as multipoles.
Higher derivatives enter into mathematics naturally as the building blocks for the complete structure of distributions with point support. If S is any distribution on U supported on the set (a) consisting of a single point, then there is an integer m and coefficients c such that
The delta function can be viewed as the limit of a sequence of functions
where η (x) is sometimes called a nascent delta function. This limit is meant in a weak sense: either that
lim ε → 0 + ∫ − ∞ ∞ η ε (x) f (x) d x = f (0) (\ displaystyle \ lim _ (\ varepsilon \ to 0 ^ (+)) \ int _ (- \ infty) ^ (\ infty) \ eta _ (\ varepsilon) (x) f (x) \, dx = f (0))
(5)
for all continuous functions f having compact support, or that this limit holds for all smooth functions f with compact support. The difference between these two slightly different modes of weak convergence is often subtle: the former is convergence in the vague topology of measures, and the latter is convergence in the sense of distributions.
Typically a nascent delta function η can be constructed in the following manner. Let η be an absolutely integrable function on R of total integral 1, and define
In n dimensions, one uses instead the scaling
Then a simple change of variables shows that η also has integral 1. One may show that (5) holds for all continuous compactly supported functions f, and so η converges weakly to δ in the sense of measures.
The η constructed in this way are known as an approximation to the identity. This terminology is because the space L (R) of absolutely integrable functions is closed under the operation of convolution of functions: f ∗ g ∈ L (R) whenever f and g are in L (R). However, there is no identity in L (R) for the convolution product: no element h such that f ∗ h = f for all f. Nevertheless, the sequence η does approximate such an identity in the sense that
This limit holds in the sense of mean convergence (convergence in L). Further conditions on the η, for instance that it be a mollifier associated to a compactly supported function, are needed to ensure pointwise convergence almost everywhere.
If the initial η = η is itself smooth and compactly supported then the sequence is called a mollifier. The standard mollifier is obtained by choosing η to be a suitably normalized bump function, for instance
In some situations such as numerical analysis, a piecewise linear approximation to the identity is desirable. This can be obtained by taking η to be a hat function. With this choice of η, one has
which are all continuous and compactly supported, although not smooth and so not a mollifier.
In the context of probability theory, it is natural to impose the additional condition that the initial η in an approximation to the identity should be positive, as such a function then represents a probability distribution. Convolution with a probability distribution is sometimes favorable because it does not result in overshoot or undershoot, as the output is a convex combination of the input values, and thus falls between the maximum and minimum of the input function. Taking η to be any probability distribution at all, and letting η (x) = η (x / ε) / ε as above will give rise to an approximation to the identity. In general this converges more rapidly to a delta function if, in addition, η has mean 0 and has small higher moments. For instance, if η is the uniform distribution on (− 1 / 2, 1 / 2), also known as the rectangular function, then:
Another example is with the Wigner semicircle distribution
This is continuous and compactly supported, but not a mollifier because it is not smooth.
Nascent delta functions often arise as convolution semigroups. This amounts to the further constraint that the convolution of η with η must satisfy
for all ε, δ > 0. Convolution semigroups in L that form a nascent delta function are always an approximation to the identity in the above sense, however the semigroup condition is quite a strong restriction.
In practice, semigroups approximating the delta function arise as fundamental solutions or Green 's functions to physically motivated elliptic or parabolic partial differential equations. In the context of applied mathematics, semigroups arise as the output of a linear time - invariant system. Abstractly, if A is a linear operator acting on functions of x, then a convolution semigroup arises by solving the initial value problem
in which the limit is as usual understood in the weak sense. Setting η (x) = η (ε, x) gives the associated nascent delta function.
Some examples of physically important convolution semigroups arising from such a fundamental solution include the following.
The heat kernel, defined by
represents the temperature in an infinite wire at time t > 0, if a unit of heat energy is stored at the origin of the wire at time t = 0. This semigroup evolves according to the one - dimensional heat equation:
In probability theory, η (x) is a normal distribution of variance ε and mean 0. It represents the probability density at time t = ε of the position of a particle starting at the origin following a standard Brownian motion. In this context, the semigroup condition is then an expression of the Markov property of Brownian motion.
In higher - dimensional Euclidean space R, the heat kernel is
and has the same physical interpretation, mutatis mutandis. It also represents a nascent delta function in the sense that η → δ in the distribution sense as ε → 0.
The Poisson kernel
is the fundamental solution of the Laplace equation in the upper half - plane. It represents the electrostatic potential in a semi-infinite plate whose potential along the edge is held at fixed at the delta function. The Poisson kernel is also closely related to the Cauchy distribution. This semigroup evolves according to the equation
where the operator is rigorously defined as the Fourier multiplier
In areas of physics such as wave propagation and wave mechanics, the equations involved are hyperbolic and so may have more singular solutions. As a result, the nascent delta functions that arise as fundamental solutions of the associated Cauchy problems are generally oscillatory integrals. An example, which comes from a solution of the Euler -- Tricomi equation of transonic gas dynamics, is the rescaled Airy function
Although using the Fourier transform, it is easy to see that this generates a semigroup in some sense -- it is not absolutely integrable and so can not define a semigroup in the above strong sense. Many nascent delta functions constructed as oscillatory integrals only converge in the sense of distributions (an example is the Dirichlet kernel below), rather than in the sense of measures.
Another example is the Cauchy problem for the wave equation in R:
The solution u represents the displacement from equilibrium of an infinite elastic string, with an initial disturbance at the origin.
Other approximations to the identity of this kind include the sinc function (used widely in electronics and telecommunications)
and the Bessel function
One approach to the study of a linear partial differential equation
where L is a differential operator on R, is to seek first a fundamental solution, which is a solution of the equation
When L is particularly simple, this problem can often be resolved using the Fourier transform directly (as in the case of the Poisson kernel and heat kernel already mentioned). For more complicated operators, it is sometimes easier first to consider an equation of the form
where h is a plane wave function, meaning that it has the form
for some vector ξ. Such an equation can be resolved (if the coefficients of L are analytic functions) by the Cauchy -- Kovalevskaya theorem or (if the coefficients of L are constant) by quadrature. So, if the delta function can be decomposed into plane waves, then one can in principle solve linear partial differential equations.
Such a decomposition of the delta function into plane waves was part of a general technique first introduced essentially by Johann Radon, and then developed in this form by Fritz John (1955). Choose k so that n + k is an even integer, and for a real number s, put
Then δ is obtained by applying a power of the Laplacian to the integral with respect to the unit sphere measure dω of g (x ξ) for ξ in the unit sphere S:
The Laplacian here is interpreted as a weak derivative, so that this equation is taken to mean that, for any test function φ,
The result follows from the formula for the Newtonian potential (the fundamental solution of Poisson 's equation). This is essentially a form of the inversion formula for the Radon transform, because it recovers the value of φ (x) from its integrals over hyperplanes. For instance, if n is odd and k = 1, then the integral on the right hand side is
where Rφ (ξ, p) is the Radon transform of φ:
An alternative equivalent expression of the plane wave decomposition, from Gel'fand & Shilov (1966 -- 1968, I, § 3.10), is
for n even, and
for n odd.
In the study of Fourier series, a major question consists of determining whether and in what sense the Fourier series associated with a periodic function converges to the function. The nth partial sum of the Fourier series of a function f of period 2π is defined by convolution (on the interval (− π, π)) with the Dirichlet kernel:
Thus,
where
A fundamental result of elementary Fourier series states that the Dirichlet kernel tends to the a multiple of the delta function as N → ∞. This is interpreted in the distribution sense, that
for every compactly supported smooth function f. Thus, formally one has
on the interval (− π, π).
In spite of this, the result does not hold for all compactly supported continuous functions: that is D does not converge weakly in the sense of measures. The lack of convergence of the Fourier series has led to the introduction of a variety of summability methods in order to produce convergence. The method of Cesàro summation leads to the Fejér kernel
The Fejér kernels tend to the delta function in a stronger sense that
for every compactly supported continuous function f. The implication is that the Fourier series of any continuous function is Cesàro summable to the value of the function at every point.
The Dirac delta distribution is a densely defined unbounded linear functional on the Hilbert space L of square integrable functions. Indeed, smooth compactly support functions are dense in L, and the action of the delta distribution on such functions is well - defined. In many applications, it is possible to identify subspaces of L and to give a stronger topology on which the delta function defines a bounded linear functional.
The Sobolev embedding theorem for Sobolev spaces on the real line R implies that any square - integrable function f such that
is automatically continuous, and satisfies in particular
Thus δ is a bounded linear functional on the Sobolev space H. Equivalently δ is an element of the continuous dual space H of H. More generally, in n dimensions, one has δ ∈ H (R) provided s > n / 2.
In complex analysis, the delta function enters via Cauchy 's integral formula which asserts that if D is a domain in the complex plane with smooth boundary, then
for all holomorphic functions f in D that are continuous on the closure of D. As a result, the delta function δ is represented on this class of holomorphic functions by the Cauchy integral:
More generally, let H (∂ D) be the Hardy space consisting of the closure in L (∂ D) of all holomorphic functions in D continuous up to the boundary of D. Then functions in H (∂ D) uniquely extend to holomorphic functions in D, and the Cauchy integral formula continues to hold. In particular for z ∈ D, the delta function δ is a continuous linear functional on H (∂ D). This is a special case of the situation in several complex variables in which, for smooth domains D, the Szegő kernel plays the role of the Cauchy integral.
Given a complete orthonormal basis set of functions (φ) in a separable Hilbert space, for example, the normalized eigenvectors of a compact self - adjoint operator, any vector f can be expressed as:
The coefficients (α) are found as:
which may be represented by the notation:
a form of the bra -- ket notation of Dirac. Adopting this notation, the expansion of f takes the dyadic form:
Letting I denote the identity operator on the Hilbert space, the expression
is called a resolution of the identity. When the Hilbert space is the space L (D) of square - integrable functions on a domain D, the quantity:
is an integral operator, and the expression for f can be rewritten as:
The right - hand side converges to f in the L sense. It need not hold in a pointwise sense, even when f is a continuous function. Nevertheless, it is common to abuse notation and write
resulting in the representation of the delta function:
With a suitable rigged Hilbert space (Φ, L (D), Φ *) where Φ ⊂ L (D) contains all compactly supported smooth functions, this summation may converge in Φ *, depending on the properties of the basis φ. In most cases of practical interest, the orthonormal basis comes from an integral or differential operator, in which case the series converges in the distribution sense.
Cauchy used an infinitesimal α to write down a unit impulse, infinitely tall and narrow Dirac - type delta function δ satisfying ∫ F (x) δ α (x) = F (0) (\ displaystyle \ int F (x) \ delta _ (\ alpha) (x) = F (0)) in a number of articles in 1827. Cauchy defined an infinitesimal in Cours d'Analyse (1827) in terms of a sequence tending to zero. Namely, such a null sequence becomes an infinitesimal in Cauchy 's and Lazare Carnot 's terminology.
Non-standard analysis allows one to rigorously treat infinitesimals. The article by Yamashita (2007) contains a bibliography on modern Dirac delta functions in the context of an infinitesimal - enriched continuum provided by the hyperreals. Here the Dirac delta can be given by an actual function, having the property that for every real function F one has ∫ F (x) δ α (x) = F (0) (\ displaystyle \ int F (x) \ delta _ (\ alpha) (x) = F (0)) as anticipated by Fourier and Cauchy.
A so - called uniform "pulse train '' of Dirac delta measures, which is known as a Dirac comb, or as the Shah distribution, creates a sampling function, often used in digital signal processing (DSP) and discrete time signal analysis. The Dirac comb is given as the infinite sum, whose limit is understood in the distribution sense,
which is a sequence of point masses at each of the integers.
Up to an overall normalizing constant, the Dirac comb is equal to its own Fourier transform. This is significant because if f is any Schwartz function, then the periodization of f is given by the convolution
In particular,
is precisely the Poisson summation formula.
The Sokhotski -- Plemelj theorem, important in quantum mechanics, relates the delta function to the distribution p.v. 1 / x, the Cauchy principal value of the function 1 / x, defined by
Sokhotsky 's formula states that
Here the limit is understood in the distribution sense, that for all compactly supported smooth functions f,
The Kronecker delta δ is the quantity defined by
for all integers i, j. This function then satisfies the following analog of the sifting property: if (a i) i ∈ Z (\ displaystyle (a_ (i)) _ (i \ in \ mathbf (Z))) is any doubly infinite sequence, then
Similarly, for any real or complex valued continuous function f on R, the Dirac delta satisfies the sifting property
This exhibits the Kronecker delta function as a discrete analog of the Dirac delta function.
In probability theory and statistics, the Dirac delta function is often used to represent a discrete distribution, or a partially discrete, partially continuous distribution, using a probability density function (which is normally used to represent fully continuous distributions). For example, the probability density function f (x) of a discrete distribution consisting of points x = (x,..., x), with corresponding probabilities p,..., p, can be written as
As another example, consider a distribution which 6 / 10 of the time returns a standard normal distribution, and 4 / 10 of the time returns exactly the value 3.5 (i.e. a partly continuous, partly discrete mixture distribution). The density function of this distribution can be written as
The delta function is also used in a completely different way to represent the local time of a diffusion process (like Brownian motion). The local time of a stochastic process B (t) is given by
and represents the amount of time that the process spends at the point x in the range of the process. More precisely, in one dimension this integral can be written
where 1 is the indicator function of the interval (x − ε, x+ε).
The delta function is expedient in quantum mechanics. The wave function of a particle gives the probability amplitude of finding a particle within a given region of space. Wave functions are assumed to be elements of the Hilbert space L of square - integrable functions, and the total probability of finding a particle within a given interval is the integral of the magnitude of the wave function squared over the interval. A set (φ) of wave functions is orthonormal if they are normalized by
where δ here refers to the Kronecker delta. A set of orthonormal wave functions is complete in the space of square - integrable functions if any wave function ψ can be expressed as a combination of the φ:
with c n = ⟨ φ n ψ ⟩ (\ displaystyle c_ (n) = \ langle \ varphi _ (n) \ psi \ rangle). Complete orthonormal systems of wave functions appear naturally as the eigenfunctions of the Hamiltonian (of a bound system) in quantum mechanics that measures the energy levels, which are called the eigenvalues. The set of eigenvalues, in this case, is known as the spectrum of the Hamiltonian. In bra -- ket notation, as above, this equality implies the resolution of the identity:
Here the eigenvalues are assumed to be discrete, but the set of eigenvalues of an observable may be continuous rather than discrete. An example is the position observable, Qψ (x) = xψ (x). The spectrum of the position (in one dimension) is the entire real line, and is called a continuous spectrum. However, unlike the Hamiltonian, the position operator lacks proper eigenfunctions. The conventional way to overcome this shortcoming is to widen the class of available functions by allowing distributions as well: that is, to replace the Hilbert space of quantum mechanics by an appropriate rigged Hilbert space. In this context, the position operator has a complete set of eigen - distributions, labeled by the points y of the real line, given by
The eigenfunctions of position are denoted by φ y = y ⟩ (\ displaystyle \ varphi _ (y) = y \ rangle) in Dirac notation, and are known as position eigenstates.
Similar considerations apply to the eigenstates of the momentum operator, or indeed any other self - adjoint unbounded operator P on the Hilbert space, provided the spectrum of P is continuous and there are no degenerate eigenvalues. In that case, there is a set Ω of real numbers (the spectrum), and a collection φ of distributions indexed by the elements of Ω, such that
That is, φ are the eigenvectors of P. If the eigenvectors are normalized so that
in the distribution sense, then for any test function ψ,
where
That is, as in the discrete case, there is a resolution of the identity
where the operator - valued integral is again understood in the weak sense. If the spectrum of P has both continuous and discrete parts, then the resolution of the identity involves a summation over the discrete spectrum and an integral over the continuous spectrum.
The delta function also has many more specialized applications in quantum mechanics, such as the delta potential models for a single and double potential well.
The delta function can be used in structural mechanics to describe transient loads or point loads acting on structures. The governing equation of a simple mass -- spring system excited by a sudden force impulse I at time t = 0 can be written
where m is the mass, ξ the deflection and k the spring constant.
As another example, the equation governing the static deflection of a slender beam is, according to Euler -- Bernoulli theory,
where EI is the bending stiffness of the beam, w the deflection, x the spatial coordinate and q (x) the load distribution. If a beam is loaded by a point force F at x = x, the load distribution is written
As integration of the delta function results in the Heaviside step function, it follows that the static deflection of a slender beam subject to multiple point loads is described by a set of piecewise polynomials.
Also a point moment acting on a beam can be described by delta functions. Consider two opposing point forces F at a distance d apart. They then produce a moment M = Fd acting on the beam. Now, let the distance d approach the limit zero, while M is kept constant. The load distribution, assuming a clockwise moment acting at x = 0, is written
Point moments can thus be represented by the derivative of the delta function. Integration of the beam equation again results in piecewise polynomial deflection.
|
the battle of midway signaled to the american military that | Battle of Midway - wikipedia
Pacific Fleet
Combined Fleet
Southeast Asia
Burma
Southwest Pacific
North America
Japan
Manchuria
The Battle of Midway was a decisive naval battle in the Pacific Theater of World War II which occurred between 4 and 7 June 1942, only six months after Japan 's attack on Pearl Harbor and one month after the Battle of the Coral Sea. The United States Navy under Admirals Chester Nimitz, Frank Jack Fletcher, and Raymond A. Spruance defeated an attacking fleet of the Imperial Japanese Navy under Admirals Isoroku Yamamoto, Chūichi Nagumo, and Nobutake Kondō near Midway Atoll, inflicting devastating damage on the Japanese fleet that proved irreparable. Military historian John Keegan called it "the most stunning and decisive blow in the history of naval warfare ''.
The Japanese operation, like the earlier attack on Pearl Harbor, sought to eliminate the United States as a strategic power in the Pacific, thereby giving Japan a free hand in establishing its Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. The Japanese hoped another demoralizing defeat would force the U.S. to capitulate in the Pacific War and thus ensure Japanese dominance in the Pacific. Luring the American aircraft carriers into a trap and occupying Midway was part of an overall "barrier '' strategy to extend Japan 's defensive perimeter, in response to the Doolittle air raid on Tokyo. This operation was also considered preparatory for further attacks against Fiji, Samoa, and Hawaii itself.
The plan was handicapped by faulty Japanese assumptions of the American reaction and poor initial dispositions. Most significantly, American cryptographers were able to determine the date and location of the planned attack, enabling the forewarned U.S. Navy to prepare its own ambush. Four Japanese and three American aircraft carriers participated in the battle. All four of Japan 's large fleet carriers -- Akagi, Kaga, Sōryū and Hiryū, part of the six - carrier force that had attacked Pearl Harbor six months earlier -- and a heavy cruiser were sunk, while the U.S. lost the carrier Yorktown and a destroyer.
After Midway and the exhausting attrition of the Solomon Islands campaign, Japan 's capacity to replace its losses in materiel (particularly aircraft carriers) and men (especially well - trained pilots and maintenance crewmen) rapidly became insufficient to cope with mounting casualties, while the United States ' massive industrial and training capabilities made losses far easier to replace. The Battle of Midway, along with the Guadalcanal Campaign, is widely considered a turning point in the Pacific War.
After expanding the war in the Pacific to include Western outposts, the Japanese Empire had attained its initial strategic goals quickly, taking the Philippines, Malaya, Singapore, and the Dutch East Indies (modern Indonesia); the latter, with its vital oil resources, was particularly important to Japan. Because of this, preliminary planning for a second phase of operations commenced as early as January 1942.
There were strategic disagreements between the Imperial Army (IJA) and Imperial Navy (IJN), and infighting between the Navy 's GHQ and Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto 's Combined Fleet, and a follow - up strategy was not formed until April 1942. Admiral Yamamoto finally succeeded in winning the bureaucratic struggle with a thinly veiled threat to resign, after which his plan for the Central Pacific was adopted.
Yamamoto 's primary strategic goal was the elimination of America 's carrier forces, which he regarded as the principal threat to the overall Pacific campaign. This concern was acutely heightened by the Doolittle Raid on 18 April 1942, in which 16 U.S. Army Air Forces B - 25 Mitchell bombers launched from USS Hornet bombed targets in Tokyo and several other Japanese cities. The raid, while militarily insignificant, was a shock to the Japanese and showed the existence of a gap in the defenses around the Japanese home islands as well as the accessibility of Japanese territory to American bombers.
This, and other successful hit - and - run raids by American carriers in the South Pacific, showed that they were still a threat, although seemingly reluctant to be drawn into an all - out battle. Yamamoto reasoned that another air attack on the main U.S. Naval base at Pearl Harbor would induce all of the American fleet to sail out to fight, including the carriers. However, considering the increased strength of American land - based air power on the Hawaiian Islands since the 7 December attack the previous year, he judged that it was now too risky to attack Pearl Harbor directly.
Instead, Yamamoto selected Midway, a tiny atoll at the extreme northwest end of the Hawaiian Island chain, approximately 1,300 miles (1,100 nautical miles; 2,100 kilometres) from Oahu. This meant that Midway was outside the effective range of almost all of the American aircraft stationed on the main Hawaiian islands. Midway was not especially important in the larger scheme of Japan 's intentions, but the Japanese felt the Americans would consider Midway a vital outpost of Pearl Harbor and would therefore be compelled to defend it vigorously. The U.S. did consider Midway vital: after the battle, establishment of a U.S. submarine base on Midway allowed submarines operating from Pearl Harbor to refuel and re-provision, extending their radius of operations by 1,200 miles (1,900 km). In addition to serving as a seaplane base, Midway 's airstrips also served as a forward staging point for bomber attacks on Wake Island.
Typical of Japanese naval planning during World War II, Yamamoto 's battle plan for taking Midway (named Operation MI) was exceedingly complex. It required the careful and timely coordination of multiple battle groups over hundreds of miles of open sea. His design was also predicated on optimistic intelligence suggesting that USS Enterprise and USS Hornet, forming Task Force 16, were the only carriers available to the U.S. Pacific Fleet. During the Battle of the Coral Sea one month earlier, USS Lexington had been sunk and USS Yorktown suffered considerable damage such that the Japanese believed she too had been lost. However, following hasty repairs at Pearl Harbor, Yorktown sortied and would go on to play a critical role in the discovery and eventual destruction of the Japanese fleet carriers at Midway. Finally, much of Yamamoto 's planning, coinciding with the general feeling among the Japanese leadership at the time, was based on a gross misjudgment of American morale, which was believed to be debilitated from the string of Japanese victories in the preceding months.
Yamamoto felt deception would be required to lure the U.S. fleet into a fatally compromised situation. To this end, he dispersed his forces so that their full extent (particularly his battleships) would be concealed from the Americans prior to battle. Critically, Yamamoto 's supporting battleships and cruisers trailed Vice Admiral Chūichi Nagumo 's carrier force by several hundred miles. They were intended to come up and destroy whatever elements of the U.S. fleet might come to Midway 's defense once Nagumo 's carriers had weakened them sufficiently for a daylight gun battle; this tactic was typical of the battle doctrine of most major navies at the time.
What Yamamoto did not know was that the U.S. had broken the main Japanese naval code (dubbed JN - 25 by the Americans), divulging many details of his plan to the enemy. His emphasis on dispersal also meant none of his formations were in a position to support each other. For instance, despite the fact that Nagumo 's carriers were expected to carry out strikes against Midway and bear the brunt of American counterattacks, the only warships in his fleet larger than the screening force of twelve destroyers were two Kongō - class fast battleships, two heavy cruisers, and one light cruiser. By contrast, Yamamoto and Kondo had between them two light carriers, five battleships, four heavy cruisers, and two light cruisers, none of which would see action at Midway. The light carriers of the trailing forces and Yamamoto 's three battleships were unable to keep pace with the carriers of the Kidō Butai and so could not have sailed in company with them. The distance between Yamamoto and Kondo 's forces and Nagumo 's carriers had grave implications during the battle: the invaluable reconnaissance capability of the scout planes carried by the cruisers and carriers, as well as the additional antiaircraft capability of the cruisers and the other two battleships of the Kongō - class in the trailing forces, was denied to Nagumo.
In order to obtain support from the Imperial Japanese Army for the Midway operation, the Imperial Japanese Navy agreed to support their invasion of the Aleutian Islands. The IJA wished to occupy the western Aleutians to place the Japanese home islands out of range of U.S. land - based bombers based in Alaska. The Japanese operations in the Aleutian Islands (Operation AL) removed yet more ships that could otherwise have augmented the force striking Midway. Whereas many earlier historical accounts considered the Aleutians operation as a feint to draw American forces away, early twenty - first century research has suggested that AL was intended to be launched simultaneously with the attack on Midway. A one - day delay in the sailing of Nagumo 's task force resulted in Operation AL beginning a day before the Midway attack.
To do battle with an enemy expected to muster four or five carriers, Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, Commander in Chief, Pacific Ocean Areas, needed every available U.S. flight deck. He already had Vice Admiral William Halsey 's two - carrier (Enterprise and Hornet) task force at hand, though Halsey was stricken with severe dermatitis and had to be replaced by Rear Admiral Raymond A. Spruance, Halsey 's escort commander. Nimitz also hurriedly recalled Rear Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher 's task force, including the carrier Yorktown, from the South West Pacific Area.
Despite estimates that Yorktown, damaged in the Battle of the Coral Sea, would require several months of repairs at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard, her elevators were intact and her flight deck largely so. The Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard worked around the clock, and in 72 hours she was restored to a battle - ready state, judged good enough for two or three weeks of operations, as Nimitz required. Her flight deck was patched, and whole sections of internal frames were cut out and replaced. Repairs continued even as she sortied, with work crews from the repair ship USS Vestal, herself damaged in the attack on Pearl Harbor six months earlier, still aboard.
Yorktown 's partially depleted air group was rebuilt using whatever planes and pilots could be found. Scouting Five (VS - 5) was replaced with Bombing Three (VB - 3) from USS Saratoga. Torpedo Five (VT - 5) was also replaced by Torpedo Three (VT - 3). Also Fighting Three (VF - 3) was reconstituted to replace VF - 42 with sixteen pilots from VF - 42 and eleven pilots from VF - 3 with Lieutenant Commander John S. "Jimmy '' Thach in command. Some of the aircrew were inexperienced, which may have contributed to an accident in which Thach 's executive officer Lt Cmndr Donald Lovelace was killed. Despite efforts to get Saratoga (which had been undergoing repairs on the American West Coast) ready for the coming engagement, the need to resupply and assemble sufficient escorts meant she was not able to reach Midway until after the battle.
On Midway, by 4 June the USN had stationed four squadrons of PBYs -- 31 aircraft in total -- for long - range reconnaissance duties, and 6 brand - new Grumman TBF Avengers, the latter a detachment from Hornet 's VT - 8. The Marine Corps stationed 19 Douglas SBD Dauntless, 7 F4F - 3 Wildcats, 17 Vought SB2U Vindicators, and 21 Brewster F2A Buffalos. The USAAF contributed a squadron of 17 B - 17 Flying Fortresses and 4 Martin B - 26 Marauders equipped with torpedoes: in total 126 aircraft. Although the F2As and SB2Us were already obsolete, they were the only aircraft available to the Marine Corps at the time.
During the Battle of the Coral Sea one month earlier, the Japanese light carrier Shōhō had been sunk and the fleet carrier Shōkaku was severely damaged by three bomb hits, and was in drydock for months of repair. Although the fleet carrier Zuikaku escaped the battle undamaged, she had lost almost half her air group, and was in port in Kure awaiting replacement planes and pilots. That there were none immediately available is attributable to the failure of the IJN crew training program, which already showed signs of being unable to replace losses. Instructors from the Yokosuka Air Corps were employed in an effort to make up the shortfall.
Historians Jonathan Parshall and Anthony Tully believe that by combining the surviving aircraft and pilots from Shōkaku and Zuikaku, it is likely that Zuikaku could have been equipped with almost a full composite air group. They also note that doing so would have violated Japanese carrier doctrine, which stressed that carriers and their airgroups must train as a single unit (in contrast, American air squadrons were considered interchangeable between carriers). In any case, the Japanese apparently made no serious attempt to get Zuikaku ready for the forthcoming battle.
Thus, Carrier Division 5, consisting of the two most advanced aircraft carriers of the Kido Butai, would not be available, which meant that Vice-Admiral Nagumo had only two thirds of the fleet carriers at his disposal: Kaga and Akagi forming Carrier Division 1 and Hiryū and Sōryū as Carrier Division 2. This was partly due to fatigue; Japanese carriers had been constantly on operations since 7 December 1941, including raids on Darwin and Colombo. Nonetheless, the First Carrier Strike Force sailed with 238 available aircraft on the four carriers (60 on Akagi, 74 on Kaga (B5N2 squadron oversized), 57 on Hiryū and 57 on Sōryū).
The main Japanese carrier - borne strike aircraft were the D3A1 "Val '' dive bomber and the B5N2 "Kate '', which was used either as a torpedo bomber or as a level bomber. The main carrier fighter was the fast and highly maneuverable A6M "Zero ''. For a variety of reasons, production of the "Val '' had been drastically reduced, while that of the "Kate '' had been stopped completely and, as a consequence, there were none available to replace losses. In addition, many of the aircraft being used during the June 1942 operations had been operational since late November 1941 and, although they were well - maintained, many were almost worn out and had become increasingly unreliable. These factors meant all carriers of the Kido Butai had fewer aircraft than their normal complement, with few spare aircraft or parts stored in the carriers ' hangars.
In addition, Nagumo 's carrier force suffered from several defensive deficiencies which gave it, in Mark Peattie 's words, a "' glass jaw ': it could throw a punch but could n't take one. '' Japanese carrier anti-aircraft guns and associated fire control systems had several design and configuration deficiencies which limited their effectiveness. The IJN 's fleet combat air patrol (CAP) consisted of too few fighter aircraft and was hampered by an inadequate early warning system, including a lack of radar. Poor radio communications with the fighter aircraft inhibited effective command and control of the CAP. The carriers ' escorting warships were deployed as visual scouts in a ring at long range, not as close anti-aircraft escorts, as they lacked training, doctrine, and sufficient anti-aircraft guns.
Japanese strategic scouting arrangements prior to the battle were also in disarray. A picket line of Japanese submarines was late getting into position (partly because of Yamamoto 's haste), which let the American carriers reach their assembly point northeast of Midway (known as "Point Luck '') without being detected. A second attempt at reconnaissance, using four - engine H8K "Emily '' flying boats to scout Pearl Harbor prior to the battle and detect whether the American carriers were present, part of Operation K, was thwarted when Japanese submarines assigned to refuel the search aircraft discovered that the intended refueling point -- a hitherto deserted bay off French Frigate Shoals -- was now occupied by American warships, because the Japanese had carried out an identical mission in March. Thus, Japan was deprived of any knowledge concerning the movements of the American carriers immediately before the battle.
Japanese radio intercepts did notice an increase in both American submarine activity and message traffic. This information was in Yamamoto 's hands prior to the battle. Japanese plans were not changed; Yamamoto, at sea in Yamato, assumed Nagumo had received the same signal from Tokyo, and did not communicate with him by radio, so as not to reveal his position. These messages were, contrary to earlier historical accounts, also received by Nagumo before the battle began. For reasons which remain unclear, Nagumo did not alter his plans or take additional precautions.
Admiral Nimitz had one critical advantage: US cryptanalysts had partially broken the Japanese Navy 's JN - 25b code. Since early 1942, the US had been decoding messages stating that there would soon be an operation at objective "AF ''. It was initially not known where "AF '' was, but Commander Joseph Rochefort and his team at Station HYPO were able to confirm that it was Midway: Captain Wilfred Holmes devised a ruse of telling the base at Midway (by secure undersea cable) to broadcast an uncoded radio message stating that Midway 's water purification system had broken down. Within 24 hours, the code breakers picked up a Japanese message that "AF was short on water ''. No Japanese radio operators who intercepted the message seemed concerned that the Americans were broadcasting uncoded that a major naval installation close to the Japanese threat ring was having a water shortage, which could have tipped off Japanese intelligence officers that it was a deliberate attempt at deception.
HYPO was also able to determine the date of the attack as either 4 or 5 June, and to provide Nimitz with a complete IJN order of battle.
Japan had a new codebook, but its introduction had been delayed, enabling HYPO to read messages for several crucial days; the new code, which would take several days to be cracked, came into use on 24 May, but the important breaks had already been made.
As a result, the Americans entered the battle with a very good picture of where, when, and in what strength the Japanese would appear. Nimitz knew that the Japanese had negated their numerical advantage by dividing their ships into four separate task groups, all too widely separated to be able to support each other. This dispersal resulted in few fast ships being available to escort the Carrier Striking Force, reducing the number of anti-aircraft guns protecting the carriers. Nimitz calculated that the aircraft on his three carriers, plus those on Midway Island, gave the U.S. rough parity with Yamamoto 's four carriers, mainly because American carrier air groups were larger than Japanese ones. The Japanese, by contrast, remained mainly unaware of their opponent 's true strength and dispositions even after the battle began.
At about 09: 00 on 3 June, Ensign Jack Reid, piloting a PBY from U.S. Navy patrol squadron VP - 44, spotted the Japanese Occupation Force 500 nautical miles (580 miles; 930 kilometres) to the west - southwest of Midway. He mistakenly reported this group as the Main Force.
Nine B - 17s took off from Midway at 12: 30 for the first air attack. Three hours later, they found Tanaka 's transport group 570 nautical miles (660 miles; 1,060 kilometres) to the west.
Under heavy anti-aircraft fire, they dropped their bombs. Although their crews reported hitting 4 ships, none of the bombs actually hit anything and no significant damage was inflicted. Early the following morning, the Japanese oil tanker Akebono Maru sustained the first hit when a torpedo from an attacking PBY struck her around 01: 00. This was the only successful air - launched torpedo attack by the U.S. during the entire battle.
At 04: 30 on 4 June, Nagumo launched his initial attack on Midway itself, consisting of 36 Aichi D3A dive bombers and 36 Nakajima B5N torpedo bombers, escorted by 36 Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters. At the same time, he launched his 8 search aircraft (one from the heavy cruiser Tone launched 30 minutes late). Japanese reconnaissance arrangements were flimsy, with too few aircraft to adequately cover the assigned search areas, laboring under poor weather conditions to the northeast and east of the task force. As Nagumo 's bombers and fighters were taking off, 11 PBYs were leaving Midway to run their search patterns. At 05: 34, a PBY reported sighting 2 Japanese carriers and another spotted the inbound airstrike 10 minutes later.
Midway 's radar picked up the enemy at a distance of several miles, and interceptors were scrambled. Unescorted bombers headed off to attack the Japanese carriers, their fighter escorts remaining behind to defend Midway. At 06: 20, Japanese carrier aircraft bombed and heavily damaged the U.S. base. Midway - based Marine fighters led by Major Floyd B. Parks, which included 6 F4Fs and 20 F2As, intercepted the Japanese and suffered heavy losses, though they managed to destroy 4 B5Ns, as well as a single A6M. Within the first few minutes, 2 F4Fs and 13 F2As were destroyed, while most of the surviving U.S. planes were damaged, with only 2 remaining airworthy. American anti-aircraft fire was intense and accurate, destroying 3 additional Japanese aircraft and damaging many more.
Of the 108 Japanese aircraft involved in this attack, 11 were destroyed (including 3 that ditched), 14 were heavily damaged, and 29 were damaged to some degree. The initial Japanese attack did not succeed in neutralizing Midway: American bombers could still use the airbase to refuel and attack the Japanese invasion force, and most of Midway 's land - based defenses were intact. Japanese pilots reported to Nagumo that a second aerial attack on Midway 's defenses would be necessary if troops were to go ashore by 7 June.
Having taken off prior to the Japanese attack, American bombers based on Midway made several attacks on the Japanese carrier force. These included 6 Grumman Avengers, detached to Midway from Hornet 's VT - 8 (Midway was the combat debut of both VT - 8 and the TBF); Marine Scout - Bombing Squadron 241 (VMSB - 241), consisting of 11 SB2U - 3s and 16 SBDs, plus 4 USAAF B - 26s of the 18th Reconnaissance and 69th Bomb Squadrons armed with torpedoes, and 15 B - 17s of the 31st, 72nd, and 431st Bomb Squadrons. The Japanese repelled these attacks, losing 3 fighters while destroying 5 TBFs, 2 SB2Us, 8 SBDs, and 2 B - 26s. Among the dead was Major Lofton R. Henderson of VMSB - 241, killed while leading his inexperienced Dauntless squadron into action. The main airfield at Guadalcanal was named after him in August 1942.
One B - 26, after being seriously damaged by anti-aircraft fire, made a suicide run on Akagi. Making no attempt to pull out of its run, the aircraft narrowly missed crashing directly into the carrier 's bridge, which could have killed Nagumo and his command staff. This experience may well have contributed to Nagumo 's determination to launch another attack on Midway, in direct violation of Yamamoto 's order to keep the reserve strike force armed for anti-ship operations.
In accordance with Japanese carrier doctrine at the time, Admiral Nagumo had kept half of his aircraft in reserve. These comprised two squadrons each of dive bombers and torpedo bombers. The dive bombers were as yet unarmed. The torpedo bombers were armed with torpedoes should any American warships be located.
At 07: 15, Nagumo ordered his reserve planes to be re-armed with contact - fused general purpose bombs for use against land targets. This was a result of the attacks from Midway, as well as of the morning flight leader 's recommendation of a second strike. Re-arming had been underway for about 30 minutes when, at 07: 40, the delayed scout plane from Tone signaled that it had sighted a sizable American naval force to the east, but neglected to describe its composition. Later evidence suggests Nagumo did not receive the sighting report until 08: 00.
Nagumo quickly reversed his order to re-arm the bombers with general purpose bombs and demanded that the scout plane ascertain the composition of the American force. Another 20 -- 40 minutes elapsed before Tone 's scout finally radioed the presence of a single carrier in the American force. This was one of the carriers from Task Force 16. The other carrier was not sighted.
Nagumo was now in a quandary. Rear Admiral Tamon Yamaguchi, leading Carrier Division 2 (Hiryū and Sōryū), recommended that Nagumo strike immediately with the forces at hand: 18 Aichi D3A1 dive bombers each on Sōryū and Hiryū, and half the ready cover patrol aircraft. Nagumo 's opportunity to hit the American ships was now limited by the imminent return of his Midway strike force. The returning strike force needed to land promptly or it would have to ditch into the sea. Because of the constant flight deck activity associated with combat air patrol operations during the preceding hour, the Japanese never had an opportunity to position ("spot '') their reserve planes on the flight deck for launch.
The few aircraft on the Japanese flight decks at the time of the attack were either defensive fighters or, in the case of Sōryū, fighters being spotted to augment the Combat Air Patrol. Spotting his flight decks and launching aircraft would have required at least 30 minutes. Furthermore, by spotting and launching immediately, Nagumo would be committing some of his reserve to battle without proper anti-ship armament, and likely without fighter escort; indeed, he had just witnessed how easily unescorted American bombers had been shot down.
Japanese carrier doctrine preferred the launching of fully constituted strikes rather than piecemeal attacks. Without confirmation of whether the American force included carriers (not received until 08: 20), Nagumo 's reaction was doctrinaire. In addition, the arrival of another land - based American air strike at 07: 53 gave weight to the need to attack the island again. In the end, Nagumo decided to wait for his first strike force to land, then launch the reserve, which would by then be properly armed with torpedoes.
In the final analysis, it made no difference; Fletcher 's carriers had launched their planes beginning at 07: 00 (with Enterprise and Hornet having completed launching by 07: 55, but Yorktown not until 09: 08), so the aircraft that would deliver the crushing blow were already on their way. Even if Nagumo had not strictly followed carrier doctrine, he could not have prevented the launch of the American attack.
The Americans had already launched their carrier aircraft against the Japanese. Fletcher, in overall command aboard Yorktown, and benefiting from PBY sighting reports from the early morning, ordered Spruance to launch against the Japanese as soon as was practical, while initially holding Yorktown in reserve in case any other Japanese carriers were found.
Spruance judged that, though the range was extreme, a strike could succeed and gave the order to launch the attack. He then left Halsey 's Chief of Staff, Captain Miles Browning, to work out the details and oversee the launch. The carriers had to launch into the wind, so the light southeasterly breeze would require them to steam away from the Japanese at high speed. Browning therefore suggested a launch time of 07: 00, giving the carriers an hour to close on the Japanese at 25 knots (46 km / h; 29 mph). This would place them at about 155 nautical miles (287 km; 178 mi) from the Japanese fleet, assuming it did not change course. The first plane took off from Spruance 's carriers Enterprise and Hornet a few minutes after 07: 00. Fletcher, upon completing his own scouting flights, followed suit at 08: 00 from Yorktown.
Fletcher, along with Yorktown 's commanding officer, Captain Elliott Buckmaster, and their staffs, had acquired first - hand experience in organizing and launching a full strike against an enemy force in the Coral Sea, but there was no time to pass these lessons on to Enterprise and Hornet which were tasked with launching the first strike. Spruance ordered the striking aircraft to proceed to target immediately, rather than waste time waiting for the strike force to assemble, since neutralizing enemy carriers was the key to the survival of his own task force.
While the Japanese were able to launch 108 aircraft in just seven minutes, it took Enterprise and Hornet over an hour to launch 117. Spruance judged that the need to throw something at the enemy as soon as possible was greater than the need to coordinate the attack by aircraft of different types and speeds (fighters, bombers, and torpedo bombers). Accordingly, American squadrons were launched piecemeal and proceeded to the target in several different groups. It was accepted that the lack of coordination would diminish the impact of the American attacks and increase their casualties, but Spruance calculated that this was worthwhile, since keeping the Japanese under aerial attack impaired their ability to launch a counterstrike (Japanese tactics preferred fully constituted attacks), and he gambled that he would find Nagumo with his flight decks at their most vulnerable.
American carrier aircraft had difficulty locating the target, despite the positions they had been given. The strike from Hornet, led by Commander Stanhope C. Ring, followed an incorrect heading of 265 degrees rather than the 240 degrees indicated by the contact report. As a result, Air Group Eight 's dive bombers missed the Japanese carriers. Torpedo Squadron 8 (VT - 8, from Hornet), led by Lieutenant Commander John C. Waldron, broke formation from Ring and followed the correct heading. The 10 F4Fs from Hornet ran out of fuel and had to ditch.
Waldron 's squadron sighted the enemy carriers and began attacking at 09: 20, followed at 09: 40 by VT - 6 from Enterprise, whose Wildcat fighter escorts lost contact, ran low on fuel, and had to turn back. Without fighter escort, all 15 TBD Devastators of VT - 8 were shot down without being able to inflict any damage. Ensign George H. Gay, Jr. was the only survivor of the 30 aircrew of VT - 8. VT - 6 lost 10 of its 14 Devastators, and 10 of 12 Devastators from Yorktown 's VT - 3 (who attacked at 10: 10) were shot down with no hits to show for their effort, thanks in part to the abysmal performance of their unimproved Mark 13 torpedoes. Midway was the last time the TBD Devastator was used in combat.
The Japanese combat air patrol, flying Mitsubishi A6M2 Zeros, made short work of the unescorted, slow, under - armed TBDs. A few TBDs managed to get within a few ship - lengths range of their targets before dropping their torpedoes -- close enough to be able to strafe the enemy ships and force the Japanese carriers to make sharp evasive maneuvers -- but all of their torpedoes either missed or failed to explode. Remarkably, senior Navy and Bureau of Ordnance officers never questioned why half a dozen torpedoes, released so close to the Japanese carriers, produced no results. The performance of American torpedoes in the early months of the war was scandalous, as shot after shot missed by running directly under the target (deeper than intended), prematurely exploded, or hit targets (sometimes with an audible clang) and failed to explode at all.
Despite their failure to score any hits, the American torpedo attacks achieved three important results. First, they kept the Japanese carriers off balance and unable to prepare and launch their own counterstrike. Second, the poor control of the Japanese combat air patrol (CAP) meant they were out of position for subsequent attacks. Third, many of the Zeros ran low on ammunition and fuel. The appearance of a third torpedo plane attack from the southeast by VT - 3 from Yorktown at 10: 00 very quickly drew the majority of the Japanese CAP to the southeast quadrant of the fleet. Better discipline, and the employment of a greater number of Zeroes for the CAP might have enabled Nagumo to prevent (or at least mitigate) the damage caused by the coming American attacks.
By chance, at the same time VT - 3 was sighted by the Japanese, three squadrons of SBDs from Enterprise and Yorktown were approaching from the southwest and northeast. The Yorktown squadron (VB - 3) had flown just behind VT - 3, but elected to attack from a different course. The two squadrons from Enterprise (VB - 6 and VS - 6) were running low on fuel because of the time spent looking for the enemy. Air Group Commander C. Wade McClusky, Jr. decided to continue the search, and by good fortune spotted the wake of the Japanese destroyer Arashi, steaming at full speed to rejoin Nagumo 's carriers after having unsuccessfully depth - charged U.S. submarine Nautilus, which had unsuccessfully attacked the battleship Kirishima. Some bombers were lost from fuel exhaustion before the attack commenced.
McClusky 's decision to continue the search and his judgment, in the opinion of Admiral Chester Nimitz, "decided the fate of our carrier task force and our forces at Midway... '' All three American dive - bomber squadrons (VB - 6, VS - 6 and VB - 3) arrived almost simultaneously at the perfect time, locations and altitudes to attack. Most of the Japanese CAP was focusing on the torpedo planes of VT - 3 and were out of position, armed Japanese strike aircraft filled the hangar decks, fuel hoses snaked across the decks as refueling operations were hastily being completed, and the repeated change of ordnance meant that bombs and torpedoes were stacked around the hangars, rather than stowed safely in the magazines, making the Japanese carriers extraordinarily vulnerable.
Beginning at 10: 22, the two squadrons of Enterprise 's air group split up with the intention of sending one squadron each to attack Kaga and Akagi. A miscommunication caused both of the squadrons to dive at the Kaga. Recognizing the error, Lieutenant Richard Halsey Best and his two wingmen were able to pull out of their dives and, after judging that Kaga was doomed, headed north to attack Akagi. Coming under an onslaught of bombs from almost two full squadrons, Kaga sustained four or five direct hits, which caused heavy damage and started multiple fires. One of the bombs landed near the bridge, killing Captain Jisaku Okada and most of the ship 's senior officers. Lieutenant Clarence E. Dickinson, part of McClusky 's group, recalled:
We were coming down in all directions on the port side of the carrier... I recognized her as the Kaga; and she was enormous... The target was utterly satisfying... I saw a bomb hit just behind where I was aiming... I saw the deck rippling and curling back in all directions exposing a great section of the hangar below... I saw (my) 500 - pound bomb hit right abreast of the (carrier 's) island. The two 100 - pound bombs struck in the forward area of the parked planes...
Several minutes later, Best and his two wingmen dove on the Akagi. Mitsuo Fuchida, the Japanese aviator who had led the attack on Pearl Harbor, was on the Akagi when it was hit, and described the attack:
A look - out screamed: "Hell - Divers! '' I looked up to see three black enemy planes plummeting towards our ship. Some of our machineguns managed to fire a few frantic bursts at them, but it was too late. The plump silhouettes of the American Dauntless dive - bombers quickly grew larger, and then a number of black objects suddenly floated eerily from their wings.
Although Akagi sustained only one direct hit (almost certainly dropped by Lieutenant Best), it proved to be a fatal blow: the bomb struck the edge of the mid-ship deck elevator and penetrated to the upper hangar deck, where it exploded among the armed and fueled aircraft in the vicinity. Nagumo 's chief of staff, Ryūnosuke Kusaka, recorded "a terrific fire... bodies all over the place... Planes stood tail up, belching livid flames and jet - black smoke, making it impossible to bring the fires under control. '' Another bomb exploded under water very close astern; the resulting geyser bent the flight deck upward "in grotesque configurations '' and caused crucial rudder damage.
Simultaneously, Yorktown 's VB - 3, commanded by Max Leslie, went for Sōryū, scoring at least three hits and causing extensive damage. Some of Leslie 's bombers did not have bombs as they were accidentally released when the pilots attempted to use electrical arming switches. Nevertheless, Leslie and others still dove, strafing carrier decks and providing cover for those who had bombs. Gasoline ignited, creating an "inferno '', while stacked bombs and ammunition detonated. VT - 3 targeted Hiryū, which was hemmed in by Sōryū, Kaga, and Akagi, but achieved no hits.
Within six minutes, Sōryū and Kaga were ablaze from stem to stern, as fires spread through the ships. Akagi, having been struck by only one bomb, took longer to burn, but the resulting fires quickly expanded and soon proved impossible to extinguish; she too was eventually consumed by flames and had to be abandoned. All three carriers remained temporarily afloat, as none had suffered damage below the waterline, other than the rudder damage to Akagi caused by the near miss close astern. Despite initial hopes that Akagi could be saved or at least towed back to Japan, all three carriers were eventually abandoned and scuttled.
Hiryū, the sole surviving Japanese aircraft carrier, wasted little time in counterattacking. Hiryū 's first attack wave, consisting of 18 D3As and 6 fighter escorts, followed the retreating American aircraft and attacked the first carrier they encountered, Yorktown, hitting her with three bombs, which blew a hole in the deck, snuffed out all but one of her boilers, and destroyed one anti-aircraft mount. The damage also forced Admiral Fletcher to move his command staff to the heavy cruiser Astoria. Damage control parties were able to temporarily patch the flight deck and restore power to several boilers within an hour, giving her a speed of 19 knots (35 km / h; 22 mph) and enabling her to resume air operations. Thirteen Japanese dive bombers and three escorting fighters were lost in this attack (two escorting fighters turned back early after they were damaged attacking some of Enterprise 's SBDs returning from their attack on the Japanese carriers).
Approximately one hour later, Hiryū 's second attack wave, consisting of ten B5Ns and six escorting A6Ms, arrived over Yorktown; the repair efforts had been so effective that the Japanese pilots assumed that Yorktown must be a different, undamaged carrier. They attacked, crippling Yorktown with two torpedoes; she lost all power and developed a 23 - degree list to port. Five torpedo bombers and two fighters were shot down in this attack.
News of the two strikes, with the mistaken reports that each had sunk an American carrier, greatly improved Japanese morale. The few surviving aircraft were all recovered aboard Hiryū. Despite the heavy losses, the Japanese believed that they could scrape together enough aircraft for one more strike against what they believed to be the only remaining American carrier.
Late in the afternoon, a Yorktown scout aircraft located Hiryū, prompting Enterprise to launch a final strike of 24 dive bombers (including 6 SBDs from VS - 6, 4 SBDs from VB - 6, and 14 SBDs from Yorktown 's VB - 3). Despite Hiryū being defended by a strong cover of more than a dozen Zero fighters, the attack by Enterprise and orphaned Yorktown aircraft launched from Enterprise was successful: four bombs (possibly five) hit Hiryū, leaving her ablaze and unable to operate aircraft. Hornet 's strike, launched late because of a communications error, concentrated on the remaining escort ships, but failed to score any hits.
After futile attempts at controlling the blaze, most of the crew remaining on Hiryū were evacuated and the remainder of the fleet continued sailing northeast in an attempt to intercept the American carriers. Despite a scuttling attempt by a Japanese destroyer that hit her with a torpedo and then departed quickly, Hiryū stayed afloat for several more hours, being discovered early the next morning by an aircraft from the escort carrier Hōshō and prompting hopes she could be saved, or at least towed back to Japan. Soon after being spotted, Hiryū sank. Rear - Admiral Tamon Yamaguchi, together with the ship 's captain, Tomeo Kaku, chose to go down with the ship, costing Japan perhaps its best carrier officer.
As darkness fell, both sides took stock and made tentative plans for continuing the action. Admiral Fletcher, obliged to abandon the derelict Yorktown and feeling he could not adequately command from a cruiser, ceded operational command to Spruance. Spruance knew the United States had won a great victory, but he was still unsure of what Japanese forces remained and was determined to safeguard both Midway and his carriers. To aid his aviators, who had launched at extreme range, he had continued to close with Nagumo during the day and persisted as night fell.
Finally, fearing a possible night encounter with Japanese surface forces, and believing Yamamoto still intended to invade, based in part on a misleading contact report from the submarine Tambor, Spruance changed course and withdrew to the east, turning back west towards the enemy at midnight. For his part, Yamamoto initially decided to continue the engagement and sent his remaining surface forces searching eastward for the American carriers. Simultaneously, he detached a cruiser raiding force to bombard the island. The Japanese surface forces failed to make contact with the Americans because Spruance had decided to briefly withdraw eastward, and Yamamoto ordered a general withdrawal to the west. It was fortunate Spruance did not pursue, for had he come in contact with Yamamoto 's heavy ships, including Yamato, in the dark and considering the Japanese Navy 's superiority in night - attack tactics at the time, there is a very high probability his cruisers would have been overwhelmed and his carriers sunk.
Spruance failed to regain contact with Yamamoto 's forces on 5 June, despite extensive searches. Towards the end of the day he launched a search - and - destroy mission to seek out any remnants of Nagumo 's carrier force. This late afternoon strike narrowly missed detecting Yamamoto 's main body and failed to score hits on a straggling Japanese destroyer. The strike planes returned to the carriers after nightfall, prompting Spruance to order Enterprise and Hornet to turn on their lights to aid the landings.
At 02: 15 on the night of 5 / 6 June, Commander John Murphy 's Tambor, lying 90 nautical miles (170 km; 100 mi) west of Midway, made the second of the submarine force 's two major contributions to the battle 's outcome, although its impact was heavily blunted by Murphy himself. Sighting several ships, neither Murphy nor his executive officer, Edward Spruance (son of Admiral Spruance), could identify them. Uncertain of whether they were friendly or not and unwilling to approach any closer to verify their heading or type, Murphy decided to send a vague report of "four large ships '' to Admiral Robert English, Commander, Submarine Force, Pacific Fleet (COMSUBPAC). This report was passed on by English to Nimitz, who then sent it to Spruance. Spruance, a former submarine commander, was "understandably furious '' at the vagueness of Murphy 's report, as it provided him with little more than suspicion and no concrete information on which to make his preparations. Unaware of the exact location of Yamamoto 's "Main Body '' (a persistent problem since the time PBYs had first sighted the Japanese), Spruance was forced to assume the "four large ships '' reported by Tambor represented the main invasion force and so he moved to block it, while staying 100 nautical miles (190 km; 120 mi) northeast of Midway.
In reality, the ships sighted by Tambor were the detachment of four cruisers and two destroyers Yamamoto had sent to bombard Midway. At 02: 55, these ships received Yamamoto 's order to retire and changed course to comply. At about the same time as this change of course, Tambor was sighted and during maneuvers designed to avoid a submarine attack, the heavy cruisers Mogami and Mikuma collided, inflicting serious damage on Mogami 's bow. The less severely damaged Mikuma slowed to 12 knots (22 km / h; 14 mph) to keep pace. Only at 04: 12 did the sky brighten enough for Murphy to be certain the ships were Japanese, by which time staying surfaced was hazardous and he dived to approach for an attack. The attack was unsuccessful and at around 06: 00 he finally reported two westbound Mogami - class cruisers, before diving again and playing no further role in the battle. Limping along on a straight course at 12 knots -- roughly one - third their top speed -- Mogami and Mikuma had been almost perfect targets for a submarine attack. As soon as Tambor returned to port, Spruance had Murphy relieved of duty and reassigned to a shore station, citing his confusing contact report, poor torpedo shooting during his attack run, and general lack of aggression, especially as compared to Nautilus, the oldest of the 12 boats at Midway and the only one which had successfully placed a torpedo on target (albeit a dud).
Over the following two days, several strikes were launched against the stragglers, first from Midway, then from Spruance 's carriers. Mikuma was eventually sunk by Dauntlesses, while Mogami survived further severe damage to return home for repairs. The destroyers Arashio and Asashio were also bombed and strafed during the last of these attacks. Captain Richard E. Fleming, a U.S. Marine Corps aviator, was killed while executing a glide bomb run on Mikuma and was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor.
Meanwhile, salvage efforts on Yorktown were encouraging, and she was taken in tow by USS Vireo. In the late afternoon of 6 June, the Japanese submarine I - 168, which had managed to slip through the cordon of destroyers (possibly because of the large amount of debris in the water), fired a salvo of torpedoes, two of which struck Yorktown. There were few casualties aboard, since most of the crew had already been evacuated, but a third torpedo from this salvo struck the destroyer USS Hammann, which had been providing auxiliary power to Yorktown. Hammann broke in two and sank with the loss of 80 lives, mostly because her own depth charges exploded. With further salvage efforts deemed hopeless, the remaining repair crews were evacuated from Yorktown, which sank just after 05: 00 on 7 June.
By the time the battle ended, 3,057 Japanese had died. Casualties aboard the four carriers were: Akagi: 267; Kaga: 811; Hiryū: 392; Soryū: 711 (including Captain Yanagimoto, who chose to remain on board); a total of 2,181. The heavy cruisers Mikuma (sunk; 700 casualties) and Mogami (badly damaged; 92) accounted for another 792 deaths.
In addition, the destroyers Arashio (bombed; 35) and Asashio (strafed by aircraft; 21) were both damaged during the air attacks which sank Mikuma and caused further damage to Mogami. Floatplanes were lost from the cruisers Chikuma (3) and Tone (2). Dead aboard the destroyers Tanikaze (11), Arashi (1), Kazagumo (1) and the fleet oiler Akebono Maru (10) made up the remaining 23 casualties.
At the end of the battle, the U.S. lost the carrier Yorktown and a destroyer. 307 Americans had been killed, including Major General Clarence L. Tinker, Commander, 7th Air Force, who personally led a bomber strike from Hawaii against the retreating Japanese forces on 7 June. He was killed when his aircraft crashed near Midway Island.
After winning a clear victory, and as pursuit became too hazardous near Wake, American forces retired. Spruance once again withdrew to the east to refuel his destroyers and rendezvous with the carrier Saratoga, which was ferrying much - needed replacement aircraft. Fletcher transferred his flag to Saratoga on the afternoon of 8 June and resumed command of the carrier force. For the remainder of that day and then 9 June, Fletcher continued to launch search missions from the three carriers to ensure the Japanese were no longer advancing on Midway. Late on 10 June a decision was made to leave the area and the American carriers eventually returned to Pearl Harbor.
Historian Samuel E. Morison noted in 1949 that Spruance was subjected to much criticism for not pursuing the retreating Japanese, thus allowing their surface fleet to escape. Clay Blair argued in 1975 that had Spruance pressed on, he would have been unable to launch his aircraft after nightfall, and his cruisers would have been overwhelmed by Yamamoto 's powerful surface units, including Yamato. Furthermore, the American air groups had suffered considerable losses, including most of their torpedo bombers. This made it unlikely that they would be effective in an airstrike against the Japanese battleships, even if they had managed to catch them during daytime. Also, by this time Spruance 's destroyers were critically low on fuel.
On 10 June, the Imperial Japanese Navy conveyed to the military liaison conference an incomplete picture of the results of the battle. Chūichi Nagumo 's detailed battle report was submitted to the high command on 15 June. It was intended only for the highest echelons in the Japanese Navy and government, and was guarded closely throughout the war. In it, one of the more striking revelations is the comment on the Mobile Force Commander 's (Nagumo 's) estimates: "The enemy is not aware of our plans (we were not discovered until early in the morning of the 5th at the earliest). '' In reality, the whole operation had been compromised from the beginning by American code - breaking efforts.
The Japanese public and much of the military command structure were kept in the dark about the extent of the defeat: Japanese news announced a great victory. Only Emperor Hirohito and the highest Navy command personnel were accurately informed of the carrier and pilot losses. Consequently, even the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) continued to believe, for at least a short time, that the fleet was in good condition.
On the return of the Japanese fleet to Hashirajima on 14 June the wounded were immediately transferred to naval hospitals; most were classified as "secret patients '', placed in isolation wards and quarantined from other patients and their own families to keep this major defeat secret. The remaining officers and men were quickly dispersed to other units of the fleet and, without being allowed to see family or friends, were shipped to units in the South Pacific, where the majority died in battle. None of the flag officers or staff of the Combined Fleet were penalized, with Nagumo later being placed in command of the rebuilt carrier force.
As a result of the defeat, new procedures were adopted whereby more Japanese aircraft were refueled and re-armed on the flight deck, rather than in the hangars, and the practice of draining all unused fuel lines was adopted. The new carriers being built were redesigned to incorporate only two flight deck elevators and new firefighting equipment. More carrier crew members were trained in damage - control and firefighting techniques, although the losses later in the war of Shōkaku, Hiyō, and especially Taihō suggest that there were still problems in this area.
Replacement pilots were pushed through an abbreviated training regimen in order to meet the short - term needs of the fleet. This led to a sharp decline in the quality of the aviators produced. These inexperienced pilots were fed into front - line units, while the veterans who remained after Midway and the Solomons campaign were forced to share an increased workload as conditions grew more desperate, with few being given a chance to rest in rear areas or in the home islands. As a result, Japanese naval air groups as a whole progressively deteriorated during the war while their American adversaries continued to improve.
Three U.S. airmen, Ensign Wesley Osmus, a pilot from Yorktown; Ensign Frank O'Flaherty, a pilot from Enterprise; and Aviation Machinist 's Mate Bruno F. (or P.) Gaido, the radioman - gunner of O'Flaherty's SBD, were captured by the Japanese during the battle. Osmus was held on Arashi; O'Flaherty and Gaido on the cruiser Nagara (or destroyer Makigumo, sources vary); all three were interrogated, and then killed by being tied to water - filled kerosene cans and thrown overboard to drown. The report filed by Nagumo tersely states of Ensign Osmus, "He died on 6 June and was buried at sea ''; O'Flaherty and Gaido 's fates were not mentioned in Nagumo 's report. The execution of Ensign Wesley Osmus in this manner was apparently ordered by Arashi 's captain, Watanabe Yasumasa (if Watanabe had survived the war, rather than having died when the destroyer Numakaze sank in December 1943, he would have likely been tried as a war criminal).
Two enlisted men from Mikuma were rescued from a life raft on 9 June by USS Trout and brought to Pearl Harbor. After receiving medical care, at least one of these sailors cooperated during interrogation and provided intelligence. Another 35 crewmen from Hiryū were taken from a lifeboat by USS Ballard on 19 June after being spotted by an American search plane. They were brought to Midway and then transferred to Pearl Harbor on USS Sirius.
The Battle of Midway has often been called "the turning point of the Pacific ''. It was the Allies ' first major naval victory against the Japanese, won despite the Japanese Navy having more forces and experience than its American counterpart. Had Japan won the battle as thoroughly as the U.S. did, it might have been able to conquer Midway Island. Saratoga would have been the only American carrier in the Pacific, with no new ones being completed before the end of 1942. While the U.S. would probably not have sought peace with Japan as Yamamoto hoped, his country might have revived Operation FS to invade and occupy Fiji and Samoa; attacked Australia, Alaska, and Ceylon; or even attempted to conquer Hawaii.
Although the Japanese continued to try to secure more territory, and the U.S. did not move from a state of naval parity to one of supremacy until after several more months of hard combat, Midway allowed the Allies to switch to the strategic initiative, paving the way for the landings on Guadalcanal and the prolonged attrition of the Solomon Islands campaign. Midway allowed this to occur before the first of the new Essex - class fleet carriers became available at the end of 1942. The Guadalcanal Campaign is also regarded by some as a turning point in the Pacific War.
Some authors have stated that heavy losses in carriers and veteran aircrews at Midway permanently weakened the Imperial Japanese Navy. Parshall and Tully have stated that the heavy losses in veteran aircrew (110, just under 25 % of the aircrew embarked on the four carriers) were not crippling to the Japanese naval air corps as a whole; the Japanese navy had 2,000 carrier - qualified aircrew at the start of the Pacific war. The loss of four large fleet carriers and over 40 % of the carriers ' highly trained aircraft mechanics and technicians, plus the essential flight - deck crews and armorers, and the loss of organizational knowledge embodied in such highly trained crews, were still heavy blows to the Japanese carrier fleet. A few months after Midway, the JNAF sustained similar casualty rates in the Battle of the Eastern Solomons and Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands, and it was these battles, combined with the constant attrition of veterans during the Solomons campaign, which were the catalyst for the sharp downward spiral in operational capability.
After the battle, Shōkaku and Zuikaku were the only large carriers of the original Pearl Harbor strike force left for offensive actions. Of Japan 's other carriers, Taihō, which was not commissioned until early 1944, would be the only fleet carrier worth teaming with Shōkaku and Zuikaku; Ryūjō and Zuihō were light carriers, while Jun'yō and Hiyō, although technically classified as fleet carriers, were second - rate ships of comparatively limited effectiveness. In the time it took Japan to build three carriers, the U.S. Navy commissioned more than two dozen fleet and light fleet carriers, and numerous escort carriers. By 1942 the United States was already three years into a shipbuilding program mandated by the Second Vinson Act, intended to make the navy larger than all the Axis navies combined, plus the British and French navies, which it was feared might fall into Axis hands.
Both the United States and Japan accelerated the training of aircrew, but the United States had a more effective pilot rotation system, which meant that more veterans survived and went on to training or command billets, where they were able to pass on lessons they had learned in training, instead of remaining in combat, where errors were more likely to be fatal. By the time of the Battle of the Philippine Sea in June 1944, the Japanese had nearly rebuilt their carrier forces in terms of numbers, but their planes, many of which were obsolescent, were largely flown by inexperienced and poorly trained pilots.
Midway showed the worth of pre-war naval cryptanalysis and intelligence - gathering. These efforts continued and were expanded throughout the war in both the Pacific and Atlantic theaters. Successes were numerous and significant. For instance, cryptanalysis made possible the shooting down of Admiral Yamamoto 's airplane in 1943.
The Battle of Midway redefined the central importance of air superiority for the remainder of the war when the Japanese suddenly lost their four main aircraft carriers and were forced to return home. Without any form of air superiority, the Japanese never again launched a major offensive in the Pacific.
Because of the extreme depth of the ocean in the area of the battle (more than 17,000 ft or 5,200 m), researching the battlefield has presented extraordinary difficulties. On 19 May 1998, Robert Ballard and a team of scientists and Midway veterans from both sides located and photographed Yorktown. The ship was remarkably intact for a vessel that had sunk in 1942; much of the original equipment and even the original paint scheme were still visible.
Ballard 's subsequent search for the Japanese carriers was unsuccessful. In September 1999, a joint expedition between Nauticos Corp. and the U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office searched for the Japanese aircraft carriers. Using advanced renavigation techniques in conjunction with the ship 's log of the submarine USS Nautilus, the expedition located a large piece of wreckage, subsequently identified as having come from the upper hangar deck of Kaga. The main wreck of Kaga has yet to be located.
Chicago Municipal Airport, important to the war effort in World War II, was renamed Chicago Midway International Airport (or simply Midway Airport) in 1949 in honor of the battle.
Waldron Field, an outlying training landing strip at Corpus Christi NAS, as well as Waldron Road leading to the strip, was named in honor of John C. Waldron, the commander of USS Hornet 's Torpedo Squadron 8. Yorktown Boulevard leading away from the strip was named for the U.S. carrier sunk in the battle.
Henderson Field (Guadalcanal) was named in honor of United States Marine Corps Major Lofton Henderson, who was the first Marine aviator to perish during the battle.
An escort carrier, USS Midway (CVE - 63) was commissioned on 17 August 1943. She was renamed St. Lo on 10 October 1944 to clear the name Midway for a large fleet aircraft carrier, USS Midway (CV - 41), which was commissioned on 10 September 1945, eight days after the Japanese surrender, and is now docked in San Diego, California, as the USS Midway Museum.
On 13 September 2000, Secretary of the Interior Bruce Babbitt designated the lands and waters of Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge as the Battle of Midway National Memorial.
|
what is jude's boyfriends name on the fosters | List of the Fosters characters - wikipedia
This list is of fictional characters in the ABC Family television series The Fosters. This article features the main, recurring and minor characters who have all appeared in more than one episode.
Stefanie "Stef '' Marie Adams Foster (season 1 -- present) is a police officer. She and Mike Foster, her partner at work, are Brandon 's biological parents. They divorced shortly after Stef met Lena and realized she 's a lesbian and wanted to be with her. In a flashback in episode 9, when she first met the twins, it is shown that she has a very caring nature despite her tough appearance. At the end of episode 1x10, Stef and Lena are officially married, legally cementing their long - term union of ten years. Stef is very strong and tough, but is also very funny and loving. Callie initially does n't feel comfortable around her due to her position as a cop, but gradually forms a close bond with her. While Stef likes to act tough around everyone, especially Lena, it is shown that she cares a great deal about her wife and family, although she wo n't hesitate to discipline her kids if need be.
Lena Elizabeth Adams Foster (season 1 -- present) is Stef 's wife, Brandon 's stepmother, and the other children 's adoptive / foster mother. While neither she or Stef are really the dominant one in their relationship, Lena has a more motherly nature. She is good with kids and tries often to reason with her kids more so than punish them, despite Stef 's usually "quick to act '' nature. She is the biracial vice principal of the charter school the kids attend. In episode 8, she and Stef get into a fight about Lena wanting to be married and never discussing it, showing that while she is more a lover than a fighter she will defend herself, but more so around Stef than anyone else. It was Lena who decided to take Callie in after she was released from the juvenile detention center. Lena is very aware of the people around her and takes on the role of caring mother to all of the kids. She is artificially inseminated with co-worker Timothy 's sperm, desiring to have a biological child of her own, and finds out she is pregnant shortly afterwards in the season 1 finale. However, in season 2, she is diagnosed with life - threatening preeclampisa and, consequently, loses the baby. Lena and Stef are thinking of adopting Ana 's baby (Maraina and Jesus birth monther) but they do n't and now Ana has the baby (her name is Isabella). Stef and Lena are getting a divorce to save their house. Then they get married again.
Jesus Adams Foster "(season 1 -- present) 16, was one of the twins that Lena and Stef fostered as children and eventually adopted. He is the more laid - back of the twins. He had ADHD, for which he took medication. After a fainting spell caused by his pills in "House and Home '', he decided with the suggestion of Mike to join the wrestling team to cope with negative effects of ADHD. He is close with his sister as they were both in the foster care system and he acted as her protector; however their personalities and values clash occasionally, causing many arguments. He even went as far to take the blame for her selling his pills to have money for their birth mom, Ana, who he feels disgust and resentment towards because she chose drugs over him and his sister. He starts dating Mariana 's childhood best friend Lexi, in "Consequently '' after defending her from a guy. He falls out with his sister in "Quinceanera '' when she finds out he 's been secretly dating Lexi and feels betrayed by Jesus for doing so. They make up in "The Fall - Out ''. He has sex with Lexi once in "The Morning After ''. His relationship with Lexi is on hold when she moves back to Honduras because her grandmother is sick and her family can not find a way back as they are undocumented immigrants. He eventually moves on from their relationship and falls into a love triangle between wrestling mate Emma and popular girl Hayley.
Jude Adams Foster (season 1 -- present) is Callie 's 13 - year - old half brother, who Callie and Brandon rescue from an abusive foster home. He is a quiet child with somewhat more optimistic views on foster homes than Callie, though he has been moved from foster home to foster home along with his sister and been abused as well. Once he is moved into the Fosters ' home, he quickly begins to adjust to the new lifestyle and becomes more talkative and energetic. At school, he develops a close friendship with a handsome and kind - hearted boy named Connor, a growing relationship which prompts Jude to begin questioning his sexuality. As the series progresses, Jude turns 13 and is subsequently adopted by Lena and Stef, although a technicality regarding Callie 's birth certificate prevents her from being adopted along with him. He deals with the emotional impact of Callie becoming close to her biological family, but realizes that she will always be with him no matter what. He later develops a romance with his best friend, Connor, and the two begin dating in the season 2 finale. In the mid-season 3 finale the two admit they love each other for the first time after Connor considers moving to Los Angeles to live with his more accepting mother. Then a little more after that Taylor asked if Jude wanted to go to church then meets a boy named Noah then he asks Jude if he wants to try pot so they are not allowed to see each other but now they are. Jude and Noah are have some trouble.
Brandon Foster (season 1 -- present) is the 22 - year - old son of Stef and her ex-husband, Mike. He is one of Callie 's love interests. He is very talented musically, specifically with the piano, and writes piano pieces which he presents for chances at scholarships. He has been shown to have an unsteady relationship with his father, Mike, due to the fact that Mike is a struggling alcoholic and has disappointed him many times through his childhood and teen years. At the start of Season 1, Brandon has a girlfriend named Talya, but breaks up with her because of his growing feelings for Callie and his annoyance and anger at her harassment and jealousy directed at Callie. For most of the first season, Brandon continues to pursue Callie romantically, even though she warned him that she could be kicked out of the house if they got involved. Brandon continues to make reckless decisions, included violating a restraining order, in order to be with Callie. Ultimately, he accepts that Callie needs a family more than a relationship, and eventually agrees to a mutual break up. He eventually joins a band and begins a relationship with bandmate Lou.
Callie Adams Foster (season 1 -- present), 17, is one of the Foster family 's new foster children. Callie is headstrong and tough as a result of being in the foster system since she was a child, but holds a soft spot for her younger brother Jude. She was sent to Juvie for destroying a car in order to protect him from their foster father 's abuse. After she is released from Juvie and placed with the Fosters, Callie and Brandon rescue Jude, who is subsequently fostered by the Foster family as well. Callie has had a hard life -- her mother is dead and her father is in jail and she has been abused in many ways in the foster care system. She initially has trouble opening herself up to her new family, but she slowly comes to love and accept them as her "forever '' family. Initially, Callie opens up mainly to Brandon, and the two develop a romantic relationship, although it is forbidden by the rules of the foster system, which soon meets a heartbreaking end. Callie also holds an on - again, off - again relationship with a classmate named Wyatt. Unfortunately, after the Fosters decide to adopt Callie and Jude, Callie learns that the man she thought was her father (Donald Jacob) is not. She then pursues to meet her biological father, as well as her half - sister who looks as if she could be her identical twin. In the episode "Lucky '' from season 3, she is officially adopted and an "Adams Foster. ''
Michael "Mike '' Foster (season 1 -- present) is a San Diego police sergeant, Brandon 's father, and Stef 's ex-husband and ex-police patrol partner. As the series progresses, it is revealed that Mike has a drinking problem, but joins AA to cope with it. A frequent visitor to the Foster household, Mike is familiar with his son 's family. Toward the end of the first season, he started dating Dani, who helped him to keep his sobriety. However, he soon discovers that Dani had sex with a drunken Brandon one night and arrests her for statutory rape. Since then, Mike helps Ana come to terms with her addiction and live a clean life.
Mariana Adams Foster (season 1 -- present) is Jesus 's 16 - year - old twin sister. She was fostered as a young child, and eventually adopted, by Lena and Stef. She is very smart and girly, and cares about her appearance very much. She is popular and social, likes to gossip, and speaks Spanish fluently. She is naive when it comes to certain topics - especially her birth mother, but she smartens up about her when finally realizing she was using her for money. She changes herself for guys and friends like in "The Morning After '' when she sees that an old friend, Garrett is cute now and writes poetry, she goes to a Poetry Slam with him, and pierces her nose herself for him since he was hanging out with a girl who was dressed much edgier than Mariana. Also, in season 2, she dyes her hair blonde to fit in when making it on a dance team only to overhear the other girls say she only did because she is Latina. However, she eventually gains the confidence in herself to not give in to what other people say and make her feel. Mariana has a thing for the bad boys later on in the seasons and she gets caught up into some trouble. Her ex-boyfriend Nick gets put into a mental hospital because he was hearing voices.
|
who was the original singer of me and mrs jones | Me and Mrs. Jones - wikipedia
"Me and Mrs. Jones '' is a 1972 soul song written by Kenny Gamble, Leon Huff, and Cary Gilbert, and originally recorded by Billy Paul. It describes an extramarital affair between a man and his lover, Mrs. Jones. In the song, the two meet in secret "every day at the same cafe '', where they hold hands and talk. The two are caught in a quandary: "We both know that it 's wrong / But it 's much too strong / To let it go now ''.
"Me and Mrs. Jones '' was a # 1 single originally performed by Billy Paul, recorded and released in 1972 on CBS Records ' Philadelphia International imprint. The single, included on the album 360 Degrees of Billy Paul, was written by Cary ' Hippy ' Gilbert, Kenny Gamble, and Leon Huff.
The single became Paul 's only # 1 single on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100, peaking at that position for three weeks in December 1972. "Me and Mrs. Jones '' also achieved this feat on Billboard 's R&B Singles chart, remaining at the top position for four weeks. On the Hot 100, it replaced "Papa Was a Rollin ' Stone '' by The Temptations and was replaced by Carly Simon 's "You 're So Vain ''. It also hit # 10 on the Adult Contemporary chart. For two weeks - 3rd - 10th February 1973 - it peaked at number 12 on the UK Singles Chart.
The radio edit versions were shorter, omitting the second verse, as well as shortening the coda. The video clip of this song features Billy Paul playing piano in a recording session, while accompanied by dancers.
"Me and Mrs. Jones '' was recorded in 2007 by Canadian crooner Michael Bublé and released as the second single from his third major - label studio album, Call Me Irresponsible. The song is a collaboration with Bublé 's then - girlfriend, Emily Blunt, who appears at the end of the track to perform the final verse.
Bublé 's version of "Me and Mrs. Jones '' was well received by critics, with Okayplayer stating, "He skillfully portrays the pain of this song 's affair and his take on the final verse could stand with anyone else 's. '' Additionally, the single was promoted by its performance during Bublé 's AOL Sessions performances. The track has also been performed at many of his concerts. Due to his break - up with girlfriend Emily Blunt shortly before the release of the single, the release was cancelled, the physical single pulled, and little or no promotion for the song was undertaken. Thus, "Me and Mrs. Jones '' was not eligible to chart in any major music charts; however, it did chart in Switzerland due to strong downloads from the album.
A short promotional music video was first broadcast on French television channels during April 2007. The clip alternates between scenes of Bublé performing by the window, in the dark, as it rains, used in the official music video, and scenes of a blonde woman during a day at the beach, horseback riding and watching the sunset as the clip ends. The official music video was first broadcast during July 2007. It consists mainly of the scenes Bublé standing performing by the window, as seen in the French promotional clip. Some scenes show a brunette woman, representing "Mrs. Jones ''. Some shots from the promotional video of "Lost '' were also used, particularly the ones where Bublé is sitting on a white bed. The video was directed by Sean Turrell.
|
when was the first map of the world made | Early world maps - wikipedia
The earliest known world maps date to classical antiquity, the oldest examples of the 6th to 5th centuries BCE still based on the flat Earth paradigm. World maps assuming a spherical Earth first appear in the Hellenistic period. The developments of Greek geography during this time, notably by Eratosthenes and Posidonius culminated in the Roman era, with Ptolemy 's world map (2nd century CE), which would remain authoritative throughout the Middle Ages.
Since Ptolemy, knowledge of the approximate size of the globe allowed cartographers to estimate the extent of their geographical knowledge, and to indicate parts of the globe known to exist but not yet explored as terra incognita. With the Age of Discovery, during the 15th to 18th centuries, world maps became increasingly accurate; exploration of Antarctica and the interior of Africa was left to the 19th and early 20th century.
A Babylonian world map, known as the Imago Mundi, is commonly dated to the 6th century BCE. The map as reconstructed by Eckhard Unger shows Babylon on the Euphrates, surrounded by a circular landmass showing Assyria, Urartu (Armenia) and several cities, in turn surrounded by a "bitter river '' (Oceanus), with seven islands arranged around it so as to form a seven - pointed star. The accompanying text mentions seven outer regions beyond the encircling ocean. The descriptions of five of them have survived:
Anaximander (died c. 546 BCE) is credited with having created one of the first maps of the world, which was circular in form and showed the known lands of the world grouped around the Aegean Sea at the center. This was all surrounded by the ocean.
Hecataeus of Miletus (died c. 476 BCE) is credited with a work entitled Ges Periodos ("Travels round the Earth '' or "World Survey '), in two books each organized in the manner of a periplus, a point - to - point coastal survey. One on Europe, is essentially a periplus of the Mediterranean, describing each region in turn, reaching as far north as Scythia. The other book, on Asia, is arranged similarly to the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea of which a version of the 1st century CE survives. Hecataeus described the countries and inhabitants of the known world, the account of Egypt being particularly comprehensive; the descriptive matter was accompanied by a map, based upon Anaximander 's map of the earth, which he corrected and enlarged. The work only survives in some 374 fragments, by far the majority being quoted in the geographical lexicon Ethnika compiled by Stephanus of Byzantium.
Eratosthenes (276 -- 194 BCE) drew an improved world map, incorporating information from the campaigns of Alexander the Great and his successors. Asia became wider, reflecting the new understanding of the actual size of the continent. Eratosthenes was also the first geographer to incorporate parallels and meridians within his cartographic depictions, attesting to his understanding of the spherical nature of the earth.
Posidonius (or Poseidonius) of Apameia (c. 135 -- 51 BCE), was a Greek Stoic philosopher who traveled throughout the Roman world and beyond and was a celebrated polymath throughout the Greco - Roman world, like Aristotle and Eratosthenes. His work "about the ocean and the adjacent areas '' was a general geographical discussion, showing how all the forces had an effect on each other and applied also to human life. He measured the Earth 's circumference by reference to the position of the star Canopus. His measure of 240,000 stadia translates to 24,000 miles, close to the actual circumference of 24,901 miles. He was informed in his approach by Eratosthenes, who a century earlier used the elevation of the Sun at different latitudes. Both men 's figures for the Earth 's circumference were uncannily accurate, aided in each case by mutually compensating errors in measurement. However, the version of Posidonius ' calculation popularised by Strabo was revised by correcting the distance between Rhodes and Alexandria to 3,750 stadia, resulting in a circumference of 180,000 stadia, or 18,000 miles. Ptolemy discussed and favored this revised figure of Posidonius over Eratosthenes in his Geographia, and during the Middle Ages scholars divided into two camps regarding the circumference of the Earth, one side identifying with Eratosthenes ' calculation and the other with Posidonius ' 180,000 stadion measure.
Strabo is mostly famous for his 17 - volume work Geographica, which presented a descriptive history of people and places from different regions of the world known to his era. The Geographica first appeared in Western Europe in Rome as a Latin translation issued around 1469. Although Strabo referenced the antique Greek astronomers Eratosthenes and Hipparchus and acknowledged their astronomical and mathematical efforts towards geography, he claimed that a descriptive approach was more practical. Geographica provides a valuable source of information on the ancient world, especially when this information is corroborated by other sources. Within the books of Geographica is a map of Europe. Whole world maps according to Strabo are reconstructions from his written text.
Pomponius is unique among ancient geographers in that, after dividing the earth into five zones, of which two only were habitable, he asserts the existence of antichthones, people inhabiting the southern temperate zone inaccessible to the folk of the northern temperate regions due to the unbearable heat of the intervening torrid belt. On the divisions and boundaries of Europe, Asia and Africa, he repeats Eratosthenes; like all classical geographers from Alexander the Great (except Ptolemy) he regards the Caspian Sea as an inlet of the Northern Ocean, corresponding to the Persian (Persian Gulf) and Arabian (Red Sea) gulfs on the south.
Marinus of Tyre 's world maps were the first in the Roman Empire to show China. Around 120 CE, Marinus wrote that the habitable world was bounded on the west by the Fortunate Islands. The text of his geographical treatise however is lost. He also invented the equirectangular projection, which is still used in map creation today. A few of Marinus ' opinions are reported by Ptolemy. Marinus was of the opinion that the Okeanos was separated into an eastern and a western part by the continents (Europe, Asia and Africa). He thought that the inhabited world stretched in latitude from Thule (Shetland) to Agisymba (Tropic of Capricorn) and in longitude from the Isles of the Blessed to Shera (China). Marinus also coined the term Antarctic, referring to the opposite of the Arctic Circle. His chief legacy is that he first assigned to each place a proper latitude and longitude; he used a "Meridian of the Isles of the Blessed (Canary Islands or Cape Verde Islands) '' as the zero meridian.
Surviving texts of Ptolemy 's Geography, first composed c. 150, note that he continued the use of Marinus 's equirectangular projection for its regional maps while finding it inappropriate for maps of the entire known world. Instead, in Book VII of his work, he outlines three separate projections of increasing difficulty and fidelity. Ptolemy followed Marinus in underestimating the circumference of the world; combined with accurate absolute distances, this led him to also overestimate the length of the Mediterranean Sea in terms of degrees. His prime meridian at the Fortunate Isles was therefore around 10 actual degrees further west of Alexandria than intended, a mistake that was corrected by Al - Khwārizmī following the translation of Syriac editions of Ptolemy into Arabic in the 9th century. The oldest surviving manuscripts of the work date to Maximus Planudes 's restoration of the text a little before 1300 at Chora Monastery in Constantinople (Istanbul); surviving manuscripts from this era seem to preserve separate recensions of the text which diverged as early as the 2nd or 4th century. A passage in some of the recensions credits an Agathodaemon with drafting a world map, but no maps seem to have survived to be used by Planude 's monks. Instead, he commissioned new world maps calculated from Ptolemy 's thousands of coordinates and drafted according to the text 's 1st and 2nd projections, along with the equirectangular regional maps. A copy was translated into Latin by Jacobus Angelus at Florence around 1406 and soon supplemented with maps on the 1st projection. Maps using the 2nd projection were not made in Western Europe until Nicolaus Germanus 's 1466 edition. Ptolemy 's 3rd (and hardest) projection does not seem to have been used at all before new discoveries expanded the known world beyond the point where it provided a useful format.
Cicero 's Dream of Scipio described the Earth as a globe of insignificant size in comparison to the remainder of the cosmos. Many medieval manuscripts of Macrobius ' Commentary on the Dream of Scipio include maps of the Earth, including the antipodes, zonal maps showing the Ptolemaic climates derived from the concept of a spherical Earth and a diagram showing the Earth (labeled as globus terrae, the sphere of the Earth) at the center of the hierarchically ordered planetary spheres.
The Tabula Peutingeriana (Peutinger table) is an itinerarium showing the cursus publicus, the road network in the Roman Empire. It is a 13th - century copy of an original map dating from the 4th century, covering Europe, parts of Asia (India) and North - Africa. The map is named after Konrad Peutinger, a German 15th - 16th - century humanist and antiquarian. The map was discovered in a library in Worms by Conrad Celtes, who was unable to publish his find before his death, and bequeathed the map in 1508 to Peutinger. It is conserved at the Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Hofburg, Vienna.
Around 550 Cosmas Indicopleustes wrote the copiously illustrated Christian Topography, a work partly based on his personal experiences as a merchant on the Red Sea and Indian Ocean in the early 6th century. Though his cosmogony is refuted by modern science, he has given a historic description of India and Sri Lanka during of the 6th century, which is invaluable to historians. Cosmas seems to have personally visited the Kingdom of Axum in modern Ethiopia and Eritrea, as well as India and Sri Lanka. In 522 CE, he visited the Malabar Coast (South India). A major feature of his Topography is Cosmas ' worldview that the world is flat, and that the heavens form the shape of a box with a curved lid, a view he took from unconventional interpretations of Christian scripture. Cosmas aimed to prove that pre-Christian geographers had been wrong in asserting that the earth was spherical and that it was in fact modelled on the tabernacle, the house of worship described to Moses by God during the Jewish Exodus from Egypt.
The medieval T and O maps originate with the description of the world in the Etymologiae of Isidore of Sevilla (died 636). This qualitative and conceptual type of medieval cartography represents only the top - half of a spherical Earth. It was presumably tacitly considered a convenient projection of the inhabited portion of the world known in Roman and Medieval times (that is, the northern temperate half of the globe). The T is the Mediterranean, dividing the three continents, Asia, Europe and Africa, and the O is the surrounding Ocean. Jerusalem was generally represented in the center of the map. Asia was typically the size of the other two continents combined. Because the sun rose in the east, Paradise (the Garden of Eden) was generally depicted as being in Asia, and Asia was situated at the top portion of the map.
Ibn Hawqal was an Arab scientist of the 10th century who developed a world map, based on his own travel experience and probably the works of Ptolemy. Another such cartographer was Al - Istakhri.
This map appears in a copy of a classical work on geography, the Latin version by Priscian of the Periegesis, that was among the manuscripts in the Cotton library (MS. Tiberius B.V., fol. 56v), now in the British Library. It is not intended purely as an illustration to that work, for it contains much material gathered from other sources, including some which would have been the most up - to - date available, although it is based on a distant Roman original (similar to the source of another 11th - century world map, illustrating an edition of Isidore of Seville) -- on which the network of lines appears to indicate the boundaries of imperial provinces. The date of drawing was formerly estimated at about CE 992 -- 994, based on suggested links to the journey of Archbishop Sigeric of Canterbury from Rome but more recent analysis indicates that, although the information was revised about that time, the map was probably drawn between 1025 and 1050.
Like the later map by al - Idrisi (see below) this map is clearly outside the largely symbolic early medieval mapping tradition, but equally it is not based on the famous Ptolemaic co-ordinate system. East is at the top, but Jerusalem is not in the centre, and the Garden of Eden is nowhere to be seen. Unusually, all the waterways of Africa, not just the Red Sea, are depicted in red (mountains are green). The depiction of the far East is ambitious, including India and Taprobane (Sri Lanka) -- the latter depicted according to the exaggerated classical conception of its size. Unsurprisingly, Britain itself is depicted in some detail. Great Britain, unusually by medieval standards, is shown as one island, albeit with an exaggerated Cornish promontory, and Mona, Ireland and the many Scottish islands are all indicated. The cartographer is slightly confused by Iceland, depicting it both by a version of its classical name ' Thule ', north - west of Britain, and as ' Island ', logically linked with Scandinavia.
Beatus of Liébana (c. 730 -- 798) was an Asturian monk and theologian. He corresponded with Alcuin, and took part in the Adoptionist controversy, criticizing the views of Felix of Urgel and Elipandus of Toledo. He is best remembered today as the author of his Commentary on the Apocalypse, published in 776. An illustrated manuscript known as the Saint - Sever Beatus, featuring the Commentary, was produced around 1050 at the Abbey of Saint - Sever, Aquitaine, France. It contains one of the oldest Christian world maps as an illustration of the Commentary. Although the original manuscript and map has not survived, copies of the map survives in several of the extant manuscripts.
Qarakhanid Uyghur scholar Mahmud al - Kashgari compiled a Compendium of the languages of the Turks in the 11th century. The manuscript is illustrated with a "Turkocentric '' world map, oriented with east (or rather, perhaps, the direction of midsummer sunrise) on top, centered on the ancient city of Balasagun in what is now Kyrgyzstan, showing the Caspian Sea to the north, and Iraq, Armenia, Yemen and Egypt to the west, China and Japan to the east, Hindustan, Kashmir, Gog and Magog to the south. Conventional symbols are used throughout -- blue lines for rivers, red lines for mountain ranges etc. The world is shown as encircled by the ocean. The map is now kept at the Pera Museum in Istanbul.
The Arab geographer, Muhammad al - Idrisi, incorporated the knowledge of Africa, the Indian Ocean and the Far East gathered by Arab merchants and explorers with the information inherited from the classical geographers to create the most accurate map of the world at the time. It remained the most accurate world map for the next three centuries. The Tabula Rogeriana was drawn by Al - Idrisi in 1154 for the Norman King Roger II of Sicily, after a stay of eighteen years at his court, where he worked on the commentaries and illustrations of the map. The map, written in Arabic, shows the Eurasian continent in its entirety, but only shows the northern part of the African continent.
The Ebstorf Map was an example of a European mappa mundi, made by Gervase of Ebstorf, who was possibly the same man as Gervase of Tilbury, some time in the thirteenth century. It was a very large map: painted on 30 goatskins sewn together, it measured about 3.6 m × 3.6 m (12 ft × 12 ft). The head of Christ was depicted at the top of the map, with his hands on either side and his feet at the bottom. The Map was a greatly elaborated version of the medieval tripartite or T and O map; it was centred on Jerusalem with east on top of the map. It represented Rome in the shape of a lion, and had an evident interest in the distribution of bishoprics. The original was destroyed during World War II, but some photographs and colour copies remain.
The Hereford Mappa Mundi is a detailed mappa mundi based on the T and O map style, dating to c. 1300. The map is signed by one "Richard of Haldingham or Lafford ''. Drawn on a single sheet of vellum, it measures 158 by 133 cm (62 by 52 in). The writing is in black ink, with additional red and gold, and blue or green for water (with the Red Sea coloured red). The captions demonstrate clearly the multiple functions of these large medieval maps, conveying a mass of information on Biblical subjects and general history, in addition to geography.
Jerusalem is drawn at the centre of the circle, east is on top, showing the Garden of Eden in a circle at the edge of the world (1). Great Britain is drawn at the northwestern border (bottom left, 22 & 23). Curiously, the labels for Africa and Europe are reversed, with Europe scribed in red and gold as ' Africa ', and vice versa.
Italian geographer Pietro Vesconte was a pioneer of the field of the portolan chart. His nautical charts are among the earliest to map the Mediterraean and Black Sea regions accurately. He also produced progressively more accurate depictions of the coastlines of northern Europe. In his world map of 1321 he brought his experience as a maker of portolans to bear; the map introduced a previously unheard of accuracy to the mappa mundi genre. The world map, as well as a map of the Holy Land and plan of Acre and Jerusalem were made for inclusion in Marino Sanuto 's Liber secretorum fidelium cruces.
The Catalan World Atlas was produced by the Majorcan cartographic school and is attributed to Cresques Abraham. It has been in the royal library of France (now the Bibliothèque nationale de France) since the time of Charles V. The Catalan Atlas originally consisted of 6 vellum leaves folded down the middle painted in various colors including gold and silver. The first two leaves contain texts in Catalan language covering cosmography, astronomy, and astrology. These texts are accompanied by illustrations. The texts and illustration emphasize the Earth 's spherical shape and the state of the known world. They also provide information to sailors on tides and how to tell time at night.
Unlike many other nautical charts, the Catalan Atlas is read with the north at the bottom. As a result of this the maps are oriented from left to right, from the Far East to the Atlantic. The first two leaves, forming the oriental portion of the Catalan Atlas, illustrate numerous religious references as well as a synthesis of medieval mappae mundi (Jerusalem located close to the centre) and the travel literature of the time, notably Marco Polo 's Book of Marvels and the Travels and Voyage of Sir John Mandeville. Many Indian and Chinese cities can be identified.
The Da Ming Hunyi Tu (Chinese: 大明 混 一 图; literally: "Amalgamated Map of the Great Ming Empire '') world map, likely made in the late 14th or the 15th century, shows China at the centre and Europe, half - way round the globe, depicted very small and horizontally compressed at the edge. The coast of Africa is also mapped from an Indian Ocean perspective, showing the Cape of Good Hope area. It is believed that maps of this type were made since about the 1320s, but all earlier specimens have been lost, so the earliest survivor is the elaborate, colourful Da Ming Hun Yi Tu, painted on 17 m (180 sq ft) of silk.
The Kangnido (the full Hanja name means "Map of Integrated Lands and Regions of Historical Countries and Capitals '') is a map of the world made in Korea in 1402. Created under the supervision of Korean officials as part of a cultural project of the newly founded Joseon Dynasty, it is the most familiar example of the known - world maps based on Chinese cartographic techniques with additional input from western sources, via Islamic scholarship in the Mongol Empire. Superficially similar to the Da Ming Hun Yi Tu (which has been less well known in the West because it is kept in closed archive storage) the Kangnido shows its Korean origin in the enlargement of that country, and incorporates vastly improved (though wrongly positioned, scaled and oriented) mapping of Japan. Elsewhere, the map betrays a decorative rather than practical purpose, particularly in the portrayal of river systems, which form unnatural loops rarely seen on Chinese maps. Nonetheless, it is considered as "superior to anything produced in Europe prior to the end of the fifteenth century ''.
The De Virga world map was made by Albertinus de Virga between 1411 and 1415. Albertin de Virga, a Venetian, is also known for a 1409 map of the Mediterranean, also made in Venice. The world map is circular, drawn on a piece of parchment 69.6 cm × 44 cm (27.4 in × 17.3 in). It consists of the map itself, about 44 cm (17 in) in diameter, and an extension containing a calendar and two tables.
Andrea Bianco 's atlas of 1436 comprises ten leaves of vellum, measuring 29 cm × 38 cm (11 in × 15 in), in an 18th - century binding. The first leaf contains a description of the Rule of marteloio for resolving the course, with the "circle and square '', two tables and two other diagrams. The next eight leaves contain various navigation charts. The ninth leaf contains a circular world map measuring 25 cm (9.8 in) in circumference. And the final leaf contains the Ptolemaic world map on Ptolemy 's first projection, with graduation. Some believe Bianco 's maps were the first to correctly portray the coast of Florida, as a macro-peninsula is attached to a large island labeled Antillia. Bianco also collaborated with Fra Mauro on the Fra Mauro world map of 1459.
The Genoese map of 1457 is a world map that relied extensively on the account of the traveler to Asia Niccolo da Conti, rather than the usual source of Marco Polo. The author is unknown, but is a more modern development than the Fra Mauro world map, less intricate and complete, with fairly good proportions given to each of the continents. The map depicts the main landmarks of the time: Prester John in Africa, the Great Khan in China, "Xilam '' (Ceylom) and Sumatra, and the design of a three - masted European ship in the Indian Ocean, something which had not occurred, suggesting that a sealane was a possibility.
The Fra Mauro map was made between 1457 and 1459 by the Venetian monk Fra Mauro. It is a circular planisphere drawn on parchment and set in a wooden frame, about 2 meters in diameter. The original world map was made by Fra Mauro and his assistant Andrea Bianco, a sailor - cartographer, under a commission by king Afonso V of Portugal. The map was completed on April 24, 1459, and sent to Portugal, but did not survive to the present day. Fra Mauro died the next year while he was making a copy of the map for the Seignory of Venice, and the copy was completed by Andrea Bianco.
The map is preserved in the Museo Correr in Venice.
The world map of Henricus Martellus Germanus (Heinrich Hammer), c. 1490, was remarkably similar to the terrestrial globe later produced by Martin Behaim in 1492, the Erdapfel. Both show heavy influences from Ptolemy, and both possibly derive from maps created around 1485 in Lisbon by Bartolomeo Columbus. Although Martellus is believed to have been born in Nuremberg, Behaim 's home town, he lived and worked in Florence from 1480 to 1496.
The Erdapfel (German: earth apple) produced by Martin Behaim in 1492 is considered to be the oldest surviving terrestrial globe. It is constructed of a laminated linen ball reinforced with wood and overlaid with a map painted by Georg Glockendon. The Americas are not included yet, as Columbus returned to Spain no sooner than March 1493. It shows a rather enlarged Eurasian continent and an empty ocean between Europe and Asia. Interestingly, the Caribbean islands may already be represented as well, even before Colombus 's return, under the name of the mythical Saint Brendan 's Island. Japan and Asian islands are disproportionately large. The idea to call the globe "apple '' may be related to the Reichsapfel ("Imperial Apple '', Globus cruciger) which was also kept in Nuremberg along with the Imperial Regalia (Reichskleinodien). In 1907, it was transferred to the Germanic Museum in Nuremberg.
The Juan de la Cosa, a Spanish cartographer, explorer and conquistador, born in Santoña in the northern autonomous region of Cantabria, made several maps of which the only survivor is the Mappa Mundi of 1500. It is the first known European cartographic representation of the Americas. It is now in the Museo Naval in Madrid. Reproductions of it are given by Humboldt in his Atlas géographique et physique.
The Cantino planisphere or Cantino world map is the earliest surviving map showing Portuguese discoveries in the east and west. It is named after Alberto Cantino, an agent for the Duke of Ferrara, who successfully smuggled it from Portugal to Italy in 1502. It shows the islands of the Caribbean and the Florida coastline, as well as Africa, Europe and Asia. The map is particularly notable for portraying a fragmentary record of the Brazilian coast, discovered in 1500 by Portuguese explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral who conjectured whether it was merely an island or part of the continent that several Spanish expeditions had just encountered farther north (cf. Amerigo Vespucci).
The Caverio Map, also known as Caveri Map or Canerio Map, is a map drawn by Nicolay de Caveri, circa 1505. It is hand drawn on parchment and coloured, being composed of ten sections or panels, measuring 2.25 by 1.15 metres (7.4 by 3.8 ft). Historians believe that this undated map signed with "Nicolay de Caveri Januensis '' was completed in 1504 -- 05. It was probably either made in Lisbon by the Genoese Canveri, or copied by him in Genoa from the very similar Cantino map. It shows the east coast of North America with surprising detail and was one of the primary sources used to make the Waldseemüller map in 1507. Caverio map is currently at Bibliothèque Nationale de France in Paris.
Johannes Ruysch an explorer, cartographer, astronomer and painter from the Low Countries produced the second oldest known printed representation of the New World. The Ruysch map was published and widely distributed in 1507. It uses Ptolemy 's coniform projection, as does the Contarini - Rosselli 1506 map. Both document Christopher Columbus ' discoveries as well as that of John Cabot, including information from Portuguese sources and Marco Polo 's account. There are notes on his map that clearly were from Portuguese sources. Newfoundland and Cuba are shown connected to Asia, as Columbus and Cabot believed. "Sipganus '' (Marco Polo 's Japan) is identical with "Spagnola '' (Hispaniola) on the Ruysch map. The presence of codfish is noted on the Ruysch map in the area of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland and shows the discoveries the Portuguese had made along the African coast and shows India as a triangular peninsula with Ceylon in the correct proportion and position. Greenland is shown connected to Newfoundland and Asia on Ruysch 's map, and not Europe as earlier maps had showed. Around the north pole, Ruysch drew islands, based on reports in the book Inventio Fortunata of the English friar Nicholas of Lynne. Interestingly, the island above Norway shows remarkable similarities to Svalbard, which would not be discovered until 1597 (by Willem Barents). Ruysch calls it ' European Hyberborea ' and a peninsula stretching out towards it is clearly marked with the church of ' Sancti Odulfi ', St Olaf 's church in Vardø on the Finnmark coast.
The cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann from southern Germany, supported by the mapping friend René II, Duke of Lorraine, collected map data over several years, including information on the most recent discoveries, to build up a new collective work of geography and cartography. Along with a book they further incorporated, for the first time in history, the name America on a map, holding the strong opinion that it was a new continent that Amerigo Vespucci had discovered on his voyage and not only a few smaller islands as Christopher Columbus did in the West Indies.
The Piri Reis map is a famous world map created by 16th - century Ottoman Turkish admiral and cartographer Piri Reis. The surviving third of the map shows part of the western coasts of Europe and North Africa with reasonable accuracy, and the coast of Brazil is also easily recognizable. Various Atlantic islands including the Azores and Canary Islands are depicted, as is the mythical island of Antillia. The map is noteworthy for its apparent south - eastward extension of the American continent to depict a southern landmass that some controversially claim is evidence for early awareness of the existence of Antarctica. Alternatively, it has been suggested that this is actually a record of the coast as far as Cape Horn, explored secretly by Portuguese navigators before 1507 (when it appeared on the Waldseemüller map) and bent south - eastward simply to fit on the parchment.
The map by Pietro Coppo was one of the last world maps to feature the "Dragon 's Tail '' extending southwards from the far eastern extremity of Asia, the last vestige of Ptolemy 's landlocked depiction of the Indian Ocean, nearly 1,500 years earlier.
Diogo Ribeiro, a Portuguese cartographer working for Spain, made what is considered the first scientific world map: the 1527 Padrón real, the first world map based on empiric latitude observations. There are 6 copies attributed to Ribeiro, including at the Weimar Grand Ducal Library (1527 Mundus Novus) and at the Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, in Vatican City (1529 Propaganda Map or Carta Universal). The layout of the map (Mapamundi) is strongly influenced by the information obtained during the Magellan - Elcano trip around the world. Diogo 's map delineates very precisely the coasts of Central and South America. However, neither Australia nor Antarctica appear, and the Indian subcontinent is too small. The map shows, for the first time, the real extension of the Pacific Ocean. It also shows, for the first time, the North American coast as a continuous one (probably influenced by the Estêvão Gomes exploration in 1525). It also shows the demarcation of the Treaty of Tordesillas.
Flemish geographer and cartographer Gerardus Mercator world map of 1569 introduced a cylindrical map projection that became the standard map projection known as the Mercator projection. It was a large planisphere measuring 202 by 124 cm, printed in eighteen separate sheets. While the linear scale is constant in all directions around any point, thus preserving the angles and the shapes of small objects (which makes the projection conformal), the Mercator projection distorts the size and shape of large objects, as the scale increases from the Equator to the poles, where it becomes infinite. The title (Nova et Aucta Orbis Terrae Descriptio ad Usum Navigatium Emendate: "new and augmented description of Earth corrected for the use of navigation '') and the map legends show that the map was expressly conceived for the use of marine navigation. The principal feature of the projection is that Rhumb lines, sailing courses at a constant bearing, are mapped to straight lines on the map. The development of the Mercator projection represented a major breakthrough in the nautical cartography of the 16th century although it was only slowly adopted by seafaring nations.
The Theatrum Orbis Terrarum (or "Theatre of the World '') is considered to be the first true modern atlas. Written by Abraham Ortelius and originally printed on May 20, 1570, in Antwerp, it consisted of a collection of uniform map sheets and sustaining text bound to form a book for which copper printing plates were specifically engraved. The Ortelius atlas is sometimes referred to as the summary of sixteenth - century cartography. Many of his atlas ' maps were based upon sources that no longer exist or are extremely rare. Ortelius appended a unique source list (the "Catalogus Auctorum '') identifying the names of contemporary cartographers, some of whom would otherwise have remained obscure. Three Latin editions of this (besides a Dutch, a French and a German edition) appeared before the end of 1572; twenty - five editions came out before Ortelius ' death in 1598; and several others were published subsequently, for the atlas continued to be in demand until approximately 1612.
The Bünting Clover Leaf Map, also known as The World in a Cloverleaf, (German title: "Die ganze Welt in einem Kleberblat / Welches ist der Stadt Hannover meines lieben Vaterlandes Wapen '') is an historic mappa mundi drawn by the German Protestant pastor, theologist, and cartographer Heinrich Bünting. The map was published in his book Itinerarium Sacrae Scripturae (Travel through Holy Scripture) in 1581.
Today the map is found within the Eran Laor maps collection in the National Library of Israel in Jerusalem. A mosaic model of the map is installed on the fence of Safra Square at the site of Jerusalem 's city hall.
The map is a figurative illustration, in the manner of the medieval mappa mundi format, depicting the world via a clover shape. The shape is a symbolisation of the Christian Trinity and a component at the symbolisation of the German city Hanover, where Bünting was born. The city of Jerusalem is represented as the centre, surrounded by three central continents, with some more areas of the world being accordingly illustrated separately from the clover.
Kunyu Wanguo Quantu (Chinese: 坤 輿 萬國 全 圖; literally: "A Map of the Myriad Countries of the World ''; Italian: Carta Geografica Completa di tutti i Regni del Mondo, "Complete Geographical Map of all the Kingdoms of the World ''), printed by Italian Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci at the request by Wanli Emperor in 1602, is the first known European - styled Chinese world map (and the first Chinese map to show the Americas). The map is in Classical Chinese, with detailed annotations and descriptions of various regions of the world, a brief account of the discovery of the Americas, polar projections, scientific explanation of parallels and meridians, ad proof that the sun is bigger than the moon. Following Chinese cartographical convention, Ricci placed China ("the Middle Kingdom '') at the centre of the world. This map is a significant mark of the expansion Chinese knowledge of the world, and an important example of cultural syncretism directly between Europe and China. It was also exported to Korea and Japan as well.
Nova Totius Terrarum Orbis Geographica ac Hydrographica Tabula is a map of the world created by Hendrik Hondius in 1630, and published the following year at Amsterdam, in the atlas Atlantis Maioris Appendix. Illustrations of the four elements of fire, air, water, and land are included. In the four corners, there are portraits of Julius Caesar, Claudius Ptolemy, and the atlas 's first two publishers, Gerard Mercator and Jodocus Hondius, the father of Hendrik. Among its claims to notability is the fact that it was the first dated map published in an atlas, and therefore the first widely available map, to show any part of Australia, the only previous map to do so being Hessel Gerritsz ' 1627 Caert va n't Landt van d'Eendracht ("Chart of the Land of Eendracht ''), which was not widely distributed or recognised. The Australian coastline shown is part of the west coast of Cape York Peninsula, discovered by Jan Carstensz in 1623. Curiously, the map does not show the west coast features shown in Gerritsz ' Caert.
This engraved double hemisphere map, Orbis Terrarum Nova et Accuratissima Tabula, was created by Nicolaes Visscher in 1658 in Amsterdam. It also contains smaller northern and southern polar projections. The border is decorated with mythological scenes, one in each corner, drawn by the painter Nicolaes Berchem, showing Zeus, Neptune, Persephone and Demeter. It is an early example of highly decorated Dutch world maps.
Gerard van Schagen (ca. 1642 -- 1724?) was an cartographer from Amsterdam, known for his exquisite reproductions of maps, particularly of those by Nicolaes Visscher I and Frederick de Wit. The map is of 1689. The original size is 48.3 x 56.0 cm and was produced using copper engraving. There is only one known example, which is in the Amsterdam University.
Samuel Dunn (died 1794) was a British mathematician and amateur astronomer. His map covers the entire world in a double hemisphere projection. This map follows shortly after the explorations of Captain Cook in the Arctic and Pacific Northwest, so the general outline of the continent is known. However, when this map was made, few inland expeditions had extended westward beyond the Mississippi.
|
who voices the skunk in over the hedge | Over the Hedge (film) - wikipedia
Over the Hedge is a 2006 American computer - animated comedy film, based on the characters from the United Media comic strip of the same name. Directed by Tim Johnson and Karey Kirkpatrick, and produced by Bonnie Arnold, it was released in the United States on May 19, 2006. The film was produced by DreamWorks Animation and distributed through Paramount Pictures. The film features the voices of Bruce Willis, Garry Shandling, Steve Carell, William Shatner, Wanda Sykes, and Nick Nolte. This was the first DreamWorks Animation film to be distributed by Paramount Pictures, which acquired the live - action DreamWorks studio in 2006. The film earned $336 million on an $80 million budget.
While scavenging for food, RJ the raccoon enters the cave of Vincent the bear, who has a wagon full of human food taken from a nearby rest stop. RJ accidentally wakes Vincent from his hibernation, and in a race to escape, causes the stash to roll out onto the nearby highway and get run over by a large truck. To avoid being eaten himself, RJ promises Vincent that he will completely replace the stash within the week.
RJ heads towards a recently built suburban housing development in Chesterton, Indiana, separated from a forest glade by a large hedge. There he discovers a pack of animals recently awoken from their hibernation, led by Verne the turtle; the others include squirrel Hammy, skunk Stella, porcupines Penny and Lou, along with their triplet sons, Spike, Bucky and Quillo; and opossum Ozzie and his daughter Heather. The animals are scared, as the development had been built during their hibernation and they fear they will be unable to forage for food in the small glade. RJ shows them the amount of food humans consume and waste and suggests they forage from the humans. Verne is hesitant but the other animals acquiesce. They make bold attempts to steal food directly from the humans, with RJ secretly guiding them to help collect the food he needs to replace Vincent 's stash.
When the animals raid the trash cans of the homeowners - association chairwoman Gladys Sharp, she calls an animal exterminator named Dwayne LaFontant, who offers to install in her backyard an illegal, lethal trap called the "Depelter Turbo ''. Verne sees this and tries to warn the others, but RJ insists they will be okay. Fearing for the safety of the pack, Verne attempts to return what they stole; he and RJ argue, causing a small rampage through the development and destroying the stash RJ had collected for Vincent. After a brief argument, RJ and Verne make up and RJ rallies the others to raid Gladys ' home directly on the night before a large party. With Stella disguised as a cat to distract Gladys ' own cat, Tiger, the others enter Gladys ' home and collect all the food. RJ inadvertently reveals his duplicity to the animals, just as they are discovered by Gladys who calls Dwayne. RJ escapes with the food for Vincent but leaves the other animals to be captured by Dwayne.
As RJ returns the food to Vincent, he sees Dwayne 's truck drive by and, consumed by remorse, uses the food to knock the truck off the road, enraging Vincent. Dwayne is knocked out while the animals get free, and Spike, Bucky and Quillo use skills they learned from a videogame to drive the truck back to the development. RJ pleads to be let in the truck as Vincent tries to catch him, but the others, angry at his treachery, refuse. Verne convinces the group to forgive RJ since he came back to save them. They return the truck to the development, crashing through Gladys ' home, and the animals flee into the hedge. Gladys and Dwayne converge on the animals from one side with a String trimmer and a Cattle prod respectively, while Vincent tries to swipe at them from the other. To escape, RJ gives Hammy a caffeinated beverage, allowing the hyperactive squirrel to move incredibly fast. Hammy is able to manipulate Dwayne into capturing Vincent, causing Vincent, Gladys, and Dwayne to be trapped by the Depelter Turbo while the animals escape. The police and animal control arrive, and Vincent is sent to the Rocky Mountains while Gladys is arrested for using the Turbo. Dwayne escapes when Gladys gets arrested only to get bitten by Nugent.
RJ and Verne apologize to each other, and RJ is brought into the group, as is Tiger, who became infatuated with Stella even after learning she was a skunk. Verne realizes they have not had a chance to forage for food until Hammy reveals that while sped up, he had been able to collect enough nuts for them all to last the year.
Two minor human characters, appearing during the dog chase scene, were voiced by Lee Bienstock and Sean Yazbeck, two participants on The Apprentice 5 as part of a reward for winning a task.
In July 2002, Jim Carrey announced he would co-star with Shandling in Over the Hedge. In October 2004, however, he left the project and was replaced with Willis.
On opening weekend, the film was in second place to The DaVinci Code, but its gross of $38,457,003 did not quite live up to DreamWorks Animation 's other titles released over the past few years. The film had a per - theater average of $9,474 from 4,059 theaters. In its second weekend, the film dropped 30 % to $27,063,774 for a $6,612 average from an expanded 4,093 theaters and finishing third, behind X-Men: The Last Stand and The DaVinci Code. Since it was Memorial Day Weekend, the film grossed a total of $35,322,115 over the four - day weekend, resulting in only an 8 % slide. In its third weekend, the film held well with a 24 % drop to $20,647,284 and once again placing in third behind The Break - Up and X-Men: The Last Stand, for a $5,170 average from 3,993 theaters. The film closed on September 4, 2006 after 112 days of release, grossing $155,019,340 in the United States and Canada, along with $180,983,656 overseas for a worldwide total of $336,002,996. Produced on an $80 million budget, the film was a commercial success.
On the film - critics aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has received 75 % positive reviews, based on 168 reviews with an average of 6.8 / 10. The site 's consensus states: "Even if it 's not an animation classic, Over the Hedge is clever and fun, and the jokes cater to family members of all ages. '' On another aggregator, Metacritic, the film has a rating of 67 / 100, indicating "generally favorable. '' Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale.
Critic Frank Lovece of Film Journal International found that, "DreamWorks ' slapstick animated adaptation of the philosophically satiric comic strip... is a lot of laughs and boasts a much tighter story than most animated features. '' Ken Fox of TVGuide.com called it "a sly satire of American ' enough is never enough ' consumerism and blind progress at the expense of the environment. It 's also very funny, and the little woodland critters that make up the cast are a kiddie - pleasing bunch ''.
The film was screened as a "work - in - progress '' on April 29, 2006, at the Indianapolis International Film Festival, and it premiered on April 30, 2006, in Los Angeles. Nick Nolte, Bruce Willis, Avril Lavigne, Garry Shandling, Wanda Sykes, Catherine O'Hara and Steve Carell attended the premiere. The film was theatrically released in the United States on May 19, 2006. In select New York and Los Angeles theatres, it was accompanied by a DreamWorks Animation 's animated short film First Flight. The film was also screened out of competition on May 21, 2006, at the Cannes Film Festival.
Over the Hedge was released on DVD by DreamWorks Animation 's newly formed Home Entertainment division on October 17, 2006. A short film based on Over the Hedge, titled Hammy 's Boomerang Adventure, was released with the DVD.
The soundtrack for the film was released on May 16, 2006 by Epic Records. Rupert Gregson - Williams composed an original score, while Ben Folds contributed three original songs, along with a rewrite of his song "Rockin ' the Suburbs '' and a cover of The Clash 's "Lost in the Supermarket. ''
Track list:
A video game based on the film was released on May 9, 2006. Developed by Edge of Reality, Beenox and Vicarious Visions it was published by Activision for PlayStation 2, Microsoft Windows, Xbox, GameCube, Nintendo DS and Game Boy Advance. Three different versions of Over the Hedge: Hammy Goes Nuts! were released by Activision in the fall of 2006: a miniature golf game for Game Boy Advance, an action adventure game for Nintendo DS, and a platform game for PlayStation Portable.
|
what do you call the fans of got7 | List of fandom nicknames - wikipedia
Many fandoms have their own nicknames that distinguish them from other fan communities. The nicknames are popular with singers, music bands, films, television shows, books, games, sports teams, and celebrities. Some of the terms are coined by fans while others are created by celebrities themselves.
The trend of giving a name to a fandom became more popular in the beginning of the 21st century with the invention of social media, although such nicknames were used much earlier. Some people consider the Sherlockians (fans of Sherlock Holmes) and Beatlemaniacs (fans of The Beatles) to be some of the oldest known examples.
|
what kind of music is played at edc | Electric Daisy Carnival - wikipedia
Electric Daisy Carnival, commonly known as EDC, is an annual electronic dance music festival, with its flagship event held annually in Las Vegas, Nevada.
The event primarily features electronic dance producers and DJs such as Armin van Buuren, Dimitri Vegas & Like Mike, Yellow Claw, and Tiësto. The festival incorporates all kinds of electronic music.
Since its inception, other EDC events have been held at venues in the United States and abroad, including Mexico, Puerto Rico, the UK, Brazil, Japan and India.
In 2009, EDC became a two - day event, and in 2011 a three - day event in Las Vegas that drew 230,000 people. In 2015 it drew more than 400,000 over three days (134,000 per day).
In 2017, EDC won the Festival of the Year award at the Electronic Music Awards.
The first Electric Daisy Carnival rave was held in the early 1990s at an open field in Pacoima, in Los Angeles, California, by Gary Richards and DJ Steve Kool - Aid (real name: Stephen Enos). In the early years, several southern California venues played host to the annual electronic music festival: Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum and Exposition Park in Los Angeles, National Orange Show Events Center in San Bernardino, Queen Mary Events Park in Long Beach, Lake Dolores Waterpark in Barstow, Hansen Dam in Lake View Terrace, and the International Agri - Center in Tulare.
Its next incarnation was held at the Shrine Expo Hall in Los Angeles. "Electric Daisy Carnival '' was selected by Insomniac 's partner Philip Blaine. The name usage was approved by Steve Kool - Aid via Gary Richards as a homage to the original creation from several years prior.
Electric Daisy Carnival took place at Lake Dolores Waterpark in Newberry Springs, California. The festival first took place in a small venue at Lake Dolores Waterpark, called Insomniac.
The Electric Daisy Carnival moves to Tulare, California, at the World Ag Expo.
Electric Daisy Carnival was held at Hansen Dam in Southern California, expanding for the first time to multiple stages: the Merry Go Round, the Fun House, Clown Alley, the Confusin ' & Amuzin ' Mirror Maze, Bassrush Arena and Cosmic Healing Temple.
In the same year, another EDC was held in Austin, Texas.
EDC 2002 was held at Queen Mary Events Park in Long Beach, California. A second edition was held at the Travis County Exposition Center in Austin, Texas.
From 2003 to 2006, Electric Daisy Carnival was held at the NOS Events Center in San Bernardino, California.
Electric Daisy Carnival was held at the L.A. Coliseum in Los Angeles ' Exposition Park.
The California event was held June 28 at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum and Exposition Park. The EDC Colorado event took place on June 14 at the Arapahoe County Fairgrounds in Aurora.
Announced at Nocturnal Festival 2008 to be a two - day festival, the California event was held on June 26 -- 27. On Friday, approximately 55,000 attendees were present and Saturday saw a crowd of approximately 99,000. EDC 2009 was held at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum and used the entire southern half of Exposition Park.
The Colorado event was held at the Arapahoe County Fairgrounds in Aurora on June 13. It was headlined by Infected Mushroom, Paul Van Dyk, and several others.
EDC Puerto Rico was held on August 14. The venue was The Arena Fairgrounds in San Juan.
EDC Los Angeles had an attendance of about 185,000 people. Though tickets were starting at $60, some attendees paid over $100 per ticket.
It drew criticism from both local authorities and promoters after minors under the required age of 16 gained entrance, and over 100 people were hospitalized after a crowd stampede. A 15 - year - old female attendee, Sasha Rodriguez, died after taking MDMA. The city of Los Angeles placed a moratorium on all remaining events scheduled for 2010 and a moratorium on future events, pending the outcome of the new security and safety provisions. The new provisions included the hiring of on - site doctors, and stated attendees must be over 18 years of age.
An EDC Colorado event was held on June 12 at the Arapahoe County Fairground in Aurora.
EDC Dallas was held on June 19 at Fair Park in Dallas. 11,000 people were in attendance.
EDC Puerto Rico was held on August 28, 2010, at the Estadio Sixto Escobar at Puerta de Tierra, San Juan.
Due to previous controversy of EDC 's former residence in Los Angeles, EDC moved its flagship festival to Las Vegas, Nevada. The event was held at the Las Vegas Motor Speedway from June 24 -- 26. Reportedly 230,000 people had attended the 3 day festival.
EDC Orlando 2011 was held on May 27 -- 28 at Tinker Field, and the grounds adjacent to the Florida Citrus Bowl. EDC Orlando 2011 had approximately 12,000 on Friday and 20,000 on Saturday.
EDC Colorado the same year was held at the Arapahoe County Fairgrounds in Aurora on June 11.
Electric Daisy Carnival Dallas was held June 18 at Fair Park with an estimated 25,000 attendees. Temperatures above 110 degrees led to dozens of hospitalizations and at least one death, which made it the last EDC held in Dallas.
EDC Puerto Rico took place on August 27.
2012 's three - day EDC in Vegas (June 8 -- 10) saw attendance increase by 30 %, to a total of 320,000 attendees. A 31 - year - old male from Florida died after being struck by a truck as he left EDC at the Las Vegas Motor Speedway on June 11. Friends reported that he had been drinking and smoking.
The second night had to shut down early at 1 a.m. due to high winds, of up to 30 mph that started around 8 p.m. 90,000 fans were directed to the speedway 's bleachers. DJs Markus Schulz and Steve Aoki, who were both scheduled to play that night, performed impromptu sets on the Insomniac Wide Awake art car for a short period, before officials ordered it to close as potentially dangerous winds were expected until 5 a.m. In order to make up for the cancellation, Insomniac allowed those with Saturday passes to return on Sunday.
The Nevada event at the Las Vegas Motor Speedway on June 8 -- 10. The event was held by the American promotions company Insomniac Events and Dutch company Q - dance.
EDC Orlando was held at Tinker Field on November 9 -- 10. This coincided with the annual Dayglow event in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, called "Dancegiving '' held the weekend after Thanksgiving.
EDC New York was held May 18 -- 20 at the MetLife Stadium at the Meadowlands Sports Complex in East Rutherford, New Jersey. Although the venue was located in New Jersey, the festival was coined Electric Daisy Carnival New York due to the proximity to New York City. The event drew 45,000 attendees per day.
EDC Las Vegas was held June 21 -- 23.
In 2013, EDC was held in London for the first time, along with events in Chicago, New York, San Juan, Puerto Rico, and Orlando, Florida.
In 2014, EDC was held at the Las Vegas Motor Speedway on June 20 -- 22, 2014. Insomniac Events announced that all 345,000 tickets to the three - day festival had been sold by June 18, 2014. At the conclusion of the 2014 event, the massive three - day festival drew in roughly 134,000 per day..
The setup at the event also led Insomniac to set the record for the largest structural stage in North America.
EDC events were also held in Milton Keynes, England, San Juan, Orlando, Florida, and New York.
The first EDC Mexico was held on March 15 -- 16, 2014.
A documentary film called Under the Electric Sky about the festival premiered at the 2014 Sundance Film Festival.
EDC Las Vegas 2015 was held in Las Vegas, Nevada at the Las Vegas Motor Speedway on June 19, 20 & 21. EDC Las Vegas 2015 was met with unwanted publicity for the death of a UC Irvine graduate on the second night of the festival. Death was ruled as related to MDMA.
EDC was also held at Orlando, Florida at Tinker Field on November 6 & 7, and East Rutherford, New Jersey at MetLife Stadium on May 23 & 24. Internationally, EDC was held at Estadio Sixto Escobar in San Juan, Puerto Rico for the sixth time on February 21 & 22, Autódromo José Carlos Pace in São Paulo, Brazil for the first time December 4 & 5, Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez in Mexico City, Mexico for the second time on February 28 - March 1, and the National Bowl in Milton Keynes, UK for the third time on July 17.
EDC Las Vegas was held at Las Vegas Motor Speedway from June 17 -- 19, 2016.
EDC Mexico was held for the third time at Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez in Mexico City, from February 27 -- 28, 2016.
EDC New York was held at Citi Field in Queens, NY, from May 14 -- 15, 2016.
EDC UK was held at Milton Keynes, England on 9 July 2016.
EDC Orlando was held at Tinker Field in Orlando, Florida, from November 4 -- 5, 2016.
EDC India was held at Buddh International Circuit in New Delhi, India, from November 12 -- 13, 2016.
EDC returned to the Las Vegas Motor Speedway from June, with over 135,000 attendees on opening night. Heat - related incidents saw a signifigant increase, with double the medical - related calls on opening night year - over-year, while a 34 year - old man died from ecstasy and TFMPP usage, with heat exposure as a contributing factor.
EDC was held for the fourth time in Mexico City at Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez from 25 -- 26 February.
EDC UK 2017, due to be held at Milton Keynes, England in July 2017, was cancelled.
EDC Orlando 2017 was held at Tinker Field on November 10 -- 11, 2017.
EDC Las Vegas was held at the Las Vegas Motor Speedway from May 18 -- 20; the festival was moved from its traditional June scheduling so that it will be held in relatively cooler conditions. The festival also introduced on - site camping (including rentable campers and RV parking) and earlier opening times in order to reduce traffic congestion.
EDC Mexico in Mexico City was planned for February 24 - 25 at Autodromo Hermanos Rodriguez.
EDC Japan in Tokyo, May 12 & 13 at Chiba Seaside Park Zozo Marine Stadium. Heavy Rains caused equipment issues.
EDC Las Vegas is scheduled to return to the Las Vegas Motor Speedway for May 17 -- 19, 2019.
|
where did the youth protest movements of the 1960s begin | Counterculture of the 1960s - Wikipedia
The counterculture of the 1960s refers to an anti-establishment cultural phenomenon that developed first in the United Kingdom (UK) and the United States (US) and then spread throughout much of the Western world between the early 1960s and the mid-1970s, with London, New York City, and San Francisco being hotbeds of early countercultural activity. The aggregate movement gained momentum as the Civil Rights Movement continued to grow, and would later become revolutionary with the expansion of the U.S. government 's extensive military intervention in Vietnam. As the 1960s progressed, widespread social tensions also developed concerning other issues, and tended to flow along generational lines regarding human sexuality, women 's rights, traditional modes of authority, experimentation with psychoactive drugs, and differing interpretations of the American Dream. Many key movements related to these issues were born or advanced within the counterculture of the 1960s.
As the era unfolded, new cultural forms and a dynamic subculture which celebrated experimentation, modern incarnations of Bohemianism, and the rise of the hippie and other alternative lifestyles, emerged. This embracing of creativity is particularly notable in the works of British Invasion bands such as The Beatles, and filmmakers whose works became far less restricted by censorship. In addition to the trendsetting Beatles, many other creative artists, authors, and thinkers, within and across many disciplines, helped define the counterculture movement.
Several factors distinguished the counterculture of the 1960s from the anti-authoritarian movements of previous eras. The post-World War II "baby boom '' generated an unprecedented number of potentially disaffected young people as prospective participants in a rethinking of the direction of American and other democratic societies. Post-war affluence allowed many of the counterculture generation to move beyond a focus on the provision of the material necessities of life that had preoccupied their Depression - era parents. The era was also notable in that a significant portion of the array of behaviors and "causes '' within the larger movement were quickly assimilated within mainstream society, particularly in the US, even though counterculture participants numbered in the clear minority within their respective national populations.
The counterculture era essentially commenced in earnest with the assassination of John F. Kennedy in November 1963. It became absorbed into the popular culture with the termination of US combat military involvement in Southeast Asia and the end of the draft in 1973, and ultimately with the resignation of President Richard Nixon in August 1974.
In the broadest sense, 1960s counterculture grew from a confluence of people, ideas, events, issues, circumstances, and technological developments which served as intellectual and social catalysts for exceptionally rapid change during the era.
The Cold War between communist states and capitalist states involved espionage and preparation for war between powerful nations, along with political and military interference by powerful states in the internal affairs of less powerful nations. Poor outcomes from some of these activities set the stage for disillusionment with, and distrust of, post-war governments. Examples included harsh Soviet Union (USSR) responses to popular anti-communist uprisings, such as the 1956 Hungarian Revolution and Czechoslovakia 's Prague Spring in 1968, and the botched US Bay of Pigs Invasion of Cuba in 1961. In the US, President Dwight D. Eisenhower 's initial deception over the nature of the 1960 U-2 incident resulted in the government being caught in a blatant lie at the highest levels, and contributed to a backdrop of growing distrust of authority among many who came of age during the period. The Partial Test Ban Treaty divided the establishment within the US along political and military lines. Internal political disagreements concerning treaty obligations in Southeast Asia (SEATO), especially in Vietnam, and debate as to how other communist insurgencies should be challenged, also created a rift of dissent within the establishment. In the UK, the Profumo Affair also involved establishment leaders being caught in deception, leading to disillusionment and serving as a catalyst for liberal activism. The Cuban Missile Crisis, which brought the world to the brink of nuclear war in October 1962, was largely fomented by duplicitous speech and actions on the part of the Soviet Union. The assassination of US President John F. Kennedy in November 1963, and the attendant theories concerning the event, led to further diminished trust in government, including among younger people.
Many social issues fueled the growth of the larger counterculture movement. One was a nonviolent movement in the United States seeking to resolve constitutional civil rights illegalities, especially regarding general racial segregation, longstanding disfranchisement of blacks in the South by white - dominated state government, and ongoing racial discrimination in jobs, housing, and access to public places in both the North and the South.
On college and university campuses, student activists fought for the right to exercise their basic constitutional rights, especially freedom of speech and freedom of assembly.
Many counterculture activists became aware of the plight of the poor, and community organizers fought for the funding of anti-poverty programs, particularly in the South and within inner city areas in the United States.
Environmentalism grew from a greater understanding of the ongoing damage caused by industrialization, resultant pollution, and the misguided use of chemicals such as pesticides in well - meaning efforts to improve the quality of life for the rapidly growing population. Authors such as Rachel Carson played key roles in developing a new awareness among the global population of the fragility of our planet, despite resistance from elements of the establishment in many countries.
The need to address minority rights of women, gay people, the handicapped, and many other neglected constituencies within the larger population came to the forefront as an increasing number of primarily younger people broke free from the constraints of 1950s orthodoxy and struggled to create a more inclusive and tolerant social landscape.
The availability of new and more effective forms of birth control was a key underpinning of the sexual revolution. The notion of "recreational sex '' without the threat of unwanted pregnancy radically changed the social dynamic and permitted both women and men much greater freedom in the selection of sexual lifestyles outside the confines of traditional marriage. With this change in attitude, by the 1990s the ratio of children born out of wedlock rose from 5 % to 25 % for Whites and from 25 % to 66 % for African - Americans.
For those born after World War II, the emergence of television as a source of entertainment and information -- as well as the associated massive expansion of consumerism afforded by post-war affluence and encouraged by TV advertising -- were key components in creating disillusionment for some younger people and in the formulation of new social behaviours, even as ad agencies heavily courted the "hip '' youth market. In the US, nearly real - time TV news coverage of the civil rights era 's Birmingham Campaign, the "Bloody Sunday '' event of the Selma to Montgomery marches, and graphic news footage from Vietnam brought horrifying, moving images of the bloody reality of armed conflict into living rooms for the first time.
The breakdown of enforcement of the US Hays Code concerning censorship in motion picture production, the use of new forms of artistic expression in European and Asian cinema, and the advent of modern production values heralded a new era of art - house, pornographic, and mainstream film production, distribution, and exhibition. The end of censorship resulted in a complete reformation of the western film industry. With new - found artistic freedom, a generation of exceptionally talented New Wave film makers working across all genres brought realistic depictions of previously prohibited subject matter to neighborhood theater screens for the first time, even as Hollywood film studios were still considered a part of the establishment by some elements of the counterculture.
By the later 1960s, previously under - regarded FM radio replaced AM radio as the focal point for the ongoing explosion of rock and roll music, and became the nexus of youth - oriented news and advertising for the counterculture generation.
Communes, collectives, and intentional communities regained popularity during this era. Early communities, such as the Hog Farm, Quarry Hill, and Drop City in the US were established as straightforward agrarian attempts to return to the land and live free of interference from outside influences. As the era progressed, many people established and populated new communities in response to not only disillusionment with standard community forms, but also dissatisfaction with certain elements of the counterculture itself. Some of these self - sustaining communities have been credited with the birth and propagation of the international Green Movement.
The emergence of an interest in expanded spiritual consciousness, yoga, occult practices and increased human potential helped to shift views on organized religion during the era. In 1957, 69 % of US residents polled by Gallup said religion was increasing in influence. By the late 1960s, polls indicated less than 20 % still held that belief.
The "Generation Gap '', or the inevitable perceived divide in worldview between the old and young, was perhaps never greater than during the counterculture era. A large measure of the generational chasm of the 1960s and early 1970s was born of rapidly evolving fashion and hairstyle trends that were readily adopted by the young, but often misunderstood and ridiculed by the old. These included the wearing of very long hair by men, the wearing of natural or "Afro '' hairstyles by Blacks, the donning of revealing clothing by women in public, and the mainstreaming of the psychedelic clothing and regalia of the short - lived hippie culture. Ultimately, practical and comfortable casual apparel, namely updated forms of T - shirts (often tie - dyed, or emblazoned with political or advertising statements), and Levi Strauss - branded blue denim jeans became the enduring uniform of the generation. The fashion dominance of the counterculture effectively ended with the rise of the Disco and Punk Rock eras in the later 1970s, even as the global popularity of T - shirts, denim jeans, and casual clothing in general have continued to grow.
In the western world, the ongoing criminal legal status of the recreational drug industry was instrumental in the formation of an anti-establishment social dynamic by some of those coming of age during the counterculture era. The explosion of marijuana use during the era, in large part by students on fast - expanding college campuses, created an attendant need for increasing numbers of people to conduct their personal affairs in secret in the procurement and use of banned substances. The classification of marijuana as a narcotic, and the attachment of severe criminal penalties for its use, drove the act of smoking marijuana, and experimentation with substances in general, deep underground. Many began to live largely clandestine lives because of their choice to use such drugs and substances, fearing retribution from their governments.
The confrontations between college students (and other activists) and law enforcement officials became one of the hallmarks of the era. Many younger people began to show deep distrust of police, and terms such as "fuzz '' and "pig '' as derogatory epithets for police reappeared, and became key words within the counterculture lexicon. The distrust of police was based not only on fear of police brutality during political protests, but also on generalized police corruption - especially police manufacture of false evidence, and outright entrapment, in drug cases. In the US, the social tension between elements of the counterculture and law enforcement reached the breaking point in many notable cases, including: the Columbia University protests of 1968 in New York City, the 1968 Democratic National Convention protests in Chicago, the arrest and imprisonment of John Sinclair in Ann Arbor, Michigan, and the Kent State shootings at Kent State University in Kent, Ohio, where National Guardsman acted as surrogates for police. Police malfeasance was also an ongoing issue in the UK during the era.
The Vietnam War, and the protracted national divide between supporters and opponents of the war, were arguably the most important factors contributing to the rise of the larger counterculture movement.
The widely accepted assertion that anti-war opinion was held only among the young is a myth, but enormous war protests consisting of thousands of mostly younger people in every major US city, and elsewhere across the Western world, effectively united millions against the war, and against the war policy that prevailed under five US congresses and during two presidential administrations.
The counterculture movement took hold in Western Europe, with London, Amsterdam, Paris, Rome and West Berlin rivaling San Francisco and New York as counterculture centers.
The UK Underground was a movement linked to the growing subculture in the US and associated with the hippie phenomenon, generating its own magazines and newspapers, fashion, music groups, and clubs. Underground figure Barry Miles said, "The underground was a catch - all sobriquet for a community of like - minded anti-establishment, anti-war, pro-rock'n'roll individuals, most of whom had a common interest in recreational drugs. They saw peace, exploring a widened area of consciousness, love and sexual experimentation as more worthy of their attention than entering the rat race. The straight, consumerist lifestyle was not to their liking, but they did not object to others living it. But at that time the middle classes still felt they had the right to impose their values on everyone else, which resulted in conflict. ''
In the Netherlands, Provo was a counterculture movement that focused on "provoking violent responses from authorities using non-violent bait. ''
In France, the General Strike centered in Paris in May 1968 united French students, and nearly toppled the government.
Kommune 1 or K1 was a commune in West Germany, and was known for its bizarre staged events that fluctuated between satire and provocation. These events served as inspiration for the "Sponti '' movement and other leftist groups. In the late summer of 1968, the commune moved into a deserted factory on Stephanstraße in order to reorient. This second phase of Kommune 1 was characterized by sex, music and drugs. Soon, the commune was receiving visitors from all over the world, including Jimi Hendrix.
Mánička is a Czech term used for young people with long hair, usually males, in Czechoslovakia through the 1960s and 1970s. Long hair for males during this time was considered an expression of political and social attitudes in communist Czechoslovakia. From the mid-1960s, the long - haired and "untidy '' persons (so called máničky or vlasatci (in English: Mops) were banned from entering pubs, cinema halls, theatres and using public transportation in several Czech cities and towns. In 1964, the public transportation regulations in Most and Litvínov excluded long - haired máničky as displeasure - evoking persons. Two years later, the municipal council in Poděbrady banned máničky from entering cultural institutions in the town. In August 1966, Rudé právo informed that máničky in Prague were banned from visiting restaurants of the I. and II. price category.
In 1966, during a big campaign coordinated by the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, around 4,000 young males were forced to cut their hair, often in the cells with the assistance of the state police. On 19 August 1966, during a "safety intervention '' organized by the state police, 140 long - haired people were arrested. As a response, the "community of long - haired '' organized a protest in Prague. More than 100 people cheered slogans such as "Give us back our hair! '' or "Away with hairdressers! ''. The state police arrested the organizers and several participants of the meeting. Some of them were given prison sentences. According to the newspaper Mladá fronta Dnes, the Czechoslovak Ministry of Interior in 1966 even compiled a detailed map of the frequency of occurrence of long - haired males in Czechoslovakia. In August 1969, during the first anniversary of the Soviet occupation of Czechoslovakia, the long - haired youth were one of the most active voices in the state protesting against the occupation. Youth protesters have been labeled as "vagabonds '' and "slackers '' by the official normalized press.
Oz magazine was first published as a satirical humour magazine between 1963 and 1969 in Sydney, Australia, and, in its second and better known incarnation, became a "psychedelic hippy '' magazine from 1967 to 1973 in London. Strongly identified as part of the underground press, it was the subject of two celebrated obscenity trials, one in Australia in 1964 and the other in the United Kingdom in 1971.
In Mexico, rock music was tied into the youth revolt of the 1960s. Mexico City, as well as northern cities such as Monterrey, Nuevo Laredo, Ciudad Juárez, and Tijuana, were exposed to US music. Many Mexican rock stars became involved in the counterculture. The three - day Festival Rock y Ruedas de Avándaro, held in 1971, was organized in the valley of Avándaro near the city of Toluca, a town neighboring Mexico City, and became known as "The Mexican Woodstock ''. Nudity, drug use, and the presence of the US flag scandalized conservative Mexican society to such an extent that the government clamped down on rock and roll performances for the rest of the decade. The festival, marketed as proof of Mexico 's modernization, was never expected to attract the masses it did, and the government had to evacuate stranded attendees en masse at the end. This occurred during the era of President Luis Echeverría, an extremely repressive era in Mexican history. Anything that could be connected to the counterculture or student protests was prohibited from being broadcast on public airwaves, with the government fearing a repeat of the student protests of 1968. Few bands survived the prohibition; though the ones that did, like Three Souls in My Mind (now El Tri), remained popular due in part to their adoption of Spanish for their lyrics, but mostly as a result of a dedicated underground following. While Mexican rock groups were eventually able to perform publicly by the mid-1980s, the ban prohibiting tours of Mexico by foreign acts lasted until 1989.
The Cordobazo was a civil uprising in the city of Córdoba, Argentina, in the end of May 1969, during the military dictatorship of General Juan Carlos Onganía, which occurred a few days after the Rosariazo, and a year after the French May ' 68. Contrary to previous protests, the Cordobazo did not correspond to previous struggles, headed by Marxist workers ' leaders, but associated students and workers in the same struggle against the military government.
The Civil Rights Movement, a key element of the larger counterculture movement, involved the use of applied nonviolence to assure that equal rights guaranteed under the US Constitution would apply to all citizens. Many states illegally denied many of these rights to African - Americans, and this was successfully addressed in the early and mid-1960s in several major nonviolent movements.
Much of the 1960s counterculture originated on college campuses. The 1964 Free Speech Movement at the University of California, Berkeley, which had its roots in the Civil Rights Movement of the southern United States, was one early example. At Berkeley a group of students began to identify themselves as having interests as a class that were at odds with the interests and practices of the University and its corporate sponsors. Other rebellious young people, who were not students, also contributed to the Free Speech Movement.
The New Left is a term used in different countries to describe left - wing movements that occurred in the 1960s and 1970s in the Western world. They differed from earlier leftist movements that had been more oriented towards labour activism, and instead adopted social activism. The US "New Left '' is associated with college campus mass protests and radical leftist movements. The British "New Left '' was an intellectually driven movement which attempted to correct the perceived errors of "Old Left '' parties in the post-World War II period. The movements began to wind down in the 1970s, when activists either committed themselves to party projects, developed social justice organizations, moved into identity politics or alternative lifestyles, or became politically inactive.
The emergence of the New Left in the 1950s and 1960s led to a revival of interest in libertarian socialism. The New Left 's critique of the Old Left 's authoritarianism was associated with a strong interest in personal liberty, autonomy (see the thinking of Cornelius Castoriadis) and led to a rediscovery of older socialist traditions, such as left communism, council communism, and the Industrial Workers of the World. The New Left also led to a revival of anarchism. Journals like Radical America and Black Mask in America, Solidarity, Big Flame and Democracy & Nature, succeeded by The International Journal of Inclusive Democracy, in the UK, introduced a range of left libertarian ideas to a new generation. Social ecology, autonomism and, more recently, participatory economics (parecon), and Inclusive Democracy emerged from this.
A surge of popular interest in anarchism occurred in western nations during the 1960s and 1970s. Anarchism was influential in the counterculture of the 1960s and anarchists actively participated in the late 60s students and workers revolts. During the IX Congress of the Italian Anarchist Federation in Carrara in 1965, a group decided to split off from this organization and created the Gruppi di Iniziativa Anarchica. In the 70s, it was mostly composed of "veteran individualist anarchists with an of pacifism orientation, naturism, etc,... ''. In 1968 in Carrara, Italy the International of Anarchist Federations was founded during an international anarchist conference held there in 1968 by the three existing European federations of France, the Italian and the Iberian Anarchist Federation as well as the Bulgarian federation in French exile. During the events of May 68 the anarchist groups active in France were Fédération anarchiste, Mouvement communiste libertaire, Union fédérale des anarchistes, Alliance ouvrière anarchiste, Union des groupes anarchistes communistes, Noir et Rouge, Confédération nationale du travail, Union anarcho - syndicaliste, Organisation révolutionnaire anarchiste, Cahiers socialistes libertaires, À contre - courant, La Révolution prolétarienne, and the publications close to Émile Armand.
The New Left in the United States also included anarchist, countercultural and hippie - related radical groups such as the Yippies who were led by Abbie Hoffman, The Diggers and Up Against the Wall Motherfuckers. By late 1966, the Diggers opened free stores which simply gave away their stock, provided free food, distributed free drugs, gave away money, organized free music concerts, and performed works of political art. The Diggers took their name from the original English Diggers led by Gerrard Winstanley and sought to create a mini-society free of money and capitalism. On the other hand, the Yippies employed theatrical gestures, such as advancing a pig ("Pigasus the Immortal '') as a candidate for President in 1968, to mock the social status quo. They have been described as a highly theatrical, anti-authoritarian and anarchist youth movement of "symbolic politics ''. Since they were well known for street theater and politically themed pranks, many of the "old school '' political left either ignored or denounced them. According to ABC News, "The group was known for street theater pranks and was once referred to as the ' Groucho Marxists '. ''
In Trafalgar Square, London in 1958, in an act of civil disobedience, 60,000 - 100,000 protesters made up of students and pacifists converged in what was to become the "ban the Bomb '' demonstrations.
Opposition to the Vietnam War began in 1964 on United States college campuses. Student activism became a dominant theme among the baby boomers, growing to include many other demographic groups. Exemptions and deferments for the middle and upper classes resulted in the induction of a disproportionate number of poor, working - class, and minority registrants. Countercultural books such as MacBird by Barbara Garson and much of the counterculture music encouraged a spirit of non-conformism and anti-establishmentarianism. By 1968, the year after a large march to the United Nations in New York City and a large protest at the Pentagon were undertaken, a majority of people in the country opposed the war.
The application of nuclear technology, both as a source of energy and as an instrument of war, has been controversial.
Scientists and diplomats have debated the nuclear weapons policy since before the atomic bombing of Hiroshima in 1945. The public became concerned about nuclear weapons testing from about 1954, following extensive nuclear testing in the Pacific. In 1961, at the height of the Cold War, about 50,000 women brought together by Women Strike for Peace marched in 60 cities in the United States to demonstrate against nuclear weapons. In 1963, many countries ratified the Partial Test Ban Treaty which prohibited atmospheric nuclear testing.
Some local opposition to nuclear power emerged in the early 1960s, and in the late 1960s some members of the scientific community began to express their concerns. In the early 1970s, there were large protests about a proposed nuclear power plant in Wyhl, Germany. The project was cancelled in 1975 and anti-nuclear success at Wyhl inspired opposition to nuclear power in other parts of Europe and North America. Nuclear power became an issue of major public protest in the 1970s.
The role of women as full - time homemakers in industrial society was challenged in 1963, when US feminist Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, giving momentum to the women 's movement and influencing what many called Second - wave feminism. Other activists, such as Gloria Steinem and Angela Davis, either organized, influenced, or educated many of a younger generation of women to endorse and expand feminist thought. Feminism gained further currency within the protest movements of the late 1960s, as women in movements such as Students for a Democratic Society rebelled against the "support '' role they had been consigned to within the male - dominated New Left, as well as against manifestations and statements of sexism within some radical groups. The 1970 pamphlet Women and Their Bodies, soon expanded into the 1971 book Our Bodies, Ourselves, was particularly influential in bringing about the new feminist consciousness.
The 1960s counterculture embraced a back - to - the - land ethic, and communes of the era often relocated to the country from cities. Influential books of the 1960s included Rachel Carson 's Silent Spring and Paul Ehrlich 's The Population Bomb. Counterculture environmentalists were quick to grasp the implications of Ehrlich 's writings on overpopulation, the Hubbert "peak oil '' prediction, and more general concerns over pollution, litter, the environmental effects of the Vietnam War, automobile - dependent lifestyles, and nuclear energy. More broadly they saw that the dilemmas of energy and resource allocation would have implications for geo - politics, lifestyle, environment, and other dimensions of modern life. The "back to nature '' theme was already prevalent in the counterculture by the time of the 1969 Woodstock festival, while the first Earth Day in 1970 was significant in bringing environmental concerns to the forefront of youth culture. At the start of the 1970s, counterculture - oriented publications like the Whole Earth Catalog and The Mother Earth News were popular, out of which emerged a back to the land movement. The 1960s and early 1970s counterculture were early adopters of practices such as recycling and organic farming long before they became mainstream. The counterculture interest in ecology progressed well into the 1970s: particularly influential were New Left eco-anarchist Murray Bookchin, Jerry Mander 's criticism of the effects of television on society, Ernest Callenbach 's novel Ecotopia, Edward Abbey 's fiction and non-fiction writings, and E.F. Schumacher 's economics book Small is Beautiful.
The Stonewall riots were a series of spontaneous, violent demonstrations against a police raid that took place in the early morning hours of June 28, 1969, at the Stonewall Inn, a gay bar in the Greenwich Village neighborhood of New York City. This is frequently cited as the first instance in US history when people in the gay community fought back against a government - sponsored system that persecuted sexual minorities, and became the defining event that marked the start of the Gay rights movement in the United States and around the world.
After the January 14, 1967 Human Be-In in San Francisco organized by artist Michael Bowen, the media 's attention on culture was fully activated. In 1967 Scott McKenzie 's rendition of the song "San Francisco (Be Sure to Wear Flowers in Your Hair) '' brought as many as 100,000 young people from all over the world to celebrate San Francisco 's "Summer of Love. '' While the song had originally been written by John Phillips of The Mamas & the Papas to promote the June 1967 Monterey Pop Festival, it became an instant hit worldwide (# 4 in the United States, # 1 in Europe) and quickly transcended its original purpose.
San Francisco 's flower children, also called "hippies '' by local newspaper columnist Herb Caen, adopted new styles of dress, experimented with psychedelic drugs, lived communally and developed a vibrant music scene. When people returned home from "The Summer of Love '' these styles and behaviors spread quickly from San Francisco and Berkeley to many US and Canadian cities and European capitals. Some hippies formed communes to live as far outside of the established system as possible. This aspect of the counterculture rejected active political engagement with the mainstream and, following the dictate of Timothy Leary to "Turn on, tune in, drop out '', hoped to change society by dropping out of it. Looking back on his own life (as a Harvard professor) prior to 1960, Leary interpreted it to have been that of "an anonymous institutional employee who drove to work each morning in a long line of commuter cars and drove home each night and drank martinis... like several million middle - class, liberal, intellectual robots. ''
As members of the hippie movement grew older and moderated their lives and their views, and especially after US involvement in the Vietnam War ended in the mid-1970s, the counterculture was largely absorbed by the mainstream, leaving a lasting impact on philosophy, morality, music, art, alternative health and diet, lifestyle and fashion.
In addition to a new style of clothing, philosophy, art, music and various views on anti-war, and anti-establishment, some hippies decided to turn away from modern society and re-settle on ranches, or communes. The very first of communes in the United States was a seven - acre land in Southern Colorado, named Drop City. According to Timothy Miller,
Drop City brought together most of the themes that had been developing in other recent communities - anarchy, pacifism, sexual freedom, rural isolation, interest in drugs, art - and wrapped them flamboyantly into a commune not quite like any that had gone before
Many of the inhabitants practiced acts like reusing trash and recycled materials to build Geodesic domes for shelter and other various purposes; using various drugs like marijuana and LSD, and creating various pieces of Drop Art. After the initial success of Drop City, visitors would take the idea of communes and spread them. Another commune called "The Ranch '' was very similar to the culture of Drop City, as well as new concepts like giving children of the commune extensive freedoms known as "children 's rights ''.
Psychedelic film
During the 1960s, this second group of casual lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) users evolved and expanded into a subculture that extolled the mystical and religious symbolism often engendered by the drug 's powerful effects, and advocated its use as a method of raising consciousness. The personalities associated with the subculture, gurus such as Timothy Leary and psychedelic rock musicians such as the Grateful Dead, Pink Floyd, Jimi Hendrix, The Byrds, The 13th Floor Elevators, Ultimate Spinach, Janis Joplin, Crosby, Stills & Nash, The Doors, Blue Cheer, The Chambers Brothers, Country Joe and the Fish, Big Brother and the Holding Company, Jefferson Airplane and The Beatles, soon attracted a great deal of publicity, generating further interest in LSD.
The popularization of LSD outside of the medical world was hastened when individuals such as Ken Kesey participated in drug trials and liked what they saw. Tom Wolfe wrote a widely read account of these early days of LSD 's entrance into the non-academic world in his book The Electric Kool Aid Acid Test, which documented the cross-country, acid - fueled voyage of Ken Kesey and the Merry Pranksters on the psychedelic bus "Furthur '' and the Pranksters ' later "Acid Test '' LSD parties. In 1965, Sandoz laboratories stopped its still legal shipments of LSD to the United States for research and psychiatric use, after a request from the US government concerned about its use. By April 1966, LSD use had become so widespread that Time Magazine warned about its dangers. In December 1966, the exploitation film Hallucination Generation was released. This was followed by The Trip in 1967 and Psych - Out in 1968.
As most research on psychedelics began in the 1940s and 50s, heavy experimentation made its effect in the 1960s during this era of change and movement. Researchers were gaining acknowledgment and popularity with their promotion of psychedelia. This really anchored the change that counterculture instigators and followers began. Most research was conducted at top collegiate institutes, such as Harvard University.
Timothy Leary and his Harvard research team had hopes for potential changes in society. Their research began with mushrooms (psilocybin) and was called the Harvard Mushroom Project. The subjects for this research were convicts at the Concord Prison. After the research sessions, Leary did a follow - up. He found that "75 % of the turned on prisoners who were released had stayed out of jail. '' He believed he had solved the nation 's crime problem. But with many officials skeptical, this breakthrough was not promoted.
Because of the personal experiences with these drugs Leary and his many outstanding colleagues, Aldous Huxley (The Doors of Perception) and Alan Watts (The Joyous Cosmology) believed that these were the mechanisms that could bring peace to not only the nation but the world. As their research continued the media followed them and published their work and documented their behavior, the trend of this counterculture drug experimentation began.
Leary made attempts to bring more organized awareness to people interested in the study of psychedelics. He confronted the Senate committee in Washington and recommended for colleges to authorize the conduction of laboratory courses in psychedelics. He noted that these courses would "end the indiscriminate use of LSD and would be the most popular and productive courses ever offered ''. Although these men were seeking an ultimate enlightenment, reality eventually proved that the potential they thought was there could not be reached, at least in this time. The change they sought for the world had not been permitted by the political systems of all the nations these men pursued their research in. Ram Dass states, "Tim and I actually had a chart on the wall about how soon everyone would be enlightened... We found out that real change is harder. We downplayed the fact that the psychedelic experience is n't for everyone. ''
Leary and his team 's research got shut down at Harvard and everywhere they relocated around the globe. Their outlawish behavior and aggressive approach with these drugs did not settle well with the law. Officials did not agree with this chaotic promotion of peace.
Research with psychedelic drugs and those who conducted it was a radical understanding for the vast majority of the world. However, it did create a change. A ripple of curiosity was created as a result and the wave is continuing to swell.
Ken Kesey and his Merry Pranksters helped shape the developing character of the 1960s counterculture when they embarked on a cross-country voyage during the summer of 1964 in a psychedelic school bus named "Furthur ''. Beginning in 1959, Kesey had volunteered as a research subject for medical trials financed by the CIA 's MK ULTRA project. These trials tested the effects of LSD, psilocybin, mescaline, and other psychedelic drugs. After the medical trials, Kesey continued experimenting on his own, and involved many close friends; collectively they became known as "The Merry Pranksters ''. The Pranksters visited Harvard LSD proponent Timothy Leary at his Millbrook, New York retreat, and experimentation with LSD and other psychedelic drugs, primarily as a means for internal reflection and personal growth, became a constant during the Prankster trip.
The Pranksters created a direct link between the 1950s Beat Generation and the 1960s psychedelic scene; the bus was driven by Beat icon Neal Cassady, Beat poet Allen Ginsberg was on board for a time, and they dropped in on Cassady 's friend, Beat author Jack Kerouac - though Kerouac declined to participate in the Prankster scene. After the Pranksters returned to California, they popularized the use of LSD at so - called "Acid Tests '', which initially were held at Kesey 's home in La Honda, California, and then at many other West Coast venues.
Experimentation with LSD, peyote, psilocybin mushrooms, MDA, marijuana, and other psychedelic drugs became a major component of 1960s counterculture, influencing philosophy, art, music and styles of dress. Jim DeRogatis wrote that peyote, a small cactus containing the psychedelic alkaloid mescaline, was widely available in Austin, Texas, a countercultural hub in the early 1960s.
The sexual revolution (also known as a time of "sexual liberation '') was a social movement that challenged traditional codes of behavior related to sexuality and interpersonal relationships throughout the Western world from the 1960s to the 1980s. Sexual liberation included increased acceptance of sex outside of traditional heterosexual, monogamous relationships (primarily marriage). Contraception and the pill, public nudity, the normalization of premarital sex, homosexuality and alternative forms of sexuality, and the legalization of abortion all followed.
Underground newspapers sprang up in most cities and college towns, serving to define and communicate the range of phenomena that defined the counterculture: radical political opposition to "The Establishment '', colorful experimental (and often explicitly drug - influenced) approaches to art, music and cinema, and uninhibited indulgence in sex and drugs as a symbol of freedom. The papers also often included comic strips, from which the underground comix were an outgrowth.
As numbers of young people became alienated from social norms, they resisted and looked for alternatives. The forms of escape and resistance manifest in many ways including social activism, alternative lifestyles, dress, music and alternative recreational activities, including that of throwing a Frisbee. From hippies tossing the Frisbee at festivals and concerts came today 's popular disc sports. Disc sports such as disc freestyle, double disc court, disc guts, Ultimate and disc golf became this sport 's first events.
The Situationist International was a restricted group of international revolutionaries founded in 1957, and which had its peak in its influence on the unprecedented general wildcat strikes of May 1968 in France. With their ideas rooted in Marxism and the 20th - century European artistic avant - gardes, they advocated experiences of life being alternative to those admitted by the capitalist order, for the fulfillment of human primitive desires and the pursuing of a superior passional quality. For this purpose they suggested and experimented with the construction of situations, namely the setting up of environments favorable for the fulfillment of such desires. Using methods drawn from the arts, they developed a series of experimental fields of study for the construction of such situations, like unitary urbanism and psychogeography. They fought against the main obstacle on the fulfillment of such superior passional living, identified by them in advanced capitalism. Their theoretical work peaked on the highly influential book The Society of the Spectacle by Guy Debord. Debord argued in 1967 that spectacular features like mass media and advertising have a central role in an advanced capitalist society, which is to show a fake reality in order to mask the real capitalist degradation of human life. Raoul Vaneigem wrote The Revolution of Everyday Life which takes the field of "everyday life '' as the ground upon which communication and participation can occur, or, as is more commonly the case, be perverted and abstracted into pseudo-forms.
Fluxus (a name taken from a Latin word meaning "to flow '') is an international network of artists, composers and designers noted for blending different artistic media and disciplines in the 1960s. They have been active in Neo-Dada noise music, visual art, literature, urban planning, architecture, and design. Fluxus is often described as intermedia, a term coined by Fluxus artist Dick Higgins in a famous 1966 essay. Fluxus encouraged a "do - it - yourself '' aesthetic, and valued simplicity over complexity. Like Dada before it, Fluxus included a strong current of anti-commercialism and an anti-art sensibility, disparaging the conventional market - driven art world in favor of an artist - centered creative practice. As Fluxus artist Robert Filliou wrote, however, Fluxus differed from Dada in its richer set of aspirations, and the positive social and communitarian aspirations of Fluxus far outweighed the anti-art tendency that also marked the group.
In the 1960s, the Dada - influenced art group Black Mask declared that revolutionary art should be "an integral part of life, as in primitive society, and not an appendage to wealth. '' Black Mask disrupted cultural events in New York by giving made up flyers of art events to the homeless with the lure of free drinks. After, the Motherfuckers grew out of a combination of Black Mask and another group called Angry Arts. Up Against the Wall Motherfuckers (often referred to as simply "the Motherfuckers '', or UAW / MF) was an anarchist affinity group based in New York City.
During the early 1960s, Britain 's new wave of musicians gained popularity and fame in the United States. Artists such as the Beatles paved the way for their compatriots to enter the US market. The Beatles themselves were influenced by many artists, among them American singer - songwriter Bob Dylan, who was a lyrical inspiration as well as their introduction to marijuana. Dylan 's early career as a protest singer had been inspired by artists like Pete Seeger and his hero Woody Guthrie. Other folksingers, like Joan Baez and Peter, Paul and Mary, took the songs of the era to new audiences and public recognition.
The music of the 1960s moved towards an electric, psychedelic version of rock, thanks largely to Bob Dylan 's decision to play an electric guitar at the 1965 Newport Folk Festival. The newly popularized electric sound of rock was then built upon and molded into psychedelic rock by artists like The 13th Floor Elevators and British bands Pink Floyd and the Beatles. The Beach Boys ' 1966 album Pet Sounds also paved the way for later hippie acts, with Brian Wilson 's writing interpreted as a "plea for love and understanding. '' Pet Sounds served as a major source of inspiration for other contemporary acts, most notably directly inspiring the Beatles ' Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band. The single "Good Vibrations '' soared to number one globally, completely changing the perception of what a record could be. It was during this period that the highly anticipated album Smile was to be released. However, the project collapsed and The Beach Boys released a downgraded version called Smiley Smile, which failed to make a big commercial impact but was also highly influential, most notably on The Who 's Pete Townshend.
The Beatles went on to become the most prominent commercial exponents of the "psychedelic revolution '' (e.g., Revolver, Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band and Magical Mystery Tour) in the late 1960s. In the United States, bands that exemplified the counterculture were becoming huge commercial and mainstream successes. These included The Mamas & the Papas (If You Can Believe Your Eyes and Ears), Big Brother and the Holding Company (Cheap Thrills), Jimi Hendrix (Are You Experienced), Jefferson Airplane (Surrealistic Pillow), The Doors (The Doors) and Sly and the Family Stone (Stand!). Bands and other musicians, such as the Grateful Dead, Neil Young (Canada), David Peel, Phil Ochs, The Fugs, Quicksilver Messenger Service, John Sebastian, Melanie, The Velvet Underground, Frank Zappa, Captain Beefheart, Santana, CSNY, Shocking Blue, Country Joe and the Fish, and The Holy Modal Rounders were considered key to the counterculture movement.
While the hippie scene was born in California, an edgier scene emerged in New York City that put more emphasis on avant - garde and art music. Bands such as The Velvet Underground came out of this underground music scene, which was predominantly centered at Andy Warhol 's legendary Factory. The Velvet Underground supplied the music for the Exploding Plastic Inevitable, a series of multimedia events staged by Warhol and his collaborators in 1966 and 1967. The Velvet Underground 's lyrics were considered risqué for the era, since they discussed sexual fetishism, transgender identities, and the use of hard drugs associated with Warhol 's Factory and its superstars.
Detroit 's MC5 also came out of the underground rock music scene of the late 1960s. They introduced a more aggressive evolution of garage rock which was often fused with sociopolitical and countercultural lyrics of the era, such as in the song "Motor City Is Burning '' (a John Lee Hooker cover adapting the story of the Detroit Race Riot of 1943 to the Detroit riot of 1967). MC5 had ties to radical leftist organizations such as "Up Against the Wall Motherfuckers '' and John Sinclair 's White Panther Party, and MC5 performed a lengthy set before the 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago, where an infamous riot subsequently broke out between police and students protesting the Vietnam War and the recent assassinations of Martin Luther King, Jr. and Robert Kennedy. MC5, The Stooges and the aforementioned Velvet Underground, are now seen as an influence on the protopunk sound that would lead to punk rock and heavy metal music in the late 1970s.
Another hotbed of the 1960s counterculture was Austin, Texas, with two of the era 's legendary music venues - the Vulcan Gas Company and the Armadillo World Headquarters - and musical talent like Janis Joplin, the 13th Floor Elevators, Shiva 's Headband, the Conqueroo, and, later, Stevie Ray Vaughan. Austin was also home to a large New Left activist movement, one of the earliest underground papers, The Rag, and cutting edge graphic artists like Fabulous Furry Freak Brothers creator Gilbert Shelton, underground comix pioneer Jack Jackson (Jaxon), and surrealist armadillo artist Jim Franklin.
The 1960s was also an era of rock festivals, which played an important role in spreading the counterculture across the US. The Monterey Pop Festival, which launched Jimi Hendrix 's career in the US, was one of the first of these festivals. Britain 's 1968 -- 1970 Isle of Wight Festivals drew big names such as The Who, The Doors, Joni Mitchell, Hendrix, Dylan, and others. The 1969 Woodstock Festival in New York state became a symbol of the movement, although the 1970 Isle of Wight Festival drew a larger crowd. Some believe the era came to an abrupt end with the infamous Altamont Free Concert held by The Rolling Stones, in which heavy - handed security from the Hells Angels resulted in the stabbing of an audience member, apparently in self - defense, as the show descended into chaos.
As the psychedelic revolution progressed, lyrics grew more complex, (such as Jefferson Airplane 's "White Rabbit ''). Long - playing albums enabled artists to make more in - depth statements than could be made in just a single song (such as the Mothers of Invention 's satirical Freak Out!). Even the rules governing single songs were stretched, and singles lasting longer than three minutes emerged, such as Dylan 's "Like a Rolling Stone '', Arlo Guthrie 's "Alice 's Restaurant '', and Iron Butterfly 's 17 - minute - long "In - A-Gadda - Da - Vida. ''.
The 1960s saw the protest song gain a sense of political self - importance, with Phil Ochs 's "I Ai n't Marching Anymore '' and Country Joe and the Fish 's "I - Feel - Like - I 'm - Fixin ' - to - Die - Rag '' among the many anti-war anthems that were important to the era.
Free jazz is an approach to jazz music that was first developed in the 1950s and 1960s. Though the music produced by free jazz composers varied widely, the common feature was a dissatisfaction with the limitations of bebop, hard bop, and modal jazz, which had developed in the 1940s and 1950s. Each in their own way, free jazz musicians attempted to alter, extend, or break down the conventions of jazz, often by discarding hitherto invariable features of jazz, such as fixed chord changes or tempos. While usually considered experimental and avant - garde, free jazz has also oppositely been conceived as an attempt to return jazz to its "primitive '', often religious roots, and emphasis on collective improvisation. Free jazz is strongly associated with the 1950s innovations of Ornette Coleman and Cecil Taylor and the later works of saxophonist John Coltrane. Other important pioneers included Charles Mingus, Eric Dolphy, Albert Ayler, Archie Shepp, Joe Maneri and Sun Ra. Although today "free jazz '' is the generally used term, many other terms were used to describe the loosely defined movement, including "avant - garde '', "energy music '' and "The New Thing ''. During its early and mid-60s heyday, much free jazz was released by established labels such as Prestige, Blue Note and Impulse, as well as independents such as ESP Disk and BYG Actuel. Free improvisation or free music is improvised music without any rules beyond the logic or inclination of the musician (s) involved. The term can refer to both a technique (employed by any musician in any genre) and as a recognizable genre in its own right. Free improvisation, as a genre of music, developed in the U.S. and Europe in the mid to late 1960s, largely as an outgrowth of free jazz and modern classical musics. None of its primary exponents can be said to be famous within mainstream; however, in experimental circles, a number of free musicians are well known, including saxophonists Evan Parker, Anthony Braxton, Peter Brötzmann and John Zorn, drummer Christian Lillinger, trombonist George Lewis, guitarists Derek Bailey, Henry Kaiser and Fred Frith and the improvising groups The Art Ensemble of Chicago and AMM.
Allmusic Guide states that "until around 1967, the worlds of jazz and rock were nearly completely separate ''. The term, "jazz - rock '' (or "jazz / rock '') is often used as a synonym for the term "jazz fusion ''. However, some make a distinction between the two terms. The Free Spirits have sometimes been cited as the earliest jazz - rock band. During the late 1960s, at the same time that jazz musicians were experimenting with rock rhythms and electric instruments, rock groups such as Cream and the Grateful Dead were "beginning to incorporate elements of jazz into their music '' by "experimenting with extended free - form improvisation ''. Other "groups such as Blood, Sweat & Tears directly borrowed harmonic, melodic, rhythmic and instrumentational elements from the jazz tradition ''. The rock groups that drew on jazz ideas (like Soft Machine, Colosseum, Caravan, Nucleus, Chicago, Spirit and Frank Zappa) turned the blend of the two styles with electric instruments. Since rock often emphasized directness and simplicity over virtuosity, jazz - rock generally grew out of the most artistically ambitious rock subgenres of the late 1960s and early 70s: psychedelia, progressive rock, and the singer - songwriter movement. '' Miles Davis ' Bitches Brew sessions, recorded in August 1969 and released the following year, mostly abandoned jazz 's usual swing beat in favor of a rock - style backbeat anchored by electric bass grooves. The recording "... mixed free jazz blowing by a large ensemble with electronic keyboards and guitar, plus a dense mix of percussion. '' Davis also drew on the rock influence by playing his trumpet through electronic effects and pedals. While the album gave Davis a gold record, the use of electric instruments and rock beats created a great deal of consternation amongst some more conservative jazz critics.
The counterculture was not only affected by cinema, but was also instrumental in the provision of era - relevant content and talent for the film industry. Bonnie and Clyde struck a chord with the youth as "the alienation of the young in the 1960s was comparable to the director 's image of the 1930s. '' Films of this time also focused on the changes happening in the world. A sign of this was the visibility that the hippie subculture gained in various mainstream and underground media. Hippie exploitation films are 1960s exploitation films about the hippie counterculture with stereotypical situations associated with the movement such as marijuana and LSD use, sex and wild psychedelic parties. Examples include The Love - ins, Psych - Out, The Trip, and Wild in the Streets. The musical play Hair shocked stage audiences with full - frontal nudity. Dennis Hopper 's "Road Trip '' adventure Easy Rider (1969) became accepted as one of the landmark films of the era. Medium Cool portrayed the 1968 Democratic Convention alongside the 1968 Chicago police riots which has led to it being labeled as "a fusion of cinema - vérité and political radicalism ''. One film - studio attempt to cash in on the hippie trend was 1968 's Psych - Out, which is in contrast to the film version of Arlo Guthrie 's Alice 's Restaurant, which some say portrayed the generation as "doomed ''. The music of the era was represented by films such as 1970s Woodstock, a documentary of the music festival. (See also: List of films related to the hippie subculture) Inaugurated by the 1969 release of Andy Warhol 's Blue Movie, the phenomenon of adult erotic films being publicly discussed by celebrities (like Johnny Carson and Bob Hope), and taken seriously by critics (like Roger Ebert), a development referred to, by Ralph Blumenthal of The New York Times, as "porno chic '', and later known as the Golden Age of Porn, began, for the first time, in modern American culture. According to award - winning author Toni Bentley, Radley Metzger 's 1976 film The Opening of Misty Beethoven, based on the play Pygmalion by George Bernard Shaw (and its derivative, My Fair Lady), and due to attaining a mainstream level in storyline and sets, is considered the "crown jewel '' of this ' Golden Age '.
In France the New Wave was a blanket term coined by critics for a group of French filmmakers of the late 1950s and 1960s, influenced by Italian Neorealism and classical Hollywood cinema. Although never a formally organized movement, the New Wave filmmakers were linked by their self - conscious rejection of classical cinematic form and their spirit of youthful iconoclasm and is an example of European art cinema. Many also engaged in their work with the social and political upheavals of the era, making their radical experiments with editing, visual style and narrative part of a general break with the conservative paradigm. The Left Bank, or Rive Gauche, group is a contingent of filmmakers associated with the French New Wave, first identified as such by Richard Roud. The corresponding "right bank '' group is constituted of the more famous and financially successful New Wave directors associated with Cahiers du cinéma (Claude Chabrol, François Truffaut, and Jean - Luc Godard). Left Bank directors include Chris Marker, Alain Resnais, and Agnès Varda. Roud described a distinctive "fondness for a kind of Bohemian life and an impatience with the conformity of the Right Bank, a high degree of involvement in literature and the plastic arts, and a consequent interest in experimental filmmaking '', as well as an identification with the political left. Other film "new waves '' from around the world associated with the 1960s are New German Cinema, Czechoslovak New Wave, Brazilian Cinema Novo and Japanese New Wave. During the 1960s, the term "art film '' began to be much more widely used in the United States than in Europe. In the U.S., the term is often defined very broadly, to include foreign - language (non-English) "auteur '' films, independent films, experimental films, documentaries and short films. In the 1960s "art film '' became a euphemism in the U.S. for racy Italian and French B - movies. By the 1970s, the term was used to describe sexually explicit European films with artistic structure such as the Swedish film I Am Curious (Yellow). The 1960s was an important period in art film; the release of a number of groundbreaking films giving rise to the European art cinema which had countercultural traits in filmmakers such as Michelangelo Antonioni, Federico Fellini, Pier Paolo Pasolini, Luis Buñuel and Bernardo Bertolucci.
In his 1986 essay "From Satori to Silicon Valley '', cultural historian Theodore Roszak pointed out that Apple Computer emerged from within the West Coast counterculture. Roszak outlines the Apple computer 's development, and the evolution of ' the two Steves ' (Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs, the Apple 's developers) into businessmen. Like them, many early computing and networking pioneers - after discovering LSD and roaming the campuses of UC Berkeley, Stanford, and MIT in the late 1960s and early 1970s - would emerge from this caste of social "misfits '' to shape the modern world.
Many hippies rejected mainstream organized religion in favor of a more personal spiritual experience, often drawing on indigenous and folk beliefs. If they adhered to mainstream faiths, hippies were likely to embrace Buddhism, Daoism, Hinduism, Unitarian Universalism and the restorationist Christianity of the Jesus Movement. Some hippies embraced neo-paganism, especially Wicca. Wicca is a witchcraft religion which became more prominent beginning in 1951, with the repeal of the Witchcraft Act of 1735, after which Gerald Gardner and then others such as Charles Cardell and Cecil Williamson began publicising their own versions of the Craft. Gardner and others never used the term "Wicca '' as a religious identifier, simply referring to the "witch cult '', "witchcraft '', and the "Old Religion ''. However, Gardner did refer to witches as "the Wica ''. During the 1960s, the name of the religion normalised to "Wicca ''. Gardner 's tradition, later termed Gardnerianism, soon became the dominant form in England and spread to other parts of the British Isles. Following Gardner 's death in 1964, the Craft continued to grow unabated despite sensationalism and negative portrayals in British tabloids, with new traditions being propagated by figures like Robert Cochrane, Sybil Leek and most importantly Alex Sanders, whose Alexandrian Wicca, which was predominantly based upon Gardnerian Wicca, albeit with an emphasis placed on ceremonial magic, spread quickly and gained much media attention.
In his 1991 book, Hippies and American Values, Timothy Miller described the hippie ethos as essentially a "religious movement '' whose goal was to transcend the limitations of mainstream religious institutions. "Like many dissenting religions, the hippies were enormously hostile to the religious institutions of the dominant culture, and they tried to find new and adequate ways to do the tasks the dominant religions failed to perform. '' In his seminal, contemporaneous work, The Hippie Trip, author Lewis Yablonsky notes that those who were most respected in hippie settings were the spiritual leaders, the so - called "high priests '' who emerged during that era.
One such hippie "high priest '' was San Francisco State College instructor Stephen Gaskin. Beginning in 1966, Gaskin 's "Monday Night Class '' eventually outgrew the lecture hall, and attracted 1,500 hippie followers in an open discussion of spiritual values, drawing from Christian, Buddhist, and Hindu teachings. In 1970 Gaskin founded a Tennessee community called The Farm, and he still lists his religion as "Hippie. ''
Timothy Leary was an American psychologist and writer, known for his advocacy of psychedelic drugs. On September 19, 1966, Leary founded the League for Spiritual Discovery, a religion declaring LSD as its holy sacrament, in part as an unsuccessful attempt to maintain legal status for the use of LSD and other psychedelics for the religion 's adherents based on a "freedom of religion '' argument. The Psychedelic Experience was the inspiration for John Lennon 's song "Tomorrow Never Knows '' in The Beatles ' album Revolver. He published a pamphlet in 1967 called Start Your Own Religion to encourage just that (see below under "writings '') and was invited to attend the January 14, 1967 Human Be-In a gathering of 30,000 hippies in San Francisco 's Golden Gate Park In speaking to the group, he coined the famous phrase "Turn on, tune in, drop out ''.
The Principia Discordia is the founding text of Discordianism written by Greg Hill (Malaclypse the Younger) and Kerry Wendell Thornley (Lord Omar Khayyam Ravenhurst). It was originally published under the title "Principia Discordia or How The West Was Lost '' in a limited edition of five copies in 1965. The title, literally meaning "Discordant Principles '', is in keeping with the tendency of Latin to prefer hypotactic grammatical arrangements. In English, one would expect the title to be "Principles of Discord. ''
The lasting impact, including unintended consequences, creative output and general legacy of the counterculture era continue to be actively discussed, debated, despised and celebrated.
Even the notions of when the counterculture subsumed the Beat Generation, when it gave way to the successor generation, and what happened in between are open for debate. According to notable UK Underground and counterculture author Barry Miles, "It seemed to me that the Seventies was when most of the things that people attribute to the sixties really happened: this was the age of extremes, people took more drugs, had longer hair, weirder clothes, had more sex, protested more violently and encountered more opposition from the establishment. It was the era of sex and drugs and rock'n'roll, as Ian Dury said. The countercultural explosion of the 1960s really only involved a few thousand people in the UK and perhaps ten times that in the USA -- largely because of opposition to the Vietnam war, whereas in the Seventies the ideas had spread out across the world.
A Columbia University teaching unit on the counterculture era notes: "Although historians disagree over the influence of the counterculture on American politics and society, most describe the counterculture in similar terms. Virtually all authors -- for example, on the right, Robert Bork in Slouching Toward Gomorrah: Modern Liberalism and American Decline (New York: Regan Books, 1996) and, on the left, Todd Gitlin in The Sixties: Years of Hope, Days of Rage (New York: Bantam Books, 1987) -- characterize the counterculture as self - indulgent, childish, irrational, narcissistic, and even dangerous. Even so, many liberal and leftist historians find constructive elements in it, while those on the right tend not to. ''
Screen legend John Wayne equated aspects of 1960s social programs with the rise of the welfare state, "... I know all about that. In the late Twenties, when I was a sophomore at USC, I was a socialist myself -- but not when I left. The average college kid idealistically wishes everybody could have ice cream and cake for every meal. But as he gets older and gives more thought to his and his fellow man 's responsibilities, he finds that it ca n't work out that way -- that some people just wo n't carry their load... I believe in welfare -- a welfare work program. I do n't think a fella should be able to sit on his backside and receive welfare. I 'd like to know why well - educated idiots keep apologizing for lazy and complaining people who think the world owes them a living. I 'd like to know why they make excuses for cowards who spit in the faces of the police and then run behind the judicial sob sisters. I ca n't understand these people who carry placards to save the life of some criminal, yet have no thought for the innocent victim. ''
Former liberal Democrat Ronald Reagan, who later became a conservative Governor of California and 40th President of the US, remarked about one group of protesters carrying signs, "The last bunch of pickets were carrying signs that said ' Make love, not war. ' The only trouble was they did n't look capable of doing either. ''
The "generation gap '' between the affluent young and their often poverty - scarred parents was a critical component of 1960s culture. In an interview with journalist Gloria Steinem during the 1968 US presidential campaign, soon - to - be First Lady Pat Nixon exposed the generational chasm in worldview between Steinem, 20 years her junior, and herself after Steinem probed Mrs. Nixon as to her youth, role models, and lifestyle. A hardscrabble child of the Great Depression, Pat Nixon told Steinem, "I never had time to think about things like that, who I wanted to be, or who I admired, or to have ideas. I never had time to dream about being anyone else. I had to work. I have n't just sat back and thought of myself or my ideas or what I wanted to do... I 've kept working. I do n't have time to worry about who I admire or who I identify with. I never had it easy. I 'm not at all like you... all those people who had it easy. ''
In economic terms, it has been contended that the counterculture really only amounted to creating new marketing segments for the "hip '' crowd.
Even before the counterculture movement reached its peak of influence, the concept of the adoption of socially - responsible policies by establishment corporations was discussed by economist and Nobel laureate Milton Friedman (1962): "Few trends could so thoroughly undermine the very foundation of our free society as the acceptance by corporate officials of a social responsibility other than to make as much money for their stockholders as possible. This is a fundamentally subversive doctrine. If businessmen do have a social responsibility other than making maximum profits for stockholders, how are they to know what it is? Can self - selected private individuals decide what the social interest is? ''
In the UK, commentator Peter Hitchens identified the counterculture as one of the contributing factors to what he saw as the malaise in British politics in 2009.
In 2003, author and former Free Speech activist Greil Marcus was quoted, "What happened four decades ago is history. It 's not just a blip in the history of trends. Whoever shows up at a march against war in Iraq, it always takes place with a memory of the efficacy and joy and gratification of similar protests that took place in years before... It does n't matter that there is no counterculture, because counterculture of the past gives people a sense that their own difference matters. ''
When asked about the prospects of the counterculture movement moving forward in the digital age, former Grateful Dead lyricist and self - styled "cyberlibertarian '' John Perry Barlow said, "I started out as a teenage beatnik and then became a hippie and then became a cyberpunk. And now I 'm still a member of the counterculture, but I do n't know what to call that. And I 'd been inclined to think that that was a good thing, because once the counterculture in America gets a name then the media can coopt it, and the advertising industry can turn it into a marketing foil. But you know, right now I 'm not sure that it is a good thing, because we do n't have any flag to rally around. Without a name there may be no coherent movement. ''
During the era, conservative students objected to the counterculture and found ways to celebrate their conservative ideals by reading books like J. Edgar Hoover 's A Study of Communism, joining student organizations like the College Republicans, and organizing Greek events which reinforced gender norms.
Free Speech advocate and social anthropologist Jentri Anders observed that a number of freedoms were endorsed within a countercultural community in which she lived and studied: "freedom to explore one 's potential, freedom to create one 's Self, freedom of personal expression, freedom from scheduling, freedom from rigidly defined roles and hierarchical statuses... '' Additionally, Anders believed some in the counterculture wished to modify children 's education so that it did n't discourage, but rather encouraged, "aesthetic sense, love of nature, passion for music, desire for reflection, or strongly marked independence. ''
In 2007, Merry Prankster Carolyn "Mountain Girl '' Garcia commented, "I see remnants of that movement everywhere. It 's sort of like the nuts in Ben and Jerry 's ice cream -- it 's so thoroughly mixed in, we sort of expect it. The nice thing is that eccentricity is no longer so foreign. We 've embraced diversity in a lot of ways in this country. I do think it 's done us a tremendous service. ''
The following people are well known for their involvement in 1960s era counterculture. Some are key incidental or contextual figures, such as Beat Generation figures who also participated directly in the later counterculture era. The primary area (s) of each figure 's notability are indicated, per these figures ' Wikipedia pages. This section is not intended be exhaustive, but rather a representative cross section of individuals active within the larger movement. Although many of the people listed are known for civil rights activism, some figures whose primary notability was within the realm of the Civil Rights Movement are listed elsewhere. This section is not intended to create associations between any of the listed figures beyond what is documented elsewhere. (see also: List of civil rights leaders; Key figures of the New Left; Timeline of 1960s counterculture).
|
where was the first alcoholics anonymous meeting held | Alcoholics Anonymous - wikipedia
Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) is an international mutual aid fellowship whose stated purpose is to enable its members to "stay sober and help other alcoholics achieve sobriety. '' It was founded in 1935 by Bill Wilson and Bob Smith in Akron, Ohio. With other early members, Bill Wilson and Bob Smith developed AA 's Twelve Step program of spiritual and character development. AA 's initial Twelve Traditions were introduced in 1946 to help the fellowship be stable and unified while disengaged from "outside issues '' and influences.
The Traditions recommend that members remain anonymous in public media, altruistically help other alcoholics, and that AA groups avoid official affiliations with other organizations. They also advise against dogma and coercive hierarchies. Subsequent fellowships such as Narcotics Anonymous have adopted and adapted the Twelve Steps and the Twelve Traditions to their respective primary purposes.
The first female member, Florence Rankin, joined AA in March 1937, and the first non-Protestant member, a Roman Catholic, joined in 1939. The first Black AA group was established in 1945 in Washington DC by Jim S., an African - American physician from Virginia. AA membership has since spread internationally "across diverse cultures holding different beliefs and values '', including geopolitical areas resistant to grassroots movements. Close to 2 million people worldwide are members of AA as of 2016.
AA 's name is derived from its first book, informally called "The Big Book '', originally titled Alcoholics Anonymous: The Story of How More Than One Hundred Men Have Recovered From Alcoholism.
AA sprang from The Oxford Group, a non-denominational movement modeled after first - century Christianity. Some members founded the Group to help in maintaining sobriety. "Grouper '' Ebby Thacher was Wilson 's former drinking buddy who approached Wilson saying that he had "got religion '', was sober, and that Wilson could do the same if he set aside objections to religion and instead formed a personal idea of God, "another power '' or "higher power ''.
Feeling a "kinship of common suffering '' and, though drunk, Wilson attended his first Group gathering. Within days, Wilson admitted himself to the Charles B. Towns Hospital after drinking four beers on the way -- the last alcohol he ever drank. Under the care of William Duncan Silkworth (an early benefactor of AA), Wilson 's detox included the deliriant belladonna. At the hospital a despairing Wilson experienced a bright flash of light, which he felt to be God revealing himself. Following his hospital discharge Wilson joined the Oxford Group and recruited other alcoholics to the Group. Wilson 's early efforts to help others become sober were ineffective, prompting Silkworth to suggest that Wilson place less stress on religion and more on "the science '' of treating alcoholism. Wilson 's first success came during a business trip to Akron, Ohio, where he was introduced to Robert Smith, a surgeon and Oxford Group member who was unable to stay sober. After thirty days of working with Wilson, Smith drank his last drink on 10 June 1935, the date marked by AA for its anniversaries.
While Wilson and Smith credited their sobriety to working with alcoholics under the auspices of the Oxford Group, a Group associate pastor sermonized against Wilson and his alcoholic Groupers for forming a "secret, ashamed sub-group '' engaged in "divergent works ''. By 1937, Wilson separated from the Oxford Group. AA Historian Ernest Kurtz described the split:
... more and more, Bill discovered that new adherents could get sober by believing in each other and in the strength of this group. Men (no women were members yet) who had proven over and over again, by extremely painful experience, that they could not get sober on their own had somehow become more powerful when two or three of them worked on their common problem. This, then -- whatever it was that occurred among them -- was what they could accept as a power greater than themselves. They did not need the Oxford Group.
In 1955, Wilson acknowledged AA 's debt, saying "The Oxford Groupers had clearly shown us what to do. And just as importantly, we learned from them what not to do. '' Among the Oxford Group practices that AA retained were informal gatherings, a "changed - life '' developed through "stages '', and working with others for no material gain, AA 's analogs for these are meetings, "the steps '', and sponsorship. AA 's tradition of anonymity was a reaction to the publicity - seeking practices of the Oxford Group, as well as AA 's wish to not promote, Wilson said, "erratic public characters who through broken anonymity might get drunk and destroy confidence in us. ''
To share their method, Wilson and other members wrote the initially - titled book, Alcoholics Anonymous: The Story of How More Than One Hundred Men Have Recovered from Alcoholism, from which AA drew its name. Informally known as "The Big Book '' (with its first 164 pages virtually unchanged since the 1939 edition), it suggests a twelve - step program in which members admit that they are powerless over alcohol and need help from a "higher power ''. They seek guidance and strength through prayer and meditation from God or a Higher Power of their own understanding; take a moral inventory with care to include resentments; list and become ready to remove character defects; list and make amends to those harmed; continue to take a moral inventory, pray, meditate, and try to help other alcoholics recover. The second half of the book, "Personal Stories '' (subject to additions, removal and retitling in subsequent editions), is made of AA members ' redemptive autobiographical sketches.
In 1941, interviews on American radio and favorable articles in US magazines, including a piece by Jack Alexander in The Saturday Evening Post, led to increased book sales and membership. By 1946, as the growing fellowship quarreled over structure, purpose, and authority, as well as finances and publicity, Wilson began to form and promote what became known as AA 's "Twelve Traditions, '' which are guidelines for an altruistic, unaffiliated, non-coercive, and non-hierarchical structure that limited AA 's purpose to only helping alcoholics on a non-professional level while shunning publicity. Eventually he gained formal adoption and inclusion of the Twelve Traditions in all future editions of the Big Book. At the 1955 conference in St. Louis, Missouri, Wilson relinquished stewardship of AA to the General Service Conference, as AA grew to millions of members internationally.
AA says it is "not organized in the formal or political sense '', and Bill Wilson called it a "benign anarchy ''. In Ireland, Shane Butler said that AA "looks like it could n't survive as there 's no leadership or top - level telling local cumanns what to do, but it has worked and proved itself extremely robust. '' Butler explained that "AA 's ' inverted pyramid ' style of governance has helped it to avoid many of the pitfalls that political and religious institutions have encountered since it was established here in 1946. ''
In 2006, AA counted 1,867,212 members and 106,202 AA groups worldwide. The Twelve Traditions informally guide how individual AA groups function, and the Twelve Concepts for World Service guide how the organization is structured globally.
A member who accepts a service position or an organizing role is a "trusted servant '' with terms rotating and limited, typically lasting three months to two years and determined by group vote and the nature of the position. Each group is a self - governing entity with AA World Services acting only in an advisory capacity. AA is served entirely by alcoholics, except for seven "nonalcoholic friends of the fellowship '' of the 21 - member AA Board of Trustees.
AA groups are self - supporting, relying on voluntary donations from members to cover expenses. The AA General Service Office (GSO) limits contributions to US $3,000 a year. Above the group level, AA may hire outside professionals for services that require specialized expertise or full - time responsibilities.
Like individual groups, the GSO is self - supporting. AA receives proceeds from books and literature that constitute more than 50 % of the income for its General Service Office. In keeping with AA 's Seventh Tradition, the Central Office is fully self - supporting through the sale of literature and related products, and through the voluntary donations of AA members and groups. It does not accept donations from people or organizations outside of AA.
In keeping with AA 's Eighth Tradition, the Central Office employs special workers who are compensated financially for their services, but their services do not include traditional "12th Step '' work of working with alcoholics in need. All 12th Step calls that come to the Central Office are handed to sober AA members who have volunteered to handle these calls. It also maintains service centers, which coordinate activities such as printing literature, responding to public inquiries, and organizing conferences. Other International General Service Offices (Australia, Costa Rica, Russia, etc.) are independent of AA World Services in New York.
AA 's program extends beyond abstaining from alcohol. Its goal is to effect enough change in the alcoholic 's thinking "to bring about recovery from alcoholism '' through "an entire psychic change, '' or spiritual awakening. A spiritual awakening is meant to be achieved by taking the Twelve Steps, and sobriety is furthered by volunteering for AA and regular AA meeting attendance or contact with AA members. Members are encouraged to find an experienced fellow alcoholic, called a sponsor, to help them understand and follow the AA program. The sponsor should preferably have experience of all twelve of the steps, be the same sex as the sponsored person, and refrain from imposing personal views on the sponsored person. Following the helper therapy principle, sponsors in AA may benefit from their relationship with their charges, as "helping behaviors '' correlate with increased abstinence and lower probabilities of binge drinking.
AA 's program is an inheritor of Counter-Enlightenment philosophy. AA shares the view that acceptance of one 's inherent limitations is critical to finding one 's proper place among other humans and God. Such ideas are described as "Counter-Enlightenment '' because they are contrary to the Enlightenment 's ideal that humans have the capacity to make their lives and societies a heaven on earth using their own power and reason. After evaluating AA 's literature and observing AA meetings for sixteen months, sociologists David R. Rudy and Arthur L. Greil found that for an AA member to remain sober a high level of commitment is necessary. This commitment is facilitated by a change in the member 's worldview. To help members stay sober AA must, they argue, provide an all - encompassing worldview while creating and sustaining an atmosphere of transcendence in the organization. To be all - encompassing AA 's ideology places an emphasis on tolerance rather than on a narrow religious worldview that could make the organization unpalatable to potential members and thereby limit its effectiveness. AA 's emphasis on the spiritual nature of its program, however, is necessary to institutionalize a feeling of transcendence. A tension results from the risk that the necessity of transcendence, if taken too literally, would compromise AA 's efforts to maintain a broad appeal. As this tension is an integral part of AA, Rudy and Greil argue that AA is best described as a quasi-religious organization.
AA meetings are "quasi-ritualized therapeutic sessions run by and for, alcoholics ''. They are usually informal and often feature discussions. Local AA directories list a variety of weekly meetings. Those listed as "closed '' are available to those with a self professed "desire to stop drinking, '' which can not be challenged by another member on any grounds. "Open '' meetings are available to anyone (nonalcoholics can attend as observers). At speaker meetings, one or two members tell their stories, while discussion meetings allocate the most time for general discussion. Some meetings are devoted to studying and discussing the AA literature.
AA meetings do not exclude other alcoholics, though some meetings cater to specific demographics such as gender, profession, age, sexual orientation, or culture. Meetings in the United States are held in a variety of languages including Armenian, English, Farsi, Finnish, French, Japanese, Korean, Russian, and Spanish. While AA has pamphlets that suggest meeting formats, groups have the autonomy to hold and conduct meetings as they wish "except in matters affecting other groups or AA as a whole ''. Different cultures affect ritual aspects of meetings, but around the world "many particularities of the AA meeting format can be observed at almost any AA gathering ''.
US courts have not extended the status of privileged communication, such as that enjoyed by clergy and lawyers, to AA related communications between members.
A study found an association between an increase in attendance to AA meetings with increased spirituality and a decrease in the frequency and intensity of alcohol use. The research also found that AA was effective at helping agnostics and atheists become sober. The authors concluded that though spirituality was an important mechanism of behavioral change for some alcoholics, it was not the only effective mechanism. Since the mid-1970s, a number of ' agnostic ' or ' no - prayer ' AA groups have begun across the U.S., Canada, and other parts of the world, which hold meetings that adhere to a tradition allowing alcoholics to freely express their doubts or disbelief that spirituality will help their recovery, and these meetings forgo use of opening or closing prayers. There are online resources listing AA meetings for atheists and agnostics.
More informally than not, AA 's membership has helped popularize the disease concept of alcoholism, though AA officially has had no part in the development of such postulates which had appeared as early as the late eighteenth century. Though AA initially avoided the term "disease '', in 1973 conference - approved literature categorically stated that "we had the disease of alcoholism. '' Regardless of official positions, from AA 's inception most members have believed alcoholism to be a disease.
Though cautious regarding the medical nature of alcoholism, AA has let others voice opinions. The Big Book states that alcoholism "is an illness which only a spiritual experience will conquer. '' Ernest Kurtz says this is "The closest the book Alcoholics Anonymous comes to a definition of alcoholism. '' In his introduction to The Big Book, non-member William Silkworth said those unable to moderate their drinking have an allergy. Addressing the allergy concept, AA said "The doctor 's theory that we have an allergy to alcohol interests us. As laymen, our opinion as to its soundness may, of course, mean little. But as ex-problem drinkers, we can say that his explanation makes good sense. It explains many things for which we can not otherwise account. '' AA later acknowledged that "alcoholism is not a true allergy, the experts now inform us. '' Wilson explained in 1960 why AA had refrained from using the term "disease '':
We AAs have never called alcoholism a disease because, technically speaking, it is not a disease entity. For example, there is no such thing as heart disease. Instead there are many separate heart ailments or combinations of them. It is something like that with alcoholism. Therefore, we did not wish to get in wrong with the medical profession by pronouncing alcoholism a disease entity. Hence, we have always called it an illness or a malady -- a far safer term for us to use.
AA 's New York General Service Office regularly surveys AA members in North America. Its 2014 survey of over 6,000 members in Canada and the United States concluded that, in North America, AA members who responded to the survey were 62 % male and 38 % female.
Average member sobriety is slightly under 10 years with 36 % sober more than ten years, 13 % sober from five to ten years, 24 % sober from one to five years, and 27 % sober less than one year. Before coming to AA, 63 % of members received some type of treatment or counseling, such as medical, psychological, or spiritual. After coming to AA, 59 % received outside treatment or counseling. Of those members, 84 % said that outside help played an important part in their recovery.
The same survey showed that AA received 32 % of its membership from other members, another 32 % from treatment facilities, 30 % were self - motivated to attend AA, 12 % of its membership from court -- ordered attendance, and only 1 % of AA members decided to join based on information obtained from the Internet. People taking the survey were allowed to select multiple answers for what motivated them to join AA.
Studies of AA 's efficacy have produced inconsistent results. While some studies have suggested an association between AA attendance and increased abstinence or other positive outcomes, other studies have not.
The Surgeon General of the United States 2016 Report on Alcohol, Drugs, and Health states "Well - supported scientific evidence demonstrates the effectiveness of twelve - step mutual aid groups focused on alcohol and twelve - step facilitation interventions. ''
Many AA meetings take place in treatment facilities. Carrying the message of AA into hospitals was how the co-founders of AA first remained sober. They discovered great value of working with alcoholics who are still suffering, and that even if the alcoholic they were working with did not stay sober, they did. Bill Wilson wrote, "Practical experience shows that nothing will so much insure immunity from drinking as intensive work with other alcoholics ''. Bill Wilson visited Towns Hospital in New York City in an attempt to help the alcoholics who were patients there in 1934. At St. Thomas Hospital in Akron, Ohio, Smith worked with still more alcoholics. In 1939, a New York mental institution, Rockland State Hospital, was one of the first institutions to allow AA hospital groups. Service to corrections and treatment facilities used to be combined until the General Service Conference, in 1977, voted to dissolve its Institutions Committee and form two separate committees, one for treatment facilities, and one for correctional facilities.
In the United States and Canada, AA meetings are held in hundreds of correctional facilities. The AA General Service Office has published a workbook with detailed recommendations for methods of approaching correctional - facility officials with the intent of developing an in - prison AA program. In addition, AA publishes a variety of pamphlets specifically for the incarcerated alcoholic. Additionally, the AA General Service Office provides a pamphlet with guidelines for members working with incarcerated alcoholics.
United States courts have ruled that inmates, parolees, and probationers can not be ordered to attend AA. Though AA itself was not deemed a religion, it was ruled that it contained enough religious components (variously described in Griffin v. Coughlin below as, inter alia, "religion '', "religious activity '', "religious exercise '') to make coerced attendance at AA meetings a violation of the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment of the constitution. In 2007, the Ninth Circuit of the U.S. Court of Appeals stated that a parolee who was ordered to attend AA had standing to sue his parole office.
In 1939, High Watch Farm in Kent, Connecticut was founded by Bill Wilson and Marty Mann. Sister Francis who owned the farm tried to gift the spiritual retreat for alcoholics to Alcoholics Anonymous, however citing the sixth tradition Bill W. turned down the gift but agreed to have a separate non-profit board run the facility composed of AA members. Bill Wilson and Marty Mann served on the High Watch board of directors for many years. High Watch was the first and therefore the oldest 12 step based treatment center in the world still operating today.
In 1949, the Hazelden treatment center was founded and staffed by AA members, and since then many alcoholic rehabilitation clinics have incorporated AA 's precepts into their treatment programs. 32 % of AA 's membership was introduced to it through a treatment facility.
A cross-sectional survey of substance - misuse treatment providers in the West Midlands found fewer than 10 % integrated twelve - step methods in their practice and only a third felt their consumers were suited for Alcoholics Anonymous or Narcotics Anonymous membership. Less than half were likely to recommend self - help groups to their clients. Providers with nursing qualifications were more likely to make such referrals than those without them. A statistically significant correlation was found between providers ' self - reported level of spirituality and their likelihood of recommending AA or NA.
"Thirteenth - stepping '' is a pejorative term for AA members approaching new members for dates. A study in the Journal of Addiction Nursing sampled 55 women in AA and found that 35 % of these women had experienced a "pass '' and 29 % had felt seduced at least once in AA settings. This has also happened with new male members who received guidance from older female AA members, in pursuit of sexual company. The authors suggest that both men and women need to be prepared for this behavior or find Male only or female - only groups. However, this is a small survey compared to the estimated 2 million members (2016) and many women have reported feeling safe in AA. AA 's pamphlet on sponsorship suggests that men be sponsored by men and women be sponsored by women.
Stanton Peele argued that some AA groups apply the disease model to all problem drinkers, whether or not they are "full - blown '' alcoholics. Along with Nancy Shute, Peele has advocated that besides AA, other options should be readily available to those problem drinkers who are able to manage their drinking with the right treatment. The Big Book says "moderate drinkers '' and "a certain type of hard drinker '' are able to stop or moderate their drinking. The Big Book suggests no program for these drinkers, but instead seeks to help drinkers without "power of choice in drink. ''
One review of AA warned of detrimental iatrogenic effects of twelve - step philosophy and concluded that AA uses many methods that are also used by cults. A subsequent study concluded, however, that AA 's program bore little resemblance to religious cults because the techniques used appeared beneficial. Another study found that the AA program 's focus on admission of having a problem increases deviant stigma and strips members of their previous cultural identity, replacing it with the deviant identity. A survey of group members, however, found they had a bicultural identity and saw AA 's program as a complement to their other national, ethnic, and religious cultures.
Alcoholics Anonymous publishes several books, reports, pamphlets, and other media, including a periodical known as the AA Grapevine. Two books are used primarily: Alcoholics Anonymous (the "Big Book '') and Twelve Steps and Twelve Traditions, the latter explaining AA 's fundamental principles in depth. The full text of each of these two books is available on the AA website at no charge.
In the Seinfeld episode The Apology (1997), George Costanza (Jason Alexander) becomes increasingly frustrated with what he perceives as Jason Hanky 's (James Spader) failure to give him a proper apology. George ultimately calls Jason 's sponsor and accuses Jason of skipping Step 9. Jason sarcastically apologizes to George throughout the episode.
Chuck Lorre 's Mom (2013 -), follows dysfunctional daughter / mother duo Christy and Bonnie Plunkett, who are estranged for years while simultaneously struggling with addiction. They attempt to pull their lives and relationships together by trying to stay sober and visiting Alcoholics Anonymous. The show also explores themes of alcoholism, drug addiction and relapse.
|
what time period does the westing game take place | The Westing game - wikipedia
The Westing Game is a mystery novel written by Ellen Raskin and published by Dutton in 1978. It won the Newbery Medal recognizing the year 's most distinguished contribution to American children 's literature. The story involves 16 seemingly unrelated heirs of reclusive businessman Sam Westing and his challenge to figure out the secret of his death. The heirs must figure out who killed Mr. Westing by clues in Mr. Westing 's will.
The Westing Game was ranked number nine among all - time children 's novels in a survey published by School Library Journal in 2012. It has been adapted as the 1997 feature film Get a Clue (also distributed as The Westing Game).
Sunset Towers is a new apartment building on Lake Michigan, north of Milwaukee and just down the shore from the mansion owned by reclusive self - made millionaire Samuel W. Westing. (Despite the name, Sunset Towers faces east -- into the sunrise.)
As the story opens, a man named Barney Northrup is selling apartments to a carefully selected group of tenants. It soon emerges that most of the tenants -- regardless of age or occupation -- are named as heirs in Westing 's will. The will is structured as a puzzle, with the 16 heirs challenged to find the solution. Each of the eight pairs, assigned seemingly at random, is given $10,000 cash and a different set of baffling clues. The pair that solves the mystery will inherit Westing 's entire $200 million fortune and control of his company.
Windy Windkloppel was an extremely rich businessman who made his fortune in paper products. He was very patriotic and never smoked, drank, or gambled. He was also Barney Northrup, Sam Westing, Sandy McSouthers, and Julian Eastman.
The epilogue of the story is told in the book 's last three chapters, which depicts the heirs growing older and more successful, many of them changing their lives as a result of the game.
The Westing Game, adapted by Darian Lindle and directed by Terry Brino - Dean, was first produced at Prime Stage Theatre in Pittsburgh in 2009. The script is published by Dramatic Publishing.
Get a Clue, adapted by Dylan Kelsey Hadley and directed by Terence H. Winkless was produced for television in 1997.
|
how many times has lebron james been to the finals in his career | LeBron James - wikipedia
LeBron Raymone James (/ ləˈbrɒn /; born December 30, 1984) is an American professional basketball player for the Cleveland Cavaliers of the National Basketball Association (NBA). James has won three NBA championships, four NBA Most Valuable Player Awards, three NBA Finals MVP Awards, two Olympic gold medals, an NBA scoring title, and the NBA Rookie of the Year Award. He has also been selected to 13 NBA All - Star teams, 13 All - NBA teams, and six All - Defensive teams, is the Cavaliers ' all - time leading scorer, and is the NBA career playoff scoring leader.
James played high school basketball at St. Vincent -- St. Mary High School in his hometown of Akron, Ohio, where he was highly promoted in the national media as a future NBA superstar. After graduating, he was selected by his home team, the Cleveland Cavaliers, as the first overall pick of the 2003 NBA draft. James led Cleveland to the franchise 's first Finals appearance in 2007, ultimately losing to the San Antonio Spurs. In 2010, he left the Cavaliers for the Miami Heat in a highly publicized ESPN special titled The Decision. James spent four seasons with the Heat, reaching the Finals all four years and winning back - to - back championships in 2012 and 2013. In 2013, he led Miami on a 27 - game winning streak, the third longest in league history. Following his final season with the Heat, James opted out of his contract and returned to the Cavaliers. He led the Cavaliers to three consecutive Finals series between 2015 and 2017, winning his third championship in 2016 to end Cleveland 's 52 - year professional sports title drought.
Off the court, James has accumulated considerable wealth and fame from numerous endorsement contracts. His public life has been the subject of much scrutiny, and he has been ranked as one of America 's most influential and popular athletes. He has been featured in books, documentaries, and television commercials. He also hosted the ESPY Awards, Saturday Night Live, and appeared in the 2015 film Trainwreck.
James was born on December 30, 1984 in Akron, Ohio to a 16 - year - old mother, Gloria Marie James, who raised the child on her own. When Lebron was growing up, life was often a struggle for the family, as they moved from apartment to apartment in the seedier neighborhoods of Akron while Gloria struggled to find steady work. Realizing that her son would be better off in a more stable family environment, Gloria allowed him to move in with the family of Frank Walker, a local youth football coach, who introduced James to basketball when he was nine years old.
As a youth, James played Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) basketball for the Northeast Ohio Shooting Stars. The team enjoyed success on a local and national level, led by James and his friends Sian Cotton, Dru Joyce III, and Willie McGee. The players were inseparable and dubbed themselves the "Fab Four '', promising each other that they would attend high school together. In a move that stirred local controversy, they chose to attend St. Vincent -- St. Mary High School, a predominately white private Catholic school.
As a freshman, James averaged 21 points and 6 rebounds per game for the St. Vincent - St. Mary varsity basketball team. The Fighting Irish finished the year 27 -- 0, winning the Division III state title. As a sophomore, James averaged 25.2 points and 7.2 rebounds with 5.8 assists and 3.8 steals per game. For some home games during the season, St. Vincent - St. Mary played at the University of Akron 's 5,492 - seat Rhodes Arena to satisfy ticket demand from alumni, fans, and college and NBA scouts who wanted to see James play. The Fighting Irish finished the season 26 -- 1 and repeated as state champions. For his outstanding play, James was named Ohio Mr. Basketball and selected to the USA Today All - USA First Team, becoming the first sophomore to do either.
Prior to the start of James ' junior year, he appeared in SLAM Magazine and was lauded as possibly "the best high school basketball player in America right now '' by writer Ryan Jones. During the season, he appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated, becoming the first high school basketball underclassman to do so. With averages of 29 points, 8.3 rebounds, 5.7 assists, and 3.3 steals per game, he was again named Ohio Mr. Basketball and selected to the USA Today All - USA First Team, and became the first junior to be named boys ' basketball Gatorade National Player of the Year. St. Vincent - St. Mary finished the year with a 23 -- 4 record, ending their season with a loss in the Division II championship game. Following the loss, James seriously considered declaring for the 2002 NBA draft, unsuccessfully petitioning for an adjustment to the NBA 's draft eligibility rules that required prospective players to have at least graduated from high school. During this time, he used marijuana to help cope with the stress that resulted from the constant media attention he was receiving.
Throughout his senior year, James and the Fighting Irish traveled around the country to play a number of nationally ranked teams, including a game against Oak Hill Academy that was nationally televised on ESPN2. Time Warner Cable, looking to capitalize on James ' popularity, offered St. Vincent - St. Mary 's games to subscribers on a pay - per - view basis throughout the season. For the year, James averaged 31.6 points, 9.6 rebounds, 4.6 assists, and 3.4 steals per game, was named Ohio Mr. Basketball and selected to the USA Today All - USA First Team for an unprecedented third consecutive year, and was named Gatorade National Player of the Year for the second consecutive year. He participated in three year - end high school basketball all - star games -- the EA Sports Roundball Classic, the Jordan Capital Classic, and the McDonald 's All - American Game -- losing his National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) eligibility and making it official that he would enter the 2003 NBA draft. Many basketball analysts, scouts, and writers have noted that James left high school as one of the best and most hyped prospects of all - time.
Also during his senior year, James was the centerpiece of several controversies. For his 18th birthday, he skirted state amateur bylaws by accepting a Hummer H2 from his mother, who had secured a loan for the vehicle by utilizing LeBron 's future earning power as a professional athlete. This prompted an investigation by the Ohio High School Athletic Association (OHSAA) because its guidelines stated that no amateur may accept any gift valued over $100 as a reward for athletic performance. James was cleared of any wrongdoing because he had accepted the gift from a family member and not from an agent or any outside source. Later in the season, James accepted two throwback jerseys worth $845 from an urban clothing store in exchange for posing for pictures, officially violating OHSAA rules and resulting in him being stripped of his high school sports eligibility. James appealed the ruling and his penalty was eventually dropped to a two - game suspension, allowing him to play the remainder of the year. The Irish were also forced to forfeit one of their wins, their only official loss that season. In his first game back after the suspension, James scored a career - high 52 points.
James played wide receiver for St. Vincent - St. Mary 's football team and was recruited by some Division I programs, including Notre Dame. As a sophomore, he was named first team all - state, and as a junior, he led the Fighting Irish to the state semifinals. He decided to stop playing high school football before his senior year, after he broke his wrist during an AAU basketball game. Many sports analysts, football critics, high school coaches, and former and current players have speculated on whether he could have played in the National Football League.
James was selected by his home team, the Cleveland Cavaliers, as the first overall pick of the 2003 NBA draft. In his first regular season game, he scored 25 points against the Sacramento Kings, setting an NBA record for most points scored by a prep - to - pro player in his debut performance. At the conclusion of the season, he was named the NBA Rookie of the Year, finishing with averages of 20.9 points, 5.5 rebounds, and 5.9 assists per game. He became the first Cavalier to receive the honor and just the third player in NBA history to average at least 20 points, 5 rebounds, and 5 assists per game as a rookie. The Cavaliers finished the season 35 -- 47, failing to make the playoffs despite an 18 - game improvement over the previous year.
James earned his first NBA All - Star Game selection in 2004 -- 05, contributing 13 points, 8 rebounds, and 6 assists in a winning effort for the Eastern Conference. Around the league, teams took note of his rapid development, with Denver Nuggets coach George Karl telling Sports Illustrated, "It 's weird talking about a 20 - year - old kid being a great player, but he is a great player... He 's the exception to almost every rule. '' On March 20, James scored 56 points against the Toronto Raptors, setting Cleveland 's new single - game points record. With final averages of 27.2 points, 7.4 rebounds, 7.2 assists, and 2.2 steals per game, he was named to his first All - NBA Team. Despite a 30 -- 20 record to start the year, the Cavaliers again failed to make the playoffs, finishing the season at 42 -- 40.
At the 2006 All - Star Game, James led the East to victory with 29 points and was named the NBA All - Star Game Most Valuable Player. Behind final season averages of 31.4 points, 7 rebounds, and 6.6 assists per game, he finished second in overall NBA Most Valuable Player Award voting to Steve Nash. Under James ' leadership, the Cavaliers qualified for the playoffs for the first time since 1998. In his postseason debut, he recorded a triple - double in a winning effort versus the Washington Wizards. In Game 3 of the series, he made the first game - winning shot of his career, making another in Game 5. Cleveland would go on to defeat the Wizards before being ousted by the Detroit Pistons in the second round.
In 2006 -- 07, James ' averages declined to 27.3 points, 6.7 rebounds, 6 assists, and 1.6 steals per game. Some analysts attributed the fall to a regression in his passing skills and shot selection, stemming from a lack of effort and focus. The Cavaliers finished the season with 50 wins for the second consecutive year and entered the playoffs as the East 's second seed. In Game 5 of the Conference Finals, James notched 48 points with 9 rebounds and 7 assists, scoring 29 of Cleveland 's last 30 points, including the game - winning layup with two seconds left, against the Pistons. After the game, play - by - play announcer Marv Albert called the performance "one of the greatest moments in postseason history '' and color commentator Steve Kerr described it as "Jordan-esque ''. In 2012, ESPN ranked the performance the fourth greatest in modern NBA playoff history. The Cavaliers went on to win Game 6 and claim their first - ever Eastern Conference championship, earning them a matchup with the San Antonio Spurs in the NBA Finals. During the championship round, James struggled, averaging 22 points, 7 rebounds, and 6.8 assists per game on just 35.6 percent shooting, and Cleveland was eliminated in a sweep.
In February of the 2007 -- 08 season, James was named All - Star Game MVP for the second time behind a 27 - point, 8 - rebound, and 9 - assist performance. On March 21, he moved past Brad Daugherty as the Cavaliers ' all - time leading scorer in a game against the Raptors, doing so in over 100 less games than Daugherty. His 30 points per game were also the highest in the league, representing his first scoring title. Despite his individual accomplishments, Cleveland 's record fell from the year before to 45 -- 37. Seeded fourth in the East entering the playoffs, the Cavaliers defeated the Wizards in the first round for the third consecutive season before being eliminated in seven games by the eventual - champion Boston Celtics in the next round. During the decisive seventh game in Boston, James scored 45 points and Paul Pierce scored 41 in a game the Associated Press described as a "shootout ''.
At the conclusion of the 2008 -- 09 season, James finished second in NBA Defensive Player of the Year voting and made his first NBA All - Defensive Team, posting 23 chase - down blocks and a career - high 93 total blocks. He also became only the fourth postmerger player to lead his team in points, rebounds, assists, steals, and blocks in a single season. Behind his play and the acquisition of All - Star guard Mo Williams, Cleveland went a franchise record 66 -- 16 and fell one game short of matching the best home record in league history. With averages of 28.4 points, 7.6 rebounds, 7.2 assists, 1.7 steals, and 1.2 blocks per game, James became the first Cavalier to win the MVP Award.
In the playoffs, Cleveland swept the Pistons and the Atlanta Hawks to earn a matchup with the Orlando Magic in the Conference Finals. In Game 1 of the series, James scored 49 points on 66 percent shooting in a losing effort for the Cavaliers. In Game 2, he hit a game - winner to tie the series at 1 -- 1. Cleveland would lose the series in six games, and following the loss in Game 6, James immediately left the floor without shaking hands with his opponents, which was an act that many media members viewed as unsportsmanlike. For the series, he averaged 38.5 points, 8.3 rebounds, and 8 assists per game, finishing the postseason with a career playoff - high 35.3 points per game.
Midway through the 2009 -- 10 season, the Cavaliers ' guards experienced significant injuries, which forced James into a temporary point guard role. James now played increased minutes as the team 's primary ball handler, and he averaged 8.6 assists in addition to 29.7 points, 7.3 rebounds, 1.6 steals, and 1 block per game on 50 percent shooting. With these impressive statistics, James won a second consecutive MVP Award. Cleveland also finished the season with the league 's best record for the second straight year. In the playoffs, the Cavaliers defeated the Bulls in the first round but lost to the Celtics in the second round. James was heavily criticized for not playing well in Game 5 of the series, shooting only 20 percent on 14 shots and scoring 15 points. At the conclusion of the game, he walked off the court to a smattering of boos from Cleveland 's home crowd, because the team had just suffered its worst home playoff loss ever. The Cavaliers were officially eliminated from the postseason in Game 6, despite James ' effort of 27 points, 19 rebounds, 10 assists, and nine turnovers.
James became an unrestricted free agent at 12: 01 am EDT on July 1, 2010. During this time, he was contacted by several teams, including the Bulls, Los Angeles Clippers, Miami Heat, New York Knicks, New Jersey Nets, and Cavaliers. On July 8, he announced on a live ESPN special titled The Decision that he would sign with the Heat. The telecast was broadcast from the Boys & Girls Club of Greenwich, Connecticut and raised $2.5 million for the charity. An additional $3.5 million was raised from advertising revenue, which was donated to other charities. The day before the special, fellow free agents Chris Bosh and Dwyane Wade had also announced that they would sign with Miami; reports later arose that back in 2006 the trio had discussed among themselves their upcoming 2010 free agencies. James decided to join with Bosh and Wade in part so that he could shoulder less of the offensive load; he thought that his improved teammates would give him a better chance of winning an NBA championship than had he stayed in Cleveland. Heat president Pat Riley played a major role in selling James on the idea of playing with Bosh and Wade. James would be relieved of the burden of scoring, and he thought he could be the first player since Oscar Robertson to average a triple - double in a season.
James drew intense criticism from sports analysts, executives, fans, and current and former players for leaving the Cavaliers. The Decision itself was also scrutinized and viewed as unnecessary. Many thought the prolonged wait for James ' choice was unprofessional as not even the teams courting him were aware of his decision until moments before the show. Upon learning that James would not be returning to Cleveland, Cavaliers owner Dan Gilbert published an open letter to fans in which he aggressively denounced James ' actions. Some angry fans of the team recorded videos of themselves burning his jersey. Former NBA players, including Michael Jordan and Magic Johnson, were also critical of James, condemning him for joining with Bosh and Wade in Miami and not trying to win a championship as "the guy ''. James drew further criticism in a September interview with CNN when he claimed that race might have been a factor in the fallout from The Decision. As a result of his actions during the 2010 free agency period, he quickly gained a reputation as one of America 's most disliked athletes, a radical change from years prior. The phrase "taking my talents to South Beach '' became a punch line for critics.
Immediately following The Decision, James claimed that there was nothing he would change about the handling of his free agency despite all the criticism. During the 2010 -- 11 season, he expressed some regret, admitting, "(I) probably would do it a little bit different... But I 'm happy with my decision. '' Before the 2011 -- 12 season, he relented, "... if the shoe was on the other foot and I was a fan, and I was very passionate about one player, and he decided to leave, I would be upset too about the way he handled it. ''
James officially became a member of the Heat on July 10, 2010. With the move, he became only the third reigning MVP to change teams and the first since Moses Malone in 1982. That evening, the Heat threw a welcome party for their new "big three '' at the American Airlines Arena, an event that took on a rock concert atmosphere. During the gathering, James predicted a dynasty for the Heat and alluded to multiple championships. Outside of Miami, the spectacle was not well - received, furthering the negative public perception of James.
Throughout the 2010 -- 11 season, James embraced the villain role that was bestowed upon him by the media. He played for the Heat with an angry demeanor and less joy than in years past, and later admitted that he regretted this approach. On December 2, he faced the Cavaliers in Cleveland for the first time since departing as a free agent. He scored 38 points and led Miami to a win while being booed every time he touched the ball. He finished the season with averages of 26.7 points, 7.5 rebounds, and 7 assists per game on 51 percent shooting. Miami entered the playoffs as the East 's second seed and advanced to the Finals before stumbling against the Dallas Mavericks, losing in six games despite holding a 2 -- 1 series lead going into Game 4. James received the brunt of the criticism for the loss, averaging only three points in fourth quarters in the series. His Finals scoring average of 17.8 points per game signified an 8.9 - point drop from the regular season, the largest point drop - off in league history.
James was humbled by the Heat 's loss to the Mavericks, and he spent the offseason working with Hakeem Olajuwon on his post game. His work with Olajuwon paid off, fueling what Grantland 's Kirk Goldsberry called "one of the greatest and most important transformations in recent sports history ''. Behind James ' more post-oriented play, Miami matched their best start to a season in franchise history, and at the conclusion of the lockout - shortened 2011 -- 12 season, he was named MVP for the third time, finishing with averages of 27.1 points, 7.9 rebounds, 6.2 assists, and 1.9 steals per game on 53 percent shooting.
In Game 4 of the second round of the playoffs, James registered 40 points, 18 rebounds, and 9 assists to help even the series against the Indiana Pacers. Miami eventually defeated the Pacers in six games. Facing elimination in Game 6 of the Conference Finals against the Celtics, James scored 45 points to lead the Heat to victory in what The New York Times called a "career - defining performance ''. Miami won Game 7 to advance to the Finals, earning them a matchup with the Oklahoma City Thunder. Late in Game 4 of the series, James hit a three - pointer to give the Heat a lead, helping them win the game despite missing time with leg cramps. In Game 5, he registered a triple - double as Miami defeated Oklahoma City for their second - ever championship and James ' first championship. James was unanimously voted the Bill Russell NBA Finals Most Valuable Player with averages of 28.6 points, 10.2 rebounds, and 7.4 assists per game. His full postseason run, in which he averaged 30.3 points, 9.7 rebounds and 5.6 assists per game, was later ranked the second best in modern NBA history by ESPN.
In February of the 2012 -- 13 season, James ' performance was described by Sports Illustrated as a "month for the ages '', averaging 29.7 points and 7.8 assists per game while setting multiple shooting efficiency records. During this period, the Heat began a 27 - game winning streak, the third longest in NBA history. Behind his play, Miami finished the year with a franchise and league best 66 -- 16 record, and James was named MVP for the fourth time, falling just one vote shy of becoming the first player in NBA history to win the award unanimously. His final season averages were 26.8 points, 8 rebounds, 7.3 assists, and 1.7 steals per game on 56.5 percent shooting.
In Game 1 of the Conference Finals, James scored a buzzer - beating layup to give Miami a one - point victory against the Pacers. Throughout the series, his supporting cast struggled significantly, and his added scoring load prompted him to compare his responsibilities to those of his "Cleveland days ''. Despite these struggles, the Heat advanced to the Finals for a meeting with the Spurs, signifying a rematch for James from his first Finals six years earlier. At the beginning of the series, he was criticized for his lack of aggressiveness and poor shot selection as Miami fell behind 2 -- 3. In Game 6, he recorded his second triple - double of the series, including 16 fourth quarter points, to lead the Heat to a comeback victory. In Game 7, he tied the Finals record for most points scored in a Game 7 victory, leading Miami over San Antonio with 37 points. He was named Finals MVP for the second straight season, averaging 25.3 points, 10.9 rebounds, 7 assists, and 2.3 steals per game for the championship round.
On March 3 of the 2013 -- 14 season, James scored a career - high and franchise - record 61 points in a game against the Charlotte Bobcats. Throughout the year, he was one of the few staples for a Heat roster that used 20 different starting lineups due to injuries, finishing with averages of 27.1 points, 6.9 rebounds, and 6.4 assists per game on 56.7 percent shooting. In the second round of the playoffs, he tied a career postseason - high by scoring 49 points in Game 4 against the Brooklyn Nets. In the next round, Miami defeated the Pacers to earn their fourth consecutive Finals berth, becoming one of only four teams in NBA history to do so. In Game 1 of the Finals, James missed most of the fourth quarter because of leg cramps, helping the Spurs take an early series lead. In Game 2, he led the Heat to a series - tying victory with 35 points on a 64 percent shooting rate. San Antonio eventually eliminated the Heat in five games, ending Miami 's quest for a three - peat. For the Finals, James averaged 28.2 points, 7.8 rebounds, and 2 steals per game.
On June 25, 2014, James opted out of his contract with the Heat and officially became an unrestricted free agent on July 1. On July 11, he revealed via a first - person essay in Sports Illustrated that he intended to return to the Cavaliers. In contrast to The Decision, his announcement to return to Cleveland was well received. On July 12, he officially signed with the team, who had compiled a league - worst 97 -- 215 record in the four seasons following his departure. A month after James ' signing, the Cavaliers acquired Kevin Love from the Minnesota Timberwolves, forming a new star trio along with Kyrie Irving.
In January of the 2014 -- 15 season, James missed two weeks due to left knee and lower back strains, the longest stretch of missed games in his career. In total, he played a career - low 69 games and his final averages were 25.3 points, 6 rebounds, and 7.4 assists per game. In the second round of the playoffs, he hit a baseline jumper at the buzzer to give Cleveland a 2 -- 2 series tie with the Bulls. In the Conference Finals, the Cavaliers defeated the Hawks to advance to the Finals, making James the first player since the 1960s to play in five consecutive Finals. For most of the Finals against the Golden State Warriors, Irving and Love were sidelined due to injury, giving James more offensive responsibilities. Behind his leadership, the Cavaliers opened the series with a 2 -- 1 lead before being eliminated in six games. Despite the loss, he received serious consideration for the Finals MVP Award, averaging 35.8 points, 13.3 rebounds, and 8.8 assists per game for the championship round.
During the 2015 -- 16 season, James was criticized for his role in several off - court controversies, including the midseason firing of Cavaliers ' head coach David Blatt. Despite these distractions, Cleveland finished the year with 57 wins and the best record in the East. James ' final averages were 25.3 points, 7.4 rebounds, and 6.8 assists per game on 52 percent shooting. In the playoffs, the Cavaliers advanced comfortably to the Finals, losing only two games en route to a rematch with the Warriors, who were coming off a record - setting 73 win season. To begin the series, Cleveland fell behind 3 -- 1, including two blowout losses. James responded by registering back - to - back 41 point games in Games 5 and 6, leading the Cavaliers to two consecutive wins to stave off elimination. In Game 7, he posted a triple - double and made a number of key plays, including a memorable chase - down block on Andre Iguodala in the final two minutes, as Cleveland emerged victorious, winning the city 's first professional sports title in 52 years and becoming the first team in NBA history to come back from a 3 -- 1 series deficit in the Finals. James became just the third player to record a triple - double in an NBA Finals Game 7, and behind series averages of 29.7 points, 11.3 rebounds, 8.9 assists, 2.3 blocks, and 2.6 steals per game, he also became the first player in league history to lead both teams in all five statistical categories for a playoff round, culminating in a unanimous Finals MVP selection.
The 2016 -- 17 season was marred by injuries and unexpected losses for the Cavaliers; James later described it as one of the "strangest '' years of his career. Following a January defeat to the New Orleans Pelicans, he publicly criticized Cleveland 's front office for constructing a team that he felt was too "top heavy '', for which he received criticism. The Cavaliers finished the season as the East 's second seed, with James averaging 26.4 points and career highs in rebounds (8.6), assists (8.7), and turnovers (4.1) per game. In Game 3 of the first round of the postseason, he registered 41 points, 13 rebounds, and 12 assists against the Pacers, leading Cleveland to a comeback victory after trailing by 25 points at halftime, representing the largest halftime deficit overcome in NBA playoff history. In Game 5 of the Conference Finals against the Celtics, James scored 35 points and surpassed Michael Jordan as the league 's all - time postseason scoring leader. The Cavaliers won the game and the series, advancing to their third consecutive Finals against the Warriors. Behind averages of 33.6 points, 12 rebounds, and 10 assists per game, James became the first player to average a triple - double in the Finals, but Cleveland was defeated in five games.
James made his debut for the United States national team at the 2004 Olympics in Athens, Greece. He spent the Games mostly on the bench, averaging 14.6 minutes per game with 5.8 points and 2.6 rebounds per game in eight games. Team USA finished the competition with a bronze medal, becoming the first U.S. basketball team to return home without a gold medal since adding professionals to their line - up. James felt his limited playing time was a "lowlight '' and believed he was not given "a fair opportunity to play ''. His attitude during the Olympics was described as "disrespectful '' and "distasteful '' by columnists Adrian Wojnarowski and Peter Vecsey, respectively.
At the 2006 FIBA World Championship in Japan, James took on a greater role for Team USA, averaging 13.9 points, 4.8 rebounds, and 4.1 assists per game as co-captain. The team finished the tournament with an 8 -- 1 record, winning another bronze medal. James ' behavior was again questioned, this time by teammate Bruce Bowen, who confronted James during tryouts regarding his treatment of staff members.
Before naming James to the 2008 Olympic team, Team USA managing director Jerry Colangelo and coach Mike Krzyzewski gave James an ultimatum to improve his attitude, and he heeded their advice. At the FIBA Americas Championship 2007, he averaged 18.1 points, 3.6 rebounds, and 4.7 assists per game, including a 31 - point performance against Argentina in the championship game, the most ever by an American in an Olympic qualifier. Team USA went 10 -- 0, winning the gold medal and qualifying for the 2008 Olympics in Beijing, China. James credited the team 's attitude and experience for their improvement, saying: "I do n't think we understood what it meant to put on a USA uniform and all the people that we were representing in 2004. We definitely know that now. '' At the Olympics, Team USA went unbeaten, winning their first gold medal since 2000. In the final game, James turned in 14 points, 6 rebounds, and 3 assists against Spain.
James did not play at the 2010 FIBA World Championship but rejoined Team USA for the 2012 Olympics in London, England. He became the leader of the team with Kobe Bryant, who would soon be 34, stepping back. James facilitated the offense from the post and perimeter, called the defensive sets, and provided scoring when needed. During a game against Australia, he recorded the first triple - double in U.S. Olympic basketball history with 11 points, 14 rebounds and 12 assists. Team USA went on to win their second straight gold medal, again defeating Spain in the final game. James contributed 19 points in the win, becoming the all - time leading scorer in U.S. men 's basketball history. He also joined Michael Jordan as the only players to win an NBA MVP award, NBA championship, NBA Finals MVP, and Olympic gold medal in the same year. Afterwards, Krzyzewski said James "is the best player, he is the best leader and he is as smart as anybody playing the game right now. ''
Standing 6 feet 8 inches (2.03 m) and weighing 250 pounds (113.4 kg), James has started at small forward and power forward, but he can also play the other three positions. With career averages of 27.1 points, 7.3 rebounds, 7.0 assists, and 1.6 steals per game, he is considered one of the most athletic and versatile players in the NBA, and has been compared to Hall of Famers Oscar Robertson, Magic Johnson, and Michael Jordan. Since 2011, he has been ranked the best player in the NBA by ESPN and Sports Illustrated.
Many basketball analysts, coaches, fans, and current and former players consider James to be one of the greatest players of all - time, often ranking him as the best small forward and in the top five overall. He has earned All - NBA honors every season since his sophomore year, All - Defensive honors every season from 2009 to 2014, and was named Rookie of the Year in his debut season. With four MVP awards, he is part of a select group of players who have won the award four times, including Kareem Abdul - Jabbar, Jordan, Wilt Chamberlain, and Bill Russell; James and Russell are the only two players who have won four MVP awards in a five - year span. While James has never won the Defensive Player of the Year Award, he has finished second in the voting twice and lists it as one of his main goals. James has appeared in the Finals eight times and won three championships. Some analysts have criticized him for not having a better Finals record, while others have defended him, arguing that his supporting casts were usually poor and, despite the fact that James had played well, his team was defeated by superior competition.
Upon entering the NBA as a 19 - year - old rookie, James made an immediate offensive impact and led the Cavaliers in scoring. He holds numerous "youngest to '' distinctions, including being the youngest player to score 28,000 career points. During his first stint in Cleveland, he was primarily used as an on - ball point forward. His shooting tendencies were perimeter - oriented, and he established himself as one of the best slashers and finishers in basketball; he led the NBA in three - point plays in 2006. His combination of speed, quickness, and size often created matchup problems for opposing teams as he was capable of blowing by larger defenders and overpowering smaller ones. These qualities became more apparent in transition, where he developed a reputation for grabbing defensive rebounds and then beating the defense downcourt for highlight - quality baskets. Around this time, James was frequently criticized for not having developed a reliable jump shot or post game. Teams would try to exploit these weaknesses by giving him space in the half court and forcing him to settle for three - pointers and long two - pointers, a strategy famously utilized by Spurs coach Greg Popovich in the 2007 Finals, where James converted on only 36 percent of his field goals in four games.
In Miami, Heat coach Erik Spoelstra changed James ' role to a more unconventional one. James began spending more time in the post and shooting fewer three - pointers, attempting a career - low 149 in 2012. He improved his shot selection and accuracy on jump shots, finishing second in the league in catch - and - shoot field goal percentage in 2013. He also learned how to work as an off - ball cutter in the Heat 's "pass - happy '' offense. Behind these improvements, James ' overall scoring efficiency rose to historically - great levels, peaking in 2014 when he registered a 64.9 true shooting percentage. During this period, ESPN 's Tom Haberstroh called James ' free throw shooting his biggest weakness, describing it as "average ''. Upon returning to the Cavaliers, James began to experience subtle age - related declines in productivity, posting his lowest scoring averages since his rookie season in 2015 and 2016. His shooting also temporarily regressed, and he briefly ranked as the worst high - volume outside shooter from outside the paint in the NBA. Despite these changes, he has remained an elite offensive player who is capable of beating defenses with body control, strength, and varying attacking speeds.
James ' playmaking ability is generally considered to be one of his premier skills, with some analysts ranking him among the greatest passers in NBA history. He is the only frontcourt player in league history to register over 7,000 career assists. Using his size, vision, and the attention he garners from opposing defenses to his advantage, James is able to create easy points for his teammates with accurate assists, manufacturing a league leading 2.6 three - pointers per game by way of his passing alone in 2013. He will often execute passes that would normally be considered unconventional, including passes after leaving his feet and passes through defensive traffic. His uncanny tendency to find the open man played a significant role in the evolution of modern NBA defenses, forcing teams to incorporate some elements of zone into their schemes to better cover the weak side of the court and prevent James from passing to open shooters.
Early in James ' career, he was criticized by the media for his play in pressure situations; specifically, for passing instead of shooting in the waning seconds of close games. In a 2011 interview, teammate Chris Bosh stated that he would rather have Dwyane Wade take a last - second shot than James. Later in James ' career, his clutch play was viewed more favorably; for example, a 2011 article by Henry Abbott revealed that James had a better shooting percentage with the game on the line than such notables as Ray Allen and Kobe Bryant. In 2015, FiveThirtyEight wrote that he might be "the most clutch playoff shooter of his generation ''.
At the beginning of James ' NBA career, he was considered to be a poor defensive player, but he improved steadily through the years. Near the end of his first tenure in Cleveland, he became proficient at the chase - down block, which involved coming in from behind the opposition in transition to block their shot. In Miami, he developed into a more versatile defensive player, and the Heat relied on him to guard all five positions. James was paired with teammates Shane Battier and Dwyane Wade, and Miami used him in an ultra-aggressive defensive scheme, with James cheating off the ball to help out inside or get into rebounding position. Beginning in 2014, some analysts noted a regression in his defensive impact, stemming from a lack of effort and expected age - related declines. James himself admitted to taking plays off at times, referring to this approach as "chill mode ''. Writing for ESPN in 2016, Nate Duncan observed that while James tended to take off more plays than in his younger days, he was able to raise his level in that year 's Finals and temporarily recapture his Miami form.
At a December 31, 2011 party celebrating New Year 's Eve and his 27th birthday, James proposed to Savannah Brinson, his high school sweetheart. She accepted and the two were married on September 14, 2013 in San Diego. Together, they have three children: LeBron James Jr. (b. 2004), Bryce Maximus James (b. 2007), and Zhuri James (b. 2014). During his tenure with the Heat, James resided in Coconut Grove, an affluent Miami neighborhood, where he bought a $9 million three - story mansion overlooking Biscayne Bay. In November 2015, James bought a 9,350 square - foot East Coast -- style mansion in Brentwood, Los Angeles for about $21 million.
James is an active supporter of the Boys & Girls Club of America, Children 's Defense Fund, and ONEXONE. He also has his own charity foundation, the LeBron James Family Foundation, which is based in Akron. Since 2005, the foundation has held an annual bike - a-thon in Akron to raise money for various causes. In 2015, James announced a partnership with the University of Akron to provide scholarships for as many as 2,300 children beginning in 2021. In 2016, he donated $2.5 million to the Smithsonian National Museum of African American History and Culture to support an exhibit about Muhammad Ali. In 2017, he received the J. Walter Kennedy Citizenship Award from the NBA for his "outstanding service and dedication to the community ''.
James is represented by agent Rich Paul of Klutch Sports. His first agent was Aaron Goodwin, whom he left in 2005 for Leon Rose. Rose joined Creative Artists Agency (CAA) in 2007, and he worked with fellow CAA agent Henry Thomas, who represented Dwyane Wade and Chris Bosh, to bring James to Miami in 2010. James left CAA for Paul in 2012. James, Paul, Maverick Carter, and Randy Mims -- all childhood friends -- formed agent and sports - marketing company LRMR after James left Goodwin. LRMR handles James ' marketing, including the marketing of The Decision, for which it was criticized.
Throughout his career, James has taken a unique approach to his playing contracts, usually opting to sign shorter term deals in order to maximize his earnings potential and flexibility; for example, in 2006, he and the Cavaliers negotiated a three - year, $60 million contract extension instead of the four - year maximum as it allotted him the option of seeking a new contract worth more money as an unrestricted free agent following the 2010 season. This move ultimately allowed James, Dwyane Wade, and Chris Bosh to sign with the Heat together. During his second stint in Cleveland, he began opting out and re-signing on new contracts after each season in order to take advantage of higher salaries resulting from the NBA 's rising salary cap. In 2016, he signed with the Cavaliers on a three - year deal, becoming the highest - paid player in the league for the first time in his career.
James has been the recipient of numerous endorsement contracts; some of the companies he does business with are Audemars Piguet, Coca - Cola, Dunkin ' Brands, McDonald 's, Nike, State Farm, and Samsung. Coming out of high school, he was the target of a three - way bidding war among Nike, Reebok, and Adidas, eventually signing with Nike for approximately $90 million. His signature shoes have performed well for Nike. In 2011, Fenway Sports Group became the sole global marketer of his rights, and as part of the deal, he was granted a minority stake in the English Premier League football club Liverpool FC, who he has claimed his support for. As a result of James ' endorsement money and NBA salary, he has been listed as one of the world 's highest - paid athletes. In 2013, he surpassed Kobe Bryant as the highest paid basketball player in the world, with earnings of $56.5 million. In 2014, James realized a profit of more than $30 million as part of Apple 's acquisition of Beats Electronics; he had originally struck a deal to get a small stake in the company at its inception in exchange for promoting its headphones. In 2015, he was ranked the sixth highest earning sportsperson, and third highest in 2016 (after Cristiano Ronaldo and Lionel Messi). James has stated that we would like to own an NBA team in the future, albeit in a hands - off capacity.
James and comedian Jimmy Kimmel co-hosted the 2007 ESPY Awards. In other comedic pursuits, he hosted the 33rd - season premiere of Saturday Night Live. He has also tried his hand at acting, appearing in a cameo role on the HBO series Entourage. In 2015, he played himself in the Judd Apatow film Trainwreck, receiving positive reviews for his performance. That same year, James ' digital video company, Uninterrupted, raised $15.8 million from Warner Bros. Entertainment and Turner Sports to help expand the company 's efforts to bring athlete - created content to fans. It is hosted on Bleacher Report and is used by several other athletes including New England Patriots tight end Rob Gronkowski and Seattle Seahawks cornerback Richard Sherman.
Along with business partner Maverick Carter, James owns production company SpringHill Entertainment, whose first work was the Lions Gate documentary More Than a Game, released in 2009 and chronicling James ' high school years. Series produced by SpringHill include the Disney XD sports documentaries Becoming, Starz sitcom Survivor 's Remorse, and animated web series The LeBrons. In 2016, CNBC aired an unscripted series hosted by James called Cleveland Hustles, where four up - and - coming Northern Ohio entrepreneurs will be financed on the condition of revitalizing a neighborhood in Cleveland. In the 2017 Toronto International Film Festival, a 60 - minute Vince Carter documentary entitled The Carter Effect was executive produced by James and Maverick Carter along with rapper Drake and Future the Prince.
James is considered by many people -- including his fellow players -- to be the "face of the NBA ''. His opinions have yielded significant influence on important league decisions; for example, in 2014 he asked commissioner Adam Silver to increase the duration of the All - Star break, and the request was granted the following season. On February 13, 2015, James was elected the first Vice President of the National Basketball Players Association (NBPA).
Throughout his career, James has been ranked by Forbes as one of the world 's most influential athletes, and in 2017, he was listed by Time as one of the 100 most influential people in the world. During his first stint with the Cavaliers, he was adored by local fans, with Sherwin - Williams displaying a giant Nike - produced banner of James on its world headquarters. Despite their affection for James, Cleveland fans and critics were frequently annoyed when he attended Cleveland Indians baseball games versus the New York Yankees sporting a Yankees hat. Following his actions during the 2010 free agency period and, more specifically, The Decision, he was listed as one of the world 's most disliked athletes. By 2013, his image had mostly recovered and he was reported by ESPN as the most popular player in the NBA for the second time in his career. In 2014, he was named the most popular male athlete in America by the Harris Poll. He has led the league in jersey sales six times.
In March 2008, James became the first black man -- and third man overall after Richard Gere and George Clooney -- to appear on the cover of Vogue, posing with Gisele Bündchen. Some sports bloggers and columnists considered the cover offensive, describing the demeanor of James and his holding Bündchen as a reference to classic imagery of the movie monster King Kong, a dark savage capturing his light - skinned love interest.
Throughout his career, James has taken stances on controversial issues. On several occasions, he mentioned a feeling of obligation to effect change using his status. Those include the War in Darfur, the Trayvon Martin case, the now - former NBA owner Donald Sterling 's racist comments in 2014, the Michael Brown verdict, and the death of Eric Garner. Following a racist incident at his Los Angeles home in 2017, James stated, "being black in America is tough. We got a long way to go for us as a society and for us as African Americans until we feel equal in America. '' Later on that same year, in the aftermath of the 2017 Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville, Virginia, James questioned President Donald Trump 's Make America Great Again slogan by stating "It 's sad what 's going on in Charlottesville. Is this the direction our country is heading? Make America Great Again huh? He said that '' and "Our youth deserve better!! ''
In June 2008, James donated $20,000 to a committee to elect Democratic presidential nominee Barack Obama. Later that year, James gathered almost 20,000 people at the Quicken Loans Arena for a viewing of Obama 's 30 - minute American Stories, American Solutions television advertisement. The ad was shown on a large screen above the stage, where Jay - Z later held a free concert. James later publicly endorsed Hillary Clinton in the 2016 Presidential election.
|
the executive arm of local government in nigeria does not include | Local government areas of Nigeria - wikipedia
Nigeria has 774 local government areas (LGAs). Each local government area is administered by a Local Government Council consisting of a chairman who is the Chief Executive of the LGA, and other elected members who are referred to as Councillors. Each of the areas is further subdivided into wards with a minimum of ten and a maximum of fifteen for each area.
The functions of Local Governments are detailed in the Nigerian Constitution and include:
|
how many states have a city named charleston | Charleston - wikipedia
Charleston most commonly refers to:
Charleston may also refer to:
In Australia:
In Canada:
In New Zealand:
In the United Kingdom:
In the United States:
|
where was the movie last of the mohicans filmed | The Last of the Mohicans (1992 film) - wikipedia
The Last of the Mohicans is a 1992 American epic historical drama film set in 1757 during the French and Indian War. It was written and directed by Michael Mann and was based on James Fenimore Cooper 's 1826 novel The Last of the Mohicans: A Narrative of 1757 and George B. Seitz 's 1936 film adaptation, owing more to the film than the novel. The film stars Daniel Day - Lewis, Madeleine Stowe, and Jodhi May, with Russell Means, Wes Studi, Eric Schweig, and Steven Waddington in supporting roles.
The soundtrack features music by Trevor Jones and Randy Edelman, and the song "I Will Find You '' by Clannad. The main theme of the film is taken from the tune "The Gael '' by Scottish singer - songwriter Dougie MacLean.
Released on September 25, 1992 in the United States, The Last of the Mohicans was met with nearly universal praise from critics and commercial success during its box - office run.
The story takes place in 1757, during the French and Indian War in the Adirondack Mountains, in the British colony of New York. British Army Major Duncan Heyward arrives in Albany. He has been sent to serve under Colonel Edmund Munro, the commander of Fort William Henry. Heyward is given the task of escorting the colonel 's two daughters, Cora and Alice, to their father. He is a family friend and in love with Cora, to whom he proposes before they leave, but she does not give him an answer.
Major Heyward, the two women, and a troop of British soldiers march through the rugged countryside, guided by Magua, a Huron warrior. Magua leads the party into an ambush. All of the soldiers are killed or wounded, but Heyward and the women are rescued by the timely intervention of the Mohican chief Chingachgook, his son Uncas, and his white, adopted son "Hawkeye '', who kill all of the ambushers except Magua, who escapes. The rescuers agree to take the women and Heyward to the fort. During the fight, Hawkeye noticed that Magua attempted to kill Cora and asks Duncan if he knows why. During the trek, Cora and Hawkeye are attracted to each other, as are Uncas and Alice.
When the party nears the fort, they find it under siege by the French and their Huron allies. The party manages to sneak in and are greeted by Colonel Munro, who asks Major Heyward about the requested, desperately needed reinforcements. While there, Cora and Hawkeye share a passionate kiss, and Heyward becomes jealous. In response, Cora finally tells him that she will not marry him.
When Munro refuses to allow the militiamen to sneak away to defend their own families and homes, as he had earlier promised, Hawkeye arranges it anyway. He stays, however, and is condemned to be hanged, accused of sedition. Before that happens, during a parlay, French general Louis - Joseph de Montcalm shows Munro an intercepted message which states that no reinforcements have been sent. Montcalm offers to allow the British to evacuate the fort with honor, keeping their weapons. Munro has little choice but to accept. However, Magua, a French ally, is furious at this arrangement. He harbors great hatred for Munro, blaming him for past wrongs done to him and his family.
The following day, Colonel Munro, his soldiers, and their women and children leave the fort. Magua and his Huron warriors ambush them. Magua personally kills Munro. Hawkeye and the Mohicans fight their way out, leading Cora, Alice, and Heyward to temporary safety. Later, however, Magua captures the major and the women. Magua takes his prisoners to a Huron settlement and addresses its sachem. He is interrupted by Hawkeye, who comes in alone to plead for their lives.
The sachem rules that Heyward be returned to the British, Alice given to Magua, and Cora burned alive. Hawkeye, for his great bravery, may leave unharmed. Hawkeye tells Heyward, who is serving as translator, to beg the sachem to let Hawkeye take Cora 's place. Instead, Heyward trades his own life for Cora 's.
Once Cora and Hawkeye are far enough away, Hawkeye shoots Heyward to end his suffering. Chingachgook, Uncas, and Hawkeye then set out after Magua 's party to free Alice. Uncas races ahead and engages Magua in personal combat, but is killed. Alice chooses to step off the cliff to her death rather than go to the beckoning Magua. While Hawkeye holds Magua 's remaining men at bay, Chingachgook duels Magua and avenges his son. Chingachgook prays to the Great Spirit to receive Uncas, calling himself "the last of the Mohicans. ''
Much care was taken with recreating accurate costumes and props. American Bladesmith Society master bladesmith Daniel Winkler made the tomahawks used in the film and knifemaker Randall King made the knives. Wayne Watson is the maker of Hawkeye 's "Killdeer '' rifle used in the film. The gunstock war club made for Chingachgook was created by Jim Yellow Eagle. Magua 's tomahawk was made by Fred A. Mitchell of Odin Forge & Fabrication.
Costumes were originally designed by multiple Academy Award winner James Acheson, but he left the film and had his name removed because of artistic differences with Mann. Designer Elsa Zamparelli was brought in to finish.
Despite the film taking place in upstate New York, according to the film credits, it was filmed mostly in the Blue Ridge Mountains of North Carolina. Locations used include Lake James, Chimney Rock Park and The Biltmore Estate. Some of the waterfalls that were used in the movie include Hooker Falls, Triple Falls, Bridal Veil Falls, and High Falls, all located in the DuPont State Recreational Forest. Another of these falls was Linville Falls, in the mountains of North Carolina. Scenes of Albany were shot in Asheville, NC at The Manor on Charlotte St.
The film was released theatrically in 1992 at a length of 112 minutes. It was released at this length on VHS in the U.S. It was re-edited to a length of 117 minutes for its U.S. DVD release on November 23, 1999, which was billed as the "Director 's Expanded Edition ''. It was again re-edited for its U.S. Blu - ray release on October 5, 2010, this time billed as the "Director 's Definitive Cut '', with a length of 114 mins.
The Last of the Mohicans opened to general acclaim, with critics praising the film for its cinematography and music. Critic Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film three stars and called it "quite an improvement on Cooper 's all but unreadable book, and a worthy successor to the Randolph Scott version, '' going on to say that "The Last of the Mohicans is not as authentic and uncompromised as it claims to be -- more of a matinee fantasy than it wants to admit -- but it is probably more entertaining as a result. ''
Desson Howe of The Washington Post classified the film as "glam - opera '' and "the MTV version of gothic romance ''. Rita Kempley of the Post recognized the "heavy drama, '' writing that the film "sets new standards when it comes to pent - up passion '', but commented positively on the "spectacular scenery ''.
At review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes the film has a rating of 95 % based on reviews from 37 critics, with an average rating of 7.9 / 10. The site 's consensus states: "The Last of the Mohicans is a breathless romantic adventure that plays loose with history -- and comes out with a richer action movie for it. ''
The film won the Academy Award for Best Sound (Chris Jenkins, Doug Hemphill, Mark Smith, Simon Kaye).
American Film Institute recognition:
The film opened in the United States on September 25, 1992, in 1,856 theaters. It was the number 1 movie on its opening weekend. By the end of its first weekend, The Last of the Mohicans had generated $10,976,661, and by the end of its domestic run, the film had made $75,505,856. It was ranked the 17th highest - grossing film of 1992 in the United States.
|
degrassi the next generation season 3 episode 5 | Degrassi: the Next Generation (season 3) - wikipedia
The third season of Degrassi: The Next Generation commenced airing in Canada on 17 September 2003, concluded on 5 April 2004 and contains twenty - two episodes. Degrassi: The Next Generation is a Canadian serial teen drama television series. This season depicts the lives of a group of high school freshman and sophomores as they deal with some of the challenges and issues teenagers face such as dysfunctional families, sex, homosexuality, homophobia, theft, self - harm, domestic violence, abortion, emancipation and relationships.
Every episode is named after a song from the 1980s. Filming began on 26 May 2003, and ended in November 2003.
The third season aired Wednesdays at 8: 30 p.m. on CTV, a Canadian terrestrial television network, and premiered with a sixty - minute special, "Father Figure '', which form the first two episodes of the season. When the season returned to the schedules in January 2004 following a break over the Christmas period, it aired on Mondays at 8: 30 p.m. In the United States, it was broadcast on The N, a digital cable network aimed at teenagers and young adults. The season was released on DVD as a three disc boxed set on 28 March 2006 by Alliance Atlantis Home Entertainment in Canada, and by FUNimation Entertainment in the US. Registered users of the Canadian and US iTunes Stores are also able purchase and download the season for playback on home computers and certain iPods.
The season was watched by 669,000 viewers in Canada and became the most - watched domestic drama series, while in the US it averaged 250,000 viewers an episode. It won a total of five awards from the Directors Guild of Canada Awards, the Gemini Awards and the Young Artist Awards, and was described as "groundbreaking '', "bold '', and the show others in the same genre "should take a cue from '', although that groundbreaking boldness caused two episodes of the season to be banned from US television screens for three years and when it was finally aired, it was rated "TV - 14, '' even though more intense episodes still received Degrassi 's usual "TV - PG '' in the United States.
The third season features twenty actors who receive star billing with all fifteen of them returning from the previous season.
Amanda Stepto, Stacie Mistysyn, Andrea Lewis, Adamo Ruggiero and Stacey Farber were all upgraded to series regulars after appearing in previous seasons.
Introduced in recurring roles are Ephraim Ellis as Rick Murray, John Bregar as Dylan Michalchuk, Deanna Casaluce as Alex Nuñez, Mike Lobel as Jay Hogart, and Daniel Morrison as Chris Sharpe. Alex Steele, Melissa DiMarco, Katie Lai, Linlyn Lue and Jennifer Podemski returns to play Angela Jeremiah, Daphne Hatzilakos, Kendra Mason, Ms. Kwan and Ms. Sauve, respectively.
From Degrassi Junior High and Degrassi High, Cathy Keenan, Angela Deiseach and Maureen Deiseach reprise their roles as Liz O'Rourke, Erica Farrell and Heather Farrell for the opening episode, "Father Figure ''. Shane McKay was played by Jonathan Torrens rather than Bill Parrott, the original DJH actor, and Neil Hope returns to play Wheels in the seventh episode, "Should I Stay or Should I Go? ''.
The season was produced by Epitome Pictures in association CTV. Funding was provided by The Canadian Film or Video Production Tax Credit and the Ontario Film and Television Tax Credit, the Canadian Television Fund and BCE - CTV Benefits, The Shaw Television Broadcast Fund, the Independent Production Fund, Mountain Cable Program, and RBC Royal Bank.
The executive producers are Epitome Pictures ' CEO and Degrassi: The Next Generation co-creator Linda Schuyler, and her husband, Epitome president Stephen Stohn. Degrassi: The Next Generation co-creator Yan Moore served as the creative consultant and David Lowe is the line producer. Aaron Martin is the executive story editor. At the beginning of the season James Hurst served as the story editor, with Shelley Scarrow as junior story editor; by the end of the season they had been promoted to senior story editor and story editor, respectively. Brandon Yorke also served as a story editor, and Nicole Demerse became a story editor midway though the season. The editor is Stephen Withrow, Stephen Stanley is the production designer, and the cinematographers are Gavin Smith, David Perrauit, and Phil Earnshaw.
The writers for the season are Christine Alexiou, Tassie Cameron, Sean Carley, Craig Cornell, Nicole Demerse, James Hurst, Sean Jara, Aaron Martin, Yan Moore, Shelley Scarrow, Rebecca Schechter, Jana Sinyor, and Brendon Yorke. John Bell, Phil Earnshaw, Allan Eastman, Eleanore Lindo, Bruce McDonald, Andrew Potter, and Stefan Scaini directed the episodes.
When production of season three began, someone with the username "ExecProducer '' started a thread on the official Degrassi: The Next Generation website, revealing production details, guest actors, scheduling information and DVD release details. He actually referred to himself as "Stephen Stohn '' in one post, although this was not officially confirmed until the release of Degrassi: Generations - The Official 411 guidebook in 2005, when Stohn confirmed it was him.
In Canada the third season of Degrassi: The Next Generation was the most - watched domestic drama amongst adults 18 to 49, and the most - watched domestic drama series overall. It received an average of 669,000 viewers, an increase of 44 % compared to season two. In the US, the season averaged 250,000 viewers.
Following season finale, the San Jose Mercury News said "If they (Everwood, The O.C., and One Tree Hill) want to be taken seriously, the shows could take a cue from Canadian drama Degrassi: The Next Generation, which... addresses the same gritty teen issues without being far - fetched '', and Tim Goodman of the San Francisco Chronicle echoed that by adding "Degrassi: The Next Generation has cultivated a loyal audience by avoiding the sugar - coating niceties of old - school teen TV and by treating those 10 - to 14 - year - olds as, well, not adults per se, but definitely maturing viewers. Degrassi focuses on a high school with a disparate student body, with countless individual stories to tell (which is why the franchise has lasted this long). There 's nothing corny or sweet about "Degrassi '' as it boldly tackles everything from obesity to date rape, thongs to drugs ". Others, such as The Advocate gave praise and said the series was breaking new ground by depicting a gay romance between two teenaged boys.
Two of the episodes of season three were considered "too honest '' for US viewers, as they portrayed a fourteen - year - old girl having an abortion, and having no regrets later, and The N refused to air the episodes. On the decision, The N said, "It 's a serious episode and the summer (schedule) is all lighthearted '', but "unrelated to any policy position regarding abortion. '' The refusal caused an uproar amongst the show 's US fans, over 6000 of whom signed a petition calling the decision "unjust and asinine '', and even attracted the attention of newspapers and media in Canada and the US, with The New York Times reporting on the portrayal of abortion on television.
The season won a total of five awards and six more nominations from various bodies. At the 2004 Directors Guild of Canada Awards, "Holiday '' won "Outstanding Achievement in a Television Series - Family '' and garnered a nomination for Stephen Stanley for "Outstanding Achievement in Production Design - Television Series ''. "Pride '' won Aaron Martin, James Hurst and Shelley Scarrow the award for "Best Youth Script '' at the Canadian Screenwriting Awards, given out annually by the Writers Guild of Canada, and "Best Direction in a Children 's or Youths ' Program or Series '' at the Gemini Awards. The series also won the Gemini for "Best Children 's or Youth Fiction Program or Series ''. Jake Epstein was nominated for "Best Performance in a Children 's or Youth Program or Series '' for his acting in "Should I Stay or Should I Go? '', and Shelley Scarrow, Nicole Demerse and James Hurst were nominated for "Best Writing for a Children 's or Youth Program or Series '' for "Accidents Will Happen ''. The series received a nomination for "Outstanding Drama Series '' at the 15th GLAAD Media Awards, which honor the media for their portrayal of the LGBT community and the issues that affect their lives. Jake Epstein was nominated for "Best Performance in a TV Comedy Series Leading Young Actor '' at the Young Artist Awards, Alex Steele was nominated for "Best Performance in a TV Comedy Series Young Actress Age Ten or Younger '', and the show won "Best Family TV Series (Comedy or Drama) ''.
In the US, The N aired season three in two separate blocks as it had done with the second season. The first block of episodes aired between 3 October 2003 and 19 December 2003, and the second block from 4 June 2004 to 6 August 2004. Episodes fourteen and fifteen, the "banned '' episodes, were finally broadcast on 26 August 2006, three years after their original Canadian broadcast during an "Every Degrassi Episode Ever '' Marathon.
In Canada episode 313 "This Charming Man '', aired before Christmas themed episode 311 / 312 "Holiday ''.
This list is by order of production, as they appear on the DVD.
Craig 's band, Downtown Sasquatch, goes up against Ashley 's, Hell Hath No Fury, for a chance to win a recording session. Meanwhile, Caitlin gets a crash course in parenting when she must care for Joey and Angie after he injures his back.
It 's the end - of - the - year dance at Degrassi, and Jimmy wants it to be perfect for his date and their friends, but one misfortune after another plagues the evening. Meanwhile, feeling guilty for stealing Snake 's laptop, Sean decides to come clean to him, but he soon realizes that getting Mr. Simpson 's forgiveness is not going to be easy. Also, Joey asks Caitlin to move in with him, but she is soon offered a job in Los Angeles.
The DVD release of season three was released by Alliance Atlantis Home Entertainment in Canada, and by FUNimation Entertainment in the US on 28 March 2006 after it had completed broadcast on television. It was released in Australia by Shock Records on 13 April 2011. As well as every episode from the season, the DVD release features bonus material including Audio commentaries, deleted scenes, and bloopers. Currently Season 3 Is n't Being Released On DVD by any Studio in Australia
|
what is found on the bed of the ocean | Seabed - wikipedia
The seabed (also known as the seafloor, sea floor, or ocean floor) is the bottom of the ocean.
Most of the oceans have a common structure, created by common physical phenomena, mainly from tectonic movement, and sediment from various sources. The structure of the oceans, starting with the continents, begins usually with a continental shelf, continues to the continental slope -- which is a steep descent into the ocean, until reaching the abyssal plain -- a topographic plain, the beginning of the seabed, and its main area. The border between the continental slope and the abyssal plain usually has a more gradual descent, and is called the continental rise, which is caused by sediment cascading down the continental slope.
The mid-ocean ridge, as its name implies, is a mountainous rise through the middle of all the oceans, between the continents. Typically a rift runs along the edge of this ridge. Along tectonic plate edges there are typically oceanic trenches -- deep valleys, created by the mantle circulation movement from the mid-ocean mountain ridge to the oceanic trench.
Hotspot volcanic island ridges are created by volcanic activity, erupting periodically, as the tectonic plates pass over a hotspot. In areas with volcanic activity and in the oceanic trenches there are hydrothermal vents -- releasing high pressure and extremely hot water and chemicals into the typically freezing water around it.
Deep ocean water is divided into layers or zones, each with typical features of salinity, pressure, temperature and marine life, according to their depth. Lying along the top of the abyssal plain is the abyssal zone, whose lower boundary lies at about 6,000 m (20,000 ft). The hadal zone -- which includes the oceanic trenches, lies between 6,000 -- 11,000 metres (20,000 -- 36,000 ft) and is the deepest oceanic zone.
The acronym "mbsf '' meaning "meters below the seafloor '' is a convention used for depths below the seafloor.
Benthos is the community of organisms which live on, in, or near the seabed, the area known as the benthic zone. This community lives in or near marine sedimentary environments, from tidal pools along the foreshore, out to the continental shelf, and then down to the abyssal depths. The benthic zone is the ecological region on, in and immediately above the seabed, including the sediment surface and some sub-surface layers. Benthos generally live in close relationship with the substrate bottom, and many such organisms are permanently attached to the bottom. The superficial layer of the soil lining the given body of water, the benthic boundary layer, is an integral part of the benthic zone, and greatly influences the biological activity which takes place there. Examples of contact soil layers include sand bottoms, rocky outcrops, coral, and bay mud.
Each area of the seabed has typical features such as common soil composition, typical topography, salinity of water layers above it, marine life, magnetic direction of rocks, and sedimentation.
Seabed topography is flat where sedimentation is heavy and covers the tectonic features. Sediments comes from various sources:
Where sedimentation is very light, such as in the Atlantic ocean, especially in the northern and eastern Atlantic, the original tectonic activity can be clearly seen as straight line "cracks '' or "vents '' thousands of kilometers long.
Marine life is abundant in the deep sea, especially around hydrothermal vents. Large deep sea communities of marine life have been discovered around black and white smokers -- vents emitting chemicals toxic to humans and most vertebrates. This marine life receives its energy both from the extreme temperature difference (typically a drop of 150 degrees) and from chemosynthesis by bacteria.
Brine pools are another seabed feature, usually connected to cold seeps.
The seabed has been explored by submersibles such as Alvin and, to some extent, scuba divers with special equipment. The process that continually adds new material to the ocean floor is seafloor spreading and the continental slope. In recent years satellite images show a very clear mapping of the seabed, and are used extensively in the study and exploration of the ocean floor.
Seabed contains "several hundred years ' worth of cobalt and nickel ''. In 2001 - 2013, International Seabed Authority issued 13 various licences to seabed mining.
Some children 's play songs include elements such as "There 's a hole at the bottom of the sea '', or "A sailor went to sea... but all that he could see was the bottom of the deep blue sea ''.
On and under the seabed are archaeological sites of historic interest, such as shipwrecks and sunken towns. This underwater cultural heritage is protected by the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. The convention aims at preventing looting and the destruction or loss of historic and cultural information by providing an international legal framework.
|
adds a special visual effect to an object on a slide | PowerPoint animation - wikipedia
PowerPoint animation is a form of animation which uses Microsoft PowerPoint and similar programs to create a game or movie. The artwork is generally created using PowerPoint 's AutoShape features, and then animated slide - by - slide or by using Custom Animation. These animations can then be shared by transferring the PowerPoint file they were created in, and can be viewed with PowerPoint or Microsoft 's free PowerPoint Viewer.
Custom Animation is a set of effects which can be applied to objects in PowerPoint so that they will animate in the Slide Show Power Point. They can be added under the Custom Animation function or through the use of Visual Basic for Applications (VBA). PowerPoint 2000 and earlier versions introduced basic effects such as Appear, Dissolve, Fly In and so forth. In PowerPoint 2002 / XP and later versions, the Custom Animation feature was improved, adding new animation effects grouped into four categories: Entrance, Emphasis, Exit, and Motion Paths. The effects were later modified in PowerPoint 2010.
Transitions are effects similar to Custom Animation, but are different in that they can only be applied singularly to individual slides as they change from one slide to another and are limited in options. More slide transitions were added to the selection in PowerPoint 2010.
Entrance effects can be set to objects so that they enter with animations during Slide Show. Emphasis effects animate the objects on the spot. Exit effects allow objects to leave the Slide Show with animations. Motion Paths allow objects to move around the Slide Show. Each effect contains variables such as start (On click, With previous, After previous), delay, speed, repeat and trigger. This makes animations more flexible and interactive, similar to Adobe Flash.
Animation Trigger is another feature introduced in Microsoft PowerPoint 2002 / XP and the later versions (but, to date, not for Macintosh). This feature allows animators to apply effects that can be triggered when a specific object on the Slide Show is clicked. This feature is the basis for the majority of PowerPoint games, which usually involve clicking objects to advance.
Using hyperlinks and Animation Triggers, one can create games such as Jeopardy!, using the tools to maneuver from question to answer. Taking this same principle, the animator can also make more complex games similar to a dungeon game or escape - the - room game. In this format, the animator can create a domain where the player chooses to go right or left, or pick up objects, and so forth. The process takes time, but is generally cheaper and easier than using multimedia software such as Adobe Flash.
For more experienced users, Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) can be used to program animations with more flexibility.
PowerPoint can also function as a movie maker program. The animator using PowerPoint works similarly to an animator using cels, using a succession of slides to create the illusion of movement. Many tools within the PowerPoint program can be easily used for maximum effect. Drawing tools such as AutoShapes, contains lines, connectors, basic shapes, block arrows, flowchart components, ' freeforms ' (AutoShapes drawn by the mouse on pen tool) and banners, callouts and action buttons, help draw out a slide. Custom Animations and sound tools can also be used to help add excitement to the project and create interest in what might have been an otherwise dull presentation. The process of drawing out multiple slides takes time, but, again, it is considered to be less expensive and easier to use than buying and using professional graphics animation software.
Another way to produce these animations is by animating a cartoon as a single slide acting as a frame of film. This allows the slide show to run like an animated film. This is time consuming, but the artist has much more control and can do much more detailed and precise animation. It also allows control over the timing of the animation. This also make editing of the animation easier afterward. On average, month 's work of such animation usually ends up at about a minute in length. A three - minute animation can take around three to four months to complete depending on the amount of detail, these lengthy cartoons usually run around 1,800 slides.
Using Custom Animation, cartoons or movies similar to those created in Adobe Flash can be done with PowerPoint. With minimum time, an animator can produce a simple show similar to a stick figure movie, where the body movements are animated using Motion Paths and Emphasis effects. An example released under PowerPoint Heaven, has a section called the Shadow Fighter series which demonstrates PowerPoint movies.
Though animations can be created easily using Custom Animations provided in Microsoft PowerPoint, it may be much more tedious to complete a project in PowerPoint than in professional animation programs such as Adobe Flash due to the absence of key frames and tweening in the former.
When effects such as Emphasis Grow / Shrink and Spin are applied to objects, they may appear to be jagged or pixelated when previewing in the slide show. In addition, excessive use of these effects may degrade the slide show 's performance. PowerPoint 's built in Hardware Graphics Acceleration feature does help in minimizing these setbacks, however. Graphics acceleration, though, requires a video card that supports Microsoft Direct3D. Additionally, some animations may appear different when played in older versions of PowerPoint, or not be present at all.
PowerPoint 2000 and later versions introduced macro security to help protect computers from malicious code within a PowerPoint presentation. This led to disabling all VBA or macro code by default, causing presentations containing codes unable to run properly, unless the viewer adjusted their macro security settings to the Low setting. Security Warning in PowerPoint 2007 alerts the user of macros in a presentation as soon as it is opened, giving the option to run the presentation with or without the macros enabled.
PowerPoint is unavailable for Linux and other operating systems, meaning that unlike open - source alternatives such as SVG, animations are not portable across a range of computers or phones. PowerPoint animations however can be rendered with varying degrees of success through compatible tools such as LibreOffice Impress and Calligra Stage.
|
when does aang appear in legend of korra | Aang - wikipedia
Avatar Aang (安 昂, Ān Áng) is a fictional character and the protagonist of Nickelodeon 's animated television series Avatar: The Last Airbender (created by Michael Dante DiMartino and Bryan Konietzko), voiced by Zach Tyler Eisen.
Aang is the last surviving Airbender, a monk of the Air Nomads ' Southern Air Temple. He is an incarnation of the "Avatar '', the spirit of light and peace manifested in human form. As the Avatar, Aang controls all four elements (fire, water, earth and air) and is tasked with keeping the Four Nations at peace. At 12 years old, Aang is the series ' reluctant hero, spending a century in suspended animation before joining new friends Katara and Sokka on a quest to master the elements and save their world from the imperialist Fire Nation.
Aang 's character has appeared in other media, such as trading cards, video games, T - shirts, and web comics. Aang has also been portrayed by Noah Ringer in the feature film The Last Airbender, and voiced by D.B. Sweeney in the sequel animated series The Legend of Korra.
Aang 's character was developed from a drawing by Bryan Konietzko, depicting a bald man with an arrowlike design on his head, which the artist developed into a picture of a child with a flying bison. Meanwhile, Michael Dante DiMartino was interested in a documentary about explorers trapped in the South Pole, which he later combined with Konietzko 's drawing.
"There 's an air guy along with these water people trapped in a snowy wasteland... and maybe some fire people are pressing down on them... ''
The plot they described corresponds with the first and second episodes of Avatar: The Last Airbender, where the "water people '' (Katara and Sokka) rescue the "air guy '' (Aang) while "trapped in a snowy wasteland '' (the Southern Water Tribe) with "some fire people (that) are pressing down on them '' (Fire Nation Troops and Zuko). The creators of the show intended Aang to be trapped in an iceberg for one thousand years, later to wake inside a futuristic world, wherein he would have a robot named Momo and a dozen bisons. The creators lost interest in this theme, and changed it to one hundred years of suspended animation. The robotic Momo became a flying lemur, and the herd of bison was reduced to one.
Airbending, the martial art Aang primarily uses in the show, is based on an "internal '' Chinese martial art called Baguazhang. This fighting style focuses on circular movements, and does not have many finishing moves; traits meant to represent the unpredictability of air and the peaceful character of Airbenders.
In the episode "Tales of Ba Sing Se '', Aang 's name was written as 安 昂 (ān áng) in Chinese.
Michael Dante DiMartino, the show 's co-creator, said:
"We wanted Aang to solve problems and defeat enemies with his wits as well as his powerful abilities ''.
According to the show 's creators, "Buddhism and Taoism have been huge inspirations behind the idea for Avatar. '' As shown in "The King of Omashu '' and "The Headband '', a notable aspect of Aang 's character is his vegetarian diet, which is consistent with Buddhism, Hinduism, and Taoism. In the Brahmajala Sutra, a Buddhist code of ethics, vegetarianism is encouraged. Furthermore, the writers gave Aang a consistent reluctance to fight and an aversion to killing. In "The Spirit World (Winter Solstice, Part 1) '', Aang encounters an angry spirit destroying a village and kidnapping villagers; but instead of fighting the spirit, Aang negotiates. He is also depicted showing ethical reluctance in killing Firelord Ozai, and eventually strips Ozai of his bending instead of murdering him.
Upon death, Avatar Roku was reincarnated and Aang was born, and later raised by Monk Gyatso, a senior monk at the Southern Air Temple and friend of the late Avatar Roku. Even prior to learning he was the Avatar, Aang distinguished himself by becoming one of the youngest Airbending Masters in history by inventing a new technique. As a result of Fire Lord Sozin 's increasingly hostile attitude towards the other nations, the senior monks decided to reveal Aang 's nature as the Avatar four years before the traditional age (Avatars are usually told of their status once they turn 16) and relocate him to one of the other Air Temples. Learning that he was to be taken from Gyatso caused Aang to flee the monastery on his flying bison, Appa, before being caught by a storm; the life - or - death conditions triggered the Avatar State, encasing the young Avatar and his bison in an air - pocket among icebergs, where he remained suspended for a century.
After one hundred years of suspended animation in an iceberg, twelve - year - old Aang was freed when found by Katara and Sokka, yet unaware of the events that occurred during his rest. His reawakening catches the attention of Zuko, the banished prince of the Fire Nation, and Aang is forced to leave, with Katara and Sokka accompanying him after they learn that he is the Avatar. Aang and his new friends visit the Southern Air Temple, where they meet a winged lemur whom Aang later names Momo. It is there that Aang learns that he was in the ice for a whole century, and that the Fire Nation wiped out his people, including Gyatso. After a series of misadventures, Aang meets his previous incarnation, Roku, who informs him that he must master all four bending arts and end the war before the coming of Sozin 's Comet at the end of summer. Upon arriving to the Northern Water Tribe, after a few conflicts, Aang became an apprentice of Waterbending Master Pakku alongside Katara. After helping the Water Tribe drive off a Fire Nation invasion headed by Admiral Zhao, with Katara as his teacher, Aang and his group journey to the Earth Kingdom to find an Earthbending teacher.
In the second season, Aang learns Earthbending from Toph Beifong after he has a vision of the blind Earthbending prodigy in a swamp telling him to find her. On their journey, they are chased by Fire Princess Azula and her friends Mai and Ty Lee. The group learns about the Day of Black Sun in a secret underground library, and they attempt to reveal the information to the Earth King at Ba Sing Se. However, their flying bison, Appa, is captured by Sandbenders. Aang grows upset and angry and confronts the Sandbenders, learning that Appa has been sold. After stopping a Fire Nation drill threatening the safety of Ba Sing Se, they look for Appa only to find themselves dealing with the Dai Li before exposing their leader 's deception. The group reunites with Jet helping them find Appa at Dai Li headquarters. They expose the Hundred Year War to the Earth King, who promises to help them invade the Fire Nation. Soon after, Aang meets a guru who attempts to teach Aang to open his seven chakras in order to control the defensive ' Avatar State '; but when Aang perceives Katara in danger, he leaves before the seventh chakra is opened, and thus loses his progress until the seventh is opened. Though Aang manages to unlock the Seventh Chakra, he is mortally wounded by Azula, yet was saved by Katara before the injury became truly fatal.
In the third and final season, Aang is unable to use the Avatar State. Although reluctant with the plan at first, Aang accepts to have everyone think he had died and his remaining allies attack the Fire Nation 's capital, but are thwarted by Azula. However, Zuko has a change of heart, rebels against his father, and offers to teach Aang Firebending. Aang and Zuko also improve their Firebending powers with the help of their world 's last two dragons. During the finale, finding himself on a strange island, Aang is reluctant to actually kill Fire Lord Ozai, despite his four previous past lives convincing him it is the only way. But upon learning that he was actually on the back of a Lion Turtle, one of four that made the first benders by manipulating humans ' chi, Aang receives the Lion Turtles ' Energybending ability. With this ability, as he regained his Avatar State, Aang removes Ozai 's bending ability, rendering him harmless and ending the Hundred Year War. Later, in the Fire Nation capital, Aang is seen beside Zuko, the new Fire Lord. The series ends with Aang and his friends relaxing at Iroh 's tea shop at Ba Sing Se, where Aang and Katara share a kiss.
After beginning the Harmony Restoration Movement, an event that was meant to remove Fire Nation remnants from the Earth Kingdom, Aang agrees to end Zuko 's life should he go down a path similar to his father, after the latter requests it, being stopped by Katara from entering the Avatar State as he began a later encounter with Zuko and then tries to mediate protestors and the Yu Dao resistance, afterward assembling members of a fan club and forming the "Air Acolytes '', a group that he intends to teach the ways of the Air Nomads. Aang then participated in a search for Zuko 's mother Ursa, successfully finding her and entering the Spirit World to assist in locating the Mother of Faces, convincing her to grant Rafa a new face. After a period of entertainment, Aang is contacted by his former life Yangchen, who tried contacting him about Old Iron 's return. Aang also has a fight with the Rough Rhinos when they try to oust him from the Eastern Fire Refinery. Aang then aids in preventing Azula, disguised as the Kemurikage, from stealing any more children.
Some sixty years prior to the series, Avatar Aang and Fire Lord Zuko founded the United Republic of Nations, and its capital Republic City. In the following years, Aang married Katara and they have three children: Bumi (named for Aang 's old friend), Kya (after Katara 's deceased mother), and Tenzin. In his adult years, Aang grew a neatly cropped chinstrap beard, which many statues of Aang 's adult form depict him with, including the one in the restored Southern Air Temple. He also founded the Air Acolytes, a sect who eschewed their home cultures in favor of following the Air Nomads ' way of life (the comics reveal that the first Air Acolytes were the reorganized Avatar Fan Club). A forty - year - old Aang assisted Toph in arresting Water Tribe crime lord Yakone. As Aang watched the trial where Yakone was convicted of using the rare and illegal technique Bloodbending, Yakone tried to escape Republic City, using his unique abilities to subdue everyone in the court room, thus leaving them unconscious. Able to resist Yakone 's Bloodbending through the Avatar State, Aang used his Energybending abilities to put a halt to Yakone 's plans.
Being frozen in an iceberg for a hundred years while in the Avatar State drained much of Aang 's life energy. While he did not feel the effects for many years, after he entered middle age in his 50s, the strain of this exertion increasingly weighed upon his body. Ultimately, it resulted in Aang dying at the relatively young biological age of 66, in 153 AG. Aang was survived by his wife, Katara, and his three children, but he did not live to see his grandchildren, all of whom would be powerful Airbenders. Prior to his death, Aang tasked the Order of the White Lotus with finding and guiding the new Avatar after him. When Aang died, the Avatar spirit reincarnated into the Southern Water Tribe female Korra. Aang intended for the Order to simply guide and guard Korra, but several mishaps in the aftermath of Aang 's death (including a kidnapping attempt by the anarchist Zaheer) and the still - fragile state of relations between the now - Five Nations resulted in Katara and Tenzin sequestering Korra in a compound at the South Pole, bringing teachers to her instead of allowing her to seek out her own.
In the sequel series ' first season, Avatar Aang 's spirit occasionally serves as the spiritual advisor to seventeen - year - old Korra (much like the previous Avatar incarnation, Roku, did for Aang). Initially, Aang is only able to give Korra glimpses of his memory concerning Yakone in relation to her confrontations with his two sons, Amon and Tarrlok, the products of Yakone 's Bloodbending vendetta on the Avatar. It is only after she loses her ability to bend that Korra allows herself to listen to her past lives, at which point Aang restores her powers by triggering the Avatar State and teaching her to Energybend.
The sequel series ' second season reveals that Avatar Aang apparently treated Tenzin as his favorite child, due to his son 's Airbender status; Kya and Bumi mentioned to Tenzin that Aang always took Tenzin on vacations with him, but never them. Aang 's Air Acolytes also were unaware that Aang had two other children besides Tenzin. Aang himself later appears, along with Roku, Kyoshi and Kuruk, before Korra in a vision and encourages her to learn the origins of Wan (the first Avatar) and Raava. Aang, or possibly a vision of him, later appears in the Spirit World, encouraging Tenzin to move past the enormous legacy of being Aang 's son and find his own path. Korra 's connection to Aang and the other preceding Avatars is severed when Vaatu extracts and subsequently kills Raava, the divine Avatar Spirit entity within her. Even though Raava is reborn and fused again with Korra, she discovers, to her dismay, that her spiritual connection to Aang and all past Avatars is gone forever.
Aang 's character appeared in the Avatar: The Last Airbender Trading Card Game on a multitude of cards. He appeared in the Avatar: The Last Airbender video game as one of the four playable characters. Two sequels were made: Avatar: The Last Airbender -- The Burning Earth, followed by Avatar: The Last Airbender -- Into the Inferno.
Aang also appeared in Escape from the Spirit World, an online video game that can be found on Nickelodeon 's official website. The game includes certain plot changes that are not shown in the show. The show 's directors, Michael DiMartino and Bryan Konietzko, claim the events are canon.
Tokyopop has published a films comic (sometimes referred to as cine - manga), in which Aang, being the main character of the show, appears repeatedly.
In 2010, director M. Night Shyamalan cast 12 - year - old Tae Kwon Do practitioner Noah Ringer as Aang in the film adaptation of the series, The Last Airbender. The casting of a presumed white actor in the role of Aang (as well as a primarily Caucasian cast) in the Asian - influenced Avatar universe triggered negative reactions from some fans, marked by accusations of racism, a letter - writing campaign, and a protest outside of a Philadelphia casting call for movie extras. A counter-movement was spawned in response by other fans who believed the casting was appropriate. The casting decisions were also negatively received by several critics, who stated that the original casting call expressed a preference for Caucasian actors over others. Noah Ringer later identified himself to Entertainment Weekly as an American Indian.
In the show 's intended demographics, Aang has been received exceptionally. Kendall Lyons stated, "Aang seems to be the lighthearted kid that you can easily familiarize yourself with '', and that he "seems to bring comfort in the most dangerous or hostile situations. '' There are many similar descriptions about Aang as a childlike character who is "reckless and excitable ''. Reviews point out that "as the Avatar, Aang seems unstoppable, but as Aang, he is just another Airbender ''; the review states later that the show continues to focus on a more realistic character instead of a perfect one by revealing many character flaws. In 2016, ScreenRant ranked Aang # 15 on its "30 Best Animated TV Characters Of All Time '' list.
|
ore no imouto ga konnani kawaii wake ga nai game | Oreimo - wikipedia
Oreimo (俺 妹), short for Ore no Imōto ga Konna ni Kawaii Wake ga Nai (俺 の 妹 が こんなに 可愛い わけ が ない, lit. My Little Sister Ca n't Be This Cute) and also known as Ore no Imōto (俺 の 妹), is a Japanese light novel series written by Tsukasa Fushimi, with illustrations provided by Hiro Kanzaki. The series includes 12 novels released between August 2008 and June 2013. A manga adaptation drawn by Sakura Ikeda was serialized in ASCII Media Works ' Dengeki G 's Magazine. A 12 - episode anime adaptation produced by AIC aired in Japan between October and December 2010. Four additional episodes, which offer a different ending to the broadcast series, were streamed monthly via the official website and other video streaming sites between February and May 2011, before being released on Blu - ray Disc and DVD in June and July 2011. A 13 - episode second anime season produced by A-1 Pictures, titled Ore no Imōto ga Konna ni Kawaii Wake ga Nai. (with a period at the end), aired between April and June 2013. An additional three episodes were streamed online on August 18, 2013.
Kyosuke Kosaka, a normal 17 - year - old high school student living in Chiba, has not gotten along with his younger sister Kirino in years. For longer than he can remember, Kirino has ignored his comings and goings and looked at him with spurning eyes. It seemed as if the relationship between Kyōsuke and his sister, now fourteen, would continue this way forever. One day however, Kyosuke finds a DVD case of a magical girl anime which had fallen in his house 's entrance way. To Kyosuke 's surprise, he finds a hidden eroge inside the case and he soon learns that both the DVD and the game belong to Kirino. That night, Kirino brings Kyosuke to her room and reveals herself to be an otaku with an extensive collection of moe anime and younger sister - themed eroge she has been collecting in secret. Kyosuke quickly becomes Kirino 's confidant for her secret hobby. The series then follows Kyosuke 's efforts to help his sister to reconcile her personal life with her secret hobbies, while restoring their broken relationship and coming to terms with their true feelings for each other.
Oreimo began as a light novel series written by Tsukasa Fushimi, with illustrations provided by Hiro Kanzaki. ASCII Media Works published 12 novels under their Dengeki Bunko imprint between August 10, 2008 and June 7, 2013.
A manga adaptation based on the light novels drawn by Sakura Ikeda was serialized in ASCII Media Works ' Dengeki G 's Magazine between the March 2009 and May 2011 issues. Four tankōbon volumes were released under ASCII Media Works ' Dengeki Comics imprint between October 27, 2009 and April 27, 2011. The third volume was released in regular and special editions; the special edition came bundled with an Ayase Aragaki figurine. The manga has been licensed in North America by Dark Horse Comics. A follow - up manga, Ore no Kōhai ga Konna ni Kawaii Wake ga Nai (俺 の 後輩 が こんなに 可愛い わけ が ない, lit. My Junior Ca n't Be This Cute), began serialization in the July 2011 issue of Dengeki G 's Magazine and features Ruri Goko as the main heroine. The manga ended serialization in the magazine 's May 2014 issue and continued serialization in Dengeki G 's Comic between the June 2014 and July 2015 issues. The first volume was released on May 26, 2012, in regular and special editions; the special edition came bundled with a Kuroneko figurine. Six tankōbon volumes were released under ASCII Media Works ' Dengeki Comics imprint between May 26, 2012 and July 27, 2015.
A drama CD, based on events from the first and third volumes of the novels as well as a newly written scenario by Tsukasa Fushimi, was released by ASCII Media Works on March 31, 2010. The CD stars Ayana Taketatsu as Kirino and Yūichi Nakamura as Kyōsuke. An Internet radio show titled Ore no Imōto ga (Radio de mo) Konna ni Kawaii Wake ga Nai (俺 の 妹 が (ラジオ でも) こんなに 可愛い わけ が ない, There 's No Way My Little Sister (Radio Version) Can Be This Cute) to promote the anime adaptation streamed 24 episodes between August 13, 2010 and July 22, 2011 via the official website of the anime. The show was hosted by Ayana Taketatsu, who plays Kirino in the anime, and Kana Hanazawa, who plays Kuroneko. A second Internet radio show to promote the second season of the anime started on April 11, 2013. The show was again hosted by Taketatsu and Hanazawa. Even though the show was limited to the Japanese speaking audience, the e-mails and comments from fans outside Japan were also accepted and sometimes read during the show, and the official website of the show has been translated into English.
A 12 - episode anime adaptation produced by AIC, directed by Hiroyuki Kanbe, and with screenplay by Hideyuki Kurata aired in Japan between October 3 and December 19, 2010. The series was released over eight BD / DVD compilation volumes, each holding two episodes, between December 22, 2010 and July 27, 2011. Four original net animation episodes were streamed through the official website, as well as several other websites such as Nico Nico Douga, Showtime Japan, and MovieGate, which began on February 22, 2011. The first two were released on June 27, 2011, together with the seventh BD / DVD volume and the last two were released on July 27, 2011, together with the eighth. These episodes feature a break in the original story arc starting at episode 12 and offer an alternate ending from the TV broadcast. The anime retains the voice cast from the drama CD. The opening theme for the anime is "Irony '' by ClariS and is composed by Kz of Livetune, while each episode features a different ending theme sung by one of the voice actors. The music of the anime is composed by Satoru Kōsaki and a soundtrack was released on January 12, 2011. Aniplex of America began streaming and simulcasting the series in North America through Anime News Network (ANN), but security issues involving the illegal leaking of episode two online resulted in the stream being placed on hold. The stream of Oreimo returned to ANN with the first four episodes on November 8, 2010. Aniplex of America released the series on an English - subtitled DVD box set in October 2011. The anime is licensed by MVM Films in the United Kingdom.
A second 13 - episode anime season, titled Ore no Imōto ga Konna ni Kawaii Wake ga Nai. (俺 の 妹 が こんなに 可愛い わけ が ない., with a period at the end) and produced by A-1 Pictures, aired between April 7 and June 30, 2013 and was simulcast by Crunchyroll. An additional three episodes were screened at Otakon 2013 on August 9, 2013, and then streamed worldwide on August 18. The episodes were simulcast by Crunchyroll at the same time as the Japanese broadcast and were available until August 31, 2013. Despite the change in animation studio from the first season, the second season has the same staff as the first. The opening theme is "Reunion '' by ClariS, while a contest was held for the second season 's ending themes. This series has also been licensed by Aniplex of America. A-1 Pictures collaborated with Chiba Urban Monorail to promote the second season by making an Oreimo - themed monorail train, which remained in operation until September 30, 2013. In addition to decorating the exterior of the train, the anime characters were featured in in - train advertising to provide passengers with helpful tips about local sightseeing facilities and shops.
A PlayStation Portable visual novel titled Ore no Imōto ga Konna ni Kawaii Wake ga Nai Portable was developed by Bandai Namco Games and released on January 27, 2011. The limited edition bundle included an OAD, a sister - talk bonus CD, and an additional game for the PSP. A fighting game titled Shin Imōto Taisen Siscalypse (真 妹 大戦 シスカリプス, lit. True Little Sister War, Siscalypse), based on the fictional game in the series, was released by Kadokawa Contents Gate on the Yahoo! MobaGe Service on January 20, 2011. A second PSP title, Ore no Imōto ga Konna ni Kawaii Wake ga Nai Portable ga Tsuzuku Wake ga Nai (俺 の 妹 が こんなに 可愛い わけ が ない ポータブル が 続く わけ が ない, lit. There 's No Way "My Little Sister Ca n't Be This Cute Portable '' Could Continue), was released on May 17, 2012. The opening theme of the second PSP game is "Nexus '' by ClariS. A PlayStation 3 game, Ore no Imōto ga Konna ni Kawaii Wake ga Nai Happy End (俺 の 妹 が こんなに 可愛い わけ が ない. ハッピー エンド), was released on September 26, 2013 in Japan. Kirino also makes a cameo appearance in the A Certain Magical Index PSP game, being another game based on a light novel series published by ASCII Media Works. Kirino also appears as a playable character in Dengeki Bunko: Fighting Climax, with Kuroneko as a support character.
The Mainichi Shimbun reported that the fourth volume sold the most copies of any light novel in August 2009. Anime News Network reported in April 2012 that the first nine light novels had collectively sold 3.7 million copies in Japan.
|
vic mensa - there's a lot going on | There 's Alot Going On - wikipedia
There 's Alot Going On is the debut extended play (EP) by American rapper Vic Mensa. It was released on June 3, 2016, by Roc Nation. It serves as a prelude for his upcoming debut album.
In this EP, Vic Mensa expresses his point of view about personal issues and recent events such as Flint Michigan 's water crisis and the shooting of Laquan McDonald. Mensa even talks about himself suffering some self - inflicted wounds. The EP 's production was provided by Papi Beatz himself, along with the additional production such as Smoke Ono, Knox Fortune, Carter Lang, and Mensa himself. "Liquor Locker '' features a guest appearance from Ty Dolla Sign. The title of the EP comes from Guns N ' Roses ' music video for "Do n't Cry ''.
On February 13, 2016, Vic Mensa released a track, called "Danger ''. This track was posted, after it premiered at Kanye West 's Yeezy Season 3 fashion show at the Madison Square Garden. On June 6, 2016, which is Mensa 's birthday, Vic Mensa released the music video for the title track, "There 's Alot Going On ''. On October 22, 2016, he released the music video for "16 Shots ''.
Matthew Strauss of Pitchfork gave the EP a 7.5 out of 10, calling it Vic Mensa 's "best and boldest '' work so far. Scott Glaysher of XXL said, "There are a variety of instruments used throughout, which is refreshing to hear in today 's musical climate -- no songs sound the same and all fat is trimmed. ''
Rolling Stone placed it at number 39 on the "40 Best Rap Albums of 2016 '' list. HipHopDX named it as one of the best mixtapes of 2016.
Notes
|
where are new york and company clothes made | New York & Company - wikipedia
New York & Company, Inc. (NY&C) is an American wear - to - work retailer for women. New York & Company apparel and accessories are sold through a nationwide network of retail stores, New York & Company Outlet Stores and through its e-commerce site.
NY&C headquarters are in New York City as is the flagship store located on 58th Street and Lexington Avenue.
New York & Company was founded in 1918 as Lerner Shops by Samuel A. Lerner and Harold M. Lane in New York City. Samuel Lerner was the uncle of lyricist Alan Jay Lerner. In 1992, the company changed its name to Lerner New York and in 1995 to New York & Company. They have been publicly traded since 2004.
Celebrities who have appeared in advertisements for New York & Company include Eva Longoria, Brooke Shields, Iman, Cindy Crawford, Jennifer Hudson, Maria Menounos, Ellen Pompeo, Patrick Dempsey, Eva Mendes and Gabrielle Union.
|
who is the winner of did season 1 | Dance India Dance - Wikipedia
(For former hosts see below)
(For former judges see below)
Dance India Dance (tagline: Dance Ka Asli ID) is an Indian dance competition reality television series that airs on Zee TV, produced by Essel Vision Productions. It premiered on 30 January 2009. Every season of the series is judged by Grandmaster Mithun Chakraborty with three mentors who are called Masters.
The selection process can be further broken down into two distinct stages: the open Auditions and a second phase referred to as the Mega Auditions. The open Auditions take place in 5 -- 6 major Indian cities and are typically open to anyone aged 15 -- 30 at the time of their audition. The cities in which auditions are held varies from season to season but some, such as New Delhi, Mumbai and Kolkata have featured in almost every season. During this stage, dancers perform a brief routine (typically individually) before three masters. The masters will then make an on - the - spot decision as to whether the dancer demonstrated enough ability. If the dancer impressed the masters with his / her dancing abilities, masters will award a Hat called Taqdeer Ki Topi (Hat of Luck), moving them instantly one step forward in the competition.
The second stage of the selection process, the Mega Auditions, is a several - day - long process in which the 100 hopefuls are tested for overall well - rounded dance ability, stamina, and their ability to perform under pressure. The dancers are put through a battery of rounds which test their ability to pick up various dance styles (typically some of the more well - represented genres that will later be prominent in the competition phase, such as Hip hop, Bollywood dance, Jazz, Bharat Natyam, Kathak, Mohiniyattam, Odissi and Contemporary). At the end of this process, only the top 36 competitors will be chosen. The top 36 are then again asked to give solo performances, after which 18 are chosen in the final auditions. Then, those top 18 get divided into 3 teams which are named according to the 3 masters of the show such as, Remo Ke Rangeelay, Terence Ki Toli and Geeta Ki Gang. Each team containing 6 dancers then competes in the show, learning new skills throughout the journey.
Dance India Dance Season 1 was started on 30 January 2009. This season was hosted by Jay Bhanushali and Saumya Tandon. The grand finale was aired on 30 May 2009 and winner was Salman Yusuff Khan.
Masters:
Finalists:
Dance India Dance Season 2 was started on 18 December 2009. This season was also hosted by Jay Bhanushali and Saumya Tandon. The grand finale was aired on 23 April 2010 and winner was Shakti Mohan.
Masters:
Finalists:
Dance India Dance Season 3 was started on 24 December 2011. This season was also hosted by Jay Bhanushali and Saumya Tandon. The grand finale was aired on 24 April 2012 and winner was Rajasmita Kar.
Masters:
Finalists:
Dance India Dance Season 4 was started on 26 October 2013. This season was hosted by Jay Bhanushali and Ishita Sharma. The grand finale was aired on 22 February 2014 and winner was Shyam Yadav.
Masters:
Finalists:
Dance India Dance Season 5 was started on 27 June 2015. This season was hosted by Jay Bhanushali. The grand finale was aired on 10 October 2015 and winner was Proneeta Swargiary.
Masters:
Finalists:
Dance India Dance Season 6 is being aired from 4 November 2017. This season is being hosted by Amruta Khanvilkar and Sahil Khattar.
Masters:
Dance Ke Superstars featured contestants from the first two seasons to compete against each other. The show was judged by choreographers Remo D'Souza and Shiamak Davar, and featured a guest judge every week. Team Jalwa, the Season 2 DID contestants, won the series.
Mithu Chowdhury from Kolkata was declared the winner of Dance India Dance Super Moms 2013 Season, and Cecille Rodrigues from Goa was the 1st runner - up, and Shraddha Shah Raj from Surat was the 2nd runner - up.
The second season started in March 2015. Harpreet Khatri who hails from Mumbai was announced the winner of Dance India Dance Super Moms Season 2 in 2015. Season 2 was anchored by popular TV actor Karan Wahi. Season 2 was judged by Geeta Kapoor, Govinda, and Terence Lewis.
DID Dance Ka Tashan featured contestants from Dance India Dance Super Moms competing against contestants from Dance India Dance L'il Masters 2. The show aired in November 2013 and was judged by choreographer Ahmed Khan and Geeta Kapoor and hosted by TV actor Rithvik Dhanjani and India 's Best Dramebaaz, Nihar. The show was won by Team Todu, the DID L'il Masters Season 2 contestants, Faisal, Soumya, Rohan, Om, Shalini, Deep, Tanay, Jeet and Shreya.
The first season of DID L'il Masters was judged by Farah Khan and Sandip Soparrkar. The four skippers and their teams were: Dharmesh ke Dhinchak, Jai ke Jhatang - Fatang, Vrushali ke Dhum - Dhadake and Amrita ke Aflatoon. Jeetumoni Kalita from Dharmesh ke Dhinchak was declared winner of the first season of Dance India Dance L'il Masters. Atul Banmoria was the 1st runner - up and Vaishnavi Patil was the 2nd runner - up, Sonik Chauhan from Delhi got the best performer award from Finalist and Tiyash Saha (Wild Card Entry) from Kolkata (Neerav ke Rockstars) got the 5th position and most entertaining participant of the Season, Ritika and Pallavi got 6th position.
DID L'il Masters 2 was judged by Master Geeta and Master Marzi. The four skippers and their teams were Prince ke Paltan, Raghav ke Rockstars, Kruti ke Krackers and Neerav ke Ninjas. 5 contestants, Jeet, Om, Faisal, Rohan and Saumya entered the grand finale. Faisal Khan, from Prince ke Paltan, was declared as the winner of the second season. Om Chetry, Rohan Parkale and Saumya Rai came second, third and fourth respectively.
The third season began broadcasting on 1 March 2014. Geeta Kapoor, Ahmad Khan and Mudassar Khan were judges, along with Sanam Johar, Raghav Crockroaz Juyal / Omkar Shinde, Rahul Shetty and Paul Marshal Cardoz and Swarali Karulkar, as skippers. The teams were Raghav / Omkar ke Rockstar, Sanam ke Superheroes, Rahul and Paul ke Rapchik Punters and Swarali ke Sparklers. Teriya Magar from Nepal was declared the winner, and Anushka Chetry became the 1st runner - up. Sadhwin Shetty was the 2nd runner - up.
Dance India Dance L'il Masters North America Edition - Auditions were conducted in April 2014 with over 10,000 contestants auditioning from all across the US, Canada and Europe. Out of them 10 contestants were chosen and were flown to Mumbai, India to compete in the finals. The winner was Akhil and the second winner was Avantika Vandanapu
Dance ke Superkids - Battle of the Baaps! featured contestants from the first two seasons of DID L'iL Masters. It was judged by Geeta Kapoor, Farah Khan and Marzi Pestonji and hosted by Jay Bhanushali and Shreya Acharya. Team Yahoo, also known as DID L'il Masters Season 2, was led by Captain Raghav Juyal and choreographers: Kruti Mahesh and Prince Gupta. They won the competition with Faisal Khan, Soumya Rai, Rohan Parkale, Om Chetri, Jeet Das, Shalini Moitra and Tanay Malhara dancing their way to victory. Team Wakao, also known as DID L'il Masters Season 1, was led by Captain Dharmesh Yelande and choreographers: Mayuresh Vadkar and Vrushali Chavan; with dancing contestants: Jeetumoni Kalita, Vatsal Vithlani, Ruturaj Mahalim, Vaishnavi Patil, Atul Banmoria, Anurag Sarmah and Khyati Patel. The team fell just short of victory but thoroughly celebrated their time on the show all the same.
The shows consisted of 12 finalist couples. The Grand Finale was scheduled for filming 7 April 2011 at the Andheri Sports Complex for broadcast on 9 April 2011. Amit and Falon were voted the winners of the season.
|
what does natural resources mean in social studies | Resource - wikipedia
A resource is a source or supply from which benefit is produced. Resources can be broadly classified on bases upon their availability they are renewable and non renewable resources. They can also be classified as actual and potential on the basis of level of development and use, on the basis of origin they can be classified as biotic and abiotic, and in the base of their distribution as ubiquitous and localized. An item becomes a resource with time and developing technology. Typically resources are materials, energy, services, staff, knowledge, or other assets that are transformed to produce benefit and in the process may be consumed or made unavailable. Benefits of resource utilization may include increased wealth or wants, proper functioning of a system, or enhanced well being. From a human perspective a natural resource is anything obtained from the environment to satisfy human needs and wants. From a broader biological or ecological perspective a resource satisfies the needs of a living organism (see biological resource).
The concept of resources has been applied in diverse realms, with respect to economics, biology and ecology, computer science, management, and human resources, and is linked to the concepts of competition, sustainability, conservation, and stewardship. In application within human society, commercial or non-commercial factors require resource allocation through resource management.
Resources have three main characteristics: utility, limited availability, and potential for depletion or consumption. Resources have been variously categorized as biotic versus abiotic, renewable versus non-renewable, and potential versus actual, along with more elaborate classification.
In economics a resource is defined as a service or other asset used to produce goods and services that meet human needs and wants. Economics itself has been defined as the study of how society manages its scarce resources. Classical economics recognizes three categories of resources, also referred to as factors of production: land, labour, and capital. Land includes all natural resources and is viewed as both the site of production and the source of raw materials. Labour or human resources consists of human effort provided in the creation of products, paid in wage. Capital consists of human - made goods or means of production (machinery, buildings, and other infrastructure) used in the production of other goods and services, paid in interest.
In biology and ecology a resource is defined as a substance that is required by a living organism for normal growth, maintenance, and reproduction (see biological resource). The main essential resources for animals are food, water, and territory. For plants key resources include sunlight, nutrients, water, and a place to grow. Resources, can be consumed by an organism and, as a result, become unavailable to other organisms. Competition for resources vary from complete symmetric (all individuals receive the same amount of resources, irrespective of their size) to perfectly size symmetric (all individuals exploit the same amount of resource per unit biomass) to absolutely size - asymmetric (the largest individuals exploit all the available resource). The degree of size asymmetry has major effects on the structure and diversity of ecological communities, e.g. in plant communities size - asymmetric competition for light has stronger effects on diversity compared with competition for soil resources. The degree of size asymmetry has major effects on the structure and diversity of ecological communities.
There are three fundamental differences between economic versus ecological views: 1) the economic resource definition is human - centered (anthropocentric) and the biological or ecological resource definition is nature - centered (biocentric or ecocentric); 2) the economic view includes desire along with necessity, whereas the biological view is about basic biological needs; and 3) economic systems are based on markets of currency exchanged for goods and services, whereas biological systems are based on natural processes of growth, maintenance, and reproduction.
A computer resource is any physically or virtual component of limited availability within a computer or information management system. Computer resources include means for input, processing, output, communication, and storage.
Natural resources are derived from the environment. Many natural resources are essential for human survival, while others are used for satisfying human desire. Conservation is the management of natural resources with the goal of sustainability. Natural resources may be further classified in different ways.
Resources can be categorized on the basis of origin:
Natural resources are also categorized based on the stage of development:
Natural resources can be categorized on the basis of renewability:
Dependent upon the speed and quantity of consumption, overconsumption can lead to depletion or total and everlasting destruction of a resource. Important examples are agricultural areas, fish and other animals, forests, healthy water and soil, cultivated and natural landscapes. Such conditionally renewable resources are sometimes classified as a third kind of resource, or as a subtype of renewable resources. Conditionally renewable resources are presently subject to excess human consumption and the only sustainable long term use of such resources is within the so - called zero ecological footprint, wherein human use less than the Earth 's ecological capacity to regenerate.
Natural resources are also categorized based on distribution:
Actual vs. potential natural resources are distinguished as follows:
On the basis of ownership, resources can be classified as individual, community, national, and international.
In economics, labour or human resources refers to the human effort in production of goods and rendering of services. Human resources can be defined in terms of skills, energy, talent, abilities, or knowledge.
In a project management context, human resources are those employees responsible for undertaking the activities defined in the project plan.
In social studies, capital refers to already - produced durable goods used in production of goods or services. In essence, capital refers to human - made resources created using knowledge and expertise based on utility or perceived value. Common examples of capital include buildings, machinery, railways, roads, and ships. As resources, capital goods may or may not be significantly consumed, though they may depreciate in the production process and they are typically of limited capacity or unavailable for use by others.
Whereas, tangible resources such as equipment have actual physical existence, intangible resources such as corporate images, brands and patents, and other intellectual property exist in abstraction.
Generally the economic value of a resource is controlled by supply and demand. Some view this as a narrow perspective on resources because there are many intangibles that can not be measured in money. Natural resources such as forests and mountains have aesthetic value. Resources also have an ethical value.
Typically resources can not be consumed in their original form, but rather through resource development they must be processed into more usable commodities and usable things. With increasing population, the demand for resources is increasing. There are marked differences in resource distribution and associated economic inequality between regions or countries, with developed countries using more natural resources than developing countries. Sustainable development is a pattern of resource use, that aims to meet human needs while preserving the environment. Sustainable development means that we should exploit our resources carefully to meet our present requirement without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The practice of the three R 's -- reduce, reuse and recycle must be followed in order to save and extend the availability of resources.
Various problems relate to the usage of resources:
Various benefits can result from the wise usage of resources:
|
which of the following is an assumption made regarding the residuals in least squares regression | Ordinary least squares - wikipedia
In statistics, ordinary least squares (OLS) or linear least squares is a method for estimating the unknown parameters in a linear regression model, with the goal of minimizing the sum of the squares of the differences between the observed responses (values of the variable being predicted) in the given dataset and those predicted by a linear function of a set of explanatory variables. Visually this is seen as the sum of the squared vertical distances between each data point in the set and the corresponding point on the regression line -- the smaller the differences, the better the model fits the data. The resulting estimator can be expressed by a simple formula, especially in the case of a single regressor on the right - hand side.
The OLS estimator is consistent when the regressors are exogenous, and optimal in the class of linear unbiased estimators when the errors are homoscedastic and serially uncorrelated. Under these conditions, the method of OLS provides minimum - variance mean - unbiased estimation when the errors have finite variances. Under the additional assumption that the errors are normally distributed, OLS is the maximum likelihood estimator.
OLS is used in fields as diverse as economics (econometrics), political science, psychology and electrical engineering (control theory and signal processing).
Suppose the data consists of n observations (y i, x i) n i = 1. Each observation i includes a scalar response y and a vector of values of p predictors (regressors) x for j = 1,..., p. In a linear regression model the response variable is a linear function of the regressors:
or in vector form,
where β is a p × 1 vector of unknown parameters; ε 's are unobserved scalar random variables (errors) which account for the discrepancy between the actually observed responses y and the "predicted outcomes '' x β; and denotes matrix transpose, so that x β is the dot product between the vectors x and β. This model can also be written in matrix notation as
where y and ε are n × 1 vectors, and X is an n × p matrix of regressors, which is also sometimes called the design matrix.
As a rule, the constant term is always included in the set of regressors X, say, by taking x = 1 for all i = 1,..., n. The coefficient β corresponding to this regressor is called the intercept.
There may be some relationship between the regressors. For instance, the third regressor may be the square of the second regressor. In this case (assuming that the first regressor is constant) we have a quadratic model in the second regressor. But this is still considered a linear model because it is linear in the βs.
There are several different frameworks in which the linear regression model can be cast in order to make the OLS technique applicable. Each of these settings produces the same formulas and same results. The only difference is the interpretation and the assumptions which have to be imposed in order for the method to give meaningful results. The choice of the applicable framework depends mostly on the nature of data in hand, and on the inference task which has to be performed.
One of the lines of difference in interpretation is whether to treat the regressors as random variables, or as predefined constants. In the first case (random design) the regressors x are random and sampled together with the y 's from some population, as in an observational study. This approach allows for more natural study of the asymptotic properties of the estimators. In the other interpretation (fixed design), the regressors X are treated as known constants set by a design, and y is sampled conditionally on the values of X as in an experiment. For practical purposes, this distinction is often unimportant, since estimation and inference is carried out while conditioning on X. All results stated in this article are within the random design framework.
The classical model focuses on the "finite sample '' estimation and inference, meaning that the number of observations n is fixed. This contrasts with the other approaches, which study the asymptotic behavior of OLS, and in which the number of observations is allowed to grow to infinity.
In some applications, especially with cross-sectional data, an additional assumption is imposed -- that all observations are independent and identically distributed. This means that all observations are taken from a random sample which makes all the assumptions listed earlier simpler and easier to interpret. Also this framework allows one to state asymptotic results (as the sample size n → ∞), which are understood as a theoretical possibility of fetching new independent observations from the data generating process. The list of assumptions in this case is:
Suppose b is a "candidate '' value for the parameter vector β. The quantity y − x b, called the residual for the i - th observation, measures the vertical distance between the data point (x y) and the hyperplane y = x b, and thus assesses the degree of fit between the actual data and the model. The sum of squared residuals (SSR) (also called the error sum of squares (ESS) or residual sum of squares (RSS)) is a measure of the overall model fit:
where T denotes the matrix transpose. The value of b which minimizes this sum is called the OLS estimator for β. The function S (b) is quadratic in b with positive - definite Hessian, and therefore this function possesses a unique global minimum at b = β ^ (\ displaystyle b = (\ hat (\ beta))), which can be given by the explicit formula:
or equivalently in matrix form,
The matrix (X T X) − 1 X T (\ displaystyle (X ^ (\ mathrm (T)) X) ^ (- 1) X ^ (\ mathrm (T))) is called the Moore -- Penrose pseudoinverse matrix of X. This formulation highlights the point that estimation can be carried out if, and only if, there is no perfect multicollinearity between the explanatory variables (which would cause the matrix (X T X) (\ displaystyle (X ^ (\ mathrm (T)) X)) to have no inverse).
After we have estimated β, the fitted values (or predicted values) from the regression will be
where P = X (X X) X is the projection matrix onto the space V spanned by the columns of X. This matrix P is also sometimes called the hat matrix because it "puts a hat '' onto the variable y. Another matrix, closely related to P is the annihilator matrix M = I − P, this is a projection matrix onto the space orthogonal to V. Both matrices P and M are symmetric and idempotent (meaning that P = P), and relate to the data matrix X via identities P X = X (\ displaystyle PX = X) and MX = 0. Matrix M creates the residuals from the regression:
Using these residuals we can estimate the value of σ:
The numerator, n − p, is the statistical degrees of freedom. The first quantity, s, is the OLS estimate for σ, whereas the second, σ ^ 2 (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle (\ hat (\ sigma)) ^ (2)), is the MLE estimate for σ. The two estimators are quite similar in large samples; the first one is always unbiased, while the second is biased but minimizes the mean squared error of the estimator. In practice s is used more often, since it is more convenient for the hypothesis testing. The square root of s is called the standard error of the regression (SER), or standard error of the equation (SEE).
It is common to assess the goodness - of - fit of the OLS regression by comparing how much the initial variation in the sample can be reduced by regressing onto X. The coefficient of determination R is defined as a ratio of "explained '' variance to the "total '' variance of the dependent variable y:
where TSS is the total sum of squares for the dependent variable, L = I − 11 / n, and 1 is an n × 1 vector of ones. (L is a "centering matrix '' which is equivalent to regression on a constant; it simply subtracts the mean from a variable.) In order for R to be meaningful, the matrix X of data on regressors must contain a column vector of ones to represent the constant whose coefficient is the regression intercept. In that case, R will always be a number between 0 and 1, with values close to 1 indicating a good degree of fit.
The variance in the prediction of the independent variable as a function of the dependent variable is given in the article Polynomial least squares
If the data matrix X contains only two variables, a constant and a scalar regressor x, then this is called the "simple regression model ''. This case is often considered in the beginner statistics classes, as it provides much simpler formulas even suitable for manual calculation. The parameters are commonly denoted as (α, β):
The least squares estimates in this case are given by simple formulas
where Var (.) and Cov (.) are sample parameters.
In the previous section the least squares estimator β ^ (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle (\ hat (\ beta))) was obtained as a value that minimizes the sum of squared residuals of the model. However it is also possible to derive the same estimator from other approaches. In all cases the formula for OLS estimator remains the same: β = (X X) X y, the only difference is in how we interpret this result.
For mathematicians, OLS is an approximate solution to an overdetermined system of linear equations Xβ ≈ y, where β is the unknown. Assuming the system can not be solved exactly (the number of equations n is much larger than the number of unknowns p), we are looking for a solution that could provide the smallest discrepancy between the right - and left - hand sides. In other words, we are looking for the solution that satisfies
where is the standard L norm in the n - dimensional Euclidean space R. The predicted quantity Xβ is just a certain linear combination of the vectors of regressors. Thus, the residual vector y − Xβ will have the smallest length when y is projected orthogonally onto the linear subspace spanned by the columns of X. The OLS estimator β ^ (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle (\ hat (\ beta))) in this case can be interpreted as the coefficients of vector decomposition of y = Py along the basis of X.
Another way of looking at it is to consider the regression line to be a weighted average of the lines passing through the combination of any two points in the dataset. Although this way of calculation is more computationally expensive, it provides a better intuition on OLS.
The OLS estimator is identical to the maximum likelihood estimator (MLE) under the normality assumption for the error terms. This normality assumption has historical importance, as it provided the basis for the early work in linear regression analysis by Yule and Pearson. From the properties of MLE, we can infer that the OLS estimator is asymptotically efficient (in the sense of attaining the Cramér -- Rao bound for variance) if the normality assumption is satisfied.
In iid case the OLS estimator can also be viewed as a GMM estimator arising from the moment conditions
These moment conditions state that the regressors should be uncorrelated with the errors. Since x is a p - vector, the number of moment conditions is equal to the dimension of the parameter vector β, and thus the system is exactly identified. This is the so - called classical GMM case, when the estimator does not depend on the choice of the weighting matrix.
Note that the original strict exogeneity assumption E (ε x) = 0 implies a far richer set of moment conditions than stated above. In particular, this assumption implies that for any vector - function ƒ, the moment condition E (ƒ (x) ε) = 0 will hold. However it can be shown using the Gauss -- Markov theorem that the optimal choice of function ƒ is to take ƒ (x) = x, which results in the moment equation posted above.
First of all, under the strict exogeneity assumption the OLS estimators β ^ (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle (\ hat (\ beta))) and s are unbiased, meaning that their expected values coincide with the true values of the parameters:
If the strict exogeneity does not hold (as is the case with many time series models, where exogeneity is assumed only with respect to the past shocks but not the future ones), then these estimators will be biased in finite samples.
The variance - covariance matrix of β ^ (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle (\ hat (\ beta))) is equal to
In particular, the standard error of each coefficient β ^ j (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle (\ hat (\ beta)) _ (j)) is equal to square root of the j - th diagonal element of this matrix. The estimate of this standard error is obtained by replacing the unknown quantity σ with its estimate s. Thus,
It can also be easily shown that the estimator β ^ (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle (\ hat (\ beta))) is uncorrelated with the residuals from the model:
The Gauss -- Markov theorem states that under the spherical errors assumption (that is, the errors should be uncorrelated and homoscedastic) the estimator β ^ (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle (\ hat (\ beta))) is efficient in the class of linear unbiased estimators. This is called the best linear unbiased estimator (BLUE). Efficiency should be understood as if we were to find some other estimator β ~ (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle (\ tilde (\ beta))) which would be linear in y and unbiased, then
in the sense that this is a nonnegative - definite matrix. This theorem establishes optimality only in the class of linear unbiased estimators, which is quite restrictive. Depending on the distribution of the error terms ε, other, non-linear estimators may provide better results than OLS.
The properties listed so far are all valid regardless of the underlying distribution of the error terms. However, if you are willing to assume that the normality assumption holds (that is, that ε ~ N (0, σ I)), then additional properties of the OLS estimators can be stated.
The estimator β ^ (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle (\ hat (\ beta))) is normally distributed, with mean and variance as given before:
This estimator reaches the Cramér -- Rao bound for the model, and thus is optimal in the class of all unbiased estimators. Note that unlike the Gauss -- Markov theorem, this result establishes optimality among both linear and non-linear estimators, but only in the case of normally distributed error terms.
The estimator s will be proportional to the chi - squared distribution:
The variance of this estimator is equal to 2σ / (n − p), which does not attain the Cramér -- Rao bound of 2σ / n. However it was shown that there are no unbiased estimators of σ with variance smaller than that of the estimator s. If we are willing to allow biased estimators, and consider the class of estimators that are proportional to the sum of squared residuals (SSR) of the model, then the best (in the sense of the mean squared error) estimator in this class will be σ = SSR / (n − p + 2), which even beats the Cramér -- Rao bound in case when there is only one regressor (p = 1).
Moreover, the estimators β ^ (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle (\ hat (\ beta))) and s are independent, the fact which comes in useful when constructing the t - and F - tests for the regression.
As was mentioned before, the estimator β ^ (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle (\ hat (\ beta))) is linear in y, meaning that it represents a linear combination of the dependent variables y 's. The weights in this linear combination are functions of the regressors X, and generally are unequal. The observations with high weights are called influential because they have a more pronounced effect on the value of the estimator.
To analyze which observations are influential we remove a specific j - th observation and consider how much the estimated quantities are going to change (similarly to the jackknife method). It can be shown that the change in the OLS estimator for β will be equal to
where h = x (X X) x is the j - th diagonal element of the hat matrix P, and x is the vector of regressors corresponding to the j - th observation. Similarly, the change in the predicted value for j - th observation resulting from omitting that observation from the dataset will be equal to
From the properties of the hat matrix, 0 ≤ h ≤ 1, and they sum up to p, so that on average h ≈ p / n. These quantities h are called the leverages, and observations with high h are called leverage points. Usually the observations with high leverage ought to be scrutinized more carefully, in case they are erroneous, or outliers, or in some other way atypical of the rest of the dataset.
Sometimes the variables and corresponding parameters in the regression can be logically split into two groups, so that the regression takes form
where X and X have dimensions n × p, n × p, and β, β are p × 1 and p × 1 vectors, with p + p = p.
The Frisch -- Waugh -- Lovell theorem states that in this regression the residuals ε ^ (\ displaystyle (\ hat (\ varepsilon))) and the OLS estimate β ^ 2 (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle (\ hat (\ beta)) _ (2)) will be numerically identical to the residuals and the OLS estimate for β in the following regression:
where M is the annihilator matrix for regressors X.
The theorem can be used to establish a number of theoretical results. For example, having a regression with a constant and another regressor is equivalent to subtracting the means from the dependent variable and the regressor and then running the regression for the demeaned variables but without the constant term.
Suppose it is known that the coefficients in the regression satisfy a system of linear equations
where Q is a p × q matrix of full rank, and c is a q × 1 vector of known constants, where q < p. In this case least squares estimation is equivalent to minimizing the sum of squared residuals of the model subject to the constraint A. The constrained least squares (CLS) estimator can be given by an explicit formula:
This expression for the constrained estimator is valid as long as the matrix X X is invertible. It was assumed from the beginning of this article that this matrix is of full rank, and it was noted that when the rank condition fails, β will not be identifiable. However it may happen that adding the restriction A makes β identifiable, in which case one would like to find the formula for the estimator. The estimator is equal to
where R is a p × (p − q) matrix such that the matrix (QR) is non-singular, and R Q = 0. Such a matrix can always be found, although generally it is not unique. The second formula coincides with the first in case when X X is invertible.
The least squares estimators are point estimates of the linear regression model parameters β. However, generally we also want to know how close those estimates might be to the true values of parameters. In other words, we want to construct the interval estimates.
Since we have n't made any assumption about the distribution of error term ε, it is impossible to infer the distribution of the estimators β ^ (\ displaystyle (\ hat (\ beta))) and σ ^ 2 (\ displaystyle (\ hat (\ sigma)) ^ (2)). Nevertheless, we can apply the central limit theorem to derive their asymptotic properties as sample size n goes to infinity. While the sample size is necessarily finite, it is customary to assume that n is "large enough '' so that the true distribution of the OLS estimator is close to its asymptotic limit.
We can show that under the model assumptions, the least squares estimator for β is consistent (that is β ^ (\ displaystyle (\ hat (\ beta))) converges in probability to β) and asymptotically normal:
where Q x x = X T X. (\ displaystyle Q_ (xx) = X ^ (T) X.)
Using this asymptotic distribution, approximate two - sided confidence intervals for the j - th component of the vector β ^ (\ displaystyle (\ hat (\ beta))) can be constructed as
where q denotes the quantile function of standard normal distribution, and () is the j - th diagonal element of a matrix.
Similarly, the least squares estimator for σ is also consistent and asymptotically normal (provided that the fourth moment of ε exists) with limiting distribution
These asymptotic distributions can be used for prediction, testing hypotheses, constructing other estimators, etc... As an example consider the problem of prediction. Suppose x 0 (\ displaystyle x_ (0)) is some point within the domain of distribution of the regressors, and one wants to know what the response variable would have been at that point. The mean response is the quantity y 0 = x 0 T β (\ displaystyle y_ (0) = x_ (0) ^ (\ mathrm (T)) \ beta), whereas the predicted response is y ^ 0 = x 0 T β ^ (\ displaystyle (\ hat (y)) _ (0) = x_ (0) ^ (\ mathrm (T)) (\ hat (\ beta))). Clearly the predicted response is a random variable, its distribution can be derived from that of β ^ (\ displaystyle (\ hat (\ beta))):
which allows construct confidence intervals for mean response y 0 (\ displaystyle y_ (0)) to be constructed:
Two hypothesis tests are particularly widely used. First, one wants to know if the estimated regression equation is any better than simply predicting that all values of the response variable equal its sample mean (if not, it is said to have no explanatory power). The null hypothesis of no explanatory value of the estimated regression is tested using an F - test. If the calculated F - value is found to be large enough to exceed its critical value for the pre-chosen level of significance, the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis, that the regression has explanatory power, is accepted. Otherwise, the null hypothesis of no explanatory power is accepted.
Second, for each explanatory variable of interest, one wants to know whether its estimated coefficient differs significantly from zero -- that is, whether this particular explanatory variable in fact has explanatory power in predicting the response variable. Here the null hypothesis is that the true coefficient is zero. This hypothesis is tested by computing the coefficient 's t - statistic, as the ratio of the coefficient estimate to its standard error. If the t - statistic is larger than a predetermined value, the null hypothesis is rejected and the variable is found to have explanatory power, with its coefficient significantly different from zero. Otherwise, the null hypothesis of a zero value of the true coefficient is accepted.
In addition, the Chow test is used to test whether two subsamples both have the same underlying true coefficient values. The sum of squared residuals of regressions on each of the subsets and on the combined data set are compared by computing an F - statistic; if this exceeds a critical value, the null hypothesis of no difference between the two subsets is rejected; otherwise, it is accepted.
The following data set gives average heights and weights for American women aged 30 -- 39 (source: The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 1975).
When only one dependent variable is being modeled, a scatterplot will suggest the form and strength of the relationship between the dependent variable and regressors. It might also reveal outliers, heteroscedasticity, and other aspects of the data that may complicate the interpretation of a fitted regression model. The scatterplot suggests that the relationship is strong and can be approximated as a quadratic function. OLS can handle non-linear relationships by introducing the regressor HEIGHT. The regression model then becomes a multiple linear model:
The output from most popular statistical packages will look similar to this:
In this table:
Ordinary least squares analysis often includes the use of diagnostic plots designed to detect departures of the data from the assumed form of the model. These are some of the common diagnostic plots:
An important consideration when carrying out statistical inference using regression models is how the data were sampled. In this example, the data are averages rather than measurements on individual women. The fit of the model is very good, but this does not imply that the weight of an individual woman can be predicted with high accuracy based only on her height.
This example also demonstrates that coefficients determined by these calculations are sensitive to how the data is prepared. The heights were originally given rounded to the nearest inch and have been converted and rounded to the nearest centimetre. Since the conversion factor is one inch to 2.54 cm this is not an exact conversion. The original inches can be recovered by Round (x / 0.0254) and then re-converted to metric without rounding. If this is done the results become:
Using either of these equations to predict the weight of a 5 ' 6 '' (1.6764 m) woman gives similar values: 62.94 kg with rounding vs. 62.98 kg without rounding. Thus a seemingly small variation in the data has a real effect on the coefficients but a small effect on the results of the equation.
While this may look innocuous in the middle of the data range it could become significant at the extremes or in the case where the fitted model is used to project outside the data range (extrapolation).
This highlights a common error: this example is an abuse of OLS which inherently requires that the errors in the independent variable (in this case height) are zero or at least negligible. The initial rounding to nearest inch plus any actual measurement errors constitute a finite and non-negligible error. As a result, the fitted parameters are not the best estimates they are presumed to be. Though not totally spurious the error in the estimation will depend upon relative size of the x and y errors.
|
the chain fleetwood mac what does it mean | The Chain - wikipedia
"The Chain '' is a song by the British - American rock band Fleetwood Mac, released on their best - selling album Rumours. It is the only song from the album credited to all five members (Stevie Nicks, Lindsey Buckingham, Christine McVie, John McVie, and Mick Fleetwood).
"The Chain '' was created from combinations of several previously rejected materials, including solo work by Buckingham, Nicks and Christine McVie. It was assembled, often manually by splicing tapes with a razor blade, at the Record Plant in Sausalito, California, with hired engineers Ken Caillat and Richard Dashut.
Following the critical and commercial success of Rumours, "The Chain '' has been featured on The Dance, a 1997 live concert CD / DVD package, as well as several greatest hits compilations. It has attained particular fame in the United Kingdom, where the instrumental section is used as the theme tune for the BBC and Channel 4 's television coverage of Formula One.
According to interviews on the writing of Rumours, the final section of "The Chain '' -- beginning with a bass progression -- was created by John McVie and Mick Fleetwood. Stevie Nicks had written the lyrics separately and thought they would be a good match; she and Christine McVie did some reworking to create the first section of the tune. Other elements were worked in from an early project of Christine 's called "Keep Me There ''. The blues - style piano motif was removed, and the remainder combined with a bridge from yet another piece manually using a razor blade to cut and splice the tapes. To complete the song, Buckingham recycled the intro from an earlier song from a duet with Nicks, "Lola (My Love) '', originally released on their self - titled 1973 album.
Due to the spliced nature of the record (the drums and guitar were the only instruments actually recorded in each other 's company) and its sporadic composition and assembly from different rejected songs, "The Chain '' is one of only a few Fleetwood Mac songs whose authorship is credited to all members of the band at the time. The finished song itself has a basic rock structure, although it has two distinct portions: the main verse and chorus, and the outro. The song shows influences of hard rock, folk, and country, using a dobro to play the guitar riff.
Rumours garnered widespread critical acclaim upon its release. Subsequent analysis of "The Chain '' has also led many to cite it as one of the most evocative expressions of the internal fracture between various band members at the time. Buckingham and Nicks were ending their relationship at the same time that John and Christine McVie 's marriage broke down, as did that of Fleetwood and his wife Jenny Boyd. In 1997, Fleetwood Mac released a live concert CD / DVD package called The Dance, which featured the reunion of the Rumours - era Fleetwood Mac members. The rendition of "The Chain '' reached number 30 on the Billboard Mainstream Rock Tracks chart. It has also appeared on The Very Best of Fleetwood Mac and 25 Years - The Chain.
The song was recorded by the American rock band Tantric, released as the second single off their 2004 second album After We Go. Though being released as a single the song lacked much promotion, debuting at number 36 on the US Mainstream Rock chart.
Tantric 's cover of the song was used as the theme song for the HBO Documentary series Family Bonds.
There have been numerous covers of "The Chain ''. 1980s rock band Shark Island included a cover of "The Chain '' on their 1989 album Law of the Order, notable for not including the famous bass solo in the song. Canadian heavy metal band Kick Axe performed a cover of "The Chain '' on Rock the World, their third studio album, released in 1986. In 2009, Three Days Grace originally recorded "The Chain '' for their album Transit of Venus but was one of the few not put on the record. However, it was put on their Lost in You EP, and since September 22, 2009, they have been playing "The Chain '' at their concerts throughout their tour. The band also performed it at IHeartRadio in December 2009, and Shawn Colvin performed a cover of the song for Legacy: A Tribute to Fleetwood Mac 's Rumours. The hard rock band Taking Dawn also performed a cover of "The Chain '' on their 2010 debut album titled Time to Burn. They regularly perform the song as part of their live sets.
This song was sampled by rap artists Bone Thugs - n - Harmony in the song "Wind Blow '' off their album Strength and Loyalty, and rapper Project Pat used the bass line in the last section of the song on his song "Do n't Save Her '' off his album Mista Do n't Play. It was also sampled in Sway DaSafo 's debut single titled "Up Your Speed ''.
Little Big Town sometimes covers this song.
Mumford & Sons, Vampire Weekend, Ben Howard, Haim and Edward Sharpe and the Magnetic Zeros performed this song live for the final song of their Summer Stampede festival at the Olympic Park, London, in July 2013.
Brandi Carlile covered "The Chain '' for Sweetheart 2014, a Valentine 's Day themed album sold at Starbucks stores and online.
Florence + The Machine covered the song live at the Glastonbury Festival in 2010.
The BBC 's Formula One coverage used the ending bass line as a theme tune from 1978 until the BBC 's loss of TV rights to ITV Sport in 1997, thus making the song highly recognisable in the United Kingdom. On 29 March 2009 the song re-entered the UK Chart at # 94 through downloads, following confirmation from the BBC that it would be reintroduced, the BBC having regained broadcasting rights from ITV. On 20 March 2011, "The Chain '' peaked higher at # 81 in the UK chart following a campaign on Facebook to try to get the song to number 1 for the start of the 2011 Formula One season. By November 2014, the song had been certified Silver by the British Phonographic Industry based on download sales alone, making it one of Fleetwood Mac 's most successful songs in the UK.
Mark Radcliffe and Stuart Maconie have a feature on their BBC Radio show called The Chain which is a list of songs, each track having something in common with the one before it, beginning with "The Chain '' and introduced each time with the bassline from the song. Marvel Studios utilized "The Chain '' in two trailers for Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2, including one that aired during Super Bowl LI. It is heard twice in the film itself, and appears in the movie 's soundtrack, Awesome Mix Vol. 2.
|
main reason behind the sepoy rebellion of 1857 | Causes of the Indian rebellion of 1857 - Wikipedia
The Indian Rebellion of 1857 had diverse political, economic, military, religious and social causes.
The sepoys, a generic term was used for native Indian soldiers of the Bengal army. The spark that led to a mutiny in several sepoy companies was the issue of new gunpowder cartridges for the Enfield rifle in February, 1857. A rumour was spread that the cartridges were made from cow and pig fat. Loading the Enfield required tearing open the greased cartridge with one 's teeth. This would have insulted both Hindu and Muslim religious practices; cows were considered holy by Hindus while pigs were considered unclean by Muslims. Underlying grievances over British taxation and recent land annexations by the BEIC were ignited by the sepoy mutineers and within weeks dozens of units of the Indian army joined peasant armies in widespread rebellion. The old aristocracy, both Muslim and Hindu, who were seeing their power steadily eroded by the East India Company, also rebelled against British rule. Another important discontent among the Indian rulers was that the british policies of conquest had created unrest among many indian rulers. The policies like the doctrine of lapse, Subsidiary Alliance deprived Indian rulers of their power.
Some Indians were upset with what they saw as the draconian rule of the Company who had embarked on a project of territorial expansion and westernisation that was imposed without any regard for historical subtleties in Indian society. Furthermore, legal changes introduced by the British were accompanied by prohibitions on Indian religious customs and were seen as steps towards forced conversion to Christianity. As early as the Charter Act of 1813 Christian missionaries were encouraged to come to Bombay and Calcutta under BEIC control. The British Governor - General of India from 1848 to 1856 was Lord Dalhousie who passed the Widow Remarriage Act of 1856 which allowed women to remarry, like Christian women. He also passed decrees allowing Hindus who had converted to Christianity to be able to inherit property, which had previously been denied by local practice. Author Pramod Nayar points out that by 1851 there were nineteen Protestant religious societies operating in India whose goal was the conversion of Indians to Christianity. Christian organisations from Britain had additionally created 222 "unattached '' mission stations across India in the decade preceding the rebellion.
Religious disquiet as the cause of rebellion underlies the work of historian William Dalrymple who asserts that the rebels were motivated primarily by resistance to the actions of the British East India Company, especially under James Broun - Ramsay reign, which were perceived as attempts to impose Christianity and Christian laws in India. For instance, once the rebellion was underway, Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar met the sepoys on May 11, 1857, he was told: "We have joined hands to protect our religion and our faith. '' They later stood in Chandni Chowk, the main square, and asked the people gathered there, "Brothers, are you with those of the faith? '' Those European men and women who had previously converted to Islam such as Sergeant - Major Gordon, and Abdullah Beg, a former Company soldier, were spared. In contrast, foreign Christians such as Revd Midgeley John Jennings, and Indian converts to Christianity such as one of Zafar 's personal physicians, Dr. Chaman Lal, were killed.
Dalrymple further points out that as late as 6 September, when calling the inhabitants of Delhi to rally against the upcoming Company assault, Zafar issued a proclamation stating that this was a religious war being prosecuted on behalf of ' the faith ', and that all Muslim and Hindu residents of the imperial city, or of the countryside were encouraged to stay true to their faith and creeds. As further evidence, he observes that the Urdu sources of the pre - and post-rebellion periods usually refer to the British not as angrez (the English), goras (whites) or firangis (foreigners), but as kafir (disbeliever) and nasrani (Christians).
Some historians have suggested that the impact of British economic and social ' reforms ' has been greatly exaggerated, since the Company did not have the resources to enforce them, meaning that away from Calcutta their effect was negligible.
Many Indians felt that the Company was asking for heavy tax from the locals. This included an increase in the taxation on land. This seems to have been a very important reason for the spread of the rebellion, keeping in view the speed at which the conflagration ignited in many villages in northern India where farmers rushed to get back their unfairly grabbed title deeds. The resumption of tax free land and confiscation of jagirs (the grant or right to locally control land revenue) caused discontent among the jagirdars and zamindars. Dalhousie had also appointed Inam Commission with powers to confiscate land. Several years before the sepoys ' mutiny, Lord William Bentinck had attacked several jagirs in western Bengal. He also resumed the practice of tax free lands in some areas. These changes caused widespread resentment not only among the landed aristocracy but also caused great havoc to a larger section of the middle - class people. Lands were confiscated from the landlords and auctioned. Rich people like the merchants and moneylenders were therefore able to speculate in British land sales and drive out the most vulnerable peasant farmers.
During the late eighteenth century and the early part of the nineteenth century, the armies of the East India Company, in particular those of the Bengal Presidency, were victorious and indomitable -- the term "high noon of the sepoy army '' has been used by a military historian. The Company had an unbroken series of victories in India, against the Marathas, Mysore, north Indian states, and the Gurkhas, later against the Sikhs, and further afield in China and Burma. The Company had developed a military organisation where, in theory, fealty of the sepoys to the Company was considered the height of "izzat '' or honour, where the European officer replaced the village headman with benevolent figures of authority, and where regiments were mostly recruited from sepoys belonging to the same caste, and community.
Unlike the Madras and Bombay Armies of the BEIC, which were far more diverse, the Bengal Army recruited its regular soldiers almost exclusively amongst the landowning Bhumihars and Rajputs of the Ganges Valley. Though paid marginally less than the Bombay and Madras Presidency troops, there was a tradition of trust between the soldiery and the establishment -- the soldiers felt needed and that the Company would care for their welfare. The soldiers performed well on the field of battle in exchange for which they were rewarded with symbolic heraldic rewards such as battle honours in addition to the extra pay or "batta '' (foreign pay) routinely disbursed for operations committed beyond the established borders of Company rule.
Until the 1840s there had been a widespread belief amongst the Bengal sepoys in the iqbal or continued good fortune of the East India Company. However much of this sense of the invincibility of the British was lost in the First Anglo - Afghan War where poor political judgement and inept British leadership led to the massacre of Elphinstone 's army (which included three Bengal regiments) while retreating from Kabul. When the mood of the sepoys turned against their masters, they remembered Kabul and that the British were not invincible.
Caste privileges and customs within the Bengal Army were not merely tolerated but encouraged in the early years of the Company 's rule. Partly owing to this, Bengal sepoys were not subject to the penalty of flogging as were the European soldiers. This meant that when they came to be threatened by modernising regimes in Calcutta, from the 1840s onwards, the sepoys had become accustomed to very high ritual status, and were extremely sensitive to suggestions that their caste might be polluted. If the caste of high - caste sepoys was considered to be "polluted '', they would have to expend considerable sums of money on ritual purification before being accepted back into society.
There had been earlier indications that all was not well in the armies of the East India Company. As early as 1806, concerns that the sepoys ' caste may be polluted had led to the Vellore Mutiny, which was brutally suppressed. In 1824, there was another mutiny by a regiment ordered overseas in the First Anglo - Burmese War, who were refused transport to carry individual cooking vessels and told to share communal pots. Eleven of the sepoys were executed and hundreds more sentenced to hard labour. In 1851 - 2 sepoys who were required to serve in the Second Anglo - Burmese War also refused to embark, but were merely sent to serve elsewhere.
The pay of the sepoy was relatively low and after Awadh and the Punjab were annexed, the soldiers no longer received extra pay (batta or bhatta) if posted there, because this was no longer considered "foreign service ''. Since the batta made the difference between active service being considered munificent or burdensome, the sepoys repeatedly resented and actively opposed inconsiderate unilateral changes in pay and batta ordered by the Military Audit department. Prior to the period of British rule, any refusal to proceed on service until pay issues were resolved was considered a legitimate form of displaying grievance by Indian troops serving under Indian rulers. Such measures were considered a valid negotiating tactic by the sepoys, likely to be repeated every time such issues arose. In contrast to their Indian predecessors, the British considered such refusals at times to be outright "mutinies '' and therefore to be suppressed brutally. At other times however the Company directly or indirectly conceded the legitimacy of the sepoy 's demands, such as when troops of the Bengal and Madras armies refused to serve in Sindh without batta after its conquest.
The varying stances of the British government, the reduction of allowances and harsh punishments, contributed to a feeling amongst the troops that the Company no longer cared for them. Certain actions of the government, such as increased recruitment of Sikhs and Gurkhas, peoples considered by the Bengal sepoys to be inferior in caste to them, increased the distrust of the sepoys who thought that this was a sign of their services not being needed any more. The transfer of the number 66th which was taken away from a regular Bengal sepoy regiment of the line disbanded over refusal to serve without batta, and given to a Gurkha battalion, was considered by the sepoys as a breach of faith by the Company.
At the beginning of the nineteenth century, British officers were generally closely involved with their troops, speaking Indian languages fluently; participating in local culture through such practices as having regimental flags and weapons blessed by Brahman priests; and frequently having native mistresses. Later, the attitudes of British officers changed with increased intolerance, lack of involvement and unconcern of the welfare of troops becoming manifest more and more. Sympathetic rulers, such as Lord William Bentinck were replaced by arrogant aristocrats, such as Lord Dalhousie, who despised the troops and the populace. As time passed, the powers of the commanding officers reduced and the government became more unfeeling or distant from the concerns of the sepoys.
Officers of an evangelical persuasion in the Company 's Army (such as Herbert Edwardes and Colonel S.G. Wheler of the 34th Bengal Infantry) had taken to preaching to their Sepoys in the hope of converting them to Christianity.
The General Services Enlistment Act of 1856 required new recruits to serve overseas, if asked. The serving high - caste sepoys were fearful that this requirement would be eventually extended to them, violating observance of the Kala Pani prohibition on sea travel. Thus, the Hindu soldiers viewed the Act as a potential threat to their faith.
In 1857, the Bengal Army contained 10 regular regiments of Indian cavalry and 74 of infantry. All of the Bengal Native Cavalry regiments and 45 of the infantry units rebelled at some point. Following the disarming and disbandment of an additional seventeen Bengal Native Infantry regiments, which were suspected of planning mutiny, only twelve survived to serve in the new post-mutiny army. Once the first rebellions took place, it was clear to most British commanders that the grievances which led to them were felt throughout the Bengal army and no Indian unit could wholly be trusted, although many officers continued to vouch for their men 's loyalty, even in the face of captured correspondence indicating their intention to rebel.
The Bengal Army also administered, sometimes loosely, 29 regiments of irregular horse and 42 of irregular infantry. Some of these units belonged to states allied to the British or recently absorbed into British - administered territory, and of these, two large contingents from the states of Awadh and Gwalior readily joined the growing rebellion. Other irregular units were raised in frontier areas from communities such as Assamese or Pashtuns to maintain order locally. Few of these participated in the rebellion, and one contingent in particular (the recently raised Punjab Irregular Force) actively participated on the British side.
The Bengal Army also contained three "European '' regiments of infantry, and many artillery units manned by white personnel. Due to the need for technical specialists, the artillery units generally had a higher proportion of British personnel. Although the armies of many Rajas or states which rebelled contained large numbers of guns, the British superiority in artillery was to be decisive in the siege of Delhi after the arrival of a siege train of thirty - two howitzers and mortars.
There were also a number of regiments from the British Army (referred to in India as "Queen 's troops '') stationed in India, but in 1857 several of these had been withdrawn to take part in the Crimean War or the Anglo - Persian War of 1856. The moment at which the sepoys ' grievances led them openly to defy British authority also happened to be the most favourable opportunity to do so.
footer =
The rebellion was, literally, started over a gun. Sepoys throughout India were issued with a new rifle, the Pattern 1853 Enfield rifled musket -- a more powerful and accurate weapon than the old but smoothbore Brown Bess they had been using for the previous decades. The rifling inside the musket barrel ensured accuracy at much greater distances than was possible with old muskets. One thing did not change in this new weapon -- the loading process, which did not improve significantly until the introduction of breech loaders and metallic, one - piece cartridges a few decades later.
To load both the old musket and the new rifle, soldiers had to bite the cartridge open and pour the gunpowder it contained into the rifle 's muzzle, then stuff the paper cartridge (overlaid with a thin mixture of beeswax and mutton tallow for waterproofing) into the musket as wadding, the ball being secured to the top of the cartridge and guided into place for ramming down the muzzle. The rifle 's cartridges contained 68 grains of FF blackpowder, and the ball was typically a 530 - grain Pritchett or a Burton - Minié ball.
Despite no discernible reason for a change in practice, some sepoys believed that the cartridges that were standard issue with the new rifle were greased with lard (pork fat) which was regarded as unclean by Muslims and tallow (cow fat) which angered the Hindus as cows were equal to a goddess to them. The sepoys ' British officers dismissed these claims as rumours, and suggested that the sepoys make a batch of fresh cartridges, and grease these with beeswax and mutton fat. This reinforced the belief that the original issue cartridges were indeed greased with lard and tallow.
Another suggestion they put forward was to introduce a new drill, in which the cartridge was not bitten with the teeth but torn open with the hand. The sepoys rejected this, pointing out that they might very well forget and bite the cartridge, not surprising given the extensive drilling that allowed 19th century British and Indian troops to fire three to four rounds per minute. British and Indian military drills of the time required soldiers to bite off the end of the Beeswax paper cartridge, pour the gunpowder contained within down the barrel, stuff the remaining paper cartridge into the barrel, ram the paper cartridge (which included the ball wrapped and tied in place) down the barrel, remove the ram - rod, return the ram - rod, bring the rifle to the ready, set the sights, add a percussion cap, present the rifle, and fire. The musketry books also recommended that, "Whenever the grease around the bullet appears to be melted away, or otherwise removed from the cartridge, the sides of the bullet should be wetted in the mouth before putting it into the barrel; the saliva will serve the purpose of grease for the time being '' This meant that biting a musket cartridge was second nature to the Sepoys, some of whom had decades of service in the Company 's army, and who had been doing musket drill for every day of their service. The first sepoy who rebelled by aiming his loaded weapon at a British officer was Mangal Pandey who was later executed.
There was rumour about an old prophecy that the Company 's rule would end after a hundred years. Their rule in India had begun with the Battle of Plassey in 1757.
Before the rebellion, there were reports that "holy men '' were mysteriously circulating chapatis and lotus flowers among the sepoys. Leader of the British Conservative Party and future prime minister Benjamin Disraeli argued these objects were signs to rebel and evidence of a conspiracy, and the press echoed this belief.
After the rebellion, there was rumour in Britain that Russia was responsible.
|
who takes over as president if both the president and the vice president die | United States Presidential line of succession - wikipedia
The United States presidential line of succession is the order in which persons may become or act as President of the United States if the incumbent President becomes incapacitated, dies, resigns, or is removed from office (by impeachment by the House of Representatives and subsequent conviction by the Senate). The line of succession is set by the United States Constitution and the Presidential Succession Act of 1947 as subsequently amended to include newly created cabinet offices. The succession follows the order of Vice President, Speaker of the House of Representatives, President pro tempore of the Senate, and then the heads of federal executive departments who form the Cabinet of the United States. The Cabinet currently has fifteen members, beginning with the Secretary of State, and followed by the rest in the order of their positions ' creation. Those heads of department who are ineligible to act as President are also ineligible to succeed the President by succession, for example most commonly if they are not a natural - born U.S. citizen.
Several constitutional law experts have raised questions as to the constitutionality of the provisions that the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate succeed to the presidency, and in 2003 the Continuity of Government Commission raised a number of other issues with the current line of succession.
The current presidential order of succession is as follows:
Cabinet officers are in line according to the chronological order of their department 's creation or the department of which their department is the successor (the Department of Defense being successor to the Department of War, and the Department of Health and Human Services being successor to the Department of Health, Education and Welfare).
To be eligible to serve as President, a person must be a natural - born U.S. citizen, at least 35 years of age, and a resident within the United States for at least 14 years. These eligibility requirements are specified both in the U.S. Constitution, Article II, Section 1, Clause 5, and in the Presidential Succession Act of 1947 (3 U.S.C. § 19 (e)).
Acting officers may be eligible. In 2009, the Continuity of Government Commission, a private non-partisan think tank, reported,
The language in the current Presidential Succession Act is less clear than that of the 1886 Act with respect to Senate confirmation. The 1886 Act refers to "such officers as shall have been appointed by the advice and consent of the Senate to the office therein named... '' The current act merely refers to "officers appointed, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. '' Read literally, this means that the current act allows for acting secretaries to be in the line of succession as long as they are confirmed by the Senate for a post (even for example, the second or third in command within a department). It is common for a second in command to become acting secretary when the secretary leaves office. Though there is some dispute over this provision, the language clearly permits acting secretaries to be placed in the line of succession. (We have spoken to acting secretaries who told us they had been placed in the line of succession.)
Two months after succeeding Franklin D. Roosevelt, President Harry S. Truman proposed that the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate be granted priority in the line of succession over the Cabinet so as to ensure the President would not be able to appoint his successor to the Presidency.
The Secretary of State and the other Cabinet officials are appointed by the President, while the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate are elected officials. The Speaker is chosen by the U.S. House of Representatives, and every Speaker has been a member of that body for the duration of their term as Speaker, though this is not technically a requirement; the President pro tempore is chosen by the U.S. Senate and customarily the Senator of the majority party with the longest record of continuous service fills this position. The Congress approved this change and inserted the Speaker and President pro tempore in line, ahead of the members of the Cabinet in the order in which their positions were established.
In his speech supporting the changes, Truman noted that the House of Representatives is more likely to be in political agreement with the President and Vice President than the Senate. The succession of a Republican to a Democratic Presidency would further complicate an already unstable political situation. However, when the changes to the succession were signed into law, they placed Republican House Speaker Joseph W. Martin first in the line of succession after the Vice President.
Some of Truman 's critics said that his ordering of the Speaker before the President pro tempore was motivated by his dislike of the then - current holder of the latter rank, Senator Kenneth McKellar. Further motivation may have been provided by Truman 's preference for House Speaker Sam Rayburn to be next in the line of succession, rather than Secretary of State Edward R. Stettinius, Jr.
The line of succession is mentioned in three places in the Constitution:
Article II, Section 1 of the United States Constitution provides that:
In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice President... until the disability be removed, or a President elected.
This originally left open the question whether "the same '' refers to "the said office '' or only "the powers and duties of the said office. '' Some historians, including Edward Corwin and John D. Feerick, have argued that the framers ' intention was that the Vice President would remain Vice President while executing the powers and duties of the Presidency; however, there is also much evidence to the contrary, the most compelling of which is Article I, section 3, of the Constitution itself, the relevant text of which reads:
The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. The Senate shall chuse (sic) their other officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States.
This text appears to answer the hypothetical question of whether the office or merely the powers of the Presidency devolved upon the Vice President on his succession. Thus, the 25th Amendment merely restates and reaffirms the validity of existing precedent, apart from adding new protocols for Presidential disability. Not everyone agreed with this interpretation when it was first actually tested, and it was left to Vice President John Tyler, the first presidential successor in U.S. history, to establish the precedent that was respected in the absence of the 25th Amendment.
Upon the death of President William Henry Harrison in 1841 and after a brief hesitation, Tyler took the position that he was the President and not merely acting President upon taking the presidential oath of office. However, some contempories -- including John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay and other members of Congress Whig party leaders and even Tyler 's own cabinet -- believed that he was only acting as President and did not have the office itself.
Nonetheless, Tyler adhered to his position, even returning, unopened, mail addressed to the "Acting President of the United States '' sent by his detractors. Tyler 's view ultimately prevailed when the Senate voted to accept the title "President, '' and this precedent was followed thereafter. The question was finally resolved by Section 1 of the 25th Amendment, which specifies that "In case of the removal of the President from office or of his death or resignation, the Vice President shall become President. '' The Amendment does not specify whether officers other than the Vice President can become President rather than Acting President in the same set of circumstances. The Presidential Succession Act refers only to other officers acting as President rather than becoming President.
The Presidential Succession Act of 1792 was the first succession law passed by Congress. The act was contentious because the Federalists did not want the then Secretary of State, Thomas Jefferson, who had become the leader of the Democratic - Republicans, to follow the Vice President in the succession. There were also separation of powers concerns over including the Chief Justice of the United States in the line. The compromise they worked out established the President pro tempore of the Senate as next in line after the Vice President, followed by the Speaker of the House of Representatives.
In either case, these officers were to "act as President of the United States until the disability be removed or a president be elected. '' The Act called for a special election to be held in November of the year in which dual vacancies occurred (unless the vacancies occurred after the first Wednesday in October, in which case the election would occur the following year; or unless the vacancies occurred within the last year of the presidential term, in which case the next election would take place as regularly scheduled). The people elected President and Vice President in such a special election would have served a full four - year term beginning on March 4 of the next year, but no such election ever took place.
In 1881, after the death of President Garfield, and in 1885, after the death of Vice President Hendricks, there had been no President pro tempore in office, and as the new House of Representatives had yet to convene, no Speaker either, leaving no one at all in the line of succession after the vice president. When Congress convened in December 1885, President Cleveland asked for a revision of the 1792 act, which was passed in 1886. Congress replaced the President pro tempore and Speaker with officers of the President 's Cabinet with the Secretary of State first in line. In the first 100 years of the United States, six former Secretaries of State had gone on to be elected President, while only two congressional leaders had advanced to that office. As a result, changing the order of the line of succession seemed reasonable.
The Presidential Succession Act of 1947, signed into law by President Harry S. Truman, added the Speaker of the House and President pro tempore back in the line, but switched the two from the 1792 order. It remains the sequence used today. Since the reorganization of the military in 1947 had merged the War Department (which governed the Army) with the Department of the Navy into the Department of Defense, the Secretary of Defense took the place in the order of succession previously held by the Secretary of War. The office of Secretary of the Navy, which had existed as a Cabinet - level position since 1798, had become subordinate to the Secretary of Defense in the military reorganization, and so was dropped from the line of succession in the 1947 Succession Act.
Until 1971, the Postmaster General, the head of the Post Office Department, was a member of the Cabinet, initially the last in the presidential line of succession before new officers were added. Once the Post Office Department was re-organized into the United States Postal Service, a special agency independent of the executive branch, the Postmaster General ceased to be a member of the Cabinet and was thus removed from the line of succession.
The United States Department of Homeland Security was created in 2002. On March 9, 2006, pursuant to the renewal of the Patriot Act as Pub. L. 109 -- 177, the Secretary of Homeland Security was added to the line of succession. The order of Cabinet members in the line has always been the same as the order in which their respective departments were established. Despite custom, many in Congress had wanted the Secretary to be placed at number eight on the list -- below the Attorney General, above the Secretary of the Interior, and in the position held by the Secretary of the Navy prior to the creation of the Secretary of Defense -- because the Secretary, already in charge of disaster relief and security, would presumably be more prepared to take over the presidency than some of the other Cabinet secretaries. Despite this, the 2006 law explicitly specifies that the "Secretary of Homeland Security '' follows the "Secretary of Veterans Affairs '' in the succession, effectively at the end of the list.
While nine Vice Presidents have succeeded to the office upon the death or resignation of the President, and two Vice Presidents have temporarily served as acting President, no other officer has ever been called upon to act as President. On March 4, 1849, President Zachary Taylor 's term began, but he declined to be sworn in on a Sunday, citing religious beliefs, and the Vice President was not sworn either. As the last President pro tempore of the Senate, David Rice Atchison was thought by some to be next in line after the Vice President, and his tombstone claims that he was US President for the day. However, Atchison took no oath of office to the presidency either, and his term as Senate President pro tempore had by then expired.
In 1865, when Andrew Johnson assumed the Presidency on the death of Abraham Lincoln, the office of Vice President became vacant. At that time, the Senate President pro tempore was next in line to the presidency. In 1868, Johnson was impeached by the House of Representatives and subjected to trial in the Senate, and if he had been convicted and thereby removed from office, Senate President pro tempore Benjamin Wade would have become acting President. This posed a conflict of interest, as Wade 's "guilty '' vote could have been decisive in removing Johnson from office and giving himself presidential powers and duties. (Johnson was acquitted by a one - vote margin.)
In his book The Shadow Presidents, which he published in 1979, Michael Medved describes a situation that arose prior to the 1916 election, when the First World War was raging in Europe. In view of the contemporary international turmoil, President Woodrow Wilson thought that if he lost the election it would be better for his opponent to begin his administration straight away, instead of waiting through the lame duck period, which at that time had a duration of almost four months. President Wilson and his aides formed a plan to exploit the rule of succession so that his rival Charles Evans Hughes could take over the Presidency as soon as the result of the election was clear. The plan was that Wilson would appoint Hughes to the post of Secretary of State. Wilson and his Vice President Thomas R. Marshall would then resign, and as the Secretary of State was at that time designated next in line of succession, Hughes would become President immediately. As it happened, President Wilson won re-election, so the plan was never put into action.
Since the 25th Amendment 's ratification, its Second Section, which addresses Vice Presidential succession as noted above, has been invoked twice.
During the 1973 Vice Presidential vacancy, House Speaker Carl Albert was first in line. As the Watergate scandal made President Nixon 's removal or resignation possible, Albert would have become Acting President and -- under Title 3, Section 19 (c) of the U.S. Code -- would have been able to "act as President until the expiration of the then current Presidential term '' on January 20, 1977. Albert openly questioned whether it was appropriate for him, a Democrat, to assume the powers and duties of the presidency when there was a public mandate for the Presidency to be held by a Republican. Albert announced that should he need to assume the Presidential powers and duties, he would do so only as a caretaker. However, with the nomination and confirmation of Gerald Ford to the Vice Presidency, which marked the first time the Second Section of the Twenty - fifth Amendment was invoked, these series of events were never tested. Albert again became first - in - line during the first four months of Ford 's Presidency, before the confirmation of Vice President Nelson Rockefeller, which marked the second time Section 2 of the Twenty - fifth Amendment was invoked.
In 1981, when President Ronald Reagan was shot, Vice President George H.W. Bush was traveling in Texas. Secretary of State Alexander Haig responded to a reporter 's question regarding who was running the government by stating:
Constitutionally, gentlemen, you have the President, the Vice President and the Secretary of State in that order, and should the President decide he wants to transfer the helm to the Vice President, he will do so. He has not done that. As of now, I am in control here, in the White House, pending return of the Vice President and in close touch with him. If something came up, I would check with him, of course.
A bitter dispute ensued over the meaning of Haig 's remarks. Most people believed that Haig was referring to the line of succession and erroneously claimed to have temporary Presidential authority, due to his implied reference to the Constitution. Haig and his supporters, noting his familiarity with the line of succession from his time as White House Chief of Staff during Richard Nixon 's resignation, said he only meant that he was the highest - ranking officer of the Executive branch on - site, managing things temporarily until the Vice President returned to Washington.
Several constitutional law experts have raised questions as to the constitutionality of the provisions that the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate succeed to the presidency. James Madison, one of the authors of the Constitution, raised similar constitutional questions about the Presidential Succession Act of 1792 in a 1792 letter to Edmund Pendleton. Two of these issues can be summarized:
In 2003 the Continuity of Government Commission suggested that the current law has "at least seven significant issues... that warrant attention '', specifically:
|
where was the movie far from the madding crowd filmed | Far from the Madding Crowd (2015 film) - wikipedia
Far from the Madding Crowd is a 2015 British romantic drama film directed by Thomas Vinterberg and starring Carey Mulligan, Matthias Schoenaerts, Michael Sheen, Tom Sturridge and Juno Temple. It is an adaptation of the 1874 novel of the same name by Thomas Hardy, the fourth time this novel has been filmed.
In 1870 Victorian England, Bathsheba Everdene (Carey Mulligan) is working on her aunt 's farm in Dorset. Gabriel Oak (Matthias Schoenaerts), a new neighbour, sees Bathsheba riding her horse and falls in love with her. He proposes, but the headstrong Bathsheba declines, saying she is too independent and he would grow to despise her. One night a new sheepdog chases Gabriel 's entire flock off a cliff. He settles his debts and is left penniless. He leaves in search of work. In contrast, Bathsheba inherits a farm from her uncle and leaves to take charge of it.
While Gabriel is at a fair trying to find employment, local soldiers attempt to recruit him and other townsmen. A young girl, Fanny Robin, notices him and points out one of the soldiers, Sergeant Frank Troy, her sweetheart. She suggests Gabriel seek employment at a farm in Weatherbury. Gabriel arrives to find several buildings on fire and saves the barn from destruction. At dawn the next day he is introduced to the farm 's new mistress: Bathsheba. She hires him as a shepherd. In the meantime, Fanny goes to the wrong church for her wedding and Troy, apparently jilted, is devastated.
In town, Bathsheba proves to be a shrewd trader when selling her seed. She immediately is drawn to her neighbour William Boldwood (Michael Sheen), a prosperous and mature bachelor. Bathsheba sends Boldwood a Valentine as a joke, and he, both offended and intrigued, soon proposes marriage. Bathsheba says she does share his feelings but delays giving him a final answer. Gabriel admonishes Bathsheba for being foolish and unkind by playing with Boldwood 's affections. She is stung by his criticism, and fires him, but the next day, given a crisis with the sheep that only he can manage, she sends after him and then pursues him to ask him to return. After her personal appeal, he comes back, saves some of the sheep, and stays on the farm.
One night while walking around her land, Bathsheba meets Troy, who is mesmerized by her beauty. Uncomfortable, she tells him he should not be there, but the next day he returns to help with the harvest. Bathsheba learns he is of a noble family, but tells him to leave. He flirts with her and flatters her, and arranges a secret meeting. At their rendezvous in the woods, he shows off his swordplay, telling her not to flinch as he swings his sword around her head and body. He finally embraces her in a passionate kiss and Bathsheba is left in a daze. Gabriel warns her that Frank is dangerous and dishonourable, but she nevertheless elopes with him, and they share their wedding night together.
Returning to the farm, the newly married couple celebrate with all the workers. Gabriel warns of an approaching storm, but the belligerent and drunk Frank interrupts him and insists that the party will not allow it to rain. Gabriel attempts by himself to cover the harvest with tarpaulins and Bathsheba, ashamed of Frank 's drunken behavior with the other men, comes out into the wind and rain to help. Chastened, she tells Gabriel that she was a fool to fall prey to Frank 's flattery.
One day in town, Frank sees Fanny begging. She tells him she had gone to the wrong church, and that she is pregnant with his baby. He promises her he will find a home for them, and that she should stay in the workhouse in the meantime. Frank, a degenerate gambler, asks Bathsheba for £ 20 and she refuses, saying the money is for farm expenses. Fanny and her baby die in childbirth; their coffin is delivered to Bathsheba 's farm, which was her last known address. Bathsheba recognizes the name as one of her uncle 's loyal servants and says the coffin should be brought inside for mourning. The words "Fanny Robin and child '' are written on the coffin, but Gabriel surreptitiously erases "and child '' from the slate while bringing it in. Bathsheba reads the erasure, opens the coffin, and discovers the mother and baby within. Frank, upon seeing Fanny and his dead baby, bends over the coffin and kisses Fanny 's lips. Bathsheba protests that she is still his wife, but he coldly responds that even in death Fanny means more to him than Bathsheba ever had meant or ever could mean. In grief Frank goes to the beach, where he strips off his uniform and swims far into the ocean. The next day the constable arrives to inform Bathsheba that Frank has apparently drowned.
Left with Frank 's gambling debts, Bathsheba worries she may lose the farm. Boldwood offers to buy it and merge it with his property, offering Gabriel a position as bailiff, and again proposes marriage. Bathsheba agrees to consider his offer. On the eve of the Christmas party he plans to throw, Boldwood shares with Gabriel that he knows of the affection he feels for Bathsheba, but adds he appreciates that he has been such a gentleman in the entire matter, and shows Gabriel the engagement ring he plans to offer her.
At the party, Boldwood graciously invites Gabriel and Bathsheba to share at least one dance. As they dance, she again asks Gabriel what she should do, and he answers simply to "Do what is right ''. She breaks off the dance and leaves, only to discover Frank, alive and well, slumbering up the pathway, outside. He was rescued from drowning but has faked his death for some weeks, preferring the idea of being ' dead. ' Regretting his decision, he has returned and demands money from Bathsheba, claiming it was unfair that he gave up his profession for her and now lives off nothing while she has money and a house. When she insists she has no money, Frank demands that she sell the farm and grabs her roughly, screaming that she is still his wife and must obey him. Enraged, Boldwood emerges from the house and kills Frank with a single blast from his rifle, for which he is promptly imprisoned. As Gabriel witnesses all the finery, many dresses and jewellery, that Boldwood had already laid out upstairs in anticipation of Bathsheba 's ' yes ' answer, Bathsheba is remorseful and guiltridden. Gabriel tells her that if it 's any consolation Boldwood is bound to be spared his life, for acting in a ' crime of passion '.
Some time later, Gabriel announces that since the farm is now secure, he 'll be emigrating to America in four days time. As he leaves on foot early in the morning, Bathsheba stays at the farm battling her feelings and stubbornness. Finally, she chases after him on horseback and begs him not to leave, thanking him for all he 's done for her, and always believing in her. Gabriel tells her, if only she would accept his love, then asks her if she would agree were he to propose again. Bathsheba smiles and tells him he needs ask once more. Gabriel kisses her passionately in response, and they walk back hand in hand.
David Nicholls became attached to the film in 2008. In April 2013, it was reported that Matthias Schoenaerts had been offered the role of Gabriel Oak alongside Carey Mulligan as Bathsheba Everdene. Their casting was official in May 2013 with the participation of director Thomas Vinterberg.
Principal photography started on 16 September 2013. The film was shot in Dorset (Sherborne, Mapperton, and Beaminster), Oxfordshire, Buckinghamshire and London.
Mulligan claimed, in an appearance on The Graham Norton Show, that she hand - picked Schoenaerts to play Gabriel Oak after she saw him in the French film Rust and Bone.
Thomas Vinterberg invented the scene in which Sergeant Troy clutches Bathsheba 's crotch after the sword tricks because he wanted it to get more drastically sexual. The British crew called it ' the Danish handshake '. Vinterberg suggested that he would have gone much further if it had been a Danish film.
The film was released on 1 May 2015.
The first teaser trailer debuted on 23 November 2014. It features the song "Let No Man Steal Your Thyme '' performed by Carey Mulligan and Michael Sheen. A teaser poster was also revealed to mark the 140th anniversary of the novel of the same name.
Far from the Madding Crowd grossed $12.2 million in North America and $17.9 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $30.2 million.
Far from the Madding Crowd received positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a rating of 86 %, based on 166 reviews, with the site 's critical consensus reading, "Far from the Madding Crowd invites tough comparisons to Thomas Hardy 's classic novel -- and its previous adaptation -- but stands on its own thanks to strong direction and a talented cast. '' Metacritic gave the film a score of 71 out of 100, based on 40 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Carey Mulligan 's performance was critically praised and some considered it better than the 1967 adaptation starring Julie Christie. Rolling Stone 's Peter Travers, in his three out of four star review, said "Vinterberg may rush the final act, but he brings out the wild side in Mulligan, who can hold a close - up like nobody 's business. She 's a live wire in a movie that knows how to stir up a classic for the here and now. ''
|
50 shades of grey where was it filmed | Fifty Shades of Grey (film) - wikipedia
Fifty Shades of Grey is a 2015 American erotic romantic drama film directed by Sam Taylor - Johnson, with a screenplay by Kelly Marcel. The film is based on the eponymous 2011 novel by British author E.L. James and stars Dakota Johnson as Anastasia Steele, a college graduate who begins a sadomasochistic relationship with young business magnate Christian Grey, played by Jamie Dornan.
The film premiered at the 65th Berlin International Film Festival on February 11, 2015 and was released on February 13, 2015, by Universal Pictures and Focus Features. Despite receiving generally unfavorable reviews, it was an immediate box office success, breaking numerous box office records and earning over $571 million worldwide.
The film was the most awarded at the 36th Golden Raspberry Awards, winning five of six nominations, including Worst Picture (tied with Fantastic Four) and both leading roles. In contrast, Ellie Goulding 's single "Love Me like You Do '' was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song, while The Weeknd 's single "Earned It '' was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song.
It is the first film in the Fifty Shades film series and was followed by two sequels, Fifty Shades Darker (2017) and Fifty Shades Freed (2018).
Twenty - one - year - old Anastasia "Ana '' Steele (Dakota Johnson) is an English literature major at Washington State University ("WSU '') 's satellite campus near Vancouver, Washington. When her roommate, Kate Kavanagh (Eloise Mumford), becomes ill and is unable to interview Christian Grey (Jamie Dornan), a 27 - year - old billionaire entrepreneur, for the college newspaper, Ana agrees to go in her place. At Christian 's Seattle headquarters, Ana stumbles her way through the meeting. Christian, who is that year 's WSU commencement speaker, takes an interest in her; soon after, he visits the hardware store where Ana works. He agrees to Ana 's request for a photo shoot to accompany the article.
Christian invites Ana for coffee, but he leaves abruptly, saying he is not the man for her. Christian later sends Ana first edition copies of two Thomas Hardy novels, including Tess of the d'Urbervilles, as a gift.
Ana and her friends celebrate graduation at a local bar. After drinking too much, Ana spontaneously calls Christian, saying she is returning the books and berates his behavior towards her. Christian goes to the bar and finds Ana, who passes out. She wakes up the next morning in Christian 's hotel room, relieved they were not intimate.
Ana and Christian begin seeing each other, though he insists that she sign a non-disclosure agreement preventing her from revealing details about their dalliance. Christian explains that he only has interrelations involving bondage that is clearly defined in a signed contract. Ana reveals that she is a virgin. While considering the agreement and negotiating her own terms, and after visiting his "playroom '', a room stocked with a variety of BDSM toys, furniture, and gear, she and Christian have sex.
Christian bestows Ana with gifts and favors, such as a new car and laptop computer. After Ana and Kate move to Seattle, Ana continues seeing Christian. During dinner at Christian 's parents, Ana suddenly mentions she is leaving the next day to visit her mother in Georgia. Later, Christian becomes frustrated when Ana expresses she wants more than the one - sided relationship he proposes. She is shocked when Christian unexpectedly arrives in Georgia, but he leaves soon afterward, to tend to an emergency in Seattle.
After returning home, Ana continues seeing Christian, who wants further sexual experimentation. Ana initially consents, but Christian keeps emotionally distant, upsetting her. While still considering the contract, and in an effort to understand Christian psychologically, Ana asks him to demonstrate how he would "punish '' her for rule breaking. Christian whips Ana 's buttocks six times with a belt. Upset and disgusted, Ana leaves Christian after concluding that his practices border on being deviant and excessive.
In an alternative ending, both Ana and Christian experience flashbacks. Christian jogs in the rain, while Ana sobs in her apartment. Christian encounters a gift Ana gave him with the note: "This reminded me of a happy time. -- Ana ''.
By early 2013, several Hollywood studios were keen to obtain film rights to The New York Times bestselling Fifty Shades trilogy of novels. Warner Bros., Sony, Paramount, Universal, and Mark Wahlberg 's production company submitted bids for the film rights. Universal Pictures and Focus Features secured the rights to the trilogy in March 2013. Author James sought to retain some control during the movie 's creative process. James chose The Social Network producers Michael De Luca and Dana Brunetti to produce the film.
Although American Psycho writer Bret Easton Ellis publicly expressed his desire to write the screenplay for Fifty Shades of Grey, Kelly Marcel, screenwriter of Saving Mr. Banks, was hired for the job. Patrick Marber was brought in by Taylor - Wood to polish the screenplay, specifically to do some "character work ''. Universal hired Mark Bomback for script doctoring. Mark Bridges served as the costume designer. Entertainment Weekly estimated the film 's budget as "$40 million - or - so ''.
By May 9, 2013, the studio was considering Joe Wright to direct, but this proved unworkable due to Wright 's schedule. Other directors who had been under consideration included Patty Jenkins, Bill Condon, Bennett Miller, and Steven Soderbergh. In June 2013, E.L. James announced Sam Taylor - Johnson would direct the film adaptation. Johnson was paid over $2 million for directing the film.
91⁄2 Weeks, Last Tango in Paris, and Blue Is the Warmest Colour were all cited by Taylor - Johnson as inspirations for the film.
Bret Easton Ellis stated that Robert Pattinson had been James ' first choice for the role of Christian Grey, but James felt that casting Pattinson and his Twilight co-star Kristen Stewart in the film would be "weird ''. Ian Somerhalder and Chace Crawford both expressed interest in the role of Christian. Somerhalder later admitted if he had been considered, the filming process would ultimately have conflicted with his shooting schedule for The CW 's series The Vampire Diaries. On September 2, 2013, James revealed that Charlie Hunnam and Dakota Johnson had Even cast as Christian Grey and Anastasia Steele, respectively. The short list of other actresses considered for the role of Anastasia included Alicia Vikander, Imogen Poots, Elizabeth Olsen, Shailene Woodley, and Felicity Jones. Keeley Hazell auditioned for an unspecified role. Lucy Hale also auditioned for the film. Emilia Clarke was also offered the role of Anastasia but turned down the part because of the nudity required. Taylor - Johnson would give every actress who auditioned for the role of Anastasia four pages to read of a monologue from Ingmar Bergman 's Persona.
The studio originally wanted Ryan Gosling for Christian, but he was not interested in the role. Garrett Hedlund was also considered, but he could not connect with the character. Stephen Amell said he would not have wanted to play the role of Grey because "I actually did n't find him to be that interesting... nothing about Christian Grey really spoke to me. '' Hunnam initially turned down the role of Christian but later reconsidered it, following a meeting with studio heads. Hunnam said of the audition process: "I felt really intrigued and excited about it so I went and read the first book to get a clearer idea of who this character was, and I felt even more excited at the prospect of bringing him to life. We (Taylor - Johnson and I) kind of both suggested I do a reading with Dakota, who was her favorite, and as soon as we got in the room and I started reading with Dakota I knew that I definitely wanted to do it. There 's just like a tangible chemistry between us. It felt exciting and fun and weird and compelling. '' In response to the negative fan reaction the casting drew, producer Dana Brunetti said: "There is a lot that goes into casting that is n't just looks. Talent, availability, their desire to do it, chemistry with other actor, etc. So if your favorite was n't cast, then it is most likely due to something on that list. Keep that in mind while hating and keep perspective. ''
During October 2013, actress Jennifer Ehle was in talks for the role of Anastasia 's mother Carla. On October 12, 2013, Universal Pictures announced that Hunnam had exited the film due to conflicts with the schedule of his FX series Sons of Anarchy. Alexander Skarsgård, Jamie Dornan, Theo James, François Arnaud, Scott Eastwood, Luke Bracey, and Billy Magnussen were at the top of the list to replace Hunnam as Christian Grey. Finally, on October 23, 2013, Dornan was cast as Christian Grey. On October 31, 2013, Victor Rasuk was cast as José Rodriguez, Jr. On November 22, 2013, Eloise Mumford was cast as Kate Kavanagh. On December 2, 2013, singer Rita Ora was cast as Christian 's younger sister Mia. Ora originally wanted to work on the soundtrack. On December 3, 2013, Marcia Gay Harden was cast as Christian 's mother, Grace.
In September, filming was scheduled to start on November 5, 2013, in Vancouver, British Columbia. The following month, producer Michael De Luca announced filming would begin on November 13, 2013.
Principal photography was again delayed and eventually started on December 1, 2013. Scenes were filmed in the Gastown district of Vancouver. Bentall 5 was used as the Grey Enterprises building.
The University of British Columbia serves as Washington State University Vancouver, from which Ana graduates. The Fairmont Hotel Vancouver was used as the Heathman Hotel.
The film was also shot at the North Shore Studios. The production officially ended on February 21, 2014. Reshoots involving scenes between Dornan and Johnson took place in Vancouver during the week of October 13, 2014. The film was shot under the working title "The Adventures of Max and Banks. ''
James said that the film 's soundtrack would be released on February 10, 2015. The first single, "Earned It '', by The Weeknd, was released on December 24, 2014. On January 7, 2015, the second single, "Love Me like You Do '' by Ellie Goulding was released, later reaching the top three on the Billboard Hot 100, and becoming a hit for the soundtrack. A promotional single, "Salted Wound '' by Australian recording artist Sia, was released on January 27, 2015. To date, the soundtrack has sold 516,000 copies in the United States.
In February 2013, Universal chairman Adam Fogelson said the film "could be ready to release... as early as next summer. '' The studio initially announced an August 1, 2014, release. However, in November 2013, it was pushed back to February 13, 2015, in time for Valentine 's Day. Fifty Shades of Grey was first screened at the 65th Berlin International Film Festival on February 11, 2015. The film was released in 75 IMAX screens across the US on February 13, 2015.
On January 25, 2014, more than a year prior to release, Universal displayed posters with the phrase, "Mr. Grey will see you now '', in five locations across the United States. On February 14, 2014, the first photograph of Johnson as Anastasia was released. On June 18, 2014, the film 's official Twitter account released the first still of Dornan as Christian in honor of Christian 's birthday.
On July 9, 2014, the book 's author, E.L. James, said on Twitter that the film 's trailer would be released on July 24, 2014. Beyoncé debuted a teaser for the trailer on her Instagram account five days before the trailer 's release. On July 24, Dornan and Johnson were on The Today Show to present part of the trailer appropriate for morning television; the full trailer, which contained more racy scenes, was released later the same day on the internet (200 days before its initial theatrical release). The trailer featured a new version of "Crazy in Love '' by Beyoncé, which was scored and arranged by her frequent collaborator Boots. The trailer was viewed 36.4 million times in the week after its July 24 release. This made it the most viewed trailer on YouTube in 2014, until it was surpassed in October by the trailer for Avengers: Age of Ultron. However, in mid-December the trailer reached 93 million views and was again the most viewed of 2014. The trailer accumulated over 100 million views in its first week of release through different channels and websites, becoming the biggest trailer ever released in history. By February 2015, the trailer had been viewed more than 193 million times on YouTube alone. And by late February, Fifty Shades of Grey related material garnered over 329 million views including 113 million views for its official trailer. A second trailer was released on November 13, 2014. A third trailer aired during Super Bowl XLIX, on February 1, 2015.
The film was promoted through an ad campaign that asked people whether they were "curious ''. Nick Carpou, Universal 's president of domestic distribution, said: "Our campaign gave people permission to see the film. '' "Valentines is a big deal for couples and a great relationship event, and the date with the long Presidents Day weekend created a perfect storm for us. This date positioned us to take full advantage of the romance angle, which is how we sold the film in our marketing campaign, '' he said.
There was initial speculation that the film could receive an NC - 17 rating in the United States. Studios typically steer away from the adults - only rating due to the impact the classification has on a film 's commercial viability, with some theater chains refusing to exhibit NC - 17 rated films. While screenwriter Marcel said she expected the film to be NC - 17 rated, producer De Luca anticipated the less restrictive R rating. On January 5, 2015, the MPAA did give the film an R rating, basing its decision on "strong sexual content including dialogue, some unusual behavior and graphic nudity, and language. ''
On January 30, in Australia, the film was rated MA15+ by the ACB for "strong sex scenes, sexual themes and nudity ''. On February 2, 2015, the British BBFC classified the film an 18 certificate, mentioning "strong sex ''. In Canada, Ontario, Manitoba, Alberta, and British Columbia, the film was rated at 18A by the OFRB, MFCB, AFR, and BCFCO respectively due to its "occasional upsetting or disturbing scenes, and partial or full nudity in a brief sexual situation. '' In Quebec, the Régie du cinéma rated the movie under the 16 + category for its eroticism. In France, the film earned a 12 rating. In Lebanon, the film earned an NC - 21 rating. In Argentina, the Advisory Commission of Cinematographic Exhibition (the rating arm of the INCAA) rated the film SAM16 / R.
Anti-pornography watchdog group Morality in Media argued that the film 's R rating "severely undermines the violent themes in the film and does not adequately inform parents and patrons of the film 's content '', and that the MPAA was encouraging sexual violence by letting the film by without an NC - 17 rating.
The film was scheduled for a February 12, 2015, release in Malaysia, but it was denied a certificate by the Malaysian Film Censorship Board (LPF) for its "unnatural '' and "sadistic '' content. The LPF chairman, Abdul Halim Abdul Hamid, said Fifty Shades was "more pornography than a movie. '' The film was also banned in Indonesia, Kenya, Russia 's North Caucasus, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Papua New Guinea, Cambodia, and India. The film was released in Nigeria for a week, before being removed from cinemas by the National Film and Video Censors Board (NFVCB). Studios will not pursue a theatrical release in China.
The film 's sex scenes were censored after protests from various religious groups in the Philippines, and as a result it is in limited release in that country with an R - 18 rating from the MTRCB. A similarly cut version was released in Zimbabwe.
Roughly 20 minutes were cut from the film for screening in Vietnam, leaving no sex scenes. The scene in which Ana is beaten with a belt is skipped entirely.
On January 28, 2015, a campaign in the United States by the National Center on Sexual Exploitation started two petitions to boycott the film 's release. Their website makes more than 50 allegations that the film has a negative impact on the community. It said, "Hollywood is advertising the Fifty Shades story as an erotic love affair, but it is really about sexual abuse and violence against women. The porn industry has poised men and women to receive the message that sexual violence is enjoyable. Fifty Shades models this porn message and Hollywood cashes the check. '' By February 7, one of the petitions had garnered more than 53,000 signatures.
On February 2, in Michigan, a man petitioned to halt the film 's release at a local Celebration! Cinema. Despite the man 's efforts, the president of the cinemas declined to cancel the release of the film. He said, "We 've been in business for 70 years and people often times object to content, and it 's not our job to censor the content of a widespread movie. It 's not in our best interest. It 's not in the community 's best interest. '' The film sold 3,000 tickets before the release and was expected to sell a total of 10,000 tickets.
The American Family Association called for theaters not to show the film: "The irony is not lost that the film 's main character is named, ' Christian, ' while this film presents anything but a ' Christian ' view of intimacy... It is the epitome of elevating abuse, and we call on all theaters to reject promoting such abuse on their screens. ''
Thomas Williams of the Notre Dame Center for Ethics and Culture commented on the release of the film in the United States on Saint Valentine 's Day, stating "The irony of Universal Pictures ' decision to release its bondage - erotica film Fifty Shades of Grey on the day dedicated to honoring a Christian martyr has not gone unnoticed to many observers, who seem to find the choice unclassy at best. ''
Fifty Shades of Grey was released via DVD and Blu - ray on May 8, 2015. The Blu - ray edition features an unrated cut of the film; the version includes an additional three minutes of footage, the bulk of which are in the form of an alternate ending.
Upon its release on home media in the U.S., the film topped both the Nielsen VideoScan First Alert chart, which tracks combined Blu - ray Disc and DVD sales, as well as the Blu - ray Disc sales chart for two consecutive weeks up to the week ending May 17, 2015.
Fifty Shades of Grey grossed $166.2 million in North America and $404.8 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $571 million, against a budget of $40 million. It is the fourth - highest - grossing film directed by a woman (behind Kung Fu Panda 2, Wonder Woman and Mamma Mia!), and the fourth - highest - grossing R - rated film of all - time. Deadline.com calculated the net profit of the film to be $256.55 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues for the film.
Tickets went on sale in the United States from January 11, 2015. According to ticket - selling site Fandango, Fifty Shades of Grey is the fastest selling R - rated title in the site 's 15 - year history, surpassing Sex and the City 2. It also had the biggest first week of ticket sales on Fandango for a non-sequel film, surpassing 2012 's The Hunger Games. It is fourth overall on Fandango 's list of top advance ticket sales behind The Twilight Saga: New Moon, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2, and The Hunger Games. The demand prompted US theatre owners to add new showtimes. Weeks before the film 's release, several box office analysts suggested as much as a $60 million domestic four - day opening while Box Office Mojo reported that a $100 million opening could be possible.
Outside the United States, Fifty Shades of Grey pre-sold 4.5 million tickets in 39 markets. In the UK, it sold £ 1.3 million ($1.9 million) worth of tickets a week before release. On release, it set several records at the box office, including:
In the U.S. and Canada, it is the highest - grossing sex film, the seventeenth highest - grossing film of 2015, and the fourth - highest - grossing romantic film of all time. It opened in the U.S. and Canada simultaneously with Kingsman: The Secret Service on Thursday, February 12, 2015, across 2,830 theaters and was widened to 3,646 theaters the next day making it the widest R - rated opening (surpassed by Mad Max: Fury Road), and the fourth widest R - rated release of all time. It earned $8.6 million from Thursday night previews which is the second highest late - night gross for a film released in February (behind Deadpool) and the third - highest for an R - rated film (behind Deadpool and The Hangover Part II). The film topped the box office on its opening day grossing $30.2 million (including Thursday previews) from 3,646 theaters setting a record for highest February opening day (previously held by The Passion of the Christ) and fourth - highest overall among R - rated films. During its traditional three - day opening the film opened at No. 1 at the box office earning $85.1 million, setting records for the biggest opening weekend for a film released in February (a record previously held by The Passion of the Christ). Women comprised 82 % of the total audiences during its opening day, and 68 % on Valentine 's Day.
Revenue from the second weekend dropped massively by 73.9 % to $22.25 million, which is the second - biggest drop for a 3,000 + screen release (only behind Friday the 13th 's 80.4 % drop) and the biggest for a 3,500 + screen release. It is just the eighth film to open on more than 3,000 screens to drop by 70 % or more. The film topped the box office for two consecutive weekends before falling to No. 4 in its third weekend while Focus took the top spot.
Outside the U.S. and Canada, box office analysts were predicting as much as $158 million opening. It opened Wednesday, February 11, 2015, in 4 countries, earning $3.7 million. It opened in 34 more countries on February 12, earning $28.6 million in two days. The film set opening day records for Universal Pictures in 25 markets and opening day records for an R - rated film in 34 territories. Through Sunday, February 15, it earned an opening - weekend total of $156 million from 58 countries from 10,979 screens ($173.6 million through Monday) where it opened at No. 1 in 54 of the 58 countries, marking the biggest overseas opening for an R - rated film, the fourth - biggest of 2015, and Universal 's third - biggest overseas opening weekend ever. The film set an all - time opening record in 13 markets, Universal 's biggest opening weekend ever in 30 markets and biggest opening for any R - rated film in 31 markets.
The biggest opener outside of the United States was witnessed in the UK, Ireland and Malta, where it earned £ 13.55 million ($20.8 million) in its opening weekend, which is the biggest debut ever for an 18 - rated film and the second biggest for a non-sequel film (behind I Am Legend). In just 10 days of release it became the highest - grossing 18 - rated film of all time. It topped the UK box office for two consecutive weekends. Other high openings include Germany ($14.1 million), France ($12.3 million), Russia ($11 million), Italy ($10.1 million), Spain ($8.7 million), Brazil ($8.3 million), Mexico ($8.1 million), Australia ($8 million). In Japan, the film was unsuccessful opening at No. 5 with $682,000 but falling out of the top 10 the following week. The Hollywood Reporter cited out possible reasons for the film 's failure, attributing it to the "delayed release of the new Japanese - language editions of the books, poor timing for the film release and an R - 15, re-edit blurring out parts of the sex scenes. ''
It topped the box office outside of North America for three consecutive weekends until it was overtaken by Warner Bros. ' Jupiter Ascending in its fourth weekend. It became Universal Pictures ' highest - grossing R - rated film of all time overseas (breaking Ted 's record), Universal Pictures ' highest - grossing film in 14 countries, and Universal Pictures ' eight - highest - grossing film overseas. In total earnings, its largest markets overseas are the UK, Ireland and Malta ($52.5 million), Germany ($43.7 million), Brazil, ($31.3 million), France ($29.5 million) and Spain ($22.6 million).
Fifty Shades of Grey was criticized for its acting, writing, and pacing; however, some critics noted it as an improvement over the book and praised the performance of Dakota Johnson. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 25 % based on 251 reviews, with an average rating of 4.2 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "While creatively better endowed than its print counterpart, Fifty Shades of Grey is a less than satisfying experience on the screen. '' The review aggregator website Metacritic gave the film a score of 46 out of 100, based on 46 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. In CinemaScore polls conducted during the opening weekend, cinema audiences gave the film an average grade of "C + '' on an A+ to F scale.
Claudia Puig of USA Today wrote that "the dialogue is laughable, the pacing is sluggish and the performances are one - note. '' Moira Macdonald of The Seattle Times wrote: "Fifty Shades of Grey the movie, for the record, is not quite as bad as Fifty Shades of Grey the book. But that 's not saying much. '' We Got This Covered critic Isaac Feldberg gave the film one and a half stars out of five and wrote that it "feels like two, distinct films grappling for dominance over the screen: one a sensual and stylish romance, and the other a numbingly explicit Harlequin bodice - ripper brought to life. Regrettably, the latter and lesser of the two ends up on top. ''. The Guardian lead film critic Peter Bradshaw gave the film one star out of five, calling it "the most purely tasteful and softcore depiction of sadomasochism in cinema history '' with "strictly daytime soap '' performances. A.O. Scott of The New York Times called the movie "terrible '', but wrote that "it might nonetheless be a movie that feels good to see, whether you squirm or giggle or roll your eyes or just sit still and take your punishment. ''
In a positive review for The Daily Telegraph, Robbie Collin called the film "sexy, funny and self - aware in every way the original book is n't. '' Elizabeth Weitzman of New York 's Daily News praised the directing, screenplay, and Johnson 's performance, but called Dornan 's performance, the leads ' chemistry, and the supporting cast "underused ''. She praised the film for honoring the essence of its source and the director 's way of balancing "atmosphere with action ''. In The Guardian, Jordan Hoffmann awarded the film three out of five stars, writing, "this big screen adaptation still manages to be about people, and even a little bit sweet '', and that the sex scenes "are there to advance the plot, and only the most buttoned - up prude will be scandalised. '' Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B −, writing: "This perfectly normal way of consuming erotica suggests that the movie Fifty Shades of Grey will work better as home entertainment, when each viewer can race past the blah - blah about how well Christian plays the piano and pause on the fleeting image of the man minus his pants. '' In The Sydney Morning Herald, Timothy Laurie and Jessica Kean argue that "the film provides a language for decision - making around violence more developed than most Hollywood fodder '', and that "film fleshes out an otherwise legalistic concept like ' consent ' into a living, breathing, and at times, uncomfortable interpersonal experience. It dramatises the dangers of unequal negotiation and the practical complexity of identifying one 's limits and having them respected. ''
Various critics have noted the similarities between Fifty Shades of Grey and Adrian Lyne 's 91⁄2 Weeks (1986). Both films are literary adaptations, centering on a sadomasochistic affair.
In June 2012, the film company Smash Pictures announced its intent to film a pornographic version of the Fifty Shades trilogy, entitled Fifty Shades of Grey: An XXX Adaptation. A release date of January 10, 2013, was announced. In November 2012, Universal, which had secured the Fifty Shades film rights, filed a lawsuit against Smash Pictures, stating that the film violated its copyright in that it was not filmed as a parody adaptation but "copies without reservation from the unique expressive elements of the Fifty Shades trilogy, progressing through the events of Fifty Shades of Grey and into the second book, Fifty Shades Darker ''.
The lawsuit asked for an injunction, for the profits from all sales of the film, as well as damages, saying that "a quickly and cheaply produced pornographic work (...) is likely to cause Plaintiffs irreparable harm by poisoning public perception of the Fifty Shades Trilogy and the forthcoming Universal films. '' Smash Pictures responded to the lawsuit by issuing a counterclaim and requesting a continuance, stating that "much or all '' of the Fifty Shades material was part of the public domain because it was originally published in various venues as a fan fiction based on the Twilight series. A lawyer for Smash Pictures further commented that the federal copyright registrations for the books were "invalid and unenforceable '' and that the film "did not violate copyright or trademark laws ''. The lawsuit was eventually settled out of court for an undisclosed sum and Smash Pictures agreed to stop any further production or promotion of the film.
In April 2015, The Hollywood Reporter reported that E.L. James ' husband, Niall Leonard, was enlisted to write the script for the film 's sequel. In the same month, at the 2015 Universal CinemaCon in Las Vegas, Universal announced the release dates of the sequels, with Fifty Shades Darker being released on February 10, 2017, and Fifty Shades Freed scheduled for February 9, 2018. However, the sequels will not see Sam Taylor - Johnson returning as director. On August 20, 2015, the U.S. House of Cards director James Foley was a frontrunner to direct the sequel. In November 2015, Universal Studios announced that both films will be shot back - to - back.
A spoof version of the film, Fifty Shades of Black, was released on January 29, 2016, in North America. Marlon Wayans and Rick Alvarez wrote the script, in which Wayans stars as Christian Black. The film was distributed by SquareOne Entertainment in Germany and Open Road Films in the United States; IM Global produce and finance it, as well as handling international releases. Kali Hawk parodied the role of Anastasia Steele, with supporting cast including Affion Crockett, Mike Epps, Jane Seymour and Fred Willard. Principal photography began on August 11, 2015, in Los Angeles, with a production budget of around $5 million.
|
how many kilos is 9 stone 3 pounds | Stone (unit) - wikipedia
The stone or stone weight (abbreviation: st.) is an English and imperial unit of mass now equal to 14 pounds (6.35029318 kg).
England and other Germanic - speaking countries of northern Europe formerly used various standardised "stones '' for trade, with their values ranging from about 5 to 40 local pounds (roughly 3 to 15 kg) depending on the location and objects weighed. The United Kingdom 's imperial system adopted the wool stone of 14 pounds in 1835. With the advent of metrication, Europe 's various "stones '' were superseded by or adapted to the kilogram from the mid-19th century on. The stone continues in customary use in Britain and Ireland used for measuring body weight, but was prohibited for commercial use in the UK by the Weights and Measures Act of 1985.
The name "stone '' derives from the use of stones for weights, a practice that dates back into antiquity. The Biblical law against the carrying of "diverse weights, a large and a small '' is more literally translated as "you shall not carry a stone and a stone (אבן ואבן), a large and a small ''. There was no standardised "stone '' in the ancient Jewish world, but in Roman times stone weights were crafted to multiples of the Roman pound. Such weights varied in quality: the Yale Medical Library holds 10 and 50 - pound examples of polished serpentine, while a 40 - pound example at the Eschborn Museum is made of sandstone.
The English stone under law varied by commodity and in practice varied according to local standards. The Assize of Weights and Measures, a statute of uncertain date from c. 1300, describes stones of 5 merchants ' pounds used for glass; stones of 8 lb. used for beeswax, sugar, pepper, alum, cumin, almonds, cinnamon, and nutmegs; stones of 12 lb. used for lead; and the London stone of 12 ⁄ lb. used for wool. In 1350, Edward III issued a new statute defining the stone weight, to be used for wool and "other Merchandizes '', at 14 pounds, reaffirmed by Henry VII in 1495.
In England, merchants traditionally sold potatoes in half - stone increments of 7 pounds. Live animals were weighed in stones of 14 lb; but, once slaughtered, their carcasses were weighed in stones of 8 lb. Thus, if the animal 's carcass accounted for ⁄ of the animal 's weight, the butcher could return the dressed carcasses to the animal 's owner stone for stone, keeping the offal, blood and hide as his due for slaughtering and dressing the animal. Smithfield market continued to use the 8 lb stone for meat until shortly before the Second World War. The Oxford English Dictionary also lists:
The Scottish stone was equal to 16 Scottish pounds (17 lb 8 oz avoirdupois or 7.936 kg). In 1661, the Royal Commission of Scotland recommended that the Troy stone be used as a standard of weight and that it be kept in the custody of the burgh of Lanark. The tron (or local) stone of Edinburgh, also standardised in 1661, was 16 tron pounds (24 lb 1 oz avoirdupois or 9.996 kg). In 1789, an encyclopedic enumeration of measurements was printed for the use of "his Majesty 's Sheriffs and Stewards Depute, and Justices of Peace,... and to the Magistrates of the Royal Boroughs of Scotland '' and provided a county - by - county and commodity - by - commodity breakdown of values and conversions for the stone and other measures. The Scots stone ceased to be used for trade when the Act of 1824 established a uniform system of measure across the whole of the United Kingdom, which at that time included all of Ireland.
Before the early 19th century, as in England, the stone varied both with locality and with commodity. For example, the Belfast stone for measuring flax equaled 16.75 avoirdupois pounds.) The most usual value was 14 pounds. Among the oddities related to the use of the stone was the practice in County Clare of a stone of potatoes being 16 lb in the summer and 18 lb in the winter.
The 1772 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica defined the stone:
STONE also denotes a certain quantity or weight of some commodities. A stone of beef, in London, is the quantity of eight pounds; in Hertfordshire, twelve pounds; in Scotland sixteen pounds.
The Weights and Measures Act of 1824, which applied to all of the United Kingdom, consolidated the weights and measures legislation of several centuries into a single document. It revoked the provision that bales of wool should be made up of 20 stones, each of 14 pounds, but made no provision for the continued use of the stone. Ten years later, a stone still varied from 5 pounds (glass) to 8 pounds (meat and fish) to 14 pounds (wool and "horseman 's weight ''). However, the Act of 1835 permitted using a stone of 14 pounds for trade but other values remained in use. James Britten, in 1880 for example, catalogued a number of different values of the stone in various British towns and cities, ranging from 4 lb to 26 lb. The value of the stone and associated units of measure that were legalised for purposes of trade were clarified by the Weights and Measures Act 1835 as follows:
In 1965, the then Federation of British Industry informed the British Government that its members favoured adopting the metric system. The Board of Trade, on behalf of the Government, agreed to support a ten - year metrication programme. There would be minimal legislation, as the programme was to be voluntary and costs were to be borne where they fell. Under the guidance of the Metrication Board, the agricultural product markets achieved a voluntary switchover by 1976. The stone was not included in the Directive 80 / 181 / EEC as a unit of measure that could be used within the EEC for "economic, public health, public safety or administrative purposes '', though its use as a "supplementary unit '' was permitted. The scope of the directive was extended to include all aspects of the EU internal market as from 1 January 2010.
With the adoption of metric units by the agricultural sector, the stone was, in practice, no longer used for trade; and, in the Weights and Measures Act 1985, passed in compliance with EU directive 80 / 181 / EEC, the stone was removed from the list of units permitted for trade in the United Kingdom. In 1983, in response to the same directive, similar legislation was passed in Ireland. The Act repealed earlier acts that defined the stone as a unit of measure for trade. (British law had previously been silent regarding other uses of the stone.)
The stone remains widely used in the UK and Ireland for human body weight: in those countries people may commonly be said to weigh, e.g., "11 stone 4 '' (11 stones and 4 pounds), rather than "72 kilograms '' as in many other countries, or "158 pounds '' (the conventional way of expressing the same weight in the US). The correct plural form of stone in this context is stone (as in, "11 stone '' or "12 stone 6 pounds ''); in other contexts, the correct plural is stones (as in, "Please enter your weight in stones and pounds ''). In Australia and New Zealand, metrication has almost entirely displaced stones and pounds since the 1970s.
In many sports in both Britain and Ireland, such as professional boxing, wrestling and horse racing, the stone is used to express body weights.
The use of the stone in the British Empire was varied. In Canada for example, it never had a legal status. Shortly after the United States declared independence, Thomas Jefferson, then Secretary of State presented a report on weights and measures to the U.S. House of Representatives. Even though all the weights and measures in use in the United States at the time were derived from English weights and measures, his report made no mention of the stone being used. He did, however, propose a decimal system of weights in which his "(decimal) pound '' would have been 9.375 ounces (265.8 g) and the "(decimal) stone '' would have been 5.8595 pounds (2.6578 kg).
Before the advent of metrication, units called "stone '' (German: Stein; Dutch: steen; Polish: kamień) were used in many North - Western European countries. Its value, usually between 3 and 10 kg, varied from city to city and sometimes from commodity to commodity. The number of local "pounds '' in a stone also varied from city to city. During the early 19th century, states such as the Netherlands (including Belgium) and the South Western German states, which had redefined their system of measures using the kilogramme des Archives as a reference for weight (mass), also redefined their stone to align it with the kilogram.
This table shows a selection of stones from various North European Continental cities:
Although the advent of the metric system spelt the demise of the stone as a unit of measure, the stone was used in some early discussions and implementations of the metric system. In his Philosophical essay written in 1668, John Wilkins proposed a system of measure whose unit of length, the standard, was approximately one metre and whose unit of mass was the mass of a cubic standard of rainwater (which would have been approximately 1,000 kg). He proposed that one tenth of this mass (100 kg) should be called a stone. In 1791, a few years before the French Revolutionary Government agreed on the metre as the basis of the metric system, Thomas Jefferson, in a report to Congress proposed that the United States should adopt a decimal currency system (which was adopted) and a decimal - based system of measure (which was not adopted). Jefferson 's proposal for units of measure included a "decimal '' pound equal to 9.375 ounces (265.8 g) in the "customary '' system and a "decimal '' stone of 10 "decimal '' pounds or 5.8595 pounds (2.6578 kg).
Neither Wilkins ' nor Jefferson 's proposals were adopted; but, in the Netherlands, where the metric system was adopted in 1817, the pond (pound) was set equal to a kilogram. < ref group = nb > In modern colloquial Dutch, a pond is used as an alternative for 500 grams or half a kilogram, and the steen (stone), which had previously been 8 Amsterdam pond (3.953 kg), was redefined as being 3 kg.
|
does miami marlins stadium have a fish tank | Marlins Park - Wikipedia
Marlins Park is a baseball park located in Miami, Florida. It is the current home of the Miami Marlins, the city 's Major League Baseball franchise. It is located on 17 acres of the former Miami Orange Bowl site in Little Havana, about 2 miles (3 km) west of Downtown. Construction was completed in March 2012, in time for the 2012 season.
The stadium is designed in a neomodern form of baseball architecture. Marlins Park was also LEED certified as the greenest MLB park in 2012. The building is the sixth MLB stadium to have a retractable roof. With a seating capacity of 37,442, it is the third - smallest stadium in Major League Baseball by official capacity, and the smallest by actual capacity.
The stadium 's public - funding plan led to a protracted lawsuit, largely contributed to the ouster of several local politicians, and triggered an SEC investigation. As revelations of the team 's finances and their handling of payroll (both before and after construction) seemed to contradict some of the premises on which the tax - funded - stadium deal were based, the ballpark controversy intensified. Despite questionable financing decisions by members of local government at the time, the financing of the project did not use General Fund taxes from local taxpayers and pulled from tourist funds specifically allocated for public - benefiting projects like sports facilities.
The facility hosted a second - round pool of the 2013 World Baseball Classic, a first - round pool of the 2017 World Baseball Classic, and hosted the 2017 Major League Baseball All - Star Game. The park also hosts soccer matches, fundraising galas and other events during the winter. It also hosted the Miami Beach Bowl from 2014 through 2016.
Prior to the construction of Marlins Park, the Marlins played home games at what was originally known as Joe Robbie Stadium in Miami Gardens, which was known by a number of different names during the Marlins ' tenure there. Joe Robbie Stadium was built in 1987 as home to the Miami Dolphins of the National Football League (NFL), and was designed as a multi-purpose stadium built primarily for football, but its design also accommodated baseball and soccer. Dolphins founder Joe Robbie believed it was a foregone conclusion that MLB would come to South Florida, so he wanted the stadium designed to make any necessary renovations for baseball as seamless as possible. The Marlins arrived in 1993 and during their time at the stadium, the Marlins drew more than 3 million people in their inaugural season and also won two World Series titles, in 1997 and 2003. The stadium continues to be home to the Dolphins, and since 2008, the Miami Hurricanes from the University of Miami.
Despite such preparation and pockets of success, the stadium was less than adequate as a baseball venue. Although its design was meant to accommodate baseball, it was primarily a football stadium. There were plenty of reminders of that purpose even in the stadium 's baseball configuration. The stadium 's color scheme matched that of the Dolphins. When the football season overlapped, cleat marks, as well as silhouettes of hashmarks and logos of the Dolphins or Hurricanes, were visible on the baseball diamond. The Marlins reduced capacity to 47,662 (later to 35,521), mainly to create a more intimate atmosphere for baseball. However, capacity would have likely been reduced in any event, since many of the seats in the upper deck were too far from the field to be of any use during the regular season. Even with the reduced capacity, the sight lines were less than optimal for baseball. Most seats were pointed toward the 50 - yard line -- where center field was located in the baseball configuration. Lights were not angled for optimum baseball visibility. Players had to walk through football tunnels to get to dugouts that were designed with low ceiling joists. Some of these embarrassing issues were showcased on national television during the two World Series held there, when capacity was expanded to over 67,000. Most notably, some areas of left and center field were not part of the football playing field, and fans sitting in the left - field upper deck could n't see any game action in those areas except on the replay boards. These issues became even more pronounced over the years, as a wave of baseball - only parks left Sun Life Stadium as the only National League park that played host to both an MLB and an NFL team.
Additionally, the stadium was built for games held during the fall / winter football season, not for games in the tropical summers of South Florida, which feature oppressive heat, humidity, frequent rain, and occasional tropical storms. For most of the stadium 's run as a baseball venue, it was the hottest stadium in the majors, with temperatures for day games frequently reaching well above 95 ° F (35 ° C). The Marlins played most of their summer home games at night as a result. The lack of refuge from the uncomfortable climate and disruptive rain delays were considered a cause of chronically low attendance after that inaugural season. When the Marlins were not contending, they struggled to attract crowds larger than 5,000 -- a figure that looked even smaller than that due to the cavernous environment. Some Marlins players later admitted that they "could n't wait to go on the road '' because Sun Life Stadium had the "worst (playing) conditions '' and least fan energy in the majors during years when the team was not a contender.
After original owner Wayne Huizenga claimed he lost more than $30 million on the team, he sold the Marlins in early 1999 to John W. Henry. Thereafter, the Marlins began a concerted effort to get their own baseball - only venue. Henry 's vision included a retractable roof, believed by this time to be essential due to South Florida 's climate and baseball 's summertime schedule. Several ideas were explored on where a new ballpark should be built. The team 's desire to leave their original home made for an awkward business relationship over leasing issues with Huizenga, who continued to own the then - named Pro Player Stadium. By January 2002, Henry 's stadium proposals were effectively scrapped when MLB Commissioner Bud Selig engineered a three - franchise ownership swap -- Henry left to own the Boston Red Sox, while Montreal Expos owner Jeffrey Loria took over the Marlins.
Loria and president David Samson continued the search for a new, baseball - only retractable - roof ballpark. The Marlins ' second World Series championship in 2003 created some local exuberance for a new ballpark. Then, in January 2004, the City of Miami proposed building a baseball - only stadium for the Marlins at the site of the Miami Orange Bowl that would adjoin the existing football stadium along its northern flank.
Loria and Samson began a push for public assistance to fund construction. The city was initially reluctant to help the team pay for a stadium with tax money, although they supported the project. Miami - Dade County showed more willingness to commit public money early on. In May 2004, county commissioners agreed to fund a portion of a new stadium. The Miami Dolphins notified the Marlins in December 2004 that they would terminate its lease at Sun Life Stadium following the 2010 season if no stadium deal appeared imminent.
A big step came in February 2005 when Miami - Dade County officials unveiled a financial plan for a $420 -- $435 million ballpark and parking garage for the Marlins east of the Miami Orange Bowl.
The Marlins also attempted to lobby funding from the state of Florida. However, in May 2005, the Marlins ' struggles with the Florida House Legislature continued, as its requests of $60 million towards a new ballpark were rejected.
In November 2005, the Marlins ' negotiations with the City of Miami officially broke down. With the South Florida community continuing to disappoint when it came to attendance and revenue, despite the team 's second world championship two seasons prior, and with the lack of success by the team in 2004 and 2005, the Marlins reacted by reducing their expenses, including player payroll. The Marlins traded veteran players like Mike Lowell, Josh Beckett, Luis Castillo, Juan Pierre, Guillermo Mota, Carlos Delgado, and Paul Lo Duca following the 2005 season and brought in fresh blood with players like Hanley Ramírez, Josh Johnson, Ricky Nolasco, Aníbal Sánchez, Emilio Bonifacio and Dan Uggla.
"We 're getting our payroll in line with our revenues, '' Loria said. "That 's what we budgeted for. We 're budgeting for anticipated revenue. I 'm done losing money until there 's a commitment from others. We made a major commitment, the fourth largest in baseball history. "It 's as painful as it is disappointing, but it 's necessary to make this market correction, '' Loria continued. "The time comes when you have to say enough is enough. ''
Huizenga swooped in to counter the city 's Orange Bowl proposal by offering 15 acres near what was then Dolphins Stadium and about $50 million for a baseball - only venue in exchange for revenue. But Marlins management was less than enthusiastic about entering another stadium arrangement with Huizenga next to the Dolphins. Selig granted Loria 's request to explore cities outside of South Florida as potential homes. Team officials traveled to San Antonio, Texas, in December 2005, to meet with officials who showed them potential stadium locations around the city and discussed plans to finance a ballpark. The Marlins also flirted with interest from Las Vegas, Nevada, and Portland, Oregon in 2006.
Although the Marlins did not accept any stadium offers from other cities, such talk of relocation heightened fan anxiety that Miami could lose its team just as Montreal recently lost the Expos -- Loria 's previously - owned team. Some public opinion trended towards supporting a new stadium. Florida Governor Charlie Crist and Hialeah Mayor Julio Robaina were in favor of public funding, saying the project would create jobs and be a "tremendous economic engine for a community. '' Neither swayed their respective legislatures to approve a deal.
After the Marlins explored other options, including at the former site of the Miami Arena, in August 2007, the Miami Hurricanes announced they were leaving the Orange Bowl, which made the newly - vacant site the most attractive option for local governments.
In December 2007, the Miami - Dade County Commission voted in favor of two initial proposals that would assist in funding. But the County Commission and Miami City Commission continued to debate.
On February 21, 2008, then MLB president and COO Bob DuPuy gave the commissioners this ultimatum during a hearing on public funding: "I just want you to know that if you decide not to make a decision tonight, that will be the death knell for baseball in Miami. We are out of time. ''
City and County Commissioners appeared to take the threat seriously and within hours voted to approve funding for a new ballpark for the Marlins, in the form of a Baseball Stadium Agreement. The cost of stadium construction was expected to be approximately $525 million. The initial plan called for the Marlins to contribute $155 million all through two separate loans ($35 million of which borrowed interest - free from the county), Miami - Dade County to contribute $347 million (about $297 million of which would come from tourist tax dollars), and the City of Miami to contribute $23 million. The city would additionally shoulder the $10 million cost to demolish the old Orange Bowl site, and another $94 million to construct the new parking facilities.
"This is the final piece of the puzzle, '' owner Jeffrey Loria said after the funding for the park was approved. He also thanked a long list of city and county officials for "saving baseball in Miami. ''
Demolition of the Miami Orange Bowl began on March 3, 2008, and was completed on May 14, 2008. Marlins ' management began working with architects on the new ballpark 's design. (See "Design '' section for details.)
The construction deal was put on hold because of a lawsuit filed by auto dealer Norman Braman, the former owner of the Philadelphia Eagles. Braman fought to put the public - spending proposition before voters for approval. However, on November 21, 2008, Circuit Judge Jeri Beth Cohen signed an order that said that a voter referendum was not required for the 37,000 - seat stadium 's financing plan. That decision was the final remaining charge of Braman 's original seven arguments, and Judge Cohen ruled in favor of the Marlins in all of them.
The Marlins hoped to have had final approval on the stadium on February 13, 2009, but were blindsided by a last - minute bid by Commissioner Marc Sarnoff to secure a series of financial concessions from the two - time World Series champions. With stadium supporter Commissioner Michelle Spence - Jones on maternity leave and unavailable to vote, the project was left with a 2 - 2 tie on the stadium.
On March 19, 2009, Miami commissioners approved building the new stadium in a 3 -- 2 vote. Those supporting the stadium deal were Joe Sanchez, Angel Gonzalez and Michelle Spence - Jones. Against the deal were Marc Sarnoff and Tomás Regalado. Also approved, by a 4 -- 1 vote, was a bid waiver for a private contractor to work around the facility. A super majority was required for the bid waiver, and Sarnoff joined the majority. The final issue before the commission, dealing with an inter-local agreement, passed unanimously. With approval by the county, the team would change its name to the Miami Marlins.
On March 23, 2009, Miami - Dade County Commission engaged in more than 9 hours of debate over giving final approval to the multimillion - dollar stadium - finance deal. DuPuy again spoke of relocation if the county would not vote for approval.
During the debate he asked the commissioners if they wanted Miami to become the "only major city in America without major league baseball. ''
With the South Florida market finishing last in the majors in attendance and payroll in 2008, Samson speculated that the ballpark would improve both areas. He noted new ballparks typically lead to near - capacity crowds nightly the first year in the team 's new home, and he estimated an annual attendance above 2 million for at least 7 seasons.
"With the increased revenues we expect from the new ballpark, we would expect to be certainly a middle - of - the - pack, industry - average payroll '', Samson said. "But only time will tell. ''
Miami - Dade County commissioners answered the Florida Marlins ' 15 - year quest for a permanent home by agreeing to bankroll a big share of construction cost. The vote was 9 -- 4. Voting in favor of the stadium plan were Commissioners Dennis Moss, Bruno Barreiro, Audrey Edmonson, Natacha Seijas, Javier Souto, Barbara Jordan, Dorrin Rolle, Jose "Pepe '' Diaz, and Rebeca Sosa. Also, by a 10 -- 3 vote, commissioners approved a bid waiver for the stadium 's construction manager. The votes drew applause in the chamber.
But not all were convinced by MLB 's arguments that tax money was essential to assist the Marlins ' stadium project, especially with debt financing incurred by the county. "We keep hearing ' If you build it they will come, ' '' said Commissioner Katy Sorenson, who cast a vote against the plan. "I do n't believe it. And this ' field of dreams ' is going to be a nightmare for our taxpayers. ''
On April 1, 2009, Miami 's planning board voted 6 -- 1 to approve the overall construction permit for the Marlins ' new ballpark.
By June 30, 2009, the sale of construction bonds to pay for the new stadium had fallen short of expectations on Wall Street, prompting a scramble at County Hall and a pledge by the Marlins to cover the funding difference. Miami - Dade County Manager George Burgess asked commissioners to rush approval on increasing the interest rate on a portion of $409 million in bonds, but said he did n't know what the final costs would be to repay them. In the early hours of July 1, 2009, county commissioners cast the final vote on a set of last - minute changes that cleared the way for the sale of higher - interest bonds, granting Burgess 's request.
In the now finalized deal -- supported by Miami Mayor Manny Diaz, Miami - Dade County Mayor Carlos Alvarez, and Burgess -- the total building cost of the stadium complex rose by a few million to $634 million. More than 80 % of that would be paid for using public money. Analysts of the bonds sale soon publicized that -- with interest compounding over 40 years -- the total cost to the county to repay them would rise to $2.4 billion. As the Miami media and bloggers circulated reports of the staggering fiscal numbers, construction began with a ground - breaking ceremony on July 18, 2009.
The 2009 election for the next mayor of Miami became a race between two candidates on opposing sides of the controversial stadium vote. As the term - limited City of Miami Mayor Manny Diaz 's time in office neared its end, the Marlins endorsed City Commissioner Joe Sanchez 's run for the office. Executives from the Marlins and Major League Baseball held fundraisers and donated money to the campaign of Sanchez, a leading supporter of the stadium plan. The Marlins sent their mascot, Billy the Marlin, to appear at some campaign events alongside Sanchez. However, on November 3, 2009, former City Commissioner Tomás Regalado, a leading opponent of the stadium plan, was elected as mayor over Sanchez with 72 % of the vote. Regalado attributed his landside victory to his public opposition to the new stadium 's financing, his verbal sparring with former mayor (and stadium - plan supporter) Diaz, and his populist message.
During the 2009 -- 10 offseason, the other MLB owners reprimanded the Marlins for purloining too much of the approximately $65 - $75 million in revenue sharing and Central Fund monies they receive annually. After the MLB Players Association threatened to file a formal grievance against the team 's alleged violations of the league 's revenue - sharing provisions, the Marlins formally agreed with the union to use all revenue - sharing proceeds on player development and salaries for the next three seasons. The news raised public suspicion that the Marlins ' front office was being dishonest in their arguments to county and city commissioners that they were barely breaking even financially year after year. President David Samson, who had denied the team profited at Sun Life Stadium but would not offer any figures, said:
"Very often the mistake that 's made is they look at revenue sharing numbers and the team 's payroll and take the difference and see profit without looking at our expenses. ''
In August 2010, the Marlins ' financial documents were leaked to Deadspin and published on the Internet which showed that the team had a healthy net operating profit of $37.8 million in 2008 alone -- an amount nearly double the league - low $21.8 million the Marlins spent on team payroll that same year. The documents also showed that they were continuing to turn millions of dollars in profit in the middle of the Great Recession while receiving more revenue - sharing money than any team in baseball by 2009. Analysts extrapolated the data and some concluded that the franchise had profited by more than $91 million in the 3 years leading up to the county commissioners ' passing the stadium plan in 2008. Samson immediately called the leak "a crime '' while MLB scrambled to find the source of the leak. But many fans and taxpayers in the Miami area were angrier at the revelation contained within the documents. Still, Samson insisted that the Marlins owner, Jeffrey Loria, "did n't put a dime in his pocket '', and claimed that the team was in "debt '' despite evidence to the contrary. Samson later said the team showed a hefty profit in certain years when it was conserving money for its ballpark project.
A Miami Herald reporter was given access to Marlins financial documents that showed, "Loria 's first four years owning the team saw an overall loss of almost $60 million -- deficits covered with loans... Since Loria bought the Marlins in 2002, boosting the payroll has failed to bring the spike in ticket revenue needed to turn a profit. Only when he slashed player costs did the team record a cash surplus, according to the records... By the end of that championship season (2003), the Marlins posted an operating loss of $43 million -- due in part to attendance that was the third - worst in the Major Leagues. Ticket revenue rose the following year as the Marlins charged more and cut back on discounts, but attendance inched up just one notch to fourth - worst in baseball. Only in 2006, after Loria slashed payroll to the lowest in baseball, did the team begin posting healthy operating profits -- $110 million (combined in the four seasons from 2006) through 2009. The surplus dollars came mostly from Major League Baseball 's revenue - sharing program, which pays out cash to all 30 teams but has special subsidies for franchises with smaller fan bases. The league paid the Marlins between $65 million and $75 million a year through 2009, according to the statements reviewed by The Herald. ''
Meanwhile, with the required 1.5 % of the construction costs of the public facility, word spread about expensive commissions for art works inside the new stadium, including $2.5 million for a Red Grooms sculpture behind center field. "The Miami - Dade Art in Public Places program was established in 1973 with the passage of an ordinance allocating 1.5 % of construction cost of new county buildings for the purchase or commission of artworks. '' Some in the public directed their outrage at the government officials who supported the public financing of the stadium during a time of high unemployment, and without a referendum. Opponents of the stadium deal charged that officials had sold out generations of South Floridians to an owner who could have contributed much more to cover the cost for his own building. Proponents of the stadium deal expressed gratitude that Major League Baseball would remain a cultural institution in the community for generations to come.
On March 15, 2011, Miami - Dade County voters ousted Mayor Carlos Alvarez in a recall election, some suggest due to the bonds issue the County selected for the ballpark project and pushing for a higher property - tax rate. His manager George Burgess, who helped engineer the deal, left soon thereafter. County Commissioner Natacha Seijas was recalled alongside Alvarez for largely the same reasons. The recall effort was led by the same billionaire who lost his legal challenge to the park 's financing plan back in 2008, Norman Braman. A vocal opponent of the stadium deal, former commissioner Carlos A. Giménez, succeeded Alvarez as county mayor after a special election was held on June 28, 2011.
The franchise held a major rebranding event on November 11, 2011. During the festivities, the "Florida Marlins '' were officially renamed the "Miami Marlins '' as required by the stadium contract with the city government. The team also unveiled its new uniforms and colors which were designed to match the colors of Marlins Park.
During the 2011 -- 12 offseason, Miami Mayor Regalado publicized details of contract clauses in which the city will incur heavy annual charges. The charges include as much as $2 million per year in taxes to the county for the parking facilities leased to the Marlins, and the city must also pay the Marlins stadium maintenance fee of $250,000 annually. "That (parking - facilities) tax will seriously hurt the City of Miami and the taxpayer will have to foot the bill, '' said Regalado. "I am also concerned because in that same contract the city has to remit $250,000 every year for the maintenance of the stadium we do not own or operate. This is a bad contract that has become a nightmare. '' Regalado indicated that city would legally challenge terms of the contract agreed to by the previous administration, but he would not attempt to derail the stadium project.
Hours before the opening game at Marlins Park on April 4, 2012, team executives held a ceremonial ribbon - cutting with Miami - Dade County and city of Miami officials. Neither Miami - Dade County Mayor Giménez nor City of Miami Mayor Regalado accepted invitations to attend the photo - op in a show of solidarity with public opposers of the finance plan. "It would have been hypocrisy on my part to celebrate, '' Regalado said. "I wish them the best, and I hope this will bring a championship to Miami, but I still believe it was a bad deal for the city. ''
Loria dismissed the public backlash as "naysayers... and people who just ca n't stop shooting their mouths off. '' He said:
There 'll always be activists in a community who do n't know what they 're talking about it, who have their own agendas. There are people who do not understand that we did n't take one dime away from anybody 's public services in this city. These dollars that were put into this building from the city were tourist dollars -- generated by tourists to increase tourism. And it had to be put back -- into what is called the "public - private partnership '' -- into something like a ballpark or an arena. But a major - league city like Miami needed this kind of facility and they have it now.
Breakdown:
The city 's contribution includes $10 million towards demolition of the old Orange Bowl stadium, and $94 million to build the parking facilities. The Marlins may spend up to $89.5 million of their contribution on "soft costs '' -- or, non-construction costs. These include fees paid to designers, consultants, attorneys, and political lobbyists.
The total cost to the county is $2.4 billion, spread over 40 years, to repay $409 million in bonds that will primarily, though not exclusively, cover stadium construction. Roughly $100 million will refinance existing bond debt and another $9 million goes into a debt service reserve fund. The remaining $300 million is for stadium construction, financed in two ways.
One portion, underwritten by Merrill Lynch totaling $220 million, has an interest rate of 6.4 % and requires immediate repayment. In October 2010 the county must pay $9.6 million, though there are questions over whether tourist taxes will meet that. Annual payments run through 2049 and climb as high as $71 million per year.
The second portion, underwritten by JP Morgan, is for $91 million, $80 million of that for construction. That carries an 8.17 rate, but repayment does n't begin until 2025. Yet that grace period comes with a big price: $83 million a year for three years starting in 2038. Then, starting in 2041, six years of payments totaling $118 million annually. The resulting total amount to retire the entire debt: $2.4 billion.
Not listed in the breakdown are the annual charges that the city is required to pay during the lifetime of the contract. They are as much as $2 million per year for the parking - facilities taxes payable to the county, and $250,000 per year to pay the Marlins ' stadium maintenance fees. Adding these future expenses to contributions already made brings the city 's total stadium expenses to $210.7 million by 2049.
The Marlins received an interest free, $35 million loan from the county that it will pay back through yearly rent beginning at about $2.3 million and increasing 2 % each year. Including this debt brings the team 's total stadium expenses to $161.2 million through 2028. The county and city combined total expenses are $2.61 billion through 2049.
The stadium deal also gives the Marlins almost all revenue created at the ballpark, from ticket sales as well as food and drink concessions, to parking spaces selling above $10, to gate receipts from concerts and soccer matches when the ballclub is not playing.
The Miami Herald reported on December 2, 2011, that the U.S. Securities & Exchange Commission (SEC) had issued subpoenas to the city of Miami and Miami - Dade County, requesting financial records, meeting minutes and communications with executives from the Marlins and Major League Baseball dating back to 2007. The executives named in the subpoena include baseball commissioner Bud Selig, ex-MLB president Robert DuPuy, Loria and Samson. The investigation may revolve around the Marlins ' claims that the team needed public help because it could not afford to pay for a new ballpark.
Under examination are the nearly $500 million in bonds and the circumstances surrounding their sale. Another issue specifically mentioned by the SEC is the $2 million in property taxes that the city is required to pay the county for parking garages operated by the Marlins. Also under investigation are any campaign contributions from the Marlins organization and MLB to local and state elected officials. (Jeffrey Loria, Loria 's wife, Robert DuPuy, and DuPuy 's spouse are known to have donated to the failed mayoral campaign of city commissioner Joe Sanchez, among others.)
A former lawyer for the SEC said the watchdog agency likely wants to know whether the purchasers of stadium bonds were given full disclosure of the financial status of the borrowers involved, and also whether there may have been any "pay for play '' involved on behalf of the parties. If the SEC finds wrongdoing in the investigation, it can choose to bring a civil suit against parties involved, issue fines or refer the case to the United States Department of Justice for possible criminal charges.
Marlins Park has the distinction of being the first MLB park designed in what stadium planners are calling the "contemporary '' architectural style. The architecture is intended to shout a statement about the present - day culture of the city in which the stadium stands: Miami. It rejects the nostalgic idiom of the 20 consecutive new (plus 3 renovated) retro ballparks that opened in the 2 decades after Camden Yards was built. Owner Jeffrey Loria, who spearheaded the design, wanted his building to be "different and experimental. '' Loria said, "I thought it was time for baseball to be innovative. ''
In early 2008, Loria happened to be in London at the same time as some architects from Populous who were there on another project. The group met in a hotel lobby to begin discussing design ideas. Loria described the meeting:
When it all started, the architects came to me and asked what I had envisioned. Was I looking to have a retro stadium? Did we have that in mind? I said, "No retro, no art - deco, no looking back. Miami is a spectacular city, looking ahead. We need to be looking forward. I 'd like to see us build a great, ' contemporary ' building. ''
We had to think about some kind of design for it and what it might look like... I really did not want it to be just another ballpark. I was n't interested in a 1970s or ' 80s doughnut... I wanted it to be a statement of what Miami is all about -- a contemporary city. Miami is an important American city and architecture makes your city great. The idea was to create something very contemporary.
Loria then sketched his idea of a round building on a napkin and told the architects to bring him back some real drawings. Exec architect Earl Santee, who was present at the meeting, said, "Mr. Loria told us to make a piece of art. ''
The architects returned to their Kansas City offices and began brainstorming in April 2008. "We were waiting for a client willing to break the (retro) mold '', said Greg Sherlock, the project 's lead designer at Populous. Loria "sort of let us do our thing and explore something unique. We knew from the beginning that this was going to be something new and different. '' As a result, classic elements such as redbrick, limestone, and muted forest - green seats or fences, would not be found anywhere in Marlins Park. Any visible steel trusses would be functionally required to be that way, unlike retro - style trusses which tend to be exposed and bare for aesthetics. According to Sherlock, the structure would convey "that a ballpark does n't necessarily have to be bricks and steel to translate a message about its location. It can be interpreted in a fresh way. ''
The stadium would also not be symmetrical like the "cookie - cutter '' stadiums of the pre-Camden, modern era. But eccentricities to the seating bowl and fences need not appear as contrived as those meticulously added into some of the retro parks (such as "Tal 's Hill '' in Minute Maid Park, or the "Mo 's Zone '' in Citi Field).
Populous began conducting feasibility studies for their "primary design objectives. '' The top objective was creating "a ballpark that is quintessentially Miami, '' which meant, according to a list of adjectives that the architects drew up: "palms, destination, diverse, recreation, and beach. '' A similar list was drawn up for the Little Havana neighborhood around the future park: "Cuba, pastels, canopies, organic, and everything is unique. '' They created a presentation for the Marlins tailored to Loria 's background in the art business with concepts such as "the site is a gallery space with the ballpark representing gallery walls '', and "pure art... pure color... pure baseball. '' Four different initial designs were presented, all of which were stark departures from previous ballpark architecture. Both the Marlins ' and Populous ' favorite choice was a design of an angular white - curves - and - glass facade -- a metaphor for the "water merging with land '' landscape of the Miami area -- which was close to what eventually became the final design.
"For the first time, you can embrace art and architecture and baseball in one building form, '' Santee said. "It 's not just the art in the building, but the building itself is a piece of art. ''
"If you 're looking for a label, I 'd say ' contemporary ', '' Sherlock said. As well:
In this particular case, we did n't adopt anything stylistically. It 's sculpture quality, and with sculpture, there are no rules. We wanted an experience that connects the fan experience to the city of Miami and its people and its climate and culture.
The ballpark is intended to embody Miami so much that its emblematic features would look out - of - place if they were put in other cities.
"We used Miami as an excuse to do things that other cities could n't get away with, '' team President David Samson said. "Everywhere you look, it 's things that if they were anywhere else, people would say, ' You ca n't do that. ' In Miami, people say, ' Oh, that 's Miami. ' You have to take advantage where you are. ''
"Marlins Park is all about Miami '', said Sherlock. The exterior is a sculptural monument consisting of gleaming white stucco, steel, aluminum, and glass. The inclining elliptical form avoids creating many rigid, right angles. Angled, cantilevered pedestrian ramps also form elegant geometric shapes. "It 's consistent with the essence of the buildings that are down here -- white plaster and graceful forms, which are somewhat of an abstraction of the look and feel of Miami Deco '', Sherlock continued. Even the parking - garage walls are tiled in Miami - Deco pastels that connect with Little Havana.
As visitors walk from the outside in, they step right on metaphors for Miami 's topography, including concrete pavers that in general are either green or blue ("grass '' or "sea ''). They walk past landscaping that evokes the "beach '' -- there 's even sand -- in places. There 's cobalt - blue glass at eye level ("ocean ''), the stucco and concrete ("land '' or "buildings ''), and the paler blue - gray glass at the upper levels ("sky ''). The seats are also cobalt - blue, facing the naturally green, Bermuda grass field.
When Marlins fans first realized that the original colors of the team would not appear on the seats in the new stadium -- and ultimately not on the new uniforms either -- some angrily started a petition known as "Project Teal. '' But Samson said it was necessary to ignore fans ' complaints: "I think any time you do something new and different, the knee - jerk reaction from bloggers or people who post comments is negative. But we have blinders on. This ballpark would have never been built if we had listened to the negativity. ''
Loria, a notable art dealer, took the four bright primary colors off the palette of the late Catalan surrealist, Joan Miró, to conveniently label different zones around the park -- green (outfield), red (third - base line), yellow (first - base line) and blue (behind home plate). "If you look carefully, in those sections, they dissolve into the next color, and the colors mix, '' Loria said. Wide open plazas at the east and colorful west ends of the building, as well as a 360 ° concourse inside called the Promenade encourages fans to walk around -- and to intermingle at stops such as the bars or the bobblehead museum. Dazzling colors are found throughout the interior, including fluorescent lime - green fences, and in modernist & contemporary works of art -- including the much - debated animatronic home - run sculpture -- that relate to baseball and Miami.
"My idea was to have people use their eyes and encourage them to use their eyes, '' said Loria. "We wanted a ballpark filled with great baseball, great entertainment, and occasionally, some images to be seen and enjoyed. It 's not about an art gallery. But it 's about images relating to the game. There are a few of them in the park. ''
A nightclub featuring loud music and a swimming pool just beyond the left field fence brings a touch of South Beach into the park. Taste of Miami food court includes such local cuisine as Cuban sandwiches, pork sandwiches, and stone crabs. There 's even an aquarium inside the walls of home plate backstop containing live, tropical fish.
Marlins Park pays tribute to the two football stadiums closely associated with the team 's stadium history. It transfers over "The Bermuda Triangle '' quirk of Sun Life Stadium 's outfield fence as a nod to their team 's early years. However, instead of straight lines, the new "triangle '' is a wave - like shape that smoothly curves upwardly around the base of the large home - run sculpture, making the nook appear necessary to the design of the asymmetrical fence. The height of the tall wall varies from 10 feet (3.0 m) to 16 feet (4.9 m). There are also commemorations to the beloved old Orange Bowl both inside and outside of the park.
A critical design point addresses the tropical climate of South Florida. Fans are provided with the comfort they longed for at Sun Life Stadium with the daunting 5.27 - acre retractable roof, retractable - glass wall panels that offer a panoramic view of Downtown Miami, and a huge air - conditioning system. The stadium is also said to be designed to withstand strong hurricanes.
"If our ballpark would speak, its first words would be, ' ¡ Hola, Miami!, ' '' Loria said during a new - era ceremony.
Instead of framing new technology with nostalgic elements as in retro parks, Marlins Park emphasizes the future. Besides electronic mixed - media artwork, technology is also unmistakably used for commercial purposes. As a way to market to Latino fans, many digital menu boards on the concession stands continuously switch from English to Spanish and back. Also, there are no hand - operated advertisement signs; ads are all computerized.
Santee explains:
It 's really just how technology is everywhere. You do n't see any static ad panels in this building. It 's all video - based, IPTV - based. It 's all connected. The technology is the blood of the building. It flows through every vein, every piece of building.
What it means is that (stadium operators) could run a third - inning (concession) special and it would pop up... You could have the whole building with one sponsor for one moment, if you wanted to. Or you could do zones. It gives them maximum flexibility for however they want to present their partners as well as themselves.
As part of its forward - thinking design, the venue is an efficient, environmentally - friendly green building in its use of materials, waste, and operation. The selection of building materials included sealants, paint, and adhesives with low VOC (volatile organic compounds) to maximize good indoor - air quality. A white rubber membrane lining the roof reflects rays to reduce "heat - island effect. '' The extensive glass facade allows in natural light during the day and reduces reliance on artificial light. The suites are built with replenishable bamboo paneling instead of hardwood. Most construction waste was hauled away to recycling centers during the building phase.
Palm trees and other native plant species around the building encourage biodiversity. Levy Restaurants, which runs some of the kitchens, gets most of its fresh - food supply directly from local farms that are within a 100 - mile radius of the stadium. Approximately 6 million gallons of water a year are saved with the use of 249 waterless urinals.
An early aim of the new ballpark was to become the first retractable - roof ballpark to be Silver Certified by Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED). On May 25, 2012, Marlins Park surpassed that goal by officially becoming the first MLB stadium -- and the first retractable - roof stadium in any sport -- to achieve LEED Gold Certification, anointing the facility as the most sustainable ballpark in MLB. The LEED - NC (New Construction) rating system credited the stadium with 40 points toward certification, the highest total of any LEED - certified park in the majors -- the retro - contemporary ballparks of AT&T Park, Target Field and Nationals Park are the only others to achieve LEED certification.
Although they were publicly seeking silver, Loria had privately challenged engineers to shoot for the higher gold certification. The most difficult aspect of achieving gold, though -- and one the design team had doubt it would be able to accomplish -- was concerning the energy required to operate the retractable roof. Populous thought renewable energy would be a part of the sustainability equation but the park opened without solar panels. However, engineers optimized lighting, mechanical controls, and electrical aspects enough to achieve a 22.4 % reduction in energy usage, which exceeded the 14 % required for certification.
The U.S. Green Building Council noted an innovation which earned the facility three credits: Throughout areas of the stadium, including the clubhouses, the floor is made of a synthetic pouring made from recycled Nike shoes. The Council presented Loria with a plaque to signify the entire gold - certification achievement.
Rick Fedrizzi, President, CEO and Founding Chair of U.S. Green Building Council stated:
A lot of people have often thought this (LEED Gold Certification) is an award. I 'd like to think about this as ' the organization has earned its Ph. D, ' because earning one of these is not an easy task. The team that 's up here did some amazing things to bring this plaque to the building.
"It was our desire from the onset to not only build America 's greatest new ballpark, but also its most environmentally friendly '', said Loria.
Since sod was first laid down in early February 2012, the grass has had difficulty growing under the frequently - closed roof. Planners had selected a strain of Bermuda grass -- named Celebration -- for its reputation of doing well in the shade. Even so, with the grass receiving only about 4 hours per day of sunlight, some of the sod kept turning brown. The worst - affected area is in deep right field where patches of dead sod have been replaced multiple times. Grow lights are pointed by groundskeepers on the area to nurse it to health on non-game days. As of 2014, the Bermuda grass has been replaced with Platinum TE Paspalum. Paspalum is better able to tolerate shaded areas.
During the first months of games played at the new park, at least 4 or 5 leaks showed themselves in the retractable roof. Fans sitting in at least 4 seating sections still got wet under the drippy roof on rainy days. Leaks have progressively appeared under different spots as stadium workers kept plugging them by opening up the roof panels and patching the joints.
Samson said it will take time to work out the kinks:
We knew going in that other retractable - roof ballparks had to make adjustments for one or two years to get their field right. We hoped that we 'd get it right the first time. So far it 's not right. We 're going to keep working and find a way to make it better.
In time for the start of the 2016 MLB season, the park underwent a $500,000 renovation, mainly to lower and move in the outfield walls. The changes were studied and enacted after Marlins players complained to president David Samson that their long balls were not resulting in as many doubles or home runs as in other parks. Since 2012, the park has logged the second fewest home runs of all Major League ballparks, behind San Francisco 's AT&T Park. The renovation, engineered by the Populous architectural firm that designed the original park, eliminated the "Bermuda Triangle '' in center field and reduced the length from home plate to the center field wall from 418 feet (127 m) to 407 feet (124 m). The walls around the outfield were lowered from heights up to 13 feet (4.0 m) to as low as 6 feet (1.8 m), which will allow outfielders to make leaping grabs for long balls. The dimensions down the left - and right - field lines and in the power alleys were not altered, retaining the park 's reputation as a pitcher 's park.
The Marlins ' front office commissioned several works of art and other notable features around the stadium.
A side view of the home run structure at Marlins Park
One of the columns at Marlins Park that supports the roof when the roof is opened
Baseball in Motion by Dominic Pangborn
Marlin Park hosted a trio of soft openings prior to Spring training. The first baseball game took place on March 5, 2012, with a high school baseball game between Christopher Columbus High School and Belen Jesuit Preparatory School. The Marlins played an exhibition game on March 6 against the Miami Hurricanes (defeating the Canes 7 - 6) and on March 7 against the FIU Golden Panthers (defeating the Panthers 5 - 1). The Marlins then hosted two spring training exhibition games at the new ballpark against the New York Yankees on April 1 and 2, 2012.
Before a sellout crowd of 36,601, the Marlins played their first regular season game on April 4, 2012, against the St. Louis Cardinals (losing to the Cards, 4 - 1). The inaugural game was nationally televised on ESPN. As part of the Opening Night fanfare, players were announced onto the field while escorted by scantily - clad Brazilian dancers in full headdress. Muhammad Ali threw out the ceremonial first pitch after he was carted out to the field alongside Jeffrey Loria.
In 2011, the Marlins attendance had ranked 28th in majors during their final year at Sun Life Stadium. With a brand new ballpark, hiring manager Ozzie Guillén, and the team 's payroll expansion to over $100 million (a club record resulting from the signings of free agents José Reyes, Mark Buehrle and Heath Bell, as well as the trade acquisitions of Carlos Zambrano and later Carlos Lee), Marlins officials expected attendance to skyrocket.
"With the team we are putting together, we expect there to be very few empty seats at this ballpark ever, '' David Samson told reporters. "We have always told ourselves build it small and sell it out, and that 's what we 're going to do. ''
The Marlins went on to finish the ballpark 's inaugural season 18th in MLB attendance, averaging 27,400 per home game. The increase was a significant improvement, but far short of expectations. In fact, Marlins Park had the smallest first - year attendance of the 11 ballparks that had opened between 2001 and 2012. The disappointing figures are largely attributed to the team 's poor play on the field, as they finished in last place (69 - 93) in the NL East Division. Other cited explanations as to why some fans stayed away include opposition to the stadium 's Little Havana location, and resentment over the use of public money to build it.
As the team underperformed both on the scoreboard and at the box office in their new ballpark, the Marlins traded away the face of the franchise, Hanley Ramírez, and 4 other veterans with contracts (Aníbal Sánchez, Omar Infante, Randy Choate, and Edward Mujica) in exchange for lower - salaried prospects in midseason 2012. The moves caused more tension with fans and made headlines around baseball that the Marlins had begun the third fire sale in team history -- except this time it followed the opening of a new stadium instead of a World Series championship. But Marlins ' President of Baseball Operations Larry Beinfest insisted that trades were not signaling a "fire sale '' or a "white flag, '' despite the sudden drop in payroll. "We understand there 's skepticism here, '' he said. "Yes, we have our history (of fire sales), but that 's not what 's going on here. This was about the current mix was n't winning, so let 's try something else. ''
Fan fears of a fire sale in progress appeared to be confirmed during the offseason following the park 's opening season as the front office proceeded to turn over much of the roster (including all recent free - agent signings) while massively unloading payroll. Manager Guillén was fired, in part for comments he made before the season about his admiring Fidel Castro 's ability to stay in power. Heath Bell was dealt away a week earlier for a minor leaguer. Then, in a bombshell 12 - player trade announced during baseball owners meetings in November 2012, the Marlins sent Reyes, Buehrle, ace pitcher Josh Johnson, Emilio Bonifacio, John Buck, and cash considerations to the Toronto Blue Jays in exchange for Yunel Escobar, Jeff Mathis, and 5 prospects. (Escobar was then re-traded for a prospect a month later.) Overall, the Marlins jettisoned more money in contract commitments via trades during the second half of 2012 ($225 million) then they had added in the free agency signings meant to usher in the new stadium era during the previous offseason ($191 million). Team payroll for the stadium 's second opening day in 2013 projects to be one of the lowest payrolls in baseball once again.
After years of the pretense that a taxpayer - funded ballpark would finally solve the franchise 's cycles of fire sales and low payrolls, the ownership 's apparent return to the same policies merely months after construction completed sparked outrage from many Marlins fans. Irate fans and a few players vented anger -- some tying stadium deal with the trades -- on talk radio and social media, with most criticism directed at either Bud Selig, or Samson and Loria. "We finished in last place. Figure it out... We have to take a new course '', a defiant Loria said to one reporter when asked about a fire sale. He dismissed another group of reporters, saying: "Not today boys. If you guys have n't figured it out yet, I 'm not going to figure it out for you. ''
In retrospect, the team 's brief honeymoon in their new home made this preseason quip from then manager Guillén sound foreboding: "It 's like having a beautiful house and your marriage stinks. We have a beautiful house here, but if the people who live in it are not good, you 're not going to have fun. ''
In a radio interview, Samson sought to put the smaller payroll in perspective with Marlins Park. "It 's a great ballpark and now we need a great team to go with it and we thought we had it last year and the evidence was overwhelming that we did n't '', he said. When asked if he and Loria had pulled off a "Ponzi scheme '' by fleecing the public in the stadium deal and selling them back a "sham '' a year later, Samson replied that the stadium is accomplishing its main purpose of keeping pro baseball in Miami. He drew comparisons to their former ownership of the (now relocated) Montreal Expos and Olympic Stadium:
The difference in Montreal, there was no ballpark, there was no future. There is a long term future for baseball in Miami. That 's what the ballpark has always been about was making sure an All Star game can come to Miami, making sure that generations will see baseball... (What matters) at the end of the day is not the payroll.
Samson also said, "let 's not forget how much money Jeffrey Loria himself put in -- over $160 million of his money to get a ballpark built, which has been a very positive thing and will continue to be long after all of us are gone. '' The stadium contract only required the Marlins pay $125.2 million out of pocket during the early years of the project. Samson was including in his figure the interest - free, $35 million loan that the Marlins will repay to the county by the year 2028.
"Baseball is our core product -- it 's perfect for baseball -- but as you can see tonight, soccer fits well '', said Sean Flynn, senior vice president of marketing and events at Marlins Park. During the stadium 's negotiations, the plans included a 20,000 to 25,000 - seater soccer - specific stadium to be built directly adjacent to the baseball stadium for a possible Major League Soccer expansion team. The expansion bid fell through in 2008, and MLS has since moved away from building next to Marlins Park, with a preference for a downtown location.
Marlins Park hosted Pool 2 during the second round of the 2013 World Baseball Classic on March 12 -- 16, 2013.
The Marlins and their fans experienced the first rain delay at Marlins Park on April 6, 2015. Playing the Atlanta Braves in front of a sold - out Opening Day audience, a shower moved over the stadium with the roof open. The bottom of the 2nd inning was interrupted for 16 minutes while the roof was closed; the field, however, was sufficiently wet to cause players to slip several times during the remainder of the game, a 2 - 1 Braves victory.
On June 20, 2016, Marlins Park saw the most - ever home runs hit in one game at the park, with 8 homers in a 5 - 3 win by the Colorado Rockies over the Marlins. The 8 home runs also set a Major League record for solo home runs accounting for all the scoring in a game, surpassing the previous record of 5.
From March 9 to 13, 2017, Marlins Park hosted Pool C in the four - pool, first round of the 2017 World Baseball Classic.
The Miami Beach Bowl college football bowl game was played at Marlins Park every December from 2014 through 2016. The bowl was moved to Frisco, Texas for 2017 and is now known as the Frisco Bowl.
The stadium hosted its first non-baseball event when Venezuela and Nigeria national teams played a match on November 14, 2012. The field was configured for soccer by covering the infield dirt, placing one goal near the Marlins ' dugout on the third - base side and the other in front of the visitors ' bullpen in right field.
In January 2013, Marlins Park began hosting the Miami Soccer Challenge as part of a 3 - year partnership with Global Football Challenge.
The stadium was scheduled to host the 22nd annual World Music Awards on December 22, 2012, but the event was cancelled due to logistical and multiple visa issues, as well as the stated intent to observe the national mourning of the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting.
On April 20, 2013, the park hosted "America 's Night of Hope '' with Joel and Victoria Osteen, an annual stadium event for Joel Osteen Ministries.
On January 21 - 22, 2017, it hosted the Race of Champions, an all - star racecar competition.
On February 17 - 18, 2018, Marlins Park hosted its first ever Monster Jam event, after several years of it being held at Hard Rock Stadium.
The super-columns are all nearly complete, with one crossbeam already in place, which will support the retractable roof, February 6, 2010
The site on July 2, 2010. The interior bowl is being completed on the west side, from a view at the outfield
The site on November 6, 2010. The main center roof being constructed
February 15, 2011
Adjacent parking structure on February 15, 2011
The site two weeks before completion of the final roof panel on March 13, 2011
The site on August 13, 2011, as seen from the Dolphin Expressway (SR 836) traveling east
Construction on August 25, 2011
|
when did the samsung galaxy alpha come out | Samsung Galaxy Alpha - wikipedia
12 megapixels
Samsung Galaxy Alpha is an Android smartphone produced by Samsung Electronics. Unveiled on 13 August 2014, the device was released in September 2014. A high - end device, the Galaxy Alpha is Samsung 's first smartphone to incorporate a metallic frame, although the remainder of its physical appearance still resembles previous models such as the Galaxy S5. It also incorporates Samsung 's new Exynos 5430 system - on - chip, which is the first mobile system - on - chip to use a 20 nanometer manufacturing process.
The Galaxy Alpha received mixed reviews; although praised for its higher quality build and design in comparison to earlier products, the device was panned for its modest specifications in comparison to its flagship counterpart, the Galaxy S5, and for being priced too high for what they considered to be a "mid-range '' smartphone.
Samsung has historically been criticized for its continued use of low - quality polycarbonate materials on its flagship smartphone products, even as its competitors have made phones utilizing higher quality plastics or unibody aluminium frames. Despite these issues with build quality, Samsung has still been considered the most dominant Android OEM. However, in July 2014, the company reported its lowest profits in over two years, and a drop in market share from 32.3 % to 25.2 % over the past year. The loss in market share was attributed primarily to growing competition from vendors such as HTC and LG, and similarly increased competition in the low and mid-range markets from vendors such as Huawei and Motorola (who is currently in the process of being sold by Google to Lenovo).
In early - June 2014, images leaked of an upcoming Samsung phone tentatively known as the "Galaxy F '', shown alongside a Galaxy S5: it incorporated a metallic frame, thinner bezels around the screen than the S5, and was to allegedly include a quad HD display, Snapdragon 805 system - on - chip, along with the heart rate sensor and water / dust - proofing from the S5. On June 18, 2014, Samsung would unveil an LTE - Advanced version of the S5 with a quad HD display, exclusively for release in South Korea. A Samsung representative stated it had "no plans '' to release this device globally.
In late July 2014, further images leaked of the rumored device, now identified as the "Galaxy Alpha ''; the device depicted was now a mid-range device positioned below the S5, incorporating a metallic frame, a 720p 4.7 in (119 mm) display similar to the Galaxy S III, and no expandable storage. On July 31, 2014, Kim Hyun - joon, senior vice president of Samsung 's mobile business, told investors that the company was planning to release a major new device incorporating "new materials '' by the end of 2014. Critics interpreted his statement as signs that the company was planning to make a metal smartphone, but that it could also be a new entry in the Galaxy Note series.
On August 13, 2014, Samsung officially unveiled the Galaxy Alpha. Samsung Electronics CEO JK Shin explained that the Alpha was "built and designed based on the specific desires of the consumer market. '' The company touted that the Galaxy Alpha would mark a "new design approach '' for Samsung 's products, and that elements from the Alpha could appear on future Samsung models.
In December 2014, it was reported that, only three months after its release, Samsung planned to end production of the Alpha in favor of its successor, the similarly - designed, but more competitively - priced fully metal Galaxy A5 along with Galaxy A3 and the A7. Samsung 's new design philosophy would be fully realized by its 2015 flagship, the Galaxy S6, which combined a unibody metal frame with a glass backing.
The Galaxy Alpha 's overall design is an evolution upon that of the Galaxy S5, incorporating a chamferred metal frame and a dimpled, plastic rear cover. With a thickness of 6.7 mm (0.26 in) At the time, the Galaxy Alpha was the company 's thinnest smartphone.
International models of the Alpha utilize an octa - core, Exynos 5430 system - on - chip; consisting of a bank of four 1.8 GHz Cortex - A15 cores, and four 1.3 GHz Cortex - A7 cores. The Exynos 5430 is the first ever mobile system - on - chip to use a 20 nanometer HKMG manufacturing process. The international model was the first device to incorporate Intel 's XMM7260 modem for category 6 LTE Advanced support. U.S. models include a 2.5 GHz Snapdragon 801 processor instead; both models will include 2 GB of RAM.
The Galaxy Alpha features a PenTile 720p 4.7 in (120 mm) Super AMOLED display, and also incorporates a 12 megapixel rear - facing camera, fingerprint and heart rate sensors, and removable 1860 mAh battery. The device includes 32 GB of non-expandable storage, and runs Android 4.4. 4 "KitKat '' but can be upgraded to Android 5.0. 2 "Lollipop '' with Samsung 's TouchWiz software suite.
While praising Samsung 's decision to begin manufacturing a smartphone that incorporates actual metal in its design, critics noted that despite its "premium '' appearance, the internal specifications of the Galaxy Alpha were "mid-range '' in comparison to the S5, with particular emphasis placed on the device 's smaller, lower - resolution screen, the replacement of its USB 3.0 port with a USB 2.0 port, and its smaller battery. However, Ars Technica noted that the lower screen resolution could offset the lower capacity of the device 's battery, and ExtremeTech also noted that the smaller battery would make the device lighter, and the lower resolution of the display could improve the responsiveness of Samsung 's Android distribution. In conclusion, the Alpha was considered by ExtremeTech to be "a hedge against several troubling trends for the world 's largest smartphone maker '', believing that its slimmer build and higher quality design were an attempt to compete against the then - upcoming iPhone 6, which features a 4.7 inch display.
Engadget described the Galaxy Alpha as Samsung 's "most beautiful phone yet '', praising its design for being "simple, yet elegant; minimal, yet profuse ''. Its overall performance was considered to be up to par with the Galaxy S5, and its display was described as being "acceptable '' for its class. However, the Galaxy Alpha was criticized for being too expensive for its class, concluding that "the only reason you 'd want to pick this over the Galaxy S5, which is available for a similar price, is that you prefer a smaller size or more solid build. But even then, this design is n't a one - and - done; you 'll be able to get the same fit and finish on the Note 4 and Note Edge (albeit with larger screens). ''
Singer Beyoncé filmed the video for her 2014 song 7 / 11 (song) using its camera.
|
gene vincent and the blue caps - be-bop-a-lula | Be-Bop - A-Lula - wikipedia
"Be-Bop - A-Lula '' is a rockabilly song first recorded in 1956 by Gene Vincent and His Blue Caps.
The writing of the song is credited to Gene Vincent and his manager, Bill "Sheriff Tex '' Davis. Evidently the song originated in 1955, when Vincent was recuperating from a motorcycle accident at the US Naval Hospital in Portsmouth, Virginia. There, he met Donald Graves, who supposedly wrote the words to the song while Vincent wrote the tune. (Cf. "Money Honey '' by the Drifters, 1953). The song came to the attention of Davis, who allegedly bought out Graves ' rights to the song for some $50 (sources vary as to the exact amount), and had himself credited as the lyric writer. Davis claimed that he wrote the song with Gene Vincent after listening to the song "Do n't Bring Lulu ''. Vincent himself sometimes claimed that he wrote the words inspired by the comic strip, "Little Lulu '': "I come in dead drunk and stumble over the bed. And me and Don Graves were looking at this bloody book; it was called Little Lulu. And I said, "Hell, man, it 's ' Be-Bop - a-Lulu. ' And he said, ' Yeah, man, swinging. ' And we wrote this song. ''
The phrase "Be-Bop - A-Lula '' is similar to "Be-Baba - Leba '', the title of a No. 3 R&B chart hit for Helen Humes in 1945, which became a bigger hit when recorded by Lionel Hampton as "Hey! Ba - Ba - Re-Bop. '' This phrase, or something very similar, was widely used in jazz circles in the 1940s, giving its name to the bebop style, and possibly being ultimately derived from the shout of "Arriba! Arriba! '' used by Latin American bandleaders to encourage band members.
In early 1956, Gene Vincent performed the song on a radio show in Norfolk, Virginia, and recorded a demo version which was passed to Capitol Records, who were looking for a young singer to rival Elvis Presley. Capitol invited Vincent to record the song and it was recorded at Owen Bradley 's studio in Nashville, Tennessee on May 4, 1956. Cliff Gallup (lead guitar), "Wee '' Willie Williams (rhythm guitar), "Jumpin ' '' Jack Neal (string bass), and Dickie "Be Bop '' Harrell (drums) comprised the band. When the song was being recorded, Harrell screamed twice in the background, he said because he wanted to be sure his family could hear it was him on the record.
The song was released in June 1956 on Capitol Records ' single F3450, and immediately sold well. The song was successful on three American singles charts: it peaked at No. 7 on the US Billboard pop music chart, No. 8 on the R&B chart, and also made the top ten on the C&W Best Seller chart peaking at No. 5. In the UK, it peaked at No. 16 in August 1956. In April 1957, the record company announced that over 2 million copies had been sold to date.
The original demo for the song, probably recorded at radio station WCMS, has never been located and presumed lost. The song drew comparisons to Presley and is listed as No. 103 on Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time.
Steve Allen mocked the lyrics to the song by reading them in a pseudo-serious tone accompanied by light piano background music in a September 1957 broadcast of The Steve Allen Show.
Vincent recorded a new version of the song in 1962 which appeared on the flip - side of the single "The King of Fools ''.
Vincent sang the song in the movie The Girl Ca n't Help It.
"Be-Bop - A-Lula '' has been covered by numerous and varied artists. The Everly Brothers released a version only two years after Vincent 's, on their 1958 self - titled debut album, and they included it as part of the setlist at their Royal Albert Hall reunion concert in 1983. English rocker Cliff Richard covered the song for his own debut album, Cliff, in 1959. Vincent 's rockabilly colleague Jerry Lee Lewis recorded it for the 1971 album Monsters, and Carl Perkins offered his own take in 1996 on the album The Man & The Legend.
The Beatles played the song regularly during their early years, and a raucous live version (complete with guest vocals) can be heard on Live! at the Star - Club in Hamburg, Germany; 1962. John Lennon later recorded the song for his 1975 album Rock ' n ' Roll, and it was used as the B - side for the Apple single release of "Ya Ya '' in Germany later that year. Paul McCartney performed an acoustic version on the 1991 live album Unplugged (The Official Bootleg).
The song has also been recorded by:
Vincent 's original version of the song is featured in the soundtracks of several films including The Delinquents (1989), Wild At Heart (1990), and Pleasantville (1998).
In the late 1960s and early ' 70s, George Harrison played a psychedelic Stratocaster called "Rocky '', which bore on its face the one - word slogan "Bebopalula ''. The song is name - checked in the opening of Dire Straits ' 1985 hit "Walk of Life '' as one of the great "oldies, goldies ''.
Italian DJ and TV personality Red Ronnie (a.k.a. Gabriele Anzaloni) named his first and long - running TV show after the song, also using Vincent 's performance in the film The Girl Ca n't Help It as the signature tune of the show (accompanied by cartoonist Bonvi 's Sturmtruppen - inspired animations).
The song features in the soundtrack of Jack Smith 's infamous avant - garde film, Flaming Creatures (1963).
A cover version of the song by Chris Cawte appears in the animated film Planet 51.
|
who plays jack skeleton in nightmare before christmas | Jack Skellington - wikipedia
Jack Skellington is a character and the main protagonist of the 1993 film The Nightmare Before Christmas. Jack is the "Pumpkin King '' of Halloween Town, a fantasy world based solely on the Halloween holiday. Jack is voiced by Chris Sarandon. Danny Elfman provided Jack 's singing voice in the film, although Sarandon has sung as Jack in subsequent productions.
His overall appearance is a skeleton dressed in a black pin - striped suit and a bow tie that strongly resembles a black bat. Originally, his suit was meant to be completely black, but it blended with the background too well, so it was changed. At the beginning of the film, Jack makes his grand entrance by emerging out of a fire - breathing dragon - themed fountain. His last name is based on the word "skeleton ''. He has a ghost dog named Zero for a pet, who has a small glowing nose that looks like a jack - o ' - lantern. He is adored by Sally, a rag doll created by Dr. Finklestein. The character is a popular design on bags, hats, clothing, umbrellas, belt buckles, pet collars and other items.
Jack Skellington is the patron spirit of Halloween, portrayed as being on par with Santa Claus and the Easter Bunny within his own holiday. As a living skeleton, he is immortal and can remove parts of his body without harm, as is often demonstrated for comic relief. He is the most important of many Halloween spirits, with the implication that their job is to scare people in the real world on Halloween night.
Jack, as the "Pumpkin King '' and Master of ceremonies, is in charge of Halloween Town 's Halloween celebration. He is respected and even idolized by the other residents for his role, but he has grown weary of celebrating the same holiday endlessly and is depressed about it. The only one who understands Jack 's feelings is a lonely ragdoll named Sally. She overhears his singing monologue and feels she can relate to his situation.
Jack discovers Christmas Town and decides that this new experience is what his life was missing. He makes preparations for his own Christmas celebration in Halloween Town and wants to impersonate Santa Claus in the real world. While his intentions are not malicious, Jack does not understand the true spirit of Christmas. Halloween Town plans to give the holidays a macabre make - over. Sally reveals to Jack a bad premonition, but Jack 's basic nature is impulsiveness. He does not seem to register contradictory information. By the end of the film, he notices Sally and her determination to help him. He proves that love can be a part of his nature by calling Sally his "Dearest Friend '', telling Sally that they were meant to be together, embracing his future with her and embracing her.
Jack follows the formula of a tragic hero, because he begins the story at a lofty position. In spite of all his fame and talent, he yearns for another side of life. While a desire for completeness is not a flaw, his impulsiveness proves to be. He tends to be enthusiastic and inclusive, and his charisma is enough to sway every member of Halloween Town except Sally. His selfish decisions lead to the near destruction of Christmas and himself. The strength of Jack 's character is demonstrated by his will to correct his own mistakes.
The official film soundtrack CD contains an epilogue not in the film, stating that "many years later '' Santa returned to Halloween Town to visit Jack, where he discovered that Jack had "four or five skeleton children at hand '' who play together in a xylophone band.
Jack Skellington has been shown to have an extreme hatred for Oogie Boogie as was proven when he spoke of this plan to Lock, Shock, and Barrel, stating to "leave that no account Oogie Boogie out of this! '' He later finds out that Santa Claus and Sally have been kidnapped by the Boogie Man and are in his underground lair. While trying to save his friends, Jack manages to destroy Oogie and save Christmas.
Tired of using the same old themes over and over on Halloween, Jack Skellington goes to Doctor Finkelstein, who gives him the Soul Robber, an invention that changes shape. Jack decided to leave Halloween Town to get new ideas for Halloween frights. When Jack comes back to town, he finds that Oogie Boogie has been resurrected. Now Jack has to set things right again. Jack dances, fights, and sings in this game to attack Oogie Boogie 's minions. Jack is portrayed as inept to some degree in this game.
Chris Sarandon did both the speaking and singing voice for Jack in this game.
Jack Skellington features in the Nightmare Before Christmas downloadable expansion pack which includes Jack Skellington, Sally, Oogie - Boogie, Dr. Finklestein and the Mayor as in - game playable costumes. The downloadable content can be bought from console stores (e.g. the PlayStation Store). The package included the costumes of which some could be found in the downloaded level. Unlike the worlds originally in the game which all had 3 chapters, the Nightmare Before Christmas world only had 1 chapter called ' Halloween Graveyard '.
Jack Skellington appears in four installments of the Kingdom Hearts video game series. He inhabits the world of Halloween Town, where the evil Heartless threatens its denizens. The games ' main protagonists, Sora, Donald Duck and Goofy, befriend Jack and together they battle the Heartless, and also Oogie Boogie. In combat, Jack uses some of his scary powers with demonstrations of some magic, making him a formidable sorcerer.
Chris Sarandon reprises his role for the English version, and Masachika Ichimura provides Jack 's Japanese voice.
Jack Skellington introduces himself to Sora, Goofy, and Donald Duck as the ruler of Halloween Town. Jack plans to use the heart that Finklestein created to control the seemingly docile Heartless to make a festival called "Heartless Halloween '' so that Halloween can be frightening, but the idea fails when not only the first experiment cause the Heartless to go berserk, but Oogie Boogie steals the finished heart, and plans to use it to take over Halloween Town. At Oogie 's manor, Jack, Sora, and the gang confront him. After Oogie is defeated, Jack finds out that Oogie uses dark orbs as his source of life, which Oogie combines himself with his manor to become a giant boss. Once the gang defeats Oogie once again, and his manor crumbles, revealing Halloween Town 's keyhole. Jack is considerably shorter in this game than as he appeared in the movie, though he is still rather tall when compared to the game 's main protagonists.
"Created '' from Sora 's memories of Halloween Town, when Jack Skellington wanted to ask Doctor Finkelstein what happened when he sniffs the potion that can bring "true memories '', Heartless appeared. When Jack Skellington had found out that Oogie Boogie had stolen the Doc 's potion, he must stop him before Oogie drinks the whole potion. They fail to reach him before he does, but they defeat him, as Oogie becomes overwhelmed with fear as a side effect of the potion. Sora becomes worried about what will happen when he discovers his true memories, but Jack reassures him that fear is a sign of a strong heart.
In this game, Roxas arrives at Halloween Town while Jack is in the middle of a brainstorming for Halloween. Jack is having trouble with thinking of things but gets inspiration when he sees Roxas leaving through a Dark Corridor. Time after time, Roxas ' adventures through Halloween Town inspire Jack to create such things as balloons filled with spiders, exploding frost pumpkins, and Halloween lanterns. When Roxas is sent to find the source of a terrible drop in heartless population, he finds the town overrun with monsters called Tentaclaws. After seeing Roxas defeating the source of the Tentaclaws, the cannibalistic Leechgrave, Jack invents a terrifying scarecrowish version of Roxas as his centerpiece for that Halloween.
Following the film loosely to some degree, out of reference, Jack tries to take Santa Claus 's place again. To that end, Jack asks Sora and gang to help him be Santa 's bodyguards. But after fighting the Heartless and Oogie Boogie, who has been resurrected by Maleficent, Santa explains to Jack that they each have a job to do with their respective holidays. Despite this, he begins to wear a Santa suit Sally sewed together for him. In the second trip to Halloween Town, Jack still wears the Santa suit, as he still longs to deliver Christmas presents and feels that it would be rude not to wear the suit Sally worked so hard on. Along with Sora and the gang, he helps defeat Doctor Finkelstein 's experiment, who stole Christmas presents from Santa in search of a heart. As a reward for all his hard work and assistance, Santa brings Jack on a ride - along with him in his sleigh for a while. After Santa drops Jack off at Halloween Town, Jack learns the true meaning of Christmas by understanding the act of giving. He dances with Sally in the end, finally realizing all of the gifts she had given to him were all from the heart and wishes to give her something in return. She tells him that the nicest present she could ever ask for is just to be with Jack. Jack responds telling her that she does not even have to ask for that, meaning Jack feels the same way for her. During a cut scene in the end credits, he is shown to be wearing his original suit, suggesting he has taken Santa 's previous advice to heart completely, and apparently begins presenting new ideas for next Halloween.
Jack appears as part of the second wave of playable characters.
Jack appears as a meetable character at several Walt Disney Parks and Resorts including Disneyland, Hong Kong Disneyland, Disneyland Paris and Walt Disney World. At Disneyland during the holidays, Haunted Mansion is taken over by the cast of The Nightmare Before Christmas and is turned into Haunted Mansion Holiday. Jack and other characters appear throughout the ride wearing Christmas attire. Additionally, Jack hosts the Halloween Screams fireworks show and the Frightfully Fun Parade. Chris Sarandon provided the voice for the character in each instance.
Jack Skellington has been made into a Bendies figure, as well as a Funko Pop Vinyl figurine that also had a Day Of The Dead variant. He appeared in the Kingdom Hearts action figure collections, and was also released in Japan 's REVOLTECH Sci - fi line in 2010, along with the Japanese monsters, Gamera and Gyaos.
In 2016 a life - size Jack Skellington animatronic prop was released. The prop was six feet tall and sold exclusively at Spirit Halloween.
Jamie Frater adds, "Jack is perfectly realized as the ' town hero ' who seeks more in his life (or death, as it may be), a place we all find ourselves time to time. '' UGO Networks listed Jack as one of their best heroes of all time.
|
where is the tallest roller coaster in the united states located | List of roller Coaster rankings - wikipedia
Roller coasters are amusement rides developed for amusement parks and modern theme parks. During the 16th and 17th centuries, rides consisting of wooden sleds that took riders down large slides made from ice were popular in Russia. The first roller coasters, where the train was attached to a wooden track, first appeared in France in the early 1800s. Although wooden roller coasters are still being produced, steel roller coasters are more common and can be found on every continent except Antarctica.
Ranked by height, speed, length, inversions, and steepness, roller coasters are also rated through public opinion polls. Amusement parks often compete to build the tallest, fastest, and longest rides to attract thrill seekers and boost overall park attendance. However, many records do not usually last long. When Magnum XL - 200 opened in 1989, it began a new era of roller coasters and increased competition among parks to set new world records. The Magnum XL -- 200 was the first complete - circuit roller coaster built over 200 feet (61 m). Other notable roller coasters include Formula Rossa which reaches a top speed of 149 miles per hour (240 km / h), Kingda Ka which stands at 456 feet (139 m) tall, and Steel Dragon 2000 which measures 8,133 feet (2,479 m) in length.
Source:
Sources:
Source:
Source:
Source:
Source:
Source:
Source:
This listing contains all types of roller coaster inversions.
Sources:
Source:
|
decoration of honour for services to the republic of austria | Decoration of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria - wikipedia
The Decoration of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria (German: Ehrenzeichen für Verdienste um die Republik Österreich) is a national honour awarded by the Republic of Austria.
The decoration is awarded in 15 grades and is Austria 's highest national honour.
The "Decoration of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria '' was established by the National Council in 1952. It is conferred by the Republic of Austria to honour people (from Austria and abroad) who have rendered meritorious services to the country. Recipients are selected by the government, the awards are made by the President in accordance with the respective laws. The State President of Austria automatically receives the "Grand Star of the Decoration for Services to the Republic of Austria '' by being elected to the office and holds this honour for life. The decoration should not be confused with other decorations in the Austrian honours system such as the "Austrian Decoration for Science and Art ''.
The Decoration of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria is divided into the 15 classes as follows:
The "Gold Medal for Services to the Republic of Austria '' may also be conferred as "Gold Medal with Red Riband '' awarded for bravery and lifesaving.
See also List of Austrian Honours awarded to Heads of State and Royals
Below a list with names of all Grand Star recipients and other notable recipients, in chronological order with the year of award in brackets:
|
how many thomas the tank engine episodes are there | Thomas & Friends - wikipedia
Thomas & Friends (originally referred to as Thomas The Tank Engine & Friends or Thomas the Tank Engine; also known as Thomas & Friends: Big World! Big Adventures! in the twenty - second season) is a British children 's television series. In the U.K. it had its first broadcast on the ITV network in Great Britain in 1984. In the Unites States, it had its first broadcast on Shining Time Station in 1989. It is based on The Railway Series of books by the Reverend Wilbert Awdry and his son, Christopher Awdry.
These books follow the adventures of a group of anthropomorphised locomotives and road vehicles who live on the fictional Island of Sodor. The books were based on stories Wilbert told to entertain his son, Christopher, during his recovery from measles. Many of the stories from the first four series are based on events from Awdry 's personal experience.
Before the airing of the first episode of Thomas & Friends in 1984, previous attempts had been made to adapt Awdry 's stories for television, but not all attempts were successful. The first was in 1953, when the editor of the Railway Series books, Eric Marriott, was approached by the BBC, who wished to use live - action model trains to re-create two stories from Awdry 's first book, The Three Railway Engines.
The engines were portrayed by 00 gauge Hornby Dublo models and driven on authentic sets in the style of the original illustrations. The first episode, based on "The Sad Story of Henry '', was broadcast live on the evening of Sunday 14 June 1953 from Lime Grove Studios. The live broadcast did not fare well. Reportedly, a failure to switch the points caused the model of Henry to derail and viewers of the live broadcast witnessed a human hand, said to be the one of a crew member, picking him up and placing him back on the rails. Models moved jerkily, and all effects and music had to be superimposed.
By 23 June, news of the broadcast hit the front pages of the Daily Telegraph and the Daily Mail. Awdry himself branded the episode as "unprofessional '', and the point - switching debacle as an "elementary mistake ''. As a result, the second episode scheduled for 28 June 1953 was put on hold, and then later cancelled. After the "Sad Story of Henry '' fiasco, the BBC did attempt to rescue the project by offering to give Awdry and the Railway Series publishers greater creative control over the production of the episodes, but the publishers declined the offer, preferring to focus on publishing new books for the series.
Nearly twenty years later, the BBC incorporated Awdry 's stories once again. Fourteen years before Thomas and Friends was aired, Ted Ray, sitting in a stationmaster 's office, read out five Railway Series books between 20 September to 2 October 1970 on the popular television story - telling show Jackanory.
In 1979, British television producer Britt Allcroft was producing a documentary on the Bluebell Railway, a heritage railway in Sussex which actually featured in the Railway Series book Stepney the Bluebell Engine. As part of her research before filming, Allcroft read some books in The Railway Series and was highly entertained and impressed with the stories which Awdry had written, later remarking that "there was something in the stories that I felt I could develop that would connect with children. I saw a strong emotional content that would carry with little children 's experiences with life. ''
Allcroft worked to convince Awdry that she could, with funding, convert the stories into a successful television show. Her efforts were successful, and she purchased the television rights from the publishers of The Railway Series at a cost of what was then £ 50,000 ($74,000 in U.S. dollars at the time). Allcroft still had to work to raise the money to finance production and, despite showing a keen interest, wanted a level of creative control which she did not want to forego. In the end, after several years of searching and having to place a second mortgage on her home, Allcroft raised sufficient funding from her local bank manager.
By 1981, Allcroft had secured the finances to produce the show, she started to assemble the crew, including producer and director David Mitton, also the founder of Clearwater Features Ltd.; crew member Steve Asquith; American - born producer Robert D. Cardona; and the selected team of composers and songwriters Mike O'Donnell and Junior Campbell.
The series started production in 1984 by Allcroft 's production company, The Britt Allcroft Company; Clearwater Features Ltd. (Mitton and Cardona 's company); and the ITV company Central Independent Television. The series was originally shot and produced with live action models at the Clearwater in house studio in Battersea, a suburb of London, for Series 1. It later relocated to Shepperton Studios, Middlesex, southwest of London for subsequent series. The use of moving models was seen at the time of the series ' conception as an effective method of animating the stories. Locomotives and other vehicles were operated by radio control, while humans and animals were static figures. Stop - motion was occasionally employed for instances in which a human or animal character would move. Hand - drawn animation was used in Series 3 to create bees (as seen on James Goes Buzz Buzz).
The first series (1984) used stories from the first eight books, along with one specially written by the Rev. W. Awdry, Thomas 's Christmas Party. The second series (1986) used stories from Book No. 9 (Edward the Blue Engine) to Book No. 30 (More About Thomas the Tank Engine). This book was unusual, as it was written specifically by Christopher Awdry to be adapted by the show. At that time, it was a contractual obligation that the series could only adapt stories that appeared in print. The series also used a story from a Thomas Annual, "Thomas and Trevor '', and a specially written stand - alone story, Thomas and the Missing Christmas Tree. The second series was actually a 27 - episode series, as a single (unaired) episode ("The Missing Coach '') was in the process of being filmed, but despite being filmed it was never shown because Allcroft decided it was too confusing for young viewers. The production team went on to use "Thomas, Percy and the Coal '' instead.
In between production of the second and third series, the production team were focused in producing two other television series: Tugs, which ran for one series from 1988 to 1990 for Television South (TVS); and the American television series Shining Time Station, which repackaged Thomas & Friends for the American television market from 1989 to 1996.
Just before production of series three, Clearwater closed on 31 December 1990, with The Britt Allcroft Company becoming the sole producer. Series three was broadcast in 1992 for Thames Television. It was made at a cost of £ 1.3 million (approximately $9.3. million in U.S. dollars at the time). The series was a combination of episodes derived from The Railway Series, stories in the Thomas the Tank Engine and Friends magazine (written by the series ' current head writer, Andrew Brenner), and a couple of original stories by Allcroft and Mitton.
One of the primary reasons for diverging from the original books was that many of the stories not yet used featured large numbers of new characters, which would be expensive to produce. Another reason was that the producers wanted more stories about Thomas, the nominal main character. Awdry worried that the new stories would be unrealistic (see Henry the Green Engine for more details). Robert D. Cardona left as producer, while Britt Allcroft joined David Mitton as co-producer. Angus Wright took over as executive producer.
Series four was broadcast in 1995 on Cartoon Network. The producers planned to introduce some new female characters, including motor car Caroline, Nancy, and The Refreshment Lady. Some commentators took this as a response to accusations of sexism levelled against the series two years earlier. In reality, these were not "new '' characters, but creations of Awdry from the original Railway Series books. Series four was almost entirely based on The Railway Series. The narrow gauge engines were introduced, and were the focus of a number of episodes. Only one original story ("Rusty to the Rescue '', written by Allcroft and Mitton) was used, but this took certain elements of plot and dialogue from Stepney the "Bluebell '' Engine.
The fifth series (1998), also broadcast on Cartoon Network, was a radical shift, as all episodes were written by Allcroft and Mitton with no further stories being adapted from the "Railway Series ''. This series saw the introduction of new characters, such as Cranky, The Horrid Lorries and Old Slow Coach. It also focused on more dramatic and edgy plot - lines, with more severe accidents, than in the earlier seasons. After series 5, Angus Wright stepped down as executive producer.
Thomas and the Magic Railroad was released in July 2000 in the UK, Canada and the US. It featured new characters created by Allcroft, along with characters from the show that introduced Thomas to the U.S., Shining Time Station. Despite high production values and the popularity of the show, the film was criticised by British reviewers who were unfamiliar with Shining Time Station. The movie was well received by young children on both sides of the Atlantic, but made only $19.7 million at the box office, against a cost of $19 million to produce. The film was broadcast on BBC1 on 1 January 2004 and again on 29 December 2008.
The Britt Allcroft Company (which changed its name to Gullane Entertainment in 2001) was purchased by HiT Entertainment in September 2003, a company specialising in children 's entertainment.
The sixth and seventh series (both broadcast on CITV) continued to introduce action - packed storylines and new characters, and saw the introduction of a writing staff. The sixth series in 2002 was notable for its attempt to create a spin - off based on the successful "Bob the Builder '' series. Two episodes introduced a group of construction machine characters known as "The Pack ''. The spin - off did n't materialise for some time. Eventually, in 2006, thirteen episodes were released straight to DVD as a collection called On Site with Thomas.
The fact that older sets were used and the episodes were shot on 35mm camera (as opposed to the digital camera used at the time of the episodes ' release) suggest it was filmed some time before Series 8. In Series 7 (2003) the programme title was officially shortened to Thomas & Friends, this name having been used on merchandise and video covers for three years previously. Phil Fehrle replaced Allcroft and Mitton as producer, though Mitton remained as the director. Executive producer Angus Wright was replaced by Peter Urie and Allcroft as executive producers for Series 6.
In 2003, Allcroft stepped down as executive producer, making Urie the sole executive producer for Gullane Entertainment, and Jocelyn Stevenson was the executive producer for HiT Entertainment.
The eighth series (2004) was the first released directly to VHS and DVD as four episodes in the US and six in the UK were released before airing on television on Nick Jr. in the UK and PBS in the US. It introduced a number of significant changes to the show. Many of the original founding team involved in the original show since 1984 left the production, notably Britt Allcroft, director and writer David Mitton, and original composers Mike O'Donnell and Junior Campbell. The latter two had been embroiled in a protracted legal dispute with HiT before their departure. Steve Asquith, who was part of the original production team since 1984, took over as director, while Simon Spencer replaced Phil Fehrle as producer.
A new theme song and incidental music were composed by Ed Welch and Robert Hartshorne, respectively. Episode runtime was increased to seven minutes. The series was produced using digital video camera, creating a somewhat different look for the show. Other changes included the additions of CGI educational sequences and transitions between stories. Executive producer Peter Urie also left, while Jocelyn Stevenson remained in her role as executive producer. Sam Barlow became the story executive, while Abi Grant and Paul Larson served as script editors. This series saw the adoption of a centralised cast, including Thomas the Tank Engine, Edward, Henry, Gordon, James, Percy, Toby and Emily.
HiT Entertainment was itself then acquired by Apax Partners, a private equity company, in March 2005.
A straight - to - video film, Calling All Engines!, was released shortly before Series 9 in 2005. While featuring characters from Thomas and the Magic Railroad, it was not a direct sequel. It proved successful, which resulted in more direct - to - video specials being produced.
Series 9 (2005) and 10 (2006) saw the expansion of the supporting cast with new and old characters. From Series 9 the narrator would call out the episodes ' names and from Series 11 the theme song was sung starting with the sound of a train whistle. Series 10 aired with twenty - eight episodes rather than the twenty - six of previous years. The eleventh series (2007) was filmed in high definition format. Twenty episodes aired in the original broadcast, while six were released directed to DVD as Engines and Escapades. Jocelyn Stevenson had stepped down as executive producer after Series 10, with Christopher Skala taking her place as executive producer for Series 11. Sharon Miller became the script editor from Series 9 to 11.
Series 12 (2008) saw the introduction of CGI effects (provided by HiT Entertainment 's subsidiary Hot Animation), with the intent of producing the show entirely in CGI the following year. The traditional models and sets were still used, but with computer animated faces superimposed on the models to allow for changing facial expressions. Humans and animals were fully computer animated to allow for walking movement. Only twenty episodes were broadcast (the U.S. broadcast featured six additional episodes from Engines and Escapades). Sharon Miller became the head writer, starting with Series 12.
HiT announced multiple changes to the show beginning in 2009. One new aspect was the introduction of live - action host segments to Thomas ' home video releases. The host took the form of a character who worked on The Fat Controller 's (Sir Topham Hatt 's) railway, who would instruct viewers in craft projects. For the final 2 DVDs released for Season 12 in 2009, the host was named Mr. Arkwright, played by Robert Slate. In 2010, beginning with the DVD Splish splash splosh, the host was named Mr. Perkins, played by Ben Forster, and has remained host until Forster died in 2017 after a battle with cancer.
For budgetary reasons, the other major changes were a move to production in CGI, rather than using physical models, and the addition of a voice cast to support the established narrator. The DVD feature, Hero of the Rails, was the first Thomas & Friends production to show these changes, and Series 13 was the first television series in the new format. The CGI animation for the series was provided by Nitrogen Studios of Vancouver.
In September 2010, Apax was preparing to sell off HiT Entertainment and its franchises, including Thomas -- regarded as the single most valuable asset -- in order to help clear HiT 's debts, and in February 2012, sold the company, along with the Thomas properties, to "US toy giant '', Mattel.
During production of Series 16 (2012), Sharon Miller stepped down as head writer, and Andrew Brenner, who had written some Thomas stories in the third series, assumed the role after serving as script editor for "Blue Mountain Mystery ''. Additionally, Sam Barlow stepped down as story executive after the sixteenth series, and the production of the CGI animation was moved from Nitrogen Studios (of Vancouver) to Arc Productions (of Toronto). King of the Railway and Series 17, both released during 2013, serve as the first special and series developed by the new animation and production team respectively.
2014 saw Tale of the Brave and Series 18, the second special and series animated by Arc, respectively. 2015 saw The Adventure Begins, a special coinciding with the 70th anniversary of the franchise, and Sodor 's Legend of the Lost Treasure; Series 19 began airing that same year. 2016 saw some changes; longtime composers Robert and Peter Hartshorne, father and son team, left the series and Chris Renshaw and Oliver Davis took over. 2016 also saw Thomas & Friends: The Great Race and Series 20 began airing the same year. Series 20 was the last series of the show to air on PBS Kids; when Series 21 began airing in 2017, the American broadcast of the show was moved to Nick Jr., ending a period of almost 30 years of Thomas & Friends on American public television.
Originally, narrating was used as the only voice in the series until 2008. Britt Allcroft thought it essential to convey the episode as a story that would be read from a book at home. Individual voice - over actors were given to both the UK and US dubs of the Series, following the switch to full CGI animation in 2009.
Over the history of the programme, the TV episodes and specials have been released for home viewing in a variety of compilations, formats and languages, by a variety of publishing houses.
Up until Series 12, narration and dialogue were performed by a single storyteller. This was the choice of Allcroft, who wanted the television stories to be an extension of the way they would be told at home in a comforting environment. All character emotions would come from the nuances of the storyteller 's voice, in conjunction with facial expressions, music, and actions on - screen.
The original live action models were filmed on an extensive model railway layout built at the studios. The models were built to the 1: 32 scale, known in model railway circles as "Gauge 1 ''. The locomotives used chassis made by Märklin with specially made bodies. Along with the moving - eye and eyelid mechanisms and clay faces, these bodies also included smoke generators. Coaches and trucks were made using Tenmille kits. Later models were constructed entirely from scratch. Some of the models from the sister television series Tugs were reused in later episodes of the series.
From Series 5 to 12, some larger - scale models were used for the narrow gauge characters, to more easily fit the complex mechanisms into them while retaining a sufficient level of detail. In Series 6, the characters known as "the Pack '' (construction machines) were also constructed on a large scale, and larger models of Thomas and Percy were made to interact with them. In the ninth series, another larger Thomas model was built to the same scale as the narrow gauge engines to provide greater possibilities for interaction. It was joined by a large version of James in the tenth series. In 2009, some of these models were put on display in a special exhibit at Drayton Manor Theme Park 's Thomas Land. Nitrogen Studios, who provided the animation for the series from series 12 to 16, also has some of the original models on display.
At the show 's conception in 1984, live action model animation would not deliver lip sync, but show co-creator Britt Allcroft and model director David Mitton did not see this as an inhibition. About 20 years later however, with advancement in technology, the show saw the introduction of CGI by HIT Entertainment 's subsidiary HOT Animation. At first this was used to generate smoke and other effects, but later, HIT (the current owners of Thomas) announced its intent to introduce a fully CGI series in 2009. With Series 12, CGI by Nitrogen Studios was used to animate characters ' faces and to make people and animals mobile within the stories. The following series saw a transition to full CGI animation.
Mike O'Donnell and Junior Campbell composed the show 's original main title theme, incidental music and songs, which were used for series 1 -- 7 comprising 182 episodes between 1984 and 2003. The instruments for Seasons 1 - 2 was the Roland Jupiter 6 and instrumentals for seasons 3 - 7 was the E-mu Proteus sound module.
In 2004, Robert Hartshorne took O'Donnell and Campbell 's place as composer, while Ed Welch became the show 's songwriter from Series 8 to The Great Discovery, and Welch left after The Great Discovery. Hartshorne took his place as songwriter from Series 12 and onwards. From Day of the Diesels / 2011 - 2016, Robert 's son Peter Hartshorne helped him with the music.
In 2016 the Hartshornes left the series and Chris Renshaw and Oliver Davis took their places.
Since series 12, there has been a head writer for the series. Prior to the introduction of a head writer, the script editor performed similar duties. Sharon Miller served as head writer from series 12 -- 16 and stepped down after series 16 and was replaced by Andrew Brenner, who had written many "Thomas '' stories for various magazines as well as his own original stories, several of which were later adapted for television episodes for Series 3 and Series 5, for which he had remained uncredited. Brenner had been a writer of several other children 's animated series, such as Angelina Ballerina, Tractor Tom, Fireman Sam, The Amazing Adrenalini Brothers, Spot, Poppy Cat, and Binka, as well as being the creator of Caribou Kitchen, and Humf and writer for several magazines featuring children 's characters such as The Real Ghostbusters, Fireman Sam, Scooby - Doo, Tom and Jerry, and Thomas 's sister series Tugs and has written scripts and took over as head writer for Thomas for King of the Railway and onwards. Sharon Miller has also been the voice director since the second CGI animated film Misty Island Rescue, and continues to work on the series in this capacity.
In the United Kingdom, Thomas the Tank Engine & Friends was originally broadcast on ITV until 1992. After a brief switchover to Cartoon Network, it returned as Thomas & Friends in 2003 and lasted until the summer of 2006.
In the United States, the series had first appeared only as sequences on Shining Time Station during the program 's run from 1989 to 1995 on PBS. The sequences of the series later aired in 1996 on Mr. Conductor 's Thomas Tales. The series aired as Storytime with Thomas on Fox Family (now Freeform) from 1999 to 2001. When Thomas & Friends premiered as a stand - alone program on PBS Kids, it was first distributed from 2004 to 2007 by Connecticut Public Television and then by WNET from 2008 to 2017. The rights to broadcast the series through PBS expired in December 2017, thus ending a period of almost 30 years of programming related to The Railway Series on American public television. Now it airs on Nick Jr. and Nickelodeon.
The program airs in Australia on ABC Kids and on FOUR in New Zealand. In Canada, it plays on TVO, Family Jr., and Knowledge Kids.
Common Sense Media rated the show a 4 out of 5 stars stating "Parents can be assured that this series has educational aspects as well as behavioral modeling. The Thomas the Tank Engine stories were conceived by a young British boy early in the 20th century, who would listen to the trains as they chuffed through the countryside. The stories he told his son -- who has consequently passed them on to his own son -- have been documented in books and toy train models. Since the series was introduced to television viewers in the 1980s, Thomas & Friends has seen a healthy fan base sprout worldwide. Some of the expressions on the train 's faces can be a tiny bit creepy, but the intention behind the animation is good, as follows the tradition of a well - told story. ''
In the 2010s, Thomas & Friends became the subject of several internet memes, and was even the centerpiece of an article for The New Yorker, which explored supposedly totalitarian subtexts present in the show.
Notes
|
led zeppelin songs over the hills and far away | Over the Hills and Far Away (Led Zeppelin song) - wikipedia
"Over the Hills and Far Away '' is the third track from English rock band Led Zeppelin 's 1973 album Houses of the Holy. It was released as a single, with "Dancing Days '' as the B - side, in the US.
Jimmy Page and Robert Plant originally constructed the song in 1970 at Bron - Yr - Aur, a small cottage in Wales where they stayed after completing a gruelling North American concert tour. The song was first called "Many, Many Times '', as shown on a picture of the original master on the Led Zeppelin website.
Page plays a six - string acoustic guitar introduction and repeats the theme with a 12 - string acoustic guitar in unison. In an interview published in Guitar World magazine 's November 1993 issue, Page commented on the use of acoustic and electric guitars:
GW: There 's an acoustic guitar running throughout the song. Did you play a main acoustic and then overdub an electric?
Page: No, we played it through entirely as you know it, but I was playing electric.
GW: So you simply edited out of the beginning?
Page: Yeah, that 's right. "Presumably ''. It sounds that way. It sounds like the acoustic is going straight through.
Plant 's vocals enter on the next repetition. He tenderly offers himself to the "lady '' who 's "got the love (he) need (s). '' The acoustic guitars build in a crescendo toward the abrupt infusion of Page 's electric guitars along with drummer John Bonham 's and bass guitarist John Paul Jones ' rhythm accompaniment.
Through the pre-verse interludes and instrumental bridge, "Over the Hills and Far Away '' stands out as an example of Jones and Bonham 's tight interplay. Following the final verse, the rhythm section fades out, gradually replaced by the echo returns from Page 's electric guitar and a few chords played by Jones on Clavinet. In the final 8 bars, Page executes a linearly descending / ascending sequence and then concludes with the idiomatic V-I cadence on synth imitating a pedal steel guitar.
The song was released as Houses of the Holy 's first US single, reaching # 51 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, later becoming a staple of the classic rock radio format. Set lists from Led Zeppelin concerts frequently contained "Over the Hills and Far Away '', the song being one that the band introduced on stage well ahead of its studio release. The live recording on How the West Was Won, a combined edit of the concerts on 25 and 27 June 1972, was the second public performance of the song. In his spoken introduction to the song before the performance of 27 June 1972 in Long Beach, California, Robert Plant says "we did this song once before, the night before last at the Forum, and it was too much, really great. '' The band continued to play it on the rest of the 1972 concert tour of North America and retained it consistently through 1979, before omitting it from their final tour of Europe in 1980. In singing the song live in 1973 and later concerts, Plant often substituted the opening lyrics of the second verse ("Many have I loved, many times been bitten '') with the opening lyrics of the third verse ("Many times I 've lied, many times I 've listened ''). He also commonly followed the words "pocket - full of gold '' with "Acapulco Gold '' (a type of marijuana), as can be heard on the live album How the West Was Won. From 1973 on, he sang the second and the third verses in a lower register because of the growing damaging of his vocals. Also, at concerts guitarist Jimmy Page performed an extended guitar solo, which essentially consisted of the rhythm and lead guitar parts of the album version split into two separate pieces. This extended solo made the live renditions last seven minutes or more.
Archive footage of this track being performed live at Seattle in 1977 and at Knebworth in 1979 was used for an officially distributed video of the song, used to promote the 1990 Led Zeppelin Remasters release. The video accompanied a CD single which was released following the successful "Travelling Riverside Blues '' release.
In a contemporary review for Houses of the Holy, Gordon Fletcher of Rolling Stone criticized "Over the Hills and Far Away '', calling the track dull, as well as writing the track is "cut from the same mold as "Stairway To Heaven '', but becomes dull without that song 's torrid guitar solo ".
The song has received greater acclaim in more recent years. Rolling Stone ranked "Over the Hills and Far Away '' at No. 16 in its list of "The 40 Greatest Led Zeppelin Songs of All Time '' in 2012. Andrew Unterberger of Spin, in 2014, ranked "Over the Hills and Far Away '' as Led Zeppelin 's best song, writing that it "best demonstrates just about everything the band does well: the unforgettable and impossible - to - pin - down opening riff, the life - affirming transition from acoustic to electric, the constant switches in tone and dynamic, the piercing solo with double - tracked climax, the impeccable interplay of guitar, bass, and drum, the inimitable Plant shrieking, the gorgeous coda, even the super-oblique title ''. Critic Bill Wyman, writing for Vulture.com in 2015, ranked it as Led Zeppelin 's 6th best song.
1973 7 '' single
1973 7 '' radio edit
1990 CD single
|
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.